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= Uncle Tupelo =
Uncle Tupelo was an alternative country music group from Belleville , Illinois , active between 1987 and 1994 . Jay Farrar , Jeff Tweedy , and Mike Heidorn formed the band after the lead singer of their previous band , The Primitives , left to attend college . The trio recorded three albums for Rockville Records , before signing with Sire Records and expanding to a five @-@ piece . Shortly after the release of the band 's major label debut album Anodyne , Farrar announced his decision to leave the band due to a soured relationship with his co @-@ songwriter Tweedy . Uncle Tupelo split on May 1 , 1994 , after completing a farewell tour . Following the breakup , Farrar formed Son Volt with Heidorn , while the remaining members continued as Wilco .
Although Uncle Tupelo broke up before it achieved commercial success , the band is renowned for its impact on the alternative country music scene . The group 's first album , No Depression , became a byword for the genre and was widely influential . Uncle Tupelo 's sound was unlike popular country music of the time , drawing inspiration from styles as diverse as the hardcore punk of The Minutemen and the country instrumentation and harmony of the Carter Family and Hank Williams . Farrar and Tweedy 's lyrics frequently referred to Middle America and the working class of Belleville .
= = History = =
= = = The Plebes and The Primitives = = =
Jay Farrar , along with his brothers Wade and Dade , played in an early 1980s garage band named The Plebes . Hailing from Belleville , Illinois , The Plebes sought to enter a battle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ bands competition but needed another high school student as a member to perform . They invited Jeff Tweedy , a high school friend of Jay Farrar , to join the band and play with them for the show . Despite a lack of skill with his instrument , Tweedy played an important role in the band by booking early gigs . While The Plebes had been playing music in a rockabilly style , Tweedy wanted to play punk rock like the music that he originally heard the group perform . This caused tensions between Tweedy and Dade Farrar , who left the band two months after Tweedy joined .
Before leaving the band in 1984 , Dade Farrar introduced its members to Mike Heidorn , the younger brother of his girlfriend ; Heidorn then joined the group as their drummer . The Plebes then decided to change its name to The Primitives , a reference to a 1965 song by psychedelic rock group The Groupies . Due to the unpopularity of punk rock in the St. Louis area , The Primitives began to play blues @-@ oriented garage rock at fast tempos . They performed regularly at a wedding hall in Millstadt , Illinois , where Tweedy 's mother Jo Ann would collect the cover fee . They also performed regularly at B St Bar in Belleville with bands such as The Newsboys ( later Sammy and the Snowmonkeys ) , Charlie Langrehr , and The Symptoms . Wade Farrar was the lead singer of the band , but his commitment to Southern Illinois University and an attempted enlistment in the United States Army meant he was only able to dedicate a small amount of time to the group . Additionally , Heidorn broke his collarbone during a concert in 1986 , which caused the band to go on hiatus . Jay Farrar and Tweedy continued to write songs and perform at Heidorn 's house while he recovered , and by 1987 they had restarted the group . The Primitives temporarily added Tony Mayr as a bassist so that Tweedy could play guitar , but a month later the band decided to keep Tweedy on bass and remain a three @-@ piece . To avoid confusion with a successful British band also named The Primitives , they decided to change their name once again , to Uncle Tupelo . Although they performed only 1960s cover songs as The Primitives , the trio decided to take a new approach and write their own music under their new name .
= = = Early career = = =
The Primitives renamed itself Uncle Tupelo after a character in a cartoon drawn by Chuck Wagner , a friend of the band 's members . The name was created by combining two randomly chosen words from the dictionary ; inspired by the name , Wagner drew a picture of an old , fat Elvis . The trio recorded a four @-@ song demo tape , which won them supporting roles at the concerts of artists such as Johnny Thunders and Warren Zevon . Tweedy met Tony Margherita while moonlighting as a record clerk in St. Louis . After attending a pair of the band 's concerts , Margherita offered to become its manager . Uncle Tupelo began to play regular shows at Cicero 's Basement — a bar close to the campus of Washington University . Bands playing in a similar style , including Brian Henneman 's Chicken Truck , often played at the venue , which by late 1988 was considered to have been the origin of a new music scene . The band temporarily expanded to a four @-@ piece with the addition of the guitarist Alex Mutrux , but soon reverted to a trio .
Uncle Tupelo recorded its first tracks in the attic studio of future Chicago punk producer Matt Allison in Champaign , Illinois . The demo Not Forever , Just for Now includes the songs " I Got Drunk " and " Screen Door " , as well as early versions of several songs that would appear on their first studio album . The CMJ New Music Report gave the tape a rave review , and called Uncle Tupelo the best unsigned band of the year . The accolade attracted the attention of independent labels , and the band decided to sign with Jay Fialkov and Debbie Southwood @-@ Smith of Giant Records ( who offered to book them at CBGB in New York City ) . Explaining the decision , the band said that " [ our ] original goals don 't get distorted with an independent label . "
= = = Recordings on Rockville Records = = =
Shortly after Uncle Tupelo 's signing , Giant Records changed its name to Rockville Records . The band 's first album for Rockville No Depression , was recorded over ten days in January 1990 , at Fort Apache South recording studio in Boston , Massachusetts . The album 's thematic structure revolved around their lives as adolescents in Belleville ; examples are songs about wanting to avoid factory work and songs about fearing a potential Persian Gulf War military draft . Impressed by their previous work on Dinosaur Jr . ' s Bug , the band wanted Paul Kolderie and Sean Slade to produce the album . Slade let Farrar play on the same 1961 Gibson Les Paul SG Junior that J. Mascis originally played on Bug . The album was released on June 21 , 1990 , and the band celebrated by playing at Cicero 's for two nights .
In between tours , Farrar , Tweedy and Heidorn formed a country cover band named Coffee Creek , along with Brian Henneman ( later a member of The Bottle Rockets ) . Henneman impressed Uncle Tupelo , and he was invited to be a guitar technician and occasional multi @-@ instrumentalist for the band . While Farrar and Heidorn would avoid drinking too much after shows , Tweedy would continue drinking throughout the night . Although Tweedy stopped after he began dating Sue Miller in 1991 , a significant communication gap had already been opened between Tweedy and Farrar .
By March 1991 , No Depression had sold an estimated 15 @,@ 000 copies , and was featured in a Rolling Stone article about rising stars . However , Rockville Records refused to pay the band any royalties for the album , a theme that would continue for the remainder of the band 's contract . Over seventeen days the band recorded a second album at Long View Farm in rural North Brookfield , Massachusetts . Still Feel Gone , with a more layered sound , was also produced by Kolderie and Slade , with contributions by Slade , Henneman , Rich Gilbert , Chris Bess of Enormous Richard , and Gary Louris of The Jayhawks . The band was disappointed with the production of the album and decided to discontinue working with Kolderie and Slade . Soon afterward , Uncle Tupelo recorded " Shaking Hands ( Soldier 's Joy ) " on Michelle Shocked 's album Arkansas Traveler and joined her on the accompanying tour with Taj Mahal and The Band . However , the tour only lasted for a few shows because of managerial problems between Shocked and The Band .
Alternative rock had broken into the mainstream by 1992 , and an album released in that style was expected to earn the group a major @-@ label record deal . However , Uncle Tupelo didn 't want to follow in the footsteps of groups such as Nirvana , and decided to play country and folk songs " as a big ' fuck you ' to the rock scene " . Peter Buck , guitarist for R.E.M. , saw the trio perform at the 40 Watt Club in Athens , Georgia and sought them out after the show . Buck was impressed with a version of " Atomic Power " that the band played , and offered his services for their next album . Over a span of five days , Buck produced the group 's next album , March 16 – 20 , 1992 . Buck allowed them to stay in his house during the sessions , and charged no money for his services . Brian Henneman 's role was increased for this album , and he taught himself how to play mandolin and bouzouki . Despite turning away from the style of popular alternative rock , major labels began to show significant interest in Uncle Tupelo after March 16 – 20 , 1992 was released . The album sold more than their two previous recordings combined , although Rockville was displeased that it did not conform to the style of popular alternative rock .
= = = Major label contract = = =
In 1992 , Joe McEwen of Sire Records began to pursue the band . McEwen , who brought notable acts such as Dinosaur Jr and Shawn Colvin to Sire , had been interested in them since hearing the Not Forever , Just for Now demo tape . At the urging of Gary Louris , McEwen offered Uncle Tupelo a contract . Band manager Tony Margherita invoked the $ 50 @,@ 000 escape clause he had put in their Rockville contract , freeing the band to sign a seven @-@ year deal with Sire . The deal required two albums , and specified a budget of $ 150 @,@ 000 for their first .
Around the time of the recording of March 16 – 20 , 1992 , Mike Heidorn had secured a steady job at a Belleville newspaper company and was dating a woman who had two children from a previous marriage . Uncle Tupelo had planned a tour of Europe , but Heidorn wanted to stay in Belleville with his girlfriend , whom he married in August 1992 .
The band held auditions prior to the promotional tour for March 16 – 20 , 1992 , and two candidates stood out : Bill Belzer and Ken Coomer . Although singers Jay Farrar and Jeff Tweedy agreed that Coomer was the better drummer , they were intimidated by his six @-@ foot @-@ four stature and long dreadlocks . The band selected Belzer as Heidorn 's replacement , but he only stayed with the band for six months . Tweedy explained Belzer 's departure :
We had Belzer in the band for six months . I want to believe it was purely musical , and I honestly believe that it wasn 't working musically . I also believe that we weren 't emotionally mature enough to be close friends with a gay person at that point in our lives ... And Bill was and is a very proud and righteous gay person , very open about his homosexuality .
After touring Europe opening for Sugar , the band replaced Belzer with Coomer . The band also experimented with new members : John Stirratt replaced Brian Henneman ( who left to form The Bottle Rockets ) while Max Johnston , the brother of Michelle Shocked , joined as a live mandolin and violin performer . Stirratt became a full @-@ time bassist , allowing Tweedy to perform more songs with the guitar .
Now a five @-@ piece , Uncle Tupelo recorded their major label debut at Cedar Creek studio in Austin , Texas in early 1993 . Anodyne consisted of live @-@ in @-@ the @-@ studio recordings and included a duet with Farrar and Doug Sahm of the Sir Douglas Quintet . The album sold 150 @,@ 000 copies , and was their only entry on the Billboard Heatseekers chart . The group toured until the end of the year , finishing with a sold out concert at Tramps in New York City . Because of their concert draw , major executives at Sire began to see the band as a potential hit .
In 1993 , the band contributed a cover of Creedence Clearwater Revival 's track " Effigy " to the AIDS @-@ Benefit album No Alternative produced by the Red Hot Organization .
= = = Breakup = = =
With the addition of Stirratt , Coomer , and Johnston just prior to the recording of Anodyne , Farrar and Tweedy 's relationship became more tumultuous , leading to verbal altercations after concerts . In one account , Tweedy recalled :
Around this time , I would say something into a microphone onstage , and afterward [ Farrar would ] pull me aside and say , " Don 't you ever fucking talk into that microphone again . " He would misconstrue me talking into the microphone as more evidence of my out @-@ of @-@ control , rampant ego , more evidence of me feeling like I didn 't have to be so fucking afraid anymore .
Tweedy felt the new members gave him a new opportunity to contribute to the band , but Farrar felt disdain for Tweedy 's new carefree attitude . Years later , Farrar would claim that he had been tempted to quit the band after seeing Tweedy stroking the hair of Farrar 's girlfriend , an act which he believed to have been a proposition . In January 1994 , Farrar called manager Tony Margherita to inform him of his decision to leave the band . Farrar told Margherita that he was no longer having fun , and didn 't want to work with Tweedy anymore . Soon after the breakup , Farrar explained his departure : " It just seemed like it reached a point where Jeff and I really weren 't compatible . It had ceased to be a symbiotic songwriting relationship , probably after the first record . "
Tweedy was enraged that he heard the news secondhand from Margherita , since Farrar decided not to tell him in person . The following day , the two singers engaged in a verbal confrontation . As a favor to Margherita — who had spent a substantial amount of money to keep the band running — Farrar agreed to a final tour with Uncle Tupelo in North America . Tweedy and Farrar again engaged in a shouting match two weeks into the tour , due to Farrar 's refusal to sing harmony on any of Tweedy 's songs . The band made its first appearance on national television during the tour when they were featured on Late Night with Conan O 'Brien . Sire had requested that the band perform " The Long Cut " on the show , which further irked Farrar since the song was written and sung by Tweedy . Uncle Tupelo 's last concert was May 1 , 1994 , at Mississippi Nights in St. Louis , Missouri . Tweedy and Farrar each performed nine songs during the concert , and Mike Heidorn performed as drummer during the encore .
= = = Post @-@ breakup = = =
Following Uncle Tupelo 's final tour , Tweedy encouraged his bandmates to join him in a new group , while Farrar searched for members for a band of his own . Tweedy was able to retain the rest of the Uncle Tupelo lineup , and created Wilco . Wilco began rehearsing a few days after the final Uncle Tupelo concert , and by August 1994 they were in the recording studio for their first album , A.M .. Farrar asked Jim Boquist to join his new band , Son Volt ; Boquist was a multi @-@ instrumentalist who had performed with Joe Henry as the opening act on Uncle Tupelo 's last tour . Boquist also recruited his brother Dave , and Farrar convinced Mike Heidorn to leave Belleville to join the group . Farrar 's new four @-@ piece began recording their debut album Trace in November 1994 .
Wilco signed to Reprise Records while Son Volt signed with Warner Bros. Records . Son Volt had an early college rock hit with " Drown " from the album Trace , but Wilco maintained a more commercially successful career in the years to follow . Regarding the possibility of a reunion , Mike Heidorn reported in a PopMatters interview that " nothing 's ever for sure , but I would have to say , ' No such thing ' " . Farrar said that he does not want the band to get back together , while Tweedy said that he believes that a reunion would not be productive musically .
Farrar and Tweedy sued Rockville Records and Dutch East India Trading CEO Barry Tenenbaum in 2000 over royalties that the label allegedly owed them , winning reparations from Tenenbaum and the joint rights to Uncle Tupelo 's first three albums . After securing the rights , the band released a compilation entitled 89 / 93 : An Anthology . In 2003 , Uncle Tupelo re @-@ issued their first three albums , which before the lawsuit had cumulatively sold over 200 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Influences = =
As The Primitives , Tweedy and Farrar were highly influenced by punk bands such as The Ramones and The Sex Pistols . However , they began to listen to country music because punk rock was not well received in the Belleville and St. Louis music scenes . While they originally were introduced to country by their parents , it wasn 't until this time that they began to listen to it for leisure . Farrar typically wrote songs about Middle America , while Tweedy wrote about more mainstream topics such as relationships . Farrar took influence from authors such as Kurt Vonnegut and Jack Kerouac , whom he read while working at his mother 's bookstore . As the lead singer of Uncle Tupelo , Farrar 's lyrics would be front @-@ and @-@ center during performances , but the band 's musical style was mostly driven by Tweedy and Heidorn ( seen in the music 's Minutemen @-@ influenced start @-@ stop arrangement ) . Jeff Tweedy said in an interview with the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch :
We probably have more influences than we know what to do with . We have two main styles that have been influences . For instance , we like Black Flag as much as early Bob Dylan and Dinosaur Jr. as much as Hank Williams ... To us , hard @-@ core punk is also folk music . We draw a close parallel between the two . We 'll play both in the same set if we get a chance . We don 't have any biases as far as music is concerned .
Tweedy in particular was inspired by the Minutemen , and wrote a song about D. Boon following Boon 's death in a van accident . The band has released songs originally performed by Creedence Clearwater Revival , The Carter Family , Lead Belly , Gram Parsons , The Soft Boys , The Louvin Brothers , Texas Tornados , and The Stooges . Releasing March 16 – 20 , 1992 when alternative music was breaking through was a move inspired by Neil Young 's decision to release the challenging albums On the Beach and Tonight 's the Night immediately after the commercially successful Harvest . Critic Michael Corcoran likened the band 's musical style to " Bob Mould fronting Soul Asylum on a speeded @-@ up version of a Gram Parsons song . "
= = Legacy = =
Uncle Tupelo is credited as one of the founders of the alternative country genre , a blend of alternative rock and traditional country music . While the genre eventually became associated with solo artists such as Gram Parsons and Lyle Lovett , Uncle Tupelo is considered the first alternative country band . Some media outlets like the BBC have even suggested that they were the genre 's sole creator . However , Tweedy and Heidorn dispute this claim , and Farrar says that there is no difference between alternative country and other genres such as roots rock . Heidorn commented in a Country Standard Time interview :
It 's strange to hear Uncle Tupelo mentioned because what we were doing was in such a long line of musical history . People are wrong in starting with us and saying we started anything because we were just picking up the ball , starting with Woody Guthrie and on to the early ' 60s and the Flying Burrito Brothers that we were influenced by . We didn 't start a genre . We contributed to a long line of fairly good music . That 's the way we looked at it at the time — doing what was right for the song .
The band 's first three albums influenced contemporary roots rock artists such as Richmond Fontaine and Whiskeytown . Uncle Tupelo 's usage of distorted guitars to play a style of music that was known for its earnestness became a lasting trend in 1990s modern rock . Jason Ankeny wrote in Allmusic that :
With the release of their 1990 debut LP , No Depression , the Belleville , IL , trio Uncle Tupelo launched more than simply their own career — by fusing the simplicity and honesty of country music with the bracing fury of punk , they kick @-@ started a revolution which reverberated throughout the American underground .
Their 1990 album No Depression lent its name to an influential alternative country periodical . Due to the influence of the album and periodical , the term " No Depression " became a byword for alternative country — particularly for bands with punk rock influence . The alternative country movement played an important role in the success of future traditionalist country acts such as Robbie Fulks and Shelby Lynne .
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
= = = Compilations = = =
= = = Demo tapes = = =
All demo tapes are self @-@ released on cassette .
= = = Singles = = =
= = = Contributions = = =
Uncle Tupelo also recorded a one @-@ hour radio special that was released by Legacy Records in 2003 . Legacy only distributed the CD , entitled The Long Cut : A One Hour Radio Special , to non @-@ commercial radio stations as a way to promote the re @-@ issues of the band 's studio albums . The special is hosted by Lauren Frey and features interviews by Farrar , Tweedy , and Heidorn .
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= Welsh Corgi =
The Welsh Corgi ( / ˈkɔːrɡi / ; Welsh for " dwarf dog " ) is a small type of herding dog that originated in Wales . Two separate breeds are recognized : the Pembroke Welsh Corgi and the Cardigan Welsh Corgi . Historically , the Pembroke has been attributed to the influx of dogs alongside Flemish weavers from around the 10th century , while the Cardigan is attributed to the dogs brought with Norse settlers , in particular a common ancestor of the Swedish Vallhund . A certain degree of inbreeding between the two types has been suggested to explain the similarities between the two .
The Pembroke is the more popular breed of dog , with the Cardigan Welsh Corgi appearing on The Kennel Club 's list of Vulnerable Native Breeds . There are several physical differences between the two types according to the breed standards , with the Cardigan being a larger overall dog , both in weight and in height . Traditionally , the tails were of different shapes , but docking had been previously used . With regards to their health , according to a 2004 survey , they both had similar life spans although kidney or urethral conditions are more likely in the Pembrokes . Furthermore , Pembroke Corgis were more likely to have eye problems than the Cardigan breed . Welsh Corgis have strong ties to Queen Elizabeth II , who has personally owned more than 30 dogs , either Pembrokes or Corgi / Dachshund crosses .
= = History = =
Welsh Corgis have historically been used as herding dogs , specifically for cattle . They are of the type of herding dog referred to as " heelers " , meaning that they would nip at the heels of the larger animals to keep them on the move . Both Pembrokeshire and Cardigan were historically agricultural areas of Wales . The combination of the low height off the ground and innate agility of Welsh Corgis would allow them to avoid the hooves of cattle . The term " corgi " means either cur dog or dwarf dog in the Welsh language , which was not intended as an insult to the dog 's means , rather as a purely descriptive term . There is also a folk legend that says corgis were a gift from the woodland fairies , and that the breed 's markings were left on its coat by fairy harnesses and saddles .
The geographical distance between the two areas of which the modern breeds are named , may have resulted in separate evolution of the breeds . Different tales have been told of the Corgi 's origin , with some believing that the two modern breeds expected to have evolved as part of a shared ancestry , while others attribute the importation of the Pembroke Welsh Corgi to Flemish weavers from around the 10th century . Further theories on the origin of the Pembroke variety suggest that they may have originated from central European herding breeds from the area around modern Germany . Depending on the time period that these dogs were imported to Wales , they could have been either the extinct Deutsches Brachen , or the Dachshund breed .
The Cardigan Welsh Corgi has been attributed to the influences of Nordic settlers in the region . Dogs of similar dimensions exist in modern Scandinavia , called the Swedish Vallhund , and it is claimed by some historians that these two breeds share a common ancestor . Farmers in Cardigan began to switch from cattle to sheep in the late 19th century , but the existing breed was unsuited to working the sheep flocks . Crosses began to take place with the Welsh Sheepdog , and this is where the merle colour pattern originated from in the breed . The subsequent similarities between the two types of Welsh Corgis have been attributed to cross breeding between the two , or simply selected breeding from farmers who wished to have the Cardigan variety appear closer in nature to the Pembroke breed .
The first recorded date for corgis appearing in the show ring in Wales is 1925 . Captain J.P. Howell called together a meeting of breeders of both the Pembroke and the Cardigan varieties , and formed the Welsh Corgi Club with an initial membership of 59 members . A general breed standard was drawn up , and Corgis began to appear in conformation shows . Until this point , neither breed had been specifically bred for looks . They were primarily interested in the Pembroke variety , although those from Cardigan did also appear . At this point the breeds were referred to as the Pembrokeshire and Cardiganshire varieties , later becoming shortened as time passed . There were a number of rows between breeders of the two types in early shows , as judges who were breeders of one type would often favour them in deciding who won in certain classes . The Welsh Corgi appeared at Cruft 's for the first time in 1927 .
The first Championship was granted at a Cardiff show in 1928 , with the prize awarded to a red and white Pembroke bitch named Shan Fach . The breeds continued to be judged together until 1934 , when The Kennel Club recognised each breed separately . In that initial registration , some 59 Cardigans and 240 Pembrokes were listed in the pedigree books . The decisions about which breed each dog formed part of was left to the owners on some occasions , who had the freedom to choose whichever they felt was the most appropriate . The first dog to be named Best in Show at an open conformation show was Ch . Bowhit Pivot .
Cardigan Welsh Corgis continued to be rarer than Pembrokes , with only 11 registrations made in 1940 . Both breeds survived the Second World War , although the Cardigans registered with the Kennel Club numbered only 61 by the end of the war . Pembrokes became very popular during the post war years in the United Kingdom ; in 1953 it was ranked as the fourth most popular breed by the Kennel Club , behind the English Cocker Spaniel , the German Shepherd and the Pekingese . In 1955 , the reserve Best in Show at Crufts was the Pembroke Welsh Corgi Kaytop Maracas Mint , who was beaten by the Standard Poodle Ch . Tzigane Affri of Nashend . The Corgi breeds declined in popularity , with veterinary physician Brian Singleton 's view in The Times in 1963 suggesting this was due to issues with their temperament .
When the Kennel Club created their list of Vulnerable Native Breeds in 2006 , the Cardigan Welsh Corgi was among those breeds . This list is for those breeds which register less than 300 dogs in any one year ; there had been 84 Cardigan Corgis registered in 2006 . After an initial increase , this declined to 46 in 2010 but then rose to the highest numbers since the list began in 2015 , with a total of 124 puppies registered . In 2013 , the Pembroke Welsh Corgi was also added , as there had been only 241 puppies registered that year . While the Kennel Club blamed this on the importation of foreign dog breeds , The Daily Telegraph blamed the decline on the ban on tail docking introduced six years prior . However , 2015 saw an increase of 34 % in the number of Pembroke registrations with the popularity of Corgis on Instagram credited for the change . Pembrokes were subsequently removed from the Vulnerable Native Breeds list in 2016 .
= = = In America = = =
In 1933 the first Welsh Corgis were brought to the United States by American breeder Mrs. Lewis Roesler , for her Merriedip Kennels in the Berkshire Hills of Massachusetts . She had previously been well known for breeding Old English Sheepdogs . Roesler purchased a Pembroke bitch , Little Madam , at London 's Paddington Station for £ 12 . Wanting a mate for the dog , she visited several Corgi kennels and bought a dog called Captain William Lewis . The American Kennel Club ( AKC ) first registered Welsh Corgis in 1934 , as a single breed , and Little Madam was the first registered animal of the breed . The first litter was registered later that year , by Mr E.M. Tidd in Oakland , California , from a bitch named Toots who he had purchased in Canada .
Tidd imported Ch . Bowhit Pivot for his breeding lines in 1935 , registering him with the AKC as Sierra Bowhit Pivot . In addition to his British titles , he became the first Corgi to be awarded Champion status in America and the first such dog to be named Best of Group at a conformation show in the United States . A month after those achievements , Little Madam repeated his victories . The Pembroke Welsh Corgi club was formed in 1937 , and the first show was held at Geraldine Rockefeller Dodge 's Gilralda Farms in New Jersey . Following the Second World War , imports were brought from the United Kingdom , including Rozavel Uncle Sam who dominated the show circuit for Corgis . In 1949 , he became the first Pembroke winner of Best in Show at an open conformation show in America . By 1998 , the Pembroke Welsh Corgi had become the 37th most popular breed of dog in the United States .
A pair of Cardigan Welsh Corgis were imported to America in 1931 , but the first member of the breed to be registered with the AKC was Blodwen of Robinscroft in 1935 . They have never had the draw in the United States given to the Corgis of the Pembroke type . In 1997 , some 752 Cardigan Welsh Corgis were registered with the AKC , compared to 8 @,@ 281 of the Pembrokes .
= = Modern breeds = =
There are two breeds of Welsh Corgis , the Cardigan and the Pembroke , each named for the county in Wales where it originated . The dogs share several similar traits , such as their coats , which are water resistant and shed on average twice a year . The body of the Cardigan is slightly longer than that of the Pembroke ; both breeds have short legs , placing their bodies close to the ground . But they are not as square in outline as a typical Terrier , or have an elongated body as great as that of a Dachshund . There are only minor differences in the shape of the head , both appear fox @-@ like . The head of a Cardigan Welsh Corgi is typically larger than that of an equivalent Pembroke , and has a larger nose . It can take a few days following birth for the true colour of a Corgi 's coat to appear , and this is particularly evident in those with tricolour or black and tan markings .
Corgis in the modern era often compete in dog agility trials , obedience , showmanship , flyball , tracking , and herding events . Herding instincts and trainability can be measured at non @-@ competitive herding tests . Cardigan and Pembroke corgis exhibiting basic herding instincts can be trained to compete in herding trials – known colloquially as a " mad run " . Welsh Corgis were once used to guard children .
= = = Cardigan Welsh Corgi = = =
The differences between the two breeds include bone structure , body length , and size . Cardigans are the larger of the two breeds , with large rounded ears and a 12 inches ( 30 cm ) long fox @-@ like , flowing tail set in line with the body . Though the Cardigan is allowed more colours than the Pembroke , white should not predominate in its coat . The Cardigan is a double @-@ coated dog where the outer coat is dense , slightly harsh in texture , and of medium length . The dog 's undercoat is short , soft , and thick . According to the breed standard , the breed stands between 10 @.@ 5 – 12 @.@ 5 inches ( 27 – 32 cm ) at the withers , and should weigh between 30 – 38 pounds ( 14 – 17 kg ) . The skeletal structure of the Cardigan differs from the Pembroke , in that there is a more exaggerated bend in the front two legs , which fits around the ribcage of the animal . In addition , the Cardigan is more heavily set than the Pembroke , with denser bone mass .
There are a greater number of colours of coat present in the Cardigan breed than the Pembroke , with the breed standard allowing for a variety of shades of red , sable and brindle . White markings are expected on this breed of Corgi , and one with a black coat is allowed to have tan or brindle points under conformation show rules . Merle markings are present in the breed , although this is normally restricted to blue merle . There are several disqualification criteria in the breed standard for the purpose of conformation showing . This would include drop ears , a white coat , blue eyes or non @-@ solid black noses in dogs without merle colouration .
= = = Pembroke Welsh Corgi = = =
Pembrokes feature pointed ears , and are somewhat smaller in stature than the Cardigan . They are low @-@ set , intelligent , strong and sturdy with stamina sufficient to work a day on the farm . The common height at the withers is between 10 – 12 inches ( 25 – 30 cm ) , while a dog of this breed should weigh more than 30 pounds ( 14 kg ) , and a bitch 25 pounds ( 11 kg ) . The tail is shorter than that of a Cardigan , which can be accomplished through breeding or docking . Historically , the Pembroke was a breed with a natural bob tail ( a very short tail ) , and today , if the Pembroke has a tail at all , it is usually curly . Due to the advent of tail docking in dogs , the bob tail was not aggressively pursued , with breeders focusing instead on other characteristics , and the tail artificially shortened if need be . Given that some countries now ban docking , some breeders are again attempting to select dogs with the genes for natural bob tails .
Fewer colours of coat appear in the Pembroke breed . These include red , sable , tan , fawn and black , each of which can be with or without white markings . Plain white or grey coats can also be seen , but these would be considered to be a serious fault for the purposes of conformation shows . However , the Pembroke Welsh Corgi has no specific disqualification criteria present in the breed standard .
= = Health = =
According to the Kennel Club Purebred Dog Health Survey conducted in 2004 , the two breeds had similar average lifespans with the Pembrokes having a median age at death of 12 years and three months , whereas the Cardigan Welsh Corgi had a median age at death of 12 years and two months . The main causes of death were similar in both breeds , with the primary cause being canine cancer and old age . However , the Pembroke breed showed a higher proportion of deaths attributed to either kidney failure or a urethral obstruction .
The survey showed that the breeds suffer from similar rates of ongoing health conditions , with one exception . Whereas more than a quarter of Pembroke Welsh Corgis surveyed suffered from some type of eye condition , only 6 @.@ 1 % of the Cardigan Corgis did . Eye conditions typical in the Corgi breeds include progressive retinal atrophy , which occurs more often in dogs over six years of age , and canine glaucoma , which again is more common in older dogs . Similar percentages in the survey were seen in both breeds for issues relating to reproduction , such as dogs requiring caesarian sections and having false pregnancies . Further similarities were also seen related to musculoskelatal issues , including arthritis . However , Hip dysplasia , common in some types of dogs , is rare in the Corgi breeds .
= = Cultural impact = =
Queen Elizabeth II has long been associated with Welsh Corgis . After a visit to Thomas Thynne , 5th Marquess of Bath in 1933 , Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret made it well known to their family that they liked the Corgis owned by the Marquess . Their father , Prince Albert , Duke of York ( later George VI ) , purchased the Pembroke Corgi Rozavel Golden Eagle , from the Rozavel kennels in Surrey . It was renamed Dookie .
Princess Elizabeth was then given a Pembroke Corgi of her own , named Susan , for her 18th birthday in 1944 . She had a strong connection to the dog , which was hidden under rugs in the Royal Carriage following her wedding to Prince Philip . Susan became the progenitor of the Corgis owned by the Royal Household since . The Queen has bred ten generations of dogs from Susan , owning personally more than 30 of the dogs which were either pure @-@ bred Pembroke Welsh Corgis or crossbreed Corgi / Dachshunds called Dorgis .
Corgis have also appeared on screen , stage and in novels . Corgis as characters were incorporated into the storybook fantasies Corgiville Fair , The Great Corgiville Kidnapping , and Corgiville Christmas of American author and illustrator Tasha Tudor . In 1961 , a Corgi featured in the Walt Disney film , Little Dog Lost , which led to an increase in popularity for the breed within the United States . A theatrical adaptation took place of Welsh author Roald Dahl 's The BFG which toured the UK in 1991 required several different Corgis to perform on stage as those of Queen Elizabeth .
In the anime Cowboy Bebop , the main characters have a super @-@ intelligent Pembroke Welsh Corgi , Ein , on their ship . The Top Shelf graphic novel Korgi plays on the folklore tradition of the Corgi as a faerie draft animal . It features the " Mollies " ( fairy @-@ like beings ) who live in close relationship with the land and their Korgi friends , who are based on and resemble the Welsh Corgi breeds .
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= Civil Air Patrol =
The Civil Air Patrol ( CAP ) is a congressionally chartered , federally supported non @-@ profit corporation that serves as the official civilian auxiliary of the United States Air Force ( USAF ) . CAP is a volunteer organization with an aviation @-@ minded membership that includes people from all backgrounds , lifestyles , and occupations . It performs three congressionally assigned key missions : emergency services , which includes search and rescue ( by air and ground ) and disaster relief operations ; aerospace education for youth and the general public ; and cadet programs for teenage youth . In addition , CAP has recently been tasked with homeland security and courier service missions . CAP also performs non @-@ auxiliary missions for various governmental and private agencies , such as local law enforcement and the American Red Cross . The program is established as an organization by Title 10 of the United States Code and its purposes defined by Title 36 .
Membership in the organization consists of cadets ranging from 12 to just under 21 years of age , and senior members 18 years of age and up . These two groups each have the opportunity to participate in a wide variety of pursuits ; the cadet program contributes to the development of the former group with a structured syllabus and an organization based upon United States Air Force ranks and pay grades , while the older members serve as instructors , supervisors , and operators . All members wear uniforms while performing their duties .
Nationwide , CAP is a major operator of single @-@ engine general aviation aircraft , used in the execution of its various missions , including orientation flights for cadets and the provision of significant emergency services capabilities . Because of these extensive flying opportunities , many CAP members become licensed pilots .
The hierarchical and military auxiliary organization is headed by the National Headquarters ( with authority over the national organization ) followed by eight regional commands and 52 wings ( each of the 50 states plus Washington , D.C. and Puerto Rico ) . Each wing supervises the individual groups and squadrons that comprise the basic operational unit of the organization .
= = History = =
Civil Air Patrol was conceived in the late 1930s by aviation advocate Gill Robb Wilson , who foresaw general aviation 's potential to supplement America 's military operations . With the help of New York Mayor Fiorello H. LaGuardia , in his capacity as then @-@ Director of the Office of Civilian Defense , CAP was created with Administrative Order 9 , signed by LaGuardia on 1 December 1941 and published 8 December 1941 . The Civil Air Patrol had 90 days to prove themselves to Congress . Major General John F. Curry was appointed as the first national commander . Texas oilman David Harold Byrd was a co @-@ founder of CAP .
During World War II , CAP was seen as a way to use America 's civilian aviation resources to aid the war effort instead of grounding them . The organization assumed many missions including anti @-@ submarine patrol and warfare , border patrols , and courier services . During World War II CAP 's coastal patrol flew 24 million miles , found 173 enemy U @-@ boats , attacked 57 , hit 10 and sank two , dropping a total of 83 bombs and depth charges throughout the conflict . By the end of the war , 64 CAP members had lost their lives in the line of duty .
After the end of World War II , CAP became the civilian auxiliary of the United States Air Force , and its incorporating charter declared that it would never again be involved in direct combat activities , but would be of a benevolent nature . The " supervisory " USAF organization overseeing CAP has changed several times . This has included the former Continental Air Command in 1959 , the former Headquarters Command , USAF in 1968 , to the Air University ( AU ) in 1976 . Following Air University 's reassignment as a subordinate command to the Air Education and Training Command ( AETC ) in 1993 , USAF oversight of CAP has flowed from AETC at the 4 @-@ star level , to AU at the 3 @-@ star level , to AU 's Jeanne M. Holm Center for Officer Accessions and Citizen Development at the 1 @-@ star level , to a subordinate unit of 1st Air Force at the 3 @-@ star level with Civil Air Patrol @-@ U.S. Air Force as a stand alone unit lead at the Colonel ( O @-@ 6 ) level . Since its incorporation charter , CAP has maintained its relationship with the USAF , and has continued its three congressionally mandated missions .
During the 113th United States Congress , both the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives voted to pass S. 309 , a bill that would award the Congressional Gold Medal to the World War II members of the Civil Air Patrol . The medal would be presented " in recognition of their military service and exemplary record during World War II . "
= = Missions = =
Civil Air Patrol has three congressionally mandated missions : emergency services , aerospace education and cadet programs .
= = = Emergency services = = =
Civil Air Patrol covers several emergency services areas . The principal categories include search and rescue missions , disaster relief , humanitarian services , and United States Air Force support . Other services , such as homeland security and actions against drug @-@ trafficking operations , are becoming increasingly important .
Civil Air Patrol is well known for its search activities in conjunction with search and rescue ( SAR ) operations . CAP is involved with approximately three quarters of all aerial inland SAR missions directed by the United States Air Force Rescue Coordination Center at Tyndall Air Force Base , Florida . Outside of the continental United States , CAP directly supports the Joint Rescue Coordination Centers in Alaska , Hawaii , and Puerto Rico . CAP is credited with saving an average of 100 lives per year .
CAP is active in disaster relief operations , especially in areas such as Florida , Mississippi and Louisiana that are frequently struck by hurricanes as well as Oklahoma and Texas which are frequented by large , damaging tornadoes . CAP aircrews and ground personnel provide transportation for cargo and officials , aerial imagery to aid emergency managers in assessing damage , and donations of personnel and equipment to local , state and federal disaster relief organizations during times of need . In 2004 , several hurricanes hit the southeast coast of the United States , with Florida being the worst damaged ; CAP was instrumental in providing help to affected areas .
Civil Air Patrol conducts humanitarian service missions , usually in support of the Red Cross . CAP aircrews transport time @-@ sensitive medical materials , including blood and human tissue , when other means of transportation ( such as ambulances ) are not practical or possible . Following the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City when all general aviation was grounded , one of the first planes to fly over the World Trade Center site was a CAP aircraft taking photographs .
CAP performs several missions that are not combat @-@ related in support of the United States Air Force , including damage assessment , transportation of officials , communications support and low @-@ altitude route surveys . The CAP fleet is used in training exercises to prepare USAF pilots to intercept enemy aircraft over the Continental United States . Civil Air Patrol aircraft are flown into restricted airspace , where United States Air Force pilots may practice high @-@ speed intercepts .
As a humanitarian service organization , CAP assists federal , state and local agencies in preparing for and responding to homeland security needs .
The Red Cross , Salvation Army and other civilian agencies frequently ask Civil Air Patrol aircraft to transport vital supplies including medical technicians , medication , and other vital supplies . They often rely on CAP to provide airlift and communications for disaster relief operations . CAP also assists the United States Coast Guard and Coast Guard Auxiliary .
Civil Air Patrol assists the U.S. Customs and Border Protection , Drug Enforcement Administration , and United States Forest Service in the War on Drugs . In 2005 , CAP flew over 12 @,@ 000 hours in support of this mission and led these agencies to the confiscation of illegal substances valued at over US $ 400 million . Civil Air Patrol makes extensive use of the Airborne Real @-@ time Cueing Hyperspectral Enhanced Reconnaissance system , mounted on the Gippsland GA8 Airvan . The system is able to evaluate spectral signatures given off by certain objects , allowing the system to identify , for example , a possible marijuana crop .
= = = Aerospace education = = =
The Aerospace Education Program provides aviation related education and educational activities for members , including formal , graded courses about all aspects of aviation including flight physics , dynamics , history , and application . Courses covering the space program , and new technologies and advances in aviation and space exploration , are also available . There are several programs for CAP pilots to improve their flying skills and earn Federal Aviation Administration ratings .
The Cadet Program has a mandatory aerospace education program ; in order to progress , a cadet must take a number of courses and tests relating to aviation . Cadets also have educational opportunities through museum tours , National Cadet Special Activities , military and civilian orientation rides , and guest speakers .
Senior members may study aerospace through the Senior Member Professional Development Program . CAP encourages its senior members to learn about aviation and its history , although this is not mandatory . Those who complete the Aerospace Education Program for Senior Members may earn the Charles E. " Chuck " Yeager Aerospace Education Award .
Through outreach programs , including the External Aerospace Education program , CAP helps school teachers integrate aviation and aerospace into the classroom by providing seminars , course materials and through sponsorship of the National Congress on Aviation and Space Education . Members also provide their communities with resources for better management of airports and other aviation @-@ related facilities , and promote the benefits of such facilities . The organization also works with other groups , such as the Boy Scouts of America , the Girl Scouts of the USA and 4 @-@ H to fulfill the education goal set down in the organization 's Congressional charter — to " encourage and foster civil aviation in local communities . "
= = = Cadet programs = = =
Civil Air Patrol 's first cadet program was started during World War II in 1942 as a way to provide training for future pilots . Since then , the program has flourished , combining aerospace education with leadership and career training .
Today , CAP cadets are those members who join from age 12 through age 18 . Cadets who turn 18 may either become a senior member or remain a cadet until their 21st birthday at their own discretion . Cadets who join the military and wish to remain in CAP must become senior members when they begin active duty . Cadets who join the National Guard or Reserve may remain cadets until they are activated for a purpose other than training .
As a cadet progresses through the cadet program , he / she earns various achievements by successfully passing both Leadership and Aerospace Education tests . Test questions are derived from reading materials supplied to cadets , but the program is also designed to allow cadets to fill ever increasing leadership roles that are pertinent to their Leadership Studies questions .
As cadets advance through the ranks , they also progress through four stages of development . The first phase , The Learning Phase , introduces cadets to the CAP program , and cadets who pass all requirements receive the Wright Brothers award . The second phase , The Leadership Phase , begins placing more responsibility on cadets as leaders of newer cadets . Cadets who complete The Leadership Phase receive their Mitchell Award , and are eligible for advanced promotion upon enlisting in the military . The third phase , The Command Phase , places cadets directly in command of other cadets , allowing cadets to accomplish tasks through their staff members for the first time . Cadets who complete The Command Phase are awarded the Earhart Award . The Executive Phase is the last phase of the cadet program , and focus cadets on the operations of an entire unit . Cadets completing The Executive Phase are awarded the Eaker Award . The highest cadet award is the Spaatz Award and is awarded upon passing an extensive cumulative test .
As cadets progress through the program , they are placed in charge of lower ranking cadets . Cadets aren 't given full reign over the others , but instead are expected to instruct classes and mentor each other . Senior members , the adults of the program , also play a large role in mentoring and evaluating cadets . The numerous awards , achievements , and opportunities available to Civil Air Patrol cadets allows them to foster their leadership in an academic and forgiving environment .
Civil Air Patrol also has several cadet squadrons located in middle schools . CAP 's School Enrichment Program ( formerly known as Middle School Initiative ) is a ready @-@ to @-@ use program for teachers and other mentors conduct leadership training through Aerospace Education classes . Students are introduced to the principles of flight , model rocketry , and also leadership . CAP 's SEP program is similar to a Junior ROTC program . CAP has 47 units located in Middle School classrooms throughout the country .
The Cadet Program is overseen and administered by senior members , who generally specialize in the Cadet Program . For composite squadrons ( which has Senior Member programs as well ) , the Cadet Commander 's chain of command passes through the Deputy Commander for Cadets before reaching the squadron commander , with the Cadet Commander reporting directly to the squadron commander in cadet squadrons .. There are ' Director of Cadet Programs ' positions at all command levels higher than squadron . In addition to the Deputy Commander for Cadets , squadrons also have a Leadership Officer , a senior member whose job is to see to the military aspects of the cadet program , such as uniforms , customs and courtesies .
= = Membership = =
As of 31 August 2013 , CAP had 60 @,@ 760 members — 34 @,@ 740 senior members and 26 @,@ 020 cadets — in over 1 @,@ 600 local units in all fifty states , Washington , D.C. , Puerto Rico and at numerous overseas United States Air Force installations . CAP members are civilians and are not paid by the United States government for their service . Rather , members are responsible for paying annual membership fees , and must pay for their own uniforms and other related expenses .
Senior membership is open to all U.S. citizens , and resident aliens aged 18 and over who are able to pass an FBI background check . There is no upper age limit , nor membership restrictions for physical disabilities , due to the number of different tasks which members may be called on to perform . Cadet membership is open to those aged between 12 and 18 who maintain satisfactory progress in school , as determined by the cadet 's unit commander ; upon their 18th birthday , cadets may become senior members or remain in the Cadet Program until they are 21 .
The Civil Air Patrol motto , to which all members ascribe , is " Semper Vigilans " , Latin for " Always Vigilant " . All CAP members are also obligated by their service to the organization to abide by its core values : integrity , respect , excellence , and volunteer service .
= = = Senior members = = =
Senior members are members who joined CAP for the first time past the age of 18 , or who are former cadets who transferred to the senior member program , which must happen by the cadet 's 21st birthday . Senior members who have not yet turned 21 years are eligible for flight officer grades , which include flight officer , technical flight officer , and senior flight officer . There is no mandatory retirement age for CAP members , and there are no physical requirements for joining . Members may enter retired status after twenty years of service . The only physical requirements an officer must follow are the grooming and weight standards required of members who wear the United States Air Force @-@ style uniforms ( these do not apply to members who choose to wear those uniform designs unique to Civil Air Patrol ) .
Officer grades up to lieutenant colonel reflect progression in training and organizational seniority , rather than command authority . Because of this , it is not uncommon for senior members commanding groups and squadrons to have members of superior grades serving under them . Current , retired and former members of the United States Armed Forces may be promoted directly to the CAP grade equivalent to their military grade , although some choose to follow the same standards as non @-@ prior @-@ service members . Except for a few exceptional cases , senior members are only promoted to the grade of CAP colonel upon appointment as wing commander , responsible for the administration of CAP units across an entire state . Former military enlisted personnel may choose to retain their grade as senior members , with grades E @-@ 4 ( CAP sergeant ) through E @-@ 9 ( CAP chief master sergeant ) available . Current CAP National Commander Maj Gen Carr has recently unveiled plans to restructure the CAP NCO program to allow individuals to ' enlist ' as an NCO and progress through a specific professional development program . According to an AF.mil article on the subject , " The current design of the NCO corps in the CAP only allows former active @-@ duty NCOs to be a part of the corps , with no upgrade training for promotion within the ranks . The newly signed corps structure will mirror the Air Force NCO force structure with an established process to promote and develop NCOs . "
Senior members are provided with an optional Senior Member Professional Development program and are encouraged to progress within it . The professional development program consists of five levels , corresponding with grades from second lieutenant to lieutenant colonel . Each level of development has components of leadership training , corporate familiarization and aerospace education , as well as professional development within chosen " Specialty Tracks " . There are many Specialty Tracks and they are designed both to support the organization and to provide opportunities for senior members to take advantage of skills they have from their private lives . Available Specialty Tracks include Logistics , Communications , Cadet Programs , Public Affairs , Legal , Administration , Emergency Services , Finance , and many more . Additionally senior members with specific civilian professional qualifications may be awarded grade on the basis of their professional qualifications . Examples include FAA Certified Flight Instructors , Certified Ground Instructors , attorneys , medical professionals , Certified Public Accountants , clergy , and licensed educators or administrators who are often promoted directly to first lieutenant or captain .
= = = Cadet members = = =
Civil Air Patrol 's cadet program is a traditional military @-@ style cadet program , and is one of the three main missions of the Civil Air Patrol . CAP cadets wear modified versions of United States Air Force uniforms , hold rank and grade , and practice military customs and courtesies . They are required to maintain physical fitness standards , and are tested on their knowledge of leadership and aerospace subjects at each promotion opportunity .
= = = = Concept = = = =
The current CAP Cadet Program was designed by John V. " Jack " Sorenson who held the position of Civil Air Patrol 's Director of Aerospace Education in the 1960s . This program is composed of four phases ( Learning , Leadership , Command , and Executive ) each of which is divided into several achievements . Achievements generally correspond to grade promotions , while phases are tied to levels of responsibility . The Cadet Program operates at a local unit ( squadron ) level with weekly meetings and weekend activities , but also has national and wing @-@ sponsored events , including week @-@ long and multi @-@ week summer activities and camps .
As cadets progress through the program , they are given additional responsibility for scheduling , teaching , guiding and commanding the other cadets in their units . They also assist their senior staff in executing the Cadet Program . It is not unusual for a cadet officer to command an encampment of hundreds of junior Cadets . Cadets are given many opportunities to lead and to follow ; they may hold leadership positions at squadron and wing activities , and are often involved in planning these activities . Cadets may complete paperwork , command other cadets , and teach at weekly meetings and at weekend and summer events . The U.S. Congress stated in the Recruiting , Retention , and Reservist Promotion Act of 2000 that CAP and similar programs " provide significant benefits for the Armed Forces , including significant public relations benefits " .
= = = = Cadet program awards and grade structure = = = =
Cadets have a rank structure similar to the United States Air Force enlisted and officer grades , excluding those of general officers . A cadet starts as a cadet airman basic , and is promoted as he or she completes each achievement . Unlike the regular armed forces , where it is possible to enter as either directly as a commissioned following completion of some form of officer training ( service academy , college ROTC , or OCS / OTS , etc . ) , or enlist and eventually advance to non @-@ commissioned officer or petty officer status , a CAP cadet must be promoted through every CAP cadet enlisted grade in order to achieve the rank of CAP cadet second lieutenant . To complete an achievement , a cadet must pass a physical fitness test as well as two written tests , one for leadership and one for aerospace education . The only exceptions to this rule are the promotions to cadet airman and cadet staff sergeant , which have no aerospace test . For some achievements , an additional test of drill proficiency is required . In the new promotion system , effective as of 2010 , there is a drill test for all CAP cadet enlisted grades .
The milestones in the Civil Air Patrol Cadet Program are the Wright brothers Award , the General Billy Mitchell Award , the Amelia Earhart Award , the General Ira C. Eaker Award and the General Carl A. Spaatz Award . As of 27 August 2013 , 1 @,@ 905 Spaatz Awards had been earned since the first was awarded to Cadet Douglas Roach in 1964 . Cadet Roach went on to a United States Air Force career and later became a pilot in the US Air Force Thunderbirds aerial demonstration team .
Each milestone award in Civil Air Patrol confers upon a cadet various benefits . Upon earning the Mitchell Award and the grade of cadet second lieutenant , a cadet is eligible for promotion the rank of airman first class ( E @-@ 3 ) upon enlistment in the United States Air Force . A cadet earning the Earhart Award and being promoted to C / Capt and , if age 17 or older , may be selected to attend the International Air Cadet Exchange .
According to the CAP Knowledgebase website , the percentages for cadets receiving the milestone awards are estimated to be as follows :
Mitchell : 15 %
Earhart : 5 %
Eaker : 2 %
Spaatz : ≈ 0 @.@ 5 %
Cadets that transfer to the senior member side between the ages of 18 and 20 receive the grade of flight officer ( if the highest cadet award earned was the Mitchell ) , technical flight officer ( if the highest cadet award earned was the Earhart ) or senior flight officer ( if the highest cadet award earned was the Spaatz ) . If the cadet waits until their 21st birthday , at which point they are required to transfer to the senior member program , they are eligible for the grade of second lieutenant ( if the highest cadet award was the Mitchell ) , first lieutenant ( if the highest cadet award was the Earhart ) , or captain ( if the highest cadet award was the Spaatz ) .
= = = = Activities = = = =
Cadets under the age of 18 are eligible for ten orientation flights in Civil Air Patrol aircraft , including five glider and airplane flights . Glider flights can be replaced by " powered " flights at the discretion of the Wing Commander , depending on the availability of the aircraft . Cadets over 18 years of age can still participate in military orientation flights , and some CAP wings have flight academies where cadets can learn to fly . The United States Air Force and United States Army also frequently schedule orientation flights for CAP cadets in transport aircraft such as the KC @-@ 135 Stratotanker , KC @-@ 10 Extender , C @-@ 130 Hercules and the C @-@ 17 Globemaster III or , in the case of the Army , UH @-@ 60 Black Hawk and CH @-@ 47 Chinook helicopters .
Civil Air Patrol 's core cadet activity is the summer encampment . Typically a week- to ten @-@ day @-@ long event , cadets are put into an intense , military @-@ structured environment similar in certain respects to USAF Basic Military Training ( BMT ) for enlisted personnel , or the first few weeks of USAFA 4th class cadet training , college Air Force ROTC summer Field Training , or USAF Officer Training School for officers , with emphasis on physically and mentally demanding tasks and required classes and activities . These classes include aerospace education , United States Air Force organization , cadet programs , and drug demand reduction . Activities include the classroom courses , physical training , leadership development , and drill & ceremonies . Encampments are usually held at the wing ( state ) level and , when available are usually at military installations , preferably active United States Air Force , Air Force Reserve Command or Air National Guard installations , with military support .
The Region Cadet Leadership Schools ( RCLS ) provide training to increase knowledge , skills , and attitudes as they pertain to leadership and management . To be eligible to attend , cadets must be serving in , or preparing to enter , cadet leadership positions within their squadron . RCLSs are conducted at region level , or at wing level with region approval . The RCLS programs are more or less modeled on USAFA upper classmen programs , the college Air Force ROTC Professional Officer Course ( POC ) and latter stages of OTS . One variation on this theme are CAP Cadet Non @-@ Commissioned Officer Schools and Academies , which are cadet NCO schools designed to teach basic leadership and principles to cadet leaders during their earlier duty positions in the cadet program .
= = = = Oath = = = =
Cadets ascribe to the following oath during their membership :
I pledge that I will serve faithfully in the Civil Air Patrol Cadet Program , and that I will attend meetings regularly , participate actively in unit activities , obey my officers , wear my uniform properly , and advance my education and training rapidly to prepare myself to be of service to my community , state , and nation .
One requirement for promotion in the Cadet Program is the ability to recite this oath , verbatim , from memory .
= = Relationship to the military = =
While CAP is chartered by Congress and is the auxiliary of the Air Force , it is not an operating reserve component under the United States Air Force or the federal government . As stated by 10 U.S.C. § 9442 , the Secretary of the Air Force may use the services of the Civil Air Patrol to fulfill the non @-@ combat programs and missions of the Department of the Air Force . Additionally , the Civil Air Patrol shall be deemed to be an instrumentality of the United States with respect to any act or omission of the Civil Air Patrol , including any member of the Civil Air Patrol , in carrying out a mission assigned by the Secretary of the Air Force .
Civil Air Patrol members are not subject to the Uniform Code of Military Justice and do not have command or authority over any members of the United States military . Similarly , military officers have no command authority over CAP members . As part of recognition of CAP 's service to the USAF , however , senior members in the grade of second lieutenant and above are allowed to wear " U.S. " collar insignia as an official part of their dress blue uniform . All CAP members are required to render military courtesies to all members of the US military and those of friendly foreign nations ; however , as CAP officers are not commissioned by the President of the United States , military personnel are not required to render military courtesies to CAP personnel , though this can be done as a courtesy . CAP members are expected to render military courtesies to one another , though the implementation of this varies widely . Some squadrons are more military @-@ orientated , with saluting and addressing by rank , while others are more informal .
Although CAP retains the title " United States Air Force Auxiliary " , 10 U.S.C. § 9442 clarifies that this auxiliary status is only applicable when CAP members and resources are on a United States Air Force @-@ assigned mission with an Air Force @-@ assigned mission number . When CAP resources are engaged in a USAF mission they are reimbursed by the Air Force for communications expenses , fuel and oil , and a share of aircraft maintenance expenses . In addition , CAP members are covered by the Federal Employees Compensation Act ( FECA ) in the event of injury while participating in the mission . At all other times , such as when aiding civilian authorities , the CAP remains and acts as a private , non @-@ profit corporation .
The USAF 's Air Combat Command ( ACC ) , through 1st Air Force , is the parent command of CAP . In October 2002 , the USAF announced plans to move CAP " operational " mission activities from the Air Force 's operations directorate ( HAF / A3 ) to the Air Force 's newly created homeland security directorate
In an announcement on 28 August 2015 by Gen. Mark Welsh , Air Force Chief of Staff , the Civil Air Patrol is included in the U.S. Air Force 's definition of the " total force " . To accomplish this , the USAF updated Doctrine Volume 2 , Leadership , to expand the descriptions of total force and " Airmen " to consist of regular , Guard , Reserve , civilian and auxiliary members . Part of that Total Force inclusion was a realignment in the responsible command which moved Civil Air Patrol @-@ U.S. Air Force ( CAP @-@ USAF ) from Air Education and Training Command through the Jeanne M. Holm Center for Officer Accession and Citizen Development at Maxwell AFB , Alabama , to Air Combat Command through 1st Air Force . This change took place on 24 June 2016 .
= = = Uniforms = = =
Civil Air Patrol 's uniforms provide a distinctive and standard set of uniform items intended to provide a positive public image , build morale , and enhance the professionalism of the organization 's membership .
CAP members wear uniforms similar to the U.S. Air Force 's uniforms worn with distinctive emblems , insignia and badges to identify them as CAP members ; these are categorized as " USAF @-@ style uniforms " . USAF @-@ style uniforms may be worn by all cadets under age 18 , and by cadets over age 18 and senior members who meet height and weight standards set by CAP 's uniform manual . In addition , CAP has a series of what are categorized as " Corporate @-@ style uniforms " which may be worn by all senior members , and also by those cadets over age 18 who do not meet height and weight standards set for the USAF @-@ style uniform .
Uniforms are categorized in CAP 's uniform manual by the environment in which the uniform is to be worn or the work to be accomplished .
These uniform types are composed of :
United States Air Force @-@ style uniforms :
Service Dress Uniform ( Class A ) – the United States Air Force 's service dress uniform , consisting of dark blue trousers , light blue shirt with tie , dark blue jacket , and a flight or service cap . Rank is indicated on CAP @-@ distinctive gray shoulder marks ( for senior member officers ) or sleeve stripes ( for senior member non @-@ commissioned officers ) . Cadet ranks are shown by shoulder marks or pin @-@ on insignia .
Blue Service Uniform ( Class B ) – identical to the service dress uniform , except without the dark blue jacket . The tie is optional when in short sleeves . Cadet enlisted and NCOs wear metal grade insignia on the collar .
Airman Battle Uniform - the current style United States Air Force field uniform , with dark blue name tapes , silver text , metal insignia on the collar for enlisted grade cadets , and cloth insignia for cadet officers and senior members .
Battle Dress Uniform ( BDU ) - the old style United States Air Force " woodland camouflage " field uniform , with ultramarine name tapes , metal insignia on the collar for enlisted grade cadets , and cloth insignia for cadet officers and senior members .
Flight Duty Uniform - green Nomex one @-@ piece CWU 27 / P flight suit worn by United States Air Force flight crews , styled in a manner similar to Air Mobility Command flight crews , but with CAP insignia . This is worn by CAP flight personnel only .
Mess Dress Uniform – the dark blue United States Air Force mess dress uniform with CAP @-@ distinctive insignia and sleeve braid . This is worn by senior members only .
Corporate @-@ style ( " CAP distinctive " ) uniforms :
Corporate Field Uniform – a Navy Blue version of the battle dress uniform .
Aviator Shirt Uniform – an aviator white shirt with shoulder marks , and gray trousers .
Corporate Flight Duty Uniform – a dark blue version of the one @-@ piece flight suit in either Nomex or cotton material . This is worn by CAP flight personnel only .
Corporate Service Dress Uniform – a dark blue blazer jacket worn with a white shirt , gray trousers , and a CAP or United States Air Force tie .
Corporate Working Uniform – a dark blue short @-@ sleeve golf shirt with the CAP seal screened or embroidered on the chest , and gray trousers . This is only worn by senior members .
= = Equipment = =
Civil Air Patrol operates and maintains fixed @-@ wing aircraft , training gliders , ground vehicles , and a national radio communications network .
Civil Air Patrol owns and operates a fleet not to exceed 550 single @-@ engine aircraft , predominantly Cessna 172 Skyhawk and Cessna 182 Skylane aircraft . The aircraft are in a phased refurbishment program which began in 2008 , replacing engines , interior , avionics , and paint at a lower cost than new purchases .
In 2003 , the Australian designed and built eight @-@ seat Gippsland GA8 Airvan was added to the corporate fleet . 16 of Civil Air Patrol 's fleet of 18 Airvans carry the Airborne Real @-@ time Cueing Hyperspectral Enhanced Reconnaissance ( ARCHER ) system , which can be used to search for aircraft wreckage based on its spectral signature . Other aircraft types include the Cessna 206 and the Maule MT @-@ 235 . CAP also has a number of gliders , such as the L @-@ 23 Super @-@ Blanik , the Schleicher ASK 21 and the Schweizer SGS 2 @-@ 33 , used mainly for cadet orientation flights .
In addition to CAP 's own corporate fleet , many member @-@ owned aircraft are made available for official tasking by CAP 's volunteers should the need arise . Aircraft on search missions are generally crewed by at least three qualified aircrew members : a Mission Pilot , responsible for the safe flying of the aircraft ; a mission observer , responsible for navigation , communications and coordination of the mission as well as ground observation ; and a mission scanner who is responsible for looking for crash sites and damage clues . Additionally , the mission scanner may double as an Satellite Digital Imaging System ( SDIS ) operator . Larger aircraft may have additional scanners aboard , providing greater visual coverage . Because of the additional ARCHER equipment , the crew of a Civil Air Patrol GA8 Airvan may also include an operator of the ARCHER system , depending upon the requirements of the mission and the capabilities of the aircraft .
CAP owns over 1 @,@ 000 vehicles ( mostly vans for carrying personnel ) and assigns them to units for use in the organization 's missions . Members who use their own vehicles are reimbursed for fuel , oil and communications costs during a USAF @-@ assigned emergency services mission .
CAP operates a national radio network of HF ( SSB ) and VHF ( FM ) radio repeaters . There are over 500 of these repeaters strategically located across the United States . Radio communications are now facilitated under NTIA specifications , to which Civil Air Patrol directorates have applied even more stringent standards . CAP 's radio network is designed for use during a national or regional emergency when existing telephone and Internet communications infrastructure is not available . Outside of such emergencies , most of CAP 's internal communications are conducted on the Internet . CAP frequencies and specific repeater locations are designated by the Department of Defense as Unclassified – For Official Use Only information , and as such may only be released to those individuals who have a recognized " need @-@ to @-@ know . "
Some aircraft in the CAP fleet are equipped with the SDIS . This system allows CAP to send back real @-@ time images of a disaster or crash site to anyone with an e @-@ mail address , allowing the mission coordinators to make more informed decisions . There are approximately 100 federally funded SDIS systems strategically located across the United States , with more than 20 additional systems funded by state and local governments .
The ARCHER imaging system , mounted aboard the GA8 Airvan , uses visible and near @-@ infrared light to examine the surface of the Earth and find suspected crash sites , evaluate areas affected by disasters , or examine foliage from an airborne perspective in order to flag possible marijuana plantations . Both the SDIS and ARCHER systems were used to great success in the response to Hurricane Katrina ; ARCHER may be used in coordination with the SDIS system .
A hand @-@ held radio direction finder , the L @-@ Tronics Little L @-@ Per , is used by ground teams to search for downed aircraft . The ground teams carry equipment on their person that they use while in the field . This equipment includes flashlights , signal mirrors , tactical vests , safety vests , and food that will last them at least 24 hours . The equipment carried by ground teams varies much by the mission at hand . Urban Direction Finding ( UDF ) missions necessitate only a small kit of gear . But intensive mountain search and rescue can require packs that provide for up to 72 hours of operational supplies and tool for the location , rescue and extraction of lost or crashed parties . This gear includes the above , plus additional water , meals , and survival gear . Although a standardized list is provided by the national command , many teams modify the list to match the needs of the mission .
= = Organization = =
Civil Air Patrol is organized along a military model , with a streamlined and strictly hierarchical chain of command . There are several distinct echelons in this structure : National Headquarters , regions , wings , and squadrons or flights . An additional group echelon may be used that is placed between the wing and the squadrons / flights , at the wing commander 's discretion .
Civil Air Patrol is headed by a national commander , currently Major General Joseph Vazquez . The organization is governed by a board of governors , established by federal law in 2001 and consisting of 11 members : four Civil Air Patrol members ( currently the national commander , national vice commander , and two members @-@ at @-@ large appointed by the CAP National Executive Committee ) , four United States Air Force representatives appointed by the Secretary of the Air Force , and three members from the aviation community jointly appointed by the CAP national commander and the Secretary of the Air Force . The board of governors generally meets two or three times annually and primarily provides strategic vision and guidance to the volunteer leadership and corporate staff . The volunteer leadership consists of the national commander and his staff , comprising a Vice Commander , Chief of Staff , National Legal Officer , National comptroller , the Chief of the CAP Chaplain Service , and the CAP Inspector General . The national commander holds the grade of CAP major general ; the national vice commander holds the grade of CAP brigadier general . The rest of the national commander 's staff hold the grade of CAP colonel .
CAP National Headquarters is located at Maxwell Air Force Base outside Montgomery , Alabama . The headquarters employs a professional staff of over 100 and is led by the CAP Executive Director ( analogous to a corporate chief operating officer ) , who reports to the board of governors . The national headquarters staff provides program management for the organization and membership support for the 1 @,@ 700 + volunteer field units across the country .
Below the national headquarters level there are eight geographic regions and a handful of overseas squadrons at various military installations worldwide . Each region , commanded by a CAP colonel , encompasses several statewide organizations referred to as wings . The eight regions are the Northeast , Middle East , Southeast , Great Lakes , Southwest , North Central , Rocky Mountain , and Pacific Regions .
The CAP units in each of the fifty states , and Puerto Rico and the District of Columbia , are coordinated by the CAP wing for that state ; each wing has a commander who is a CAP colonel and the sole corporate officer for each state . Each wing commander oversees a wing headquarters staff made up of experienced volunteer members . Larger wings may have an optional subordinate echelon of groups , at the discretion of the wing commander . Each Group encompasses at least five squadrons or flights .
Local units are called squadrons . A squadron is broken into flights . Squadrons are the main functioning body of Civil Air Patrol . Civil Air Patrol squadrons are designated as either cadet , senior , or composite squadrons . A CAP composite squadron consists of both cadets and senior members , who may be involved in any of the three missions of Civil Air Patrol . Composite squadrons have two deputy commanders to assist the squadron commander : a Deputy Commander for Seniors and a Deputy Commander for Cadets . A senior squadron includes only senior members , who participate in the emergency services or aerospace education missions of Civil Air Patrol . A cadet squadron is largely made up of cadets , with a small number of senior members as necessary for supervision of cadets and the proper execution of the cadet program . Overseas squadrons operate independently of this structure , reporting directly to the National Headquarters .
A CAP flight is a semi @-@ independent unit that is used mainly as a stepping @-@ stone for a new unit until they are large enough to be designated a squadron . Due to their transitory nature , there are very few flights within the CAP structure at any one time . A flight will be assigned to a squadron ' parent ' , and it is the job of the flight and squadron commanders to work together to build the flight into a full and independent squadron .. Flights are also used as temporary units within a squadron . These flights are dismissed after the activity or meeting they were created for . A flight within a squadron is assigned a letter , so a flight could be designated " Charlie Flight , Thunderbolt Squadron " , for example . In larger squadrons , flights are permanent subunits and cadets are assigned to them .
Headquarters Civil Air Patrol @-@ U.S. Air Force ( CAP @-@ USAF ) is an active duty unit that operates under the joint jurisdiction of CAP National Headquarters and the USAF Air Combat Command , 1st Air Force . Commanded by an aeronautically @-@ rated Air Force Colonel , HQ CAP @-@ USAF consists of approximately 75 active duty Air Force , Air Force Reserve , Air National Guard , and civilian United States Air Force personnel ( with all of the Air Force civil service personnel at CAP @-@ USAF also being CAP members ) , 22 of whom are stationed at National Headquarters , staff CAP @-@ USAF . These members advise , assist , and oversee Civil Air Patrol 's operations and provide liaison between CAP and the USAF . As of August 2014 , the commander of CAP @-@ USAF is Colonel Michael D. Tyynismaa , USAF .
= = Funding = =
Civil Air Patrol is a non @-@ profit corporation established by Public Law 79 @-@ 476 . It receives its funding from four major sources : membership dues , corporate donations , Congressional appropriations , and private donations .
Squadron and group financial support comes from donations and fundraising . Some units charge their own membership dues above and beyond CAP membership dues . These donations and fund raisers are how the squadrons and groups pay for their equipment , rent for facilities , and activities at the local level .
Today , apart from member dues , Civil Air Patrol receives funding from donations and grants from individuals , foundations and corporations ; from grants and payments from state governments for patrolling and other tasks as agreed by memorandums of understanding ; and from federal funding for reimbursement of fuel , oil and maintenance plus capital expenses for aircraft , vehicles and communications equipment .
There are few paid positions in Civil Air Patrol . Most are located at National Headquarters , although some wings have paid administrators or accountants . During 2011 , Civil Air Patrol had 182 paid employees .
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= Washington State Route 224 =
State Route 224 ( SR 224 ) is a 10 @.@ 15 @-@ mile ( 16 @.@ 33 km ) long state highway located entirely in Benton County , Washington , United States . The highway serves to connect SR 225 to Interstate 82 ( I @-@ 82 ) and U.S. Route 12 ( US 12 ) , and to link Benton City to West Richland and Richland . Before the 1964 state highway renumbering the highway was numbered Secondary State Highway 3R . SR 224 is a lightly traveled rural highway except through Richland , where an average of 16 @,@ 000 cars traveled the highway daily in 2009 . The Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) is currently studying plans to alleviate traffic congestion at the western terminus of the highway , with plans ranging from moving the exit ramp from I @-@ 82 , creating a roundabout , or adding a traffic light .
= = Route description = =
SR 224 begins at an interchange with I @-@ 82 in southern Benton City . After only 0 @.@ 05 mi ( 80 m ) , SR 224 intersects SR 225 and turns east along Kennedy Road . After passing a park and ride lot on the south side of the highway , the road turns back to the north on Van Giesen Street , paralleling the Yakima River , slowly turning northeast through a rural area of Benton County . After passing through farmland SR 224 becomes the main east @-@ west thoroughfare of West Richland . Exiting the town , the highway passes over the Yakima River and enters Richland . Before the highway terminates at an intersection with SR 240 southeast of the Richland Airport , the highway crosses over a single track belonging to the Port of Benton and managed by Tri @-@ City Railroad . Van Giesen Street continues east from the terminus of SR 224 for another 1 @.@ 7 miles ( 2 @.@ 7 km ) , turning south as Hains Avenue at the Columbia River .
The highway is primarily a two @-@ lane road between Benton City and West Richland . The road expands to four lanes in West Richland , a width the highway remains to its terminus in Richland . Speed limits posted on the highway range from 30 miles per hour ( 48 km / h ) to 55 miles per hour ( 89 km / h ) .
Every year WSDOT conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2009 , WSDOT calculated that as few as 3 @,@ 200 cars traveled through the intersection at Keene Road , west of West Richland , and as many as 16 @,@ 000 cars at the eastern terminus .
= = History = =
A roadway has connected Benton City to Richland since at least 1926 , while a road with an alignment more similar to that of the current highway first appeared on maps in 1939 , with termini at the concurrent highways U.S. Route 410 and PSH 3 . The highway now known as SR 224 was numbered Secondary State Highway 3R ( SSH 3R ) between 1937 and the 1964 state highway renumbering , which abolished the Primary and Secondary highway numbers , replacing them with Sign Route numbers , later renamed State Routes .
The twin set of bridges that carry I @-@ 82 over the highway at the western terminus were built in 1973 , which was during the initial construction of I @-@ 82 through southern Washington . The current bridge that carries SR 224 over the Yakima River was constructed in 1993 , replacing the original bridge on the highway .
= = Future = =
WSDOT is studying several different proposed changes to the SR 224 / SR 225 intersection to improve traffic flow . Several proposals have been introduced to alleviate the situation , including replacing the stop sign at the intersection with a traffic light , reconfiguring the intersection and the off ramp from I @-@ 82 , and implementing several options featuring roundabouts . WSDOT favors the roundabout options and estimates costs will range between $ 2 and $ 7 @.@ 4 million to construct .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Benton County .
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= Exercise Vigilant Eagle =
Exercise Vigilant Eagle is a series of trilateral military exercises involving the armed forces of Canada , Russia , and the United States . The exercise is designed to prepare the Russian Air Force and the North American Aerospace Defense Command ( NORAD ) to undertake coordinated air intercept missions against hijacked civilian aircraft . Four such exercises have been held .
= = Background = =
Billed by its Russian , American , and Canadian participants as a first @-@ of @-@ its @-@ kind exercise for the former Cold War adversaries , Vigilant Eagle was described by Russian Air Force Col. Alexander Vasilyev as a means to " develop procedures and bring the relationship between our countries closer together to unite our countries in the fight against terrorism ” . The groundwork for Vigilant Eagle was laid in a June 2003 meeting in St. Petersburg , Russia between President of the United States George W. Bush and President of the Russian Federation Vladimir Putin . Coming less than two years after the September 11 attacks , and in the aftermath of an increase in Russian @-@ American tensions resulting from the 2003 invasion of Iraq , the meeting saw progress in developing informal comity for bilateral cooperation in areas of anti @-@ terrorism .
= = Exercises = =
= = = Vigilant Eagle 2010 = = =
The first Vigilant Eagle exercise was planned for 2008 but postponed until 2010 due to the South Ossetia War . According to the U.S. government , that exercise marked " the first live @-@ flying event between Russia and the United States since the Second World War . "
= = = Vigilant Eagle 2011 = = =
A second Exercise Vigilant Eagle was held in 2011 . In the exercise scenario , a U.S. civilian airliner operating near the Russia @-@ United States northern border was seized by terrorists and flown towards Russia . The scenario was then repeated in reverse , with an aircraft originating in Russian airspace violating NORAD 's Alaskan Air Defense Sector where it was intercepted and " repelled from North American airspace . "
The exercise tested the ability of the Federal Aviation Administration to contact both Russian Air Force and NORAD authorities and of NORAD and the Russian Air Force to effectively liaise with each other in tracking and intercepting the hijacked aircraft . The aircraft used to represent the U.S. airliner was a civilian @-@ crewed passenger aircraft chartered from Global Aviation .
= = = Vigilant Eagle 2012 = = =
Vigilant Eagle 2012 was a command post exercise ( CPX ) held in 2012 that , for the first time , did not include live @-@ flying aircraft , instead using computer simulations .
= = = Vigilant Eagle 2013 = = =
Exercise Vigilant Eagle 2013 was conducted in August of 2013 . The exercise again involved a live @-@ flying element with CF @-@ 18s of the Royal Canadian Air Force intercepting a civilian airliner west of Mount McKinley after the aircraft reported a " hijacking " following take @-@ off from Ted Stevens International Airport . The mission was then handed off to the Russian Air Force as the aircraft passed over the international boundary . After completion of the mission , the exercise was repeated in reverse with a Russia @-@ originating aircraft reporting a " hijacking " on an approach toward the international boundary .
= = Future exercises = =
A planned Vigilant Eagle 2014 was suspended due to tensions between the United States and Canada on one side , and the Russian Federation on the other , over the War in Donbass . The exercise would have involved , for the first time , the Japan Air Self Defense Force . According to American and Canadian officials , the exercises were canceled at their initiative .
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= Criss Angel =
Christopher Nicholas Sarantakos ( born December 19 , 1967 ) , better known by the stage name Criss Angel , is an American magician and illusionist . Angel began his career in New York City , before moving his base of operations to the Las Vegas Valley . He is known for starring in the television and stage show Criss Angel Mindfreak and his previous live performance illusion show Criss Angel Believe in collaboration with Cirque du Soleil at the Luxor casino in Las Vegas . The show generated $ 150 million in tourist revenue to Las Vegas in 2010 , but has since been replaced by Mindfreak LIVE on 11 May 2016 ( this new show is still part produced by Cirque , however the directive rights are entirely with Criss Angel ) . He also starred in the television series Believe on Spike TV , the television show Phenomenon , and the 2014 stage show Criss Angel Magicjam .
Angel has been on primetime television for more hours than any other magician in history , between his television series and various specials on cable and network television . He also holds multiple world @-@ records made during his magic performances , and was named Magician of the Decade in 2009 and Magician of the Century in 2010 by the International Magicians Society . In addition to his career as an illusionist , Angel was the lead singer for his industrial band Angeldust , which released five albums between 1998 and 2003 . He also authored the book Mindfreak : Secret Revelations .
= = Early life = =
Criss Angel was born on December 19 , 1967 , at Hempstead General Hospital in Hempstead , on Long Island , New York . He is of Greek descent . Angel was raised in Elmont until fourth grade , when his family moved to East Meadow , New York . His father , John Sarantakos , owned a restaurant and doughnut shop . He developed an interest in magic at age seven and performed his first show at the age of twelve , for which he was paid $ 10 . His main early influence was Harry Houdini . By fourteen , Angel was performing throughout high school at restaurants in East Meadow , including the Wine Gallery . Angel 's first major illusion was making his mother float in their family den . Early in his career he was helped by animal breeder and reality @-@ television host Marc Morrone , who helped Angel find and train a set of doves for his act .
By the time he graduated from East Meadow High School , he had decided to pursue a career as a professional magician instead of attending college as his parents wanted . According to Biography Channel , " Angel hit the road and began touring with other traveling performance acts . Between traveling and performing , he attempted to further his education in his own by studying the history of magic in public libraries . He also studied the art of mysticism , music , martial arts and even dance . "
= = Early career = =
Angel has said that , " I stayed away from magicians when I was younger because I didn 't want to think like them and wanted to create my own style . " His first television appearance was in 1994 , where he performed as a part of a one @-@ hour ABC primetime special entitled Secrets . One of the early supporters of Angel was horror director Clive Barker . In 1995 , Barker asked Angel to work with him on his film Lord of Illusions . He also later recorded the intro to Angel 's album World of Illusion : System One . Barker said of Angel in the mid @-@ 1990s that , " Criss Angel is extraordinary , a spectacular mix of visionary magic . This is the future , and it can ’ t come quickly enough . " In 1998 , Angel performed a ten @-@ minute show over the course of the " World of Illusion " conference in Madison Square Garden , performing sixty shows per day .
Angel also starred in the 1997 television movie The Science of Magic and its 2003 sequel The Science of Magic II . Criss Angel Mindfreak , which would later become Angel 's first television series , was originally an off @-@ Broadway show by Angel , which in 2001 was picked up by the World Underground Theatre . When not performing the show , Angel worked the streets promoting the show to pedestrians . Criss Angel Mindfreak ran for more than 600 performances between 2001 and 2003 at the World Underground Theater in Times Square . His twenty @-@ four hours in a tank of water set a world record for the longest amount of time for a human to be completely submerged under water . This performance would also become a part of his first television special .
Angel has also been known to actively discourage a belief in mediumship , stating that there is no way for mediums to speak with people beyond the dead . He has said , " If somebody 's doing that for entertainment purposes , that 's one thing . But if they claim to be communicating with the dead , I don 't care if they 're from my hometown , I don 't care if they 're my family members : I 'll expose them and tell them what they really are . "
= = = Water torture cell in Times Square , 2002 = = =
In August 2002 , Angel spent 24 hours shackled underwater in a phone booth @-@ sized water torture cell near the WWE entertainment store in New York 's Times Square , WWE corporation being the owners of the World Underground Theatre where Angel had been performing his stage show . To prepare for the trick , he practiced in a neighbor 's backyard swimming pool next to his mother 's house in East Meadow , New York . Prior to the performance he had only managed to spend 12 consecutive hours in the water . He fasted for twenty @-@ four hours before the performance to make it through the period without need to exit and use the washroom . During the trick he went through sixteen oxygen tanks . After the trick he was required to remove his own shackles and chains before exiting the water . Within an hour , his skin began to react substantially to the water .
At the end of the performance , according to Ted Shaffrey , " Before he emerged from the phone @-@ booth sized contraption of clear plastic and steel , Angel yanked out the air hose that allowed him to breathe . Then assistants pulled a black curtain over the 220 @-@ gallon ( 832 @-@ liter ) chamber to block the view of television cameras and about 100 people gathered outside the window in which he was displayed . Under cover , Angel apparently escaped from the shackles that bound his arms , legs and neck , before pulling himself from the watery chamber with a celebratory scream . " Upon successfully completing the trick , he was described as having " skin crinkled and his eyes bloodshot " , and upon emerging from the tank he was taken to St. Clare 's Hospital and treated for severe dehydration . He reported afterwards that he had suffered from overheating , jaw fatigue , and semi @-@ consciousness while in the tank .
= = Television specials and promotional appearances ( 2002 @-@ 2005 ) = =
On October 20 , 2002 , Angel performed in the ABC Family television special named Criss Angel Mindfreak : Postmodern illusionist , an hour @-@ long performance and tribute to Harry Houdini . The special aired again on December 24 , 2002 on Channel 4 in the UK . The Birmingham Evening Mail reviewed the show , writing , " Criss Angel is currently making a name for himself as a more provocative , darker alternative to [ other illusionists ] . He walks the streets of New York , hypnotising passers @-@ by , turning cups of take @-@ away coffee into cockroaches and suspending himself from the ceiling by inserting hooks into his back . The piece de resistance of all these mind games is an update of the Houdini underwater trick - an attempt to stay in a ( cell ) tank of water for 24 hours , padlocked and restrained . All seems to be going well , until the filter system breaks down and the water begins to heat up . "
On October 31 , 2003 SciFi Channel aired the one @-@ hour special Supernatural starring Angel . Kate O 'Hare said of the special that , " Filmed in part at Universal Theme Park in Orlando , Fla . , " Supernatural " finds Angel crawling up buildings , passing a quarter through his skin , spontaneously combusting and having otherworldly creatures burst from his chest . " When asked about his process in creating television specials , Angel said that , " I like to have my hand in everything on my TV specials . I 'm the executive producer ; I direct it ; I create it . I write all the music for my TV specials and my live performances . It 's on my label . I write it ; I produce it . " During the special Angel performed stunts including lighting himself on fire and making a tarantula emerge from a pedestrian 's soda can . In 2003 , Angel was also featured in the two @-@ hour TBS special Made in Japan .
In early 2003 , Angel performed at the release of the new branding for Miller Lite beer in Milwaukee , Wisconsin on the 80th anniversary of Houdini 's last performance in that city . For the performance , he was suspended ten stories in the air and bound in a straitjacket , from which he escaped . He also performed an illusion at Ozzfest in 2005 . During this period Angel also earned money selling signed merchandise , making up to $ 50 @,@ 000 a day .
= = Criss Angel Mindfreak television series = =
In 2005 , Criss Angel became the creator , director , and executive producer of the A & E Network show Criss Angel Mindfreak , and had entered production in January . Seasons 1 and 2 were filmed at The Aladdin in Las Vegas , with Season 3 at the Luxor Las Vegas . Premiering on July 20 , 2005 , the show 's illusions have included walking on water , levitating , walking up the side of Luxor Hotel ( in the light of 39 focused lamps that can be seen from space ) , floating between two buildings , causing a Lamborghini to disappear , surviving in an exploding C4 Crate , cutting himself in half in full view of an audience and getting run over by a steamroller while lying on a bed of broken glass .
The first season of the show was released on DVD after it completed its on @-@ screen run . The show also released its Halloween special , along with two special episodes , on an additional one @-@ disc DVD offering . The show returned for a second season in May 2006 , and was named one of the best shows of the summer by the Tulsa World newspaper . The show was renewed for a third season in July 2006 ; as of that third season the show was A & E 's number one rated show , with more than 1 @.@ 5 million viewers . That year he promoted the show with a performance where he was suspended within a cube encased in concrete above Times Square , escaping from the block before it was set to crash to the ground . Magic effects creator Sean Field stated of Angel this year that , " Criss Angel is the biggest name in magic since Houdini ... No other magician has invaded pop culture to the degree that Criss Angel has . He has changed the image of magic and made it cool . " The show became one of the most popular foreign television shows in parts of Asia , including China .
The television show was noted as a part of the mid @-@ 2000s films , television , and books that drove a resurgence of the public popularity of magic . Criss Angel Mindfreak was the first weekly magic television show to air in forty years . Daily Variety reviewed the premiere writing , " The stunts alone are impressive . But what makes the show fascinating are the down @-@ home touches in which we see the kid from New York , who first honed his magic skills at the age of 6 . Keenly aware of the camera at all times , Angel manages to offer some personality , especially where family is involved . Viewers follow the illusionist as he contemplates new and more dangerous stunts , while his crew , including his often @-@ fretful brothers , offer insight as to what , other than ego , drives someone in this profession . "
The show ran from 2005 until 2010 , at which point he had been featured for more hours on primetime television than any other magician in history . Other tricks performed in the show included making an elephant disappear and the performance of séances as well as other tricks in order to teach his audience about con men and how to avoid scams intended to manipulate money out of people .
In July 2008 , Angel escaped from a beachside hotel before its demolition in front of a crowd of about 50 @,@ 000 people , an illusion that also aired on the television program . After the illusion , Angel showed the audience step by step how he achieved the escape . He first picked open a set of handcuffs that had him shackled to a balcony railing . He then smashed the window of the room in order to enter the hotel , and picked padlocks on both the room 's internal door and the door to the stairwell . The escape was initially supposed to occur via a ladder that dangled above the hotel 's roof 30 seconds before collapse , after picking through five locks on the roof 's door . Instead , Angel emerged from the rubble after the collapse , claiming that the initial plan was always to escape via the helicopter . The total time allotted for the entire illusion was 4 minutes , with dynamite located on the first , second , and fourth floors of the building .
= = Criss Angel Believe = =
= = = Stage show = = =
In 2006 , Angel partnered with Cirque du Soleil to produce the stage show Criss Angel Believe ( stylized as " Criss Angel BeLIEve " ) , premiering the show at the Luxor Las Vegas on September 26 , 2008 . It became the bestselling live magic show in the world . The name of the show was taken from Harry Houdini , for the mythology of Houdini choosing the word " believe " as the codeword for communicating with Houdini after his death . Luxor 's parent company , MGM Mirage , financed the show with $ 100 million .
After several delays , the show was set for a gala opening on October 31 , 2008 , with preview shows in late September on the 82nd anniversary of Harry Houdini 's death . The initial preview received mixed reactions and reviews . Reporters for the Las Vegas Sun , Los Angeles Times , and Las Vegas Review Journal cited a lack of the magic Angel is known for , as well as a confusing and uninteresting theme . They also opined that neither Angel nor Cirque du Soleil were able to perform to their capabilities during these initial performances . On the positive side , the Las Vegas Sun later quoted Star Pulse , stating , " He has created a live show that is everything a perfect magic performance should be — and then some . It ’ s not just remarkable magic — it ’ s transcendent art that won ’ t just blow your mind ; it will quite possibly change your life . "
In April 2009 , Angel ended a performance of Believe by " hurling obscene insults " at blogger Perez Hilton , an audience member . Hilton reportedly had texted to his fans during the performance that the show was " unbelievably BAD " and that he 'd " rather be getting a root canal " , and word had gotten back to Angel by the end of the performance . Cirque du Soleil later apologized to Hilton for Angel 's remarks .
In 2010 , the Las Vegas Sun critic John Katsilometes , after being unimpressed by the initial show , said Believe had improved by reducing the narrative elements and focusing on the magic . In 2011 , the Toronto Star wrote : “ The show is easily the most exciting thing now on stage in Vegas ! ” That year the show attracted an estimated $ 150 million in ticket sales . The show currently has a ten @-@ year performance contract that runs through 2019 , and was the best selling magic show in Las Vegas as of 2013 .
= = = Television series = = =
The stage show celebrated its fifth anniversary of appearing on stage in October 2013 . That month a cable television series based upon the show entitled Criss Angel BeLIEve was broadcast on Spike TV . The first season included eleven one @-@ hour episodes , including 118 different illusions . Guests on the show include Ludacris , Ice @-@ T , Randy Couture and Shaquille O ’ Neal . When asked about the three years between the last episode of Mindfreak and his return to television , Angel stated that , " I didn ’ t take long at all to go back to television . It was my choice to work on the live Cirque show and to get that where I wanted it to be .
" Now that that show is just humming and doing amazing business — it ’ s the # 1 bestselling magic show in the world as far as ticket sales and the perception that people are experiencing and coming back to see it multiple times — I felt it was in a great place and I could think about television again . Obviously , “ Believe ” will continue to evolve until its last performance because I always want to add new magic , I ’ m always tweaking and transforming it . I missed being on television , I had something new creatively to say , and Spike became the perfect home to do it . " Endemol purchased the foreign distribution rights for the show , and was the " most @-@ watched new original series [ on Spike TV ] in more than 18 months " according to the Hollywood Reporter .
In the episode " Lord of Illusions — Death Premonition " , Angel paid homage to Clive Barker , the director of the horror movie of the same name . In the episode , Angel performed the closing stunt from the film , in which he laid beneath a circle of suspended swords , and predicted the correct order of six falling swords to avoid becoming stabbed through his body after their release . The swords were selected by the audience with the help of a randomly bouncing ball . According to the Las Vegas Sun , " Criss is the only , and first , magician in the world granted permission from the inventor and filmmaker to re @-@ create the film ’ s death @-@ defying stunt . "
For another episode for the series filmed in New York City he was asked by the NYPD not to pre @-@ announce the performance , as crowd control for some Angel performances had become a concern for the police . This trick saw Angel hanging his feet , while bound with two straitjackets and a noose around his neck which were attached to metal weights . While he was successful in the trick , Angel tore his shoulder muscles and this required surgery in January 2014 . This resulted in the temporary closing of the Believe stage show between January and April 2014 , while he was recovering from the surgery and returning to performance shape . He did however host a new stage show featuring other magicians between February and March 2014 in lieu of performing in his own show . Clips from the show also became the most watched YouTube magic clips in the history of the site , with more than 15 million views .
In the show , Angel revealed the secrets behind some of his illusions to the audience . This included the Lord of Illusions trick , where he revealed that he had the swords in a preset order so that he could avoid them . The episode featuring this illusion also includes a meeting between Angel and his team discussing a problem with the trick and how to ensure it doesn 't happen again .
= = Phenomenon = =
Starting in October 2007 , he appeared as a judge on Phenomenon with Uri Geller . In a CNN interview about the show , he told Larry King " no one has the ability , that I 'm aware of , to do anything supernatural , psychic , talk to the dead . And that was what I said I was going to do with Phenomenon . If somebody goes on that show and claims to have supernatural psychic ability , I 'm going to bust [ him ] live and on television . "
On the October 31 , 2007 episode of the reality show Phenomenon , Paranormalist Jim Callahan performed a summoning , purportedly of author Raymond Hill , to help discover the contents of a locked box . Although fellow judge Uri Geller praised the performance , Angel called it " comical " and subsequently challenged both Callahan and Geller to guess the contents of two envelopes he pulled out of his pocket , offering a million dollars of his own money to whoever could do so . This led to an argument between Callahan and Angel , during which Callahan walked toward Angel and called him an " ideological bigot " , with the two pulled apart as the show promptly went to a commercial break . Angel has since revealed the contents of one envelope and at the unveiling he challenged Geller one more time . Geller responded , " Although we were born one day apart - I was born on the 20th of December and you on the 19th - a lot of years between us - 40 years , you were one year old when I came out with my spoon bending ... " Criss Angel cut him off at this point , saying , " I guess this is a ' no , ' " and proceeded to open the envelope . The envelope contained an index card with the numbers " 911 " printed on it for September 11 , 2001 . Angel 's explanation was this : " If on 9 @-@ 10 somebody could have predicted that 9 @-@ 11 was going to happen , they could have saved thousands of lives " . The other envelope 's contents were scheduled to be revealed on the first episode of Season 4 of Criss Angel : Mindfreak .
= = Stage shows = =
= = = Criss Angel Magicjam = = =
The temporary replacement show for Believe was entitled Criss Angel Magicjam , which was performed in the same Luxor theatre . According to the Las Vegas Sun , the show included , " Longtime Las Vegas comedy @-@ illusionist Nathan Burton ; Banachek , the world ’ s premiere mentalist ; and new female magician Krystyn Lambert , who has been prominently featured in the Spike series ... joined by grandmaster manipulators Jason Byrne and Tony Clarke , supreme close @-@ up artist Armando Vera and the magic comedy of Russ Merlin . " The production was written and directed by Criss Angel . In January 2014 , Angel announced that he planned on taking Criss Angel Magicjam on a North American tour during the summer of 2014 . The show also featured Angel 's own illusions , which he performed for about 40 minutes of the show . Robin Leach said of the show that , " Magicjam is great fun and a high @-@ energy show packed with mind @-@ blowing magic . "
= = = Mindfreak Live ! = = =
In 2014 , Angel premiered the stage show Mindfreak LIVE ! The touring show features illusions from Angel himself , which received positive reviews . The demonstrations used in the show were developed in Angel 's illusion laboratory in Las Vegas , located in a 60 @,@ 000 square foot warehouse . His international touring with the show marked the first time that Angel had travelled with his show in about six years . The premiere show of the performance occurred at Foxwoods Resort Casino in Connecticut during November 2014 .
= = = The Supernaturalists = = =
The Supernaturalists premiered in June 2015 at the Foxwoods Resort Casino 's The Fox Theater , with Criss Angel serving as creator , director and executive producer . Performers for the show include illusionist Landon Swank , magician Krystyn Lambert , escape artist Spencer Horsman , mentalist Banachek , dog conjuror Johnny Dominguez , magician Stefan , and close up magician Adrian Vega . Robin Leach reviewed the show as having " overwhelming positive reactions " and wrote that it contained " the most mind @-@ blowing magic spectacle that ’ s playing anywhere " . Angel has stated that the show is a culmination of ten years of development , which he began in 2005 , and is intended as a global touring show and as a premiering venue for several new illusions from each magician .
= = Variety show appearances and guest spots = =
Angel has made numerous special television guest appearances on WWE Raw , including acting as guest star on March 8 , 2010 . He also appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show , including the premiere episode of its 24th season . During a 2007 episode of the show , he successfully guessed the number between 1 and 100 he asked Winfrey to think of without telling him . Angel has appeared on other talk shows including The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson , Jimmy Kimmel Live ! , The Megan Mullally Show , The Ellen DeGeneres Show , AVN Awards Show 2007 and Larry King Live on CNN . He was also a guest on the The Tonight Show , Late Show with David Letterman , America 's Got Talent , and The Rosie O 'Donnell Show . He also made a guest acting appearance on the hit television shows CSI : NY , Las Vegas and Rules of Engagement . In 2011 , Angel also appeared in an Orville Redenbacher Pop @-@ Up Bowl popcorn commercial .
In May 2005 , Angel introduced honoree Ozzy Osbourne at the VH1 Rock Honors awards , biting the head off a bat as a part of the introduction in homage to Osbourne 's early career onstage antics . At the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards , Criss Angel performed an illusion as a part of the musical performance by Britney Spears and helped to plan her stage show , which opened the television broadcast . He was also hired as the illusionist for the planned 2009 Michael Jackson O2 arena concerts before Jackson 's death . In 2013 , Angel had a cameo in the feature film The Incredible Burt Wonderstone , and Jim Carrey 's character in the movie " Steve Gray " has been said to be modeled after Angel . There is a wax statue of Angel in the Madame Tussauds wax museum in Las Vegas .
= = Other projects = =
= = = Music = = =
Angel was the frontman for the heavy metal band Angel and collaborated with industrial rock musician Klay Scott for Angeldust . Angeldust released its debut album Musical Conjurings From the World of Illusion in 1998 . He later released the albums System 1 , System 2 , and System 3 . In 2003 , he released the album Supernatural . His musical style continues to be in the heavy metal style , though when describing his musical style he has said , " There are elements where it 's more electronic , and there are orchestrated sections . I decided to take it in different places because I 'm inspired by emotion and by giving people a connection , a sense of a feeling — whether it 's excitement or crying or being happy . " He also produced soundtracks for his television series Mindfreak , including collaborations with members of Korn and Godsmack .
= = = Books = = =
Angel is the author of the book Mindfreak : Secret Revelations , published by HarperEntertainment in 2007 . Mindfreak : Secret Revelations appeared on the Los Angeles Times bestseller list that year . According to the Las Vegas Sun , " The 295 @-@ page book details the early beginnings of his career , memorable demonstrations from his TV show and personal reflections . " Secret Revelations " also contains several pictures and provides step @-@ by @-@ step instructions for 40 of his basic Mindfreaks . Laura Morton helped the magician write the book . " California Bookwatch wrote that it " tells of Criss Angel 's evolution as a performance artist , magician and musician , charting his rise to fame beginning at age 6 and adding details of his life and his artistic philosophy and influences ... His survey covers the ' Mindfreaks ' which allow him to push for excellence in very different worlds " .
= = = Internet = = =
Criss Angel is the most watched magician in Internet history since the late 2000s . His clip , " Walk on Water " , had received more than 39 million views by 2010 , and more than 46 million by 2013 . By early 2013 , his videos had achieved more than 200 million views . Another highly watched clip is " Rip Bodies Apart " taken from the premiere episode of BeLIEve , which had more than twelve million views within a month .
= = = Toys = = =
In 2010 , Angel partnered with IdeaVillage to release the Criss Angel Magic Collection , which contained six Mindfreak Magic Tricks instructions , 250 tricks , and a magic kit for children . The product was backed by $ 50 million in marketing .
= = Recognition = =
= = = Awards = = =
Angel won the International Magician Society 's Magician of the Year award in 2001 , 2004 , 2005 , 2007 and 2008 , in addition to its " Magician of the Decade " title in 2009 and " Magician of the Century " title in 2010 . He was the 22nd recipient of the Louie Award for outstanding achievement in the art of magic . He has also appeared on the covers of Magic and Genii magazines . In 2008 , Angel was one of the inaugural nominees for the Harry Houdini Award , awarded by the Harry Houdini Museum . Angel is the youngest magician to ever be inducted into the International Magician Society 's Magic Hall of Fame . He is also the only man to have won the Merlin Magician of the Year award on two occasions , in 2001 and 2004 . In 2011 , he was awarded the World Magic Legacy Awards ' Living Legend award . He is a member of the 2017 Walk of Fame class , and will receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame .
= = = World records = = =
Angel is the holder of several world records , including the longest time submerged under water and the fastest time to escape from a straitjacket at two minutes and thirty seconds , the longest body suspension at 5 hours 42 minutes , and the fastest time to perform the " Metamorphosis " illusion at less than one second . He is also the holder of the Guinness world record for " The most people to disappear in an illusion " , for making 100 people disappear on May 26 , 2010 during a performance of Believe at the Luxor .
= = Personal life = =
In 2002 , Angel married his longtime girlfriend JoAnn Winkhart . The couple filed for divorce four years later . Although Angel was seen with his wife in the buried alive illusion ( season 1 , episode 6 , 2005 ) and the body suspension illusion ( season 1 , episode 5 , 2005 ) , she was not credited as his wife ; rather , she was listed as " Criss 's Girl " . In November 2008 , Angel began dating Holly Madison , former girlfriend of Hugh Hefner . The relationship ended in February 2009 . He proposed to Sandra Gonzalez on September 7 , 2011 in Cabo San Lucas during a sunset dinner .
As of 2010 , Big Bear Choppers had produced seven custom @-@ made motorcycles for Angel , who featured the motorcycle designers on his show Criss Angel Mindfreak . He also had a Harley Davidson motorcycle built by Orange County Choppers , which he rode in the intro filmed for Criss Angel Mindfreak . As a philanthropist , Angel created the Believe Foundation ' Believe Anything is Possible ' , and was awarded the Make @-@ A @-@ Wish Foundation award for most supportive celebrity on May 19 , 2010 . He was also awarded the foundation 's Chris Greicius Celebrity Award in 2007 . As of 2016 , Angel 's business interests made about $ 70 million in revenues annually .
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= Bat 'leth =
The bat 'leth ( Klingon : betleH , pronunciation : [ ˈbɛtʰlɛx ] ) is a double sided scimitar / hook sword / deer horn knives hybrid @-@ edged weapon with a curved blade , four points and handholds on the back . It was designed and created by Star Trek : The Next Generation visual effects producer Dan Curry for the Star Trek franchise , where it is the characteristic melee weapon of Klingons . Curry has called the bat 'leth " one of the iconic images associated with the show " . It has spawned a smaller version , which became known as the " mek 'leth " ( Klingon : meqleH ) . Bat 'leths have become an enduring symbol of the franchise among fans and are occasionally referenced in other media .
= = Description = =
A bat 'leth is a curved blade approximately 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) long , with two spiked protrusions at each end and three handholds along the back which can be used to twist and spin the blade rapidly .
Dan Curry created the bat 'leth in 1990 for Worf , a character played by Michael Dorn in Star Trek : The Next Generation after receiving approval from producer Rick Berman . Curry based it on the " Chinese fighting crescent " . Curry — a martial artist — also developed a fighting style similar to t 'ai chi ch 'uan for the use of the weapon . In 1995 , he developed a smaller version of the bat 'leth , the " mek 'leth " — which is based on a Northern Tibetan cavalry sword . He designed the weapon for Dorn to use when Worf joined the crew of Star Trek : Deep Space Nine . Mek 'leths are intended for one @-@ handed use and shaped like a scimitar ; it is about half the length of the full @-@ size bat 'leth .
= = Use in Star Trek = =
In Star Trek lore , the Klingon Kahless created the bat 'leth around 625 A.D. According to Klingon mythology , he formed the blade by dropping a length of his hair into some lava from inside the Kri 'stak Volcano , then cooling , shaping , and hardening it in the lake of Lursor . He then united Qo 'noS , the Klingon homeworld by killing a tyrant named Molor with the weapon , which became known as the " Sword of Kahless " . The sword was later stolen by a species called the Hur 'q during their invasion of Qo 'noS . In the Deep Space Nine episode " The Sword of Kahless " , Worf and another Klingon named Kor rediscover the artifact , but it is eventually transported into space to prevent them from using it to attack each other . The Sword of Kahless differs from normal bat 'leths as it has five points and one handhold compared to four points and three handholds .
In the Klingon language , the bat 'leth was originally referred to as batlh 'etlh , then was shortened to betleH . The word " bat 'leth " means " Sword of Honor " . Bat 'leths are made of a reinforced metal called baakonite and are normally 116 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 81 ft ) long and weigh 5 @.@ 3 kilograms ( 12 lb ) .
The bat 'leth appeared in 29 television episodes across the Star Trek franchise in Star Trek : The Next Generation , Star Trek : Voyager , Star Trek : Deep Space Nine and Star Trek : Enterprise . The Bat 'leth was also used in the 1994 film Star Trek Generations . The mek 'leth appeared in the television series Deep Space Nine and in the 1996 film Star Trek : First Contact . The Sword of Kahless appeared in the 2000 video game Star Trek : Armada and normal bat 'leths appeared in the 1996 video game Star Trek : Klingon . Some of the bat 'leth 's uses were in the debut episode " Reunion " , where Worf teaches his son Alexander how to use one . Worf used a bat 'leth to kill Duras — a Klingon who killed Worf 's mate K 'Ehleyr . Notable uses of the weapon occurred in the Voyager episode " Barge of the Dead " — in which Tuvok uses a bat 'leth to teach B 'Elanna Torres about her Klingon heritage , and in the Deep Space Nine episode " Tacking into the Wind " — in which Worf kills the leader of the Klingon High Council , Gowron in a bat 'leth duel to give the Klingon Chancellorship to General Martok .
= = Cultural legacy = =
The bat 'leth is considered an iconic image of the Star Trek universe . Replicas are widespread and are considered collectibles by some and a part of Klingon costume . A number of outlets , including replica merchants , weapons dealers and pawn shops sell them . Ronald D. Moore , who has worked on Star Trek and Battlestar Galactica , displays one in his office . However , due to the dangers of real bat 'leths , no officially licensed replicas of the weapon are available from either Curry or Paramount Pictures .
The rise in the popularity of the bat 'leth has led to the formation of martial arts teams aiming to develop a martial art distinct from the one Curry initially developed . Such teams have incorporated moves from ju @-@ jitsu , kendo , kinjitsu and nunchaku . Bat 'leth competitions have been held at conventions such as MileHiCon and StarCon .
The bat 'leth has appeared in television programs outside the Star Trek franchise . In 2002 , it was seen in Stargate SG @-@ 1 episode " The Other Guys " . In 2005 , a bat 'leth was in the background of the US detective series Monk episode " Mr. Monk vs. the Cobra " . In 2010 , one was seen in the " Chuck Versus the Beard " episode of American comedy series Chuck . In 2011 , a bat 'leth was used in American situation comedy The Big Bang Theory episode " The Zarnecki Incursion " .
= = Legality = =
Replicas of the bat 'leth are often made of metal and can be dangerous . A British police spokesman said that stainless steel bat 'leth could " literally , take someone 's head off " . Media reports documenting instances of replica bat 'leths being used in crimes have referred to the weapon as a " double @-@ pointed Klingon crescent @-@ shaped sword " , a " Klingon @-@ type sword " , a " Star Trek Klingon @-@ type sword " or as a " double @-@ pointed scimitar " .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
In the United Kingdom , it is legal to possess a bat 'leth on private property ; however , they may be seized if they are considered to be " potential evidence of a criminal lifestyle . " They are classed as weapons , which makes it illegal to carry one in a public place . A replica bat 'leth was surrendered to Gloucestershire Constabulary as part of the 2006 knife amnesty in the UK . In 2008 , a miniature bat 'leth was seized in Oxford after a 17 @-@ year @-@ old was caught trying to smuggle it into a College . Police described the weapon as " most horrendous " . The person was arrested and sentenced to six months in a young offenders ' institution . In 2009 , a man from Billingham , County Durham , was arrested for possession of a miniature bat 'leth in a public street . In the court documents , it was referred to as a " multi @-@ bladed sword " , and the judge said " I 've never seen anything like it in my life before . " The accused pleaded guilty at Teesside Crown Court , and he was later sentenced to thirteen weeks in prison . The court ordered that the bat 'leth was to be forfeited and destroyed . A custom @-@ made bat 'leth was seized in 2009 in Accrington , Lancashire .
= = = United States = = =
The legality of the bat 'leth in the United States differs between states . In 2009 , a replica bat 'leth was used in Colorado Springs , Colorado , in two armed robberies . The Colorado Springs Police Department said that it was a deadly weapon . In New Jersey , bat 'leths are considered weapons and are liable to be seized . The Federal Bureau of Investigation discovered and seized a bat 'leth as part of a cache of weapons in connection with a $ 4 million Medicare fraud investigation in 2010 .
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= Education and Democracy : The Meaning of Alexander Meiklejohn =
Education and Democracy : The Meaning of Alexander Meiklejohn , 1872 – 1964 is the first full biography of Alexander Meiklejohn written by Adam R. Nelson and published by the University of Wisconsin Press in 2001 . The title is not a complete biography but draws from five archives to show Meiklejohn through his own words . A popular figure in the early 20th century who has since faded , Meiklejohn was a philosopher and university president who championed unified knowledge , idealism , and Great Books curricula . The book is split into five sections based on the locations in which Meiklejohn lived : his undergrad , faculty , and administrative years at Brown University , his presidency of Amherst College , his time with the University of Wisconsin Experimental College , and his experience with adult education and free speech advocacy at Berkeley . Nelson portrays Meiklejohn as " contradictory , paradoxical , and quixotic " as he grapples with how to encourage students to pursue freedom and how a teacher can teach this while respecting student freedom .
Reviewers noted the clarity of Nelson 's intellectual contextualization of Meiklejohn 's work , but wanted additional information about what Meiklejohn thought about comparable programs , educational precedents , and luminaries in the field . Other reviewers marked the book 's balance , completeness , and importance in resurfacing Meiklejohn as a major figure in the history of American education .
= = Publication = =
Education and Democracy : The Meaning of Alexander Meiklejohn , 1872 – 1964 is a biography of Alexander Meiklejohn written by Adam R. Nelson and published by the University of Wisconsin Press in 2001 . In lieu of writing a definitive account of Meiklejohn 's life , Nelson portrayed Meiklejohn through the subject 's own language to let him " speak for himself " . Nelson draws on five archives detailed in copious quotations and a 65 @-@ page notes and annotated bibliography appendix . While Meiklejohn was popular in the early 20th century and best known for his stance on academic freedom , he had become a marginal figure by the time this book was published . The book was the first full biography written on Meiklejohn , preceded only by dissertations and a 1981 " short ' biographical study ' " that introduced Meiklejohn 's written work . Nelson 's title is a response to John Dewey 's Democracy and Education . It intends to show the contrast of Meiklejohn 's idealism opposite Dewey 's pragmatism .
= = Summary = =
The work is split into five parts based on the places in which Meiklejohn lived : his undergraduate education at Brown University , his later administrative work there , his presidency of Amherst College , his University of Wisconsin Experimental College , and his work with adult education and other actions in Berkeley . At the core of Meiklejohn 's effort to create systems that promote democratic citizenship , Nelson argues , is " the paradox of Socratic teaching " : how a teacher can make a student want freedom and how a teacher can teach this while respecting the student 's freedom in practice .
Meiklejohn was born in Great Britain and raised in Rhode Island . He attended Brown and Cornell University , and later returned to the former as a popular ethics professor and its consequent dean of admissions . In place of the popular elective system and science curriculum , he championed a Kantian style of education with unified knowledge , moral development , and pursuit of ideals , and a style of democratic governance where students would lead and reason through their own education . Meiklejohn saw democracy as something imparted and reconsidered by passing generations , and that it was borne in " strong discussions around agreed terms " . His suggested curriculum for a unified knowledge included one or two years of ancient Greek classics and added years of enlightenment or modern American classics .
Meiklejohn became Amherst College 's president in 1912 . Meiklejohn developed a legacy of autocratic treatment of faculty , drastic overspending , and that of a college hermetically detached from demands of the outside world . He was ousted after lying about faculty appointments , whereupon he opened the Experimental College at the University of Wisconsin , a two @-@ year Great Books program with readings from ancient Greece and modern America . There , too , he treated the program as unaccountable to outside influence , and did not produce reports of their work or build rapport with the outside Wisconsin community . The program quickly closed for reasons attributed to Meiklejohn 's obstinance and not programatic design . Meiklejohn then opened a Great Books adult education program in San Francisco where students similarly self @-@ governed and led their own education . As funding dissipated at the outset of World War II , the students chose to shutter the school before " compromising " their ideals . Meiklejohn became an advocate of free speech as an absolute right differentiated from physical action . His stances on this and democracy influenced the United States Supreme Court and the aims of UNESCO .
Nelson portrays Meiklejohn as " contradictory , paradoxical , and quixotic " . Despite believing in free thought and the primacy of student choice in determining their own education , he held incontrovertible stances . Nelson compares Meiklejohn to fellow educator Woodrow Wilson : " idealists who occasionally allowed the enthusiasm of their vision to impede the integrity of their leadership " . Meiklejohn 's students often defied his wishes , overturning a ban of professional baseball student players at Brown , enlisting in the army at Amherst , and choosing anarchy over student government at Wisconsin . Meiklejohn was an idealist who shunned the pragmatism of figures like John Dewey . Meiklejohn 's idealism required charismatic and " demanding " tutors for any student who agreed to the minimum of open @-@ minded participation in seminar .
= = Reception = =
The biography is considered the first on Meiklejohn . Reviewers noted the clarity of Nelson 's intellectual contextualization of Meiklejohn 's work , but wanted additional information about what Meiklejohn thought about comparable programs , educational precedents , and luminaries in the field . Other reviewers marked the book 's balance , completeness , and importance in resurfacing Meiklejohn as a major figure in the history of American education .
Dominique Marshall ( Labour / Le Travail ) compared Nelson 's clear presentation of Meiklejohn 's philosophy to Meiklejohn 's own accessible practice of philosophy . Marshall described Nelson 's intellectual and political contextualization surrounding the eras of Meiklejohn 's life as having " surprising variety " . Mary Ann Dzuback ( The Journal of American History ) thought that the book was not riveting , as par for the genre , but that the work was " thoughtful and compelling " . She affirmed Meiklejohn 's importance for his experiments and attempts to make educational programs capable of producing a democratic society . Dzuback praised Nelson 's use of student quotes and his analysis of Meiklejohn 's written work , but wanted for more context , such as how Meiklejohn compared with other educational figures in higher education , how other contemporary Great Books programs impacted his thought , and where he stood in the overall history of American education . Marshall too remained curious about Meiklejohn 's views on the family 's role in civic education . Jinting Wu ( Education Review ) complained of too much intellectual context in areas and of unresolved contradictions in Meiklejohn 's metaphysical claims .
Scot Guenter ( American Studies ) considered the biography " particularly timely " for the post @-@ September 11 relevance of Meiklejohn 's democratic experiments in the face of the privatization of higher education , and of Meiklejohn 's courage towards free speech . He wrote that Meiklejohn 's views on curriculum would arouse " needed " reflection in college instructors , and that the book 's audience should include university administration and those interested in civil liberties as well as historians and philosophers of education . Guenter appreciated how Nelson presented the shortcomings of Meiklejohn 's ego and spendthrift lifestyle . Robert Sherman , writing for the History of Education Quarterly and reflecting on the depth of the appendices , struggled to consider " how such a work could be more complete " . He wrote through Louis Menand that Meiklejohn 's " certitude [ led ] to violence " and that by letting him speak for himself , Nelson made the French philosopher Charles Renouvier 's point that only individuals are certain and that there is no greater certainty . Guenter added that the biography read best in the parts where Nelson was clearly inspired by Meiklejohn 's zeal and idealism , particularly the " What Does the First Amendment Mean ? " chapter , which Guenter considered essential reading .
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= Turn Left ( Doctor Who ) =
" Turn Left " is the eleventh episode of the fourth series of British science fiction television series Doctor Who . It was written by showrunner Russell T Davies and broadcast on BBC One on 21 June 2008 .
David Tennant only makes a small contribution to this " Doctor @-@ lite " episode as the Tenth Doctor . The story instead focuses on the Doctor 's companion , Donna Noble ( Catherine Tate ) and her encounters with former companion Rose Tyler ( Billie Piper ) . The episode 's narrative focuses on an alternative history where the Doctor dies during the events of the 2006 Christmas special " The Runaway Bride " . The episode depicts a dystopia caused by the Doctor 's death , leaving Rose to convince Donna to save the world . The beginning and end of the episode take place in the show 's normal continuity , and features a cliffhanger that leads directly into the series finale " The Stolen Earth " .
Davies ' writing and Tate 's performance were acclaimed , and the episode was praised for its depiction of dystopia in a scene , characterised by the internment of a foreign citizen . The episode was the fourth most @-@ watched programme in the week it was broadcast , with 8 @.@ 1 million viewers , and the Appreciation Index of the episode was 88 , considered excellent . The episode was one of two Doctor Who stories in the fourth series to be nominated for a Hugo Award in the Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form category .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens with the Doctor and Donna exploring a marketplace on the planet Shan Shen . Donna is approached by a fortune teller who convinces her to get a free reading . The fortune teller helps Donna recall the event that led to her meeting the Doctor . Donna was at a street corner with her mother Sylvia and they were arguing over which way to turn . Donna wanted to turn left and take a job as temp at the security firm H. C. Clements while Sylvia wanted her to turn right and take a job as a secretary at a friend 's business . The fortune teller gives Donna the chance to choose again and encourages her to turn right this time . As she turns right , a large beetle attaches itself to her back .
Donna 's decision creates an alternate universe with major changes in history . In this world , turning right meant that Donna never met the Doctor and could not convince him to flee after killing the Racnoss children in " The Runaway Bride " . As a result , the Doctor drowns in the resulting flood , and is unable to intervene in several other events that drastically affect the Earth . Changes include the deaths of Sarah Jane Smith and Martha Jones in the events of " Smith and Jones " , London is destroyed and millions die when the Titanic slams into Buckingham Palace during " Voyage of the Damned " , instantly transforming England into a third world country . Sixty million people in the United States die from the breeding of the Adipose in " Partners in Crime " , and the Torchwood team is killed ( except Jack Harkness , who is unable to die ) defeating the Sontaran invasion that occurred during " The Poison Sky " .
Donna and her family are spared from dying in the destruction of London when Rose Tyler appears and convinces Donna to leave London in time though she never identifies herself to Donna . As a result of the Titanic crash , many Londoners have been displaced and are assigned cramped living quarters and live under martial law . Rose appears to Donna again and tells her that she needs Donna to come with her , but that doing so will result in Donna dying . Donna refuses , and Rose tells her that she will be back in three weeks . Three weeks later , Donna and Wilfred are using his telescope when they realise that the stars are disappearing from the sky . This convinces Donna that she must go with Rose , and she gives in and leaves . Rose takes her to UNIT and explains that the stars are going out in every universe . She explains that she has been able to travel between universes again because the walls of reality are collapsing , and the Doctor is the only one who can stop it .
Donna is taken to a dying TARDIS , which UNIT has managed to connect a crude time machine to . Rose uses energy from the TARDIS to show Donna the beetle on her back , but tells her they do not know what it is . She insists that Donna travel back to the day she made the fateful turn and choose to turn left again . Donna is transported back too far away to contact her past self directly . Instead she makes the decision to walk out in front of a passing truck and let it hit her , causing a traffic jam that will force her past self to turn left . As Donna lies on the ground dying , Rose whispers a message into her ear for the Doctor . The Donna in the car makes the left turn , and the alternate universe disappears . The beetle falls off of Donna 's back , and the fortune teller runs away after uttering some terrified words about what Donna will become .
The Doctor hears Donna scream and turns up in the booth . After examining the beetle , the Doctor comments on how it was odd for an alternate universe to form around her , explaining that the beetle worked for The Trickster with the job of changing people 's lives in various ways . His remarks cause Donna to recall Rose and her message , which she delivers to the Doctor . Rose told her two words , " Bad Wolf " . A panicked Doctor , realising who Donna must have met , runs out of the room to find the words " Bad Wolf " written everywhere once again . He rushes into the TARDIS only to hear the cloister bell , and announces that the universe is in danger .
= = = Continuity = = =
The episode revisits the events of several previous episodes : " The Runaway Bride " , " Smith and Jones " , " Voyage of the Damned " , " Partners in Crime " and " The Poison Sky " . It is shown that the Doctor , had he faced the Racnoss without Donna , would have actually died permanently . Some of the disasters the Doctor stopped would have happened without anyone to stop them , while many of his former companions and their friends would have died stepping in his place .
Bad Wolf , a recurring theme through series 1 , is revisited here in the form of a message from Rose as a warning to the Doctor about the end of the universe . The words , not seen since " The Parting of the Ways " , appear again everywhere in the alien market , including all over the TARDIS .
= = Production = =
= = = Cast notes = = =
Chipo Chung previously appeared as Chantho , the assistant of Professor Yana , in the Series 3 episode " Utopia " . Ben Righton also reprised his role as medical student Oliver Morgenstern , his last appearance being in " Smith and Jones " .
= = = Writing = = =
" Turn Left " is a " Doctor @-@ lite " episode : a low @-@ budget production that features the Doctor in a reduced role . Instead of the episode also featuring Donna in a reduced role , " Turn Left " was written to complement " Midnight " : " Midnight " featured the Doctor in the central role and " Turn Left " focused on Donna and Rose . The episode was written by the show 's head writer and executive producer , Russell T Davies . He compared the main concept of the episode — life without the Doctor — to the 1998 film Sliding Doors . Davies hoped to pose a question to the viewer : " does the Doctor cause or prevent death ? " . The episode focuses on the scale of deaths without the Doctor ; the implicit death toll surprised Davies when he wrote the script . Lead actor David Tennant cited the deaths that surrounded his character as a major part of the Doctor 's guilt . The episode 's tone phrase was " life during wartime " ; Davies reflected his description by comparing the labour camps foreigners such as Rocco Colasanto ( Joseph Long ) were sent to with the Nazi concentration camps of World War II — most notably Auschwitz @-@ Birkenau — through script directions and Wilf 's expository dialogue :
There 's an open army truck in the street , 2 soldiers standing by . All the Colasanto family in the back - Old Mamma , 2 women and 1 man in their 50s , 1 woman and 1 man in their 30s , 2 teenagers , 1 kid . All subdued . Wilf stands back , watching . Grim .
Donna : Oh , but why d 'you have to go ?
Mr Colasanto : Is the new law ! England for the English , etcetera . They can 't send us home , the oceans are closed , they build labour camps !
Donna : I know , but labour doing what ? There aren 't any jobs .
Mr Colasanto : Sewing , digging , is good ! Now stop it before I kiss you too much - Wilfred ! My capitano !
He gives Wilf a salute . Wilf salutes back . Both grave . Then Mr Colasanto heads for the truck . Donna goes to stand next to Wilf .
Donna : It 's gonna be quiet without him . Still , we 've got more room .
Wilf : Labour camps . That 's what they called them last time .
Donna : ... what d 'you mean ?
Wilf : It 's happening again .
Donna : What is ?
She looks at the truck . Mr Colasanto is hugging his wife . And the pretence has fallen away . Both are crying .
Davies emphasised developing the characters of Rose Tyler and Donna ; Susie Liggat , the episode 's producer , thought Rose describing Donna as " the most important woman in the whole of creation " was therapeutic for the former character and Donna 's realisation that she must die was intended as the epitome of the character 's maturation .
A key component of the episode is the return of Rose Tyler , portrayed by Billie Piper . Piper 's return was planned during filming of the second series ; in January 2006 , Piper made a pact promising to return to film several more episodes . Davies and Piper cited her other projects — specifically , her roles as Belle de Jour in Secret Diary of a Call Girl , the eponymous character in the BBC adaptations of Philip Pullman 's Sally Lockhart quartet , and Fanny Price in the ITV adaptation of Mansfield Park — to explain that her departure was permanent . Davies created the expectation of Rose 's return by mentioning her in dialogue and featuring Piper in cameo appearances in " Partners in Crime " , " The Poison Sky " , and " Midnight " .
Davies started writing the episode on 27 October 2007 . He was several weeks behind schedule and had to decline an appearance at the National Television Awards four days later to hand the script in on time . He described writing the script as " a lot harder to rip through because it needs so much construction " : he admitted that the opening scene could have been three times longer than his written version , itself longer than any opening scene he ever wrote . He was cautious that his script did not clash with Steven Moffat 's two @-@ part story " Silence in the Library " and " Forest of the Dead " — then scheduled to be aired as the ninth and tenth episodes — because it also contained a parallel world . Davies was delayed due to the death of Howard Attfield , who portrayed Donna 's father Geoff , and the difficulty of writing Rose 's expository dialogue ; he had to rush the script 's ending to ensure it was ready to film . He finished the script on 2 November so the rest of the production team could prepare the episode for filming .
Davies explained the episode 's climax — the effects of Rose 's warning — in the companion episode of Doctor Who Confidential . The words caused no inherent harm ; " Bad Wolf " acts as a warning sign for the Doctor , and Rose 's invocation of the phrase signals that the parallel universes Rose and the Doctor inhabit are collapsing into each other . Davies declined to state whether the episode was part of the series finale ; he preferred to stay out of the imminent fan debate . The episode was described by Doctor Who Magazine as " partly acting as a prelude to the two @-@ part series climax " .
= = = Time Beetle = = =
The " Time Beetle " , which was responsible for the creation of the alternate universe , was described in the episode 's script as " a huge black beetle ... shiny carapace , spindly black legs moving and flexing , mandibles clacking together " . Its design was influenced by the Giant Spider of Metebelis 3 that clung to Sarah Jane Smith 's back in Planet of the Spiders . The beetle 's normal Earth @-@ like appearance was deliberate ; prosthetic designer Niell Gorton thought that familiarity would ease the narrative and cited the cat nuns from " New Earth " and the Judoon from " Smith and Jones " as examples . The prosthetic was made using fibreglass and fitted on a harness in order not to burden Catherine Tate 's performance . The episode 's director Graeme Harper explained in the episode 's commentary that only psychic characters such as Lucius from " The Fires of Pompeii " were aware of the beetle 's existence .
The Doctor refers to this creature as one of the " Trickster 's brigade " ; the Trickster ( Paul Marc Davis ) is a recurring enemy in Doctor Who spin @-@ off series The Sarah Jane Adventures whose modus operandi is to alter history by changing pivotal moments . Russell T Davies explicitly links the Time Beetle to this villain from Sarah Jane , and in Doctor Who Confidential , a clip from the Sarah Jane episode in which the Trickster threatens to go after the Doctor is shown . The events of this episode amount to his fulfillment of that promise .
= = = Filming = = =
The episode was primarily filmed in the seventh production block between 26 November and 8 December 2007 , alongside filming of " Midnight " . The first scenes were filmed in Bay Chambers , Cardiff ; the housing office where Donna 's family was relocated to Leeds was filmed in a storage area adjacent to the photocopying business . The following evening saw filming of Rose and Donna 's first meeting in Butetown , Cardiff . Scenes set on " Monday 25 [ June 2007 ] " — specifically , Donna preparing to turn at the junction , and her future self racing to ensure she turns left — were filmed between 27 November and 29 November , in the order they were aired . A double had to portray Tate in the car ; Tate did not have a driving licence . Donna 's race to prevent herself from turning right was filmed on St Isan Road in Cardiff , which was locked off for safety concerns . During the evenings of the 27th and the 28th , scenes on Wilfred 's allotment in Leeds were filmed ; and on 29 November , Rose 's second meeting with Donna and Piper 's cameo in " Partners in Crime " were filmed .
The first studio scene — Donna in the fortune teller 's room — was filmed on 30 November 2007 , on a redressed Torchwood Hub set at the show 's Upper Boat Studios . The outdoor scenes in Shan Shen — comprising Tennant 's entire contribution to the episode — were filmed on 1 December 2007 in Splott and near the Cardiff Royal Infirmary . The shoot was marred by difficulties : rain delayed redressing the alley from the hanzi banners and posters to the Bad Wolf versions ; and several extras left at lunchtime because of a misunderstanding over their payment . The final scene filmed on the day was the Doctor 's examination of the Time Beetle in the fortune teller 's room . The scenes in the country hotel were filmed at Egerton Grey Country House Hotel in Porthkerry on 3 December 2007 .
The scenes in the terraced street in Leeds were filmed in Machen Street , Penarth , on 4 December and 5 December . The cast listened to The Pogues ' " The Wild Rover " and Queen 's " Bohemian Rhapsody " before singing the songs themselves . Graeme Harper decided to focus on Jacqueline King in the scene when her character , Sylvia Noble , stares vacantly in a despondent manner as Donna talks to her ; Harper considered the scene to be " Jacqueline 's moment " and thought the scene would be more powerful if the focus was kept on one character . The outdoor scenes were filmed on 5 December : the Colasanto family being sent to a labour camp was filmed during the day ; and the ATMOS devices ejecting exhaust fumes was filmed in the evening .
Filming continued with a night shoot on 6 December ; scenes inside and outside the pub on Christmas Day were filmed in The Conway pub in Pontcanna before relocating to a nearby park to film scenes contemporary with the events of " The Poison Sky " . Thompson Park was originally scheduled for the shoot ; the location was changed at short notice to Sophia Gardens because Tate was suffering from a mild case of influenza . The final scenes to be filmed — the scenes in the makeshift UNIT base — were filmed in a decommissioned steel factory in Pontypool , on 7 December and 8 December . Filming for the episode was completed with pick @-@ up shots in January 2008 .
Because the episode had a low budget , it relies heavily on stock footage and pre @-@ existing graphics : the Titanic 's descent into Buckingham Palace and the American television report of the populace being transformed into Adipose utilised footage from " Voyage of the Damned " and " Partners in Crime " , respectively ; and images of the Racnoss Webstar and the ignited sky were already created by The Mill . The episode 's small budget impeded production ; Davies wanted the TARDIS prop to be on fire until he was reminded that he was writing " the cheap episode " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Turn Left " was watched by 8 @.@ 09 million viewers — 35 % share of the total television audience — and received an Appreciation Index score of 88 : considered Excellent . It was the fourth most @-@ watched programme of the week , the highest position a regular episode of Doctor Who had ever achieved to that point : the 2007 Christmas special " Voyage of the Damned " was the second most @-@ watched television program on Christmas Day ; and " The Stolen Earth " and " Journey 's End " were second and first , respectively . Among readers of Doctor Who Magazine , the episode was voted the second @-@ best story of the fourth series , behind " The Stolen Earth " and " Journey 's End " , with an average rating of 8 @.@ 81 / 10 ; and the episode was the fourth best @-@ received episode of the fourth series among members of the Doctor Who Forum , with an approval rating of 88 @.@ 0 % .
= = = Reception and analysis = = =
= = = = Monsters Within = = = =
Stephen James Walker , a writer of reference works on Doctor Who , included an extensive analysis and review of the episode in his " unauthorised guide to Doctor Who 's fourth series " , Monsters Within . Walker attributed the episode 's origin as an allusion to other prominent alternate history works , such as It 's a Wonderful Life and Sliding Doors , and applauded the mention of the Trickster as an " unexpected but welcome cross @-@ franchise reference " . He was surprised that the format of a " companion @-@ lite " episode followed by a " Doctor @-@ lite " episode had not been attempted before because he thought it was an " ideal compromise " . He thought that Tate portrayed the " unenlightened " version of Donna far better than in " The Runaway Bride " , describing her acting as " far removed from the totally unappealing character she was to start with " . Most of his analysis of Donna was in conjunction with analysis of Davies ' writing ; he lauded the parallels between the maturation of Donna in the fourth series and of the alternate Donna in " Turn Left " as " brilliant writing " .
Walker dedicated a large portion of his analysis to Rose . He thought that Billie Piper was " distinctly below par " , citing her gaunt and malnourished appearance , new hairstyle , and slight lisp as reasons why her acting was not her finest . He criticised her role in the episode as been " far less well worked out " than Donna 's , being inquisitive about several concepts : why Rose was shocked when she heard the Doctor had died , but later being knowledgeable about Donna 's history and destiny ; whether if Rose was travelling between universes or just time @-@ travelling ; why Rose herself didn 't convince Donna to turn left instead of sending Donna on a suicide mission ; why Rose didn 't change her clothes between her appearances ; and why Rose refused to tell anyone her name . He noted the allusion to the concept of the power of names previously referred to in " The Shakespeare Code " , " Last of the Time Lords " , and " Silence in the Library " , but ultimately theorised that the reason was so Davies could set up the episode 's cliffhanger .
Walker described the episode as " quite adult [ for a family drama ] , venturing into some unexpectedly dark territory at times " . He commended Davies for " highlighting the contrasting aspects of human nature " in the aftermath of the disaster : the positive side represented by Wilfred 's " Blitz spirit " and the " good humoured " and " morale @-@ boosting " sing @-@ along ; and the negative side is represented by resentment from the Nobles ' new neighbours , Sylvia 's depression , and , most notably , the internment of foreign citizens in labour camps . He continued by comparing Colasanto 's internment to Donna calling him Mussolini several scenes before ; he felt that the internment cast the jibe in an " even worse light " . Walker thought that the country 's transformation into a fascist dictatorship was a " veiled political point " written by Davies ; he cited " the population of the Daily Mail @-@ reading home counties forced to experience living as refugees and asylum seekers " and UNIT troops aiming at unarmed civilians as reasons why the episode was " the most subversive [ the show ] has ever been " .
Closing , Walker congratulated director Graeme Harper for demonstrating " his incredible versatility " in directing the vastly different " The Unicorn and the Wasp " and " Turn Left " , and wrote that any concerns about the plot were " overshadowed " by the script 's " inventiveness , intelligence , and sheer boldness " . He finished by calling the episode " one of the most extraordinary in Doctor Who 's long history " . Walker ranked the story as his fifth @-@ favourite episode of the fourth series : between " Silence in the Library " and " Midnight " .
= = = = Critical reception = = = =
The episode received positive reviews from critics , many citing the power of Tate 's performance . Ben Rawson @-@ Jones of Digital Spy gave the episode four stars out of five . Comparing it to Sliding Doors and discussing the trope of alternate histories , he thought the concept was overused , but " an intriguing endeavour " and that Davies balanced frivolity and " bleak darkness " . Describing the writing as " powerful ... for a family show ... Wilf poignantly remembers the similar horrors he has experienced in the last World War " . Of Piper 's acting , he compared her accent to " [ having ] her mouth numbed with local anaesthetic " .
Mark Wright of The Stage gave a favourable review of the episode . He referred to his review of " Midnight " , when he said that it was Davies ' best script so far and wondered if Davies would better it with the last three episodes , and wrote that the episode " possibly just nudges ahead " of " Midnight " . Wright explained that " Turn Left " struck resonance with him because the episode highlighted how important the Doctor is to the fictional universe . His review praised Tate 's acting as Donna before she met the Doctor as a " real character performance " which exemplified Tate 's multi @-@ faceted portrayal . His main points of criticism were the appearance of Rose and the Time Beetle prosthetic : he was " non @-@ plussed " about Rose 's reappearance , but he admitted that Piper was an " integral part of the early success of new Who " ; and he thought the prosthetic beetle was " an unconvincing lump of plastic " and was reminiscent of the classic series ' low budget . He closed his review by saying the episode " says as much about Doctor Who ’ s past as well as its future " , and looked forward to the last two episodes of the series .
Travis Fickett of IGN gave the episode a 7 @.@ 8 / 10 rating . Characterising the episode as " the quiet before the storm , the seemingly innocuous bottle episode that ends up being the precursor to a slam @-@ bang conclusion " , he wrote that the episode " gets the job done " , specifically praising Tate for her ability to " carry the weight of the episode " . He highlighted the cliffhanger of the scene — when the Doctor realises that Donna met Rose , and subsequently deduces the universe is in danger — as the best moment in the episode ; he wrote that it was " a great moment , and sets up a premise suitably large for Davies ' farewell episodes . " He criticised two major points of the episode : he thought the beetle prosthetic did not look convincing , and undermined Donna 's questions of why people were looking at her back ; and he thought the episode was Davies ' highlight reel , reminiscent of someone reminding the viewer of an event and then moving to the next slide . Closing , he wrote that there was a sense that " something was missing from the proceedings " , but commented that the episode " serves as a good set up for the two @-@ part climax of season four " .
Simon Brew of cult television blog Den of Geek said " Turn Left " was " really really good " . It allowed Tate and Cribbins to act more flexibly ; and that other supporting actors could learn from Cribbins ' contribution to the episode . Brew was critical of Piper 's acting , the beetle prosthetic , and that Tate occasionally acted like characters from her eponymous show . " This was still an intriguing episode , very well handled . The continual shifts in the tone of the script worked a treat , as every time it looked like things were being allowed to lighten , things once again took a turn for the worse . And it ’ s setting up a potentially corking concluding double bill , for not only the series , but also RTD ’ s four @-@ season story arc . "
= = = Reviews = = =
" Turn Left " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
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= Scelidosaurus =
Scelidosaurus ( / ˌsɛlᵻdoʊˈsɔːrəs / ; with the intended meaning of " limb lizard " , from Greek skelis / σκελίς meaning ' rib of beef ' and sauros / σαυρος meaning ' lizard ' ) is a genus of herbivorous armoured ornithischian dinosaur from the Jurassic of England .
Scelidosaurus lived during the Early Jurassic Period , during the Sinemurian to Pliensbachian stages around 191 million years ago . This genus and related genera at the time lived on the supercontinent Laurasia . Its fossils have been found near Charmouth in Dorset , England , and are known for their excellent preservation . Scelidosaurus has been called the earliest complete dinosaur . It is the most completely known dinosaur of the British Isles . Despite this , a modern description is still lacking . After initial finds in the 1850s , comparative anatomist Richard Owen named and described Scelidosaurus in 1859 . Only one species , Scelidosaurus harrisonii named by Owen in 1861 , is considered valid today , although one other species has been proposed in 1996 .
Scelidosaurus was about 4 metres ( 13 ft ) long . It was a largely quadrupedal animal , feeding on low scrubby plants , the parts of which were bitten off by the small , elongated head to be processed in the large gut . Scelidosaurus was lightly armoured , protected by long horizontal rows of keeled oval scutes , that stretched along the neck , back and tail .
One of the oldest known and most " primitive " of the thyreophorans , the exact placement of Scelidosaurus within this group has been the subject of debate for nearly 150 years . This was not helped by the limited additional knowledge about the early evolution of armoured dinosaurs . Today most evidence indicates that Scelidosaurus is a basal member of the Thyreophora , more basal than , and ancestral to , the two more advanced clades of Thyreophoran , Stegosauridae and Ankylosauria .
= = Description = =
= = = Size and posture = = =
A full @-@ grown Scelidosaurus was rather small compared to most later non @-@ avian dinosaurs , but it was a medium @-@ sized species in the Early Jurassic . Some scientists have estimated a length of 4 metres ( 13 ft ) . In 2010 , Gregory S. Paul gave a body length of 3 @.@ 8 metres ( 12 @.@ 5 ft ) and a weight of 270 kilogrammes . Scelidosaurus was quadrupedal , with the hindlimbs longer than the forelimbs . It may have reared up on its hind legs to browse on foliage from trees , but its arms were relatively long , indicating a mostly quadrupedal posture .
= = = Skull = = =
The head of Scelidosaurus was small , about twenty centimetres long , and elongated . The skull was low in side view and triangular in top view , longer than it was wide , similar to that of earlier ornithischians . The snout , largely formed by the nasal bones , was flat on top . Scelidosaurus still had the five pairs of fenestrae ( skull openings ) seen in basal ornithischians : apart from the nostrils and eye sockets which are present in all basal dinosaurs , the fenestra antorbitalis and the upper and lower temporal fenestrae were not closed or overgrown , as with many later armoured forms . In fact , the upper temporal fenestrae were very large , forming conspicuous round openings in the top of the rear skull , serving as attachment areas for the powerful muscles that closed the lower jaws . The eye socket was slightly overshadowed in its front part by the prefrontal bone . Behind it , the upper rim of the eye socket was formed by the supraorbital bone . A study by Susannah Maidment e.a. concluded that juvenile specimens show that this bone was a fusion of three elements , one in front , the next in rear , and the third at the inner side .
The premaxilla , the bone forming the snout tip , was short and no predentary , the bone core of the lower beak on the tip of the stout lower jaws , has been found , so the horny beak that is assumed present with all ornithischians was likely very short . Its teeth were longer and more triangular in side view than in later armoured dinosaurs . There were at least five teeth in each premaxilla , and at least nineteen in the maxilla and sixteen in the dentary of the lower jaw . However , the number of maxillary and dentary teeth were established with the incomplete skull of one of the first specimens found ; the actual numbers might have ranged up to about two dozen . The premaxillary teeth were somewhat longer and recurved . To the rear , they gradually approach the form of the maxillary teeth , beginning to show denticles . The crowns of the maxillary and dentary teeth have denticles on their edges and a swollen basis
= = = Postcranial skeleton = = =
The vertebral column of Scelidosaurus contained at least six neck vertebrae , seventeen dorsal vertebrae , four sacral vertebrae and at least thirty @-@ five tail vertebrae .
Though perhaps the actual total of cervical vertebrae was as high as seven or eight , the neck was only moderately long . The torso was relatively flat in side view , however , despite the belly being broad , it was not extremely vertically compressed as with ankylosaurs but taller than wide . The last three dorsal vertebrae had no ribs . The spines of the sacral vertebrae touched each other but were not fused into a supraneural plate . The quickly tapering tail was relatively short , probably representing about half of body length . The tail chevrons were strongly inclined to the rear . The hip area and tail base were stiffened by large numbers of ossified tendons .
The scapula was short with a moderately expanded upper end . The coracoid was circular in side view . The elements of the forelimb were generally moderately long , straight and stout . The hand is only known from recent discoveries and has not yet been described . In the rather wide pelvis , the ilium was straight in side view . Its front blade was rod @-@ shaped and moderately splayed to the outside , creating room for the belly . This was reinforced by the sacral ribs becoming longer towards the front . The sacral ribs were wider at their attachment areas with the ilium , but were not fused into a sacral yoke . The pubis featured a short prepubis . The pubis shaft was straight , running parallel to a straight ischium shaft that was transversely flattened at its lower end . The thighbone was straight in side view , in front view it was somewhat bowed to the outside . Its head was not separated from the shaft by a real neck . While the major trochanter was at about the same level as the head , the lower minor trochanter was separated from both by a deep cleft . At it rear side , the femur mid @-@ shaft featured a well @-@ developed drooping fourth trochanter , a process for the attachment of the retractor tail muscle , the Musculus caudofemoralis longus . The lower leg was somewhat shorter than the thighbone . The tibia had a wide upper end , with a cnemial crest protruding well to the front . The tibia lower end was also robust and rotated about 70 ° compared to the upper part , turning the foot strongly to the outside . The foot was very large and wide . The fifth metatarsal was only rudimentary but the other four were robust . Scelidosaurus had four large toes , with the innermost digit being the smallest . The fourth metatarsal was short but its toe was long and built to be splayed to the outside of the foot , to improve the stability . The claws were flat , hoof @-@ shaped and curved to the inside .
= = = Armour = = =
The most obvious feature of Scelidosaurus is its armour , consisting of bony scutes embedded in the skin . These osteoderms were arranged in horizontal parallel rows down the animal 's body . Osteoderms are today found in the skin of crocodiles , armadillos and some lizards . The osteoderms of Scelidosaurus ranged in both size and shape . Most were smaller or larger oval plates with a high keel on the outside , the highest point of the keel positioned more to the rear . Some scutes were small , flat and hollowed @-@ out at the inside . The larger keeled scutes were aligned in regular horizontal rows . There were three rows of these along each side of the torso . The scutes of the lowest , lateral , row were more conical , rather than the blade @-@ like osteoderms of Scutellosaurus . Between these main series , one or two rows of smaller oval keeled scutes were present . There were in total four rows of large scutes on the tail : one at the top midline , one at the midline of the underside , and one at each tail side . Whether the midline tail scutes continued over the torso and neck to the front is unknown and unlikely for the neck , though Scelidosaurus is often pictured this way .
The neck had at each side two rows of large scutes . The osteoderms of the lower neck row were very large , flat and plate @-@ like . The first osteoderms of the top neck rows formed a pair of unique three @-@ pointed scutes directly behind the head . These points seem to have been connected by tendons to the rear joint processes , the postzygapophyses , of the axis vertebra . In general the scutes were larger at the front of the torso , the osteoderms diminishing towards the rear , especially on the surface of the thighs . The smallest flat round scutes might have filled the room between the larger osteoderm rows . Perhaps a row of vertical osteoderms was present on the upper arms . Compared to the later Ankylosauria , Scelidosaurus was lightly armoured , without continuous plating , spikes or pelvic shield . Rough areas on the skull and lower jaws indicate the presence of skin ossifications .
Some of the latest specimens found show partly different osteoderms including scutes on which the keel is more like a thorn or spike . These specimens also seem to have little horns on the rear corners of the head , placed on the squamosal bones .
Fossilized skin impressions have also been found . Between the bony scutes , Scelidosaurus had rounded non @-@ overlapping scales like the present Gila monster . Between the large scutes , very small ( 5 @-@ 10 millimetres [ 0 @.@ 2 @-@ 0 @.@ 4 in ] ) flat " granules " of bone were perhaps distributed within the skin . In the later Ankylosauria , these small scutes may have developed into larger scutes , fusing into the multi @-@ osteodermal plate armour seen in genera such as Ankylosaurus .
= = History of discovery = =
During the 1850s , quarry owner James Harrison of Charmouth , West Dorset of England found fossils from the cliffs of Black Ven between Charmouth and Lyme Regis , that were quarried , possibly for raw material for the manufacture of cement . Some of these he gave to the collector and retired general surgeon Henry Norris . In 1858 , Norris and Harrison sent some fragmentary limb bones to Professor Richard Owen of the British Museum ( Natural History ) , London ( today the Natural History Museum ) . Among them was a left thighbone , specimen GSM 109560 . In 1859 , Owen named the genus Scelidosaurus in an entry about palaeontology in the Encyclopaedia Britannica . The lemma text contained a diagnosis , implicating that the genus was validly named and was not a nomen nudum , despite the fact that the definition was vague and no specimens were identified . Owen intended to call the dinosaur " hindlimb saurian " but confused the Greek word σκέλος , skelos , " hindlimb " , with σκελίς , skelis , " rib of beef " . The name was inspired by the strong development of the hind leg . Afterwards Harrison sent a knee joint , a claw ( GSM 109561 ) , a juvenile specimen and a skull to Owen , that were described in 1861 . On that occasion the type species Scelidosaurus harrisonii was named , the specific name honouring Harrison . The skull later was revealed to be part of a nearly complete skeleton , that was described by Owen in 1863 .
British palaeontologist David Bruce Norman has stressed how remarkable it is that Owen , who previously had propounded that dinosaurs were active quadrupedal animals , largely neglected Scelidosaurus though it could serve as a prime example of this hypothesis and its fossil was one of the most complete dinosaurs found at that time . Norman explained this by Owen 's excessive workload in this period , including several administrative functions , polemics with fellow @-@ scientists and the study of a large number of even more interesting newly discovered extinct animals , such as Archaeopteryx . Norman also pointed out that Owen in 1861 suggested a lifestyle for Scelidosaurus that is very different from present ideas : it would have been a fish @-@ eater and partially sea @-@ dwelling .
Owen had not indicated a holotype . In 1888 , Richard Lydekker while cataloguing the BMNH fossils , designated some of the hindlimb fragments described in 1861 , specimen BMNH 39496 consisting of a lower part of a femur and an upper part of the tibia and fibula , together forming a knee joint , as the type specimen , hereby implicitly choosing them as the lectotype of Scelidosaurus . Lydekker gave no reason for this choice ; perhaps he was motivated by their larger size . Unfortunately , mixed in with the Scelidosaurus fossils had been the partial remains of a theropod dinosaur and the femur and tibia thus belonged to such a carnivore ; this was not discovered until 1968 by Bernard Newman . The same year , B. H. Newman suggested to have Lydekker 's selection of the knee joint as the lectotype officially rescinded by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature , as the joint was in his opinion from a species related to Megalosaurus . Eventually , after Newman had already died , Alan Jack Charig actually filed a request in 1992 . In 1994 the ICZN reacted positively , in Opinion 1788 deciding that the skull and skeleton , specimen BMNH R.1111 , would be the neotype of Scelidosaurus . The knee joint was in 1995 by Samuel Welles et al. informally assigned to a " Merosaurus " , which name has not yet been validly published . It more likely belongs to some member of the Coelophysoidea or Neoceratosauria . It has also been established by Newman and confirmed by Roger Benson that the original left thigbone , GSM 109560 , belonged to a theropod .
The neotype skeleton had been uncovered in the Black Ven Marl or Woodstone Nodule Bed , marine deposits of the Charmouth Mudstone Formation , dating from the late Sinemurian stage , about 191 million years ago . It consists of a rather complete skeleton with skull and lower jaws . Only the snout tip , the neck base , the forelimbs and the tail end are missing . Hundreds of osteoderms were found in connection with the skeleton , many more or less in their original position . From the 1960s onward , this fossil was further prepared by Ronald Croucher using acid baths to free the bones from the surrounding matrix , a method perfected for the Charmouth fossils . In 1992 , Charig reported that only a single block had yet to be treated , but he died before the results could be published . Norman , who intends to complete this task , has revealed some new anatomical details in 2004 . Apart from these , a modern description is largely lacking .
Apart from the neotype , other fossils are known of Scelidosaurus . In 1888 Lydekker catalogued a large number of single bones , largely limb elements , and osteoderms , that had been acquired by the BMNH from the Norris collection . Owen in 1861 described a second , partial , skeleton of a juvenile animal , that later was added to the collection of Elizabeth Philpot and today is registered in the Lyme Regis Museum as specimen LYMPH 1997 @.@ 37 @.@ 4 @-@ 10 . As it was relatively large , Owen speculated , in the context of its presumed marine lifestyle , that Scelidosaurus might have been ovoviviparous . The short prepubis in this specimen convinced scientists that this process did not represent the main pubic body as some had thought , who had been unable to believe that the thin , backward @-@ pointing , pubis with the Ornithischia was homologous to the forward @-@ pointing much larger pubic bone in most reptilian groups . In more recent times , new discoveries have been made at Charmouth , not through commercial quarrying but by the efforts of amateur palaeontologists . In 1968 a second partial juvenile skeleton was described , specimen BMNH R6704 , that had already been reported in 1959 . It is from a slightly younger layer , the Stonebarrow Marl Member dating to the early Pliensbachian , about 190 million years old . In 1985 Simon Barnsley , David Costain and Peter Langham excavated a partial skeleton including a very complete skull and skin impressions , which was sold to the Bristol Museum where it is registered as specimen BRSMG CE12785 . Specimen CAMSMX.39256 is part of the collection of the Sedgwick Museum at Cambridge . Several specimens remain undescribed because they are in private collections . These include a two metres ( 7 ft ) long skeleton found by David Sole in 2000 , perhaps the most complete non @-@ avian dinosaur exemplar ever discovered in the British Isles . All elements of the skeleton are now known . The finds by Sole differ from the neotype in details of the armour and might represent a separate taxon or reflect sexual dimorphism .
= = = Species = = =
Scelidosaurus harrisonii , named and described by Owen , is currently the only recognized species , based on several nearly complete skeletons . A potential second species from the Sinemurian @-@ age Lower Lufeng Formation , Scelidosaurus oehleri , was described by David Jay Simmons in 1965 under its own genus , Tatisaurus . In 1996 Spencer G. Lucas moved it to Scelidosaurus . Although the fossils are fragmentary , this reassessment has not been accepted , and S. oehleri is today once again recognized as Tatisaurus .
In 1989 , scutes which were found in the Kayenta Formation ( Glen Canyon Group ) of northern Arizona , were by Kevin Padian referred to a Scelidosaurus sp . , and used to determine that the age of the strata was around 199 @.@ 6 @-@ 196 @.@ 5 million years ago , at a time when it was still thought that Scelidosaurus harrisonii dated to the early Sinemurian . These scutes established a geographic tie @-@ in between Arizona 's Glen Canyon and Europe , where fossils of Scelidosaurus had previously been discovered . Later scientists have rejected the assignment to Scelidosaurus , as the scutes are different in form . In 2014 , Roman Ulansky named a new species , S. arizonenesis , based off these specimens . In 2016 , Peter Malcolm Galton and Kenneth Carpenter identified it as a nomen dubium , instead once again placing the specimens as Thyreophora indet .
In 2000 , David Martill et al. announced the preservation of soft tissue in a specimen referred to a cf . Scelidosaurus sp . , that is , an unnamed species for which a comparison with Scelidosaurus can be illuminating . The fossil , with inventory number BRSMG CF2781 , was in the early 1990s , in an already prepared state , discovered in the legacy of the late Professor John Challinor , which had used it to illustrate his lectures with . Its provenance is unknown . It consists of a series of eight caudal vertebrae in a cut slab of carbonate mudstone , which was judged to date from the late Hettangian to Sinemurian stages . Parts of the fossil were preserved in such a way that an envelope of preserved soft tissue is visible around the vertebrae , and show the presence of an epidermal layer over the scutes . The authors concluded that the osteoderms of all basal armoured dinosaurs were covered in a tough , probably keratinous layer of skin .
= = Classification and phylogeny = =
Scelidosaurus was by Owen placed in the Dinosauria in 1861 . In 1868 / 1869 Edward Drinker Cope proposed a family Scelidosauridae in a double lecture but this was only published in December 1871 ; therefore it was Thomas Henry Huxley who validly named the Scelidosauridae in 1869 . In the nineteenth century almost any armoured dinosaur then known has been considered a member of the Scelidosauridae . In the later twentieth century , the term was used for an assembly of " primitive " ornithischians close to the ancestry of ankylosaurs and stegosaurs , such as Scutellosaurus , Emausaurus , Lusitanosaurus and Tatisaurus . Today , paleontologists usually consider the Scelidosauridae paraphyletic , thus not forming a separate branch or clade ; however , Benton ( 2004 ) lists the group as monophyletic . The family was resurrected by Chinese paleontologist Dong Zhiming in 2001 after a study of Bienosaurus , which shares close affinities with Scelidosaurus .
Scelidosaurus was an ornithischian . It was the oldest ornithischian known until the description of Geranosaurus in 1911 . During the twentieth century , it has been classified at different times as an ankylosaur or stegosaur . Alfred von Zittel ( 1902 ) , William Elgin Swinton ( 1934 ) , and Robert Appleby et al . ( 1967 ) identified the genus as a stegosaurian , though this concept then encompassed all armoured forms . In a 1968 paper , Romer argued it was an ankylosaur . In 1977 , Richard Thulborn of the University of Queensland attempted to reclassify Scelidosaurus as an ornithopod similar to Tenontosaurus or Iguanodon . Thulborn argued Scelidosaurus was a lightly built bipedal dinosaur adapted for running . Thulborn 's 1977 theories on the genus have since been rejected .
This debate is still ongoing ; at this time , Scelidosaurus is considered to be either more closely related to ankylosaurids than to stegosaurids and , by extension , a true ankylosaur , or basal to the ankylosaur @-@ stegosaur split . The stegosaur classification has fallen out of favor , but is seen in older dinosaur books . Cladistic analyses have invariably recovered a basal position for Scelidosaurus , outside of the Eurypoda .
The position of Scelidosaurus according to a cladistic study of 2011 is shown by this cladogram :
Fossil records of thyreophorans more basal than Scelidosaurus are sparse . The more " primitive " Scutellosaurus , also found in Arizona , was an earlier genus which was facultatively bipedal . A trackway of a possible early armoured dinosaur , from around 195 million years ago , has been found in France . Ancestors of these basal thyreophorans evolved from early ornithischians similar to Lesothosaurus during the Late Triassic .
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Diet = = =
Like other thyreophorans , Scelidosaurus was herbivorous . However , while some later ornithischian groups possessed teeth capable of grinding plant material , Scelidosaurus had smaller , less complex leaf @-@ shaped teeth suitable for cropping vegetation and jaws capable of only vertical movement , due to a short jaw joint . Paul Barrett concluded that Scelidosaurus fed with a puncture @-@ crush system of tooth @-@ on @-@ tooth action , with a precise but simple up @-@ and @-@ down jaw movement , in which the food was mashed between the inner side of the upper teeth and the outer side of the lower teeth , without the teeth actually touching each other as shown by very long vertical wear facets on the lower teeth alone . In this aspect , it resembled the stegosaurids , which also bore primitive teeth and simple jaws . Its diet would have consisted of ferns or conifers , as grasses did not evolve until late into the Cretaceous Period , after Scelidosaurus was long extinct .
Another similarity with the stegosaurs is the narrow head , which might indicate a selective diet consisting of high @-@ quality fodder . However , Barrett pointed out that for an animal the size of Scelidosaurus , with a large gut allowing efficient fermentation , the intake of easily digestible food of high energetic value was less important than with smaller animals , that are often critically dependent on it . Norman concluded that Scelidosaurus fed on low scrubby vegetation , with a height up to one metre . Raising itself on its hindlimbs alone , could have vertically increased the feeding envelope and was perhaps anatomically possible , but Norman doubted it was a relevant part of its behaviour .
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= Andrew II of Hungary =
Andrew II ( Hungarian : II . András , Croatian : Andrija II . , Slovak : Ondrej II . , Ukrainian : Андрій II ; c . 1177 – 21 September 1235 ) , also known as Andrew of Jerusalem , was King of Hungary and Croatia between 1205 and 1235 . He ruled the Principality of Halych from 1188 until 1189 / 1190 , and again between 1208 / 1209 and 1210 . He was the younger son of Béla III of Hungary , who entrusted him with the administration of the newly conquered Principality of Halych in 1188 . Andrew 's rule was unpopular , and the boyars expelled him . Béla III willed property and money to Andrew , obliging him to lead a crusade to the Holy Land . Instead , Andrew forced his elder brother , King Emeric of Hungary , to cede Croatia and Dalmatia as an appanage to him in 1197 . The following year , Andrew occupied Hum .
Despite the fact that Andrew did not stop conspiring against Emeric , the dying king made Andrew guardian of his son , Ladislaus III , in 1204 . After the premature death of Ladislaus , Andrew ascended the throne in 1205 . According to historian László Kontler , " [ i ] t was amindst the socio @-@ political turmoil during [ Andrew 's ] reign that the relations , arrangements , institutional framework and social categories that arose under Stephen I , started to disintegrate in the higher echelons of society " in Hungary . Andrew introduced a new grants policy , the so @-@ called " new institutions " , giving away money and royal estates to his partisans despite the loss of royal revenues . He was the first Hungarian monarch to adopt the title of " King of Halych and Lodomeria " . He waged at least a dozen wars to seize the two Rus ' principalities , but the local boyars and neighboring princes prevented him from conquering the principalities . He participated in the Fifth Crusade to the Holy Land in 1217 – 1218 , but the crusade was a failure .
When the servientes regis , or " royal servants " , rose up , Andrew was forced to issue the Golden Bull of 1222 , confirming their privileges . This led to the rise of the nobility in the Kingdom of Hungary . His Diploma Andreanum of 1224 listed the liberties of the Transylvanian Saxon community . The employment of Jews and Muslims to administer the royal revenues led him into conflict with the Holy See and the Hungarian prelates . Andrew pledged to respect the privileges of the clergymen and to dismiss his non @-@ Christian officials in 1233 , but he never fulfilled the latter promise .
Andrew 's first wife , Gertrude of Merania , was murdered in 1213 , because her blatant favoritism towards her German kinsmen and courtiers stirred up discontent among the native lords . The veneration of their daughter , Elizabeth of Hungary , was confirmed by the Holy See during Andrew 's lifetime . After Andrew 's death , his sons , Béla and Coloman , accused his third wife , Beatrice d 'Este , of adultery and never considered her son , Stephen , to be a legitimate son of Andrew .
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood and youth ( c . 1177 – 1197 ) = = =
Andrew was the second son of King Béla III and Béla 's first wife , Agnes of Antioch . The year of Andrew 's birth is not known , but modern historians agree that he was born around 1177 . Andrew was first mentioned in connection to his father 's invasion of the Principality of Halych in 1188 . That year , Béla III invaded Halych upon the request of its former prince , Vladimir II Yaroslavich , who had been expelled by his subjects . Béla forced the new prince , Roman Mstislavich , to flee . After conquering Halych , he granted it to Andrew . Béla also captured Vladimir Yaroslavich and imprisoned him in Hungary .
After Béla 's withdrawal from Halych , Roman Mstislavich returned with the assistance of Rurik Rostislavich , Prince of Belgorod Kievsky . They tried to expel Andrew and his Hungarian retinue , but the Hungarians routed the united forces of Mstislavich and Rostislavich . A group of local boyars offered the throne to Rostislav Ivanovich , a distant cousin of the imprisoned Vladimir Yaroslavich . Béla III sent reinforcements to Halych , enabling Andrew 's troops to repel the attacks . Andrew 's reign remained unpopular in Halych , because the Hungarian soldiers insulted local women and did not respect Orthodox churches . Consequently , the local boyars allied with their former prince , Vladimir Yaroslavich , who had escaped from captivity and returned to Halych . Duke Casimir II of Poland also supported Vladimir Yaroslavich , and they expelled Andrew and his retinue from the principality in August 1189 or 1190 . Andrew returned to Hungary after his defeat . He did not receive a separate duchy from his father , who only gave him estates and money . On his deathbed , Béla III , who had pledged to lead a crusade to the Holy Land , ordered Andrew to fulfill his vow . Andrew 's father died on 23 April 1196 , and Andrew 's older brother , Emeric , succeeded him .
= = = Duke of Croatia and Dalmatia ( 1197 – 1204 ) = = =
Andrew used the funds that he inherited from his father to recruit supporters among the Hungarian lords . He also formed an alliance with Leopold VI , Duke of Austria , and they plotted against Emeric . Their united troops routed the royal army at Mački , Slavonia , in December 1197 . Under duress , King Emeric gave Croatia and Dalmatia to Andrew as an appanage . In practice , Andrew administered Croatia and Dalmatia as an independent monarch . He minted coins , granted land and confirmed privileges . He cooperated with the Frankopans , Babonići , and other local lords . The Canons Regular of the Holy Sepulchre settled in the province during his rule . Taking advantage of Miroslav of Hum 's death , Andrew invaded Hum and occupied at least the land between the Cetina and Neretva rivers . He styled himself , " By the grace of God , Duke of Zadar and of all Dalmatia , Croatia and Hum " in his charters .
Pope Innocent III urged Andrew to lead a crusade the Holy Land , but Andrew hatched a new conspiracy against Emeric with the help of John , Abbot of Pannonhalma , Boleslaus , Bishop of Vác , and many other prelates and lords . The Pope threatened him with excommunication if he failed to fulfill his father 's vow , but Andrew did not yield . The conspiracy was uncovered on 10 March 1199 , when King Emeric seized letters written by Andrew 's partisans to Bishop Boleslaus . That summer , royal troops routed Andrew 's army near Lake Balaton , and Andrew fled to Austria . A papal legate mediated a reconciliation between Andrew and Emeric , who allowed Andrew to return to Croatia and Dalmatia in 1200 . Andrew married Gertrude of Merania ; her father , Berthold , Duke of Merania , owned extensive domains in the Holy Roman Empire along the borders of Andrew 's duchy .
When Emeric 's son , Ladislaus , was born around 1200 , Andrew 's hopes to succeed his brother as king were shattered . Pope Innocent confirmed the child 's position as heir to the crown , declaring that Andrew 's future sons would only inherit Andrew 's duchy . Andrew planned a new rebellion against his brother , but King Emeric captured him without resistance near Varaždin in October 1203 .
[ All ] the magnates of the kingdom and almost the whole of the Hungarian army deserted [ King Emeric ] and unlawfully sided with Duke Andrew . Very few men indeed remained with the king , and even they were terrified at the extent of the insurrection , and did not dare to urge the king to hope for success , but rather advised him to flee . Then it happened that one day both sides had drawn close to each other and were beginning to prepare themselves in earnest for battle . ... [ After ] much wise thought , with inspiration from heaven [ King Emeric ] found a successful way by which he might recover his right to the kingdom and still remain guiltless of bloodshed . So he said to his men , " Stay here a while , and do not follow me . " Then he laid down his weapons , and taking only a leafy bough in his hand he walked slowly into the enemy ranks . As he passed through the midst of the armed multitude , he cried out in a loud and strong voice , " Now I shall see who will dare to raise a hand to shed the blood of the royal lineage ! " Seeing him , all fell back , and not daring even to mutter , they left a wide passage for him on either side . And then when [ King Emeric ] reached his brother , he took him , and leading him outside the body of troops , he sent him to a certain castle for custody .
Andrew was first imprisoned in the fort of Gornji Kneginec , then in Esztergom . Alexander of the Hont @-@ Pázmány clan freed him in early 1204 . Having fallen ill , King Emeric had his son , Ladislaus , crowned king on 26 August . Andrew reconciled with his dying brother , who entrusted him with " the guardianship of his son and the administration of the entire kingdom until the ward should reach the age of majority " , according to the nearly contemporaneous Thomas the Archdeacon .
= = = His nephew 's guardian ( 1204 – 1205 ) = = =
King Emeric died on 30 November 1204 . Andrew governed the kingdom as Ladislaus 's regent , but he counted his regnal years from the time of his brother 's death , showing that he already regarded himself as the lawful monarch during Ladislaus III 's reign . Pope Innocent told Andrew that he should remain loyal to Ladislaus . Instead , Andrew seized the money that Emeric had deposited for Ladislaus in Pilis Abbey . Ladislaus 's mother , Constance of Aragon , fled from Hungary , taking her son to Austria . Andrew prepared to war against Leopold VI , Duke of Austria , but Ladislaus suddenly died in Vienna on 7 May 1205 .
= = Reign = =
= = = " New institutions " and campaigns in Halych ( 1205 – 1217 ) = = =
John , Archbishop of Kalocsa , crowned Andrew king in Székesfehérvár on 29 May 1205 . Andrew introduced a new policy for royal grants , which he called " new institutions " in one of his charters . He distributed large portions of the royal domain — royal castles and all estates attached to them — as inheritable grants to his supporters , declaring that " the best measure of a royal grant is its being immeasurable . " His " new institutions " altered the relations between the monarchs and the Hungarian lords . During the previous two centuries , a lord 's status primarily depended on the income he received for his services to the monarch ; after the introduction of the " new institutions " , their inheritable estates yielded sufficient revenues . This policy also diminished the funds upon which the authority of the ispáns , or heads , of the counties — who were appointed by the monarchs — had been based .
During his reign , Andrew was intensely interested in the internal affairs of his former principality of Halych . He launched his first campaign to recapture Halych in 1205 or 1206 . Upon the boyars ' request , he intervened against Vsevolod Svyatoslavich , Prince of Chernigov , and his allies on behalf of Daniel Romanovich , the child @-@ prince of Halych , and Lodomeria . Svyatoslavich and his allies were forced to withdraw . Andrew adopted the title of " King of Galicia and Lodomeria " , demonstrating his claim to suzerainty in the two principalities . After Andrew returned to Hungary , Vsevolod Svyatoslavich 's distant cousin , Vladimir Igorevich , seized both Halych and Lodomeria , expelling Daniel Romanovich and his mother . They fled to Leszek I of Poland , who suggested that they visit Andrew . However , Vladimir Igorevich " sent many gifts " to both Andrew and Leszek , dissuading " them from attacking him " on behalf of Romanovich , according to the Galician – Volhynian Chronicle . Vladimir Igorevich 's rebellious brother , Roman Igorevich , soon came to Hungary , seeking Andrew 's assistance . Roman returned to Halych and expelled Vladimir Igorevich with the help of Hungarian auxiliary troops .
Andrew confirmed the liberties of two Dalmatian towns — Split and Omiš — and issued a new charter listing the privileges of the archbishops of Split in 1207 . Taking advantage of a conflict between Roman Igorevich and his boyars , Andrew sent troops to Halych under the command of Benedict , son of Korlát . Benedict captured Roman Igorevich and occupied the principality in 1208 or 1209 . Instead of appointing a new prince , Andrew made Benedict governor of Halych . Benedict " tortured boyars and was addicted to lechery " , according to the Galician – Volhynian Chronicle . The boyars offered the throne to Mstislav Mstislavich , Prince of Zvenigorod , if he could overthrow Benedict . Mstislav Mstislavich invaded Halych , but he could not defeat Benedict .
Queen Gertrude 's two brothers , Ekbert , Bishop of Bamberg , and Henry II , Margrave of Istria , fled to Hungary in 1208 after they were accused of participating in the murder of Philip , King of the Germans . Andrew granted large domains to Bishop Ekbert in the Szepesség region ( now Spiš , Slovakia ) . Gertrude 's youngest brother , Berthold , had been Archbishop of Kalocsa since 1206 ; he was made Ban of Croatia and Dalmatia in 1209 . Andrew 's generosity towards his wife 's German relatives and courtiers discontented the local lords . According to historian Gyula Kristó , the anonymous author of The Deeds of the Hungarians referred to the Germans from the Holy Roman Empire when he sarcastically mentioned that " now ... the Romans gaze on the goods of Hungary . " In 1209 , Zadar , which had been lost to the Venetians , was liberated by one of Andrew 's Dalmatian vassals , Domald of Sidraga , but the Venetians recaptured the town a year later .
Roman Igorevich reconciled with his brother , Vladimir Igorevich , in early 1209 or 1210 . Their united forces vanquished Benedict 's army , expelling the Hungarians from Halych . Vladimir Igorevich sent one of his sons , Vsevolod Vladimirovich , " bearing gifts to the king in Hungary " to appease Andrew , according to the Galician – Volhynian Chronicle . A group of discontented Hungarian lords offered the crown to Andrew 's cousins , the sons of Andrew 's uncle , Géza ; they lived in " Greek land " . However , the cousins ' envoys were captured in Split in 1210 . In the early 1210s , Andrew sent " an army of Saxons , Vlachs , Székelys and Pechenegs " commanded by Joachim , Count of Hermannstadt , ( now Sibiu , Romania ) to assist Boril of Bulgaria 's fight against three rebellious Cuman chieftains . Around the same time , Hungarian troops occupied Belgrade and Barancs ( now Braničevo , Serbia ) , which had been lost to Bulgaria under Emeric . Andrew 's army defeated the Cumans at Vidin . Andrew granted the Barcaság ( now Țara Bârsei , Romania ) to the Teutonic Knights . The Knights were to defend the easternmost regions of the Kingdom of Hungary against the Cumans and encourage their conversion to Catholicism .
A group of boyars , who were alarmed by the despotic acts of Vladimir Igorevich , asked Andrew to restore Daniel Romanovich as ruler of Halych in 1210 or 1211 . Andrew and his allies — Leszek I of Poland and at least five Rus ' princes — sent their armies to Halych and restored Daniel Romanovich . Local boyars expelled Daniel Romanovich 's mother in 1212 . She persuaded Andrew to personally lead his army to Halych . He captured Volodislav Kormilchich , the most influential boyar , and took him to Hungary . After Andrew withdrew from Halych , the boyars again offered the throne to Mstislav Mstislavich , who expelled Daniel Romanovich and his mother from the principality . Andrew departed for a new campaign against Halych in summer 1213 . During his absence , Hungarian lords who were aggrieved at Queen Gertrude 's favoritism towards her German entourage captured and murdered her and many of her courtiers in the Pilis Hills on 28 September . When he heard of her murder , Andrew returned to Hungary and ordered the execution of the murderer , Peter , son of Töre . However , Peter 's accomplices , including Palatine Bánk Bár @-@ Kalán , did not receive severe punishments . A group of Hungarian lords , whom Andrew called " perverts " in one of his letters , was plotting to dethrone Andrew and crown his eldest son , the eight @-@ year @-@ old Béla , but they failed to dethrone him and could only force Andrew to consent to Béla 's coronation in 1214 .
Andrew and Leszek of Poland signed a treaty of alliance , which obliged Andrew 's second son , Coloman , to marry Leszek of Poland 's daughter , Salomea . Andrew and Leszek jointly invaded Halych in 1214 , and Coloman was made prince . He agreed to cede Przemyśl to Leszek of Poland . The following year , Andrew returned to Halych and captured Przemyśl . Leszek of Poland soon reconciled with Mstislav Mstislavich ; they jointly invaded Halych and forced Coloman to flee to Hungary . A new officer of state , the treasurer , was responsible for the administration of the royal chamber from around 1214 onwards . However , royal revenues had significantly diminished . Upon the advice of the treasurer , Denis , son of Ampud , Andrew imposed new taxes and farmed out royal income from minting , salt trade and custom duties . The yearly exchange of coins also produced more revenue for the royal chamber . However , these measures provoked discontent in Hungary .
Andrew signed a new treaty of alliance with Leszek of Poland in the summer of 1216 . Leszek and Andrew 's son , Coloman , invaded Halych and expelled Mstislav Mstislavich and Daniel Romanovich , after which Coloman was restored . That same year , Andrew met Stephen Nemanjić , Grand Prince of Serbia , in Ravno ( now Ćuprija , Serbia ) . He persuaded Stephen Nemanjić to negotiate with Henry , Latin Emperor of Constantinople , who was the uncle of Andrew 's second wife , Yolanda de Courtenay . Stephen Nemanjić was crowned king of Serbia in 1217 . Andrew planned to invade Serbia , but Stephen Nemanjić 's brother , Sava , dissuaded him , according to both versions of the Life of Sava .
= = = Andrew 's crusade ( 1217 – 1218 ) = = =
In July 1216 , the newly elected Pope Honorius III once again called upon Andrew to fulfill his father 's vow to lead a crusade . Andrew , who had postponed the crusade at least three times ( in 1201 , 1209 and 1213 ) , finally agreed . Steven Runciman , Tibor Almási and other modern historians say that Andrew hoped that his decision would increase his likelihood of being elected as Latin Emperor of Constantinople , because his wife 's uncle , Emperor Henry , had died in June . According to a letter written by Pope Honorius in 1217 , envoys from the Latin Empire had actually informed Andrew that they planned to elect either him or his father @-@ in @-@ law , Peter of Courtenay , as emperor . The barons of the Latin Empire elected Peter of Courtenay in the summer of 1216 .
Andrew sold and mortgaged royal estates to finance his campaign , which became part of the wider Fifth Crusade . He renounced his claim to Zadar in favor of the Republic of Venice so that he could secure shipping for his army . He entrusted Hungary to Archbishop John of Esztergom , and gave Croatia and Dalmatia to Pontius de Cruce , the Templar Prior of Vrana . In July 1217 , Andrew departed from Zagreb , accompanied by Leopold VI of Austria and Otto I , Duke of Merania . His army was so large — at least 10 @,@ 000 mounted soldiers and uncountable infantrymen — that most of it stayed behind when Andrew and his men embarked in Split two months later . The ships transported them to Acre , where they landed in October .
The leaders of the crusade included John of Brienne , King of Jerusalem , Leopold of Austria , the Grand Masters of the Hospitallers , the Templars and the Teutonic Knights . They held a war council in Acre , with Andrew leading the meeting . In early November , the crusaders launched a campaign for the Jordan River , forcing Al @-@ Adil II , Sultan of Egypt , to withdraw without fighting ; the crusaders then pillaged Beisan . After the crusaders returned to Acre , Andrew did not participate in any other military actions . Instead , he was collecting relics , including a water jug allegedly used at the marriage at Cana , the heads of Saint Stephen and Margaret the Virgin , the right hands of the Apostles Thomas and Bartholomew and a part of Aaron 's rod . If Thomas the Archdeacon 's report of certain " evil and audacious men " in Acre who " treacherously passed him a poisoned drink " is reliable , Andrew 's inactivity was because of illness .
Andrew decided to return home at the very beginning of 1218 , even though Raoul of Merencourt , Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem , threatened him with excommunication . Andrew first visited Tripoli and participated in the marriage of Bohemond IV of Antioch and Melisende of Lusignan on 10 January . From Tripoli , he travelled to Cilicia , where he and Leo I of Armenia betrothed Andrew 's youngest son , Andrew , and Leo 's daughter , Isabella . Andrew proceeded through the Seldjuk Sultanate of Rum before arriving in Nicaea ( now İznik , Turkey ) . His cousins ( the sons of his uncle , Géza ) attacked him when he was in Nicaea . He arranged the marriage of his oldest son , Béla , to Maria Laskarina , a daughter of Emperor Theodore I Laskaris . When he arrived in Bulgaria , Andrew was detained until he " gave full surety that his daughter would be united in marriage " to Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria , according to Thomas the Archdeacon . Andrew returned to Hungary in late 1218 . Andrew 's " crusade had achieved nothing and brought him no honor " , according to historian Thomas C. Van Cleve . Oliver of Padernborn , James of Vitry and other 13th @-@ century authors blamed Andrew for the failure of crusade .
= = = Golden Bull ( 1218 – 1222 ) = = =
When he returned to Hungary , Andrew complained to Pope Honorius that his kingdom was " in a miserable and destroyed state , deprived of all of its revenues . " A group of barons had even expelled Archbishop John from Hungary . Andrew was in massive debt because of his crusade , which forced him to impose extraordinarily high taxes and debase coinage . In 1218 or 1219 , Mstislav Mstislavich invaded Halych and captured Andrew 's son , Coloman . Andrew compromised with Mstislavich . Coloman was released , and Andrew 's youngest son and namesake was betrothed to Mstislavich 's daughter . In 1220 , a group of lords persuaded Andrew to make his eldest son , Béla , the Duke of Croatia , Dalmatia and Slavonia .
Andrew employed Jews and Muslims to administer royal revenues , which caused a discord between Andrew and the Holy See starting in the early 1220s . Pope Honorius urged Andrew and Queen Yolanda to prohibit Muslims from employing Christians . Andrew confirmed the privileges of clergymen , including their exemption from taxes and their right to be exclusively judged by church courts , but also prohibited the consecration of udvornici , castle folk and other serfs in early 1222 . However , a new conflict emerged between Andrew and the Holy See after he persuaded Béla to separate from his wife , Maria Laskarina . An " immense crowd " approached Andrew around June 1222 , demanding " grave and unjust things " , according to a letter of Pope Honorius . Actually , the royal servants — who were landowners directly subject to the monarch 's power and obliged to fight in the royal army — assembled , forcing Andrew to dismiss Julius Kán and his other officials . Andrew was also forced issue a royal charter , the Golden Bull of 1222 . The charter summarized the liberties of the royal servants , including their exemption from taxes and the jurisdiction of the ispáns . The last clause of the Golden Bull authorized " the bishops as well as the other barons and nobles of the realm , singularly and in common " to resist the monarch if he did not honor the provisions of the charter . The Golden Bull clearly distinguished the royal servants from the king 's other subjects , which led to the rise of the Hungarian nobility . The Golden Bull is commonly compared with England 's Magna Carta — a similar charter which was sealed a few years earlier in 1215 . A significant difference between them is that , in England , the settlement strengthened the position of all the royal subjects but , in Hungary , the aristocracy came to dominate both the crown and the lower orders .
= = = Conflicts with his son and the Church ( 1222 – 1234 ) = = =
Andrew discharged Palatine Theodore Csanád and restored Julius Kán in the second half of 1222 . The following year , Pope Honorius urged Andrew to launch a new crusade . If the report of the Continuatio Claustroneuburgensis is reliable , Andrew took the cross to show that he intended launch a new crusade , but no other sources mention this event . Andrew planned to arrange a new marriage for his eldest son , Béla , but Pope Honorius mediated a reconciliation between Béla and his wife in the autumn of 1223 . This angered Andrew , and Béla fled to Austria . He returned in 1224 , after the bishops persuaded Andrew to forgive him .
In his Diploma Andreanum of 1224 , Andrew confirmed the privileges of the " Saxons " who inhabited the region of Hermannstadt in southern Transylvania ( now Sibiu , Romania ) . The following year , he launched a campaign against the Teutonic Knights , who had attempted to eliminate his suzerainty . The Knights were forced to leave Barcaság and the neighboring lands . Andrew 's envoys and Leopold VI of Austria signed a treaty on 6 June , which ended the armed conflicts along the Hungarian @-@ Austrian border . As part of the treaty , Leopold VI paid an indemnification for the damages that his troops had caused in Hungary . Andrew made his oldest son , Béla , Duke of Transylvania . Béla 's former duchy was given to Andrew 's second son , Coloman , in 1226 . Duke Béla started expanding his suzerainty over the Cumans , who inhabited the lands east of the Carpathian Mountains . Andrew launched a campaign against Mstislav Mstislavich in 1226 , because the latter refused to grant Halych to Andrew 's youngest son despite a previous compromise . Andrew besieged and captured Przemyśl , Terebovl , and other fortresses in Halych . However , his troops were routed at Kremenets and Zvenigorod , forcing him to withdraw . Despite his victories , Mstislavich ceded Halych to Andrew 's son in early 1227 .
In 1228 , Andrew authorized his son , Béla , to revise his previous land grants . Pope Honorius also supported Béla 's efforts . Béla confiscated the domains of two noblemen , Simon Kacsics and Bánk Bár @-@ Kalán , who had taken part in the conspiracy to murder Queen Gertrude . In 1229 , upon Béla 's proposal , Andrew confirmed the privileges of the Cuman chieftains who had subjected themselves to Béla . Robert , Archbishop of Esztergom , made a complaint about Andrew to the Holy See , because Andrew continued to employ Jews and Muslims . Pope Gregory IX authorized the archbishop to perform acts of religious censure to persuade Andrew to dismiss his non @-@ Christian officials . Under duress , Andrew issued a new Golden Bull in 1231 , which confirmed that Muslims were banned from employment , and empowered the Archbishop of Esztergom to excommunicate the king if he failed to honor the provisions of the new Golden Bull . In the second half of the year , Andrew invaded Halych and restored his youngest son , Andrew , to the throne .
Archbishop Robert excommunicated Palatine Denis and put Hungary under an interdict on 25 February 1232 , because the employment of Jews and Muslims continued despite the Golden Bull of 1231 . Since the archbishop accused the Muslims of persuading Andrew to seize church property , Andrew restored properties to the archbishop , who soon suspended the interdict . Upon Andrew 's demand , Pope Gregory sent Cardinal Giacomo Pecoraria as his legate to Hungary and promised that nobody would be excommunicated without the pope 's special authorization . Although Andrew departed for Halych to support his youngest son in a fight against Daniel Romanivich , he continued his negotiations with the papal legate . On 20 August 1233 , in the forests of Bereg , he vowed that he would not employ Jews and Muslims to administrate royal revenues , and would pay 10 @,@ 000 marks as compensation for usurped Church revenues . Andrew repeated his oath in Esztergom in September .
Andrew and Frederick II , Duke of Austria , signed a peace treaty in late 1233 . Andrew , who had been widowed , married the 23 @-@ year @-@ old Beatrice D 'Este on 14 May 1234 , even though his sons were sharply opposed to his third marriage . John , Bishop of Bosnia , put Hungary under a new interdict in the first half of 1234 , because Andrew had not dismissed his non @-@ Christian officials despite his oath of Bereg . Andrew and Archbishop Robert of Esztergom protested against the bishop 's act at the Holy See .
= = = Last years ( 1234 – 1235 ) = = =
Danilo Romanovich laid siege to Halych , and Andrew 's youngest son died during the siege in the autumn of 1234 . However , Andrew stormed Austria in the summer of 1235 , forcing Duke Frederick to pay an indemnification for damages that his troops had caused while raiding Hungary . Upon Andrew 's demand , Pope Gregory declared on 31 August that Andrew and his sons could only be excommunicated by the authorization of the Holy See . Andrew died on 21 September , and was buried in Egres Abbey .
= = Family = =
Andrew 's first wife , Gertrude of Merania , was born around 1185 , according to historian Gyula Kristó . Their first child , Mary , was born in 1203 or 1204 . She became the wife of Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria . Andrew 's eldest son , Béla , was born in 1206 . He later succeeded his father as king . Béla 's younger sister , Elisabeth , was born in 1207 . She married Louis IV , Landgrave of Thuringia . She died in 1231 and was canonized during Andrew 's life . Andrew 's second son , Coloman , was born in 1208 . His third son , Andrew , was born around 1210 . Coloman and Andrew each ruled the Principality of Halych for a short period .
Two years after his first wife was murdered , Andrew married Yolanda de Courtenay , who was born around 1198 . Their only child , Yolanda , was born around 1219 and married James I of Aragon . Andrew 's third wife , Beatrice D 'Este , was about twenty @-@ three when they married in 1234 . She gave birth to a son , Stephen , after Andrew 's death . However , Andrew 's two older sons , Béla and Coloman , accused her of adultery and considered her child to be a bastard . Her grandson , Andrew , became the last monarch of the House of Árpád .
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= Zaian War =
The Zaian ( or Zayan ) War was fought between France and the Zaian confederation of Berber tribes in Morocco between 1914 and 1921 . Morocco had become a French protectorate in 1912 , and Resident @-@ General Louis @-@ Hubert Lyautey sought to extend French influence eastwards through the Middle Atlas mountains towards French Algeria . This was opposed by the Zaians , led by Mouha ou Hammou Zayani . The war began well for the French , who quickly took the key towns of Taza and Khénifra . Despite the loss of their base at Khénifra , the Zaians inflicted heavy losses on the French , who responded by establishing groupes mobiles , combined arms formations that mixed regular and irregular infantry , cavalry and artillery into a single force .
The outbreak of the First World War proved significant , with the withdrawal of troops for service in France compounded by the loss of more than 600 French killed at the Battle of El Herri . Lyautey reorganised his available forces into a " living barricade " , consisting of outposts manned by his best troops protecting the perimeter of French territory with lower quality troops manning the rear @-@ guard positions . Over the next four years the French retained most of their territory despite intelligence and financial support provided by the Central Powers to the Zaian Confederation and continual raids and skirmishes reducing scarce French manpower .
After the signing of the Armistice with Germany in November 1918 , significant forces of tribesmen remained opposed to French rule . The French resumed their offensive in the Khénifra area in 1920 , establishing a series of blockhouses to limit the Zaians ' freedom of movement . They opened negotiations with Hammou 's sons , persuading three of them , along with many of their followers , to submit to French rule . A split in the Zaian Confederation between those who supported submission and those still opposed led to infighting and the death of Hammou in Spring 1921 . The French responded with a strong , three @-@ pronged attack into the Middle Atlas that pacified the area . Some tribesmen , led by Moha ou Said , fled to the High Atlas and continued a guerrilla war against the French well into the 1930s .
= = Origins = =
The signing of the Treaty of Fez in 1912 established a French protectorate over Morocco . The treaty had been prompted by the Agadir Crisis of 1911 , during which French and Spanish troops had been sent to Morocco to put down a rebellion against Sultan Abdelhafid . The new French protectorate was led by a resident @-@ general , Louis @-@ Hubert Lyautey , and adopted the traditional Moroccan way of governing through the tribal system . Upon taking up his post Lyautey replaced Abdelhafid with his brother , Yusef . The tribes took offence at this , installing their own Sultan , Ahmed al @-@ Hiba , in Marrakesh and taking eight Europeans captive . Lyautey acted quickly against the revolt , dispatching General Charles Mangin and 5 @,@ 000 troops to retake the town . Mangin 's men were highly successful , rescuing the captives and inflicting heavy casualties on vastly superior numbers of tribesmen for the loss of 2 men killed and 23 wounded . Al @-@ Hiba escaped to the Atlas mountains with a small number of his followers and opposed French rule until his death in 1919 .
A popular idea among the public in France was to possess an unbroken stretch of territory from Tunis to the Atlantic Ocean , including expansion into the " Taza corridor " in the Moroccan interior . Lyautey was in favour of this and advocated French occupation of the Middle Atlas mountains near Taza , through peaceful means where possible . This French expansion into the Middle Atlas was strongly opposed by the " powerful Berber trinity " of Mouha ou Hammou Zayani , leader of the Zaian Confederation ; Moha ou Said , leader of the Aït Ouirra ; and Ali Amhaouch , a religious leader of the Darqawa variant of Islam prevalent in the region .
Hammou commanded between 4 @,@ 000 and 4 @,@ 200 tents of people and had led the Zaians since 1877 , opposing the French since the start of their involvement in Morocco . An enemy of the French following their deposing of Sultan Abdelhafid , who was married to Hammou 's daughter , he had declared a holy war against them and intensified his tribe 's attacks on pro @-@ French ( or " submitted " ) tribes and military convoys . Said was an old man , who was held in good standing by tribesmen across the region and had formerly been a caïd ( a local governor with almost absolute power ) for the Moroccan government , even serving in the army of Sultan Abdelaziz against a pretender at Taza in 1902 . Despite initially being open to negotiations with the French , pressure from pro @-@ war chiefs and the fear of ridicule from his tribesmen had dissuaded him . Amhaouch was a strong and influential man , described by French officer and explorer René de Segonzac as one of the " great spiritual leaders of Morocco " and the " most powerful religious personality of the south east " . The French had attempted to persuade the Zaians to submit since 1913 with little success ; most tribes in the confederation remained opposed to French rule .
Lyautey 's plans for taking Taza also extended to capturing Khénifra , Hammou 's headquarters . He had been advised by his political officer , Maurice Le Glay that doing so would " finish him off definitively " and cut the Zaians off from support of other tribes . The French outpost at nearby Kasbah Tadla had recently been attacked by Said and subsequent peace negotiations led by Lyautey 's head of intelligence , Colonel Henri Simon , had achieved little . As a result , Mangin was authorised to lead a retaliatory raid to Said 's camp at El Ksiba but , despite inflicting heavy casualties , was forced to withdraw with the loss of 60 killed , 150 wounded and much equipment abandoned . Having failed to make any impression on the Zaians through negotiation in May 1914 , Lyautey authorised General Paul Prosper Henrys to take command of all French troops in the area and launch an attack on Taza and Khénifra . Henrys captured Taza within a few days using units drawn from garrisons in Fez , Meknes , Rabat and Marrakesh and then turned his attention to Khénifra .
= = Khénifra campaign = =
Henrys planned his assault on Khénifra to begin on 10 June 1914 with the dispatch of three columns of troops , totalling 14 @,@ 000 men equipped with wireless radios and supported by reconnaissance aircraft . One column was to set out from Meknes under the command of Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Henri Claudel , another from Rabat under Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Gaston Cros and the third from Kasbah Tadla under Colonel Noël Garnier @-@ Duplessix . Henrys took overall command , directing the forces from an armoured car within the Claudel column . Aware that he knew little of the terrain or the allegiance of local tribes Henrys offered a generous set of terms for tribesmen who submitted to French rule : they would have to surrender only their rapid firing rifles and any captured French supplies , and pay a small tax in return for protection . He also set aside substantial funds to bribe informants and tribal leaders .
Despite these measures , Claudel 's column came under attack before it even left Meknes , although it was the largest and intended as a diversion . Hammou 's forces attacked their camp on three separate nights , inflicting losses of at least one officer and four men killed and nineteen injured , but leaving the other two columns unopposed . Claudel launched a counterattack on 10 June while Hammou was preparing a fourth attack , sweeping the Zaians away with artillery and ensuring little resistance for his march to Khénifra on the next day . After enduring some sniping attacks in Teguet , Claudel 's cavalry crossed the Oum er Rbia at el Bordj and advanced to the outskirts of Khénifra . The rest of the column joined them on 12 June , fighting off Zaian attacks on the way and meeting up with the other two columns , finding the town emptied of people and raising the French flag . The column had lost two men killed in the march .
The columns experienced repeated , strong attacks by Zaian tribesmen that day , repelled by late afternoon at the cost of five men killed and nineteen wounded . Further attacks on the nights of 14 and 15 June were repulsed by artillery and machine gun fire , directed by searchlights . Henrys then dispatched two columns south to the Zaian stronghold of Adersan to burn houses , proving his military abilities but not provoking a decisive confrontation with the tribes , who returned to guerrilla warfare tactics . In response all French @-@ controlled markets were closed to the Zaians and their trade convoys were intercepted .
Henrys became aware of a Zaian presence at el Bordj and sent a column to attack them on 31 June . South of el Bordj the French came under heavy fire from tribesmen with modern rifles and resorted to bayonet charges to clear the way . The encounter was Henrys ' first major engagement with the Zaians and his losses were high , 1 officer and 16 men killed and a further 2 officers and 75 men wounded . Zaian losses were much higher : the French counted at least 140 dead remaining on the battlefield , and considered the battle a victory . Henrys expected a pause in activity while the Zaians recovered , but instead Hammou stepped up attacks on the French . Just four days later an attack on a French convoy by 500 mounted tribesmen was only repulsed after several hours by more bayonet charges . French losses were again significant with one officer and ten men killed and thirty men wounded .
= = = Groupes mobiles = = =
In light of the increased attacks in the Khénifra area Henrys established three groupes mobiles , made up of troops mostly drawn from the Army of Africa . Each groupe was designed to be highly mobile and typically consisted of several battalions of regular infantry ( Algerian and Senegalese Tirailleurs or French Foreign Legion troops ) , a squadron of cavalry ( Algerian Spahis ) , a few batteries of artillery ( field or mountain ) , a section of Hotchkiss machine guns and a mule train for supplies under the overall leadership of a French senior officer . In addition each groupe mobile would have one or two goums ( informal groups of around 200 men ) of goumiers , irregular tribal auxiliaries , under the leadership of a French intelligence officer . The goums were used for intelligence gathering operations and in areas of difficult terrain .
A four @-@ battalion @-@ strong groupe mobile was established at Khénifra , under Lieutenant @-@ Colonel René Laverdure ; one based to the west under Claudel and one to the east under Garnier @-@ Duplessix . In addition fortified posts were established at M 'Rirt and Sidi Lamine with the areas between patrolled by goumiers to protect convoys and submitted tribes from attack . Increasing attacks on Khénifra throughout July , repelled only by concentrated artillery and machine gun fire , left Henrys concerned that a combined force of tribesmen could threaten the town and the submitted tribes . This fear was partially allayed by the separate defeats of Hammou and Amhaouch by the groupes mobiles of Claudel and Garnier @-@ Duplessix and by increasing numbers of auxiliaries becoming available from newly submitted tribes through the levy system .
Claudel and Garnier @-@ Duplessix were ordered to patrol the French bank of the Oum er Rbia and attempt to separate the Zaians from the Chleuh to the south while Henrys planned for an advance through the Middle Atlas to the Guigou River . These operations were halted by the reduction in forces imposed on him by the outbreak of the First World War in Europe .
= = First World War = =
Lyautey received orders from Army headquarters in Paris on 28 July 1914 the day the First World War began , requesting the dispatch of all available troops to France in anticipation of a German invasion and the withdrawal of his remaining forces to more defensible coastal enclaves . The French government justified this stance by stating that the " fate of Morocco will be determined in Lorraine " . Lyautey , who had lost most of his own possessions when his house in Crévic had been burnt to the ground by advancing German forces , was keen to support the defence of France and within a month had sent 37 infantry and cavalry battalions and six artillery batteries to the Western Front – more than had been requested of him . A further 35 @,@ 000 Moroccan labourers were recruited by Lyautey over the course of the war for service in France .
Nevertheless , Lyautey did not wish to abandon the inland territory his men had fought so hard for , stating that if he withdrew " such a shock would result immediately all over Morocco ... that a general revolt would arise under our feet , on all our points " . Left with just 20 battalions of legionnaires ( mainly German and Austrian ) , military criminals of the Infanterie Légère d 'Afrique , territorial reservists , Senegalese Tirailleurs and goumiers , he switched from the offensive to a long @-@ term strategy of " active defence " . Lyautey withdrew all non @-@ essential personnel from his rear garrisons , brought in elderly reservists from France and issued weapons and elements of military dress to civilians in an attempt to convince the tribes that the French army in Morocco was as strong as before . Lyautey referred to this move as similar to hollowing out a lobster while leaving the shell intact . His plan depended on holding a " living barricade " of French outposts running from Taza in the north through Khenifra , Kasbah Tadla and Marrakesh to Agadir on the Atlantic coast .
Lyautey and Henrys intended to hold the Berbers in their current positions until they had sufficient resources to return to the offensive . The recent French advances and troop withdrawals had left Khénifra badly exposed and from 4 August – the day two battalions of infantry left the garrison for France – the Zaian tribes launched a month @-@ long attack on the town , supply convoys and withdrawing French troops " without interruption " . Lyautey was determined to hold Khénifra to use as a bridgehead for further expansion of French territory and referred to it as a bastion against the " hostile Berber masses " upon which the " maintenance of [ his ] occupation " depended . Attacks on Khénifra threatened the vital communication corridor between French forces in Morocco and those in Algeria . To relieve pressure on the town , Claudel and Garnier @-@ Duplessix 's groupes mobiles engaged Hammou and Amhaouch 's forces at Mahajibat , Bou Moussa and Bou Arar on 19 , 20 and 21 August , inflicting " considerable losses " . This , combined with the reinforcement of Khenifra on 1 September , led to reduced attacks , decreasing to a state of " armed peace " by November .
Henrys began to move towards a more offensive posture , ordering mobile columns to circulate through the Middle Atlas and mounted companies to patrol the plains . This was part of his plan to maintain pressure on Hammou , who he considered to be the linchpin of the " artificial " Zaian Confederation and responsible for their continued resistance . Henrys was counting on the onset of winter to force the Zaians from the mountains to their lowland pastures where they could be confronted or persuaded to surrender . In some cases the war assisted Lyautey , allowing him a freer hand in his overall strategy , greater access to finance and the use of at least 8 @,@ 000 German prisoners of war to construct essential infrastructure . In addition the increased national pride led many middle @-@ aged French immigrants in Morocco to enlist in the army and , though they were of poor fighting quality , Lyautey was able to use these men to maintain the appearance of a large force under his command .
= = = Battle of El Herri = = =
When Henrys had successfully repulsed the attacks on Khénifra , he believed he had the upper hand , having proven that the reduced French forces could resist the tribesmen . The Zaians were now contained within a triangle formed by the Oum er Rbia River , the Serrou River and the Atlas Mountains , and were already in dispute with neighbouring tribes over the best wintering land . Hammou decided to winter at the small village of El Herri , 15 kilometres ( 9 miles ) from Khénifra , and established a camp of around 100 tents there . Hammou had been promised peace talks by the French , and Lyautey twice refused Laverdure permission to attack him and ordered him to remain on the French bank of the Oum er Rbia . On 13 November Laverdure decided to disobey these orders and marched to El Herri with almost his entire force , some 43 officers and 1 @,@ 187 men with supporting artillery and machine guns . This amounted to less than half the force he had in September , when he had last been refused permission to attack .
Laverdure 's force surprised the Zaian camp , mostly empty of fighting men , at dawn . A French cavalry charge , followed up with infantry , successfully cleared the camp . After capturing two of Hammou 's wives and looting the tents the French started back for Khénifra . The Zaians and other local tribes , eventually numbering 5 @,@ 000 men , began to converge on the French column and began harassing its flanks and rear . The French artillery proved ineffective against dispersed skirmishers and at the Chbouka river the rearguard and gun batteries found themselves cut off and overrun . Laverdure detached a small column of troops to take his wounded to Khénifra , remaining behind with the rest of the force . Laverdure 's remaining troops were surrounded by the Zaians and were wiped out by a mass attack of " several thousand " tribesmen .
The wounded and their escort reached Khenifra safely by noon , narrowly outpacing their pursuers , who had stopped to loot the French dead . This force of 431 able @-@ bodied men and 176 wounded were the only French survivors of the battle . The French lost 623 men on the battlefield , while 182 Zaian were killed . The French troops also lost 4 machine guns , 630 small arms , 62 horses , 56 mules , all of their artillery and camping equipment and much of their personal belongings .
= = = After El Herri = = =
The loss of the column at El Herri , the bloodiest defeat of a French force in Morocco , left Khénifra almost undefended . The senior garrison officer , Captain Pierre Kroll , had just three companies of men to protect the town . He managed to inform Lyautey and Henrys of the situation by telegraph before the town came under siege from the Zaians . Henrys determined to act quickly against the Zaians to prevent Laverdure 's defeat from jeopardising the French presence in Morocco , dispatching Garnier @-@ Duplessix 's groupe mobile to Khénifra and forming another groupe in support at Ito under Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Joseph Dérigoin . Garnier @-@ Duplessix fought his way to the town , relieved it on 16 November , and was joined by Henrys shortly afterwards . The 6th battalion of the 2nd French Foreign Legion Regiment also reached the town , having fought off Zaian attacks during their march from M 'Rirt . Henrys led excursions from Khénifra to El Herri as a show of force and to bury their dead , some of whom had been taken as trophies by Hammou to encourage support from other tribes .
The Zaian victory at El Herri , combined with slow French progress on the Western Front and the siding of the Muslim Ottoman Empire with the Central Powers , led to an increase in recruits for the tribes and greater co @-@ operation between Hammou , Amhaouch and Said . To counter this Henrys undertook a reorganisation of his forces , forming three military districts centred on Fez , Meknes and Tadla @-@ Zaian ( the Khénifra region ) , the latter under the command of Garnier @-@ Duplessix . Henrys aimed to maintain pressure on Hammou through an economic blockade and the closure of markets to unsubmitted tribes . He imposed a war penalty , in the form of money , horses and rifles , on submitting tribes , believing that their submission would last only if they paid for it . Few tribes took up Henrys ' offer and the Zaians continued to cross the Rbia and attack French patrols .
The French returned to the offensive in March with Dérigoin 's group sweeping along the French bank of the Rbia , north of Khénifra , and Garnier @-@ Duplessix the left . Dérigoin faced and drove off only a small Zaian force , but Garnier @-@ Duplessix faced a more significant force – his troops were almost overrun by a large mounted group but managed to repulse them , inflicting " serious losses " in return for French casualties of one man killed and eight wounded . Garnier @-@ Duplessix crossed the Rbia again in May to confiscate crops , and was attacked there by a force of 4 – 5 @,@ 000 tribesmen at Sidi Sliman , near Kasbah Tadla . He repulsed them with artillery and counterattacked successfully over the course of a two @-@ day engagement , killing 300 of the attackers and wounding 400 at the cost of 3 French dead and 5 wounded . This victory restored the image of French superiority and led to an increase in tribal submissions , the withdrawal of Said 's forces further into the mountains and a six @-@ month period of relative peace . In recognition of this Garnier @-@ Duplessix was promoted to major @-@ general .
The peace was broken on 11 November 1915 by an attack on a supply convoy headed for Khénifra by 1 @,@ 200 – 1 @,@ 500 Zaians and allied tribesmen . The Moroccans pressed to within 50 metres ( 55 yards ) of the French , and Garnier @-@ Duplessix , in command of the convoy , was forced to resort to the bayonet to push them back . French casualties amounted to just 3 killed and 22 wounded but Henrys was concerned by the influence that Hammou continued to hold over other Berber tribes . In retaliation Henrys took both groupes mobiles across the Rbia and bombarded the Zaian camp , inflicting casualties but making little impression on their will to fight . The Zaians recrossed the Rbia in January 1916 , camping in French territory and raiding the submitted tribes . Feeling that his communications with Taza were threatened Henrys withdrew his groupes to the Khénifra area , both of them coming under attack en route . At M 'Rirt a sizeable Zaian attack was repulsed with 200 casualties but the French suffered the loss of one officer and 24 men killed and 56 wounded .
Lyautey had successfully retained the territory he had captured before the war but was of the opinion that he could not advance any further without risking " an extremely painful " mountain conflict . He faced having his troops withdrawn for service on the Western Front and being left with what he described as " degenerates and outcasts " , a loss only partially mitigated by the expansion of the irregular tribal units to 21 goums in strength . Henrys accepted an offer of a position in France and was replaced by Colonel Joseph @-@ François Poeymirau , a keen follower of Lyautey who had served as Henrys ' second in command at Meknes . Lyautey was offered the post of Minister of War at the invitation of Prime Minister Aristide Briand , which he accepted on 12 December 1916 . Lyautey was replaced , at his request , by General Henri Gouraud , who had experience fighting alongside Lyautey in Morocco and who had recently returned from the Dardanelles , where he had lost his right arm . Lyautey soon became disillusioned with French tactics in Europe , the disunity prevailing between the Allies and his position as a symbolic figurehead of the government . He was unfamiliar with dealing with political opposition and resigned on 14 March 1917 , after being shouted down in the Chamber of Deputies . The government could not survive the resignation of such a senior cabinet member and Briand himself resigned on 17 March , to be replaced by Alexandre Ribot .
Lyautey returned to his former position in Morocco at the end of May and immediately decided on a new strategy . He concentrated his forces in the Moulouya Valley , convinced that the submission of the tribes in this area would lead to the collapse of the Zaian resistance . In preparation for this new offensive Poeymirau established a French post at El Bekrit , within Zaian territory , and forced the submission of three local tribes . He then used this post to protect his flanks during an advance south @-@ eastwards into the valley , intending to meet with a column led by Colonel Paul Doury , advancing north @-@ west from Boudenib . The two columns met at Assaka Nidji on 6 June , a moment which represented the establishment of the first French @-@ controlled route across the Atlas mountains , and earned Poeymirau promotion to brigadier @-@ general . A defensive camp was soon established at Kasbah el Makhzen , and Doury began construction on a road that he promised would be traversable by motor transport by 1918 .
By late 1917 motorised lorries were able to traverse much of the road , allowing the French to quickly move troops to areas of trouble and supply their garrisons in eastern Morocco from the west rather than over long routes from the Algerian depots . A secondary road was constructed , leading southwards from the first along the Ziz River , that allowed Doury to reach Er @-@ Rich in the High Atlas , and major posts were established at Midelt and Missour . The Zaians refused to be drawn into attacking the fortified posts that the French built along their new roads , though other tribes launched attacks that summer after rumours of French defeats on the European front . In one instance , in mid @-@ June , it took Poeymirau 's entire groupe three days to restore control of the road after an attack .
Doury had expanded the theatre of operations , against Lyautey 's orders , by establishing a French mission at Tighmart , in the Tafilalt region , in December 1917 in reaction to a rumoured German presence there . The land here , mainly desert , was almost worthless to the French and Lyautey was keen for his subordinates to focus on the more valuable Moulouya Valley . Local tribes resisted the French presence , killing a translator working at the mission in July 1918 . Doury sought to avenge this act on 9 August by engaging up to 1 @,@ 500 tribesmen , led by Sidi Mhand n 'Ifrutant , at Gaouz with a smaller French force that included artillery and aircraft support . Entering a thick , jungle @-@ like date palm oasis , one subgroup of Doury 's force suffered a close , hard @-@ fought action , hampered by exhaustion and poor supply lines . The whole force suffered casualties of 238 men killed and 68 wounded , the worst French losses since the disaster at El Herri , and also lost much of their equipment and transport . Lyautey was doubtful of Doury 's claim to have almost wiped out his foe , and in response chastised him for his rash action in " this most peripheral of zones " and placed him under Poeymirau 's direct command . Thus , as the war in Europe was drawing to a close in the early summer of 1918 , the French remained hard pressed in Morocco . Despite the death of Ali Amhaouch by natural causes , significant numbers of tribesmen under the leadership of Hammou and Said continued to oppose them .
= = = The Central Powers in Morocco = = =
The Central Powers attempted to incite unrest in the Allied territories in Africa and the Middle East during the war , with the aim of diverting military resources away from the Western Front . German intelligence had identified Northwest Africa as the " Achilles ' heel " of the French colonies , and encouraging resistance there became an important objective . Their involvement began in 1914 , with the Germans attempting to find a suitable Moroccan leader that they could use to unite the tribes against the French . Their initial choice , former Sultan Abdelaziz , refused to co @-@ operate and moved to the south of France to prevent any further approaches . Instead they entered negotiations with his successor Abdelhafid . He initially co @-@ operated with the Germans , renouncing his former pro @-@ Allied stance in autumn 1914 and moving to Barcelona to meet with officials from Germany , the Ottoman Empire and the Moroccan resistance . During this time he was also selling information to the French . These mixed loyalties came to light when he refused to board a German submarine headed for Morocco , and the Central Powers decided he was of no further use . Abdelhafid then attempted to extort money from the French intelligence services , who responded by halting his pension and arranging his internment at El Escorial . He was later awarded a stipend by Germany in return for his silence on the matter .
The failure to find a suitable leader caused the Germans to alter their plans from a widespread insurrection in Morocco to smaller @-@ scale support of the existing resistance movement . German support included the supply of military advisers and Foreign Legion deserters to the tribes as well as cash , arms and ammunition . Money ( in both pesetas and francs ) was smuggled into Morocco from the German embassy at Madrid . The money was transferred to Tétouan or Melilla by boat or wired through the telegraph before being smuggled to the tribes , who each received up to 600 @,@ 000 pesetas per month . Weapons arrived through long @-@ established routes from Spanish Larache or else purchased directly from French gun runners or corrupt Spanish Army troops . The Germans found it hard to get resources to the Zaians in the Middle Atlas due to the distances involved and most of what did get through went to Said 's forces . German attempts to distribute supplies inland were frustrated when many tribes hoarded the best resources . Ammunition remained scarce in the Middle Atlas , and many were forced to rely on locally manufactured gunpowder and cartridges .
The Ottoman Empire also supported the Moroccan tribesmen in this period , having provided military training to them since 1909 . They co @-@ operated with German intelligence to write and distribute propaganda in Arabic , French and the Middle Atlas Berber dialect . Much of the Ottoman intelligence effort was coordinated by Arab agents operating from the embassy in Madrid and at least two members of the Ottoman diplomatic staff there are known to have seen active service with the tribes in Morocco during the war . Ottoman efforts in Morocco were hindered by internal divisions among the staff , disagreements with their German allies and the outbreak of the Arab Revolt in 1916 , with which some of the embassy staff sympathised . These problems led many of the Ottoman diplomatic corps in Spain to leave for America in September 1916 , bringing to an end many of the significant Ottoman operations in Morocco .
French intelligence forces worked hard to combat the Central Powers and to win the support of the Moroccan people . A series of commercial expositions , such as the Casablanca Fair of 1915 , were held to demonstrate the wealth of France and the benefits of co @-@ operation . In addition to stepping up their propaganda campaign and increasing the use of bribes to convince tribes to submit , the French established markets at their military outposts and paid Moroccans to undertake public works . Islamic scholars were also encouraged to issue fatwās supporting the Moroccan Sultan 's declaration of independence from the Ottoman Empire .
French and British intelligence agents co @-@ operated in French and Spanish Morocco and Gibraltar , tracking Ottoman and German agents , infiltrating the advisers sent to the tribes and working to halt the flow of arms . German citizens in Morocco were placed under careful scrutiny and four were executed within days of the war 's start . The French broke the codes used by the German embassy and were able to read almost every communication sent from there to the General Staff in Berlin . Bribes paid to staff at the Ottoman mission to Spain secured intelligence on the Central Powers ' plans for Morocco .
Although the efforts of the Central Powers caused a resurgence in resistance against French rule , they were largely ineffective , falling short of the planners ' aims of a widespread jihad . There were few cases of mass civil disorder , France was not required to reinforce the troops stationed in Morocco , and the export of raw materials and labour for the war effort continued . Although they were never able to completely stem the flow of arms , despite considerable effort , the French were able to limit the supply of machine guns and artillery . The tribes were thus unable to face the French in direct confrontation and had to continue to rely on ambushes and raids . This contrasted with the Spanish experience in the Rif War of 1920 – 26 , in which tribes with access to such weapons were able to inflict defeats upon the Spanish Army in the field , such as at the Battle of Annual .
= = Post @-@ war conflicts = =
The heavy French losses at the Battle of Gaouz encouraged an increase in tribal activity across the south @-@ east of Morocco , threatening the French presence at Boudenib . Poeymirau was forced to withdraw garrisons from outlying posts in the Tafilalt , including that at Tighmart , to concentrate his force and reduce the risk of further disasters . Lyautey authorised only a series of limited offensives , such as the razing of villages and gardens , the primary aim of which was to emphasise French military superiority . The French struggled to move troops through the mountain passes from the Moulouya Valley due to heavy snows and attacks on their columns , and Lyautey , to his embarrassment , was forced to request reinforcements from Algeria . By October the situation had stabilised to the extent that Poeymirau was able to withdraw his troops to Meknes , but a large @-@ scale uprising in January 1919 forced his return . Poeymirau defeated n 'Ifrutant in battle at Meski on 15 January , but was seriously wounded in the chest by the accidental explosion of an artillery shell and was forced to hand command to Colonel Antoine Huré . Lyautey then received assistance from Thami El Glaoui , a tribal leader who Lyautey had made Pasha of Marrakesh after the uprising of 1912 . El Glaoui owed his increasing wealth ( when he died in 1956 he was one of the richest men in the world ) to corruption and fraud , which the French tolerated in return for his support . Thus committed to Lyautey 's cause , El Glaoui led an army of 10 @,@ 000 men , the largest Moroccan tribal force ever seen , across the Atlas to defeat anti @-@ French tribesmen in the Dadès Gorges and to reinforce the garrison at Boudenib on 29 January . The uprising was over by 31 January 1919 .
The conflict in the Tafilalt distracted the French from their main war aims , draining French reinforcements in return for little economic gain and drawing comparisons to the recent Battle of Verdun . Indeed , the Zaians were encouraged by French losses in the area to renew their attacks on guardposts along the trans @-@ Atlas road . The French continued to hope for a negotiated end to the conflict and had been in discussions with Hammou 's close relatives since 1917 . Indeed , his nephew , Ou El Aidi , had offered his submission in exchange for weapons and money but had been refused by the French who suspected he wanted to fight with his cousin , Hammou 's son , Hassan . With no progress in these negotiations Poeymirau moved against the tribes to the north and south of Khénifra in 1920 , the front in this area having remained static for six years . Troops were brought in from Tadla and Meknes to establish blockhouses and mobile reserves along the Rbia to prevent the Zaians crossing to use the pastures . The French were opposed vigorously but eventually established three blockhouses and forced some of the local tribes to submit . French successes in the Khénifra region persuaded Hassan and his two brothers to submit to the French on 2 June 1920 , having returned some of the equipment captured at El Herri . Hassan was soon appointed Pasha of Khénifra and his 3 @,@ 000 tents were brought under French protection in an expanded zone of occupation around the Rbia .
Following the submission of his sons , Hammou retained command of only 2 @,@ 500 tents and in Spring 1921 was killed in a skirmish with other Zaian tribes that opposed continued resistance . The French seized the opportunity to launch an assault on the last bastion of Zaian resistance , located near El Bekrit . In September a three @-@ pronged attack was made : General Jean Théveney moved west from the El Bekrit settlement , Colonel Henry Freydenberg moved east from Taka Ichian and a third group of submitted tribesmen under Hassan and his brothers also took part . Théveney encountered resistance from the Zaians in his area but Freydenberg was almost unopposed and within days all resistance was put down . After seven years of fighting the Zaian War was ended , though Lyautey continued his expansion in the area , promising to have all of " useful Morocco " under French control by 1923 . Lyautey had been granted the dignity of a Marshal of France in 1921 in recognition of his work in Morocco .
In Spring 1922 , Poeymirau and Freydenberg launched attacks into the headwaters of the Moulouya in the western Middle Atlas and managed to defeat Said , the last surviving member of the Berber triumvirate , at El Ksiba in April 1922 . Said was forced to flee , with much of the Aït Ichkern tribe , to the highest mountains of the Middle Atlas and then into the High Atlas . Lyautey then secured the submission of several more tribes , constructed new military posts and improved his supply roads ; by June 1922 , he had brought the entire Moulouya Valley under control and pacified much of the Middle Atlas . Limited in numbers by rapid post @-@ war demobilisation and commitments to garrisons in Germany , he determined not to march through the difficult terrain of the High Atlas but to wait for the tribes to tire of the guerrilla war and submit . Said never did so , dying in action against a groupe mobile in March 1924 , though his followers continued to cause problems for the French into the next decade . Pacification of the remaining tribal areas in French Morocco was completed in 1934 , though small armed gangs of bandits continued to attack French troops in the mountains until 1936 . Moroccan opposition to French rule continued , a plan for reform and return to indirect rule was published by the nationalist Comité d 'Action Marocaine ( CAM ) in 1934 , with significant riots and demonstrations occurring in 1934 , 1937 , 1944 and 1951 . France , having failed to quell the nationalists by deposing the popular Sultan Mohammed V and already fighting a bloody war of independence in Algeria , recognised Moroccan independence in 1956 .
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= Golden Ticket ( The Office ) =
" Golden Ticket " is the 19th episode of the fifth season of the television series The Office , and the 91st overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on March 12 , 2009 .
In the episode , Michael excitedly starts a Willy Wonka @-@ inspired promotional gimmick providing discounts to customers who receive golden tickets , then tries to blame the idea on Dwight when the promotion appears to cost the company a large amount of money . In a B story , Kevin receives conflicting romantic advice from Andy , Jim and Pam .
The episode was written by Mindy Kaling and directed by Randall Einhorn . It received mixed reviews from critics , and many commented on the selfishness and mean behavior of Michael Scott in the episode . According to Nielsen ratings , " Golden Ticket " was watched by 7 @.@ 7 million overall viewers the week it aired . In addition to multiple references to Charlie and the Chocolate Factory , " Golden Ticket " includes two knock knock jokes involving the KGB .
= = Plot summary = =
Michael ( Steve Carell ) , inspired by the film Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory , decides to put five " golden tickets " randomly into five different boxes of paper that will provide Dunder Mifflin clients with a ten percent discount for one year . Michael is excited about the promotional gimmick , which prompts him to dress and act like Wonka throughout the day . However , because Michael distributed all the tickets on the same day in the same small area of the warehouse , all five golden tickets go to their biggest client , the Blue Cross of Pennsylvania ; because Michael did not specify " limit one per customer " , the company is owed a fifty percent discount . As a result , the Scranton branch is expected to lose a significant amount of revenue which could shut down the branch , making everyone in the office upset with Michael . When angry Chief Financial Officer David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) demands to know who is responsible , Michael claims Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) thought of the idea . Michael tries to convince Dwight to take the fall , insisting that Michael needs the job more than Dwight and that it would allow Dwight to focus more energy on his beet farm .
David Wallace comes to the Scranton branch and says that the client was so pleased with the discount that they decided to make the company their exclusive provider of office supplies . Grateful , David congratulates Dwight for the idea and after a moment 's hesitation , Dwight accepts the credit . Michael is shocked and upset . The rest of the office , still angry at Michael for his near @-@ disastrous idea , play along with Wallace 's misunderstanding and congratulate Dwight . When David sets up a conference call with the marketing department so Dwight can explain his Golden Ticket promotion , Michael interrupts and goads Dwight into revealing the idea actually came from Michael . After much bickering between Michael and Dwight , a frustrated David leaves the office , appearing indifferent about the outcome .
Meanwhile , Kevin ( Brian Baumgartner ) seeks advice from others in the office on how to start a relationship with Lynne ( Lisa K. Wyatt ) , the woman he socialized with at the Valentine 's Day singles mixer at the office ( from the previous episode , " Blood Drive " ) . Andy ( Ed Helms ) , still upset from his recent broken engagement with Angela ( Angela Kinsey ) , suggests that Kevin should be mean to Lynne , providing only backhanded compliments and ignoring her calls . Jim ( John Krasinski ) suggests he ask her out , but not immediately and take things slow . Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) , on the other hand , suggests he ask her out immediately and not be afraid to express himself to her . When Lynne visits the office , Kevin said he has decided to simply tell her what exactly he is thinking . He tells her that she has a nice smile and he would like to take her out to dinner and a movie , which she accepts . Kevin then accidentally says " Nice ... boobs " , but Lynne seems flattered by the statement .
= = Production = =
The official The Office website included three cut scenes from " Golden Ticket " . One 72 @-@ second clip includes Michael eavesdropping from the men 's bathroom on Angela , Oscar , Kelly and Meredith , who discuss how unfair Michael is treating Dwight in making him take the fall over the failed golden ticket promotion . Kelly also makes the remark , " I hope Dwight gets fired and they get a hot new guy to replace him , " to which Oscar replies , " Seriously . " In another 52 @-@ second scene , Michael asks Dwight to go on a stroll , but Dwight suggests turning it into a " power stroll " , which he prepares Michael for by applying sunscreen to his face . And in a follow @-@ up to the scene where workers discuss that Michael should be fired , a visibly angry and upset Michael confronts the office . When he says " Can any of you imagine this office without me ? " everyone gleefully raises their hands , but Michael then asks them if they 've thought about what kind of terrible person they could get to replace him ; he then pointedly says that they could get someone who knows they don 't actually need three accountants ( Oscar , Kevin , and Angela look visibly ashamed that Michael knew this going back to Season 2 's Halloween episode but has never taken any action about it ) or someone who doesn 't approve of romantic relationships and would transfer one or both people having one to separate branches ( Jim and Pam in turn get this message and look thoughtful ) , and tells the office that they should mind what they 're saying about him " when I 'm hiding in the bathroom pretending to be pooping . "
The NBC site also featured more than two minutes @-@ worth of clips involving the subplot between Kevin and Lynne , including Andy discussing his new method of being mean to women while courting dates , in response to his recent failed engagement with Angela . Among the deleted scenes are Kevin telling Lynn he will be too busy for three weeks to talk to her and giving a backhanded compliment to her shirt , both at Andy 's suggestion .
= = Cultural references = =
The golden ticket promotional gimmick , from which the episode receives its title , is a reference to the golden tickets from the 1964 Roald Dahl novel , Charlie and the Chocolate Factory , as well as the 1971 and 2005 film adaptations of the book . Throughout the first half of the episode , Michael wears a purple suit and top hat similar to Willy Wonka , the character responsible for the promotion from which this episode takes its name . Blue Cross of Pennsylvania , the Dunder Mifflin client who receives the Golden Tickets , is a real @-@ life division of Blue Cross and Blue Shield Association , an American health insurance company . After throwing away the Willy Wonka outfit , Michael wears a gray T @-@ shirt advertising the Wilkes @-@ Barre / Scranton Pioneers , a minor league arena football team . One of the excuses Michael uses to avoid David 's phone calls is that he is attending an " Obama fashion show " , a reference to U.S. President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama .
Dwight Schrute makes knock knock jokes involving the KGB , the secret police and intelligence agency for the Soviet Union . Michael also makes a knock knock joke involving Buddha , with the punch @-@ line that Pam " buttah " ( butter , pronounced like Buddha ) a slice of bread . Gautama Buddha was a spiritual teacher in the South Asian country Nepal who founded the religion Buddhism . During an office meeting in which Michael asks his employees to come up with other Golden Ticket @-@ like ideas , Andy suggests the breakfast cereal brand Golden Grahams and American sitcom The Golden Girls before confessing he does not understand the assignment .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on March 12 , 2009 , " Golden Ticket " was watched by 7 @.@ 7 million overall viewers and received a Nielsen rating of 4 @.@ 1 among adults aged between 18 and 49 , despite directly competing with ABC 's Grey 's Anatomy and CBS 's CSI : Crime Scene Investigation . For the week of March 9 – 15 , the episode ranked number 10 among adults 18 – 49 , within two shares of the time @-@ period lead in that age group . " Golden Ticket " was number four among all programs in adults 18 – 34 , behind Grey 's Anatomy and the Tuesday and Wednesday editions of American Idol . In the 9 to 9 : 30 p.m. time @-@ slot , the episode also ranked number one among men 18 – 34 and men 18 – 49 , tied with Grey 's Anatomy for number one among the broadcast networks in adults 18 – 34 , and tied with CSI for number two among adults 18 – 49 .
" Golden Ticket " received mixed reviews , with several reviewers commenting on the selfishness and mean behavior of Michael in the episode . In a New York magazine article entitled " Michael Finally Goes Too Far " , Will Leitch describes it as " one of the funnier recent episodes " , but found Michael 's willingness to sell out Dwight unsettling : " Usually , when he ’ s about to do something over @-@ the @-@ top ( like plant drugs on Toby ) , he backs off at the last second . This time , he 's willing to go all the way and sell out Dwight , his most loyal friend . It 's a little jarring . " Leitch , however , said the sweetness of the subplot involving Kevin and Lynne offset some of the darker aspects of the episode , and praised several of the jokes including Michael 's " Shoe @-@ La @-@ La " shoe store idea , Dwight 's idea for a " Horse Boat " invention and the KGB knock knock jokes .
Kona Gallagher , of TV Squad , praised " Golden Ticket " , especially the final act : " Between Michael 's face and Dwight 's conference call , the last ten minutes of this episode were absolutely golden . " Gallagher said the episode returned to " season one levels of Michael Scott stupidity " , and particularly liked the way Dwight so readily accepted credit once the golden ticket promotion proved to be a success . Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club gave " Golden Ticket " an A- grade and particularly praised Steve Carell 's Willy Wonka impression and the way Michael tried to distance himself after the promotional idea went bad . Rabin said , " Tonight ’ s episode lacked a certain gravity but it delivered the goods , comedy @-@ wise . " He also pointed out that the script was technically illogical in that Michael pretended he did not come up with the golden ticket idea despite the documentary camera crew filming his earlier discussions about it .
Entertainment Weekly writer Whitney Pastorek described the episode as " kind of cute tonight , and kind of flat in places , and kind of sad . " Pastorek said one of the most interesting aspects of " Golden Ticket " was the relationship between Michael and Dwight : " After their respective failed romances with Holly and Angela , Michael and Dwight may be coming to the awkward realization that the most successful relationship in either of their lives is with one another , and that may be causing a little tension . " Travis Fickett of IGN said " Golden Ticket " was a " solid offering " , but felt it lacked any big moments and fit too much of a status quo mold he feels other recent episodes had fallen into . Fickett said it was " fun to watch Michael squirm " both when he thought he was in trouble , and when he was robbed credit for his good idea ; he also liked when Jim encouraged Dwight not to take the fall for Michael , and when the others in the office rallied around Dwight when David Wallace gave Dwight credit for the success .
Alan Sepinwall , television writer for The Star @-@ Ledger , said Michael acted so " nakedly selfish and unfeeling " that it made the episode unpleasant to watch : " If last week 's ' Blood Drive ' gave us Michael at his most human and sympathetic , then ' Golden Ticket ' showed how a human Michael could also be a monster . " However , Sepinwall said he did think the subplot involving Kevin receiving romantic advice was funny and sweet : " Brian Baumgartner 's just been aces the last two weeks , and if it hadn 't been for this story , I might have found ' Golden Ticket ' unbearable . " Dan Hopper of VH1 's Best Week Ever strongly criticized the episode and the behavior of the characters : " Why was every single character on last night ’ s Willy Wonka episode acting like a complete idiot ? Not ' idiot ' in the sense that the characters are always dumb and goofy in an amusing way , but ' idiot ' as in ' none of these human beings would ever act this way and this is really frustrating to watch ? ' "
" Golden Ticket " was voted the eleventh highest @-@ rated episode out of 26 from the fifth season , according to an episode poll at the fansite OfficeTally ; the episode was rated 8 @.@ 33 out of 10 .
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= Halden Prison =
Halden Prison ( Norwegian : Halden fengsel ) is a maximum @-@ security prison in Halden , Norway . It has three main units and receives prisoners from all over the world , but has no conventional security devices . The second @-@ largest prison in Norway , it was established in 2010 with a focus on rehabilitation ; its design simulates life outside the prison . Among other activities , sports and music are available to the prisoners , who interact with the unarmed staff to create a sense of community . Praised for its humane conditions , Halden Prison has received the Arnstein Arneberg Award for its interior design in 2010 and been the subject of a documentary , but has also received criticism for being too liberal .
= = Overview = =
Located in Halden , Østfold , Norway , Halden Prison was built over 10 years at a cost of 1 @.@ 5 billion Norwegian kroner ( $ 252 million / £ 15 million ) . The prison received its first inmates on March 1 , 2010 and was officially opened on April 8 by the Norwegian King Harald V. It is Norway 's second @-@ largest prison with a capacity of 248 – 252 prisoners and a site of 75 acres ( 30 ha ) .
A maximum @-@ security prison , it hosts dangerous as well as highly dangerous criminals , such as rapists , murderers , and child molesters . They compose half of the population , while a third of the residents are drug offenders . Sex offenders , who may face violence from other inmates , and prisoners who require close psychiatric or medical supervision , are located in Unit A , a restrictive and separated area . There is also a special unit ( C8 ) focused on addiction recovery . Most inmates live in Units B and C , which are freer and have mixed cell blocks . Halden Prison receives both domestic and international criminals ; as only around three @-@ fifths of the prisoners are Norwegians ( as of 2015 ) , both Norwegian and English are used , and the prison has English teachers . However , fluency in Norwegian is a requirement to live in C8 , because group and individual counseling is conducted in Norwegian .
There are no conventional security devices , such as barbed tape , electric fences , towers , or snipers . However , there is safety glass , a 6 meter × 1 @.@ 5 kilometer ( 6 @.@ 5 ft × 1 mi ) concrete and steel wall , and a system of underground tunnels which guards use to walk through the prison . Although there are surveillance cameras on the prison grounds , they are not present in the cells , the cell hallways , the common rooms , the classrooms , and most of the workshops . While there is little violence reported , almost exclusively in Unit A , officers try to prevent it . If two inmates have a dispute , they engage in a mediation session under staff supervision . If mediation fails , repeated misbehavior or rule violations are punished with cell confinement or prison transference .
= = Design = =
The prison was designed by the Danish group Erik Møller Architects and the British HLM Architects selected in a competition held by the Department of Justice and the Norwegian Directorate of Public Construction and Property to determine the designers of the building .
With a focus on rehabilitation , it was designed to simulate a village so that the prisoners can consider themselves part of society . The government believes that " the smaller the difference between life inside and outside the prison , the easier the transition from prison to freedom . " Interiors are painted and designed to demarcate the differences between home , school , and the workplace . In designing the prison 's interiors , the architects tried to separate the internal buildings to have prisoners walking , to strengthen their bond with the outside world . The hallways are tiled with Moroccan tiles or have large @-@ scale photographs , such as daffodils or Parisian streets .
Exteriors are composed of bricks , galvanized steel , and larch wood , instead of concrete . The black and red kiln @-@ fired bricks were inspired by the trees , mosses , and bedrock of the surroundings . Natural life , including birch , blueberry , and pine trees , also contribute to rehabilitation . The steel , a " hard " material , symbolizes detention , while the larch , a " soft " material , stands for rehabilitation and growth . The yard walls and toilet doors are decorated by a graffiti painting by the Norwegian artist Dolk , which was ordered by the prison from its 6 million kroner ( $ 1 million / £ 640 @,@ 000 ) art budget .
All aspects of the prison 's design aim to avoid psychological pressures , conflicts , and interpersonal friction . Despite this , the prison wall was designed for security . As the wall is visible everywhere , it was seen as a " symbol and an instrument " of " [ the prisoners ' ] punishment , taking away their freedom " , according to Gudrun Molden , one of its architects .
= = Prison life = =
Each prison cell is 10 square metres ( 110 sq ft ) and has a flat @-@ screen television , desk , mini @-@ fridge , toilet with shower , and unbarred vertical window that lets in more light . Every 10 – 12 cells share a common area with a kitchen and a living room ; the kitchen has stainless steel silverware , porcelain plates , and a dining table , and the living room has a modular couch and a video game system . While the prison provides food , the prisoners can also buy ingredients at its grocery shop and cook their own meals . Inmates are locked in their cells twelve hours a day , but they are encouraged to maximize their time outside . Prisoners have an incentive of 53 kroner ( $ 9 / £ 5 @.@ 60 ) a day to leave their cells . Are Høidal , the prison 's governor , stated that the fewer activities the prisoners have , the more aggressive they become . There is an " Activities House " , and from 8 a.m. to 8 p.m , there are practices on jogging trails and a soccer field , while wood working , cooking , and music classes are also offered . At the mixing studio , the inmates may record music and a monthly program broadcast by the local radio station . A library with books , magazines , CDs and DVDs ; a gym with a rock @-@ climbing wall ; and a chapel are also available . Prisoners even receive questionnaires asking how their prison experience can be improved .
Inmates are allowed to receive their families , partners , or friends privately twice a week for two hours . Individual rooms containing a sofa , sink , and cupboard with sheets , towels , and condoms are available for single @-@ person visits . For those with families , a larger room with toys and baby @-@ changing facilities is available . Inmates are checked after visits , and if illegal items are found , prisoners can lose their rights to private visits . This right is denied to high risk criminals and visitors with histories of drug offenses . There is also a separated , chalet @-@ style house where prisoners can receive visits from family members and stay with them for 24 hours . The house has a small kitchen , two bedrooms , a bathroom , a living room with a dining table , a sofa , and a television , as well as an outdoor play area with toys . Foreigners are not allowed and inmates have to complete a child @-@ development education program to have 24 @-@ hour @-@ long visits . During visits , staff make regular checks on the prisoners and their families .
= = Staff = =
As of 2012 , Halden had 340 staff members , including teachers , healthcare workers , personal trainers , and guards . The philosophy of " dynamic security " , which encourages the staff and the inmates to develop interpersonal relationships , helps prevent potential aggression and guarantees safety . Guards eat meals and play sports with the inmates , and are typically unarmed because guns can produce intimidation and social distance . The interaction between prisoners and the staff is designed " to create a sense of family , " according to architect Per Hojgaard Nielsen , and because the staff can be role models to help the inmates to recreate their sense of daily routine outside of prison walls . Half the guards are women , as Høidal thinks it minimizes aggression . The guard stations were also designed to be tiny and cramped , to encourage officers to interact more with the inmates .
= = Impact = =
Halden city 's inhabitants view the prison as a chance to find employment rather than a bad thing . Nina Margareta Høie of the web magazine The Nordic Page stated that the prison is " known for having the most humanly conditions in Europe , " while William Lee James of Time and Amelia Gentleman from The Guardian called it the world 's " most humane prison . " The BBC reported that the design of Scottish prison HMP Grampian was inspired by Halden .
In 2010 , Halden Prison 's interior design earned the Arnstein Arneberg Award . In 2014 , as part of Wim Wenders ' 3D documentary series Cathedrals of Culture , Michael Madsen directed a short film exploring how the prison 's design and architecture influence the re @-@ socialization process . That same year , another film on Halden Prison was produced : The Norden , a television film produced by Finnish Broadcasting Company , explored the reactions of James Conway , a former superintendent at New York 's Attica Correctional Facility , during a prison tour . Conway affirmed , " This is prison utopia . I don 't think you can go any more liberal — other than giving the inmates the keys . "
However , the conservative , right @-@ wing populist Progress Party has criticized Halden Prison . Foreigners in Norwegian prisons increased from 8 @.@ 6 percent in 2000 to 34 @.@ 2 percent in 2014 ; Per Sandberg , deputy leader of the party , attributes this to " Halden 's high standard " , arguing that Halden 's facilities should be reserved for Norwegian citizens . The party also contended that Halden 's quality of life is " better than in many nursing and retirement homes . "
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= Henrik Sedin =
Henrik Lars Sedin ( born 26 September 1980 ) is a Swedish professional ice hockey centre who currently serves as captain of the Vancouver Canucks of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . His identical twin brother Daniel also plays for the Canucks . Having played together throughout their careers , the pair are known for their effectiveness playing off one another . Henrik , a skilled passer , is known as the playmaker , while Daniel is known as the goalscorer . On 15 February 2013 , Henrik Sedin became the all @-@ time leading scorer for the Vancouver Canucks .
Henrik began his career in the Swedish Elite League with Modo Hockey in 1997 and was co @-@ recipient , with Daniel , of the 1999 Golden Puck as Swedish player of the year . Selected third overall — one pick after his brother Daniel — by the Canucks in the 1999 NHL Entry Draft , Henrik has spent his entire NHL career in Vancouver . After four seasons with the club , he became the Canucks ' top @-@ scoring centre in 2005 – 06 . He has since won three Cyrus H. McLean Trophies as the team 's leading point @-@ scorer ( from 2007 – 08 to 2009 – 10 ) and one Cyclone Taylor Award as the team 's most valuable player ( 2010 ) . In 2009 – 10 , he won the Hart Memorial Trophy as well as the Art Ross Trophy as the NHL 's most valuable player and leading point @-@ scorer , respectively . He was also named to the NHL First All @-@ Star Team that year and again in 2010 – 11 , a season that included an appearance in the Stanley Cup Finals , where Vancouver lost to the Boston Bruins in seven games . That summer , Henrik and Daniel were named co @-@ recipients of the Victoria Scholarship as Swedish athletes of the year .
Internationally , Henrik has competed for Sweden . He is a two @-@ time Olympian and helped Sweden to a gold medal at the 2006 Winter Games in Turin . In five appearances at the IIHF World Championships , he has won bronze medals in 1999 and 2001 and clinched the world title in 2013 . At the junior level , he appeared in one World U17 Hockey Challenge ( where he won silver ) , two European Junior and three World Junior Championships .
= = Early life = =
Henrik was born on 26 September 1980 in Örnsköldsvik , Sweden , six minutes before his identical twin brother , Daniel . The pair have two older brothers , Stefan and Peter . Their father , Tommy , is a school vice principal who played for Modo Hockey in the 1960s ; their mother , Tora , is a nurse . Henrik began playing organized hockey with Daniel when they were eight . They did not regularly play on the same line until Daniel switched from the center to the wing at the age of 14 . Henrik and Daniel attended high school at Nolaskolan Gymnasium in their hometown in Sweden while playing professionally for Modo Hockey .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Modo Hockey ( 1997 – 2000 ) = = =
Aged 16 , Henrik and Daniel Sedin began their professional careers in 1997 – 98 with Modo Hockey of the Swedish Elite League . Henrik recorded a goal and five points over 39 games during his rookie season . In his second year with Modo , he improved to 12 goals and 34 points , joint second in team scoring with Samuel Påhlsson , behind Daniel . At the end of the season , Henrik and Daniel were named co @-@ recipients of the Golden Puck , the Swedish player of the year award .
The Sedins were considered top prospects for the 1999 NHL Entry Draft . Rated as the top European prospects , they were expected to be top five selections and expressed a desire to play for the same team . Their agent , Mike Barnett , president of international talent agency IMG , presented them with two options to circumvent the usual NHL draft process , allowing them to play together . The first option was for the pair to enter the 1999 draft and not sign with their respective NHL clubs for two years , allowing them to become unrestricted free agents . This option required that they play junior ice hockey in North America , which was not their intention . Barnett also suggested that either Henrik or Daniel opt out of the 1999 draft , in the hope that the same team that selected the first twin would select the other the following year . On the possibility of the Sedins ' playing for separate teams , Vancouver Canucks scout Thomas Gradin commented , " They 're good enough to play with anyone , but separately their capacity might decrease by 10 or 15 percent . " Nevertheless , Henrik and Daniel both entered the 1999 draft expecting to be selected by separate teams . However , then @-@ Canucks General Manager Brian Burke already possessed the third overall pick and through a series of transactions he obtained the second overall pick . He used these second and third overall picks to select Daniel and Henrik , respectively . Gradin notified them of the Canucks ' intentions five minutes before the draft . Although then @-@ Tampa Bay Lightning General Manager Rick Dudley was ready to make Daniel his first overall choice before opening negotiations , he was convinced by Burke and Barnett that Daniel would not sign unless his brother was on the same team .
On 27 July 1999 , a month following the draft , Henrik and Daniel signed three @-@ year contracts with the Canucks . As the contract did not require them to begin playing in Vancouver immediately , they announced on 12 August they would return to Sweden to play one more season with Modo . During the 1999 – 2000 season , Henrik led Modo in scoring with 47 points in 50 games , two points ahead of Daniel . The two brothers played on a line with New York Islanders prospect Mattias Weinhandl .
= = = Vancouver Canucks ( 2000 – present ) = = =
= = = = 2000 – 2005 = = = =
The 2000 – 01 NHL season was Henrik 's first for the Canucks . His debut was the team 's first game of the campaign on 5 October 2000 , a 6 – 3 loss to the Philadelphia Flyers . With the game , Henrik and Daniel became the fourth pair of twins to have played in the NHL . Three days later , Henrik assisted on Daniel 's first career NHL goal in a 5 – 4 win against the Tampa Bay Lightning . The goal tied the game at 4 with 1 : 26 left in regulation . In a 5 – 2 win against the Toronto Maple Leafs on 16 October 2000 , Henrik scored his first NHL goal and added an assist on Daniel 's second career goal . Henrik tallied 29 points over the course of the campaign — second among team rookies to Daniel 's 34 points . He and Daniel played primarily on the Canucks ' third line .
Henrik improved to 36 points in his second NHL season ; he finished with five goals in his last six games , taking his season total to 16 . In the opening game of the 2002 Stanley Cup playoffs , Henrik scored the overtime winner against the first @-@ seeded Detroit Red Wings to put the Canucks 1 – 0 ahead in the series ; it was his first NHL playoff goal . Detroit went on to eliminate the Canucks in six games en route to winning the Stanley Cup . During the 2002 – 03 season , Henrik suffered a sprained left shoulder that forced him out of three games . He had sustained the injury during a game against the Edmonton Oilers on 14 December 2002 . Henrik also missed a game on 23 February 2003 because of a hand injury . He played 78 games during 2002 – 03 and finished the campaign with 39 points .
After their third NHL season , Henrik and Daniel were re @-@ signed to one @-@ year , US $ 1 @.@ 125 million contracts on 29 July 2003 . The Sedins began the 2003 – 04 season on a line with first @-@ year player Jason King . The trio were named the " Mattress Line " ( two twins and a King ) and formed the Canucks ' second scoring unit until King was reassigned to the team 's minor league affiliate midway through the season . On 7 November 2003 , St. Louis Blues forward Doug Weight was suspended four games without pay for a cross @-@ check he delivered to Henrik during a game the previous day ; Henrik was not injured . On 17 December 2003 , Henrik was a healthy scratch for the first and only time in his NHL career . He was also sidelined for five games in March 2004 due to sore ribs . Over 76 games , Henrik increased his points total over the previous season to 42 . During the off @-@ season , Henrik and Daniel were re @-@ signed to one @-@ year , US $ 1 @.@ 25 million contracts on 10 September 2004 .
During the 2004 – 05 lockout , Henrik returned to Sweden to play for Modo with Daniel and their Canucks teammate Markus Näslund . During a game against Mora IK on 20 November 2004 , Henrik received a slash that required a minor amputation to his left little finger . He finished the season with 36 points in 44 games , third in team scoring behind Peter Forsberg and Mattias Weinhandl .
= = = = 2005 – 2010 = = = =
As NHL play resumed in 2005 – 06 , Henrik returned to the Canucks and scored 75 points , finishing second in team scoring behind Markus Näslund , who had 79 points . His breakout season was sparked , in part , by the signing of winger Anson Carter , who played on the Sedins ' line and led the team in goal @-@ scoring . The trio matched the scoring pace of the Canucks ' top line of Näslund , Todd Bertuzzi and Brendan Morrison . Vancouver 's head coach at the time , Marc Crawford , recalled that season as marking the Sedins ' ascent as leaders on the team , stating , " By the end of that year , they definitely were our top guys . They had surpassed Näslund and Bertuzzi . " During the off @-@ season , Henrik and Daniel re @-@ signed with the Canucks to identical three @-@ year , $ 10 @.@ 75 million contracts on 30 June 2006 . Despite the team 's success with Carter , the Canucks did not re @-@ sign him ; he joined the Columbus Blue Jackets the following season .
In the 2006 – 07 season , Henrik established himself as the Canucks ' top @-@ line centre . Winger Taylor Pyatt , who had been acquired in a trade from the Buffalo Sabres during the off @-@ season , replaced Carter as the Sedins ' linemate and went on to score a career @-@ high 23 goals . For the fifth @-@ straight season , Henrik recorded a personal best , with 81 points ; he set a new Canucks record for assists in one season with 71 , beating the 62 by André Boudrias in 1974 – 75 . Henrik passed Boudrias on 25 March 2007 , with a three @-@ assist effort during a 5 – 4 loss to the Colorado Avalanche . In the opening game of the 2007 playoffs against the Dallas Stars , Henrik scored a game @-@ winning , quadruple @-@ overtime goal to end the sixth longest game in NHL history ( and longest in Canucks history ) at 138 minutes and six seconds of play . He struggled to produce offensively in his 12 games in the playoffs , however , managing four points as the Canucks were eliminated by the Anaheim Ducks in the second round .
Henrik was awarded his first NHL career penalty shot on 27 November 2007 , during a game against the Anaheim Ducks . His attempt was stopped by goaltender Jonas Hiller . In 2007 – 08 , Henrik was selected to play for the Western Conference in the 2008 All @-@ Star Game against the East , the first appearance of his career . He recorded two assists . He won his first Cyrus H. McLean Trophy as Vancouver 's leading scorer with 76 points . His 61 assists ranked fourth in the League for the second consecutive season .
The following season , Henrik scored 22 goals and 82 points , tying for the team lead in points with Daniel . Steve Bernier had been acquired in the 2008 off @-@ season in another trade with Buffalo and began the season on the top line with the Sedins . Bernier was later removed ; on 12 February 2009 , Head Coach Alain Vigneault moved Alexandre Burrows from the third line during a game against the Phoenix Coyotes . After recording 19 points and three game @-@ winning goals in March , Henrik was named the NHL 's Second Star of the Month . He added ten points over ten games in the 2009 playoffs , helping the Canucks advance to the second round , where they were defeated in six games by the Chicago Blackhawks .
Set to become unrestricted free agents on 1 July 2009 , Henrik and Daniel began negotiating with the Canucks in the off @-@ season and were reported to have asked for 12 @-@ year , $ 63 million contracts in mid @-@ June . With free agency looming , Canucks General Manager Mike Gillis travelled to Sweden to visit the Sedins , where they agreed on identical five @-@ year , $ 30 @.@ 5 million contracts on 1 July . On 30 September , Henrik was announced as one of the Canucks ' three alternate captains , replacing defenceman Mattias Öhlund , who had signed with Tampa Bay during the off @-@ season .
Four games into the 2009 – 10 season , Daniel suffered the first major injury of his career , breaking his foot in a game against the Montreal Canadiens . He was sidelined for 18 games , marking the first time in Henrik 's career that he played without his brother for an extended period . In Daniel 's absence , however , Henrik enjoyed a high @-@ scoring start to the season . On 14 November 2009 , he scored his first NHL career hat @-@ trick in an 8 – 2 win against the Colorado Avalanche . Leading up to Daniel 's 22 November return , Henrik scored seven goals in seven games . He continued his pace into December , recording a League @-@ leading 25 points ( five goals , 20 assists ) in 15 games to be named the NHL 's First Star of the Month . The following month , he was named Second Star , having recorded 25 points in 13 games . On 7 January 2010 , Henrik moved into top spot in the NHL scoring race , ahead of San Jose Sharks centre Joe Thornton with a three @-@ assist night against the Phoenix Coyotes . It marked the first time in nearly five years , since Näslund was tied with Robert Lang on 18 February 2004 , that a Canucks player held the League lead in scoring . During a 3 – 1 win against the Calgary Flames on 14 March , Henrik recorded his 416th career assist to pass Trevor Linden as Vancouver 's all @-@ time leader . On 27 March , he scored two assists against the San Jose Sharks to become the fourth Canuck in team history to record a 100 @-@ point season ( after Pavel Bure , Alexander Mogilny and Markus Näslund ) . He was named Third Star of the Month for March after scoring 24 points in 15 games .
Henrik entered the final game of the regular season , on 10 April against the Calgary Flames , one point behind Alexander Ovechkin for the NHL scoring lead . In a pre @-@ game ceremony , he was awarded the Canucks ' Cyclone Taylor Trophy , Cyrus H. McLean Trophy and Molson Cup as the team 's most valuable player , leading scorer and three @-@ star selection leader , respectively . He then went on to record four assists in a 7 – 3 win to finish the season with 112 points , passing Ovechkin for the season lead , while also breaking Pavel Bure 's franchise record of 110 points , set in 1992 – 93 . Ovechkin failed to register a point in his last game the next day , earning Henrik the League scoring title and making him the first Art Ross Trophy winner in Canucks history . With a League @-@ leading 83 assists , he also surpassed his own team record of 71 assists in one season . In the subsequent 2010 playoffs , Henrik added 14 points in 12 games . He scored the winning goal in game four against the Los Angeles Kings with under three minutes to go in regulation to tie the series at two games each . The Canucks went on to eliminate the Kings in six games before being ousted by the Blackhawks the following round for the second consecutive year .
On 19 May 2010 , The Sporting News named Henrik their 2009 – 10 Player of the Year . He received 108 first @-@ place votes out of the 353 NHL players , coaches and executives polled . Ovechkin received 86 first @-@ place votes while Sidney Crosby received 72 first @-@ place votes . Henrik was also voted by his countrymen in the league to receive the Viking Award as the NHL 's best Swedish player . At the NHL Awards Show the following month on 23 June , Henrik , Ovechkin and Crosby were up for both the Hart Memorial Trophy , awarded to the player deemed by the media to be the most valuable to his team , and the Ted Lindsay Award , given to the best player as voted by the NHL Players ' Association ( NHLPA ) . After losing the Ted Lindsay Award to Ovechkin , Henrik was awarded the Hart , becoming the first Canuck and second Swedish player ( after Peter Forsberg in 2003 ) to win the trophy . Henrik garnered 894 voting points , compared to Ovechkin 's 834 and Crosby 's 729 . He admitted afterwards to feeling like the underdog going into the awards ceremony , noting " [ Ovechkin and Crosby ] are the faces of the sport ... to be standing next to them as the old guy , it 's a strange feeling . " He was additionally named to the NHL First All @-@ Star Team ; at the same time , twin Daniel was named to the NHL Second All @-@ Star Team . It marked the first time since Phil and Tony Esposito in 1973 – 74 that two brothers were named post @-@ season NHL All @-@ Stars . They were also chosen to appear together on the cover of EA Sports ' European version of the NHL 11 video game .
= = = = 2010 – present : Captaincy = = = =
On 9 October 2010 , Henrik was named the Canucks ' 13th captain in team history during a pre @-@ game ceremony celebrating the start of the team 's 40th season . He succeeded Roberto Luongo , who had stepped down as team captain the previous month . Early in the 2010 – 11 season , he scored his first penalty shot goal on his second NHL career attempt on 1 November . Playing the New Jersey Devils , he scored on a backhand deke against goaltender Martin Brodeur . Midway through the campaign , he was chosen to his second career NHL All @-@ Star Game . Playing on Team Lidstrom opposite Daniel and teammate Ryan Kesler on Team Staal , Henrik helped his squad to an 11 – 10 win , recording two assists in the process . Finishing the season with 19 goals and a League @-@ leading 75 assists over 82 games , he ranked fourth in the NHL point @-@ scoring with 94 ; only brother Daniel , Martin St. Louis of the Tampa Bay Lightning and Corey Perry of the Anaheim Ducks finished ahead of him . With Daniel winning the League scoring title , the two became the first brothers to win the Art Ross Trophy in consecutive years . ( Chicago Blackhawks forwards Doug and Max Bentley also won separate scoring titles , but had achieved the feat three years apart in 1943 and 1946 , respectively . )
As the Canucks established a team @-@ record 54 wins and 117 points , they won their first Presidents ' Trophy as the team with the best regular season record . Entering the 2011 playoffs as the first seed in the West , the Canucks eliminated the Blackhawks and the Nashville Predators in seven and six games , respectively . In the third round against the San Jose Sharks , Henrik established a single @-@ game Canucks playoff record with four assists in Game 4 , leading the Canucks to a 4 – 2 win . His first three assists helped the Canucks set another team record for the fastest three goals scored in a playoff game ; all three were registered on 5 @-@ on @-@ 3 powerplays in a span of one minute and fifty @-@ five seconds . With his third assist of the game , Henrik set another team record with his 16th assist of the 2011 playoffs , surpassing Pavel Bure 's mark set in 1994 . With San Jose facing elmination the following game , Henrik recorded two more assists for his 11th and 12th points in the series , tying Bure for most in a single round by a Canucks player . Vancouver won the game 3 – 2 in double @-@ overtime to advance to the Stanley Cup Finals . Playing the Boston Bruins , the Canucks won the first two games of the series , but went on to lose four @-@ games @-@ to @-@ three . Henrik finished the post @-@ season with three goals and 22 points over 25 games , ranking second in playoff scoring behind Bruins centre David Krejčí . It was revealed following their defeat that Henrik had been playing a large portion of the playoffs with a back injury .
A week after Vancouver 's Game 7 loss , Henrik was on hand at the NHL Awards Ceremony in Las Vegas , having been nominated along with Daniel for the NHL Foundation Player Award for their charitable work . They lost the award to Los Angeles Kings captain Dustin Brown . For his regular season efforts , Henrik was named to the NHL First All @-@ Star Team for a second consecutive year , alongside Daniel , who earned the distinction for the first time . Returning to Sweden in the off @-@ season , Henrik and Daniel were co @-@ recipients of the Victoria Scholarship as the country 's athletes of the year . They became the third and fourth ice hockey players to receive the award , after Stefan Persson in 1980 and Peter Forsberg in 1994 . Henrik and Daniel were presented the award , commemorated with glass plates , on 14 July 2011 , in the city of Borgholm .
Playing in the 2011 – 12 season opener , Henrik dressed for his 500th consecutive NHL regular season game , having not missed a contest since returning from a rib injury on 21 March 2004 . Almost three months later , he surpassed Brendan Morrison 's Canucks record of 534 consecutive games played in a 5 – 2 win against the Edmonton Oilers on 26 December 2011 . The previous game , in which he tied the record , was played against Morrison 's Calgary Flames . At the end of the month , Henrik was named the NHL 's Third Star for December , having recorded 22 points ( two goals and 20 assists ) over 15 games ( a League @-@ high total for the month ) . At the mid @-@ season mark , Henrik was named to his third NHL All @-@ Star Game in January 2012 . He was one of four players representing the Canucks , including Daniel , Alexander Edler and Cody Hodgson , who was named as a rookie . With the exception of Hodgson , all the Canucks All @-@ Stars were selected to Team Alfredsson . Henrik went on to record a goal and two assists in a 12 – 9 loss to Team Chara . Shortly after the All @-@ Star break , Henrik injured his foot while blocking a shot from Predators defenceman Kevin Klein on 7 February . He briefly left the game and while a subsequent CT scan revealed no fracture , he remained questionable for the following contest before eventually playing through the ailment . Later that month , Henrik began a streak that saw him go eight games without a point for the first time since the 2003 – 04 season . Near the end of the regular season , Daniel sustained a concussion during a game against Chicago , forcing Henrik to play without his brother for the final nine contests of the campaign . During that span , he recorded 11 points , leading the Canucks to eight wins and one loss . The season @-@ ending streak helped the Canucks to their second consecutive Presidents ' Trophy , clinching the championship on the last game of the campaign , a 3 – 0 win against the Edmonton Oilers . During the contest , Henrik broke a 22 @-@ game goalless streak with the game @-@ winner . With 67 assists , he led the League for a third consecutive season , becoming the fifth player in NHL history to do so , after Joe Thornton ( 2005 – 08 ) , Wayne Gretzky ( 1979 – 92 ) , Bobby Orr ( 1969 – 72 ) and Stan Mikita ( 1964 – 67 ) . Though his points total dropped to 81 , which ranked ninth in the NHL , he led the Canucks in scoring and was voted the team MVP .
The Canucks entered the 2012 playoffs against the eighth @-@ seeded Los Angeles Kings . With Daniel out with a concussion Vancouver lost the first two games . In Game 3 , Henrik received a hard hit from Kings ' forward Dustin Brown — he had to be helped onto the bench following the hit and went to the locker room for six minutes . Despite later returning to the game , the Canucks lost 1 – 0 . With Daniel back in the lineup for Game 4 , Henrik registered a goal and an assist in a 3 – 1 Canucks ' victory . Facing elimination in Game 5 , Henrik scored a power play goal late in the first period to give Vancouver the early lead , though Canucks were unable to add another goal and eventually lost 2 – 1 in overtime . Henrik finished the playoffs with two goals and five points to lead the team in scoring .
Despite another lockout beginning on 15 September 2012 , the Sedins decided that they would only return to Modo , now managed by former teammate Markus Näslund , if the entire 2012 – 13 season wound up cancelled . Instead , the shortened season begun on January 2013 , and during it Henrik passed Näslund as the franchise 's all @-@ time leading scorer with 757 points . After scoring the record @-@ setting point , Sedin was given a standing ovation that carried on as play continued . After three minutes , the play stopped and Sedin saluted the crowd . During a commercial break , the Canucks ran a tribute video for the accomplishment , featuring congratulations from Näslund and Trevor Linden , the third @-@ leading scorer in team history . In the final game of the season , Head Coach Alain Vigneault wanted to rest his regulars ahead of the playoffs . However , he played Henrik in the game though only for 22 seconds ; he left the bench after just one shift . For his part , Henrik told Vigneault that " he would be okay with sitting out the game " and to him the streak is just " a number in the paper . " Vigneault responded by telling Sedin that " he 's not going to be the one that breaks the streak " , and he gave him the choice to remain on the bench or return to the locker room . Sedin felt remaining on the bench would have been a further distraction and chose to leave . Henrik finished the season with 11 goals and 45 points in 48 games .
As of the end of the 2012 – 13 season , six 2003 – 04 season regular @-@ season games plus four regular @-@ season games in the previous season are the only NHL games he had missed in the regular season or play @-@ offs throughout his NHL career of 1 @,@ 039 games , to that point . Through the end of the 2012 – 13 season Henrik trailed only St. Louis Blues defenceman Jay Bouwmeester among active NHL ironman streaks ; Bouwmeester had played in six more consecutive regular season games than Henrik 's 629 . On 21 January 2014 , Sedin 's consecutive regular season games streak ended at 679 games due to a rib injury sustained 16 January when he was cross @-@ checked in Phoenix by Coyotes forward Martin Hanzal .
At the beginning of the 2013 – 14 season , the Sedins signed matching $ 28 million contract extensions to play four more years with the Canucks . Sedin played his 1,000th NHL game against the Winnipeg Jets on 12 March 2014 , becoming only the second player in franchise history to reach that milestone . His brother Daniel reached the same milestone early in the 2014 – 15 season . On 3 March 2015 , against the San Jose Sharks , Sedin scored his 900th point , a goal in the second period of the game . He is the 101st player to reach this milestone . Sedin became the first player in Canucks history to record 900 points with the team . On 6 April 2015 , Sedin scored his 700th career assist against the Los Angeles Kings . Henrik surpassed Trevor Linden for most regular season games played in a Canucks uniform on February 13 , 2016 during a game against the Toronto Maple Leafs .
= = International play = =
Henrik played for the first time in North America with Sweden 's national under @-@ 17 team at the 1997 World U17 Hockey Challenge , held in Alberta . Recording 20 points ( 12 goals and eight assists ) over six games , he helped Sweden to a silver medal . After going undefeated in five contests , they were defeated in the gold medal game by Team Ontario , 6 – 2 .
Henrik competed for Sweden at the 1997 European Junior Championships , recording three goals and seven points over six games . He joined Sweden for the 1998 European Junior Championships , the final game of which required Sweden to beat Russia by four goals to surpass Finland in goal differential and win the gold medal . Henrik recorded a goal and an assist against Russia as Sweden won 5 – 1 .
In his NHL draft year , Henrik competed for Sweden at the 1999 World Junior Championships in Winnipeg , Manitoba . He recorded nine points in six games , fifth in tournament scoring and second in team scoring to brother Daniel , as Sweden failed to win a medal . Later that year , Henrik made his international debut for the Swedish men 's team at the 1999 World Championships in Norway . He scored no points in eight games as Sweden won the bronze medal .
In 2000 , Henrik once again competed in both the World Junior and Senior Championships . At the junior tournament in Sweden , Henrik led the tournament with 13 points in seven games , but Sweden did not earn a medal . At the World Championships , Henrik recorded five points as Sweden again failed to medal .
Following his rookie season with the Vancouver Canucks , Henrik made his third World Championships appearance , in 2001 in Germany . He earned his second bronze medal in three years as Sweden defeated the United States 3 – 2 in the bronze medal game . He made a fourth tournament appearance at the 2005 World Championships in Austria . Sweden missed out on the bronze medal , losing to Russia 6 – 3 . Henrik had a goal and an assist in a losing effort during the bronze medal game . He finished the tournament with two goals and six points in nine games .
On 22 December 2005 , Henrik was named to the Swedish Olympic team for the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin . He joined Daniel , Markus Näslund and Mattias Öhlund as one of four Canucks on the squad . Competing in his first Olympics , he contributed four points as Sweden won a gold medal , defeating Finland 3 – 2 in the final . Four years later , Henrik was once again named to the Swedish Olympic team for the 2010 Winter Games in Vancouver . Unlike the previous Olympics , Henrik went into the 2010 tournament as one of Sweden 's key players : at the time of the roster announcement on 27 December 2009 , he led all Swedish players in NHL scoring . Sweden failed to defend their gold medal from Turin , however , losing to Slovakia in the tournament quarterfinal . Henrik had two assists in four games .
= = Playing style = =
Throughout his career , Henrik has scored markedly more assists than goals . Known as a playmaker , he starts play sequences that lead to goals with passes to his teammates . Many of the plays he generates are created off the cycle . Henrik 's familiarity with Daniel 's play enhances his effectiveness ; the pair are known for their ability to find each other intuitively with passes , often without looking .
Beginning around the 2008 – 09 season , Henrik began to expand his skill @-@ set by scoring more goals . His increased tendency to shoot was given an extra push when Daniel suffered the first major injury of his career early in the 2009 – 10 season , forcing Henrik to play without his brother and consequently pass less often . He recorded the first two 20 @-@ goal seasons of his career in 2008 – 09 and 2009 – 10 , and increased his shot totals .
With his offensive skill the prime component of his game , Henrik is known to avoid initiating contact with opposing players . Early in their career , he and Daniel were knocked off the puck easily , As a result , players have often taken advantage of the brothers ' lack of physicality by playing aggressively against them . This once led Canucks General Manager Brian Burke to publicly complain , commenting during a 2002 playoff series against the Detroit Red Wings , " ' Sedin ' is not Swedish for ' punch me or headlock me in a scrum ' . " As their careers progressed , the Sedins have worked on their strength , improving their puck possession and allowing them to play more effectively .
= = Personal life = =
Henrik is married to Johanna Sedin ; they have two sons : Valter , who was born in 2006 in Vancouver and Harry , who was born on 12 May 2010 . They live together in the city 's Yaletown neighbourhood , and return to Sweden during the off @-@ season . In March 2010 , Henrik and Johanna made a joint $ 1 @.@ 5 million donation , with Daniel and his wife Marinette , to the BC Children 's Hospital 's $ 200 million project for a new building ; the two families requested that it be put towards a pediatric intensive @-@ care unit and a diagnostic imaging area . Henrik commented that it was something he and his wife had wanted to do since Valter was born .
Henrik and Daniel Sedin are devoted harness racing fans and race horse owners . Their most successful trotter so far is the 2013 Elitloppet winner Nahar .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
Bolded numbers indicate season leader .
= = = International = = =
= = = NHL All @-@ Star Games = = =
= = Awards = =
= = = Sweden = = =
= = = International = = =
= = = NHL = = =
= = = Vancouver Canucks = = =
= = Records = =
Vancouver Canucks ' franchise record for all @-@ time assists – 704 as of 2014 – 15 ( surpassed Trevor Linden 's 415 assists on 14 March 2010 )
Vancouver Canucks ' franchise record for assists in one season – 83 ( 2009 – 10 ) ( surpassed his own 71 assists in 2006 – 07 )
Vancouver Canucks ' franchise record for points in one season – 112 ( 2009 – 10 ) ( surpassed Pavel Bure 's 110 points in 1992 – 93 )
Vancouver Canucks ' franchise record for most consecutive regular season games played – 679 ( streak ended by bruised rib injury 18 January 2014 ; sixth @-@ longest streak in NHL history as of that date )
Vancouver Canucks ' franchise record for all @-@ time leading scorer – 757 points ( set 15 February 2013 ; surpassed Markus Näslund 's 756 points ) .
= = Transactions = =
June 26 , 1999 – Drafted by the Vancouver Canucks in the first round , third overall , in the 1999 NHL Entry Draft ;
27 July 1999 – Signed with the Canucks to a three @-@ year contract ;
29 July 2003 – Re @-@ signed with the Canucks to a one @-@ year , $ 1 @.@ 125 million contract ;
10 September 2004 – Re @-@ signed with the Canucks to a one @-@ year contract ;
30 June 2006 – Re @-@ signed with the Canucks to a three @-@ year , $ 10 @.@ 75 million contract ;
1 July 2009 – Re @-@ signed with the Canucks to a five @-@ year , $ 30 @.@ 5 million contract ;
1 November 2013 – Re @-@ signed with the Canucks to a four @-@ year , $ 28 million contract .
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= IPhone 6 =
The iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus are smartphones designed and marketed by Apple Inc . The devices are part of the iPhone series and were announced on September 9 , 2014 , and released on September 19 , 2014 . The iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus jointly serve as successors to the iPhone 5c and iPhone 5s .
The iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus include a number of changes over their predecessor , including models with larger 4 @.@ 7 and 5 @.@ 5 inches ( 120 and 140 mm ) displays , a faster processor , upgraded cameras , improved LTE and Wi @-@ Fi connectivity and support for a near field communications @-@ based mobile payments offering .
Pre @-@ orders of the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus exceeded four million within its first 24 hours of availability — an Apple record . More than ten million iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus devices were sold in the first three days , another Apple record .
= = History = =
Since the launch of the original iPhone , the majority of iPhone models have used 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch displays — which are smaller than screens used by flagship phones from competitors . The last change in size for the iPhone series came with the iPhone 5 ; the phone and its immediate successors featured a display that was taller , but the same width as prior models , measuring at 4 inches diagonally . Following Apple 's loss in smartphone market share to companies producing phones with larger displays , reports as early as January 2014 suggested that Apple was preparing to launch new iPhone models with larger , 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch and 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch displays . Reports prior to its unveiling also speculated that Apple might use a new iPhone model to introduce a mobile payments platform using near @-@ field communications — a technology that has been incorporated into many Android phones , but has experienced a low adoption rate among users .
The iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus were officially unveiled during a press event at the Flint Center for Performing Arts in Cupertino , California on September 9 , 2014 . The event featured other previously rumored product announcements by Apple alongside the new iPhone models , including the Apple Pay mobile payment platform , and the company 's entry into the wearable computing market with the Apple Watch smart watch .
The iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus were unveiled on September 9 , 2014 and released on September 19 , 2014 ; pre @-@ orders began on September 12 , 2014 , with the iPhone 6 starting at US $ 649 and the iPhone 6 Plus starting at US $ 749 . In China , where the iPhone 5c and 5s were the first models in the iPhone series to be released in the country on the same day as their international launch , Apple notified local wireless carriers that it would be unable to release the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus on the 19th because there were " details which are not ready " ; local media reported that the devices had not yet been approved by the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology , and earlier in the year , a news report by state broadcaster China Central Television alleged that iPhone devices were a threat to national security because iOS 7 's " frequent locations " function could expose " state secrets . "
In August 2015 Apple admitted that some iPhone 6 Plus may have faulty cameras that could be causing photos to look blurry and initiated a replacement program .
On September 9 , 2015 the 128 GB version of both the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus was discontinued along with the gold version of both phones , the 16 GB and 64 GB versions of the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus in silver and space gray remain available for sale at a reduced price due to the release of the iPhone 6s and iPhone 6s Plus flagship devices .
In June 2016 , Apple faced a potential sales ban in China , as Shenzhen Baili , a Chinese device maker , alleged that the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus infringed on its design patent .
Apple did not use Corning 's Gorilla Glass for the iPhone 6 screen .
= = Specifications = =
= = = Hardware = = =
The design of the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus are influenced by that of the iPad Air with a glass front that is curved around the edges of the display , and an aluminum rear that contains two plastic strips for the antenna . Both models come in gold , silver , and " space gray " finishes . The iPhone 6 has a thickness of 6 @.@ 9 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 27 in ) , while the iPhone 6 Plus is 7 @.@ 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 28 in ) in thickness ; both are thinner than the iPhone 5c and iPhone 5s , with the iPhone 6 being Apple 's thinnest phone to date . The most significant changes to the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus are its displays ; both branded as " Retina HD Display " and " ion @-@ strengthened " , the iPhone 6 display is 4 @.@ 7 inches in size with a 16 : 9 resolution of 1334x750 ( 326 ppi , minus one row of pixels ) , while the iPhone 6 Plus includes a 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch 1920x1080 ( 1080p ) display ( 401 PPI ) . The displays use a multiple @-@ domain LCD panel , dubbed " dual @-@ domain pixels " ; the RGB pixels themselves are skewed in pattern , so that every pixel is seen from a different angle . This technique helps improve the viewing angles of the display .
To accommodate the larger physical size of the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus , the power button was moved to the side of the phone instead of the top to improve its accessibility . The iPhone 6 features a 6 @.@ 91 Wh ( 1810 mAh ) battery , while the iPhone 6 Plus features an 11 @.@ 1 Wh ( 2915 mAh ) battery . Unlike the previous model , the rear @-@ facing camera is not flush with the rear of the device , and has a slight " bulge " around the lens . It has a dual @-@ core 1 @.@ 4 GHz " Typhoon " processor ( ARM v8 @-@ based ) and Imagination 's PowerVR GX6450 quad @-@ core graphics processor .
Both models include an Apple A8 system @-@ on @-@ chip , and an M8 motion co @-@ processor — an update of the M7 chip from the iPhone 5s . The main difference between the M8 and the original M7 coprocessor is that the M8 also includes a barometer to measure altitude changes . Phil Schiller touted that the A8 chip would provide , in comparison to the 5s , a 25 % increase in CPU performance , a 50 % increase in graphics performance , and less heat output . Early hands @-@ on reports suggested that the A8 's GPU performance might indeed break away from previous generations doubling of performance at each yearly release , scoring 21204 @.@ 26 in Base mark X compared to 20253 @.@ 80 , 10973 @.@ 36 and 5034 @.@ 75 on respectively the 5s , 5 and 4s .
The expanded LTE connectivity on the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus is improved to LTE Advanced , with support for over 20 LTE bands ( 7 more than the iPhone 5s ) , for up to 150 Mbit / s download speed , and VoLTE support . Wi @-@ Fi performance has been improved with support for 802.11ac specifications , providing speeds up to 433 @.@ 0581 Mbit / s — which is up to 3 times faster than 802.11n , along with Wi @-@ Fi Calling support where available . The iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus add support for near @-@ field communications ( NFC ) , which is used exclusively for Apple Pay — a new mobile payments system which will allow users to store their credit cards in Passbook for use with online payments and retail purchases over NFC . NFC support is restricted to Apple Pay only , and cannot be used for any other purposes ( such as sharing content with other iPhone users ) .
While still 8 megapixels in size , the iPhone 6 's rear @-@ facing camera includes a new sensor which , like the camera in the iPhone 5s , has 1 @.@ 5 micron pixels , an f / 2 @.@ 2 aperture lens , and the ability to shoot 1080p video at either 30 or 60 frames per second . The camera also includes phase detection autofocus . It can also record slow @-@ motion video at either 120 or 240 frames per second . The iPhone 6 Plus camera is nearly identical , but also includes optical image stabilization . The front @-@ facing camera was also updated with a new sensor and f / 2 @.@ 2 aperture , along with support for burst and HDR modes .
= = = Software = = =
When first released , the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus shipped pre @-@ loaded with iOS 8 , while the iPhone 5s shipped pre @-@ loaded with iOS 7 . Apps are able to take advantage of the increased screen size in the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus to display more information on @-@ screen ; for example , the Mail app uses a dual @-@ pane layout similar to its iPad version when the device is in landscape mode on the iPhone 6 Plus . As it uses an identical aspect ratio , apps designed for the iPhone 5 , iPhone 5c , and 5s can be upscaled for use on the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus . To improve the usability of the devices ' larger screens , an additional " Reachability " gesture was added ; double @-@ tapping the Home button will slide the top half of the screen 's contents down to the bottom half of the screen . This function allows users to reach buttons located near the top of the screen , such as a " Back " button in the top @-@ left corner .
= = Reception = =
Both iPhone 6 models received generally positive reviews . Re / code called it " the best smartphone you can buy " . TechRadar praised the iPhone 6 's " brilliant " design , improved battery life over the 5s , iOS 8 for being " smarter and more intuitive than ever " , along with the quality of its camera . However , the plastic antenna strips on the rear of the phone were criticized for resulting in poor aesthetics , the display for having lower resolution and pixel density in comparison to other recent smartphones – including those with the same physical screen size as the iPhone 6 , such as the HTC One , and for not having a sufficient justification for its significantly higher price in comparison to similar devices running Android or Windows Phone . The Verge considered the iPhone 6 to be " simply and cleanly designed " in comparison to the 5s , noting that the phone still felt usable despite its larger size , but criticized the antenna plastic , the protruding camera lens ( which prevents the device from sitting flat without a case ) , and the lack of additional optimization in the operating system for the bigger screen . Improvements such as performance , battery life , VoLTE support , and other tweaks were also noted . In conclusion , the iPhone 6 was considered " good , even great , but there ’ s little about it that ’ s truly ambitious or truly moving the needle . It ’ s just a refinement of a lot of existing ideas into a much more pleasant package " .
In regards to the 6 Plus , Engadget panned the device 's design for feeling uncomfortable to hold and harder to grip in comparison to other devices such as the Galaxy Note 3 and LG G3 , but praised its inclusion of optical image stabilization and slightly better battery life than the 6 .
= = Controversies = =
The iPhone 6 and 6 Plus were affected by a number of notable hardware @-@ related issues :
= = = Chassis bending = = =
Shortly after its public release , it was reported that the iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus chassis was susceptible to bending under pressure , such as when carried tightly in a user 's pocket . While such issues are not exclusive to the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus , the design flaw came to be known among social media users as " bendgate . " A study by Consumer Reports found the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus were slightly more durable than the HTC One , but considerably less durable than the other phones tested .
Apple responded to the bending allegations , stating that they had only received nine complaints of bent devices , and that the damage occurring due to regular use is " extremely rare . " The company maintained that the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus went through durability testing to ensure they would stand up to daily use . The company offered to replace phones that were bent , if it is determined that the bending was unintentional .
On October 1 , 2014 , it was reported by Axel Telzerowm , editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the German technology magazine Computer Bild , that following the posting of a video where a presenter was able to bend an iPhone 6 Plus , an Apple Germany representative informed the publication that it had been banned from future Apple events and that it would no longer receive devices directly from Apple for testing . Telzerowm responded by saying that " we congratulate you to your fine new generation of iPhones , even if one of them has a minor weakness with its casing . But we are deeply disappointed about the lack of respect of your company . "
= = = Hair ripping = = =
On October 3 , 2014 9to5Mac released a post claiming that certain iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus users complained on social networking sites that the phone ripped off their hair when they held the phone close to their ears when making a call or taking a call . Twitter users claimed that the seam between the glass screen and aluminium back of the iPhone 6 is to blame , with hair becoming caught within it .
= = = Flash storage performance = = =
Some users reported that 64 and 128 GB iPhone 6 models had experienced performance issues , and that some 128 GB iPhone 6 Plus models would , in rare cases , randomly crash and reboot . Business Korea reported that the issues were connected to the triple @-@ layer cell NAND storage of the affected models . Triple @-@ layer cells can store three bits of data per cell of flash , and are cheaper than dual @-@ layer cell solutions , but at the cost of performance . It was reported that Apple had planned to switch the affected model lines back to multi @-@ layer cell flash , and address the performance issues on existing devices in a future iOS update .
= = = 6 Plus camera issues = = =
It was reported that the optical image stabilization systems on some iPhone 6 Plus models were faulty , failing to properly stabilize when the phone is being held perfectly still , leading to blurry photos and " wavy " -looking videos . The optical image stabilization system was also found to have been affected by accessories that use magnets , such as third @-@ party lens attachments ; Apple issued advisories to users and its licensed accessory makers , warning that magnetic or metallic accessories can cause the OIS to malfunction .
On August 21 , 2015 , Apple instituted a repair program for iPhone 6 Plus models released between September 2014 and January 2015 , citing that faulty rear cameras on affected models may produce blurry pictures .
Some iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus models have an issue where the front facing camera is somehow " shifted " , or out of place . Apple has said that they will replace most iPhone 6 's with this issue , free of charge . Many people have complained of this issue , but it does not seem to actually affect the camera itself . It is said that the camera is not what has shifted , but a piece of protective foam around the camera module itself that has gone out of place .
= = = " Error 53 " = = =
If the iPhone 6 home button is repaired or modified by a third @-@ party , the device will fail security checks related to Touch ID as the components had not been " re @-@ validated " for security reasons — a process which can only be performed by an authorized Apple outlet . Failing these checks disables all features related to Touch ID . Such effects have sometimes happened as a result of damage as well .
It was reported these same hardware integrity checks would trigger an unrecoverable loop into " Recovery Mode " if iOS is updated or restored , with attempts to restore the device via iTunes PC software resulting in an " error 53 " message . Beyond the explanation that this is related to hardware integrity errors regarding Touch ID components , Apple provided no official explanation of what specifically triggers error 53 or how it can be fixed without replacing the entire device .
On February 18 , 2016 , Apple released an iOS 9 @.@ 2 @.@ 1 patch through iTunes which addresses this issue , and admitted that error 53 was actually related to a diagnostic check for inspecting the Touch ID hardware before an iPhone is shipped from its factories .
= = Sales = =
Apple Inc. announced that , within 24 hours of availability , over 4 million pre @-@ orders of the iPhone 6 and 6 Plus were made , exceeding the supply available . More than 10 million iPhone 6 and iPhone 6 Plus devices were sold in the first three days .
= = Timeline of models = =
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= Raid on Grand Pré =
The Raid on Grand Pré was the major action of a raiding expedition conducted by New England militia Colonel Benjamin Church against French Acadia in June 1704 , during Queen Anne 's War . The expedition was in retaliation for a French and Indian raid against the Massachusetts frontier community of Deerfield earlier that year .
Departing Boston on 25 May 1704 with 500 provincial militia and some Indian allies , the expedition reached the Minas Basin on 24 June , after raiding smaller settlements at Penobscot Bay and Passamaquoddy Bay . Although he lost surprise due to the famously high tides of the Bay of Fundy , Church quickly gained control of Grand @-@ Pré , and spent three days destroying the town and attempting to destroy the dikes and levees that protected its croplands . The croplands were flooded by salt water , but the local Acadians quickly repaired the dikes after the raiders left , and the land was returned to production . Church continued his raiding expedition , striking at Beaubassin and other communities before finally returning to Boston in late July .
= = Context = =
When the War of the Spanish Succession ( also called Queen Anne 's War ) widened to include England in 1702 , it spawned conflict between the colonies of England and France in North America . Joseph Dudley , the governor of the English Province of Massachusetts Bay ( which then included present @-@ day Maine ) , sought in June 1703 to ensure the neutrality of the Abenakis who occupied the frontier between Massachusetts and New France . In this he was unsuccessful , because New France 's Governor Philippe de Rigaud Vaudreuil , knowing he would have to rely on Indian support for defense against the more numerous English , had already encouraged the Indians to take up the hatchet . Following the Wabanaki Confederacy of Acadia military campaign against the New England frontier during the summer of 1703 , the English colonists embarked on largely unsuccessful retaliatory raids against Abenaki villages . This prompted the Abenakis to participate in a raid on Deerfield , Massachusetts under French leadership in February 1704 . The severity of this raid ( more than 50 villagers killed and more than 100 captured ) prompted calls for revenge , and the veteran Indian fighter Benjamin Church offered his services for an expedition against the French colony of Acadia ( roughly present @-@ day Nova Scotia , New Brunswick , and eastern Maine ) .
Acadia was at the time dominated by a series of settlements dotting the shores of the Bay of Fundy and its adjacent bays . Its principal settlement and capital , Port Royal , was the only significantly fortified community , defended by a star fort with a modest garrison . The land at the top of the bay , on the shores of the Minas and Cumberland Basins was one of the major seats of food production in the colony , and Grand Pré was one of the largest and most successful communities on the Minas Basin , with a population of about 500 in 1701 . French settlers to the area had brought with them knowledge on the constructions of dikes and levees , which they used to drain marshlands for agriculture , and to protect those lands from the inflow of the exceptionally high tides ( over 6 meters , or 20 feet , in some places ) for which the Bay of Fundy is well known . The community of Beaubassin was the largest of several towns situated on the Isthmus of Chignecto and elsewhere on the shores of the Cumberland Basin .
= = Start of the expedition = =
Church had previously led expeditions against Acadia during King William 's War , and Governor Dudley issued him a colonel 's commission for the effort , giving him specific orders to obtain Acadian prisoners that could be exchanged for the English prisoners taken in the Deerfield raid . The expedition was also to be one of punishment : " Use all possible methods for the burning and destroying of the enemies houses and breaking the dams of their corn grounds , and make what other spoil you can upon them " . Dudley , however , specifically denied Church permission to attack Port Royal , the Acadian capital , citing the need to get permission from London before taking such a step .
The force Church raised consisted of about 500 volunteers from coastal areas of Massachusetts , including some Indians . He left Boston on 15 / 26 May with fourteen transports and three warships . The warships include the Royal Navy vessels HMS Adventure , HMS Jersey ( 42 guns ) and HMS Gosport ( 32 ) , which were also accompanied by the Massachusetts Province Galley of Cyprian Southack . ( Church took a former prisoner of the Maliseet , John Gyles as his translator . )
The expedition first sailed for Mount Desert Island , near the entrance to Penobscot Bay . Church sent a force to raid Pentagoet ( present @-@ day Castine , Maine ) , where the Frenchman Baron Saint @-@ Castin had a fortified trading post . Saint @-@ Castin was absent , but Church took prisoner his daughter and her children . He also learned that a new French settlement was being built at Passamaquoddy Bay , so the expedition next sailed for that destination . Church sent a small force ashore near present @-@ day St. Stephen , New Brunswick , where they destroyed a house and raided a nearby Maliseet encampment , killing one Indian . Church then separated the warships , sending them to blockade the Digby Gut in the hopes of capturing a French supply ship , while the bulk of the expedition sailed for Grand Pré . The three ship captains on 24 June demanded the surrender of the garrison at Port Royal , threatening a frontal assault with 1 @,@ 700 New Englanders and " Sauvages " . Governor Jacques @-@ François de Monbeton de Brouillan , despite defenses in poor conditions and a garrison of only 150 able men , saw through the bluff and refused . Historian George Rawlyk speculates that Governor Dudley may have intentionally asked them to make this bluff without Church 's involvement .
= = Grand Pré = =
The principal detailed account of these events was provided by Colonel Church in his memoirs , first published in 1716 . French military officers later summarized the damage caused by the raiders .
= = = Day 1 : Arrival = = =
On 24 June / 3 July 1704 , Church arrived at Grand Pré on the frigate Adventure . Hoping to take advantage of the element of surprise , Church secretly approached the village from behind the heavily wooded Boot Island . His men unloaded the whaleboats to go ashore late in the day and started to move quickly toward the village . Church sent Lieut . Giles ahead with a flag of truce and a written notice demanding the village 's complete surrender .
We do also declare , that we have already made some beginnings of killing and scalping some Canada men , which we have not been wont to do or allow , and are now come with a great number of English and Indians , all volunteers , with resolutions to subdue you , and make you sensible of your cruelties to us , by treating you after the same manner .
Church stipulated the Acadians and Mi 'kmaq had one hour to surrender . Although he expected to reach the village by the time the hour had past , Church 's force became delayed by stream crossings made more difficult by the receding tide : " But meeting with several creeks near twenty or thirty feet deep , which were very muddy and dirty , so that the army could not get over them , were obliged to return to their boats again . "
Because Church 's forces were stuck in the mud exposed by the retreating tide , they lost any element of surprise , and the Acadians took the opportunity to evacuate Grand Pré with some of their cattle and the " best of their goods " . Church 's forces waited in their boats for the tide to rise . Church expected the high stream banks to provide some cover , but when tide rose that night , it was so high that the boats were exposed to gunfire from the local militia , who had gathered in the woods along the banks . According to Church , the Acadians and Mi 'kmaq " fired smartly at our forces " . Church had a small cannon on his boat , which he used to fire grape shot at the attackers on the shore , who withdrew , suffering one Mi 'kmaq killed and several wounded . Church 's forces then waited out the rest of the night .
= = = Day 2 : Inhabitants driven off = = =
Having withdrawn from the village , the next morning the Acadian and Mi 'kmaq militia waited in the woods for Church and his men to arrive . At the break of day , the New Englanders again set off toward the village , under orders from Church to drive any resistance before them . The largest body of defenders fired on the raiders ' right flank from behind trees and logs , but their fire was ineffective and they were driven off . The raiders then entered the village and began plundering . Some of the men broke into the liquor stores they found and began drinking , but Colonel Church quickly put a stop to that activity . They spent the rest of the day destroying much of the village . According to one of Church 's dispatches , they destroyed 60 houses , 6 mills , and many barns , along with about 70 cattle .
At one point some of the men noticed that some of the Acadians were nearby , driving off some of their cattle . Church detached Lieutenant Barker and some men to give chase , warning them to advance with care . However , Barker was somewhat rash in pursuing the chase , and he and another man were killed before the raiders retreated back to the village .
That evening the raiders built a fortification out of logs while burning the church and the rest of the village . Church reported that " the whole town seemed to be on fire all at once . " All but one home was burned .
= = = Day 3 : Destruction of the harvest = = =
On the morning of the third day , Church gave the orders to destroy the dykes and , in turn , all of the crops . Seven dykes were broken , destroying most of the harvest and ruining over 200 hogsheads of stored wheat .
To give the impression to the Acadians and Mi 'kmaq that his forces were leaving , Church had his soldiers burn the fortifications they had built the day before . He also had them load themselves and the whale boats back onto their transport vessels . Some of the Acadians returned in the night and immediately began to mend the broken dykes . However , Church had anticipated this , and sent men back to the town to drive the Acadians off .
= = End of the expedition = =
The next day Church left Grand Pré and went on to raid Pisiguit ( present day Windsor and Falmouth , Nova Scotia , not far from Grand Pré ) , where he took 45 prisoners . He then sailed for Port Royal to rejoin the fleet blockading Port Royal . According to uncorroborated French reports , the blockaders had made some landings in the vicinity of Port Royal , burning a few isolated houses and taking some prisoners . Governor Brouillan organized defenses that successfully prevented further landings .
After rejoining the warships Church held a council to discuss whether or not to launch a large @-@ scale attack against Port Royal . The council decided that their force was " inferiour to the strength of the enemy " , and that they would " quit it [ Port Royal ] wholly and go about [ their ] other business " . The expedition then sailed back up the Bay of Fundy to Chignecto , where the village of Beaubassin was raided . Its inhabitants had by then been alerted to the English activities , and under the leadership of Father Claude Trouve had removed their possessions and as much livestock as possible from the village to Chedabucto ( Guysborough , Nova Scotia ) . Church , after some ineffectual skirmishing with villagers hiding in the woods , burned the village 's houses and barns and slaughtered 100 head of cattle , before sailing for Boston . Church reported that six of his men were killed over the course of the expedition .
= = Aftermath = =
The prisoners that Church took were brought to Boston , where they were at first given relatively free access to the town . The town selectman complained , and the Acadians were then confined to Castle William . They were exchanged in 1705 and 1706 for prisoners taken in the Deerfield raid , although the negotiations were complicated by Dudley 's initial refusal to release the noted French privateer Pierre Maisonnat dit Baptiste , who was ultimately exchanged , along with Noel Doiron and other captives , for Deerfield 's minister John Williams .
The direct effects of the raid were fairly short @-@ lived . Because of the destruction of the crop and stored grain , the colony suffered a flour shortage that winter , although it was not severe enough to cause significant hardship . Grand Pré was rebuilt , the dykes were repaired , and there was a successful harvest in 1706 . The memory of the raid however , lasted in the population . As late as the 1740s ( after Acadia had become British Nova Scotia ) Grand Pré 's inhabitants worried about a return of English raiders , and were cautious in their dealing with British authorities .
Dudley 's decision to deny Church permission to attack Port Royal had political ramifications : his opponents in Massachusetts accused him of protecting Port Royal because he was benefiting from illicit trade with Acadia . These allegations continued for several years , and Dudley eventually chose to deal with them by launching the failed attacks on Port Royal in 1707 .
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= My French Coach and My Spanish Coach =
My French Coach and My Spanish Coach are educational games developed by Sensory Sweep Studios and published by Ubisoft for the Nintendo DS , iOS , PlayStation Portable , and Wii . They are part of Ubisoft 's My Coach series , and were released for the Nintendo DS on November 6 , 2007 in North America , for the Wii on November 23 , 2007 in the European Union ( North American release date to be announced ) , and My Spanish Coach was released for the PlayStation Portable on October 7 , 2008 , and the iOS on June 6 , 2009 For their releases in Europe and Australia , the games were renamed My French Coach Level 1 : Beginners and My Spanish Coach Level 1 : Beginners .
French and Spanish language teachers assisted with development of the gameplay for both games , which concentrates on teaching French or Spanish using lessons and minigames . As the player progresses the lessons , the gameplay uses increasingly complex words and phrases . The games received praise and criticism from various video game publications ; they praised the games ' effectiveness in teaching the language , but lamented their repetitive nature . The next installments in the series , titled My French Coach Level 2 : Intermediate and My Spanish Coach Level 2 : Intermediate , also developed and published by Ubisoft , were released in Europe on November 23 , 2007 alongside their Level 1 counterparts .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay of My French Coach and My Spanish Coach consists of the player completing lessons that introduce new vocabulary and then focus on mastering the words through several puzzle games . As the player progresses through the game , the words increase in difficulty . When first starting the game , the player takes an introductory test that gauges their initial comprehension level of the French or Spanish language . The player is then placed into a level reflective of the score they received on the test . A player who scores highly will be able to skip many of the initial levels and more basic concepts . When starting a lesson , the player is shown ten new words , which include nouns , verbs , adjectives , or adverbs , as well as their meanings and proper enunciation .
Following this , the player is offered a choice of eight minigames to test their knowledge of the words given in the lesson . These minigames are Multiple Choice , Hit @-@ A @-@ Word , Word Find , Flash Cards , Fill in the Blank , Memory , Bridge Builder , and Spelltastic . In Multiple Choice , the player must select the correct French or Spanish translation of an English word from four choices in a limited time frame . Hit @-@ A @-@ Word is a Whac @-@ A @-@ Mole game in which the player must hit the most amount of moles with the correct translation of an English word within the allotted time . Word Find is a word search in which the player must find the French or Spanish translations of a set of English words or phrases . In Flash Cards , the player is given a French or Spanish word and must choose the card with the proper English translation . In Memory , the player must select from a set of face @-@ down cards a French or Spanish word and its English translation . Bridge Builder tests sentence structure ; the player has to construct a proper sentence from a set of given words . In Spelltastic , the player listens to a French or Spanish word and spells it using a keyboard within the allotted time . For Fill @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Blank , the player selects the proper conjugation of a French or Spanish verb within a sentence .
Whenever a player correctly answers a question or solves a puzzle in a minigame , they gain " mastery points " on the word they successfully answered . The minigames can be increased in difficulty ; on higher difficulty levels , players will acquire more mastery points when successfully completing a minigame . For instance , in Multiple Choice , the player has 50 seconds to select an answer for a question on the " Easy " difficulty , and will receive two mastery points for each correct answer . On the " Medium " difficulty , the player has 40 seconds to select an answer and receives three mastery points for each correct answer . The process continues until the player scores fifteen mastery points for every word , allowing the player to proceed to the next lesson . Following the completion of all fifty lessons , the player can continue to learn new words through " open lessons " that contain ten new vocabulary words apiece ; the dictionaries of both games each hold nearly 10 @,@ 000 words . The player can freely access the reference section , which contains a dictionary and phrasebook , at any time . Both the dictionary and phrasebook hold all of the words and phrases in each game , as well as meanings and audio files for both ; the player can look through different categories of words and phrases , use a search function , and bookmark chosen phrases .
= = Development = =
My French Coach and My Spanish Coach were two of the first three games Ubisoft released for the My Coach series ; the other game was My Word Coach . During the course of their development by Sensory Sweep Studios , the lessons and minigames were created with the help of French and Spanish language teachers . Ubisoft announced the creation of a new division to create the My Coach series on May 21 , 2007 , and that Pauline Jacquey , the producer of the Tom Clancy 's Ghost Recon and Rayman series , would lead the division . When commenting on the direction of the My Coach series , Jacquey said that she was " developing projects that make people feel that playing games is worth their while , allowing them to spend quality time with family and friends , learn a new skill , or improve their daily lives " . Ubisoft CEO Yves Guillemot commented that , “ The timing is right for us to leverage our creativity and to open up the video games market to new consumers who will be attracted by content that can help them learn , grow and feel better in an entertaining way " . All three games were released on November 6 , 2007 in North America . Ubisoft followed with a PlayStation Portable version of My Spanish Coach , releasing it in North America on October 7 , 2008 ; Wii versions of My French Coach and My Spanish Coach were released in Europe on November 30 , 2007 . The European releases for My French Coach , titled My French Coach Level 1 : Beginners , and My Spanish Coach , renamed My Spanish Coach Level 1 : Beginners , were accompanied by My French Coach Level 2 : Intermediate and My Spanish Coach Level 2 : Intermediate , the next games in the series .
= = Reception = =
My French Coach and My Spanish Coach have received generally favorable reviews from several video game publications . On Metacritic , a website that compiles scores from various video game reviews , My Spanish Coach received a 73 / 100 , based on seven reviews . In a review of the DS versions of both games , IGN called them a " great learning experience " and a more entertaining alternative to traditional methods of learning French and Spanish such as " [ h ] ours of boring exercises and outdated videos " . Eurogamer claimed the games were not substitutes for proper language lessons , but admitted that " as tools for improving your language skills , whether you 're starting from scratch or have some basic knowledge , they 're great " . In a review of the DS version of My French Coach , Nintendo World Report called the game " not be the hottest game to ever sit in your DS , but it is an unusually polished product that achieves the edutainment holy grail – it makes learning easy and fun " . During the 2007 Christmas holiday season , video game retailer GameStop recommended My Spanish Coach for " The Academic Gamer " . My Spanish Coach led all Nintendo DS games in sales during the week of August 15 , 2008 to August 21 , 2008 .
The gameplay received mixed reviews from critics . In a review of the PSP version of My Spanish Coach , IGN noted that acquiring mastery points in the minigames lead to " quite a bit of grinding " due to the game 's repetitive structure . Nevertheless , IGN accepted that the repetition was an effective way to learn the vocabulary , and noted that " [ p ] icking up on things like gender and age , emphasis and the breakdowns of the actual language itself and proper / casual ways of conversing are made fairly clear and reinforced regularly " . IGN 's review of the DS versions of both games commented that neither game taught the future or past tense , calling it one of the " most disappointing " aspects of the game , but praised the effective incorporation of the DS stylus into the minigames . Eurogamer noted that the minigames were " only really good for practicing reading " due to a lack of games for practicing proper speaking , but GameZone disagreed , noting that the player was able to hear their attempt to speak the French or Spanish words alongside the correct pronunciation during lessons , and praised this aspect as the " most interesting and intriguing feature of [ My French Coach and My Spanish Coach ] " . In a review of the DS version of My Spanish Coach , Nintendo World Report lamented that many of the minigames " exhibit the same type of unimaginative boringness " and that " it takes ages to unlock new lessons and mini @-@ games " ; however , it noted that the minigames were " extremely effective " and " constructed extremely well " in terms of teaching the language . Nintendo World Report 's review of the DS version of My French Coach called the game 's reference section " a very handy travel dictionary " , noting that having a dictionary list and a phrasebook with audio files that could bookmark chosen phrases was " an absurd value " .
The games ' graphics and audio also received praise and criticism from reviewers . IGN 's review of the PSP version of My Spanish Coach noted that the fact that the game appeared on multiple platforms contributed to its " sparse look and feel " because the games ' graphics and audio were made for the Nintendo DS . Eurogamer praised the games ' " clean , crisp visuals " and " jolly accordion music and jolly fiesta music " . In contrast , IGN 's review of the DS versions of both games called the music " catchy but repetitive " and the graphics " cute but nothing to write home about " . GameZone noted that " [ t ] he visual concept was obviously not a front runner in [ the games ' ] conception " , and that the audio of neither game " [ does ] anything remotely special " . Nintendo World Report made note of the games ' narrator during the lessons , praising its " clear and coherent glory " in terms of pronouncing the words correctly .
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= The Serpentine =
The Serpentine ( also known as the Serpentine River ) is a 40 @-@ acre ( 16 ha ) recreational lake in Hyde Park , London , England , created in 1730 at the behest of Queen Caroline . Although it is common to refer to the entire body of water as the Serpentine , strictly the name refers only to the eastern half of the lake . Serpentine Bridge , which marks the boundary between Hyde Park and Kensington Gardens , also marks the Serpentine 's western boundary ; the long and narrow western half of the lake is known as the Long Water . The Serpentine takes its name from its snakelike , curving shape , although it only has one bend .
Originally fed by the River Westbourne and Tyburn Brook in the 1730s , the lake 's water was then pumped from the Thames in the 1830s . The water is now pumped from three boreholes within Hyde Park , the most recent being installed in May 2012 as part of the 2011 – 2012 restoration of the Lake . The Serpentine provided a focal point for The Great Exhibition of 1851 , and more recently was a venue for the men 's and women 's triathlon and marathon swimming events in the London 2012 Olympics . Since 1864 the Serpentine Swimming Club has organised a 100 @-@ yard race every Christmas morning for the Peter Pan Cup , inaugurated by J. M. Barrie , the creator of the fictional character Peter Pan .
There are many recreational facilities around the Serpentine , as well as boating on the lake itself . In 1860 the Serpentine was to be modified into a skating pond with formal edges . This scheme was not implemented . Among the landmarks near the lake is the Diana , Princess of Wales Memorial Fountain .
= = Geography of the lake = =
Originally the lake was fed by the River Westbourne entering at the Italian Garden at the north @-@ western end of the Long Water . The Westbourne ceased to provide the water for the Serpentine in 1834 , as the river had become polluted , and so water was then pumped from the Thames . The water is now supplied by three boreholes drilled into the Upper Chalk . The first borehole is located at the Italian Gardens , the second at the Diana Memorial and the third , drilled in 2012 to a depth of 132m , is within 50m of the Diana Memorial . The Long Water runs south @-@ east from this point to Serpentine Bridge , where the lake curves to the east , following the natural contours of the land . At the eastern end , water flows out of the lake via a sluice in the dam , forming a small ornamental waterfall at the Dell . The outflow has not historically maintained the waterfall , and re @-@ circulation pumps were installed in the Dell , below the dam , to sustain this feature . The restoration work in 2012 restored the flows into the Serpentine and this waterfall is now restored as originally designed . Historically the river flowed due south from this point , marking the boundary between Westminster and Kensington , but since 1850 it has been diverted into a culvert , running underground to reach the Thames near Chelsea Bridge .
The lake has a maximum depth of 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 3 m ) . The lake is often reported to be deeper , but bathymetric surveys by the Royal Park in 2010 revealed the design of the lake .
There are two lakeside restaurants and various recreational facilities on the lake shore .
= = History = =
In 1730 Queen Caroline , wife of George II , ordered the damming of the River Westbourne in Hyde Park as part of a general redevelopment of Hyde Park and Kensington Gardens . Original monastic ponds may have existing in the location and these were modified as part of the 1730 – 1732 scheme to create a single lake . At that time , the Westbourne formed eleven natural ponds in the park . During the 1730s , the lake filled to its current size and shape . The redevelopment was carried out by Royal Gardener Charles Bridgeman , who dammed the Westbourne to create the artificial lake , and dug a large pond in the centre of Kensington Gardens ( The Round Pond ) to be a focal point for pathways in the park .
At the time of construction , artificial lakes were typically long and straight . The Serpentine was one of the earliest artificial lakes designed to appear natural , and was widely imitated in parks and gardens nationwide .
The lake achieved notoriety in December 1816 when Harriet Westbrook , the pregnant wife of the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley , was found drowned in the Serpentine having left a suicide note addressed to her father , sister and husband . Shelley married Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin less than two weeks later .
The lake formed a focal point of the 1814 celebrations which marked a century of Hanoverian rule and re @-@ enacted the British victory at Trafalgar nine years previously , and of the 1851 Great Exhibition , with the Crystal Palace standing on its southern shore . Following the introduction of more stringent regulations to protect the environment in the park , the relocation of the Crystal Palace , and the construction of the nearby Albertopolis complex of museums and exhibitions , large @-@ scale events ceased to take place on the banks of the Serpentine . However , it was the location for the 1977 Silver Jubilee celebrations , and a venue for the 2012 Olympics .
In the 1820s , the park was extensively redesigned by Decimus Burton . At the same time , John Rennie built the Serpentine Bridge to carry the newly built West Carriage Drive along the boundary between Hyde Park and Kensington Gardens , dividing the lake into the Serpentine ( east ) and the Long Water ( west ) .
In 2011 , The Royal Park embarked on the restoration of the Serpentine to combat growing concerns about the status of the water and the quality of the aquatic environment . The project resulted in a substantial change to the hydrology of the lake , which had a turnover time of 10 years , and is now reduced to 4 – 5 months as a result of new borehole water being pumped into the lake . The three boreholes , drilled into the Upper Chalk , now supply the lake with up to 900 @,@ 000 cubic metres of water per annum ensuring that the lake remains fresh and does not stagnate . In addition , the historically contaminated sediments have been treated and nutrients within the sediments chemically neutralised . Thirdly , the oxygen status of the water and the overall mixing of the lake is now controlled by a series of 24 aeration pumps fixed to the base of the lake . These ensure that the dissolved oxygen levels in the lake do not fall and result in chronic ecological stress . Finally , the overall ecology of the lake was reviewed and some of the large bream and carp were removed in February 2012 to reduce their disturbance of the sediment and vegetation of the lake . These measures were implemented over the period October 2011 to June 2012 . The resultant water quality of the lake was excellent and proved to be an extremely popular venue for the swimming portion of the London 2012 Triathlon and the Marathon Swim events in August 2012 .
= = Recreation = =
= = = Swimming = = =
A rectangular swimming area on the southern bank was opened in 1930 . Known as Lansbury 's Lido , it is partitioned off from the rest of the lake by a perimeter of buoys . There is a fee for entering the lido , and changing rooms are available . It is normally open only in the summer , typically between 10 : 00 and 17 : 30 , although members of the Serpentine Swimming Club may swim all the year round from 06 : 00 to 09 : 30 . The Peter Pan Christmas Day Race is only open to regular participants in the Saturday swimming competitions during the winter .
The Serpentine was used as the venue for the swimming portion of the triathlon and for the marathon swimming events at the 2012 Olympic Games .
= = = Peter Pan Cup = = =
Since 1864 , the Serpentine has hosted a 100 @-@ yard ( 91 @.@ 4 m ) swimming competition every Christmas morning at 9 am . In 1904 , author J. M. Barrie awarded the Peter Pan Cup to the winner of the race , a tradition which has continued ever since . Owing to the hazards of swimming in freezing water , the race is open only to members of the Serpentine Swimming Club .
= = = Boating = = =
Rowing boats are available for hire . In 2002 the Serpentine hosted the Mandine World Rowing Sprints , in which several international crews raced over 547 yards ( 500 m ) .
= = = Solarshuttle = = =
In the summer months , the Solarshuttle solar powered boat ferries passengers between the northern and southern banks of the Serpentine . At 48 feet ( 14 m ) long and carrying 42 passengers , it is the largest wholly solar @-@ powered passenger boat operating in the UK .
= = Landmarks = =
The United Kingdom 's Holocaust Memorial is situated at the eastern end of the Serpentine , immediately beyond the dam . A memorial on the northern shore of the lake was erected by Norwegian seamen in 1978 in thanks for the safe haven they were given in Britain after their country surrendered to the Germans in 1940 , during the Second World War .
The Diana , Princess of Wales Memorial Fountain is sited on the southern shore of the Serpentine near West Carriage Drive . Although it was beset by early problems and had to be closed for a month three weeks after it opened , it has become one of the UK 's most popular attractions , with 800 @,@ 000 visitors a year . The Serpentine Gallery nearby is also on the south bank and the Serpentine Sackler Gallery opened in 2013 is located in a former 1805 gunpowder store , five minutes walk from the Serpentine Gallery across the bridge .
On the northern side of the lake , opposite The Lido , are two self contained boat houses . The East Boat House , 1903 , erected by the Royal Humane Society and West Boat House , 1952 , for the new chlorination launch , to replace a former boat house bombed in 1940 . Nearby is a grass amphitheatre known as the Cockpit . A disused gravel pit , was the scene of The Rolling Stones ' " Stones in the Park " concert in 1969 . Concerts here from 1968 , were initially organised by Blackhill Enterprises . This area can also be seen in the 1953 film Genevieve , as the starting point for the annual London to Brighton Veteran Car Run .
= = Image gallery = =
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= Phoenix ( fireboat ) =
Phoenix is a fireboat owned by State of California and operated by the city of San Francisco in the San Francisco Bay since 1955 . Phoenix is known for helping to save Marina District buildings from further destruction by fire following the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake . Her worthy assistance resulted in a second vintage fireboat obtained for the city . Both Guardian and Phoenix are based at Firehouse No. 35 at Pier 22 ½ of the Port of San Francisco . Phoenix often leads parades of ships , and takes part in welcoming ceremonies .
= = History = =
The city of San Francisco operated two fireboats in the 1900s : Governor Irwin and Governor Markham . Both were capable of pumping about 1 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 3 @,@ 800 L ) per minute . These two , assisted by tugboats and military fireboats , tried but failed to stop the horrific fires which swept the city after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake . In 1909 , two new fireboats were placed in service — David Scannell and Dennis T. Sullivan — steam @-@ powered boats each rated for 9 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 34 @,@ 000 – 38 @,@ 000 L ) per minute . A firehouse was built for them at the edge of the Panama – Pacific International Exposition in 1915 . This firehouse was moved by barge to Pier 22 ½ near the intersection of Harrison Street and Embarcadero following the Exposition , when the old fair buildings were being torn down and the Marina District was being built in its place . The two fireboats served the city for 45 years and were scrapped in 1954 .
To fill the anticipated lack of a fireboat , Phoenix was built in 1954 in Alameda by Hugh F. Munroe of Plant Shipyard , paid for by the State of California . Her name came from a contest publicized by the Port Authority ; the winning suggestion was submitted by a member of the Phoenix Society , a group of San Francisco citizens interested in civil fire protection . Phoenix , the mythical firebird which rose anew from ashes , seemed appropriate because the city of San Francisco had risen seven times from great fires .
Phoenix is 89 feet ( 27 m ) long with a 19 @.@ 5 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 9 m ) beam and a 7 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) draft . Phoenix can pump up to 6 @,@ 400 US gallons ( 24 @,@ 000 L ) at a pressure of 150 pounds per square inch ( 1 @,@ 000 kPa ) , or at the rate of 3 @,@ 200 US gallons ( 12 @,@ 000 L ) per minute at twice the pressure . She can make 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . When put into service in 1955 , Phoenix was the only fireboat based in San Francisco . Like her predecessors , she docked at Pier 22 ½ ; one of only two remaining 1915 Exposition buildings , the other being the Palace of Fine Arts .
Two decades later , Phoenix was the subject of discussions about the city budget . In the late 1970s , the fireboat 's annual operating expenses were about $ 1 @.@ 2 million . Mayor George Moscone met with the San Francisco Port Commission in 1977 to determine whether Phoenix would be refurbished , replaced , or scrapped with no replacement . An improvement bond was passed in November 1977 to build a new fireboat . Local naval architects Morris Guralnick Associates submitted a design in 1980 to replace Phoenix , but the estimated construction costs far exceeded the bond . Instead , Mayor Dianne Feinstein redirected the funds to refurbish Phoenix in 1981 – 1982 .
= = Firefighting = =
Phoenix 's first call to action came on April 2 , 1955 . A four @-@ alarm blaze at the Ferry Building greatly damaged the north end of the building ; losses came to $ 750 @,@ 000 . Other notable fires that Phoenix fought include Pier 70 burning in 1980 , and a lengthy battle at Piers 30 – 32 throughout the night of May 9 – 10 , 1984 — a five @-@ alarm explosive conflagration which destroyed the piers and caused an estimated $ 2 @.@ 5 million in damage .
Local shipping accidents are among the responsibilities of the Phoenix . In September 1965 , the Norwegian freighter MS Berganger collided with the tanker Independent , resulting in fires aboard the ships . Phoenix responded along with U.S. Coast Guard fireboats to quickly put out the freighter 's blaze , but the tanker took longer to extinguish . A year later , a gasoline barge collided with rocks near the shore . While Phoenix and the Coast Guard were investigating , the barge exploded killing two Coast Guardsmen and one nearby workman . Phoenix rescued a third Coast Guardsman with severe injuries , and fought to snuff the blaze . Flaming , floating gasoline proved difficult to subdue . In December 2011 , a tourist DUKW boat suffered an engine fire while in McCovey Cove , and Phoenix doused the flames while the Coast Guard rescued the passengers and crew .
= = = 1989 Marina District fires = = =
Phoenix played a notable role in the response to the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake . At 5 : 04 pm on October 17 , 1989 , a major earthquake rumbled through the San Francisco Bay Area . One of the hardest @-@ hit locations was the Marina District of San Francisco ; a densely populated neighborhood built up primarily in the 1920s on rubble , sand and debris dumped at the edge of the bay following the 1906 earthquake . A number of buildings collapsed , and firefighters were called to rescue trapped residents . Subsequent to a sharp aftershock , a fire broke out in a three @-@ story building at Divisadero and Jefferson , threatening nearby buildings . Fire engines connected their hoses to the city 's seawater @-@ based Auxiliary Water Supply System ( AWSS ) and began to quench the fire , but an explosion caused the structure to collapse onto the fire hydrant . Fire crews were forced back , and with the assistance of off @-@ duty police and civilian volunteers they ran hoses four blocks away to alternate sources . Further explosions caused other structures to collapse onto the newly laid hoses . At about the same time , other fire companies in the Marina were reporting water pressure problems with both the AWSS and the regular municipal water system . The AWSS was suffering from broken underground lines and from a 20 % loss in stored water volume — both from earthquake damage — and from broken high pressure hydrants caused by building collapses . At 6 : 16 pm Phoenix was called to assist .
At 6 : 49 pm fire crews waiting to connect to Phoenix reported she was having difficulty getting close enough because of low tide conditions . Despite the problems requiring pilot and commander Arvid Havneras to perform an extraordinarily hazardous docking procedure , at 7 : 00 pm Phoenix was ready to pump at the Marina lagoon , two blocks away from the first fire . By this time the whole neighborhood was threatened with destruction by fire . Fire crews were manning hoses laid in anticipation ; firefighters at the burning buildings were instructed to hold their ground , that they would soon have more water .
Phoenix connected hoses to an engine company and to two ladder trucks and commenced pumping seawater from the bay . Fire crews renewed their efforts , making a frontal attack on burning structures . Soon , one of the Fire Department 's Hose Tenders arrived in the lagoon carrying 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) of 5 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) hose , followed shortly by another hose tender — they connected to Phoenix to relay water to more distant engine companies . In a parallel effort , the AWSS lines were inspected by city workers , temporary repairs made , and two high @-@ pressure pump stations were brought back into operation at about 8 pm , supplying 10 @,@ 000 U.S. gallons per minute . Phoenix worked until all the Marina fires were under control , pumping seawater continuously for 15 hours at the rate of 6 @,@ 400 gallons per minute , a total of 5 @.@ 5 million gallons ( 20 @.@ 8 ML ) .
Phoenix is credited with saving the area from further destruction . One of Feinstein 's last mayoral acts was to save the city 's only fireboat from suggested budget cuts . Some 21 months later the earthquake struck . Feinstein wrote that the boat " unquestionably saved the Marina from a greater catastrophe " . The fireboat 's role in the earthquake is the subject of a children 's book , Frankie & The Phoenix . Senator Feinstein read the book to students at the opening of a new San Francisco elementary school dedicated in her name in August 2006 .
Subsequent to the 1989 earthquake , $ 50 @,@ 000 from grateful Marina property owners , and $ 300 @,@ 000 from an anonymous donor were used to provide Phoenix with a colleague . Guardian , an older fireboat built in 1951 , was purchased from the City of Vancouver , British Columbia , and refurbished . She was piloted down the Pacific Coast to dock alongside Phoenix at Pier 22 ½ . In 1999 , the shared fireboat house was declared San Francisco 's 225th Historic Landmark .
A planned monument to the 1989 earthquake , the Marina Earthquake Memorial , focuses on the role of Phoenix in the Marina firefighting effort and will incorporate the original 16 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 5 m ) tower monitor from Phoenix as a centerpiece of the memorial design .
= = Ceremonial appearances = =
Phoenix has taken a lead role in many spectacles on the San Francisco Bay . The fireboat regularly leads parades on the bay , escorts famous ships entering the bay , and participates in tall ship events and Fleet Week in San Francisco . Phoenix threw out plumes of water to celebrate the reopening of the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge on November 16 , 1989 following its closure due to earthquake damage . Phoenix welcomed the historic cruise vessell SS Independence to San Francisco in November 2001 . In July 2005 , Phoenix led the " Parade of Sail " from the Golden Gate Bridge to the Bay Bridge . Famous tall ships in the parade included the 270 @-@ foot ( 82 m ) barque ARM Cuauhtémoc from Mexico and the 356 @-@ foot ( 109 m ) Pallada from Russia . Other ships included the Liberty ship SS Jeremiah O 'Brien and the presidential yacht USS Potomac — both based in San Francisco Bay . In 2008 , Phoenix led a similar parade including Californian ( California 's official tall ship , based in San Diego ) and the Coast Guard barque the Eagle . The Jeremiah O 'Brien took part as did the U.S. Navy submarine Pampanito .
= = Crew and maintenance = =
Phoenix is normally operated with a crew of one vessel command Fireboat officer , one engineer who operates the pumps and engines , one pilot who steers / navigates the boat , one fire Engine company officer , and three to five firefighters to handle hoses and nozzles . Firehouse 35 on Pier 22 ½ has seven men on duty at all times : four to serve Engine # 35 , and three dedicated to the two fireboats . All seven are able to man the fireboats in an emergency . As many as ten men can work Phoenix , but in October 1989 after Engine # 35 was called to duty , only three were available : Pilot Arvid Havneras , Engineer Nate Hardy , and Lieutenant Bob Banchero . Both fireboat pilot and engineer are licensed by the US Coast Guard .
In the early 2000s , San Francisco spent $ 1 @.@ 7 million each year to operate its two fireboats . Maintenance problems on the historic vessels increased to the point that Phoenix needed to be lifted into dry dock for extensive repairs to the hull . The fireboat was thoroughly renovated in 2004 at Bayside Boatworks in Sausalito , California .
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= Verdeja =
Verdeja was the name of a series of light tanks developed in Spain between 1938 and 1954 in an attempt to replace German Panzer I and Soviet T @-@ 26 tanks in Spanish service .
The program was headed by major Félix Verdeja Bardales and led to the development of four prototype vehicles , including a self @-@ propelled howitzer armed with a 75 millimeter ( 3 in ) gun . It was designed as an advanced light tank and was one of the first development programs which took into account survivability of the crew as opposed to the protection of the tank itself . The tank was influenced by several of the light tanks which it was intended to replace , including the Panzer I and T @-@ 26 , both of which were originally used during the Spanish Civil War . The Verdeja was considered a superior tank to the T @-@ 26 after a lengthy testing period , yet was never put into mass production .
Three light tank prototypes were manufactured between 1938 and 1942 , including the Verdeja 1 and the Verdeja 2 . Interest in the vehicle 's development waned after the end of the Second World War . Despite attempts to fit a new engine in the Verdeja 2 and convert the Verdeja 1 into a self @-@ propelled artillery piece , ultimately the program was unofficially canceled in favor of adopting the U.S. M47 Patton Tank in 1954 . A prototype of the 75 millimetre self @-@ propelled howitzer and of the Verdeja 2 were put on display in the early 1990s .
= = Development = =
Spain received its first tank in mid @-@ 1919 , a French Renault FT , for testing purposes , and later received ten more tanks on 18 December 1921 . The use of these tanks during the Rif War , including the first amphibious landing with tanks , offered valuable experience for Spain 's first indigenous armor program , the Trubia A4 . The Trubia tank program , based on the FT , led to the development of four prototypes , but ultimately the program failed due to lack of interest from the national government . These prototypes influenced a subsequent indigenous attempt to produce a tank , named the Trubia @-@ Naval . This design also failed to get past the prototype type stage . Due to the failure of Spanish efforts to produce a tank , and the ineffective attempts to procure foreign designs such as the Italian Fiat 3000 , by the start of the Spanish Civil War there were only ten working FT light tanks available in the country .
The lack of armor prompted the Soviet Union to supply the Popular Front and Nazi Germany and Italy to supply the Nationalist Front with light tanks . Between 1936 and 1939 , the Germans provided the Nationalists with 122 Panzer Is and the Italians provided 155 L @-@ 3 @-@ 35s . Meanwhile , the Soviets issued Republican Spain 281 T @-@ 26s and 50 BT @-@ 5s . The Nationalists quickly found out the light machine guns on their tanks could not penetrate the T @-@ 26 's armor at over 150 metres ( 160 yd ) , and Republican tankers could routinely knock out Panzer Is and L @-@ 3 @-@ 35s at ranges of up to 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) . In order to re @-@ equip Nationalist armored forces with the T @-@ 26 , German Major Ritter von Thoma offered Spanish troops 500 pesetas for each tank captured . There were also attempts to up @-@ gun the Panzer I with an Italian Breda 20 millimetre Model 1935 anti @-@ aircraft gun , due to its high Muzzle velocity and low recoil . Despite four successfully converted vehicles , designated Panzer I Breda , there was no widespread program to retrofit the gun into the Panzer I. Instead , the Nationalists began to press captured T @-@ 26s into service against their previous owners , with the first Nationalist T @-@ 26 unit formed in June 1937 .
On 6 September 1937 , Captain Félix Verdeja , commanding the maintenance company of the Nationalist Batallón de Carros de Combate ( " Tank Battalion " ) , began to privately develop a new light tank . His position , with direct access to Panzer Is and T @-@ 26s , gave Verdeja direct evidence of the shortcomings of current tank models in terms of combat ability and maintenance issues . Verdeja established a future tank requiring the 45 millimetre ( 1 @.@ 77 in ) gun fitted in the T @-@ 26 ; two coaxial light machine guns ; a low profile , all @-@ around armor greater than 15 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) , with a turret mantlet plate of at least 30 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) ; road speed of 70 kilometres per hour ( 43 mph ) , combat range of 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) , and a capable suspension and new track system . This latter requirement was based on experiences with existing light tanks , which frequently lost their tracks in combat . These requirements and solutions were presented in October 1938 to Colonel Díaz de la Lastra , commanding officer of the Agrupación de Carros de Combate . Although the project was approved , the program had to use scrap to build the first prototype due to a lack of resources and money . Despite early obstacles , including criticism from von Thoma , the program continued and Verdeja was awarded a warehouse in Zaragoza to continue with the construction of the prototype .
The prototype was manufactured from spare parts and equipment scavenged from other light tanks , and featured a rectangular turret with 16 millimetre ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) basic armor . The chassis was divided into four quarters , with the forward right half occupied by the engine , gear box , clutch and final drive , beside the driver . The rear half of the vehicle was taken up mostly by the turret basket and forty @-@ six 45 millimetre rounds , as well as two 60 liter ( 13 Imp gal ) fuel tanks . Turret space was used by the tank commander @-@ gunner and the loader , as well as the 45 millimetre model 1932 anti @-@ tank gun and two MG @-@ 13 machine guns . The main gun was originally commissioned as the Soviet 45 millimetre 19K anti @-@ tank gun in March 1932 , and featured heavier ammunition and a faster rate of fire than older anti @-@ tank guns . Starting in 1934 , a newer model began to be fitted into newly assembled T @-@ 26s . Apart from the gun , the tank commander 's model 1932 panoramic periscope was also scavenged from a T @-@ 26 . The vehicle was powered by a Ford Model 48 engine taken from a civilian automobile , displacing 3 @,@ 622 cc ( 221 in3 ) and producing 85 hp ( 63 kW ) at 2 @,@ 000 rpm . The engine was paired with a brand @-@ new radiator and exhaust system . The Verdeja prototype used the Panzer I 's Aphon PG @-@ 31 gearbox , although this worked at excessive revolutions for the engine , offering less torque which made slopes greater than 40 ° difficult . Possibly the most unusual features of the Verdeja were the suspension and tracks . To prevent the tank 's tracks slipping off the roadwheels , two track pieces were fitted together to create a central groove for the roadwheel to travel in . With a weight of under 5 tonnes ( 5 @.@ 5 short tons ) the Verdeja had a maximum speed of 70 kilometres per hour ( 43 mph ) and a combat radius of 120 kilometres ( 75 mi ) . Following the prototype 's success in testing between 10 January and 20 January 1939 , Captain Verdeja was ordered to begin construction of the definitive model of the light tank .
= = = Verdeja 1 = = =
The appearance of the resulting Verdeja 1 prototype was close to that originally envisioned in Captain Verdeja 's first designs . The vehicle 's hull was elongated and the rear plate sloped , while the fuel capacity — and thus combat range — was increased , as was the ammunition capacity and the thickness of the armor . The vehicle was fabricated in Bilbao , the only city in Spain with a heavy vehicle assembly line . Due to the end of the Spanish Civil War and a shortage of funds , construction was postponed until May 1940 . The prototype was completed three months later and delivered to the proving grounds in Carabanchel , Madrid , powered with basically the same Ford flathead V8 engine also used as the motive power of the three @-@ tonne weight British Universal Carrier . A major external difference between the previous model and this prototype was the new , low @-@ profile turret which allowed the 45 millimetre gun to depress and elevate from 8 ° to 70 ° . The original 45 millimetre model 1932 gun was exchanged with a new 45 millimetre Mark I tank gun fabricated by S.A. Placencia de las Armas , in Spain . However , the new prototype adopted the suspension and tracks from the original prototype . In essence , the main advantages of the new prototype were its low @-@ profile , high elevation of the main gun and the increased sloping of the armor from 12 ° to 45 ° . It should be noted that the Verdeja 1 retained the original configuration by placing the engine in the front , to increase crew survivability .
On arrival at Carabanchel , the vehicle was tested against the T @-@ 26 in mobility over different terrain types and in firepower . The vehicles were graded based upon a five @-@ point scale for each test , which would be multiplied by a coefficient of importance for each test . During the testing the Verdeja traveled for some 500 kilometres ( 300 mi ) without any maintenance problems , the only issue being the large consumption of water by the gasoline engine , due to the lack of an efficient radiator , and the loss of a rubber liner of one of the roadwheels . It was found that the maximum velocity of the Verdeja was either on par with similar vehicles in foreign service or superior , while the Verdeja proved itself capable of going over trenches almost 2 m wide and climbing slopes of 40 ° . In terms of armament , it was proved that the vehicle could withstand the recoil of the 45 millimetre high @-@ velocity tank gun . One of the vehicle 's disadvantages was that the tank commander 's aiming device was designed for a 37 millimetre anti @-@ tank cannon , adapted into the Verdeja due to the lack of time to manufacture one for the 45 millimetre Mark I. Testing concluded with the Verdeja receiving a total of 243 points , compared to the 205 points awarded to the T @-@ 26B . Testing completed , the prototype was returned and several problems were fixed , including engine deficiencies , the elevation of the sprocket and an increase to 10 millimetre of armor on all areas that had less . These changes made , the Verdeja returned to testing , this time scoring 261 @.@ 98 points .
Plans to produce one thousand Verdeja tanks were approved on 2 December 1940 , divided into ten batches of one hundred tanks each . The Verdeja production prototype was to adopt the 120 horsepower ( 89 kW ) Lincoln @-@ Zephyr gasoline V12 engine , requiring a contract between the Spanish government and Ford Motor Ibérica , Ford 's Spanish subsidiary . Simultaneously , in case of failure of talks between Ford and Spain , the government also began to contact a number of German companies , including Maybach . In order to begin production , the Tank Workshop in Zaragoza was to be expanded to allow final assembly of at least five tanks per month . Despite funding and two years of construction allotted , the factory construction and expansion was never completed . Other problems arose , including the failure to reach an agreement with Ford or Maybach . These factors , the poor economic situation in Spain , the lack of clients other than the Spanish Army and the lack of incentives for Spanish companies to partake in the construction program , led to the abandonment of the attempt to fabricate the Verdeja 1 . Another attempt was undertaken at contracting the ADESA ( Armamento de Aviación , S.A. ) company , to manufacture two Verdeja light tanks for experimental purposes . Despite the failure to procure an engine , ADESA offered to construct 300 units , but these attempts failed and the program was abandoned by 1941 .
= = = Verdeja 2 = = =
As the Verdeja 1 program dissolved , Captain Verdeja began to design a successor taking into consideration lessons learned during the opening campaigns of the Second World War . The new design featured a redesigned engine bay at the rear of the chassis , which meant moving the drive sprocket to the rear as well . The movement of the engine 's location allowed for better cooling of the vehicle 's motor and the fighting compartment , as well as allowing the turret to be moved forward . The vehicle 's armor was also increased substantially by between five and ten millimetres . This new tank was not approved for production or further development due to continued postponement of the production of the Verdeja 1 for reasons which included offers by the German government to supply the Panzer IV 's engine for the Verdeja 1 . Although production of the new vehicle finally began in 1942 , it was not until August 1944 that the Verdeja 2 prototype was delivered . The program was delayed by the incorporation of twenty Panzer IV Ausf . H 's and ten Sturmgeschütz IIIs into the Spanish Army in late 1943 , as well as failed attempts to procure one hundred more Panzer IVs and even Panthers and Tigers during 1944 . With these new vehicles integrated into the army and the fiscal problems which plagued the Verdeja 1 , the Verdeja 2 remained unimproved until 1950 , when there was an attempt to fit a Pegaso Z @-@ 202 engine . Despite this , the Verdeja remained on factory grounds until 1973 , when it was transferred to the Infantry Academy of Toledo .
= = = Comparative data = = =
= = Self @-@ propelled howitzer = =
Between the late 1940s and early 1950s there were a number of programs in Spain to develop a self @-@ propelled howitzer based on an existing chassis . For example , during the early 1950s , Spanish engineers attempted to retrofit a R @-@ 43 105 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) L / 26 howitzer into a StuG III . This required reconstruction of the turret 's casemate , in a fashion similar to the Verdeja 75 @-@ millimeter self @-@ propelled howitzer . Although one vehicle began conversion , the program was never finalized . There were similar programs to fit an 88 @-@ millimeter L / 56 and a 122 @-@ millimeter L / 46 howitzer thereafter , but these did not advance beyond the planning stage , either . One of the most successful programs was the attempt to produce a 75 @-@ millimeter self @-@ propelled howitzer based on the chassis of the Verdeja 1 prototype . Beginning in 1945 , now @-@ Major Verdeja was ordered to begin designing this piece using a rapid @-@ firing 75 @-@ millimeter L / 40 howitzer designed by Sociedad Española de Construcción Naval . The availability of the required parts and the lack of complicated changes meant that the vehicle was quickly prepared and tested extensively . The fate of the self @-@ propelled piece was much the same as that of the Verdeja 2 , and the vehicle was left untouched at the proving grounds in Carabanchel until 1973 , when it was moved to the Spanish base Alfonso XIII , housing the then Mechanized Infantry Regiment Wad Rass nº 55 . It was soon moved to another base , and finally delivered to the base of El Goloso , outside of Madrid , as a part of an armored vehicles museum .
Major changes to the original Verdeja 1 included removing the turret and replacing it with a gun shield with 10 millimetre thick steel armor . This meant that much of the chassis ' roof and rear wall was eliminated . The howitzer was designed as a monoblock steel tube , using a double @-@ baffle muzzle brake , with twelve twists completing a full turn every forty calibers . As mounted , the howitzer could fire between 0 @.@ 5 ° and 25 ° , and move 4 @.@ 5 ° either left or right . The crew could stow eight rounds of ammunition in a ready @-@ round stowage area near the walls of the gun shield on each side of the breech , allowing easy access to projectiles . Otherwise , the vehicle could store another 24 rounds in an auxiliary carriage . The carriage was based on the axles and wheels of a PaK 36 anti @-@ tank gun . A unique feature of this prototype was a mechanical brake built into the idler @-@ wheel to the rear of the chassis , guaranteeing the vehicle 's stability when firing and avoiding damage to the transmission .
= = Conclusions = =
Ultimately the Verdeja program 's end came with the arrival of military equipment from the United States , beginning in 1953 . From 1954 , the Spanish Army received 389 M47 Patton Tanks , replacing the T @-@ 26s , Panzer Is and Panzer IVs then in service . The Verdeja had become completely obsolete when compared to larger , more potent tanks such as the German Panther , the Soviet T @-@ 54 and the US M47 . The T @-@ 54 had 200 millimetre of steel armor on the turret mantlet , far greater than the Verdeja 2 's maximum armor thickness of 40 milimetres . The Soviet 45 millimetre model 1932 gun was replaced by the T @-@ 34 's 76 @.@ 2 millimetre gun , while the Germans adopted the 75 millimetre L / 70 tank gun on the Panther . By 1950 , Soviet tanks such as the T @-@ 54 were armed with the D @-@ 10T 100 millimetre tank gun , and American tanks adopted the 90 millimetre main gun . Although the Verdeja was Spain 's most successful indigenous design , it was outclassed as foreign countries produced superior products . Furthermore , the need for self @-@ propelled artillery was soon eliminated as the United States offered Spain M37 and M44 self @-@ propelled howitzers . As a result , interest in the Verdeja dried up after 1954 . Spain would not attempt another indigenous tank until the advent of the Lince main battle tank in the late 1980s .
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= H @-@ class battleship proposals =
The H class was a series of battleship designs for Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine , intended to fulfill the requirements of Plan Z in the late 1930s and early 1940s . The first variation , " H @-@ 39 , " called for six ships to be built , essentially as enlarged Bismarck @-@ class battleships with 40 @.@ 6 cm ( 16 @.@ 0 in ) guns . The " H @-@ 41 " design improved the " H @-@ 39 " ship with still larger main guns , with eight 42 cm ( 16 @.@ 5 in ) weapons . Two subsequent plans , " H @-@ 42 " and " H @-@ 43 " , increased the main battery yet again , with 48 cm ( 19 in ) pieces , and the enormous " H @-@ 44 " design ultimately resulted with 50 @.@ 8 cm ( 20 @.@ 0 in ) guns . The ships ranged in size from the " H @-@ 39 " , which was 277 @.@ 8 m ( 911 ft 5 in ) long on a displacement of 56 @,@ 444 t ( 55 @,@ 553 long tons ) , to the " H @-@ 44 " , at 345 m ( 1 @,@ 131 ft 11 in ) on a displacement of 131 @,@ 000 t ( 129 @,@ 000 long tons ) . Most of the designs had a top speed in excess of 30 knots ( 56 km / h ) .
Due to the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , none of the ships were ever built ; only the first two of the " H @-@ 39 " ships were laid down . What work that had been accomplished was halted ; the assembled steel remained on the slipway until November 1941 , when the Oberkommando der Marine ordered it be scrapped for other purposes . Contracts for the other four " H @-@ 39 " type ships had been awarded , but no work was begun on any of them before they were canceled . None of the subsequent designs progressed further than planning stages .
= = Initial design = =
The earliest design studies for " Schlachtschiff H " ( " Battleship H " ) date to 1935 , and were near repeats of the early designs for the Bismarck @-@ class ships , armed with 35 @-@ centimeter ( 14 in ) guns . Intelligence indicating that the Soviet Navy was planning the Sovetsky Soyuz class with 38 cm ( 15 in ) guns prompted the Germans to increase the caliber of the ship 's armament to 38 cm as well on 5 October 1936 . The Oberkommando der Marine ( OKM ) issued staff requirements at the end of October for a ship of 35 @,@ 000 long tons ( 36 @,@ 000 t ) armed with eight 38 cm guns with a speed of 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) . The ship 's radius of action was to be at least equal that of the Deutschland @-@ class cruisers .
Design work on the ship that came to be designated H @-@ 39 began in 1937 . The design staff was instructed to improve upon the design for the preceding Bismarck class ; one of the requirements was a larger @-@ caliber main battery to match any battleship built by a potential adversary . It appeared that Japan would not ratify the Second London Naval Treaty , which would bring an escalator clause that permitted signatories to arm battleships with guns of up to 40 @.@ 6 cm ( 16 @.@ 0 in ) caliber . By virtue of the Anglo @-@ German Naval Agreement , signed in 1935 , Germany was considered to be a party to the other international naval arms limitation treaties . In April , Japan refused to sign the treaty ; shortly thereafter , the United States Navy announced it would arm the new North Carolina @-@ class battleships with 40 @.@ 6 cm guns .
Admiral Werner Fuchs , responsible for the staff section in the OKM that determined the operating requirements for the ship , discussed the vessel 's design with Adolf Hitler , the leader of Germany . Hitler demanded guns larger than any possible adversary , but guns of the caliber demanded by Hitler would have required displacements of over 80 @,@ 000 long tons ( 81 @,@ 000 t ) and drafts so deep as to prevent the use of Germany 's ports without significant dredging . Fuchs eventually convinced Hitler that the 40 @.@ 6 cm gun was the optimal choice for the H @-@ 39 design . In 1938 , the OKM developed Plan Z , the projected construction program for the German navy . A force of six H @-@ 39 class battleships was the centerpiece of the fleet . Plan Z was finalized by January 1939 , when Admiral Erich Raeder , the commander of the Kriegsmarine , presented it to Hitler . He approved the plan on 18 January and granted the Kriegsmarine unlimited power to bring the construction program to fruition .
Only four shipyards in Germany had slipways large enough to build the six new battleships . The OKM issued orders for construction of the first two ships , " H " and " J " , on 14 April 1939 . The contracts for the other four ships , " K " , " L " , " M " , and " N " , followed on 25 May . The keels for the first two ships were laid at the Blohm & Voss dockyard in Hamburg and the Deschimag shipyard in Bremen on 15 July and 1 September 1939 , respectively . The outbreak of war in September 1939 interrupted the construction of the ships . Work on the first two was suspended and the other four were not laid down , as it was believed they would not be finished before the war was over . The keel for " H " had 800 t ( 790 long tons ; 880 short tons ) of steel installed , 3 @,@ 500 t ( 3 @,@ 400 long tons ; 3 @,@ 900 short tons ) of steel had been machined , out of 5 @,@ 800 t ( 5 @,@ 700 long tons ; 6 @,@ 400 short tons ) of steel supplied to Blohm & Voss by that point . Only 40 t ( 39 long tons ; 44 short tons ) of steel had been worked into the keel for " J " , out of 3 @,@ 531 t ( 3 @,@ 475 long tons ; 3 @,@ 892 short tons ) of steel delivered . Steel for the other four ships had been ordered and partially machined for installation , though no assembly work had begun . It was expected to resume work on the ships after a German victory in the war .
The ships neither received names nor were official name proposals published . The names , which appear in several publications ( Hindenburg , Friedrich der Große , Großdeutschland ) are pure speculation . Especially the often mentioned Großdeutschland ( = " Greater Germany " ) is highly unlikely , as Hitler always feared the loss of a vessel with name of Germany ( compare the renaming of Deutschland to Lützow ) . The only hint on the names of the units were given by Hitler himself , who mentioned during documented unofficial talks , that he would propose the names Ulrich von Hutten and Götz von Berlichingen for the ships , as these names are not connected with persons of the third Reich or the country itself , so the loss would not have a significant negative psychological and propaganda effect on the German people .
= = = H @-@ 39 specifications = = =
Characteristics and machinery
As finalized , the H @-@ 39 design called for a ship 266 m ( 873 ft ) long at the waterline and 277 @.@ 8 m ( 911 ft ) long overall . The beam was to have been 37 m ( 121 ft ) with a designed draft of 10 m ( 33 ft ) . At standard displacement , which was 52 @,@ 600 long tons ( 53 @,@ 400 t ) , the draft was slightly under the limit , at 9 @.@ 6 m ( 31 ft ) . With the ship fully loaded , at 62 @,@ 600 long tons ( 63 @,@ 600 t ) , draft rose significantly , to 11 @.@ 2 m ( 37 ft ) . The hull was constructed from transverse and longitudinal steel frames and featured over 90 percent welding . The hull contained twenty @-@ one large watertight compartments and a double bottom that extended for 89 percent of the length of the keel . Four bilge keels were fitted to improve stability . The ships had an estimated complement of 2 @,@ 600 officers and enlisted men .
The ships were to be powered by twelve MAN 9 @-@ cylinder double acting 2 @-@ stroke diesel engines . The engines were arranged in groups of four , on three shafts , and drove three @-@ bladed screws 4 @.@ 8 m ( 16 ft ) in diameter . Four auxiliary boilers were installed to provide backup power ; two were oil @-@ fired and were located between the central transmission rooms . The other two , a pair of exhaust gas boilers , were placed above them . The power @-@ plant was rated at 165 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 123 @,@ 000 kW ) and 260 rpm ; it provided a top speed of 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) as designed . The vessels could have carried up to 8 @,@ 700 t ( 8 @,@ 600 long tons ; 9 @,@ 600 short tons ) of diesel oil , which enabled a range of 7 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 13 @,@ 000 km ; 8 @,@ 100 mi ) at 28 kn ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) , or 19 @,@ 200 nmi ( 35 @,@ 600 km ; 22 @,@ 100 mi ) at a cruising speed of 19 kn ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) .
Armament
The main armament was to consist of eight 40 @.@ 6 cm SK C / 34 guns in four twin gun turrets . The 40 @.@ 6 cm ( 16 in ) gun was 50 calibers long and fired at a muzzle velocity of 810 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 657 ft / s ) . The guns were supplied with a total of 960 rounds of ammunition or 120 shells per gun ; each shell weighed 1 @,@ 030 kg ( 2 @,@ 270 lb ) . The guns used a sliding breech block , as was typical for German naval guns of the period ; the breech was fully sealed with a 91 kg ( 201 lb ) brass cartridge that contained the 128 kg ( 282 lb ) main propellant charge . A fore charge weighing 134 kg ( 295 lb ) supplemented the main charge . The turrets allowed for elevation to 30 degrees , which provided a maximum range of approximately 36 @,@ 400 m ( 119 @,@ 400 ft ) . Rate of fire was expected to be two rounds per minute per gun . Fire control radar was unspecified , but the ships , which were to have been completed by 1944 , presumably would have been equipped with an arrangement similar to that of Tirpitz as she was outfitted in 1943 – 44 . Several of the 40 @.@ 6 cm guns were constructed before work on the ships was halted ; these were later employed as coastal guns , including at Battery Lindemann in France .
Twelve 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) L / 55 C28 guns mounted in six twin turrets comprised the ships ' secondary battery . These were the same secondaries employed on the Scharnhorst and Bismarck classes . The turrets allowed 40 degrees of elevation and had a maximum range of 23 @,@ 000 m ( 75 @,@ 000 ft ) . They fired a 45 @.@ 3 kg ( 100 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 875 m / s ( 2 @,@ 871 ft / s ) , and were primarily intended for defense against surface threats . The ships were also to be armed with six 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes , all submerged . They were all mounted in the bow , diverging from the centerline by 10 degrees .
Sixteen dual @-@ mounted 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) L / 65 C33 Flak guns provided long @-@ range defense against aircraft . Unlike those mounted on the Scharnhorst and Bismarck classes , these guns were armored to protect their crews from shrapnel , debris , and strafing attacks . The new turrets also provided faster rates of training and elevation as compared to the earlier open mounts . Close @-@ range air defense was provided by a battery of sixteen 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) L / 83 C33 and twenty @-@ four 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) C38 guns . The 3 @.@ 7 cm guns were placed in eight twin mounts while the 2 cm guns were arrayed in six Flakvierling quadruple mountings . The 3 @.@ 7 cm guns were closely grouped amidships and had a single , common ammunition hoist . Historians William Dulin and Robert Garzke note that the anti @-@ aircraft battery as designed was too weak to effectively defend against the high @-@ performance aircraft that came into service in the late 1930s and 1940s , and speculate that " it would have been augmented before the ships were completed . "
Armor
The design team envisioned the H @-@ class ships fighting at relatively close range , and therefore selected the armor system that had been used by German battleship constructors since the Nassau class of 1907 . The side belt was vertical and was attached directly to the side of the hull , in contrast with the inclined armor belt placed inboard of the side wall used by American and French designers . The side belt , which consisted of Krupp cemented steel armor ( KCA ) , was 300 mm ( 12 in ) thick in the central section that covered the ammunition magazines and machinery spaces . The belt was reduced to 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) on either end of the main section ; the stern and bow were unprotected by the main belt . The upper side belt was 145 mm ( 5 @.@ 7 in ) thick . The German navy did not preserve official estimates for the immunity zone , though Garzke and Dulin created an estimate based on the performance of the US 16 in ( 41 cm ) 45 caliber gun firing a 1 @,@ 016 kg ( 2 @,@ 240 lb ) shell . The ships ' main armor would have rendered them proof against the 16 in shell at ranges between 11 @,@ 000 to 21 @,@ 000 m ( 36 @,@ 000 to 69 @,@ 000 ft ) . The 16 in shell could penetrate the upper side belt at any range , however , which left the ships exposed above the waterline .
The underwater protection system was broadly similar to the system employed on the Bismarck class . A 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) thick torpedo bulkhead composed of Wotan Weich steel backed the side armor and provided defense against underwater weapons . The bulkhead was placed 5 @.@ 5 m ( 18 ft ) from the side of the hull , though abreast of the turrets and further in the bow and stern , this distance could not be maintained . The distance between the bulkhead and the side of the ship was reduced to 3 @.@ 25 m ( 10 @.@ 7 ft ) in these areas ; the designers compensated for the reduced space by increasing the thickness of the bulkhead to 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) in these areas .
Two armored decks composed of Wotan Hart steel protected the ships from plunging fire and aerial weapons . The upper deck was 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick above the magazines and 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) over the machinery spaces . The main armored deck was 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) and 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick , respectively , though on the outboard sloped sections , thickness was increased to augment the protection over the ships ' vitals . Over the magazines , the sloped armor was 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick ; over the machinery spaces it was 120 mm thick . Concerned with the fate of the battlecruiser Lützow at the Battle of Jutland , the designers opted to provide relatively heavy bow armor for the H @-@ class ships . A 60 to 150 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 to 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick splinter belt protected the bow from shell fragments . It was reasoned that direct shell hits would cause localized damage that could be better isolated than damage from splinters , which could cause extensive flooding .
The main battery gun turrets were armored with 385 mm ( 15 @.@ 2 in ) thick faces , 240 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) thick sides , and 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) roofs . The rear side of the turret was 325 mm ( 12 @.@ 8 in ) thick ; in addition to the protection offered by the greater thickness , it also moved the center of gravity of the mounting to the rear , which helped balance the turret and improve its operation . The barbettes upon which the turrets sat were armored with 365 mm ( 14 @.@ 4 in ) face @-@ hardened steel above the upper armor deck and 240 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) non @-@ cemented steel below the deck . The 15 cm gun turrets had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick faces , 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick sides , and 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) thick roofs . Their barbettes had 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick armor protection . The 10 @.@ 5 cm mounts were protected by 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick gun shields . The forward conning tower had 350 mm ( 14 in ) thick sides composed of KCA and 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick roof composed of non @-@ cemented steel . The rear conning tower had 100 mm thick sides and roof , KCA and non @-@ cemented steel , respectively .
= = Design escalation = =
In early July 1940 , Hitler ordered the navy to examine new battleship designs and how wartime experience might be incorporated . A study was completed on 15 July , and contained several recommendations for the H @-@ class ships , including increasing the freeboard and strengthening the horizontal protection . In order to maintain displacement and speed and accommodate the increased weight of the additional armor protection , the design staff drew up an informal design , known as " Scheme A. " The design removed one of the main battery turrets to save weight ; the propulsion system was also increased in power to keep the same speed as the original design . The original diesel @-@ only system was replaced by a hybrid diesel and steam turbine arrangement . The staff also prepared a second design , " Scheme B " , which retained the fourth turret and accepted a much higher displacement . This design also incorporated the mixed propulsion system . These studies were abandoned in 1941 after Hitler decided to halt further battleship construction until after the end of the war . The design staff therefore attempted to improve the armor protection for the H @-@ class . The 1940 designs did not form part of the design chain that resulted in the H @-@ 41 through H @-@ 44 designs .
= = = H @-@ 41 = = =
Bomb damage sustained by Scharnhorst in July 1941 provided the impetus for the effort to increase the horizontal protection for the H @-@ class . The designers were confronted with a significant problem : any increase in armor could correspondingly increase the displacement and more importantly , the draft . It was necessary to maintain the full @-@ load draft of 11 @.@ 5 m of the H @-@ 39 design for operations in the relatively shallow North Sea . The only option that allowed the displacement to be maintained while armor thicknesses to be increased was to reduce the ships ' fuel supplies . A 25 percent cut in range was required , which was deemed unacceptable by the OKM . It was eventually determined that since deep @-@ water anchorages on the Atlantic coast were available , it would be permissible to allow the draft to increase . The initial redesign called for an increase of only 5 @,@ 000 long tons ( 5 @,@ 100 t ) , 40 percent of which was additional deck armor , the remainder being used for a larger @-@ caliber main battery .
One of the most significant changes was the decision to bore out the over @-@ sized 40 @.@ 6 cm guns to 42 cm caliber for the H @-@ 41 design . The design staff determined that modifications to the ammunition hoists and loading equipment would be easily effected and that the original turrets could be retained . The OKM was aware that the British had settled on a 40 @.@ 6 cm gun for the proposed Lion class ; the 42 cm gun would grant the H @-@ 41 design a significant advantage over these new adversaries . The ships ' armament was otherwise unchanged , apart from an increased number of 2 cm anti @-@ aircraft guns , of which there were now to be 34 .
The ships ' main armor decks were substantially strengthened : the deck was increased in thickness from 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) to 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) and the sloped armor at the edges was thickened from 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) to 175 mm ( 6 @.@ 9 in ) . Wartime experience with the Scharnhorst class indicated that the torpedo @-@ defense system was insufficiently strong to protect the H @-@ 39 design from underwater damage . Beam was therefore increased , with greater width added at the ends of the armored citadel to allow a greater distance between the side wall and the torpedo bulkhead . The stern section of the torpedo bulkhead was also strengthened structurally to allow it to better contain the force of an underwater explosion . A triple bottom was also included in the design , the first time a feature was used in a German warship design . The loss of Bismarck in May 1941 also influenced the design ; two large skegs were added to the outboard shafts to protect them and increase support for the stern while in drydock . The rudder system was also designed with an explosive charge to detach the rudders in the event they became jammed .
The finalized design was approved by Admiral Raeder on 15 November 1941 . The new design measured 282 m ( 925 ft ) long at the waterline , had a beam of 39 m ( 128 ft ) , and a draft of up to 12 @.@ 2 m ( 40 ft ) at full load . The increase in weight , while engine power remained constant , reduced speed to 28 @.@ 8 kn ( 53 @.@ 3 km / h ; 33 @.@ 1 mph ) . The OKM planned to begin construction six to nine months after demobilization , initially at Blohm & Voss and the Deutsche Werke shipyard in Kiel . Deschimag , which had been awarded the contract for " J " , could no longer be used due to the increase in draft , which precluded travel through the shallow Weser . Following the completion of a new , larger dock at the Kriegsmarinewerft in Wilhelmshaven , work would also be done there . The increased size of the ships would have lengthened the building time from four to five years .
= = = H @-@ 42 through H @-@ 44 = = =
On 8 February 1942 , Albert Speer became the Reichsminister for Armaments and Munitions and gained influence over the Navy 's construction programs . Speer reassigned some members of the H class design staff to work on new U @-@ boats and other tasks deemed critical to the war effort . The Schiffsneubaukommission ( New Ships Construction Commission ) , intended to liaise with Speer and the OKM , was created and placed under the direction of Admiral Karl Topp . This group was responsible for the design work that resulted in the H @-@ 42 type , as well as the subsequent designs . The Construction Office of the OKM formally concluded their work on new battleships with the H @-@ 41 type and played no further role in battleship development .
After the completion of the H @-@ 41 design , Hitler issued a request for a larger battleship and placed no restrictions on gun caliber or displacement . The only requirements were a speed of 30 kn ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) , horizontal and underwater protection sufficiently strong enough to protect the vessel from all attacks , and a main battery properly balanced with the size of the ship . The results were purely study projects intended to determine the size of a ship with strong enough armor to counter the rapidly increasing power of bombs deployed by the Allies during the war . The Commission did not discuss its activities with Raeder or his successor , Admiral Karl Dönitz , or with other branches in the OKM . As the designs for the H @-@ 42 , H @-@ 43 , and H @-@ 44 battleships were purely conjectural , no actual work was begun . The German navy did not seriously consider construction on any of the designs , which were so large that they could not have been built in a traditional slipway . Indeed , the Construction Office of the OKM sought to disassociate itself from the projects , which they found to be of doubtful merit and unnecessary for German victory .
The first design , H @-@ 42 , was 305 m ( 1 @,@ 001 ft ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 42 @.@ 8 m ( 140 ft ) and a draft of 11 @.@ 8 m ( 39 ft ) designed and 12 @.@ 7 m ( 42 ft ) at full load . The designed displacement was 90 @,@ 000 t ( 89 @,@ 000 long tons ; 99 @,@ 000 short tons ) and at full load rose to 96 @,@ 555 long tons ( 98 @,@ 104 t ) . The dimensions for the second , H @-@ 43 , increased to 330 m ( 1 @,@ 080 ft ) between perpendiculars , a beam of 48 m ( 157 ft ) , and design and full load drafts of 12 m ( 39 ft ) and 12 @.@ 9 m ( 42 ft ) , respectively . Design displacement was 111 @,@ 000 t ( 109 @,@ 000 long tons ; 122 @,@ 000 short tons ) and estimated at 118 @,@ 110 long tons ( 120 @,@ 010 t ) at full load . For the final design , H @-@ 44 , the length rose to 345 m ( 1 @,@ 132 ft ) between perpendiculars , the beam increased to 51 @.@ 5 m ( 169 ft ) , and draft rose to 12 @.@ 7 m ( 42 ft ) as designed and 13 @.@ 5 m ( 44 ft ) at full load . The displacement for H @-@ 44 was 131 @,@ 000 t ( 129 @,@ 000 long tons ; 144 @,@ 000 short tons ) as designed and up to 139 @,@ 272 long tons ( 141 @,@ 507 t ) at full load .
Details on the propulsion systems for these designs are fragmentary and in some cases contradictory . Erich Gröner notes that " some [ had ] pure [ diesel ] engine propulsion , others [ had ] hybrid engine / turbine propulsion systems , " but does not record the type and performance for these propulsion systems . William Garzke and Robert Dulin state that all three designs featured hybrid diesel / steam turbine plants , each supplying 266 @,@ 000 shp ( 198 @,@ 000 kW ) for top speeds of 31 @.@ 9 kn ( 59 @.@ 1 km / h ; 36 @.@ 7 mph ) , 30 @.@ 9 kn ( 57 @.@ 2 km / h ; 35 @.@ 6 mph ) , and 29 @.@ 8 kn ( 55 @.@ 2 km / h ; 34 @.@ 3 mph ) for H @-@ 42 , H @-@ 43 , and H @-@ 44 , respectively . According to Garzke and Dulin , the designs had a speed of 24 kn ( 44 km / h ; 28 mph ) , 23 kn ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) , and 22 @.@ 5 kn ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) , respectively , on just diesel engine power . Both sources agree on a maximum range of 20 @,@ 000 nmi ( 37 @,@ 000 km ; 23 @,@ 000 mi ) at a cruising speed of 19 kn ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) .
Information on the armament outfits for the designs is equally contradictory . Both sources agree on the armament for H @-@ 44 , which was to have been eight 50 @.@ 8 cm ( 20 @.@ 0 in ) guns . Gröner indicates that H @-@ 42 and H @-@ 43 were to be armed with eight 48 cm guns , while Garzke and Dulin state that the H @-@ 42 design was to have retained the 42 cm guns from the H @-@ 41 design and H @-@ 43 would have also been armed with 50 @.@ 8 cm pieces . Both works agree that the secondary armament was to have consisted of twelve 15 cm L / 55 guns and sixteen 10 @.@ 5 cm L / 65 guns as in the previous designs , though the lighter weapons are disputed . Gröner states that all three designs were to be equipped with twenty @-@ eight 3 @.@ 7 cm and forty 2 cm anti @-@ aircraft guns , while Garzke and Dulin report only sixteen 3 @.@ 7 cm guns and forty 2 cm guns for H @-@ 43 and H @-@ 44 only ; H @-@ 42 was to have twenty @-@ four 2 cm guns . Both sources concur that six submerged 53 @.@ 3 cm torpedo tubes were included in each design .
= = Designs = =
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= Briarcliff Manor Union Free School District =
The Briarcliff Manor Union Free School District is the public school district of Briarcliff Manor , New York . The district is an independent public entity , and is governed by the district Board of Education , whose members are elected in non @-@ partisan elections for staggered , three @-@ year terms . The board selects a superintendent , who is the district 's chief administrative official . The district 's offices are located in Todd Elementary School .
The district has three schools , Todd Elementary School , Briarcliff Middle School and Briarcliff High School . It has about 1 @,@ 600 students , and spends an average of $ 24 @,@ 858 per pupil and has a student – teacher ratio of 13 : 1 ( the national averages are $ 12 @,@ 435 and 15 @.@ 3 : 1 respectively ) . The district is a part of the Putnam @-@ Northern Westchester Board of Cooperative Educational Services . The Briarcliff Manor UFSD won first place for the small district category of the 2008 Digital School Districts Survey .
= = History = =
In 1865 , a one @-@ room schoolhouse was built on land donated by John Whitson on the south side of Pleasantville Road , between the Pocantico River and the New York & Putnam Railroad ( now NY Route 9A / 100 ) . The building ( Whitson 's School , District No. 6 ) became the first schoolhouse in the area . George A. Todd , Jr. was the first teacher and superintendent of the school . In 1867 , the school was moved to the White School , named thus due to its exterior paint .
Its replacement building , Briarcliff Public School , was built in 1898 on the site of the White School . The building failed to meet requirements set by New York 's commissioner of education , and thus in 1910 , it became the Briarcliff Community Center , a social organization established by the village . Around the same time , in 1908 , $ 50 @,@ 000 ( $ 1 @.@ 32 million in 2015 ) was voted for Briarcliff Manor to buy a plot by Law Memorial Park , and the school moved again , to the Spanish Renaissance @-@ style Grade School building , which was built there the following year . Students would attend that school from kindergarten to ninth grade and have the option to then attend the nearby Ossining High School . In 1918 , the Briarcliff school began educating students through high school ; in 1928 , a dedicated wing for high school students was built onto the Grade School building . The enlarged school accepted students from Croton , Hawthorne , North White Plains , Valhalla , and as far as Granite Springs .
In 1953 , Todd Elementary School opened to free space at the Law Park grade school for middle- and high @-@ school students . The present high school opened in 1971 to ease the large enrollment at the Grade School building . The district under its current name was officially established in 1974 .
In 1980 , Pace University began leasing the middle school building , and the middle school was moved to a portion of the new high school building . The Grade School building was demolished in 1996 , and a retirement home was built on its site the following year . In the early 2000s , the current Briarcliff Middle School was constructed adjoining to the high school . The wing was completed in 2003 at a cost of $ 24 million ( $ 30 @.@ 9 million in 2015 ) in the same red @-@ brick @-@ and @-@ glass style as the high school wing . In 2008 , the school district won first place for the small district category of that year 's Digital School Districts Survey .
= = General information = =
The three schools within the district serve about 1 @,@ 600 students , and the district spends an average of $ 24 @,@ 858 per pupil ; its student – teacher ratio is 13 : 1 ( the national averages are $ 12 @,@ 435 and 15 @.@ 3 : 1 respectively ) . Demand for entrance to the school is high due to its strong performance and ratings .
= = = Location and area = = =
The Briarcliff Manor UFSD covers 6 @.@ 58 square miles ( 17 @.@ 0 km2 ) of land and most of the village of Briarcliff Manor . The district also serves an unincorporated portion of the town of Mount Pleasant . Parts of Briarcliff Manor not covered by the school district include Scarborough and Chilmark ; these areas ( about 28 percent of Briarcliff Manor ) are part of the Ossining Union Free School District .
= = = Demographics = = =
In the 2013 – 14 school year , the Briarcliff Manor Union Free School District enrolled approximately 1 @,@ 568 students ; of which 1 percent were eligible for free lunch .
= = Schools = =
= = = Todd Elementary School = = =
Todd Elementary School serves students from kindergarten through to fifth grade . The current elementary school building opened in 1953 and is named after George A. Todd , Jr. who was the village 's first teacher , first superintendent and taught for over 40 years . When it opened , the school was already too small ; two more rooms were added . In 1956 , another addition nearly doubled the school 's size . In 2000 , another expansion of the school began , creating distinct wings for students in kindergarten to second grade and students in third to fifth grade .
= = = Briarcliff Middle School = = =
Briarcliff Middle School ( BMS ) serves students in grades 6 – 8 . It is co @-@ located on a suburban campus with Briarcliff High School . The school principal is Susan Howard . The school has 62 faculty members , including 29 teaching staff . As of January 2012 , enrollment is 379 . It became a Blue Ribbon school in 2005 .
= = = = Student body = = = =
The student body consists primarily of incoming students from Todd Elementary School . Fewer than one percent qualify for free or reduced lunches ; in contrast , 72 percent of the student body qualifies in nearby New York City .
The demographics of the school are 96 percent White ( non @-@ Hispanic ) , 1 percent Black or African American , 2 percent Asian , and 1 percent Hispanic or Latino . Its student – teacher ratio is 21 : 1 .
The school runs the Greenhouse Club , which donated to charities , fixed old laptops , and started a recycling and composting program . The club runs an annual Charity : Water fundraiser , and has held coat drives , collected funds for Hurricane Sandy victims , and organized a holiday boutique to raise money for the American Cancer Society . As well , the students of the club have helped to create and maintain Academia , the school ’ s outdoor education center , greenhouse and garden built around 2008 . The club also created a five @-@ part video miniseries on planting and gardening for instructional use at Hawthorne Country Day School .
= = = Briarcliff High School = = =
Briarcliff High School ( BHS ) serves students in grades 9 – 12 . The school is noted for student achievement , testing scores , its science research , world language , and performing arts programs , University in the High School and Advanced Placement courses , and graduation and college attendance rates . The school has a 10 : 1 student – teacher ratio , and 100 percent of students have proficiency in mathematics and English . In 2014 , Newsweek ranked the high school 17th @-@ best in the country .
The student body primarily consists of incoming graduates of Briarcliff Middle School . Additionally , students graduating from Pocantico Hills Central School have the option to attend high schools either at Briarcliff High School , Pleasantville High School , or Sleepy Hollow High School . The majority , 75 percent in 2013 , attend Briarcliff High School . Through the district 's affiliation with the Board of Cooperative Educational Services , students have the option for vocational education at the Tech Center at Yorktown , a program in Yorktown Heights .
The school was founded in 1928 at the Grade School building adjacent to Law Memorial Park . In 1971 , the school moved to its current facility on the east border of the village .
= = Transportation = =
The district offers transportation to students through Briarcliff Bus Company , which holds its vehicles at a private lot of the Scarborough train station . Transportation is available to students who live within 15 miles ( 24 km ) from the school they attend ; that students living on Ingham Road do not have school transportation to the nearby Todd Elementary School .
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= Battle of Triangle Hill =
The Battle of Triangle Hill , also known as Operation Showdown or the Shangganling Campaign ( Chinese : 上甘岭战役 ; pinyin : Shànggānlǐng Zhànyì ) , was a protracted military engagement during the Korean War . The main combatants were two United Nations infantry divisions , with additional support from the United States Air Force , against elements of the 15th and 12th Corps of the People 's Republic of China . The battle was part of American attempts to gain control of " The Iron Triangle " , and took place from October 14 – November 25 , 1952 .
The immediate American objective was Triangle Hill ( 38 ° 19 ′ 17 ″ N 127 ° 27 ′ 52 ″ E ) , a forested ridge of high ground 2 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) north of Gimhwa @-@ eup near the Korean Demilitarized Zone ( DMZ ) . The hill was occupied by the veterans of the People 's Volunteer Army 's 15th Corps . Over the course of nearly a month , substantial American and South Korean forces made repeated attempts to capture Triangle Hill and the adjacent Sniper Ridge . Despite clear superiority in artillery and aircraft , escalating American and South Korean casualties resulted in the attack being halted after 42 days of fighting , with Chinese forces regaining their original positions .
= = Background = =
By mid @-@ 1951 the Korean War had entered a period of relative stalemate . With the resignation of Dwight D. Eisenhower as the Supreme Commander of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) in June 1952 , General Matthew Ridgway of the United Nations Command was transferred from Korea to Europe as Eisenhower 's replacement . The United States Army appointed General Mark Wayne Clark , commander of the US Fifth Army during World War II , to overall command on the Korean Peninsula as a replacement for Ridgway .
General James Van Fleet of the Eighth United States Army had hoped that the change of commanders would allow him to reengage the Chinese in a major campaign , but in an effort to limit UN losses during the peace talks in Panmunjom , Clark repeatedly overruled Van Fleet 's requests for an authorized offensive into North Korean territory . In September 1952 , Van Fleet submitted tentative offensive plans for Operation Showdown , a small @-@ scale offensive drafted by the US IX Corps as a ridge @-@ capturing operation . The goal of the submitted plans was to improve the defensive line of the US 7th Infantry Division north of Gimhwa near Triangle Hill , pushing the Chinese defensive line back 1 @,@ 250 yd ( 1 @,@ 140 m ) .
In September 1952 , the negotiations at Panmunjom began to fall apart , primarily due to Sino @-@ North Korean insistence that all prisoners of war be repatriated to their respective original countries , regardless of their personal preferences . As a significant number of Chinese and North Korean POWs had expressed their desire to defect permanently to South Korea or Taiwan , the demand was met with strong opposition from the United States and South Korea . Feeling that the negotiations would soon fail , military commanders on both sides authorized numerous tactical plans as means of applying pressure on their opponents . In late September , the High Command of the Chinese People 's Volunteer Army ( PVA ) authorized the tactical plans which led to the Battle of White Horse . On October 8 , 1952 , truce negotiations officially ceased . Clark gave his consent to Operation Showdown the same day .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Locations and terrain = = =
Triangle Hill , as it was named by the American command , is a forested hill that appears as a V shape when seen from the air or on a map . Hill 598 sits at the tip of the V and overlooks the Gimhwa valley less than 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) to the south . From this apex , two ridges extend to the northeast and northwest . The ridge to the northwest is dominated by a hill nicknamed " Pike 's Peak " . The other connects to a pair of hills that had been dubbed " Jane Russell " . A less @-@ prominent ridge , named Sandy , slopes down to the east . Across the valley from Sandy stands Sniper Ridge , located at 38 ° 19 ′ 44 ″ N 127 ° 29 ′ 7 ″ E.
= = = Forces and strategies = = =
The original plan for Operation Showdown called for simultaneous attacks on both Triangle Hill and Sniper Ridge . One battalion from the 31st Infantry Regiment of the US 7th Infantry Division would take Triangle Hill from Gimhwa @-@ eup , while one battalion from the 32nd Regiment of the Republic of Korea ( ROK ) 2nd Infantry Division would attack Sniper Ridge along a parallel northbound route . UN planners expected the operation to last no more than five days with 200 casualties on the UN side , based on the assumption that maximum artillery and air support would be available . Before the plan could be carried out , however , the artillery and air assets for this operation were diverted to the fighting at White Horse . Upon reviewing the situation , Colonel Lloyd R. Moses , commander of the US 31st Infantry Regiment , doubled the American strength just before the offensive .
On the Chinese side , Triangle Hill was defended by the 8th and 9th Companies , and Sniper Ridge by the 1st Company of the 15th Corps ' 135th Regiment , 45th Division . Qin Jiwei , commander of the 15th Corps , predicted that any major American attack would be one of mechanized infantry and armor directed at the Pyonggang Valley 20 km ( 12 mi ) to the west of Triangle Hill . As a result , the primary formations of the 15th Corps , including the 44th Division , the 29th Division , one armored regiment and most of the corps artillery , were positioned near Pyonggang . In an effort to compensate its inferior firepower , the 15th Corps constructed an intricate series of defensive networks , which were composed of 9 @,@ 000 meters ( 9 @,@ 800 yd ) of tunnels , 50 @,@ 000 m ( 55 @,@ 000 yd ) of trenches and 5 @,@ 000 m ( 5 @,@ 500 yd ) of obstacles and minefields . On October 5 , 1952 , a staff officer of the ROK 2nd Infantry Division defected to Chinese forces , bringing with him a complete battle plan of Operation Showdown , but the information was not taken seriously by the Chinese .
= = Battle = =
= = = Opening moves = = =
On October 14 , 1952 at 4 am , following two days of preliminary air strikes , the ROK @-@ American bombardment intensified across the 30 km ( 19 mi ) front held by the Chinese 15th Corps . At 5 am , the 280 guns and howitzers of the IX Corps extended their firing range to allow for the ROK @-@ American infantry to advance behind a rolling barrage . The concentrated bombardment succeeded in clearing the foliage on Triangle Hill and Sniper Ridge , destroying most of the above @-@ ground fortifications on the two positions . The intense shelling also disrupted Chinese communication lines , eliminating all wired and wireless communications in the area .
As the American and South Korean forces approached the Chinese defenses , they were met with grenades , Bangalore torpedoes , shaped charges and rocks . Unable to safely advance , American and South Korean troops were forced to rely on close @-@ support artillery to subdue Chinese resistance , but a complex network of bunkers and tunnels allowed the Chinese to bring up reinforcements as the above @-@ ground troops were depleted . Although the 31st Infantry Regiment was equipped with ballistic vests in the first mass military deployment of modern personal armor ; its 1st and 3rd battalions nevertheless suffered 96 fatalities , with an additional 337 men wounded in the first attack – the heaviest casualties the 31st Infantry Regiment had suffered in a single day during the war .
The Chinese managed to inflict heavy casualties on the attackers , but their defenses were starting to give way under devastating UN firepower . The defending company of Sniper Ridge was forced to withdraw into the tunnels after it was reduced to 20 survivors , and the ROK 2nd Battalion captured the ridge by 3 : 20 pm . Despite the acquisition of Sniper Ridge , the attack on Triangle Hill stalled in front of the dominant Hill 598 as both American battalions suffered heavy casualties to Chinese grenades . When only partial progress could be claimed by the late afternoon , US and ROK attacks subsided and preparation of defensive positions to face a Chinese counterattack began .
To recover lost ground , the PVA 45th Division commander Cui Jiangong attempted a sneak attack with three infantry companies by 7 pm . When flares broke the night cover , the attackers launched bayonet charges and hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting ensued . The UN forces responded with heavy artillery fire , but the determined Chinese assault troops marched through both Chinese and UN artillery screens to reach the UN positions – a strange sight that made some American observers believe that the attackers were under the influence of drugs . The intense fighting prevented UN forces from receiving any resupply , and the UN defenders were forced to give up all captured ground after running out of ammunition .
= = = Taking the surface = = =
Both Major General Wayne C. Smith and Lieutenant General Chung Il @-@ kwon , commanders of the US 7th Infantry Division and the ROK 2nd Infantry Division respectively , relieved exhausted battalions daily to maintain troops ' morale . On October 15 , Smith ordered the 1st Battalion of the US 32nd Infantry Regiment and the 2nd Battalion of the US 31st Infantry Regiment to be placed under the command of Colonel Moses to resume the attack on Triangle Hill . Similarly , Chung Il @-@ kwon replaced the 2nd Battalion of the ROK 32nd Regiment with the 2nd Battalion of the ROK 17th Regiment . Later that day both US battalions captured Hill 598 and Sandy Ridge after meeting only light resistance , but the Chinese tunnels and a counterattack by the PVA 135th Regiment prevented the Americans from advancing towards Pike 's Peak and Jane Russell Hill . The South Koreans , on the other hand , were thrown back by a Chinese counterattack after recapturing Sniper Ridge .
On October 16 , Colonel Joseph R. Russ of the US 32nd Infantry Regiment took over the operational command from Moses . He was also given the 2nd Battalion of the US 17th Infantry Regiment to reinforce his right wing . After arriving on the battlefield , the US 2nd Battalion managed to wrestle Jane Russell Hill away from the Chinese on October 16 , but the Americans soon came under heavy fire from Chinese machine guns in the valley below , and were forced to withdraw to the slope behind the hill on October 18 . The Chinese continued to harass the American positions with small raiding parties and grenade barrages throughout that night . The Koreans fared somewhat better . A joint attack by 2nd Battalion of the ROK 17th Regiment and the 2nd Battalion of the ROK 32nd Regiment captured Sniper Ridge and held it against subsequent Chinese counterattacks . For the first time since the combat began , UN forces had gained firm control of the surface , with the exception of Pike 's Peak . On the afternoon of October 17 , the 3rd Battalion of the US 17th Infantry Regiment relieved the 2nd Battalion of the US 31st Infantry Regiment on the left wing , while the 1st Battalion of the US 32nd Infantry Regiment was withdrawn from the pacified center .
For Qin Jiwei , the lack of functioning communication networks and accurate intelligence prevented him from responding to the UN assaults . Because of his indecision , the 45th Division also received no artillery support against the UN attacks . In the face of devastating UN firepower , the Chinese defenders suffered 500 casualties per day during the initial UN onslaught . On October 17 , after learning that more than 10 Chinese infantry companies were rendered combat ineffective , Cui Jiangong committed the remaining six infantry companies to a last @-@ ditch counterattack . Aided by 44 large @-@ caliber guns and a regiment of BM @-@ 13 rocket launchers , the elite 8th Company of the 134th Regiment attacked from the tunnels under Hill 598 while the other five infantry companies attacked across open ground at dusk on October 19 . Their left wing drove the South Koreans off Sniper Ridge , but the US defenders on Triangle Hill held firm . At daybreak on October 20 , UN firepower regained the upper hand and the Chinese were forced back into the tunnels after suffering heavy casualties . By the time Smith replaced the US 17th Infantry Regiment with the US 32nd Infantry Regiment on the afternoon of October 20 , Qin Jiwei received reports that the 45th Division was completely decimated . The Chinese attacked Hill 598 again on the night of October 23 with two infantry companies , but the well entrenched US troops beat back the attack with little difficulty .
After suffering over 4 @,@ 000 casualties in ten days , the failure of the last attack ended the 45th Division 's role as the only combatant on the Chinese side . The UN forces had gained strong control over most of the area , with the remaining Chinese defenders trapped in tunnels under the UN positions . Despite the initial setbacks , Deng Hua , acting commander of the PVA , considered the situation a golden opportunity to bleed the US military white . In the strategy meeting held on the evening of October 25 , the 15th Corps was ordered to retake the two hills regardless of the cost .
= = = Interlude = = =
Van Fleet decided to rest the US 7th Infantry Division on October 25 , thus sidestepping the Chinese intention of inflicting additional casualties on the Americans . The 31st Regiment of the ROK 2nd Infantry Division would take over the Triangle Hill area while the 17th Regiment of the ROK 2nd Infantry Division maintained control over Sniper Ridge . On the same day , fresh Chinese reinforcements were converging on the Kimhwa front . The PVA High Command ordered the 12th Corps to be placed under the command of the 15th Corps and Qin Jiwei ordered the 86th and 87th Regiments of the 29th Division to link up with the 45th Division for a new counterattack . The 45th Division also received 1 @,@ 200 new recruits to reconstitute 13 of its infantry companies . About 67 heavy guns and one regiment of anti @-@ aircraft artillery were made available to support the upcoming counterattack . All Chinese reinforcements were focused on Triangle Hill , with Sniper Ridge considered secondary .
Over the next five days , the ROK 31st Regiment was involved in a bitter struggle with the Chinese defenders underground . The PVA 45th Division had also infiltrated small units into UN positions every night to resupply the trapped units and to evacuate the wounded , causing heavy casualties among the Chinese logistics and medical units . As there was no battalion level combat between October 20 and October 29 , the Chinese were able to gather their strength for a decisive blow .
= = = Escalation = = =
Before the start of the battle , Qin Jiwei had worried that Van Fleet would try to lure the Chinese forces around Triangle Hill , with the real blow directed towards the Pyonggang Valley . To counter this possibility , the 44th Division and the 85th Regiment of the 29th Division had been conducting preemptive attacks on Jackson Heights since early October . From mid October , the 44th Division increased the strength of its attacks in an effort to relieve pressure from Triangle Hill , and the battle of attrition that was witnessed over Triangle Hill had also developed at Jackson Heights .
At noon on October 30 , the 15th Corps bombarded the Koreans with 133 large @-@ caliber guns , 22 rocket launchers and 30 120 mm heavy mortars in the largest Chinese artillery operation of the Korean War . When the bombardment ended at midnight , 10 infantry companies from the 45th and the 29th Divisions swarmed over the ROK 31st Regiment 's positions and pushed the South Koreans off the summit . In the aftermath of the fighting , only 175 South Koreans survived the onslaught out of the three defending infantry companies . With the PVA 91st Regiment of the 31st Division , 12th Corps , arriving as reinforcement on November 1 , the Chinese forces chased the remaining South Korean defenders off Jane Russell Hill and beat off the subsequent counterattack . Responding to the losses , the US IX Corps ordered the ROK 30th Regiment of the ROK 9th Infantry Division to take back Triangle Hill on October 31 . The South Koreans launched continuous attacks for the next five days to no avail . Although the South Koreans failed to recapture the hill , the resulting heavy casualties forced the Chinese to call in the 93rd Regiment of the 31st Division as reinforcement on November 5 . On the same day , Lieutenant General Reuben E. Jenkins , commander of the US IX Corps , suspended further attacks on Triangle Hill to prevent more casualties and to protect Sniper Ridge .
As the IX Corps gave up on Triangle Hill , the PVA 31st Division of the 12th Corps was in position to take back Sniper Ridge . Under the cover of inclement weather , an assault was launched by the 92nd Regiment at 4 pm on November 11 . The Chinese soon drove off the defending 1st Battalion of the ROK 32nd Regiment , but Chung Il @-@ kwon immediately replied with a counterattack by the ROK 17th Regiment of the ROK 2nd Infantry Division on the dawn of November 12 . After two hours of fighting , the 1st Battalion of the ROK 17th Regiment recaptured two @-@ thirds of Sniper Ridge and inflicted heavy casualties on the PVA 92nd Regiment . The 31st Division relieved the 92nd Regiment with its 93rd Regiment to launch another assault on November 14 , but the ROK 17th Regiment responded by committing all units to blunt the attack . By November 17 , with the help of the ROK 1st Field Artillery Group , the ROK 2nd Battalion returned to the 1st Battalion 's original position after a two @-@ hour battle . Undeterred by heavy casualties , the PVA 106th Regiment of the 34th Division , 12th Corps relieved the weakened 93rd Regiment during the night of November 18 . For the next six days , ' seesaw ' fighting continued on Sniper Ridge . By November 25 , the ROK 2nd Infantry Division was relieved by the ROK 9th Infantry Division on Sniper Ridge and the fighting finally died down .
= = = Conclusion = = =
Given the high numbers of UN casualties and under pressure from Clark , Van Fleet broke off Operation Showdown on November 28 , thus ending the Battle of Triangle Hill . A few days later , the PVA 34th Division and the ROK 9th Infantry Division were engaged in a seesaw battle on Sniper Ridge on December 2 and 3 but it failed to produce any territorial gains for either side . On December 15 , with the PVA 29th Division taking over the control of the battlefield from the 34th Division , the 12th Corps withdrew from the area and the 15th Corps settled back to the status quo prior to October 14 .
= = Aftermath = =
The Battle of Triangle Hill was the biggest and bloodiest contest of 1952 . After 42 days of heavy fighting , the Eighth Army had failed to gain the two hill masses that were its original goal . For the Chinese , on the other hand , not only did the 15th Corps stop the UN attacks at Triangle Hill , the assaults conducted by the 44th Division on the Pyonggang front also resulted in Jackson Heights ' capture on November 30 . Although the Chinese had suffered 11 @,@ 500 casualties with many units decimated during the battle , its ability to sustain such losses had slowly exhausted the US Eighth Army over two months of attrition . The PVA High Command viewed the victory as vindication that attrition was an effective strategy against the UN forces , while the Chinese became more aggressive in the armistice negotiations and on the battlefield . Meanwhile , the high UN casualties forced Clark to suspend any upcoming offensive operations involving more than one battalion , effectively preventing any major UN offensives for the rest of the war . Clark and US President Harry S. Truman later confided that the battle was a serious blow to the UN morale . As for the South Koreans , the modest UN gain on Sniper Ridge had convinced them that the South Korean armed forces were now capable of conducting independent offensive operations , even though the American advisers were less than impressed with their performance during the course of the battle .
Despite its impact and scale , the Battle of Triangle Hill is one of the least known episodes of the Korean War within the Western media . For the Chinese , this costly victory presented an opportunity to promote the value of endurance and sacrifice . The courage demonstrated by the Chinese soldiers at Triangle Hill was repeatedly glorified in various forms of media , including several major motion pictures . Qin Jiwei was also celebrated as the hero of Shangganling and eventually rose to become the Minister of Defense and the Vice Chairman of the National People 's Congress . The 15th Corps became one of the most prestigious units within the PLA , and the PLAAF selected the 15th Corps to become China 's first airborne corps in 1961 . It remains the most elite corps @-@ size unit in China today .
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= Wildrose Party =
The Wildrose Party ( legally Wildrose Political Association , formerly the Wildrose Alliance Political Association ) is a conservative provincial political party in Alberta , Canada . The party was formed by the merger in early 2008 of the Alberta Alliance Party and the unregistered Wildrose Party of Alberta . The wild rose is Alberta 's provincial flower .
It contested the 2008 provincial election under the Wildrose Alliance banner , and was able to capture seven percent of the popular vote but failed to hold its single seat in the Legislative Assembly . Support for the party rose sharply in 2009 as voters grew increasingly frustrated with the Progressive Conservative ( PC ) government , resulting in a surprise win by outgoing leader Paul Hinman in an October by @-@ election . In the fall of 2009 Danielle Smith was elected as leader and by December the Wildrose was leading provincial opinion polls ahead of both the governing PCs and the opposition Liberals . Wildrose 's caucus grew to four members in 2010 , after two former PC members of the Legislative Assembly defected in January and an independent MLA joined the party in June of that year .
In the 2012 election , while the party failed to have the breakthrough predicted by most media pundits ( many predicted it would become the government ) , it did increase its vote and seat totals and become the official opposition .
In December 2014 , nine Wildrose MLAs including leader Danielle Smith left the party to join the Progressive Conservative caucus under its recently elected leader Jim Prentice . All of the defectors to the PCs who sought re @-@ election in the 2015 general election lost their seats , through either losing the nomination process in their riding , or losing the general election to the Wildrose challenger .
Effective February 3 , 2015 the party 's registered name was changed from Wildrose Alliance Party to Wildrose Party .
= = History = =
= = = Founding and 2008 general election = = =
The Alberta Alliance Party voted to change its registered name on January 19 , 2008 to the Wildrose Alliance after it merged with the unregistered Wildrose Party of Alberta . The name officially changed to Wildrose Alliance Party of Alberta after being approved by Elections Alberta on January 31 , 2008 .
The two parties had similar policies and the Wildrose had key personnel previously involved with the Alberta Alliance . They hoped that a union would allow the new party to present a stronger front for an anticipated election in the spring of 2008 . Paul Hinman , the party 's only sitting Member of the Legislative Assembly ( MLA ) remained leader after the merger . During the 27th Alberta general election , the Wildrose Alliance attempted to position itself as a conservative alternative to the governing PC party , and released a platform that promised fixed election dates , increasing personal tax exemptions , elimination of health care premiums , the creation of an Alberta Pension Plan , and a reworking of the controversial changes the PC government made to the oil and gas royalty regime .
An anticipated backlash against the governing PCs failed to materialize , as Premier Ed Stelmach extended his party 's seat total to 72 from 60 . While the Alliance finished second in eight ridings across the province , they failed to win any seats as Hinman lost his Cardston @-@ Taber @-@ Warner riding by just 39 votes . Running candidates in 61 of the province 's 83 ridings , the Alliance took 6 @.@ 78 % of the vote , fourth behind the PCs , Liberals and New Democrats .
= = = 2009 leadership election = = =
Hinman announced on April 20 , 2009 his intention to step down as leader . He remained the party 's leader in an interim capacity until the leadership convention . Former Canadian Federation of Independent Business provincial director Danielle Smith and Mark Dyrholm , a chiropractor in Calgary , announced their candidacy at the June convention . The party viewed the leadership campaign with optimism , announcing that its membership was growing rapidly as Albertans grew increasingly frustrated with the Stelmach government 's performance .
Growing opposition to the government 's oil and gas royalty program , a record $ 4 @.@ 7 billion deficit in 2009 , and the PC 's " liberal spending " facilitated the growth of the party . The party began to attract former Reform Party of Canada supporters along with high profile former members of the provincial Progressive Conservatives , including former premier Ralph Klein 's father . Using the slogan " Send Ed a message " as a rallying cry , Paul Hinman sought to take advantage of public discontent as he ran in a September by @-@ election in the Calgary @-@ Glenmore riding . He surprised political observers by capturing 37 percent of the vote , narrowly defeating Liberal opponent Avalon Roberts to win the election and gain the Wildrose Alliance its first seat in the legislature . The Tories , who had held the riding uninterrupted since 1969 , fell to third place . Political observers argued the result was more a protest against the Stelmach government than firm support for the Alliance , though it gave the party momentum as it prepared to vote for a leader .
Smith and Dyrholm both attempted to capitalize on the party 's election win , proclaiming that Albertans wanted change and that each of them would lead the Wildrose Alliance to a victory in the next general election . The party experienced a considerable growth heading into the leadership election , announcing it had 11 @,@ 670 members at the beginning of October , compared to 1 @,@ 800 in June . Smith was elected the new leader at the convention held in Edmonton on October 17 .
= = = Danielle Smith leadership = = =
Upon her election , Smith sought to continue the party 's growth , focusing her efforts on fundraising and a search for strong candidates . The Wildrose Alliance 's growth was evident in the polls . Shortly before Smith 's election , a Return on Insight poll found that the Alliance had the support of 22 percent of respondents . By early November , the party had improved to 28 percent according to an Environics poll , firmly in second place and six points behind the Conservatives . By December , they topped the Tories , leading with 39 percent support according to an Angus Reid poll , while the Conservatives had fallen into a second place tie with the Liberals at 25 percent . The party revealed at the same time that it had grown to over 13 @,@ 000 members .
Amidst this wave of popularity , Smith announced on January 4 , 2010 that two former Conservative MLAs had crossed the floor . Rob Anderson and former cabinet minister Heather Forsyth announced that they had joined the Wildrose Alliance after growing frustrated with Ed Stelmach 's leadership , accusing the Conservative government of being undemocratic . The defections moved the Wildrose Party past the New Democrats to become the third largest party in the Legislature , Guy Boutilier joined the Wildrose Alliance on June 24 , 2010 . The fourth Wildrose MLA , Boutilier took the party over the threshold for recognition as an official party in the Assembly . He was unveiled at the party 's annual conference , which was attended by 700 people : up from 175 the previous year .
In late July 2010 , a controversy developed between Edmonton mayor Stephen Mandel and Smith over the future of the city @-@ centre airport . Smith argued that a vote on closure of the airport should be added to the October civic elections ballot . Alberta Liberal and NDP politicians also opposed the closure .
For much of the run @-@ up to the 2012 provincial election , it looked like the Wildrose would defeat the Tories in a landslide . Polling immediately before the election suggested that the gap had narrowed somewhat , but that the Wildrose was still poised to end the PCs ' 41 @-@ year tenure in government . In the general election , however , the Wildrose took 17 seats out of 87 , well behind the Tories . This was mainly because its support was confined to rural areas . The Wildrose only won two seats in Calgary ( while losing the two seats it held there at dissolution ) and were completely shut out of Edmonton . Nonetheless , it tallied 34 @.@ 3 percent of the popular vote , a healthy increase from 2008 . This was , however , enough to make the Wildrose the Official Opposition for the first time .
In 2014 , Allison Redford stepped down as PC leader following numerous scandals , and polls began to show a resurgence in Wildrose support . Jim Prentice then won the PC leadership and called four by @-@ elections to get his new cabinet , which included former Edmonton Mayor Stephen Mandel , seats in the Legislature . The Wildrose was expected to win two out of the four seats ; however the PCs retained all four . The by @-@ elections were seen as a test of both the PC Party under its new leader and Wildrose . As a result of the by @-@ election losses , Smith asked the party to conduct a leadership review . On November 2 , 2014 , after Rimbey @-@ Rocky Mountain House @-@ Sundre MLA Joe Anglin left the Wildrose caucus to sit as an independent due to the party 's " turmoil " and after making criticisms of Smith 's leadership team internally . , the remaining members of caucus unanimously pass a resolution asking Smith to withdraw her request for a leadership review ; Smith agreed . At the party 's Annual General Meeting on November 15 , 2014 , Smith pledged to resign as Wildrose leader if the party did not win government in the next provincial election . Also at the AGM , members voted 148 @-@ 109 against a resolution supporting equal rights for all minority groups , regardless of race , religious belief , sexual orientation or other differences . This vote reversed a party policy supported by Smith which had been adopted the previous year and signified a shift by the party towards social conservatism resulting in resignations by more moderate party members .
= = = = Defections = = = =
On November 3 , 2014 , Joe Anglin ( Rimbey @-@ Rocky Mountain House @-@ Sundre ) quit the caucus to sit as an Independent MLA stating that he had found out he was out to be expelled due to his public criticisms of Smith 's advisers . Anglin had previously lost his bid to be renominated in his riding as Wildrose 's candidate for the next provincial election .
On November 24 , 2014 Kerry Towle , ( Innisfail @-@ Sylvan Lake ) , and Ian Donovan , ( Little Bow ) crossed the floor to join the ruling PC Party 's caucus giving the turmoil within the Wildrose Party , uncertainty about Smith 's leadership and confidence in Prentice as reasons for their move .
On December 17 , 2014 , Smith confirmed she and eight other Wildrose members — Rob Anderson , Gary Bikman , Rod Fox , Jason Hale , Bruce McAllister , Blake Pedersen , Bruce Rowe and Jeff Wilson — would cross the floor to the Progressive Conservative caucus , with Smith saying " Under Premier Prentice ’ s strong leadership , I believe we can work together to lead Alberta with a renewed focus on the values and principles that we share . " The action followed several days of rumours and a PC caucus meeting in which that party agreed to accept the Wildrose members on terms which have not been officially disclosed . This leaves five MLAs still affiliated with the Wildrose Party . In a letter to the party executive , Smith asked that all party members vote on a " reunification resolution " to merge the Wildrose and PC parties ; a request which the party executive rejected . This development angered many party members and provoked widespread controversy . Wildrose has stated that " At no time has the Wildrose Party been approached by any representative of the PCAA regarding a merger , combination , partnership or alliance . Yesterday ’ s events are confined to nine former Wildrose MLAs who opted to cross the floor without consulting the Wildrose Party . "
The defections placed Wildrose in a tie with the Liberals for the second most seats but the Speaker ruled that Wildrose would continue as the Official Opposition based on prior precedent . Official Opposition status comes with additional funding and privileges .
= = = 2015 election = = =
Brian Jean was elected Wildrose leader on March 28 , 2015 . Days later , Premier Jim Prentice called a provincial election for May 5 , 2015 which resulted in an upset victory by the Alberta New Democratic Party under Rachel Notley , returning an NDP majority government . Despite its lack of preparedness , due to the caucus defections and having to organize an election campaign on the heels of a leadership election , Wildrose was able to rally and win 21 seats , 16 more than the five seats it had at the dissolution of the legislature , and four more than it had won in 2012 , allowing the party to remain the Official Opposition . Prentice 's Progressive Conservatives , however , collapsed and lost 60 of the 70 seats it had at dissolution , returning only 10 MLAs , finding itself out of power for the first time since 1971 and coming in third behind the NDP and Wildrose . Wildrose 's popular vote fell by one @-@ third , however , from 34 % of the vote in 2012 to 24 % in 2015 .
= = = Wildrose on Campus = = =
Following the Wildrose Party 's jump to official opposition status in 2012 , undergraduate students Chris Bell , Braden Meunchrath , Keean Bexte , Samantha Hossack , and Alex Szojka founded the first campus branch of the Party 's youth wing on November 12 , 2013 . Often abbreviated " WROC " , the youth branch does not enjoy official status under the party constitution , although they have worked in an unofficial capacity passing party policy , hosting debates , and engaging campus communities . The only Alberta campus to currently have a branch of the campus club is the University of Calgary , the current president is Jenn Galandy . The branch is run by an elected board consisting of a President , Vice @-@ President Internal @-@ Affairs , Vice @-@ President External @-@ Affairs , Vice @-@ President Events , Vice @-@ President Membership , and Vice @-@ President Operations and Finance .
= = Policy and identity = =
Election reform is a focus of the Wildrose Alliance . The party proposes to set fixed election dates rather than the current format which allows the Premier to call an election at any time . It would allow more free votes in the legislature and would seek to elect the province 's Senators rather than have them appointed by the Prime Minister . The party also plans to introduce a bill giving voters the right to recall their MLA . The Wildrose Party proposes numerous changes to how the province delivers health care , which it claims will remain compliant with the Canada Health Act , as well as controls on government spending . Smith is also critical of international climate change treaties , believing climate change science remains inconclusive .
Smith stated that controversial social issues would not play a part in the party 's election platform .
Polling indicated that the party retained the support of a quarter of the electorate throughout 2010 as the party further attempted to define itself as not just a protest party but a party capable of forming government . By July 2011 , the Wildrose 's support had fallen to 16 percent , while PC support had risen to 51 percent .
However , by March 2012 , the Wildrose was polling the support of four @-@ in @-@ ten Albertans , showing significant improvement and a credible challenger to the PCs .
In the wake of the mass floor crossing , new leader Brian Jean stated that each candidate must sign a contract , under which they would need to pay a $ 100 @,@ 000 fine if they intend to cross the floor to another party .
= = Leaders = =
Randy Thorsteinson 2003 – 2005
Eleanor Maroes 2005 ( interim )
Paul Hinman 2005 – 2009
Danielle Smith 2009 – 2014
Heather Forsyth ( interim ) 2014 – 2015
Brian Jean 2015 – present
= = Current caucus = =
Brian Jean – Fort McMurray @-@ Conklin
Leela Aheer – Chestermere @-@ Rocky View
Wayne Anderson – Highwood
Drew Barnes - Cypress @-@ Medicine Hat
Nathan Cooper – Olds @-@ Didsbury @-@ Three Hills
Scott Cyr – Bonnyville @-@ Cold Lake
Derek Fildebrandt – Strathmore @-@ Brooks
Dave Hanson – Lac La Biche @-@ St. Paul @-@ Two Hills
Grant Hunter – Cardston @-@ Taber @-@ Warner
Todd Loewen – Grande Prairie @-@ Smoky
Don MacIntyre – Innisfail @-@ Sylvan Lake
Jason Nixon – Rimbey @-@ Rocky Mountain House @-@ Sundre
Ron Orr – Lacombe @-@ Ponoka
Prasad Panda – Calgary @-@ Foothills ( by @-@ election )
Angela Pitt – Airdrie
Dave Schneider – Little Bow
Mark Smith – Drayton Valley @-@ Devon
Pat Stier – Livingstone @-@ Macleod
Rick Strankman – Drumheller @-@ Stettler
Wes Taylor – Battle River @-@ Wainwright
Glenn van Dijken – Barrhead @-@ Morinville @-@ Westlock
Tany Yao – Fort McMurray @-@ Wood Buffalo
= = Electoral results = =
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= Girl Pat =
Girl Pat was a small fishing trawler , based at the Lincolnshire port of Grimsby , that in 1936 was the subject of a media sensation when its captain took it on an unauthorised transatlantic voyage . The escapade ended in Georgetown , British Guiana , with the arrest of the captain , George " Dod " Orsborne , and his brother . The pair were later imprisoned for the theft of the vessel .
Built in 1935 , Girl Pat was the property of the Marstrand Fishing Company of Grimsby . On 1 April 1936 , Orsborne , with a crew of four and his brother James as a supernumerary , took the vessel out on what the owners authorised as a routine North Sea fishing trip of two to three weeks ' duration . After leaving port , Orsborne informed the crew that they were going on an extended cruise in more southerly waters . Nothing more was heard of them until mid @-@ May , when the owners , who had by then assumed the vessel lost , received invoices relating to its repair and reprovisioning in the northern Spanish port of Corcubión . Subsequent sightings placed her in the Savage Islands , at Dakar in Senegal , and Îles du Salut off the coast of French Guiana in South America . The captain 's main means of navigation during a voyage of more than 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 000 km ) was a sixpenny school atlas and a compass . At one point Girl Pat was reported wrecked in the Bahamas , with all hands lost . After the vessel 's capture and detention following a chase outside Georgetown on 19 June , Orsborne and his crew were hailed as heroes in the world 's press .
Charged with the theft of the vessel in October 1936 , Orsborne maintained in court that the owners had instructed him to get rid of the ship , as part of a scheme to obtain its insurance value . This claim was dismissed by the court . Years later , in his memoirs , Orsborne told a different , uncorroborated story : in absconding with Girl Pat he had been carrying out a mission on behalf of British Naval Intelligence , connected with the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in July 1936 .
After his release from prison , Orsborne took part in further maritime adventures and served in the navy in the Second World War . He died in 1957 . In Georgetown Girl Pat was acquired by new owners who returned her to Britain , where she was displayed as a tourist attraction in several resorts . In 1939 she was sold to the Port of London Authority for use as a wreck @-@ marking vessel and , after being requisitioned by the Royal Navy during the war , was returned to the authority in 1945 . There is no public record of her subsequent career .
= = Background = =
= = = Orsborne = = =
George Black Orsborne was born George Black on 4 July 1902 , in the small north Scottish coastal town of Buckie . He assumed the Orsborne name when his widowed mother remarried and moved the family to Aberdeen , where George , nicknamed " Dod " , spent his formative years . When he was 14 , Orsborne lied about his age and enlisted as a Boy Seaman in the Royal Navy ; in his memoirs he wrote : " I never did have an adolescence " . He served in the Dover Patrol , and was wounded during the 1918 Zeebrugge Raid . After leaving the Navy in December 1919 and working ashore for a brief period , he was persuaded by a former captain of the Cutty Sark , Captain Wilkins , to go back to sea . He joined the merchant navy , sailing mainly in small ships based in Liverpool .
At 21 he passed his master 's ticket examinations and took over his first command , a Grimsby trawler . During the following ten years , Orsborne said his career included " a bit of everything — rum @-@ running , whaling , deep @-@ sea trawling in the Arctic " . In November 1935 , back in Grimsby , he became skipper of the former seine fishing boat Gipsy Love , which its owners , the Marstrand Fishing Company , had converted into a trawler .
= = = Crew and vessel = = =
In March 1936 , for his second voyage in Gipsy Love , Orsborne attempted to engage the services of an experienced seaman , Alexander MacLean , to whom he confided that the trip might go further afield — perhaps to Bermuda or South America — but MacLean declined the opportunity . Orsborne offered the mate 's berth to Harry Stone , a local seaman who did not possess a mate 's ticket but was told by Orsborne that he could use MacLean 's number . The other crew members were a Yorkshireman , Hector Harris , and a 17 @-@ year @-@ old Scottish cook , Howard Stephens . The formal crew was joined by Orsborne 's younger brother James , a grocer , who had no formal status on board and was later classified as a stowaway . Gipsy Love left Grimsby late in March 1936 , supposedly to fish in the Dogger Bank area of the North Sea , but within hours had returned to port with engine trouble . With the consent of the owners , Orsborne transferred stores and crew to another Marstrand vessel , the small trawler Girl Pat ; James Orsborne again joined them .
Built in 1935 in Oulton Broad , Suffolk , Girl Pat was a vessel of 55 gross registered tons ( GRT ) , 19 NRT . She was 66 feet ( 20 m ) long , with a beam of 18 @.@ 7 feet ( 5 @.@ 7 m ) , a hold depth of 8 @.@ 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) , and accommodation for six . Some sources refer to her as a " seine netter , " suggesting that like the Gipsy Love she had been converted to trawling . She was insured with underwriters for £ 3 @,@ 000 . Her regular engineer , George Jefferson , was added to Orsborne 's picked crew for the forthcoming voyage .
= = Voyage = =
= = = First phase : Grimsby to Corcubión = = =
Girl Pat left Grimsby on 1 April 1936 . According to Stone 's later account , when they entered the open sea , Orsborne assembled the crew — except for Jefferson — in the wheelhouse and told them that this would not be a normal fishing trip . Instead , he proposed to take the boat south , first calling at Dover where he would get rid of Jefferson , who was not included in his further plans . At this stage Orsborne was apparently undecided as to his longer @-@ term intentions , but indicated that they would be sailing into southern waters and might go fishing for pearls .
On 3 April the craft reached Dover , where Jefferson was taken ashore and given food and drink . When he returned to the harbour , Girl Pat had departed ; the engineer returned in some confusion to Grimsby . As Girl Pat sailed into the English Channel , Orsborne revealed to his crew that the vessel contained no charts , and that future navigation would be dependent on a cheap school atlas that he showed them . He changed details in the boat 's log book , entering himself as " G. Black , " Stone as " H. Clark , " and James Orsborne as " A. Black " . After anchoring off Jersey in the Channel Islands to await calmer weather , Girl Pat proceeded southwards through the Bay of Biscay . Orsborne ordered changes to the boat 's appearance : the bowsprit was altered , and the fishing registration number on the side of the hull was blacked out . According to Stone , Orsborne indicated an itinerary that included Madeira , the Canary Islands , the African coast and , eventually , Cape Town . They might then sell the boat and share the proceeds . Severe weather in the Bay of Biscay hampered progress and battered the small vessel , and on 12 April they took shelter in the small northern Spanish port of Corcubión , where they stayed for around 14 days . Necessary repairs were carried out , and the boat was reprovisioned . Orsborne instructed that the accounts for these services , totalling £ 235 , be sent to Marstrand 's in Grimsby , as their punishment , he later said , for letting the boat be taken out with inadequate stores and equipment .
Following Jefferson 's return to Grimsby , Marstrand 's were puzzled by Orsborne 's actions , but initially thought that he had taken on another engineer in Dover and had gone fishing , perhaps in new grounds . There were unconfirmed sightings of Girl Pat in the Baltic Sea and elsewhere . As weeks passed with no definite news , the Marstrand directors assumed that the vessel was lost , either through foundering or barratry , and claimed insurance . They had already received sums totalling £ 2 @,@ 400 from the underwriters , when they were surprised by the arrival of bills from Corcubión , together with the news that Girl Pat had sailed from the port on 24 April , her destination unknown .
= = = Second phase : Corcubión to Dakar = = =
After Girl Pat left Corcubión , there was speculation in the port that Orsborne intended to fish in the waters around Gibraltar , but there was no sighting of the vessel in that vicinity . Stone later recalled that after sailing for some time , they arrived at some uninhabited islands — this is consistent with a probable sighting by the British liner SS Avoceta , which on 17 May reported seeing a vessel closely matching the trawler 's description , anchored in the Savage Islands . This small uninhabited archipelago , roughly 170 nautical miles ( 310 km ) south of Madeira and roughly the same distance north of the Canary Islands , had long been associated with stories of pirates ' buried treasure , and news that Girl Pat had been seen there gave rise to press speculation that she was engaged on a hunt for treasure . Lloyd 's of London sent a representative to Las Palmas , to investigate the sighting ; meanwhile Girl Pat made an unobserved call at Tenerife in the Canary Islands , where she was repainted .
Leaving Tenerife , Girl Pat continued her journey southward , following the African coast . According to Stone 's account , the crew went ashore at Port Etienne in French West Africa ( now Nouadhibou , in Mauritania ) , leaving the boat unguarded . While they were away , marauders stole gear and provisions , leaving the crew almost destitute : " All we had left to eat and drink were four bottles of water , a tin of corned beef , a bottle of lime juice and a tin of condensed milk " . Leaving Port Etienne , they ran aground on a sandbank and were stranded for three days . Eventually they managed to refloat the vessel , and on 23 May were picked up by a pilot boat which brought them into the harbour at Dakar , starving and exhausted .
Stone had fallen ill with appendicitis during the previous leg of the voyage ; he was hospitalised in Dakar and took no further part in the adventure . Orsborne was able to obtain further fuel and water , but Girl Pat 's arrival attracted the attention of the local Lloyd 's agent , who had been on the lookout for the vessel . On 26 May he saw Orsborne and inspected the log book , where he discovered the false names and other inconsistencies . Orsborne was asked to present the ship 's papers at the British consulate but , on the pretext that he needed to test the engines , he rapidly put to sea . The appearance of Girl Pat in Dakar — the first confirmation since Corcubión that the vessel was still afloat — was widely reported . Relatives of the crew members were relieved that those aboard were safe but were apprehensive about what might lie ahead .
= = = Third phase : Dakar to Georgetown = = =
The level of public interest in the Girl Pat affair was enough for Gaumont British to consider making it the subject of a feature film . In the House of Commons on 29 May , the Parliamentary Secretary to the Board of Trade stated that no requests had been made for the detention of the vessel in foreign ports ; two weeks later , Walter Runciman , the President of the Board of Trade , confirmed that , on behalf of the underwriters , the Foreign Office had asked that Girl Pat be refused credit and detained on entering any port .
On 2 June the French liner Jamaique reported a small boat , flying the British flag and steaming southwards , near the Bissagos Islands 250 nautical miles ( 460 km ) south of Dakar . Although this was at first assumed to be Girl Pat , the next reported sighting , on 9 June , was more than 2 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 700 km ) to the west , on the other side of the Atlantic . Captain Jones of the Lorraine Cross , an American ship , cabled Lloyds ' agents in Georgetown , British Guiana ( now Guyana ) with an account of a small ship flying a distress signal off the South American coast , 47 nautical miles ( 87 km ) north @-@ east of Cayenne . There were apparently four men on board . The boat 's name and markings had been painted out , but she claimed to be the " Margaret Harold " bound for Trinidad from London . Jones thought the crew 's behaviour suspicious , and when he asked to see the ship 's papers , the ship lowered the distress signal and sped away . Jones said the vessel was " undoubtedly a British fisherman " , and thought it was Girl Pat . In Grimsby , a Marstrand spokesman expressed little surprise at this new location , and confirmed that the ship had sufficient speed to have crossed the ocean in the time since her last confirmed sighting . A check with Lloyd 's indicated that there was no registered ship named Margaret Harold .
A report from the Îles du Salut , a few miles off the coast of French Guiana , indicated that a vessel similar in appearance to Girl Pat had watered there on 10 June . An air search , by a Pan @-@ American aircraft , covered over 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) of coastline around Georgetown , without sighting the craft . On 17 June several newspapers carried reports of the discovery of the wreck of a small boat , and three bodies , at Atwood Cay , a small island in the Bahamas . Much of the press assumed this to be Girl Pat ; one headline read " Did School Atlas Course Lead Crew to Death ? " . The reports proved false when , early in the morning of 19 June , a police launch towed Girl Pat into Georgetown harbour .
= = = Capture , detention and arrest = = =
On the evening of 18 June the British steamer Arakaka had spotted a small ship a few miles outside Georgetown , and radioed this information to the shore . An unarmed police launch left Georgetown to investigate ; as they approached , the crew of the as yet unidentified vessel became hostile . They denied that she was Girl Pat and threatened violence should officers attempt to board her . The launch retreated to Georgetown , where the police armed themselves and obtained authority to seize the suspect vessel . They returned early the following morning to find that their quarry was departing . A two @-@ hour chase ensued , which The Hull Daily Mail glamorised as a sporting contest : " Like some coursing greyhound the faster Government ship stuck to the tail of the fleeing suspect which , harelike , doubled back on her course to dodge her pursuer " . According to the British Daily Worker , the chase " [ outdid ] the most spectacular efforts of film directors " . Finally , while manoeuvring at close quarters , the vessels collided . The stern of the suspect boat was severely damaged , whereupon she surrendered and was taken in tow . The name displayed on the vessel 's hull was " Kia @-@ ora " , but Stephens quickly admitted to their captors that the ship was Girl Pat .
With Girl Pat secured and under guard in Georgetown harbour , the Orsborne brothers , Harris , and Stephens were taken to police headquarters in the City Hall . The police issued a statement that the four were there " at their own request . They are under no form of detention " . In London , officials struggled to establish the exact legal position , and issued confusing statements . Meanwhile , Orsborne and his companions were widely hailed as heroes . The German newspaper Hamburger Fremdenblatt asked : " Is this not a bit of British tradition , to do the unconventional out of love for adventure , if great personal risks , audacity and romance are connected therewith ? " . A man from the town of Hull thought the adventure demonstrated " the spirit of Drake " , and called for a public subscription to meet the crew 's debts and expenses . An alternative view , expressed in the Hull Daily Mail , was to question whether the men should be regarded so favourably , or merely as " men who have run away with someone else 's property " .
Once released by the police , Harris and Stephens returned immediately to England , where they arrived on 13 July . The Orsborne brothers waited in Georgetown for their position to be clarified ; George Orsborne told the press he was anxious to return home where , he insisted , many job offers were open to him . On 27 June , following further discussions in London , the brothers were arrested on a warrant issued under the Fugitive Offenders Act , and brought before the Georgetown magistrates , where they were charged with the theft of Girl Pat .
= = Hearings , trial and sentence = =
= = = In Georgetown = = =
The brothers were held in custody , awaiting a deportation hearing . On 4 July they were remanded for a further week , and bail was again refused . Although the brothers declared their willingness to waive the deportation process and accept immediate transfer to England , they continued to be detained . On 22 July the hearings in the Georgetown magistrates ' court finally began , with the formal identification of Girl Pat . On 24 July the magistrates ordered that the brothers be sent to England to face trial , once the formal approval of the colonial governor , Sir Geoffry Northcote , had been given . The governor was in no hurry to act ; the Orsbornes finally left Georgetown on 13 August , when they boarded the cargo liner Inanda .
While the Orsbornes were in Georgetown , Harold Stone , Girl Pat 's erstwhile mate , made his way home from Dakar and arrived in Liverpool on 20 July . After interviews with the police , Stone spoke to the press of the hardships suffered during the Girl Pat voyage , especially the shortages of food and water : " I would not want to go through the experience again " . He confirmed that they had navigated using a school atlas , but added that they had possessed a compass .
= = = Bow Street , London = = =
Early on 2 September Inanda docked at Gravesend , Kent . The brothers were immediately driven to London for a formal appearance at Bow Street Magistrates ' Court , where they were charged with theft and conspiracy . Against police opposition — because , they said , " certain developments " might arise — the magistrate bailed each defendant in the sum of £ 500 , and required them to surrender their passports .
When the hearing resumed on 10 September , the court heard from Marstrands ' managing director that George Orsborne had not been given authority to operate Girl Pat outside the North Sea . Stone testified that Orsborne had made plain his intentions to take the boat south from the outset , and also gave evidence concerning the changes to the ship 's log . The court heard from Jefferson and other Dover witnesses , from Alexander MacLean , and from the Lloyd 's agent in Dakar . The defence counsel did not answer the detailed aspects of the prosecution 's case , but stated that at the forthcoming trial , " very serious allegations " would be made against certain of the prosecution witnesses . The brothers pleaded not guilty , and were remanded on continuing bail for trial at the Old Bailey . In the interval between the Bow Street hearings and the trial , which was set to begin in October , Girl Pat was sold .
= = = Old Bailey = = =
The Old Bailey trial began on 19 October 1936 . The prosecution opened by stating that this should not be considered as " a cheerful buccaneering adventure , " but as a breach of trust on the part of George Orsborne , to whom the owners had entrusted their ship . The objective of the voyage had not been to benefit the owners , but to make money for the defendants .
MacLean testified that in his discussions with George Orsborne , he had formed the impression that the captain was part @-@ owner of the vessel . Orsborne had mentioned to him the possibility of engaging in profitable activities such as gun @-@ running and smuggling . John Moore , the managing director of Marstrand 's , stated that he had expected Orsborne to take Girl Pat fishing in an area of the North Sea where another Marstrand vessel was fishing successfully . When Moore was cross @-@ examined , the defence 's " serious allegations " were revealed . It was put to Moore that he had instructed George Orsborne not to go fishing , but to get rid of the vessel so that the company could claim its insurance value , of which Orsborne would be rewarded with a share . The defence alleged that the company was in poor financial shape , and that its ships were heavily mortgaged . Moore denied that he had made any such suggestion to Orsborne . The company , he insisted , was financially sound , the mortgages on its vessels were relatively low , and he had never discussed insured values with Orsborne . The defence further alleged that when taken out Girl Pat had been in an unseaworthy condition , inadequately provisioned and unfit for a normal fishing voyage . This suggestion was also denied by Moore .
After Stone and Jefferson reprised the evidence they had given in Bow Street , George Orsborne took the stand . He said he had not agreed to Moore 's proposal to " lose " the vessel , and after departing with Girl Pat had still been undecided about what he would do . He had left Jefferson in Dover because he was a poor mechanic and a drunk . Moore , he asserted , was mistaken in claiming that the boat 's provisions and equipment were adequate . Orsborne said that while the boat was sheltering in Jersey , he had suggested to the crew that they " may as well make a holiday of it " , and then proposed that they make a circle of the Atlantic Ocean before returning to Grimsby . There was no intention to fall in with Moore 's scheme or to steal the vessel ; they would " thank the owners for the loan of the ship " and return it . Orsborne added that while they were in port at Corcubión , he was offered money for Girl Pat , but turned it down . Orsborne denied that he had tried to conceal his or the boat 's true identity in Dakar , or had left the port to avoid enquiries — the sudden departure was due , he said , to troubles with the natives . Nor had he attempted to evade the authorities in Georgetown ; his movements there had arisen from concern for the safety of his vessel , which was being jeopardised by the manoeuvres of the police launch .
James Orsborne , giving evidence , said that he had learned from his brother about Moore 's proposal to get rid of the boat , and had told George that he would be " a darned fool " even to consider the suggestion . He had stayed with his brother because " I thought that if he was going to do anything crazy I might manage to prevent him " . Recalled to the witness box , Moore said that he had refused to employ James Orsborne because he considered him dishonest .
In his closing speech , defence counsel said that the key to the case was whether the Orsborne brothers intended to deprive the owners permanently of their vessel . The evidence , he said , was more suggestive of a " joy @-@ ride half @-@ way round the world " , than of theft or anything more sinister . Prosecuting counsel argued that if the month 's joy @-@ ride was the innocent explanation , why had it been necessary to introduce into the case the unfounded allegations of proposed insurance fraud " against men whose reputations were above suspicion ? " . In his summing up , the judge condemned the arrangements whereby the Orsbornes were receiving money from the press for the rights to their story . This was unwarranted and undesirable : " Whether the two prisoners be guilty or innocent [ of theft ] , the property of someone else was being used by them without permission ... George Orsborne clearly knew that he was acting directly against his employer 's interests " . The jury was out for only 35 minutes before returning guilty verdicts against both defendants . On 22 October George Orsborne was sentenced to 18 months ' imprisonment , and James to 12 months .
= = = Orsborne 's alternative account = = =
Thirteen years after the trial , in a memoir entitled Master of the Girl Pat published by Doubleday , George Orsborne provided a new context for the Girl Pat voyage . According to this narrative , he had been recruited in 1935 to work for British Naval Intelligence . The Girl Pat venture was a secret assignment , connected with the imminent Spanish Civil War . Between the stops at Corcubión and Dakar , Orsborne claims , he carried out a mission to blow up a railway bridge in Spanish Morocco . The stops at Port Etienne , Dakar and elsewhere had been to receive further instructions from Naval Intelligence . In this later account Orsborne changes crew names and other details : Stone becomes " Fletcher " , and his leaving the voyage in Dakar is recorded by Orsborne as a " desertion " . Some of Orsborne 's dates are inconsistent with the boat 's known movements — he gives 26 June as the date of arrival in Dakar , and the account he gives of his Old Bailey trial bears no relation to the published record . Orsborne describes his stay in Wormwood Scrubs prison as " a wonderful experience . I wouldn 't have missed it for anything " .
= = Aftermath = =
After the trial , the press and public remained broadly sympathetic to the Orsborne brothers . During the committal stages The Spectator had commented that the adventure " had given romantic satisfaction to the whole world " and that her captain had become a national hero . On the day after the sentencing , The Times leading article noted the public 's sustained pleasure in the escapade . Nearly 30 years later , in his social history of the between @-@ the @-@ wars years , Ronald Blythe portrayed the affair as an anti @-@ establishment gesture , " a colourful snook cocked in the face of some of the most soul @-@ crippling officialdom ever experienced by ordinary men and women " .
While in prison , George Orsborne lent his name to a ghost @-@ written account of the Girl Pat adventure , which repeated the claim that the vessel had been sent out inadequately equipped and provisioned . Marstrand 's successfully sued the publishers , Hutchinsons , and two newspapers which had repeated the details . On his release , Orsborne planned to make a single @-@ handed transatlantic crossing in an open boat , but the trip was delayed , and finally cancelled when war began in September 1939 . Likewise , nothing came of an announcement in 1938 that Orsborne would lead an expedition to the Caribbean and up the Amazon .
During the war , Orsborne worked as mate on a trawler which formed part of Britain 's anti @-@ invasion force , before rejoining the Royal Navy . His wartime exploits included service as a beachmaster during the Normandy landings of June 1944 , a spell as a commando in Combined Operations , and service in the Far East , where he records being captured and imprisoned by the Japanese . In September 1947 Orsborne was one of two men rescued in mid @-@ Atlantic from the abandoned ketch Lovely Lady ; the other was a stowaway , a Spanish greengrocer .
In his 1949 memoir Master of the Girl Pat , George Orsborne records briefly that Stephens went straight back to sea after the adventure , that Harris drank up his share of the crew 's newspaper money , and that " Fletcher " ( Stone ) emigrated to Australia . James Orsborne worked for a while in the Mediterranean , assisting refugees from the Spanish Civil War . Later he went to Canada . He was in Singapore when it fell to the Japanese in February 1942 , and was not heard from again . George Orsborne died on 23 December 1957 , at Belle Île off the Brittany coast , while delivering a motor @-@ cruiser from Nice to England .
= = = Later years of ship = = =
Girl Pat was repaired and refitted in Georgetown by her new owners , the Grimsby @-@ based firm Girl Pat Ltd , and was brought back to England , arriving at Portsmouth on 9 May 1937 She remained there for two weeks as a tourist attraction , before moving to London on 28 May . Her new owners declared that they were still undecided as to the ship 's longer @-@ term future , but for the time being she would be displayed at Blackpool and other holiday resorts . On 17 February 1939 The Times reported that Girl Pat had been sold to the Port of London Authority ( PLA ) , to be used as a wreck @-@ marking vessel . After the outbreak of war in September 1939 , she was requisitioned by the Admiralty for naval use , and is listed as one of the " minor war vessels " in service in July 1940 . By 1945 she had been returned to the PLA ; there is no public record of her subsequent history . The name Girl Pat was adopted by at least one later registered vessel ; in August 1966 a 60 @-@ ton yacht of that name was arrested by Greek coastguards in the Gulf of Corinth and its occupants charged with the theft of antiquities .
= = = = Books = = = =
Blythe , Ronald ( 1964 ) . The Age of Illusion . Harmondsworth , UK : Penguin Books . OCLC 493484388 .
Hewitson , Jim ( 2005 ) . Skull and Saltire . Edinburgh : Black & White Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84502 @-@ 026 @-@ 2 .
Neillands , Robin ; De Normann , Roderick ( 1993 ) . D @-@ Day 1944 : Voices from Normandy . London : Weidenfeld and Nicolson . ISBN 0 @-@ 297 @-@ 81251 @-@ 3 .
Orsborne , " Dod " ( 1949 ) . Master of the Girl Pat . New York : Doubleday . OCLC 1151423 .
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= United States v. Jones ( 2012 ) =
United States v. Jones , 132 S. Ct . 945 , 565 U.S. _ _ _ ( 2012 ) , was a United States Supreme Court case which held that installing a Global Positioning System ( GPS ) tracking device on a vehicle and using the device to monitor the vehicle 's movements constitutes a search under the Fourth Amendment .
In 2004 defendant Jones was suspected of drug trafficking . Police investigators asked for and received a warrant to attach a GPS tracking device to the underside of the defendant 's car but then exceeded the warrant 's scope in both geography and length of time . The Supreme Court justices voted unanimously that this was a " search " under the Fourth Amendment , although they were split 5 @-@ 4 as to the fundamental reasons behind that conclusion . The majority held that by physically installing the GPS device on the defendants car , the police had committed a trespass against Jones ' " personal effects " – this trespass , in an attempt to obtain information , constituted a search per se .
= = Background = =
= = = Police investigation and criminal trial = = =
Antoine Jones owned a nightclub in the District of Columbia ; Lawrence Maynard managed the club . In 2004 , a joint Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) and Metropolitan Police Department task force began investigating Jones and Maynard for narcotics violations . During the course of the investigation , a Global Positioning System ( GPS ) device was installed on Jones 's Jeep Grand Cherokee without a valid warrant . This device tracked the vehicle 's movements 24 hours a day for four weeks . The FBI arrested Jones in late 2005 , at which time Jones was represented by criminal defense attorney A. Eduardo Balarezo of Washington , D.C. Balarezo filed multiple motions on Jones ' behalf , including the motion to suppress the GPS data . This motion formed the basis for Jones ' appeals . The government tried Jones for the first time in late 2006 , and after a trial lasting over a month , a federal jury deadlocked on the conspiracy charge and acquitted him of multiple other counts . The government retried Jones in late 2007 , and in January 2008 the jury returned a guilty verdict on one count of conspiracy to distribute and to possess with intent to distribute five or more kilograms of cocaine and 50 or more grams of cocaine base . He was sentenced to life in prison .
= = = Appeal = = =
Jones argued that his conviction should be overturned because the use of the GPS tracker violated the Fourth Amendment 's protection against unreasonable search and seizure . In August 2010 , the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit overturned Jones 's conviction , holding that the police action was a search because it violated Jones 's " reasonable expectation of privacy " . The court 's decision was the subject of significant legal debate . In June 2011 , the Supreme Court granted a petition for a writ of certiorari to resolve two questions . The first question , briefed by the parties in their initial petition for certiorari was " Whether the warrantless use of a tracking device on respondent 's vehicle to monitor its movements on public streets violated the Fourth Amendment . " The second question , which the Court directed the parties to brief in addition to the initial question , was " Whether the government violated respondent 's Fourth Amendment rights by installing the GPS tracking device on his vehicle without a valid warrant and without his consent "
= = Oral argument = =
Deputy Solicitor General Michael R. Dreeben began his argument for the United States by noting that information revealed to the world ( i.e. movement on a public road ) is not protected by the Fourth Amendment . Dreeben cited United States v. Knotts as an example where police were allowed to use a device known as a " beeper " that allows the tracking of a car from a short distance away . Chief Justice Roberts distinguished the current case from Knotts , saying that using a beeper still took " a lot of work " whereas a GPS device allows the police to " sit back in the station ... and push a button whenever they want to find out where the car is . "
Justice Scalia then directed the discussion to whether installing the device was an unreasonable search . Scalia argued that " when that device is installed against the will of the owner of the car on the car , that is unquestionably a trespass and thereby rendering the owner of the car not secure in his effects ... against an unreasonable search and seizure . " Dreeben argued that it was a trespass , but in United States v. Karo there was also a trespass and , according to Dreeben , Karo held that it " made no difference because the purpose of the Fourth Amendment is to protect privacy interests and meaningful interference [ with possessions ] , not to cover all technical trespasses . "
During oral argument , Justice Alito stated that people 's use of technology is changing what the expectation of privacy is for the courts . " You know , I don 't know what society expects and I think it 's changing . Technology is changing people 's expectations of privacy . Suppose we look forward 10 years , and maybe 10 years from now 90 percent of the population will be using social networking sites and they will have on average 500 friends and they will have allowed their friends to monitor their location 24 hours a day , 365 days a year , through the use of their cell phones . Then — what would the expectation of privacy be then ? "
Justice Sonia Sotomayor reminded the government , " What motivated the Fourth Amendment historically was the disapproval , the outrage , that our Founding Fathers experienced with general warrants that permitted police indiscriminately to investigate just on the basis of suspicion , not probable cause , and to invade every possession that the individual had in search of a crime . " She then asked , " How is this different ? "
= = Opinion of the Court = =
On January 23 , 2012 , the Supreme Court held that " the Government 's installation of a GPS device on a target 's vehicle , and its use of that device to monitor the vehicle 's movements , constitutes a ' search ' " under the Fourth Amendment . Some news sources have misinterpreted the Court as holding that all GPS data surveillance requires a search warrant , but this ruling was much narrower than that
On the one hand , it can be said that all nine justices unanimously considered the police 's actions in Jones to be unconstitutional . Importantly , however , although they reached the same result in the end , they were split 5 @-@ 4 , with the two groups in disagreement as to the fundamental reasons for their conclusion . Further , the justices were of three different opinions with respect to the breadth of the judgment .
= = = Majority opinion = = =
Justice Antonin Scalia authored the majority opinion . He cited a line of cases dating back as far as 1886 to argue that a physical intrusion , or trespass , into a constitutionally @-@ protected area – in an attempt to find something or to obtain information – was the basis , historically , for determining whether a " search " had occurred under the meaning of the Fourth Amendment . Scalia conceded that in the years following Katz v. United States ( 1967 ) – in which electronic eavesdropping on a public telephone booth was held to be a search – the vast majority of search and seizure case law has shifted away from that approach founded on property rights , and towards an approach based on a person 's " expectation of privacy " . However , he cited a number of post @-@ Katz cases including Alderman v. United States and Soldal v. Cook County to argue that the trespassory approach had not been abandoned by the Court . In response to criticisms within Alito 's concurrence , Scalia emphasized that the Fourth Amendment must provide , at a minimum , the level of protection as it did when it was adopted . Furthermore , a trespassory test need not exclude a test of the expectation of privacy , which may be appropriate to consider in situations where there was no governmental trespass .
In the instant case , the Court concluded , since the Government 's installation of a GPS device onto the defendant 's car ( his " personal effects " ) was a trespass that was purposed to obtain information , then it was a search under the Fourth Amendment .
Having reached the conclusion that this was a search under the Fourth Amendment , the Court declined to examine whether any exception exists that would render the search " reasonable " , because the Government had failed to advance that alternate theory in the lower courts . Also left unanswered was the broader question surrounding the privacy implications of a warrantless use of GPS data absent a physical intrusion – as might occur , for example , with the electronic collection of GPS data from wireless service providers or factory @-@ installed vehicle tracking and navigation services . The Court left this to be decided in some future case , saying , " It may be that achieving the same result through electronic means , without an accompanying trespass , is an unconstitutional invasion of privacy , but the present case does not require us to answer that question . "
= = = Concurring opinions = = =
= = = = Justice Sotomayor = = = =
Justice Sonia Sotomayor was alone in her concurring opinion . She was the fifth justice to concur with Scalia 's opinion , making hers the decisive vote . " As the majority 's opinion makes clear " , she noted , " Katz 's reasonable @-@ expectation @-@ of @-@ privacy test augmented , but did not displace or diminish , the common @-@ law trespassory test that preceded it " . She agreed with Alito 's expectation of privacy reasoning with respect to long @-@ term surveillance , but she went a step further , by also disputing the constitutionality of warrantless short @-@ term GPS surveillance as well . Even during short @-@ term monitoring , she reasoned , GPS surveillance can precisely record an individual 's every movement , and hence can reveal completely private destinations , like " trips to the psychiatrist , the plastic surgeon , the abortion clinic , the AIDS treatment center , the strip club , the criminal defense attorney , the by @-@ the @-@ hour motel , the union meeting , the mosque , synagogue or church , the gay bar and on and on . " Sotomayor added :
" People disclose the phone numbers that they dial or text to their cellular providers , the URLS that they visit and the e @-@ mail addresses with which they correspond to their Internet service providers , and the books , groceries and medications they purchase to online retailers . . . I would not assume that all information voluntarily disclosed to some member of the public for a limited purpose is , for that reason alone , disentitled to Fourth Amendment protection . "
She distinguished Knotts , reminding that Knotts suggested that a different principle might apply to situations in which every movement was completely monitored for 24 hours .
= = = = Justice Alito = = = =
In his concurring opinion , Justice Alito wrote with respect to privacy : " Short @-@ term monitoring of a person ’ s movements on public streets accords with expectations of privacy " but " the use of longer term GPS monitoring in investigations of most offenses impinges on expectations of privacy . " Alito argued against the majority 's reliance on trespass under modern circumstances . Specifically , he argued that the common @-@ law property @-@ based analysis of a " search " under the Fourth Amendment did not apply to such electronic situations as the one that occurred in this case . He further argued that following the doctrinal changes in Katz , a technical trespass leading to the gathering of evidence was " neither necessary nor sufficient to establish a constitutional violation " . In his concurring opinion Alito outlined that long @-@ term surveillance can reveal everything about a person :
" Prolonged surveillance reveals types of information not revealed by short @-@ term surveillance , such as what a person does repeatedly , what he does not do , and what he does ensemble . These types of information can each reveal more about a person than does any individual trip viewed in isolation . Repeated visits to a church , a gym , a bar , or a bookie tell a story not told by any single visit , as does one 's not visiting any of these places over the course of a month . The sequence of a person 's movements can reveal still more ; a single trip to a gynecologist 's office tells little about a woman , but that trip followed a few weeks later by a visit to a baby supply store tells a different story . * A person who knows all of another 's travels can deduce whether he is a weekly church goer , a heavy drinker , a regular at the gym , an unfaithful husband , an outpatient receiving medical treatment , an associate of particular individuals or political groups – and not just one such fact about a person , but all such facts . "
Following the privacy @-@ based approach most commonly used post @-@ Katz , the four @-@ justice minority are instead of the opinion that the continuous monitoring of every single movement of an individual 's car for 28 days violated a " reasonable expectation of privacy " , and thus constituted a search . Alito explained that before GPS and similar electronic technology , month @-@ long surveillance of an individual 's every move would have been exceptionally demanding and costly , requiring a tremendous amount of resources and people . As a result , society 's expectations were , and still are , that such complete and long @-@ term surveillance would not be undertaken , and that an individual would not think it could occur to him or her .
With regard to continuous monitoring for a short period , the minority would rely on United States v. Knotts ( 1983 ) and decline to find a violation of the expectation of privacy . In Knotts , a short @-@ distance signal beeper in the defendant 's car was tracked during a single trip for less than a day . The Knotts Court held that a person traveling on public roads has no expectation of privacy in his movements , because the vehicle 's starting point , direction , stops , or final destination could be seen by anyone else on the road .
= = Reception = =
Walter E. Dellinger III , the former U.S. Solicitor General and the attorney who represented the defendant , said the decision was " a signal event in Fourth Amendment history . " He also said the decision made it more risky for law enforcement to use a GPS tracking device without a warrant . FBI director Robert Mueller testified in March 2013 that the Jones decision had limited the Bureau 's surveillance capabilities .
Criminal defense attorneys and civil libertarians such as Virginia Sloan of the Constitution Project praised the ruling for protecting Fourth Amendment rights against government intrusion through modern technology . The Electronic Frontier Foundation , which filed an amicus brief arguing that warrantless GPS tracking violates reasonable expectations of privacy , praised Sotomayor 's concurrence for raising concerns that Fourth Amendment caselaw does not reflect the realities of modern technology .
= = Subsequent developments = =
The Supreme Court remanded the case to the district court . During the investigation , the government obtained cell site location data with a 2703 ( d ) order under the Stored Communications Act . In light of the Supreme Court 's decision , the government sought to use this data instead of the GPS data it had collected . Judge Ellen Segal Huvelle ruled in December 2012 that the government could use the cell site data against Jones . A new trial began in January 2013 after Mr Jones rejected 2 plea offers of 15 to 22 years with credit for time served . In March 2013 , a mistrial was declared with the jury evenly split . Mr. Jones had represented himself at trial . The Government planned for a fourth trial but in May 2013 Jones accepted a plea bargain of 15 years with credit for time served .
In October 2013 , the Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit addressed the unanswered question of " whether warrantless use of GPS devices would be ' reasonable — and thus lawful — under the Fourth Amendment [ where ] officers ha [ ve ] reasonable suspicion , and indeed probable cause ' to execute such searches . " United States v. Katzin was the first relevant appeals court ruling in the wake of Jones to address this topic . The appeals court in Katzin held that a warrant was indeed required to deploy GPS tracking devices , and further , that none of the narrow exceptions to the Fourth Amendment 's warrant requirement ( e.g. exigent circumstances , the " automobile exception " , etc . ) were applicable .
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= Ferugliotheriidae =
Ferugliotheriidae is one of three known families in the order Gondwanatheria , an enigmatic group of extinct mammals . Gondwanatheres have been classified as a group of uncertain affinities or as members of Multituberculata , a major extinct mammalian order . The best @-@ known representative of Ferugliotheriidae is the genus Ferugliotherium from the Late Cretaceous epoch in Argentina . A second genus , Trapalcotherium , is known from a single tooth , a first lower molariform ( molar @-@ like tooth ) , from a different Late Cretaceous Argentinean locality . Another genus known from a single tooth ( in this case , a fourth lower premolar ) , Argentodites , was first described as an unrelated multituberculate , but later identified as possibly related to Ferugliotherium . Finally , a single tooth from the Paleogene of Peru , LACM 149371 , perhaps a last upper molariform , and a recent specimen from Mexico , may represent related animals .
Ferugliotheriids are known from isolated , low @-@ crowned ( brachydont ) teeth and possibly a fragment of a lower jaw . Ferugliotherium is estimated to have weighed 70 g ( 2 @.@ 5 oz ) . The incisors are long and procumbent and contain a band of enamel on only part of the tooth . The jaw fragment contains a long tooth socket for the incisor and bears a bladelike fourth lower premolar , resembling those of multituberculates . The premolar of Argentodites is similar . Two upper premolars also resemble multituberculate teeth , but whether these premolars are referable to Ferugliotheriidae is controversial . Molariforms are rectangular and brachydont and consist of longitudinal rows of cusps , connected by transverse crests and separated by transverse furrows . Lower molariforms have two cusp rows , and the single known putative upper molariform has three . Low @-@ crowned and bladelike teeth as seen in ferugliotheriids may have been evolutionary precursors of the high @-@ crowned ( hypsodont ) teeth of the other gondwanathere family , Sudamericidae .
Most ferugliotheriids come from the Late Cretaceous epoch ( Campanian – Maastrichtian ages , 84 – 66 million years ago , or mya ) of Argentina , where they may have lived in a marshy or seashore environment . They coexisted with mammals such as dryolestoids and a variety of other animals , including dinosaurs . Ferugliotheriids may have been herbivores or omnivores .
= = Taxonomy = =
The first member of the family Ferugliotheriidae to be discovered , Ferugliotherium windhauseni , was named in 1986 by Argentinean paleontologist José F. Bonaparte on the basis of a tooth from the Late Cretaceous Los Alamitos Formation of Argentina . Bonaparte placed Ferugliotherium as the only member of the new family Ferugliotheriidae , which he tentatively assigned to the order Multituberculata , a large group of extinct mammals ( distinct from both monotremes and therians , the two major groups of living mammals ) that was particularly widespread in the northern continents ( Laurasia ) , but had never previously been found in the south ( Gondwana ) . In 1990 , Bonaparte named another species , Vucetichia gracilis , from Los Alamitos . He placed it in the family Gondwanatheriidae , together with Gondwanatherium , another Los Alamitos mammal , within the order Gondwanatheria , which also contained the family Sudamericidae , then with the single genus Sudamerica . Bonaparte considered the gondwanatheres to be probably most closely related to the xenarthrans ( sloths , armadillos , and anteaters ) within a group called Paratheria .
Also in 1990 , Bonaparte merged the family Gondwanatheriidae into Sudamericidae and , together with David Krause , redefined Gondwanatheria as a multituberculate suborder that included both Ferugliotheriidae and Sudamericidae , thus rejecting a relationship between gondwanatheres and xenarthrans . Krause , Bonaparte , and Zofia Kielan @-@ Jaworowska redescribed Ferugliotherium in 1992 and suggested that the teeth that Vucetichia was based on may have been worn specimens of Ferugliotherium . They placed Ferugliotherium among multituberculates and suggested that it may be part of the suborder Plagiaulacoidea . The following year , Krause confirmed that Vucetichia gracilis is a synonym of Ferugliotherium windhauseni . Together with Bonaparte , he also proposed to classify gondwanatheres as a superfamily ( Gondwanatherioidea ) within Plagiaulacoidea , including the families Ferugliotheriidae and Sudamericidae . In 1996 , Kielan @-@ Jaworowska and Bonaparte tentatively identified a lower jaw fragment with a multituberculate @-@ like fourth lower premolar ( p4 ) from Los Alamitos as Ferugliotherium . On the basis of the morphological features of the jaw fragment , they argued that gondwanatheres are not closely related to any other multituberculate group , and consequently placed them in a suborder of their own , Gondwanatheria .
In 1999 , Rosendo Pascual and colleagues described a lower jaw of Sudamerica , which had previously only been known from isolated teeth . This jaw fragment showed that Sudamerica had four molariform ( molar @-@ like teeth ) on each side of the lower jaws , more than any multituberculate , and consequently they removed gondwanatheres from Multituberculata and regarded their affinities as uncertain . As a consequence , Kielan @-@ Jaworowska and colleagues excluded Gondwanatheria from multituberculates , but identified the jaw fragment and a few upper premolars of Ferugliotherium as indeterminate multituberculates in a 2001 paper and a 2004 book . However , in 2009 Yamila Gurovich and Robin Beck identified these fossils as Ferugliotherium and argued in favor of a close relationship between gondwanatheres ( including Ferugliotheriidae ) and multituberculates .
In the 2000s , additional members of Ferugliotheriidae were described . In 2004 , Francisco Goin and colleagues described a single enigmatic tooth from the Paleogene of Peru , LACM 149371 ; their best estimate was that it represented a member of Ferugliotheriidae . On the basis of a single p4 , Kielan @-@ Jaworowska and colleagues named Argentodites coloniensis , from the Late Cretaceous La Colonia Formation of Argentina , in 2007 as a multituberculate , possibly referable to the suborder Cimolodonta . However , Gurovich and Beck argued that the p4 of Argentodites did not differ materially from that in the jaw they allocated to Ferugliotherium , and that Argentodites was based on a specimen of either Ferugliotherium or a closely related animal . Guillermo Rougier and colleagues described mammals from the Allen Formation , a third Argentinean formation of similar age , in 2009 , including a new ferugliotheriid , Trapalcotherium matuastensis . They also regarded Argentodites as a likely relative of Ferugliotherium and suggested that Ferugliotheriidae are either multituberculates or closely related to them .
= = Description = =
Ferugliotheriids are known from a few dozen isolated teeth and a questionably allocated jaw fragment . Most fossils are referred to Ferugliotherium ; Trapalcotherium and Argentodites were each described on the basis of a single tooth . Their precise dental formula is unknown , but incisors , premolars , and molariform teeth have been identified . Gurovich suggested that Ferugliotherium had one incisor ( possibly two in the upper jaw ) , no canines , one or two premolars , and two molars on each side of the lower and upper jaws .
Unlike the very high @-@ crowned ( hypsodont ) sudamericids , ferugliotheriid teeth were low @-@ crowned ( brachydont ) . Furthermore , sudamericid molariforms tend to be larger and are supported by one large root , but the smaller ferugliotheriids have at least two roots under their molariforms . Ferugliotherium is estimated to have weighed 70 g ( 2 @.@ 5 oz ) .
The incisors , known only from Ferugliotherium , are procumbent and long . Three lower and four upper incisors are known . As is usual in mammals with similarly shaped ( gliriform ) incisors , the lower incisors are more laterally compressed , are less curved , form a greater angle between the front side and the wear facet at the tip , and are less elliptical in shape than the uppers . The enamel band is restricted to the side that faces the lips in both the lower and upper incisors ( the lower side in the lowers and the upper side in the uppers ) .
The specimen MACN Pv @-@ RN 975 , first described by Kielan @-@ Jaworowska and Bonaparte in 1996 , may be a jaw fragment of Ferugliotherium , although it has also been identified as an unrelated multituberculate . The fossil preserves a bladelike premolar , identified as the fourth premolar , and the piece of the jawbone below it . A diastema ( gap ) is present between the premolar and the incisor that would have been located in front of it . The alveolus ( socket ) of the lower incisor extends all the way through the fossil . The p4 bears eight ridges on both sides of the longitudinal crest and is supported by two roots at the front and back . The p4 assigned to Argentodites also has eight ridges on both sides , which descend from cusps on the upper margin , and roots at the front and back . According to Kielan @-@ Jaworowska and colleagues , it differs from that of MACN Pv @-@ RN 975 in its rounded , as opposed to angular shape . However , Gurovich and Beck attribute this difference to the fact that the latter has undergone much more wear .
Two fossils have been interpreted as isolated lower premolars of Ferugliotherium ; however , neither is still regarded as such . Two other teeth have been identified as upper premolars of Ferugliotherium ; as with the jaw fragment , they may also represent an indeterminate multituberculate . One of the two preserves two longitudinal rows of cusps , of which one contains four and the other at least two cusps . The other is more poorly preserved , but may represent the same tooth position . These teeth resemble multituberculate upper premolars .
Four putative first lower molariforms ( mf1s ) of Ferugliotherium are known , and the only known tooth of Trapalcotherium is also thought to be an mf1 . Ferugliotherium mf1s are roughly rectangular , with rounded corners , and bear two longitudinal rows of cusps . There are four cusps in the lingual row ( on the side of the tongue ) and three in the labial row ( the side of the lips ) . The cusps are connected to cusps in the other row by transverse ridges and separated from cusps in their own rows by three transverse furrows . Two heavily worn Ferugliotherium mf1s were originally identified as upper molars of Vucetichia gracilis by Bonaparte in 1990 . One of the two preserves the roots ; at the front and back , there were two roots , fused at their bases . The mf1 of Trapalcotherium differs only in some details ; among others , the cusps are less distinct from the crests . The sole mf2 of Ferugliotherium is the holotype . It bears two rows of two cusps . The cusps in the front and back pairs are connected by a broad ridge and the two pairs are separated by a deep furrow . Transverse ridges between the cusps similar to those seen in ferugliotheriids are not known in any multituberculate . On the other hand , overall patterns of cusps and ridges are essentially similar among Ferugliotherium , Gondwanatherium , and Sudamerica , indicating that the three are closely related .
One Ferugliotherium tooth is thought to be a first upper molariform ( MF1 ) . It is almost rectangular and bears three longitudinal rows of cusps . There are five cusps in the middle row , which is oriented obliquely , four cusps in one of the rows on the side of the tooth , and two or three in the other row on the side . As in the lower molariforms , the cusps are connected by transverse ridges and separated by furrows . LACM 149371 , the enigmatic possibly ferugliotheriid tooth from Peru , is a triangular tooth bearing six or seven cusps , which are connected by crests and surround two deep fossae ( basins ) and a third shallower fossa .
= = Range , ecology , and evolution = =
With its low @-@ crowned teeth , Ferugliotherium may have been an insectivore or omnivore , like similar multituberculates such as Mesodma , which is thought to have eaten insects , other arthropods , seeds , and / or nuts . The wear on Ferugliotherium teeth suggests that the animal may have eaten some plant material . The high @-@ crowned sudamericids are thought to have been herbivores feeding on abrasive vegetation , although their precise diet is not known . In the evolutionary history of gondwanatheres , hypsodont teeth are thought to have evolved from brachydont precursors . Gurovich hypothesizes that the anterior molariforms of sudamericids may have evolved from bladelike premolars as seen in Ferugliotherium .
Fossils of Argentinean ferugliotheriids come from the Los Alamitos ( Ferugliotherium ) , La Colonia ( Ferugliotherium and Argentodites ) , and Allen Formations ( Trapalcotherium ) . All three are approximately the same age , dating to the Campanian ( 84 – 71 mya ) or more likely the Maastrichtian ( 71 – 66 mya ) , but the La Colonia Formation is perhaps a little younger . The Los Alamitos and Allen Formations may have been deposited in a marshy environments , and the depositional environment of the La Colonia Formations may have been an estuary , tidal flat , or coastal plain .
In each of the three formations , the mammalian fauna is dominated by the archaic group Dryolestoidea ; the Los Alamitos Formation has also produced the sudamericid Gondwanatherium . However , only seven mammalian teeth have been found in the Allen Formation . All three also contain remains of numerous other animals , including dinosaurs , amphibians , and fish .
The Santa Rosa fossil site , where LACM 149371 was found , is in the Ucayali Region of Peru . The Santa Rosa fauna also contains fossils of various unique species of marsupials and hystricognath rodents , a possible bat , and some notoungulates ( a unique extinct group of South American ungulates ) . The age of this fauna is unclear , and estimates range from near the Eocene – Oligocene boundary ( ~ 35 mya ) to the late Oligocene ( ~ 25 mya ) . The Santa Rosa mammals may have lived in a savanna habitat that contained rivers .
More recently , a specimen has been found in the Cerro del Pueblo Formation of Mexico , bearing several similarities to Ferugliotherium . If a ferugliotheriid , this would extend the clade 's range into the Maastrichtian of North America .
The range of the Ferugliotheriidae is overall narrower , both spatio and temporally , than that of Sudamericidae ; sudamericids have been recorded from the Late Cretaceous to Miocene of Argentina , the Late Cretaceous of Madagascar and India , the Middle Eocene of Antarctica , and perhaps the Cretaceous of Tanzania ( TNM 02067 , tentatively referred to Sudamericidae ) . Nevertheless , ferugliotheriids may be the only gondwanatheres to have had a presence in the northern hemisphere .
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= Klaus and Greta =
" Klaus and Greta " is the ninth episode of the fourth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock . It was written by co @-@ showrunner and executive producer Robert Carlock and directed by Gail Mancuso . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on January 14 , 2010 . Guest stars in this episode include James Franco , Matt Lauer , and Jeffery Self . " Klaus and Greta " aired out of its usual timeslot with " Black Light Attack ! " following it in the regular timeslot .
Following a crazy New Year 's Eve party , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) leaves a message on his high school sweetheart 's answering machine and decides to break into her home with Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) , while she is on vacation . At the same time , Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) starts up a fake relationship with actor James Franco in order to counteract rumors that he is in love with a Japanese body pillow . Meanwhile , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) accidentally outs her cousin ( Self ) at her New Year 's Eve party , so he decides to live with her in New York .
" Klaus and Greta " was generally , though not universally , well received among television critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , the episode was watched by 5 @.@ 122 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 2 @.@ 3 rating / 6 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic . " Klaus and Greta " won the award for Outstanding Individual Episode ( in a series without a regular gay character ) at the 22nd GLAAD Media Awards .
= = Plot = =
After a crazy New Year 's Eve , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) realizes that while under the influence of alcohol , he left a message on the answering machine of Nancy Donovan ( Julianne Moore ) , his high school sweetheart . He and NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) immediately travel to Massachusetts and break into Nancy 's home while she is on vacation , hoping to erase the message . While Kenneth fumbles with the computer , Jack examines the house and finds evidence that Nancy 's marriage is reaching its end . They eventually play the message , after Jack finds the voicemail code , in which Jack reminisces about their times in high school German class . In that class , Jack had the name " Klaus " and Nancy had the name " Greta " — and Jack says that he took the class to be with her . Jack decides not to erase the message , but Kenneth does so anyway . When they return to New York , Kenneth realizes that Nancy 's voicemail code ( 55287 ) stands for " Klaus " , which means that Nancy does have feelings for Jack .
Meanwhile , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) accidentally outs her cousin , Randy ( Jeffery Self ) to his family at a New Year 's Eve party , so he comes to live with her in New York . At the same time , Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) enters a fake relationship with actor James Franco , in order to counteract rumors that he is in love with a Japanese body pillow . Jenna feels slighted when she realizes that she wants a real relationship , and encourages James to follow his own passions , resulting in Jenna ending things with him . Later , Liz and Randy go to a nightclub , where Liz runs into James and his pillow . The two get drunk and end up sleeping together . The next morning , at Liz 's apartment , Randy is shocked to see James coming out of Liz 's bedroom with his body pillow , and because of this decides to go back home to Pennsylvania .
Meanwhile , Tracy Jordan gets his wife , Angie Jordan ( Sherri Shepherd ) , pregnant and , realizing his continued hostility to women , tells Grizz Griswold ( Grizz Chapman ) , " Dot Com " Slattery ( Kevin Brown ) , and Kenneth that he has decided to add a woman to their entourage .
= = Production = =
" Klaus and Greta " was written by co @-@ showrunner and executive producer Robert Carlock , making it his fourteenth writing credit overall . The episode was directed by Gail Mancuso , making it her eighth for the series . " Klaus and Greta " originally aired in the United States on January 14 , 2010 , on NBC as the ninth episode of the show 's fourth season .
In November 2009 , it was announced that actor James Franco would guest star on 30 Rock as himself , and would carry on a fake romance with Jenna Maroney ( Krakowski ) , in a scheme concocted by their respective agents . Two months earlier , series creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey revealed Jenna 's plot to Entertainment Weekly , but did not divulged Franco 's name . In an April 2010 interview with Zap2it , Carlock revealed that " one of the things " the staff looked forward to in the fourth season was Jenna 's storyline here , and said her " emotional realization " that she wants more than a fake relationship with Franco was " a cool turn for that character after three years of thinking that all she wants is to have her picture in the paper and have her hair look good . "
In this episode , Matt Lauer , a co @-@ host of The Today Show , guest starred as himself for the second time first appearing in " Generalissimo " that aired on February 5 , 2009 , during the show 's third season . In " Klaus and Greta " , the staff writers of the fictitious sketch comedy show The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan play a shot game to The Today Show 's travel tips given by Lauer .
Despite not appearing in the episode , the show made reference of Jack Donaghy 's romantic interest in high school sweatheart , Nancy Donovan , portrayed by actress Julianne Moore . Moore was announced as a love interest for Alec Baldwin 's Jack in November 2009 , and made her debut as the Nancy character in the previous episode " Secret Santa " . This episode of 30 Rock was filmed on November 6 , 2009 .
= = Cultural references = =
Jenna reveals that James Franco 's manager came to her first to start a fake relationship with Franco , before asking former reality show participant Ayiiia Elizarraras from The Real World : Cancun . Randy tells Liz that a man offered to drive him to her apartment if he helps him move a couch into a van , but she tells him he is a serial killer . This is a reference to the 1991 thriller film The Silence of the Lambs in which serial killer " Buffalo Bill " kidnaps his victims by asking them for help loading something heavy into his van , and then knocking them out in a surprise attack from behind . Jenna tells Liz that as a result of her relationship with Franco , gossip blogs have dubbed them " James " , a combination of Jenna and James . Jack has Cerie Xerox ( Katrina Bowden ) check Nancy 's status on the social @-@ networking site YouFace which shows she is on vacation . YouFace is similar to MySpace and Facebook .
Randy tells Liz that growing up in a small town of Pennsylvania was difficult as a closeted gay man , and reveals that the local television station in the state edited Will & Grace down so much that it was just called Karen . Will & Grace , a former NBC program , revolved around a gay man ( Will ) and his best friend ( Grace ) , and Karen was Will and Grace 's friend . In " Klaus and Greta " , Franco starts a fraudulent romance with Jenna in order to dismiss rumors that he is in love with a Japanese body pillow . According to a CNN report , following the broadcast , the subplot of Franco in love with a body pillow came straight from an article from The New York Times Magazine , published in July 2009 , in which the article , deemed controversial , focused on a man in his mid @-@ thirties who carries around a body pillow printed with an animated Japanese female character .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Klaus and Greta " was watched by 5 @.@ 122 million households , according to the Nielsen Media Research . It received a 2 @.@ 3 rating / 6 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic , that is 2 @.@ 3 % of all people in that group , and 6 % of all people from that group watching television at the time , watched the episode . This was a decrease from the December 10 , 2009 , episode " Secret Santa " , which was watched by 7 @.@ 54 million American viewers . In the 9 : 00 p.m. timeslot on January 14 , in which this episode aired out of its usual timeslot , 30 Rock was outperformed by CBS ' crime drama series CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , ABC 's medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , and Fox 's science fiction series Fringe . " Klaus and Greta " outperformed a repeat of the paranormal drama television series Supernatural on The CW , which drew 1 @.@ 364 million viewers . This episode of 30 Rock won the award for Outstanding Individual Episode ( in a series without a regular gay character ) at the 22nd GLAAD Media Awards .
Television columnist Alan Sepinwall for The Star @-@ Ledger said that the episode and " Black Light Attack ! " were filled with " enough good gags that , together , they made for a very satisfying hour of comedy . " Robert Canning of IGN gave this episode a 9 @.@ 5 out of 10 rating , observing that " ... it will be a long time before we see anything funnier from 30 Rock " . Canning said that despite the Tracy character not having too much screen time here " his bits were funny , and his idea to add a woman to his entourage had a lot of potential " , and noted that Liz / Randy 's plot ended " brilliantly " when the story crossed over to Jenna / James Franco 's storyline . Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad gave it a positive review writing it was a " good episode " , and " [ n ] ot one of the best but it still had enough funny situations " , and thanked NBC for broadcasting two episodes . Entertainment Weekly 's Margaret Lyons remarked that the two episodes were terrific , and what stood out from both airings " was how much serialized plot [ s ] these two eps covered ... For a show that 's usually so episodic , it was an interesting — totally successful — change of pace . "
The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff was positive , but noted that " there was stuff that didn 't work here " , citing the long scene with Jack and Kenneth in Nancy 's home , reasoning it was " weirdly boring " . VanDerWerff was complimentary towards James Franco 's appearance , and commented that the idea that Franco was in love with a Japanese body pillow was " just comic gold and a half . " Not being a fan of Jane Krakowski 's Jenna , VanDerWerff noted that " Klaus and Greta " gave the character " one of her best storylines in ages ... [ and ] everything here about how she slowly grew more and more oblivious was well @-@ done . " Sean Gandert for Paste reported that it featured " all sorts of funny " but felt that the main plot fell " pretty flat . " Gandert was favorable to the other stories featured here . Time contributor James Poniewozik opined Franco threw himself into the role " willing to appear ridiculous and a little crazy " . Poniewozik said it was a " pleasure " to see a " desperate @-@ Jenna plot " that seemed " fresh . " Nick Catucci , a contributor of New York magazine , deemed this episode of 30 Rock " terrific " .
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= Sasuke Uchiha =
Sasuke Uchiha ( うちは サスケ , Uchiha Sasuke ) is a fictional character from the manga and anime franchise Naruto , created by Masashi Kishimoto . Sasuke is one of the several surviving members of the Uchiha clan , an infamous and powerful extended family of ninjas who were allied to the village of Konohagakure , before being massacred by Sasuke 's older brother , Itachi Uchiha , before the series ' start . At the series ' beginning , Sasuke 's entire purpose for living is to avenge the destruction of his clan by killing his brother , causing him to become cold and uncaring towards human connection . As the series progresses , Sasuke becomes more empathetic towards his teammates , notably Naruto Uzumaki , whom he comes to consider a rival . Sasuke has appeared in several of the series ' featured movies , as well as other media , including several video games and OVAs .
Sasuke was conceived as a rival and foil to the series ' title character , Naruto Uzumaki . Sasuke 's design caused difficulties for Kishimoto as he drew the manga scenes , but he has grown to enjoy drawing him . In the animated adaptations from the manga Sasuke has been voiced by Noriaki Sugiyama in Japanese and Yuri Lowenthal in the English dub .
Several anime and manga publications have provided acclaim and criticism of Sasuke 's character . While many reviewers have noted his cold and detached attitude and abilities , he has been viewed as a stereotypical " rival " in the mold of several similar characters in other shōnen manga . The character 's development has been praised with reviewers praising his rivalry with other appearing characters and the impact he makes in the plot overall . Moreover , Sasuke has been highly popular with the Naruto reader base , placing high in several popularity polls . Merchandise based on Sasuke has also been released , including action figures and plush dolls .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In Naruto = = =
Sasuke is the prodigious sole survivor of the once powerful Uchiha clan of Konoha . He witnessed the massacre of his entire clan at the hands of his brother , Itachi Uchiha , when he was seven years old , his life only being spared because his brother deemed him unworthy to kill . When first assigned to Team 7 , Sasuke is portrayed as antisocial and superior and is initially unwilling to cooperate with his team members , Naruto Uzumaki and Sakura Haruno , but eventually concedes they are useful . Sasuke awakens his Sharingan , the genetic ability of the Uchiha clan to see through Genjutsu , which allows him to see imperceptible movements and learn , prevent them via imitation at a super @-@ human rate . As time passes , Sasuke begins to seek stronger and stronger opponents in order to convince himself he is growing stronger .
During the Chunin exams , Team 7 encounters Konoha deserter Orochimaru , who infects Sasuke with a curse mark . When active , mark increases Sasuke 's physical abilities but makes him cruel and sadistic , as the mark contains a fragment of Orochimaru 's consciousness . Soon after , Kakashi teaches Sasuke his powerful Chidori technique to appease his desire for power . Sasuke is beaten by Gaara during the siege of Konoha , and is rescued by Naruto . Not long after , Itachi returns to the area and Sasuke attempts to kill him , only to be beaten and tortured . Sasuke decides he needs to leave Team 7 in order to become stronger . Believing Orochimaru 's tutelage will make him more powerful , Sasuke defects from Konoha and becomes an outlaw . Naruto follows him and the two fight . Sasuke wins , but leaves Naruto to live , and continues on to Orochimaru 's hideout .
After two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years of training , Sasuke attempts to kill a weakened Orochimaru before Orochimaru can possess Sasuke 's body . Orochimaru attempts to force the body switch , but Sasuke is able to reverse the process , absorbing Orochimaru . Believing he is strong enough to kill Itachi , Sasuke forms team " Hebi " , and tracks Itachi down . They fight , and Itachi appears to win but dies before he can deal the final blow , ostensibly from a preexisting illness . After the battle , Sasuke passes out and is collected by Tobi , who reveals that Itachi killed the Uchiha under the orders of Konohagakure command , and spared Sasuke out of love . Responding to Sasuke 's emotional turmoil , his Sharingan evolves into a Mangekyo Sharingan , giving Sasuke all of Itachi 's borderline invincible techniques .
Sasuke reunites with the members of Hebi , renaming them " Taka , " and declares his intention to destroy the Hidden Leaf in retribution , agreeing to temporarily work for Akatsuki . On Tobi 's orders , he attempts to capture the Eight @-@ Tails Jinchuriki , Killer Bee , who manages to escape . Sasuke and Taka then set out to kill one of the masterminds behind the Uchiha Massacre , Danzo Shimura , who was serving as acting Hokage . Sasuke confronts Danzo and kills him in combat . Moments after he finds Sakura , Kakashi , and Naruto , and Naruto challenges him to a final fight sometime in the future . Due to the often use of the mangekyo sharingan Sasuke goes blind . Sasuke asks Tobi to transplant Itachi 's eyes which gave him his own eternal mangekyo sharingan .
Following his recovery , Sasuke aids the reanimated Itachi in capturing Kabuto Yakushi who is controlling the reanimated soldiers aiding Tobi . Disillusioned by his brother 's resolve to protect the village , Sasuke decides to investigate more about his clan through the first four Hokages reanimated by the revived Orochimaru . After hearing the First Hokage 's story of the past of Madara , himself , the foundation of Konoha and what it means to be a shinobi , Sasuke , not wanting his brother 's sacrifice to be for nothing , makes his decision to protect his village and heads to the area of the battlefield . There , Team 7 reunites and fights both the Ten Tails and Obito Uchiha alongside Naruto and their allies . Upon suffering major wounds at the hands of Madara , Sasuke is saved by a reformed Kabuto . In his subconscious , Sasuke meets the Sage of the Six Paths , Hagoromo Otsutsuki . Sasuke inherits the Sage 's Rinnegan fused with Ten @-@ Tails ' power so he and Naruto can defeat Madara together while undoing the Infinite Tsukiyomi , only to end up facing Kaguya . However , it was only after Kaguya 's defeat that Sasuke explains his decision is to also start a revolution to destroy the status quo and create a new order from the chaos . After losing his left arm in their final battle , Sasuke eventually accepts defeat and reconciles with Naruto . After being healed by Sakura so he can help Naruto end the Infinite Tsukiyomi , Sasuke is pardoned for his crimes by Kakashi after he became the Sixth Hokage .
= = = Post Naruto = = =
However , Sasuke decides to travel the world to find his own redemption , telling Sakura not to follow him as he promises to return to her soon and shows signs that he reciprocates her feelings , parting ways with Naruto on amiable terms . Later , Sasuke returns to the village and marries Sakura , and they have a daughter named Sarada Uchiha . However , he continued with his traveling when Sarada was still an infant , leaving her in Sakura 's care , due to him discovering a new threat greater than Kaguya approaching . During the events of Naruto Gaiden , Sasuke meets Sarada for the first time in years while he and Naruto reunite against a former test subject of Orochimaru 's who wanted to revive the Akatsuki and avenge Itachi . After fighting Orochimaru 's test subjects , Sasuke shows his daughter how much he loves both her and her mother and promises to come home soon before he resumes his mission .
In Boruto : Naruto the Movie , Sasuke returns to Konoha to warn Naruto of an imminent threat , Momoshiki and Kinshiki . He reunites with his family and meets Naruto 's son , Boruto , who asks Sasuke to take him as his apprentice in order to surpass his father . Sasuke agrees to take Boruto under his wing on the condition that Boruto learns the Rasengan and prepares him for the Chunin Exams . When Momoshiki and Kinshiki attack the village during the exam with the intent to kidnap Naruto , Sasuke saves Sarada and protects her and Boruto as Naruto allowed himself to be taken to another dimension to protect them . Sasuke then allies with Boruto and the four other Kage to rescue Naruto before Boruto uses a giant Rasengan to destroy the enemy , effectively ending Sasuke 's mission and allowing him to return home .
= = = Appearances in other media = = =
Sasuke has made several appearances outside of the Naruto anime and manga . He appears in all four of the original video animations produced for the series , helping Naruto and Konohamaru Sarutobi to find a four leaf clover in the first original video animation , joining his team in escorting a ninja named Shibuki to his village and helping him fight the missing @-@ nin that stole the village 's " Hero 's Water " in the second , and participating in a tournament in the third and working with Team 7 in the fourth one . Sasuke also makes an appearance in the first two Naruto featured films , although he is only briefly present in a memory segment in the second . He also makes his first Part II appearance in a film in the second Naruto : Shippuden movie . In the sixth Naruto : Shippuden movie , an alternate reality version of Sasuke is introduced who is a flirting casanova . Sasuke is also set to debut as the protagonist of a Naruto spin @-@ off manga named Sasuke Uchiha 's Sharingan Legend by Kenji Taira .
Sasuke is a common playable character in Naruto video games , including the Clash of Ninja series and the Ultimate Ninja series . In some games , it is possible to unlock and play as a version of him with the cursed seal active . Due to his lack of appearances in early Naruto Shippūden chapters and episodes , he does not appear in any games based on Naruto Shippuden until Gekitou Ninja Taisen EX 2 . In addition to games focusing on Naruto games exclusively , Sasuke has appeared in the crossover games such as Battle Stadium D.O.N and J @-@ Stars Victory Vs .
= = Creation and conception = =
When developing the original Naruto manga , Masashi Kishimoto had not initially intended to create Sasuke . After speaking with his editor about the future of the series , he was advised to create a rival character for the series ' protagonist , Naruto Uzumaki , resulting in Sasuke 's creation . To learn more about creating an effective rivalry , Kishimoto read a variety of manga to gather ideas on what constituted such a rivalry , and he coalesced these ideal elements into one relationship . Because Sasuke is intended to be Naruto 's opposite , Kishimoto is always careful to make sure Sasuke is never too emotional . With Sasuke 's character being that of a " cool genius , " Kishimoto feels he has created the ideal rivalry . By the time Sasuke suffered a drastic change in the plot which made him become one of the series ' antagonists , Kishimoto compared Sasuke and Naruto to the yin and yang as a result of their notable differences . As a result , he mentions that whenever one of the two progresses , he makes sure the other does it too . In early 2014 , he referred to Sasuke as a " very pure person " when asked whether he was good or evil , adding that while some of his actions such as following his clan 's ideals are positive , he tends to bring problems to others due to his self @-@ centered nature . Since the series started serialization , Kishimoto had decided the ending would feature a fight between these two characters .
When first introducing Sasuke , Kishimoto had made a chapter which was set before the creation of Team 7 , and Naruto had just become a ninja . However , this idea was later cancelled and Sasuke was introduced alongside Team 7 , yet keeping the same traits and his rivalry with Naruto . Sasuke 's first name comes from the manga Sasuke by Sanpei Shirato , a series which Kishimoto likes , as well as from Sarutobi Sasuke , a fictional ninja featured in Japanese children 's stories . Kishimoto remarks that Sasuke 's character was influenced by Hiei from YuYu Hakusho , stating that he referenced Hiei when making his character and his Sharingan .
Sasuke 's design gave Kishimoto a number of problems , making him the most difficult character he had to create . Because he lacked a proper idea of what Sasuke 's face should look like , initial drafts of Sasuke appeared too old or mature for a character the same age as Naruto . Once settling on a proper face , Kishimoto worked on Sasuke 's attire . Original designs of Sasuke had a number of necklaces and ties around his arms and legs , a result of Kishimoto 's habit of giving characters as much ornamentation as possible . Realizing he could not draw such a complex character on a weekly basis , Kishimoto simplified the design to a basic contrast of Naruto 's costume .
For Kishimoto , Sasuke remains the most difficult character for him to draw . While drawing , errors and mishaps commonly result in Sasuke 's youthful appearance being lost , a result of Kishimoto 's inexperience in drawing characters mature beyond their years . Sasuke 's hair , originally kept short to save Kishimoto time , has slowly gotten longer as the series has progressed , increasing the amount of time needed to draw Sasuke . Midway through Part I of the series Kishimoto drew a new costume for Sasuke that featured a number of belts strapped around his arms and legs . Because of the time needed to draw a costume of this design , Kishimoto returned Sasuke to his original costume . Despite the time and energy Kishimoto spends drawing Sasuke , Sasuke has become his favorite character to draw .
When designing Sasuke in his Part II appearance , Kishimoto 's main objective was to make him look cool . For this , he tried giving him several outfits such as Shimenawa around him to preserve Orochimaru 's style of clothing as by the moment in the series he was his apprentice . He also tried other clothes such as a turtleneck and a military uniform to show " cleanliness " . However , he ended up choosing Japanese @-@ style clothes with a Chokutō @-@ style sword .
= = Reception = =
In every official Weekly Shōnen Jump popularity poll of the series , Sasuke has ranked within the top five characters . Though Sasuke 's rank initially alternated between the third and fourth spot , he has ranked first twice . Noriaki Sugiyama noted in the Behind the Scenes of Uchiha that he got emotional during sixth season of the Naruto Shippuden anime when Sasuke learned the truth about his brother 's role . In an interview , Yuri Lowenthal , who does the voice acting for Sasuke in the English dub , states that he is honored to be playing that role due to the large retinue of voice actors auditioning for the role , and also noted the stress associated with his job due to fans being highly critical of any deviation or mistake made while dubbing . He has also commented that his first impression of the character was that of " a serious guy dedicated to his training " , but he later appreciated the pain Sasuke suffered and where it came from . Several pieces of merchandise have been released in Sasuke 's likeness , including plush of his Part I and Part II appearance , key chains , and numerous figurines . NTT customers voted him as their fifth favorite black haired male anime character .
Several publications for manga , anime , video games , and other related media have provided praise and criticism on Sasuke 's character . GameSpot 's Joe Donson extolled Sasuke 's abilities as " badass , " although echoing IGN 's comments concerning his personality . T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews noted that Sasuke fell into the stereotypical " rival " mold of several other shōnen manga , and found him , along with several of the other characters , to not be likable . On the other hand , Mania Entertainment 's Dani Moure praised the fact that Naruto and Sasuke are forced to work together despite their rivalry . The relation between both characters was liked by Moure due to the fact they always compete but the same time it was noted that " the group [ Naruto and Sasuke ] come together when they need to " . Although Carl Kimlinger from Anime News Network found Sasuke 's fight in the Chunin Exams were " pure action " , he noted that Orochimaru 's influence over him kept the tension high . In another review , although Kimlinger commented that Sasuke was in need of development when he was escaping from Konoha , he criticized that it was not necessary to have long flashbacks about his life before his fight against Naruto . The following fight between the two characters has been noted to be one of the most entertaining from the series not only because of the tactics the two used , but also as how it helped to show their rivalry 's growth giving sentimental scenes to the fans . In the book New Media Literacies and Participatory Popular Culture Across Borders , Amy A. Zenger notes Sasuke and Sakura 's relationship to be popular within fan of the series even though the former does not reciprocate to the latter 's feelings .
Sasuke 's appearances in Part II from the Naruto manga have received major praise . This included Manga Life 's Park Cooper with the most remarked scenes from his review being Sasuke 's new abilities and his fight against Orochimaru which was noted to " change the nature of things " suddenly . His re @-@ introduction in the second story arc was found so important that the animated adaptation Naruto Shippuden started with a sneak peek to this scene . The character 's personality , while found not entirely different from the original series , was found to make his scenes interesting thanks to his calmer and angrier attitude as well as his conversation with the nine @-@ tailed demon fox which foreshadowed future events . Sasuke 's final fight against Itachi was commented by Casey Brienza from Anime News Network to be " epic " as how the latter 's death and revelations about his life made notable impact in the former 's personality and point of view . Jacob Hope Chapman from ANN listed Sasuke and Naruto as one of the " Anime 's Fiercest Frenemies " considering their similarities and how they turn into friends after a mortal battle .
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= Tropical Storm Don ( 2011 ) =
Tropical Storm Don was the fourth named storm of the 2011 Atlantic hurricane season and the first tropical cyclone to make landfall in the United States during the 2011 season . Forming from an area of low pressure along a tropical wave , Don was operationally upgraded straight to tropical storm intensity on July 27 , after a reconnaissance aircraft noted the presence of tropical @-@ storm @-@ force winds . It tracked across the Gulf of Mexico and reached a peak intensity of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) before moving ashore in Texas on July 30 as a tropical depression . Initially , Don was a possible catalyst for relief to the drought @-@ stricken state , but the system dissipated rapidly after making landfall , providing very little in the way of help to the state .
= = Meteorological history = =
The genesis of Tropical Storm Don was from a tropical wave first identified off the west coast of Africa on July 16 . It tracked westward over the open Atlantic for several days , with minimal convection confined to the monsoon trough . The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) first mentioned the potential for gradual tropical cyclogenesis on July 21 , when it was positioned about 750 mi ( 1200 km ) to the east of the Windward Islands . As the system moved through the Lesser Antilles on July 23 , it produced tropical @-@ storm @-@ force winds in Puerto Rico . The combination of vertical wind shear and the wave 's proximity to land impeded further development . Convection increased along the northern portion of the wave on July 24 , although by the following day the NHC expected no significant redevelopment .
Early on July 26 , the thunderstorms along the tropical wave became more concentrated to the south of Cuba , in association with a low @-@ pressure area . The system continued to organize , and by 0600 UTC on July 27 , the surface circulation became defined enough for it to be classified as a tropical depression about 60 mi ( 95 km ) northeast of Cancún , Mexico . Within twelve hours , the depression intensified into a tropical storm . Operationally , the system was not known to be a tropical cyclone until 2100 UTC on July 27 , after a reconnaissance aircraft flight into the system confirmed the presence of a closed , albeit elongated , circulation center . At that point , the NHC classified it as Tropical Storm Don . Upon forming , the storm moved to the west @-@ northwest along the southern periphery of a low- to mid @-@ level ridge over the northern Gulf of Mexico . Due to generally favorable conditions , including warm waters and light to moderate wind shear , the NHC predicted steady intensification to winds of at least 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . However , none of the tropical cyclone forecast models anticipated much strengthening .
Initially , Don failed to intensify significantly due to a misalignment between the lower and mid @-@ level circulations . The wind shear in the region further exposed the circulation from the convection late on July 28 , although the winds increased slightly . Early on July 29 , Don attained peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) as reported by the Hurricane Hunters , and the storm maintained that intensity while moving across the Gulf of Mexico . As Don approached the Texas coast early on July 30 , the thunderstorms rapidly diminished due to the combination of wind shear , drier air , and cooler water temperatures just offshore . The winds decreased as the convection dissipated , and Don made landfall on Padre Island National Seashore as a tropical depression at 0230 UTC on July 30 . About three and a half hours later , Don degenerated into a remnant low , and the circulation dissipated six hours after that .
= = Preparations and impact = =
The state civil protection agency in Quintana Roo warned that the tropical wave from which Don formed was capable of dropping 80 to 150 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 to 5 @.@ 9 in ) of rainfall over the state , while producing sustained winds of 35 to 45 km / h ( 22 to 28 mph ) and gusts up to 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . After Don was designated as a tropical storm , the Yucatán state government issued a green @-@ level alert . The alert indicated that although the tropical storm was located close to the state , it was only considered to be slightly dangerous . Late on July 27 , the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm watch from Port Mansfield to San Luis Pass in Texas . Six hours later , the tropical storm watch was extended southwards to the international border .
After the storm was named , officials in Texas began making preparations for Don . The University of Texas Medical Branch in Galveston issued a level one alert for Don , and city officials began preparing for a possible evacuation . On July 27 , oil companies throughout the western Gulf of Mexico began removing non @-@ essential personnel from their rigs and platforms in preparation for Don . The next day , BP , Royal Dutch Shell , Anadarko and Apache announced the evacuations of some of the oil facilities in the area , while Exxon @-@ Mobil began preparing the Baytown Refinery for a possible storm strike . Several oil companies stopped oil production as a result of Don ; by midday on July 28 , 6 @.@ 8 % of oil production and 2 @.@ 8 % of natural gas production in the Gulf had been shut in ahead of the storm .
Due to its abrupt weakening prior to landfall , Don produced minimal rainfall , with totals of less than 1 in ( 25 mm ) . However , Bay City , Texas , located well northeast of where the storm made landfall , reported 2 @.@ 56 in ( 65 mm ) . In southern Texas , the rains resulted in slippery roads and some ponding . Cotton farmers benefited from what rains that did fall as they harvested their crop . Winds during Don 's passage were minimal , with a peak wind gust of 41 mph ( 66 km / h ) at Waldron Field . In addition , Don moved ashore with a storm surge that peaked at about 1 @.@ 89 ft ( 0 @.@ 58 m ) at Bob Hall Pier . There were no reports of damage .
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= Give It Up to Me =
" Give It Up to Me " is a song by Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Shakira featuring American rapper Lil Wayne , taken from the deluxe version of the former 's eighth studio album She Wolf . It was released on 19 October 2009 , by Epic Records as the third single from the album . The song was written by Shakira , Amanda Ghost , Dwayne Carter and Timbaland . Timbaland also served as the producer of the song . Musically , " Give It Up to Me " is a synthpop and hip hop song that incorporates sexually @-@ suggestive lyrics . The song features uncredited vocals from Timbaland
Upon its release , the song received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who appreciated its production and the collaboration with Lil Wayne and Timbaland . It peaked at number twenty @-@ nine on the US Billboard Hot 100 , and was later certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Elsewhere , the song attained moderate success in Australia , Canada , and Europe . Its accompanying music video was directed by Sophie Muller and premiered on 17 November 2009 . It received mixed reviews from critics , who were ambivalent towards its choreography and production .
= = Background and composition = =
" Give It Up to Me " was written by Shakira , Amanda Ghost , Lil Wayne , and Timbaland , and was produced by the latter . Timbaland , who produced " Give It Up to Me " , initially planned to include the song on his third studio album Shock Value II ( 2009 ) . He originally served as the featured vocalist , though his verse was replaced by Flo Rida , who himself was later substituted by Lil Wayne . Amanda Ghost , the president of Epic Records , noted that " everyone 's breath was blown away " when Lil Wayne expressed interest in appearing on the track . The last @-@ minute collaboration resulted in the delayed release of its parent album She Wolf in the United States . The decision resulted in the creation of a deluxe version of the album available exclusively in the country .
After the respective releases of " She Wolf " and " Did It Again " as the first and second singles from She Wolf , Shakira launched " Give It Up to Me " as the third single from the album . The track incorporates synthpop and hip hop influences with " hand claps " and a " pounding bass " . It additionally displays sexually @-@ suggestive lyrics , including the lines " put me in a cage and lock me away / and I 'll play the games that you want me to play " and " anything you want you can make it yours " .
= = Reception = =
Upon its release , " Give It Up to Me " received generally favorable reviews from music critics . A reviewer from Billboard complimented the track for displaying Shakira 's " signature beat " and her " quirky yet sensual " vocals . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine noted her collaborations with Lil Wayne and Timbaland as an " increasingly cliché but not yet altogether ineffective move " , but identified the song as being among the " best moments " showcased on the project . Similarly , Mario Tarradell from The Dallas Morning News recognized the recording as an " insanely catchy , robotic corker " , elaborating that it and " She Wolf " were the most radio @-@ friendly songs on the album . However , an editor from The New York Times provided an underwhelming review of the track , suggesting it would disappoint customers who had listened to the previous recording " Loba " . In the United States , " Give It Up to Me " peaked at number twenty @-@ nine on the Billboard Hot 100 . It additionally reached number twenty @-@ three on the Pop Songs component chart . It was later certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for digital downloads of 500 @,@ 000 copies . Internationally , the track achieved moderate commercial success . It reached number thirty @-@ two on the Canadian Hot 100 , and additionally peaked at number thirty @-@ five on the Australian Singles Chart . It peaked at number 5 on the Deutsche Black Charts .
= = Music video and promotion = =
The accompanying music video for " Give It Up to Me " was directed by Sophie Muller . On 13 November 2009 , People provided an exclusive first look of the project . The full clip premiered the following day through Vevo . Throughout the clip , scenes of Shakira and Lil Wayne are interspersed between the choreography . It begins as the latter raps his verse , while the former begins her routine with a group of female dancers . During the bridge , Shakira portrays Senju Kannon , the goddess of 1 @,@ 000 hands and is seen wearing a blue dress and a gold @-@ colored spiked crown . The video concludes as she continues to dance with the women .
James Montgomery from MTV News noted that it shared similarities with the music video for " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " by Beyoncé Knowles , highlighting a similar wardrobe and dance routine . He complimented the inclusion of Lil Wayne , and added that Shakira " really is a true original " . A review from Neon Limelight was less complimentary of the clip , opining that the " switch from sexy Latin hip rolls to street stepper " was a sign of " desperation " . They also noted similarities to the music video for " Promiscuous " by Nelly Furtado . Shakira additionally promoted the single through her performance at the American Music Awards of 2009 . On 14 February 2010 , Shakira performed " She Wolf " and " Give It Up to Me " at the 2010 NBA All @-@ Star Game halftime @-@ show .
= = Track listings = =
Digital download
" Give It Up to Me " featuring Lil Wayne – 3 : 03
European maxi single / Australia digital download bundle EP
" Give It Up to Me " featuring Lil Wayne – 3 : 03
" Did It Again " featuring Kid Cudi ( Benassi Remix ) – 5 : 58
" Did It Again " featuring Kid Cudi ( Superchumbo Remix ) – 7 : 41
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Oba Chandler =
Oba Chandler ( October 11 , 1946 – November 15 , 2011 ) was an American man convicted and executed for the June 1989 triple murders of Joan Rogers and her two daughters , whose bodies were found , with their hands and feet bound , floating in Tampa Bay , Florida . Autopsies showed the victims had been thrown into the water while still alive . The case became high @-@ profile in 1992 when local police posted enlargements of samples of a then unknown suspect 's handwriting , found on a pamphlet in the victims ' car , on billboards . Chandler was identified as the killer when his neighbor recognized the handwriting . This was the first such use of billboards by law enforcement in the U.S. ; billboards became useful tools in later searches for missing people .
Prior to his arrest , Chandler worked as an unlicensed aluminum @-@ siding contractor . He testified in his own defense , against the advice of his attorneys , saying that he had met the Ohio women and had given them directions , but that he never saw them again aside from in newspaper coverage and on the billboards set up by authorities . Police originally theorized that two men were involved in the murders , but this was discounted once Chandler was arrested . Following his conviction , Chandler was incarcerated at Union Correctional Institution , and , during his seventeen years of incarceration until his execution , he was notable for not having had a single visitor .
Chandler was executed on November 15 , 2011 . He wrote a last statement to prison officials which said , " You are killing a [ sic ] innocent man today " . The statement was read at a post @-@ execution news conference . In February 2014 , DNA evidence identified Chandler as the murderer of Ivelisse Berrios @-@ Beguerisse , who was found dead in Coral Springs on November 27 , 1990 .
= = Early life = =
= = = Background = = =
Chandler was the fourth of five children born to Oba Chandler Sr. and Margaret Johnson , and was raised in Cincinnati , Ohio . When he was 10 years old in June 1957 , his father hanged himself in the basement of the family 's apartment . Chandler reportedly jumped into his father 's open grave at the funeral as the gravediggers were covering the coffin with dirt . Chandler fathered eight children , reportedly by seven women ; his youngest child was born in February 1989 . Between May and September 1991 — concurrent with the police investigation of the Rogers family triple murder — Chandler was an informant for the U.S. Customs Bureau 's Tampa office .
= = = Crimes and incidents = = =
When Chandler was 14 , he began stealing cars and was arrested 20 times as a juvenile . As an adult , he was charged with a variety of crimes , including possession of counterfeit money , loitering and prowling , burglary , kidnapping , and armed robbery . He was also accused of masturbating while peering inside a woman 's window . In one incident , Chandler and an accomplice broke into a Florida couple 's home , held them at gunpoint , and robbed them . Chandler told his accomplice to tie up the man with speaker wire and took the woman into the bedroom , where he made her strip to her underwear , tied her up , and rubbed the barrel of his revolver across her stomach .
= = = Murder victims = = =
On May 26 , 1989 , Joan " Jo " Rogers , 36 , and her daughters — Michelle , 17 , and Christe , 14 — left their family dairy farm in Willshire , Ohio , for a vacation in Florida . They had never before left their home state . Authorities believe that the women became lost on June 1 , during the return drive from Orlando to Willshire , and had decided to take an extra vacation day in Tampa . While looking for their hotel they encountered Chandler , who gave them directions , and offered to meet them again later to take them on a sunset cruise of Tampa Bay . The Rogers women had left Orlando around 9 : 00 a.m. and checked into the Days Inn on Route 60 at 12 : 30 p.m. Photographs , developed from a roll of film in a camera found in Rogers ' hotel room , showed Michelle sitting on the floor ; the last photo was a shot taken from the hotel balcony showing the sunset beginning over Tampa Bay , confirming the women were alive , and had not left their hotel room as the sunset began . They were last seen alive at the hotel restaurant around 7 : 30 p.m. It is believed they boarded Chandler 's boat by the dock on the Courtney Campbell Causeway ( part of Route 60 ) between 8 : 30 p.m. and 9 : 00 p.m. , and that they were dead by 3 a.m. Chandler may have used the fact that he was born in Ohio to lure them into feeling a connection to him . Chandler knew the women were not from Florida because he saw the Ohio license plates on their car .
The women 's bodies were found floating in Tampa Bay on June 4 , 1989 . The first body was found when several people on board a sailboat , crossing under the Sunshine Skyway , saw an object in the water . The second body was seen floating off the pier in St. Petersburg , two miles north from the first . While the Coast Guard went to recover the second body , a call came in about a third , which was seen floating 200 yards to the east . All three female bodies were found face down , bound with a rope around the neck , and naked below the waist .
Autopsies showed all three women had water in their lungs , proving they had been thrown into the water while still alive . Michelle — identified as the second body found — had freed one hand from her bonds before she drowned . The partially dressed bodies of all three women indicated that the underlying crime was sexual assault . Concrete blocks were tied around their necks to ensure they died from either suffocation or drowning , and that their bodies were never found . However , the bodies bloated as a result of decomposition , and floated to the surface .
= = Investigation = =
The women were not positively identified until a week after their bodies ' discovery , by which time they had been reported missing in Ohio by husband and father , Hal Rogers . On June 8 , a housekeeper at the Days Inn said that the women 's room had not been disturbed , and the beds had not been slept in . The hotel manager contacted the police . Fingerprints found in the room were matched to the bodies ; final confirmation of their identification came from dental records . Marine researchers at the University of South Florida estimated from currents and patterns that the women were thrown from a boat — and not from a bridge or dry land — between two and five days before they were found . The Rogers car , a 1984 Oldsmobile Calais with Ohio license plates , was found at the boat dock by the Courtney Campbell Causeway .
= = = Facts and arrest = = =
The case remained unsolved for over three years , partly due to the volume of tips received by police investigators . The biggest tip was from a Madeira Beach police bulletin describing a similar rape of a 24 @-@ year @-@ old Canadian tourist some two weeks before the murders ( See below under " Witnesses " ) . Chandler was arrested for the murders on September 24 , 1992 . His handwritten directions on a brochure found in the Rogers ' vehicle , and a description of his boat written by Jo Rogers on the brochure , were the primary clues that led to him being named a suspect . Local police posted images of Chandler 's handwriting on the brochure on billboards in the Tampa Bay area , leading to a call from a former neighbor who provided a copy of a work order that he had written . This was the first such use of billboards by law enforcement in the U.S. and billboards became useful tools in later searches for missing people . Through handwriting analysis , the two samples were matched conclusively . Another of Chandler 's neighbors , and one of the secretaries on the investigative task force , thought that Chandler resembled the composite sketch of the suspect in the seemingly related rape case . A palm print from the brochure was also matched to Chandler . He had sold his boat and left town with his family soon after the billboards appeared . In 1990 , when the television show Unsolved Mysteries was about to report on the deaths of the Rogers family , Chandler and his then @-@ wife moved from their home on Dalton Avenue in Tampa to Port Orange near Daytona Beach .
= = = Second suspect theory = = =
Investigators originally theorized that two men were involved in the murders of the Rogers women and this was reenacted in a 1990 episode of Unsolved Mysteries . This theory was dismissed when Chandler was arrested . No evidence of a second man — other than a former prison cellmate 's claim that Chandler said another man , whose identity the cellmate claimed to know but would not reveal — has ever surfaced . The second @-@ suspect theory was belied by Chandler 's approach of the two Canadian female tourists — that he was willing to approach more than one potential target by himself .
Hal Rogers 's brother John was also considered a suspect even though he was in state prison serving a sentence for the rape of a woman who had shared his trailer , at the time of the murders . Police , investigating the woman 's rape allegation , found evidence indicating that he had also sexually assaulted Hal 's daughter Michelle , although charges involving this assault were later dropped because of her reluctance to testify . The St. Petersburg Times said that John may have planned the murder as he had visited his parents ' property near Tampa a month before the murders . However , as the police established John could not have hired a professional killer , did not have accomplices , and could not have known the timing of his sister @-@ in @-@ law 's and nieces ' trip , he was dismissed as a suspect .
Hal Rogers was also considered a suspect because he had posted bail for his brother , knowing he had abused Michelle . He later said that he had promised the family he would post bail and would not renege on his promise . Investigators from Florida and Ohio also discovered that Hal Rogers had withdrawn US $ 7 @,@ 000 from his bank at the time of the disappearance , which he was able to account for . He had planned on using it to look for his wife and daughters before he was notified of their deaths . Investigations proved conclusively that he had never left Ohio during that period . The rape of Michelle Rogers , and gossip by local people , was one of the reasons for the Florida trip , so she and her sister and mother could distance themselves from the incident .
= = Trial = =
= = = Chandler 's testimony = = =
At his trial in Clearwater , Florida , Chandler said that he met the Rogers women and gave them directions , but he never saw them again except in newspaper coverage and on billboards . He never told the authorities that he had seen the women again . He acknowledged that he was on Tampa Bay that night — the police had evidence of three ship @-@ to @-@ shore telephone calls made from his boat to his home during the time frame of the murders — but Chandler maintained that he was fishing alone . He claimed that he had returned home late because his engine would not start , which he attributed to a gas line leak . He said that he had called the Coast Guard and the Florida Marine Patrol , and had flagged down a patrol boat , but both were too busy to help . He said that he subsequently fixed the line with duct tape and returned safely to shore . However , there were no records of distress calls from Chandler to either the Coast Guard or the Marine Patrol that night , nor were there any Coast Guard boats on the bay the following morning that could have helped him . According to a boat mechanic , who testified for the prosecution , Chandler 's explanation of repairing the boat 's alleged gas leak was not tenable because the fuel lines in his boat — a Bayliner — were directed upward . A leak would have sprayed fuel into the air rather than into the boat , and the corrosive gasoline would have eaten away the adhesive properties of the duct tape Chandler maintained he had used to repair the purported leak . Under interrogation from Pinellas County prosecutor , Douglas Crow , Chandler then said he could not remember .
= = = Witnesses = = =
A woman named Judy Blair testified that on May 15 , 1989 — two weeks prior to the Rogers murders — Chandler invited her onto his boat in nearby Madeira Beach for a boat trip on Tampa Bay , raped her , then returned her to shore . Blair had been with her friend Barbara Mottram , who refused Chandler 's offer to join them on the boat . After she was allegedly raped , Blair returned to her hotel room where Mottram was waiting . He was not charged or tried for this crime . Blair testified during Chandler 's murder trial to establish his pattern of attack and to show the similarities between the two crimes . Blair testified that on May 14 , Chandler gave his name as Dave Posner or Dave Posno when the three first met at a convenience store in Tampa . He told Blair and Mottram he was in the aluminum siding contracting business , which subsequently helped lead investigators to him . It also inspired the name of the investigation to capture him : " Operation Tin Man " . The facial composite produced from Blair 's description was posted on the billboards along with the handwriting samples .
A former employee of Chandler 's testified that he bragged about dating three women on the bay that night , and that the next morning he arrived and delivered materials for a job by boat and immediately set out again . In an attempt to establish Chandler 's whereabouts on the night of the murders , investigators found records of several ship @-@ to @-@ shore telephone calls made from his boat to his home between 1 : 00 am and 5 : 00 am , which may have been attempts to explain his absence to his wife , and to provide himself with an alibi for the time of the murders . Chandler 's daughter , Kristal May Sue , testified that her father had talked about killing three women , and that he was afraid of returning to Tampa . A maid , who worked at the motel where the Rogers women stayed , testified that she walked past Chandler on June 1 as she was heading for the Rogers ' room for room service . She said that she did not realize the significance of this sighting until Chandler 's arrest in 1992 ; the sighting has never been confirmed . Michelle 's boyfriend and Hal Rogers also took the stand during trial .
= = = Sentence and aftermath = = =
Jo , Michelle and Christe Rogers were buried in their hometown on June 13 , 1989 , after a funeral service attended by about 300 family and friends . Numerous police officers were present to keep news media and TV crews out of the church during the service .
Chandler was found guilty of the murders , and was sentenced to death on November 4 , 1994 . He maintained his innocence , and continued to pursue legal appeals while on Florida 's Death Row . He admitted to the Madeira Beach incident but said the sex was consensual , and that the victim changed her mind during the act . Since Chandler had already been sentenced to death for the Rogers family murders , and prosecutors did not want to subject Blair to the emotional trauma of a rape trial , he was never prosecuted for Blair 's rape .
He served his sentence at the Union Correctional Institution . Shortly after the trial and conviction , his wife Debra filed for divorce and their marriage was formally dissolved a year later . Chandler was no longer allowed to see his daughter Whitney , and , in accordance with his ex @-@ wife 's wishes , he was not allowed to see later photographs of her . In July 2008 , Chandler was on Florida 's short list of executions . Profiling experts speculated that Chandler may have killed previously , based on the belief that a first @-@ time killer would not be experienced , or bold enough , to abduct and kill three women at once . Chandler remained a suspect in the 1982 murder of a woman found floating off Anna Maria Island until 2011 , when the body was identified as 29 @-@ year @-@ old Amy Hurst and her husband was arrested and charged with her murder . Chandler was never charged with another murder . All of his appeals of his 1994 conviction were denied ; his last was in May 2007 .
After his conviction , Chandler was named by media as one of Florida 's most notorious criminals . He said that his last words before his execution would be : " Kiss my rosy red ass " . In May 2011 , comparisons were drawn between Chandler 's case and trial in 1994 , and the murder case and the upcoming trial of Casey Anthony . In both cases heightened media attention forced the selection of jurors who lived outside the county where the crime had been committed . One of the jurors in Chandler 's 1994 trial , identified as Roseann Welton , said that : " He scared some of the jurors when he would sit there and stare at you and have that stupid grin on his face . He would make your skin crawl . "
The judge presiding over the 1994 trial and that ultimately sentenced Chandler , died of lung cancer in April 2016 at the age of 73 . In a 2011 interview the judge described Chandler as a man with no soul , and further commentated the trial , " It 's the worst case as far as factually , and as far as a defendant without saving grace , that I ever handled . And I represented plenty of people who were not necessarily good people . "
= = Execution = =
On October 10 , 2011 — the day before Chandler 's 65th birthday — Florida Governor Rick Scott signed Chandler 's death warrant . His execution was set for November 15 , 2011 , at 4 : 00 pm . His lawyer , Baya Harrison , said that Chandler asked him not to file any frivolous appeals to keep him alive . Harrison said :
He is not putting a lot of pressure on me to go running around at the end to find some magic way out . He is not going to make a scene . He 's not going to bemoan the legal system . What he has told me is this : if there is some legal way that I can find to try to prevent him from being executed , he would like me to do what I reasonably can .
Harrison also said that Chandler suffered from high blood pressure , coronary artery disease , problems with his kidneys and arthritis .
On October 12 , 2011 , Harrison said that although he was preparing to file a motion regarding the violation of his client 's Fifth and 14th Amendment rights in the case , he was unsure that Chandler was willing to travel to Clearwater , Florida for the court hearing , or would agree to the filing of the motion . " He hates coming down to Clearwater . He doesn 't like the ride and he 's not well , " Harrison said . On October 18 , 2011 , Harrison filed a motion against the execution on the grounds that the way Florida imposes the death penalty is unconstitutional . A jury makes a recommendation on a life sentence or a death sentence , but under Florida law the judge makes the final decision . A hearing on Chandler 's motion was set for October 21 at 1 : 00 pm ; Chandler did not attend . On October 24 , Chandler 's appeal was rejected because he had already filed an appeal to the Florida Supreme Court prior to the decision . This appeal was heard in a court in Tallahassee at 9 : 00 am on November 9 , 2011 . The Florida Supreme Court had already upheld Chandler 's death sentence twice ; once in 1997 and again in 2003 .
On November 15 , Chandler chose a last meal consisting of two salami sandwiches on white bread , one peanut butter sandwich on white bread , and iced tea . The execution process started at 4 : 08 pm and at approximately 4 : 25 pm Chandler was pronounced dead after receiving a lethal injection at the Florida State Prison in Raiford . Chandler declined to make a last statement before being executed . Hal Rogers attended the execution . Former St. Petersburg homicide detective Cindra Leedy , who investigated the case , said in a press conference : " I 'm glad there 's finally an end to this . He doesn 't deserve to live , he needs to die . "
Chandler left a last statement with prison officials on a piece of paper , which was read aloud during a news conference after the execution . It said : " You are killing an innocent man today . " Shortly after signing Chandler 's death warrant Governor Rick Scott said : " [ Chandler ] killed three women , so I looked through different cases , and it made sense to do that one . There 's never one thing . It was the right case . "
Chandler 's daughter Valerie Troxell said in an interview after the execution that : " I believe they did execute an innocent man . I don 't think one person could have pulled off such a heinous crime . It would have to have been more than one person ... The forensic evidence was not there . The palm print would prove he did meet them and gave them directions , but it didn 't mean he killed them . I think the prosecution had a very weak case . " Troxell also said that she had sent a letter to Florida Governor Rick Scott asking him to commute Chandler 's sentence to life in prison .
Chandler 's son Jeff said : " I truly believe he was tried and convicted by the media long before he went to trial . The media can pretty much convict you . I don 't think he got a fair trial . " After his execution , Chandler was described as the " loneliest man in the loneliest place on earth , death row " ; he did not receive a single visitor during his years in Florida 's death row unit .
Another one of Chandler 's daughters , named " Suzette " , said her father was a monster who got what he deserved .
= = Coral Springs murder = =
On February 25 , 2014 , investigators revealed that DNA evidence identified Chandler as the murderer of Ivelisse Berrios @-@ Beguerisse , who was raped and strangled to death in Coral Springs on November 27 , 1990 .
The 20 @-@ year @-@ old newlywed was last seen at the Sawgrass Mills Mall where she worked at a sporting goods store . When she did not return home her husband went to the mall and found her car , a 1985 Ford Tempo , with the tires slashed . It is believed that Chandler , after scoping out the victim over a couple of days , slashed the tires and showed up in the guise of a good samaritan and offered to help . Three hours after she was reported missing , her body was found under a residential mailbox , in a local neighborhood , by two men returning from a fishing trip .
When found , Ivelisse 's body was nude , had ligature marks on both wrists and legs , and brown tape stuck to her hair . The case is considered solved and closed according to police .
Law enforcement agencies across Florida are looking into other unsolved homicides and other crimes in areas Chandler was known to have resided . At the time of the Berrios murder he and his family lived some two miles from the mall .
= = Media on the subject = =
The Discovery Channel devoted a one @-@ hour episode of its series Scene of the Crime titled " The Tin Man " to the murder of the Rogers family . In 1997 , a series of articles titled " Angels & Demons " written by Thomas French , which told the story of the murders , the capture and conviction of Chandler , and the impact of the crimes on the Rogers ' family and community in Ohio , was published in the newspaper St. Petersburg Times . The series won a 1998 Pulitzer Prize for Feature Writing . The Rogers murders were featured in an episode of Unsolved Mysteries in 1990 , which speculated that there were two attackers . The 2000 book Bodies in the Bay , by Mason Ramsey , is a fictionalized adaptation of the Chandler case . Author Don Davis in 2007 published the book Death Cruise covering the murders .
The case was featured in a 1999 episode of Cold Case Files on A & E entitled " Bodies in the Bay , " which also focused on the evidence in the case . In 1995 , Oba Chandler , some members of his family , and Hal Rogers appeared in an episode of the Maury Povich Show featuring the case . Chandler appeared via satellite link . Chandler 's case was featured in a full @-@ hour episode of Crime Stories . The case was shown on an episode of Forensic Files entitled " Water Logged " in December 2010 . In 2012 Investigation Discovery show On the Case with Paula Zahn aired two episodes called " Murder at Sunset " covering the case . In August 2014 , the ID series " Murder in Paradise " covered the case .
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= University of Michigan =
The University of Michigan ( U @-@ M , UM , UMich , or U of M ) , frequently referred to simply as Michigan , is a public research university in Ann Arbor , Michigan , United States . Founded in 1817 in Detroit as the Catholepistemiad , or University of Michigania , 20 years before the Michigan Territory became a state , the University of Michigan is the state 's oldest university . The university moved to Ann Arbor in 1837 onto 40 acres ( 16 ha ) of what is now known as Central Campus . Since its establishment in Ann Arbor , the university campus has expanded to include more than 584 major buildings with a combined area of more than 34 million gross square feet ( 781 acres or 3 @.@ 16 km ² ) spread out over a Central Campus and North Campus , has two satellite campuses in Flint and Dearborn , and a Center in Detroit . The University was a founding member of the Association of American Universities .
Considered one of the foremost research universities in the United States , the university has very high research activity and its comprehensive graduate program offers doctoral degrees in the humanities , social sciences , and STEM fields ( Science , Technology , Engineering and Mathematics ) as well as professional degrees in architecture , business , medicine , law , pharmacy , nursing , social work , public health , and dentistry . Michigan 's body of living alumni ( as of 2012 ) comprises more than 500 @,@ 000 . Besides academic life , Michigan 's athletic teams compete in Division I of the NCAA and are collectively known as the Wolverines . They are members of the Big Ten Conference .
= = History = =
The University of Michigan was established in Detroit on August 26 , 1817 as the Catholepistemiad , or University of Michigania , by the governor and judges of Michigan Territory . Judge Augustus B. Woodward specifically invited The Rev. John Monteith and Father Gabriel Richard , a Catholic priest , to establish the institution . Monteith became its first President and held seven of the professorships , and Richard was Vice President and held the other six professorships . Concurrently , Ann Arbor had set aside 40 acres ( 16 ha ) in the hopes of being selected as the state capital . But when Lansing was chosen as the state capital , the city offered the land for a university . What would become the university moved to Ann Arbor in 1837 thanks to Governor Stevens T. Mason . The original 40 acres ( 160 @,@ 000 m2 ) was the basis of the present Central Campus . The first classes in Ann Arbor were held in 1841 , with six freshmen and a sophomore , taught by two professors . Eleven students graduated in the first commencement in 1845 .
By 1866 , enrollment increased to 1 @,@ 205 students , many of whom were Civil War veterans . Women were first admitted in 1870 . James Burrill Angell , who served as the university 's president from 1871 to 1909 , aggressively expanded U @-@ M 's curriculum to include professional studies in dentistry , architecture , engineering , government , and medicine . U @-@ M also became the first American university to use the seminar method of study . Among the early students in the School of Medicine was Jose Celso Barbosa , who in 1880 graduated as valedictorian and the first Puerto Rican to get a university degree in the United States . He returned to Puerto Rico to practice medicine and also served in high @-@ ranking posts in the government .
From 1900 to 1920 , the university constructed many new facilities , including buildings for the dental and pharmacy programs , chemistry , natural sciences , Hill Auditorium , large hospital and library complexes , and two residence halls . In 1920 the university reorganized the College of Engineering and formed an advisory committee of 100 industrialists to guide academic research initiatives . The university became a favored choice for bright Jewish students from New York in the 1920s and 1930s , when the Ivy League schools had quotas restricting the number of Jews to be admitted . Because of its high standards , U @-@ M gained the nickname " Harvard of the West . " During World War II , U @-@ M 's research supported military efforts , such as U.S. Navy projects in proximity fuzes , PT boats , and radar jamming .
After the war , enrollment expanded rapidly and by 1950 , it reached 21 @,@ 000 , of which more than one third ( or 7 @,@ 700 ) were veterans supported by the G.I. Bill . As the Cold War and the Space Race took hold , U @-@ M received numerous government grants for strategic research and helped to develop peacetime uses for nuclear energy . Much of that work , as well as research into alternative energy sources , is pursued via the Memorial Phoenix Project .
In the 1960 Presidential campaign , U.S. Senator John F. Kennedy kiddingly referred to himself as " a graduate of the Michigan of the East , Harvard University " in his speech proposing the formation of the Peace Corps speaking to a crowd from the front steps of the Michigan Union .
Lyndon B. Johnson gave his speech outlining his Great Society program as the lead speaker during U @-@ M 's 1964 spring commencement ceremony . During the 1960s , the university campus was the site of numerous protests against the Vietnam War and university administration . On March 24 , 1965 , a group of U @-@ M faculty members and 3 @,@ 000 students held the nation 's first ever faculty @-@ led " teach @-@ in " to protest against American policy in Southeast Asia . In response to a series of sit @-@ ins in 1966 by Voice , the campus political party of Students for a Democratic Society , U @-@ M 's administration banned sit @-@ ins . In response , 1 @,@ 500 students participated in a one @-@ hour sit @-@ in inside the Administration Building , now known as the LSA Building . In April 1968 following on the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King , Jr. a group of several dozen black students occupied the Administration Building to demand that the University make public its 3 @-@ year @-@ old commitment as a federal contractor to Affirmative Action and to increase its efforts with respect to recruiting more African American students , faculty and staff . At that time there were no African American coaches , for instance , in the Intercollegiate Athletics Department . The occupation was ended by agreement after 7 hours .
Former U @-@ M student and noted architect Alden B. Dow designed the current Fleming Administration Building , which was completed in 1968 . The building 's plans were drawn in the early 1960s , before student activism prompted a concern for safety . But the Fleming Building 's fortress @-@ like narrow windows , all located above the first floor , and lack of exterior detail at ground level , led to a campus rumor that it was designed to be riot @-@ proof . Dow denied those rumors , claiming the small windows were designed to be energy efficient .
During the 1970s , severe budget constraints slowed the university 's physical development ; but in the 1980s , the university received increased grants for research in the social and physical sciences . The university 's involvement in the anti @-@ missile Strategic Defense Initiative and investments in South Africa caused controversy on campus . During the 1980s and 1990s , the university devoted substantial resources to renovating its massive hospital complex and improving the academic facilities on the North Campus . In its 2011 annual financial report , the university announced that it had dedicated $ 497 million per year in each of the prior 10 years to renovate buildings and infrastructure around the campus . The university also emphasized the development of computer and information technology throughout the campus .
In the early 2000s , U @-@ M faced declining state funding due to state budget shortfalls . At the same time , the university attempted to maintain its high academic standing while keeping tuition costs affordable . There were disputes between U @-@ M 's administration and labor unions , notably with the Lecturers ' Employees Organization ( LEO ) and the Graduate Employees Organization ( GEO ) , the union representing graduate student employees . These conflicts led to a series of one @-@ day walkouts by the unions and their supporters . The university is engaged in a $ 2 @.@ 5 billion construction campaign .
In 2003 , two lawsuits involving U @-@ M 's affirmative action admissions policy reached the U.S. Supreme Court ( Grutter v. Bollinger and Gratz v. Bollinger ) . President George W. Bush publicly opposed the policy before the court issued a ruling . The court found that race may be considered as a factor in university admissions in all public universities and private universities that accept federal funding . But , it ruled that a point system was unconstitutional . In the first case , the court upheld the Law School admissions policy , while in the second it ruled against the university 's undergraduate admissions policy .
The debate continued because in November 2006 , Michigan voters passed Proposal 2 , banning most affirmative action in university admissions . Under that law , race , gender , and national origin can no longer be considered in admissions . U @-@ M and other organizations were granted a stay from implementation of the law soon after that referendum . This allowed time for proponents of affirmative action to decide legal and constitutional options in response to the initiative results . In April 2014 , the Supreme Court ruled in Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action , upholding Proposal 2 under the U.S. Constitution . The admissions office states that it will attempt to achieve a diverse student body by looking at other factors , such as whether the student attended a disadvantaged school , and the level of education of the student 's parents .
On May 1 , 2014 , University of Michigan was named one of 55 higher education institutions under investigation by the Office of Civil Rights “ for possible violations of federal law over the handling of sexual violence and harassment complaints . " President Barack Obama 's White House Task Force to Protect Students from Sexual Assault was organized for such investigations .
The University of Michigan became more selective in the early 2010s . The acceptance rate declined from 50 @.@ 6 % in 2010 to 26 @.@ 2 % in 2015 . The rate of new freshman enrollment has been fairly stable since 2010 .
= = Campus = =
The Ann Arbor campus is divided into four main areas : the North , Central , Medical and South campuses . The physical infrastructure includes more than 500 major buildings , with a combined area of more than 34 million square feet or 781 acres ( 3 @.@ 16 km2 ) . The Central and South Campus areas are contiguous , while the North Campus area is separated from them , primarily by the Huron River . There is also leased space in buildings scattered throughout the city , many occupied by organizations affiliated with the University of Michigan Health System . An East Medical Campus has recently been developed on Plymouth Road , with several university @-@ owned buildings for outpatient care , diagnostics and outpatient surgery .
In addition to the U @-@ M Golf Course on South Campus , the university operates a second golf course on Geddes Road called Radrick Farms Golf Course . The golf course is only open to faculty , staff and alumni . Another off @-@ campus facility is the Inglis House , which the university has owned since the 1950s . The Inglis House is a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 930 m2 ) mansion used to hold various social events , including meetings of the board of regents , and to host visiting dignitaries . The university also operates a large office building called Wolverine Tower in southern Ann Arbor near Briarwood Mall . Another major facility is the Matthaei Botanical Gardens , which is located on the eastern outskirts of Ann Arbor .
All four campus areas are connected by bus services , the majority of which connect the North and Central campuses . There is a shuttle service connecting the University Hospital , which lies between North and Central campuses , with other medical facilities throughout northeastern Ann Arbor .
= = = Central Campus = = =
Central Campus was the original location of U @-@ M when it moved to Ann Arbor in 1837 . It originally had a school and dormitory building ( where Mason Hall now stands ) and several houses for professors on forty acres of land bounded by North University Avenue , South University Avenue , East University Avenue , and State Street . The President 's House , located on South University Avenue , is the oldest building on campus as well as the only surviving building from the original forty acre campus . Because Ann Arbor and Central Campus developed simultaneously , there is no distinct boundary between the city and university , and some areas contain a mixture of private and university buildings . Residence halls located on Central Campus are split up into two groups : the Hill Neighborhood and Central Campus .
Central Campus is the location of the College of Literature , Science and the Arts , and is immediately adjacent to the medical campus . Most of the graduate and professional schools , including the Ross School of Business , the Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy , the Law School and the School of Dentistry , are on Central Campus . Two prominent libraries , the Harlan Hatcher Graduate Library and the Shapiro Undergraduate Library ( which are connected by a skywalk ) , are also on Central Campus , as well as museums housing collections in archaeology , anthropology , paleontology , zoology , dentistry and art . Ten of the buildings on Central Campus were designed by Detroit @-@ based architect Albert Kahn between 1904 and 1936 . The most notable of the Kahn @-@ designed buildings are the Burton Memorial Tower and nearby Hill Auditorium .
= = = North Campus = = =
North Campus is the most contiguous campus , built independently from the city on a large plot of farm land — approximately 800 acres ( 3 @.@ 2 km2 ) — that the university bought in 1952 . It is newer than Central Campus , and thus has more modern architecture , whereas most Central Campus buildings are classical or gothic in style . The architect Eero Saarinen , based in Birmingham , Michigan , created one of the early master plans for North Campus and designed several of its buildings in the 1950s , including the Earl V. Moore School of Music Building . North and Central Campuses each have unique bell towers that reflect the predominant architectural styles of their surroundings . Each of the bell towers houses a grand carillon . The North Campus tower is called Lurie Tower . The University of Michigan 's largest residence hall , Bursley Hall , is located on North Campus .
North Campus houses the College of Engineering , the School of Music , Theatre & Dance , the School of Art & Design , the Taubman College of Architecture and Urban Planning , and an annex of the School of Information . The campus is served by the Duderstadt Center , which houses the Art , Architecture and Engineering Library . The Duderstadt Center also contains multiple computer labs , video editing studios , electronic music studios , an audio studio , a video studio , multimedia workspaces , and a 3D virtual reality room . Other libraries located on North Campus include the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library and the Bentley Historical Library .
= = = South Campus = = =
South Campus is the site for the athletic programs , including major sports facilities such as Michigan Stadium , Crisler Center , and Yost Ice Arena . South Campus is also the site of the Buhr library storage facility , Revelli Hall , home of the Michigan Marching Band , the Institute for Continuing Legal Education , and the Student Theatre Arts Complex , which provides shop and rehearsal space for student theatre groups . The university 's departments of public safety and transportation services offices are located on South Campus .
U @-@ M 's golf course is located south of Michigan Stadium and Crisler Arena . It was designed in the late 1920s by Alister MacKenzie , the designer of Augusta National Golf Club in Augusta , Georgia ( home of The Masters Tournament ) . The course opened to the public in the spring of 1931 . The University of Michigan Golf Course was included in a listing of top holes designed by what Sports Illustrated calls " golf 's greatest course architect . " The U @-@ M Golf Course 's signature No. 6 hole — a 310 @-@ yard ( 280 m ) par 4 , which plays from an elevated tee to a two @-@ tiered , kidney @-@ shaped green protected by four bunkers — is the second hole on the Alister MacKenzie Dream 18 as selected by a five @-@ person panel that includes three @-@ time Masters champion Nick Faldo and golf course architect Tom Doak . The listing of " the best holes ever designed by Augusta National architect Alister MacKenzie " is featured in SI 's Golf Plus special edition previewing the Masters on April 4 , 2006 .
= = Organization and administration = =
The University of Michigan consists of a flagship campus in Ann Arbor , with two regional campuses in Dearborn and Flint . The Board of Regents , which governs the university and was established by the Organic Act of March 18 , 1837 , consists of eight members elected at large in biennial state elections for overlapping eight @-@ year terms . Between the establishment of the University of Michigan in 1837 and 1850 , the Board of Regents ran the university directly ; although they were , by law , supposed to appoint a Chancellor to administer the university , they never did . Instead a rotating roster of professors carried out the day @-@ to @-@ day administration duties .
The President of the University of Michigan is the principal executive officer of the university . The office was created by the Michigan Constitution of 1850 , which also specified that the president was to be appointed by the Regents of the University of Michigan and preside at their meetings , but without a vote . Today , the president 's office is at the Ann Arbor campus , and the president has the privilege of living in the President 's House , the university 's oldest building located on Central Campus in Ann Arbor . Mark Schlissel is the 14th and current president of the university and has served since July 2014 .
There are thirteen undergraduate schools and colleges . By enrollment , the three largest undergraduate units are the College of Literature , Science , and the Arts , the College of Engineering , and the Ross School of Business . At the graduate level , the Rackham Graduate School serves as the central administrative unit of graduate education at the university . There are 18 graduate schools and colleges , the largest of which are the College of Literature , Science , and the Arts , the College of Engineering , the Law School , and the Ross School of Business . Professional degrees are conferred by the Schools of Public Health , Dentistry , Law , Medicine , and Pharmacy . The Medical School is partnered with the University of Michigan Health System , which comprises the university 's three hospitals , dozens of outpatient clinics , and many centers for medical care , research , and education .
= = = Endowment = = =
As of June 30 , 2015 , U @-@ M 's financial endowment ( the " University Endowment Fund " ) was valued at $ 10 @.@ 26 billion . The endowment is primarily used according to the donors ' wishes , which include the support of teaching and research . In mid @-@ 2000 , U @-@ M embarked on a massive fund @-@ raising campaign called " The Michigan Difference , " which aimed to raise $ 2 @.@ 5 billion , with $ 800 million designated for the permanent endowment . Slated to run through December 2008 , the university announced that the campaign had reached its target 19 months early in May 2007 . Ultimately , the campaign raised $ 3 @.@ 2 billion over 8 years . Over the course of the capital campaign , 191 additional professorships were endowed , bringing the university total to 471 as of 2009 . Like nearly all colleges and universities , U @-@ M suffered significant realized and unrealized losses in its endowment during the second half of 2008 . In February 2009 , a university spokesperson estimated losses of between 20 and 30 percent .
In November 2013 , the university launched the " Victors for Michigan " campaign , which with a $ 4 billion goal , is its largest fundraising campaign to date .
= = = Student government = = =
Housed in the Michigan Union , the Central Student Government ( CSG ) is the central student government of the University . With representatives from each of the University 's colleges and schools , CSG represents students and manages student funds on the campus . CSG is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) organization , independent from the University of Michigan . In recent years CSG has organized airBus , a transportation service between campus and the Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport , and has led the university 's efforts to register its student population to vote , with its Voice Your Vote Commission ( VYV ) registering 10 @,@ 000 students in 2004 . VYV also works to improve access to non @-@ partisan voting @-@ related information and increase student voter turnout . CSG was successful at reviving Homecoming activities , including a carnival and parade , for students after a roughly eleven @-@ year absence in October 2007 , and during the 2013 @-@ 14 school year , was instrumental in persuading the University to rescind an unpopular change in student football seating policy at Michigan Stadium .
There are student governance bodies in each college and school . The two largest colleges at the University of Michigan are the College of Literature , Science , and the Arts ( LS & A ) and the College of Engineering . Undergraduate students in the LS & A are represented by the LS & A Student Government ( LSA SG ) . Engineering Student Government ( ESG ) manages undergraduate student government affairs for the College of Engineering . Graduate students enrolled in the Rackham Graduate School are represented by the Rackham Student Government ( RSG ) . In addition , the students that live in the residence halls are represented by the University of Michigan Residence Halls Association ( RHA ) .
A longstanding goal of the student government is to create a student @-@ designated seat on the Board of Regents , the university 's governing body . Such a designation would achieve parity with other Big Ten schools that have student regents . In 2000 , students Nick Waun and Scott Trudeau ran for the board on the statewide ballot as third @-@ party nominees . Waun ran for a second time in 2002 , along with Matt Petering and Susan Fawcett . Although none of these campaigns has been successful , a poll conducted by the State of Michigan in 1998 concluded that a majority of Michigan voters would approve of such a position if the measure were put before them . A change to the board 's makeup would require amending the Michigan Constitution .
= = Academics = =
The University of Michigan is a large , four @-@ year , residential research university accredited by the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools . The four year , full @-@ time undergraduate program comprises the majority of enrollments and emphasizes instruction in the arts , sciences , and professions and there is a high level of coexistence between graduate and undergraduate programs . The university has " very high " research activity and the " comprehensive " graduate program offers doctoral degrees in the humanities , social sciences , and STEM fields as well as professional degrees in medicine , law , and dentistry . U @-@ M has been included on Richard Moll 's list of Public Ivies . With over 200 undergraduate majors , 100 doctoral and 90 master 's programs , U @-@ M conferred 6 @,@ 490 undergraduate degrees , 4 @,@ 951 graduate degrees , and 709 first professional degrees in 2011 @-@ 2012 .
National honor societies such as Phi Beta Kappa , Phi Kappa Phi , and Tau Beta Pi have chapters at U @-@ M. Degrees " with Highest Distinction " are recommended to students who rank in the top 3 % of their class , " with High Distinction " to the next 7 % , and " with Distinction " to the next 15 % . Students earning a minimum overall GPA of 3 @.@ 4 who have demonstrated high academic achievement and capacity for independent work may be recommended for a degree " with Highest Honors , " " with High Honors , " or " with Honors . " Those students who earn all A 's for two or more consecutive terms in a calendar year are recognized as James B. Angell Scholars and are invited to attend the annual Honors Convocation , an event which recognizes undergraduate students with distinguished academic achievements .
Out @-@ of @-@ state undergraduate students pay between $ 36 @,@ 001 @.@ 38 and $ 43 @,@ 063 @.@ 38 annually for tuition alone while in @-@ state undergraduate students paid between $ 11 @,@ 837 @.@ 38 and $ 16 @,@ 363 @.@ 38 annually . U @-@ M provides financial aid in the form of need @-@ based loans , grants , scholarships , work study , and non @-@ need based scholarships , with 77 % of undergraduates in 2007 receiving financial aid . For undergraduates in 2008 , 46 % graduated with about $ 25 @,@ 586 of debt . The university is attempting to increase financial aid availability to students by devoting over $ 1 @.@ 53 billion in endowment funds to support financial aid .
= = = Research = = =
The university is one of the founding members ( 1900 ) of the Association of American Universities . With over 6 @,@ 200 faculty members , 73 of whom are members of the National Academy and 471 of whom hold an endowed chair in their discipline , the university manages one of the largest annual collegiate research budgets of any university in the United States , totaling about $ 1 billion in 2009 . The Medical School spent the most at over $ 445 million , while the College of Engineering was second at more than $ 160 million . U @-@ M also has a technology transfer office , which is the university conduit between laboratory research and corporate commercialization interests . In 2009 , the university consummated a deal to purchase a facility formerly owned by Pfizer . The acquisition includes over 170 acres ( 0 @.@ 69 km2 ) of property , and 30 major buildings comprising roughly 1 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 square feet ( 150 @,@ 000 m2 ) of wet laboratory space , and 400 @,@ 000 square feet ( 37 @,@ 000 m2 ) of administrative space . As of the purchase date , the university 's intentions for the space were not announced , but the expectation is that the new space will allow the university to ramp up its research and ultimately employ in excess of 2 @,@ 000 people .
The university is also a major contributor to the medical field with the EKG , gastroscope , and the announcement of Jonas Salk 's polio vaccine . The university 's 13 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 53 km2 ) biological station in the Northern Lower Peninsula of Michigan is one of only 47 Biosphere Reserves in the United States .
In the mid @-@ 1960s U @-@ M researchers worked with IBM to develop a new virtual memory architectural model that became part of IBM 's Model 360 / 67 mainframe computer ( the 360 / 67 was initially dubbed the 360 / 65M where the " M " stood for Michigan ) . The Michigan Terminal System ( MTS ) , an early time @-@ sharing computer operating system developed at U @-@ M , was the first system outside of IBM to use the 360 / 67 's virtual memory features .
U @-@ M is home to the National Election Studies and the University of Michigan Consumer Sentiment Index . The Correlates of War project , also located at U @-@ M , is an accumulation of scientific knowledge about war . The university is also home to major research centers in optics , reconfigurable manufacturing systems , wireless integrated microsystems , and social sciences . The University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute and the Life Sciences Institute are located at the university . The Institute for Social Research ( ISR ) , the nation 's longest @-@ standing laboratory for interdisciplinary research in the social sciences , is home to the Survey Research Center , Research Center for Group Dynamics , Center for Political Studies , Population Studies Center , and Inter @-@ Consortium for Political and Social Research . Undergraduate students are able to participate in various research projects through the Undergraduate Research Opportunity Program ( UROP ) as well as the UROP / Creative @-@ Programs .
The U @-@ M library system comprises nineteen individual libraries with twenty @-@ four separate collections — roughly 13 @.@ 3 million volumes . U @-@ M was the original home of the JSTOR database , which contains about 750 @,@ 000 digitized pages from the entire pre @-@ 1990 backfile of ten journals of history and economics , and has initiated a book digitization program in collaboration with Google . The University of Michigan Press is also a part of the U @-@ M library system .
In the late 1960s U @-@ M , together with Michigan State University and Wayne State University , founded the Merit Network , one of the first university computer networks . The Merit Network was then and remains today administratively hosted by U @-@ M. Another major contribution took place in 1987 when a proposal submitted by the Merit Network together with its partners IBM , MCI , and the State of Michigan won a national competition to upgrade and expand the National Science Foundation Network ( NSFNET ) backbone from 56 @,@ 000 to 1 @.@ 5 million , and later to 45 million bits per second . In 2006 , U @-@ M joined with Michigan State University and Wayne State University to create the University Research Corridor . This effort was undertaken to highlight the capabilities of the state 's three leading research institutions and drive the transformation of Michigan 's economy . The three universities are electronically interconnected via the Michigan LambdaRail ( MiLR , pronounced ' MY @-@ lar ' ) , a high @-@ speed data network providing 10 Gbit / s connections between the three university campuses and other national and international network connection points in Chicago .
= = = Big Ten Academic Alliance = = =
The University of Michigan is a participant in the Big Ten Academic Alliance . The Big Ten Academic Alliance ( BTAA ) is the academic consortium of the universities in the Big Ten Conference . Engaging in $ 10 billion in research in 2014 @-@ 2015 , BTAA universities provide powerful insight into important issues in medicine , technology , agriculture , and communities . Students at participating schools are also allowed " in @-@ house " borrowing privileges at other schools ' libraries . The BTAA uses collective purchasing and licensing , and has saved member institutions $ 19 million to date . Course sharing , professional development programs , study abroad and international collaborations , and other initiatives are also part of the BTAA .
= = Student body = =
= = = Admissions = = =
In recent years , annual numbers of applications for freshman admission have exceeded 50 @,@ 000 . Around 15 @,@ 000 students are admitted annually , with a target freshman class of about 6 @,@ 000 students . Students come from all 50 U.S. states and more than 100 countries . Approximately 95 percent of the university 's incoming class of 2019 had an unweighted high school GPA of 3 @.@ 5 and higher , with the average accepted unweighted GPA being a 3 @.@ 85 . The middle 50 percent of admitted applicants reported an SAT score of 2040 @-@ 2280 ( Critical Reading 660 @-@ 760 , Math 690 @-@ 790 , Writing 670 @-@ 770 ) and an ACT score of 30 @-@ 34 . Full @-@ time students make up about 97 percent of the student body . Among full @-@ time students , the university has a first @-@ time student retention rate of 97 percent .
= = = Enrollment = = =
In Fall 2014 , the university had an enrollment of 43 @,@ 625 students : 28 @,@ 395 undergraduate students , 12 @,@ 565 academic degree @-@ seeking graduate students , and 2 @,@ 665 first professional students in a total of 600 academic programs . Of all students , 36 @,@ 650 ( 87 @.@ 4 percent ) are U.S. citizens or permanent residents and 5 @,@ 274 ( 12 @.@ 6 percent ) are international students .
In 2014 , undergraduates were enrolled in 12 schools : About 61 percent in the College of Literature , Science , and the Arts ; 21 percent in the College of Engineering ; 5 @.@ 3 percent in the Ross School of Business ; 3 @.@ 3 percent in the School of Kinesiology ; 2 @.@ 7 percent in the School of Music , Theatre & Dance ; and 2 percent in the School of Nursing . Small numbers of undergraduates were enrolled in the colleges or schools of Art & Design , Architecture & Urban Planning , Dentistry , Education , Pharmacy , and Public Policy . In 2014 , the School of Information opened to undergraduates , with the new Bachelor of Science in Information degree . Among undergraduates , 70 percent graduate with a bachelor 's degree within four years , 86 percent graduate within five years and 88 percent graduating within six years .
Of the university 's 12 @,@ 714 non @-@ professional graduate students , 5 @,@ 367 are seeking academic doctorates and 6 @,@ 821 are seeking master 's degrees . The largest number of master 's degree students are enrolled in the Ross School of Business ( 1 @,@ 812 students seeking MBA or Master of Accounting degrees ) and the College of Engineering ( 1 @,@ 456 students seeking M.S. or M.Eng. degrees ) . The largest number of doctoral students are enrolled in the College of Literature , Science , and the Arts ( 2 @,@ 076 ) and College of Engineering ( 1 @,@ 496 ) . While the majority of U @-@ M 's graduate degree @-@ granting schools and colleges have both undergraduate and graduate students , a few schools only issue graduate degrees . Presently , the School of Natural Resources and Environment , School of Public Health , and School of Social Work only have graduate students .
In Fall 2014 , 2 @,@ 709 Michigan students were enrolled in U @-@ M 's professional schools : the School of Dentistry ( 628 students ) , Law School ( 1 @,@ 047 students ) , Medical School ( 1300 students ) , and College of Pharmacy ( 436 students ) .
= = Student life = =
= = = Residential life = = =
The University of Michigan 's campus housing system can accommodate up to 10 @,@ 900 people , or nearly 30 percent of the total student population at the university . The residence halls are located in three distinct geographic areas on campus : Central Campus , Hill Area ( between Central Campus and the University of Michigan Medical Center ) and North Campus . Family housing is located on North Campus and mainly serves graduate students . The largest residence hall has a capacity of 1 @,@ 240 students , while the smallest accommodates 25 residents . A majority of upper @-@ division and graduate students live in off @-@ campus apartments , houses , and cooperatives , with the largest concentrations in the Central and South Campus areas .
The residential system has a number of " living @-@ learning communities " where academic activities and residential life are combined . These communities focus on areas such as research through the Michigan Research Community , medical sciences , community service and the German language . The Michigan Research Community and the Women in Science and Engineering Residence Program are housed in Mosher @-@ Jordan Hall . The Residential College ( RC ) , a living @-@ learning community that is a division of the College of Literature , Science and the Arts , also has its principal instructional space in East Quad . Also housed in East Quad is the Michigan Community Scholars Program , which is dedicated to civic engagement , community service learning and intercultural understanding and dialogue . The Lloyd Hall Scholars Program ( LHSP ) is located in Alice Lloyd Hall . The Health Sciences Scholars Program ( HSSP ) is located in Couzens Hall . The North Quad complex houses two additional living @-@ learning communities : the Global Scholars Program and the Max Kade German Program . It is " technology @-@ rich , " and houses communication @-@ related programs , including the School of Information , the Department of Communication Studies , and the Department of Screen Arts and Cultures . North Quad is also home to services such as the Language Resource Center and the Sweetland Center for Writing .
The residential system also has a number of " theme communities " where students have the opportunity to be surrounded by students in a residential hall who share similar interests . These communities focus on global leadership , the college transition experience , and internationalism . The Adelia Cheever Program is housed in the Helen Newberry House . The First Year Experience is housed in the Baits II Houses , Northwood Houses , and Markley Hall . The Sophomore Experience is housed in Stockwell Hall and the Transfer Year Experience is housed in Northwood III . The newly organized International Impact program is housed in North Quad .
= = = Groups and activities = = =
The University lists 1 @,@ 438 student organizations . With a history of student activism , some of the most visible groups include those dedicated to causes such as civil rights and labor rights . One group is Students for a Democratic Society , which recently reformed with a new chapter on campus as of February 2007 . Another student labor campaign organization recently established on campus is the United Students Against Sweatshops ( USAS ) . This group seeks to hold accountable multinational companies that exploit their workers in factories around the world where college apparel is produced . Though the student body generally leans toward left @-@ wing politics , there are also conservative groups , such as Young Americans for Freedom , and non @-@ partisan groups , such as the Roosevelt Institution .
There are also several engineering projects teams , including the University of Michigan Solar Car Team , which has placed first in the North American Solar Challenge six times and third in the World Solar Challenge four times . Michigan Interactive Investments , the TAMID Israel Investment Group , and the Michigan Economics Society are also affiliated with the university .
The university also showcases many community service organizations and charitable projects , including Foundation for International Medical Relief of Children , Dance Marathon at the University of Michigan , The Detroit Partnership , Relay For Life , U @-@ M Stars for the Make @-@ A @-@ Wish Foundation , InnoWorks at the University of Michigan , SERVE , Letters to Success , PROVIDES , Circle K , Habitat for Humanity , and Ann Arbor Reaching Out . Intramural sports are popular , and there are recreation facilities for each of the three campuses .
Fraternities and sororities play a role in the university 's social life ; approximately 18 percent of undergraduates are involved in Greek life . Membership numbers for the 2009 @-@ 2010 school year reached the highest in the last two decades . Four different Greek councils — the Interfraternity Council , Multicultural Greek Council , National Pan @-@ Hellenic Council , and Panhellenic Association — represent most Greek organizations . Each council has a different recruitment process .
The Michigan Union and Michigan League are student activity centers located on Central Campus ; Pierpont Commons is on North Campus . The Michigan Union houses a majority of student groups , including the student government . The William Monroe Trotter House , located east of Central Campus , is a multicultural student center operated by the university 's Office of Multi @-@ Ethnic Student Affairs . The University Activities Center ( UAC ) is a student @-@ run programming organization and is composed of 14 committees . Each group involves students in the planning and execution of a variety of events both on and off campus .
The Michigan Marching Band , composed of more than 350 students from almost all of U @-@ M 's schools , is the university 's marching band . Over 100 years old , the band performs at every home football game and travels to at least one away game a year . The student @-@ run and led University of Michigan Pops Orchestra is another musical ensemble that attracts students from all academic backgrounds . It performs regularly in the Michigan Theater . The University of Michigan Men 's Glee Club , founded in 1859 and the second oldest such group in the country , is a men 's chorus with over 100 members . Its eight @-@ member subset a cappella group , the University of Michigan Friars , which was founded in 1955 , is the oldest currently running a cappella group on campus .
The University of Michigan also encourages many cultural and ethnic student organizations on campus . There are currently over 317 organizations under this category . There are organizations for almost every culture from the Arab Student Association to African Students Association to even the Egyptian Student Association . These organizations hope to promote various aspects of their culture along with raising political and social awareness around campus by hosting an assortment of events throughout the school year . These clubs also help students make this large University into a smaller community to help find people with similar interests and backgrounds .
= = = Media and publications = = =
The student newspaper is The Michigan Daily , founded in 1890 and editorially and financially independent of the university . The Daily is published five days a week during academic year , and weekly from May to August . Other student publications at the university include the conservative The Michigan Review and the progressive Michigan Independent . The humor publications Gargoyle and The Michigan Every Three Weekly are also published by Michigan students .
WCBN @-@ FM ( 88 @.@ 3 FM ) is the student @-@ run college radio station which plays in freeform format . WOLV @-@ TV is the student @-@ run television station that is primarily shown on the university 's cable television system .
Several academic journals are published at the university :
The Law School publishes the well @-@ regarded Michigan Law Review and six other law journals : The Michigan Journal of Environmental and Administrative Law , University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform , Michigan Journal of Race & Law , Michigan Telecommunications and Technology Law Review , Michigan Journal of International Law , and Michigan Journal of Gender and Law .
The Ross School of Business publishes the Michigan Journal of Business .
Several undergraduate journals are also published at the university , including the Michigan Journal of Political Science , Michigan Journal of History , University of Michigan Undergraduate Research Journal , the Michigan Journal of International Affairs , and the Michigan Journal of Asian Studies .
= = Athletics = =
The University of Michigan 's sports teams are called the Wolverines . They participate in the NCAA 's Football Bowl Subdivision ( formerly Division I @-@ A ) and in the Big Ten Conference in all sports except women 's water polo , which is a member of the Collegiate Water Polo Association . U @-@ M boasts 27 varsity sports , including 13 men 's teams and 14 women 's teams . In 10 of the past 14 years concluding in 2009 , U @-@ M has finished in the top five of the NACDA Director 's Cup , a ranking compiled by the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics to tabulate the success of universities in competitive sports . U @-@ M has finished in the top 10 of the Directors ' Cup standings in 14 of the award 's 16 seasons and has placed in the top six in nine of the last 10 seasons .
The Michigan football program ranks first in NCAA history in total wins ( 925 through the end of the 2015 season ) and second in winning percentage ( .730 ) . The team won the first Rose Bowl game in 1902 . U @-@ M had 40 consecutive winning seasons from 1968 to 2007 , including consecutive bowl game appearances from 1975 to 2007 . The Wolverines have won a record 42 Big Ten championships . The program has eleven national championships , most recently in 1997 , and has produced three Heisman Trophy winners : Tom Harmon , Desmond Howard and Charles Woodson .
Michigan Stadium is the largest college football stadium in the nation and one of the largest football @-@ only stadiums in the world , with an official capacity of 107 @,@ 601 ( the extra seat is said to be " reserved " for Fritz Crisler ) though attendance — frequently over 111 @,@ 000 spectators — regularly exceeds the official capacity . The NCAA 's record @-@ breaking attendance has become commonplace at Michigan Stadium , especially since the arrival of head coach Bo Schembechler . U @-@ M has fierce rivalries with many teams , including Michigan State , Notre Dame , and Ohio State ; ESPN has referred to the Michigan @-@ Ohio State rivalry as the greatest rivalry in American sports . U @-@ M also has all @-@ time winning records against Michigan State , Notre Dame , and Ohio State .
The men 's ice hockey team , which plays at Yost Ice Arena , has won nine national championships , while the men 's basketball team , which plays at the Crisler Center , has appeared in five Final Fours and won the national championship in 1989 . The men 's basketball program became involved in a scandal involving payments from a booster during the 1990s . This led to the program being placed on probation for a four @-@ year period . The program also voluntarily vacated victories from its 1992 – 1993 and 1995 – 1999 seasons in which the payments took place , as well as its 1992 and 1993 Final Four appearances .
The men 's wrestling , men 's gymnastics , and women 's volleyball teams compete at the Cliff Keen Arena , dedicated and named after longtime wrestling coach Cliff Keen in 1990 .
Through the 2008 Summer Olympic Games , 178 U @-@ M students and coaches had participated in the Olympics , winning medals in every Summer Olympics except 1896 , and winning gold medals in all but four Olympiads . U @-@ M students have won a total of 151 Olympic medals : 72 gold , 39 silver , and 40 bronze .
= = = School songs = = =
The University of Michigan 's fight song , " The Victors , " was written by student Louis Elbel in 1898 following the last @-@ minute football victory over the University of Chicago that won a league championship . The song was declared by John Philip Sousa as " the greatest college fight song ever written . " The song refers to the university as being " the Champions of the West . " At the time , U @-@ M was part of the Western Conference , which would later become the Big Ten Conference . Michigan was considered to be on the Western Frontier when it was founded in the old Northwest Territory . Although mainly used at sporting events , the fight song can be heard at other events . President Gerald Ford had it played by the United States Marine Band as his entrance anthem during his term as president from 1974 to 1977 , in preference over the more traditional " Hail to the Chief " , and the Michigan Marching Band performed a slow @-@ tempo variation on the fight song at his funeral . The fight song is also sung during graduation commencement ceremonies . The university 's alma mater song is " The Yellow and Blue . " A common rally cry is " Let 's Go Blue ! , " which had a complementary short musical arrangement written by former students Joseph Carl , a sousaphonist , and Albert Ahronheim , a drum major .
Before " The Victors " was officially the University 's fight song , the song " There 'll Be a Hot Time in the Old Town Tonight " was considered to be the school song . After Michigan temporarily withdrew from the Western Conference in 1907 , a new Michigan fight song " Varsity " was written in 1911 because the line " champions of the West " was no longer appropriate .
= = Alumni = =
In addition to the late U.S. president Gerald Ford , the university has produced twenty @-@ six Rhodes Scholars . As of 2012 , the university has almost 500 @,@ 000 living alumni .
More than 250 Michigan graduates have served as legislators as either a United States Senator ( 40 graduates ) or as a Congressional representative ( over 200 graduates ) , including former House Majority Leader Dick Gephardt and U.S. Representative Justin Amash , who represents Michigan 's Third Congressional District . Mike Duggan , Mayor of Detroit , earned his bachelor and law degree at Michigan , while Michigan Governor Rick Snyder earned his bachelor , M.B.A. , and J.D. degrees from Michigan . Thomas E. Dewey , another Michigan alumnus , was the Governor of New York from 1943 to 1954 , and was the Republican Party 's presidential nominee in the 1944 and 1948 presidential elections . U @-@ M 's contributions to aeronautics include aircraft designer Clarence " Kelly " Johnson of Lockheed Skunk Works fame , Lockheed president Willis Hawkins , and several astronauts including the all @-@ U @-@ M crews of both Gemini 4 and Apollo 15 . U @-@ M counts among its matriculants twenty @-@ one billionaires and prominent company founders and co @-@ founders including Google co @-@ founder Larry Page and Dr. J. Robert Beyster , who founded Science Applications International Corporation ( SAIC ) in 1969 . Several U @-@ M graduates contributed greatly to the field of computer science , including Claude Shannon ( who made major contributions to the mathematics of information theory ) , and Turing Award winners Edgar Codd , Stephen Cook , Frances E. Allen and Michael Stonebraker . Marjorie Lee Browne received her M.S. in 1939 and her doctoral degree in 1950 , becoming the third African American woman to earn a PhD in mathematics .
Notable writers who attended U @-@ M include playwright Arthur Miller , essayists Susan Orlean and Sven Birkerts , journalists and editors Mike Wallace , Jonathan Chait of The New Republic , Daniel Okrent , and Sandra Steingraber , food critics Ruth Reichl and Gael Greene , novelists Brett Ellen Block , Elizabeth Kostova , Marge Piercy , Brad Meltzer , Betty Smith , and Charles Major , screenwriter Judith Guest , Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning poet Theodore Roethke , National Book Award winners Keith Waldrop and Jesmyn Ward , composer / author / puppeteer Forman Brown , and Alireza Jafarzadeh ( a Middle East analyst , author , and TV commentator ) .
In Hollywood , famous alumni include actors Michael Dunn , James Earl Jones , David Alan Grier , actresses Lucy Liu , Gilda Radner , and Selma Blair , and filmmaker Lawrence Kasdan . Many Broadway and musical theatre actors , including Gavin Creel , Andrew Keenan @-@ Bolger , and his sister Celia Keenan @-@ Bolger , attended U @-@ M for musical theatre . The creators of A Very Potter Musical , known as StarKid Productions , also graduated from the University of Michigan . A member of Starkid , actor and singer Darren Criss , is a series regular on the television series Glee . Television director Mark Cendrowski ( The Big Bang Theory ) is also a Michigan graduate .
Musical graduates include operatic soprano Jessye Norman , singer Joe Dassin , jazz guitarist Randy Napoleon , and Mannheim Steamroller founder Chip Davis . Classical composer Frank Ticheli and Broadway composer Andrew Lippa attended . Pop Superstar Madonna and rock legend Iggy Pop attended but did not graduate .
Other U @-@ M graduates include Donald Kohn ( past Vice Chairman of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System ) , Temel Kotil ( president and CEO of Turkish Airlines ) , current Dean of Harvard Law School Martha Minow , assisted @-@ suicide advocate Dr. Jack Kevorkian , Weather Underground radical activist Bill Ayers , activist Tom Hayden , architect Charles Moore , Rensis Likert ( a sociologist who specialized in management styles and developed the Likert scale ) , the Swedish Holocaust hero Raoul Wallenberg , and Benjamin D. Pritchard ( the Civil War general who captured Jefferson Davis ) . Neurosurgeon and CNN chief medical correspondent Sanjay Gupta attended both college and medical school at U @-@ M. Clarence Darrow attended law school at U @-@ M at a time when many lawyers did not receive any formal education . Frank Murphy , who was mayor of Detroit , governor of Michigan , attorney general of the United States , and Supreme Court justice was also a graduate of the Law School . Conservative pundit Ann Coulter is another U @-@ M law school graduate ( J.D. 1988 ) . 2016 Republican Presidential Candidate and retired neurosurgeon Ben Carson received his medical degree from the U @-@ M medical school . Dr. Wallace Abbott , the founder of pharmaceutical company Abbott Laboratories , graduated from Michigan .
Vaughn R. Walker , a federal district judge in California who overturned the controversial California Proposition 8 in 2010 and ruled it unconstitutional , received his undergraduate degree from U @-@ M in 1966 .
Some more notorious graduates of the University are 1910 convicted murderer Dr. Harvey Crippen , late 19th @-@ century American serial killer Herman Mudgett , and " Unabomber " Ted Kaczynski .
U @-@ M athletes have starred in Major League Baseball , the National Football League and National Basketball Association as well as other professional sports . Notable among recent players is Tom Brady of the New England Patriots . Three players have won college football 's Heisman Trophy , awarded to the player considered the best in the nation : Tom Harmon ( 1940 ) , Desmond Howard ( 1991 ) and Charles Woodson ( 1997 ) . Professional golfer John Schroeder and Olympic swimmer Michael Phelps also attended the University of Michigan , with the latter studying Sports Marketing and Management . Phelps also swam competitively for Club Wolverine , a swimming club associated with the university . National Hockey League players Marty Turco , Chris Summers , Max Pacioretty , Carl Hagelin , Brendan Morrison , Jack Johnson , and Michael Cammalleri all played for U @-@ M 's ice hockey team . Baseball Hall of Famers George Sisler and Barry Larkin also played baseball at the university .
The university claims the only alumni association with a chapter on the moon , established in 1971 when the crew of Apollo 15 placed a charter plaque for a new U @-@ M Alumni Association on the lunar surface . The plaque states : " The Alumni Association of The University of Michigan . Charter Number One . This is to certify that The University of Michigan Club of The Moon is a duly constituted unit of the Alumni Association and entitled to all the rights and privileges under the Association 's Constitution . " According to the Apollo 15 astronauts , several small U @-@ M flags were brought on the mission . The presence of a U @-@ M flag on the moon is a long @-@ held campus myth .
= = = Specific = = =
= = = General = = =
Nelson , Greg . ( 2009 ) . M is for Michigan Football University of Michigan Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 472 @-@ 03387 @-@ 4 .
Duderstadt , Anne . Karels , Liene . ( editors ) . ( 2003 ) . The University of Michigan : A Seasonal Portrait . University of Michigan Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 85841 @-@ 107 @-@ 1 .
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= Dragon kill points =
Dragon kill points or DKP are a semi @-@ formal score @-@ keeping system ( loot system ) used by guilds in massively multiplayer online games . Players in these games are faced with large scale challenges , or raids , which may only be surmounted through the concerted effort of dozens of players at a time . While many players may be involved in defeating a boss , the boss will reward the group with only a small number of items desired by the players . Faced with this scarcity , some system of fairly distributing the items must be established . Used originally in the massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game EverQuest , dragon kill points are points that are awarded to players for defeating bosses and redeemed for items that those bosses would ' drop ' . At the time most of the bosses faced by the players were dragons , hence the name .
While not transferable outside of a particular guild , DKP are often treated in a manner similar to currency by guilds . They are paid out at a specified rate and redeemed in modified first or second price auctions , although these are not the only methods by which DKP may be redeemed or awarded . However , Dragon kill points are distinct from the virtual currencies in each game world which are designed by the game developers — DKP systems vary from guild to guild and the points themselves only have value in regards to the dispersal of boss ' loot ' .
= = Origin and motivation = =
DKP systems were first designed for Everquest in 1999 by Thott as part of the creation of a guild called " Afterlife " and named for two dragons , Lady Vox and Lord Nagafen . Since then , it has been adapted for use in other similar online games , in World of Warcraft for example an Avatar named Dragonkiller started its popular use and other programmers designed applications so that the system could work in game as an application to track data for achievements made . Unlike pen and paper or more traditional role @-@ playing video games , massively multiplayer online games could present challenges so significant that the number of players required to defeat them would greatly exceed the number of items awarded to the raid following the boss kill — a raid of 25 individuals may only see two or three items ' drop ' . The actual number of players required to defeat a specific boss varies from game to game , but the person @-@ hours invested are non @-@ trivial . Raid encounters may involve " 10 @-@ 200 players organized to achieve a common goal over a period of typically around 3 @-@ 6 continuous hours " and demand teamwork and competence from all raid members .
As the number of players required to defeat a boss grows , so does the problem of distributing the rewards from such efforts . Since these items appear , or " drop " , in quantities much smaller than the total number of players in the group required to defeat them , a means of deciding which of the players should receive the items is necessary . At the " endgame " , new items rewarded from boss kills represent one of the only means to continue to enhance the combat effectiveness of the character or the social standing of the player . As such , individual players care about receiving a fair shot at dropped items . Guilds facing smaller challenges with fewer players typically begin by allotting items through a simulated roll of the dice ( provided by the software serving the game itself ) , similar to dice rolls used to dictate the outcome of contingent events in pen and paper role @-@ playing games . As the number of players expands , rolls may be weighted by seniority within the guild or adjusted by some other measure so as to ensure that veterans of the guild do not lose out on an item to a new member . Games and dungeons which require larger groups of players may create the incentive for more formal DKP systems . Methods to reward items according to seniority or performance developed out of these modifications , including systems relying on a formal allotment of points per kill .
= = Mechanics of a DKP system = =
The basic concepts of most DKP systems are simple . Players are given points for participating in raids or other guild events and spend those points on the item of their choice when the boss ' drops ' the item . A player who does not get a chance to spend their DKP accumulates it between raids and is able to spend it in the future . These points , while earned and spent like currency , are not the same thing as the virtual currency provided by the game company for the virtual world . The points themselves represent only the social contract that guilds extend to players . Should that player leave the guild or the guild disband , those points become valueless . These measures vary considerably in usage . Some guilds eschew formalized ' loot ' systems completely , allowing guild leaders to direct which players receive items from bosses . Some use complex measures to determine item price while others use an auction system to allocate goods via bidding . A few common variations are described below .
= = = Zero @-@ sum DKP = = =
Zero @-@ sum DKP systems are designed to ensure the net change in points among the raid is zero for each item dropped , as the name might suggest . When the item drops , each player who is interested in it indicates as much to a guild leader . The player who has the highest DKP total receives the item for its specified price and the same number of points are divided evenly among the rest of the raid and given out , resulting in no net change to the raid total . As a result , the raid would only be rewarded DKP if at least one player desired the item dropped by the boss . Since over time guilds will revisit the same boss multiple times , some zero @-@ sum DKP systems are modified to introduce a " dummy " character which may be awarded DKP for the boss ' kill ' even though no player in the guild received an item . This is purely an accounting measure and allows the guild to reward players for defeating a boss if they are using an automated point tracking system .
= = = Simple DKP = = =
The simplest DKP variation is one where every item has a set price list and each player earns some specified number of DKP each time they participate in a guild raid . Like zero @-@ sum systems , the player with the most points recorded actually received the item , paying the specified price . Unlike zero @-@ sum , a simple DKP system does not compensate the rest of the raid based in the value of the items received .
= = = Auction systems = = =
Setting " prices " in DKP for specific items can be difficult , as analysis of a particular item can be subjective and laborious . In order to avoid this quandary , guilds may establish an auction system for items . Points are awarded to the player at some specified rate and when the items are awarded to the raid group , players bid DKP for the item of their choice . Auctions may be conducted in an open ascending fashion or through sealed bids over private messages to guild leaders . While this process results in relatively efficient allocation of items to players willing to part with DKP , it presents the social consequence that perceived selfish bidding could result in an item being awarded to a character who would not make the best use of it .
= = = GDKP ( Gold DKP ) = = =
Gold DKP ( GDKP ) is a system developed for pick up groups ( PUG ) . This system was introduced to support individuals without a guild to support raids for difficult bosses / zones . In GDKP , when a boss is killed , each item dropped is put up for auction with a low value . Each item is then auctioned . The eventual winner pays the loot master , and after every item has been auctioned off , every participant in the group is rewarded an equal share of gold . For example if 20 members were in the group , and 500 gold was spent on items , each raid participant would receive 25 gold .
= = DKP as virtual capital = =
Since the intention of DKP is to allocate scarce resources amongst guild members , they can be understood in the context of virtual capital . Players " earn " and " spend " DKP , bidding in a system of auctions for an item which holds some value for them . DKP are referred to as " currency " a guild leader pays his " employees " . Despite these analogies , DKP remain a kind of " private money system " , allowing guilds to mete out these otherwise unachievable items in return for participation and discipline . The points cannot be traded or redeemed outside the guild and are not actually part of the game itself ; they are tracked on external websites . In contrast , the virtual currencies created by game developers are part of the game software and may be traded between players without respect to any social affiliation . Just as DKP is valueless outside the guild , parlaying of economic capital for DKP ( paying real world currency in exchange for DKP ) is almost unheard of . Because guilds mete out DKP in return for participation in events the functional result is that DKP serve less as currency or material capital and more as what Torill Mortensen refers to as a " social stabilizer " ; players who attend raids more frequently or play by the rules reap the rewards while more " casual " gamers do not . This provides an incentive for players to remain in the social system ( the guild ) longer than they might otherwise .
Within the guild , DKP may stand in for competence — high level items ( Krista @-@ Lee Malone mentions a specific item from World of Warcraft , the " Cold Snap " wand ) are forms of cultural capital themselves . Since the items are " bound " to the player who first receives them , the only way to wield a desired item is to be involved in the raid that defeated the boss which rewards it . As such , a " Cold Snap " represents a signal to other players that the bearer has defeated a particular high @-@ level monster and therefore mastered the skills needed to do so . The points themselves represent a mélange of cultural and material capital . The language of material capital is used : " price " , " bid " , and " currency " , but these terms belie a unit of account that " crosses the line between material and symbolic " .
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= Karas ( anime ) =
Karas ( Japanese : 鴉 － KARAS － , Hepburn : Karasu , lit . The Crow ) is a six @-@ part original video animation . Tatsunoko Production produced it to commemorate its 40th anniversary of anime production . Each Karas episode was first televised in Japan as a pay @-@ per @-@ view program from March 25 , 2005 , to August 3 , 2007 , before being released onto DVDs . Manga Entertainment compiled and released these episodes as two feature length , direct @-@ to @-@ DVD films for the English market .
Karas tells the story of Otoha , a former yakuza , living in a fictional version of Shinjuku , Tokyo populated by humans and yōkai ( Japanese spirits ) . He is one of the titular karas , humans appointed as superpowered agents of the land . Able to transform into a car , an aircraft , and an armored crusader ; the skilled swordsman is to stop his corrupt predecessor , Eko , from taking over Tokyo . Supporting characters such as Eko 's former henchman , Nue ; the yōkai ; and Homura , the karas of another city , help Otoha in his quest . A concurrent side story focuses on humans affected by Eko 's scheme .
Karas won the Best Original Video at the 2006 Tokyo Anime Award competition , and most reviewers were impressed with the images produced by fusing 2D and 3D art techniques . The story presents themes on the conflicts between cultural traditions and modern society , and the relationship between people . Reviewers , however , found its presentation was too confusing to follow ; several of them felt it worsened the show by detracting from the strength of its art .
= = Plot = =
Ibira initially pictured Karas as a horror story with a vengeance theme . It had a simple plot similar to the manga , Dororo . The protagonist karas is on a quest , slaughtering mikuras to recover the body parts of his murdered lover . Until he recovers all the parts , he assembles them into a katana to kill the mikuras . The final version of Karas was more of a superhero action story , and originally intended for three leading heroes in the same vein as the Japanese period drama , Sanbiki ga Kiru ! . The characters Otoha , Nue , and the human detective Kure were the leads but the final version primarily focused on Otoha . The presentation of Karas differs in several ways from typical anime . The show maintains a serious tone and never indulges in slapstick , exaggerated facial expressions , or super deformed characters . It avoids heavy expositions . Dialogue tends to be short and viewers have to infer what is going on based on very little presented information . The team had left out substantial amounts of information from the show , printing them in a booklet of the final DVD package .
= = = Setting = = =
Karas is set in a fictional version of Shinjuku , Tokyo . The show initially showcased larger areas of Tokyo , but the production team felt other animations have featured these areas too many times . Art designer , Hajime Satō created a modern version of the ward infused with a mixture of East Asian cultures . Fictional lettering , resembling Chinese and Hangul characters , fill the billboards and signs . Western gargoyles and Singapore 's Merlion statues decorate the streets , and the buildings are modeled on Shinjuku structures of 2003 while blending influences from the Shōwa period . This Shinjuku is populated by humans and Japanese folklore spirits , yōkai . The humans have become indifferent to the yōkai 's presence , and fail to see them as they go about their lives .
The production team envisioned Japanese cities as entities , who require physical agents to execute their will and regulate the activities within them . The concept behind the health of a city is based on traditional Chinese medicine in which the smooth flow of a body 's fluids nourishes its internal organs . The team equates yōkai with qi , humans with water , and agents of the city ( karas ) with blood . They integrated Celtic mythology into their concept for further symbolisms , treating the city as the male ( yang ) ; and Yurine ( ゆりね ) , the manifestation of its will as female ( yin ) . In contrast , their theory treats the humans and agents as the children of the city and its will , and classifies them as the reproduction system 's five major organs . Following the team 's vision , the mikuras ( evil yōkai ) represent the five elements in this system . This idea forms the basis of the relationship between cities and their inhabitants in the show .
= = = Story = = =
The main plot centers around the confrontation between Otoha and Eko . After a cold open that announces Eko 's plan to remake Tokyo , the story moves ahead three years . Nue arrives in Shinjuku to free his brother from Eko 's hold , while Otoha is in a hospital from heavy injuries . The early parts of the show proceed in a " mikura of the week " fashion as Otoha ( as a karas ) and Nue separately fight against Eko 's minions . When the mikuras attack hospitals across the ward to locate Otoha 's body , Otoha and Nue work together but when they separate Otoha 's Yurine is abudcted and he is deprived from the power to turn into a karas . Nue then goes to Eko 's base , where Eko kills Yurine and reveals capturing Nue completes the final part of his plan . Meanwhile , Otoha gets into a yakuza fight only to be rescued by Homura , another city 's karas . When Eko launches the last stage of his plan and ravages Tokyo with metal tentacles , Otoha ends up among human refugees in a shelter the chief of police had commissioned .
A side story takes place within the main plot , focusing on the humans affected by the ongoing events . Sagisaka Minoru and Narumi Kure are detectives in Shinjuku 's Intervention Department who investigate serial murders for supernatural evidence . Mikuras kill and suck the blood of these victims to replenish their strength , but no one except Sagisaka seriously believes in supernatural involvement . Sagisaka is bent on vindicating his daughter , Yoshiko who has been committed to a psychiatric hospital for claiming a mikura committed the mass murder she had survived . Sagisaka 's and Kure 's investigation brings them to the survivor of another attack , Hinaru ( ヒナル ) . Director Sato had created her to represent the best qualities of rural migrants looking for better opportunities in the big cities . When Eko starts the last part of his plan ; Kure , Hinaru , and the Sagisaka arrive in the shelter Otoha is in .
The chief of police reveals himself as Ushi @-@ oni and starts eating the humans trapped in the shelter . Sagisaka sacrifices himself to push his daughter away from Ushi @-@ oni 's attack . Otoha confronts and , in a climatic sequence , his conviction resurrects his Yurine , which restores Otoha as a karas and he slays Ushi @-@ oni . While karas from other cities observe the showdown between Otoha and Eko , Homura steps in to help Otoha . Otoha carries out Nue 's request to kill him and his brother , depriving Eko of his new power source and stopping his entire scheme . Confronting the depowered Eko on equal terms , Otoha finally defeats him . Eko claims Otoha will understand his reasons after 400 years as a karas . Despite defending his human body and Yurine from soldiers ordered by the Deputy Governor to shoot them , Otoha proclaims himself as Tokyo 's appointed agent , who will protect all its inhabitants . While Hinaru stays behind in Shinjuku as it is being rebuilt , Kure and Yoshiko have had enough and leave for the countryside .
In a post @-@ credits scene , Eko 's boot is found by an unknown character .
= = = Characters = = =
The production team intended Karas to be more than a mere henshin ( transforming ) hero . Unlike the vengeful protagonist in Mazinger Z , the hero of Karas embodies the spirit of the city , and acts for the city 's interest instead of his own . Screenwriter Shin Yoshida sets up a dualism of this idea in the form of two Karas characters ; one who believes events are leading to a revolution , and the other viewing them as simply the passing of an era . Manga Entertainment also promoted the hero in Karas as " a cross between a cyberpunk version of the Crow and Batman " .
Karas is the title for the city 's appointed agents . Capable of transforming into automobiles and aircraft , they are suits of armor animated by human souls infused into them through Yurine 's chanting of a Shinto prayer . Director Sato told his animators to enhance the Karas ' dark nature by drawing their faces in shadows . Fight scenes involving Karas take place mostly in dark settings shrouded with steam or lit with spotlights . Animators touched up film frames by hand , creating an effect different from cel @-@ shaded animation . To make the Karas more menacing , they highlighted the eyes as if light bulbs were shining through them , a technique inspired by the suitmation practice of using light bulbs for the eyes of costumes . Producer Takaya Ibira explained the presence of ravens in Tokyo and the Tower of London , inspired him and Sato to model the agents of the city after them . He stated ravens are believed to be omens of good and bad in superstitions , and they always seem to be watching over the cities . This resonated with his view of the raven in the story Noah 's Ark , which cursed Noah as it scouted for land . The presence of ravens all over Tokyo led Ibira to notice the same of cats and conceive the Yurines as catgirls .
Otoha Yosuke ( 乙羽 陽介 , Otoha Yosuke ) is the protagonist of Karas . Yoshida wrote out Otoha Yosuke as a character dark in history and actions , breaking the traditional mold of a Japanese hero . He based his idea on his observation of Shinjuku , questioning what sort of a hero a ward exuding an aura of terror and happiness would produce . He portrayed Otoha as the product of incest between his mother and his brother who is the local yakuza boss . Otoha 's back @-@ story states him as suffering from congenital insensitivity to pain which lends the character a merciless reputation as his brother 's enforcer . The initial concept of Otoha was much darker , casting him as a serial killer who hunts down mikuras to retrieve his lover 's body parts . This was the first project that Sohkoh Wada ( 和田 聰宏 , Wada Sōkō ) worked on .
The main antagonist to Otoha is Eko Hoshunin ( 鳳春院 廻向 , Hōshun 'in Ekō ) . His back @-@ story states he was the Karas of Tokyo since the Edo period . In events before the start of the show , Eko turned his back on his duties and started a plan to revitalize the city and its Yōkai . He attracted several yōkai to be his cybernetic followers and intended to subjugate the humans . An Oedipus complex forms the basis for his motive . He views Tokyo as a father figure , and his Yurine as a mother figure ; and aims to supplant the city 's role in this relationship . Eko was a nameless character in the initial draft and known as " Another Karas " with a different appearance , although his prosthetic left leg is retained for the final version .
Mikura ( 御座 ) are Yōkai who became Eko 's minions and replaced their bodies with machinery . Ibira and Sato chose them to be villains , linking the act of the Karas as agents of the city killing these folklore creatures to traditional Japanese exorcism . The chimera @-@ like Nue , however , is a tragic anti @-@ hero who learned of Eko 's plans and turned against him . Sato thought up the cybernetic angle to surprise the Japanese who perceive immaterial yōkai to lack physical threat . Creature designer Kenji Andō adapted the yōkai designs from artist Toriyama Sekien 's illustrated folklore books , Gazu Hyakki Yakō . The few yōkai with prominent roles in the show underwent greater changes . Andō pictured mikuras as direct cybernetic versions of Toriyama 's portrayals , and made Suiko the Kappa and Nue look like robotic versions of their illustrated forms . Sato , however , was dissatisfied with two of Andō 's designs , and redesigned them based on the concept behind the yōkai instead of on their appearance . The ghostly head in a flaming wheel , Wanyūdō became a heavily armed skull @-@ on @-@ wheels ; and the bull @-@ headed spider , Ushi @-@ oni became a big @-@ mouth , bug @-@ eye , hungry @-@ for @-@ humans predator .
= = Themes = =
The show explores the relationship between technology and cultural traditions by personifying traditions as yōkai and mikuras . Ibira thought this up from observing a dramatic drop in the number of yōkai folk tales as Japan undergoes modernization . Electrical and gas lighting made light of these tales born from fear of darkness . The production team explained yōkai represent the city 's culture and functions , and their strengths are inversely proportional to the level of technology of society . As society grows more advanced , the yōkai and the functions of the city they represent weaken . The mikuras symbolize the five elements of Taoism . They turned to technology and became cyborgs to regain the strength to support the city . When a mikura dies , the city suffers a heavy loss of function associated with the element it represents ; the water level of Tokyo fell after the death of Suiko the kappa ( water based mikura ) . This theme implies a vibrant city requires a healthy mix of technology and culture .
Another main theme is regarding the " yōkai 's choice " . As agents of the city , the two karas represent different paths for the good of the city . The yōkai have to make a choice to support one of them . By following Eko , the humans are enslaved , and the presence of the yōkai will be imposed on them . By standing behind Otoha , the yōkai accept their lot and continue trying to live with the humans . Using the yōkai @-@ human relationship as an analogy for human @-@ human interaction , the team suggested people should be open and make the move , instead of passively staying in the background hoping for results . Ibira applied this to decision making , saying when faced with difficult choices , one should make a decision instead of hoping for others to make it for them .
= = Production = =
Founded in 1962 , Tatsunoko Production celebrated their 40th year of animated film production by releasing Karas in 2005 , their first production being Space Ace in 1965 . Keiichi Sato joined the company as the project director after he pitched its concept of a life @-@ sized dark hero to the management . He researched production and direction techniques from kabuki , a form of traditional Japanese theater ; and Japanese staged sword fights as materials for the project . Choreographed sword fights rendered with 3D animation were rare at that time , and Sato felt this would help distinguish the show . The use of theatrical elements and movie shooting techniques in its presentation sets Karas apart from its contemporaries . Producer Kenji Nakamura felt the team 's lack of experience in this area pushed them to ignore their previous animation work experience and break free of restrictions influenced by traditional animation production .
The Japanese animation industry traditionally drew every film cel by hand . This is labor @-@ intensive and inefficient ; the cels are generally non @-@ reusable , and errors are difficult to correct . This method is called the 2D approach due to the conception of the source images in only two dimensions . The use of computers and graphics software introduced computer graphics ( CG ) into the industry . This reduced waste ; animators can reuse digital cels to correct errors and make changes . Increasing computer power spread the use of three @-@ dimensional graphics software to create 3D models and environments , and render them as 2D images . This 3D approach requires more resources to create the 3D models , but production teams can correct errors or remake film sequences much faster than the traditional 2D approach . The 2D @-@ 3D hybrid approach in Karas was due to budget and aesthetic concerns . The 2D approach allowed greater artistic details and creativity , and the 3D approach could save resources . Sato , however , disapproved the common notion of using the 3D approach for economic concern . He pushed the team to enhance image quality with detailed CG . He was also dissatisfied with computer lighting effects , and ordered the animators to draw them by hand . Due to the bright colors of the original cels , they darkened the images and concentrated on areas where shadows should be , leaving untouched the areas where light falls on .
In the typical CG approach , the duties of 2D and 3D artists are distinct . The 2D artists think up and sketch out the characters ' appearances ; the 3D artists create the models based on these concept sketches . For Karas , these artists worked together in these areas to create the imagery seen in the show . To encourage this and establish consistency between images based on 2D and 3D processes , the 2D drawings incorporate styles typically found in 3D models . Animators also touched up or enhanced by hand , sequences involving the models . Eko 's karas form was mainly a 3D model but his skirt was hand drawn . During later stages of editing , the team spaced hand drawn frames among 3D @-@ rendered frames to enhance the fusion of styles . The production did not use motion capture techniques . Animators drew out action scenes based on their feelings , inspirations , and observations . 3D and 2D animation and special effects director , Takashi Hashimoto explained companies typically reduce their animators ' workload by using CG for long shots and drawing only close @-@ ups by hand . The team working on Karas , however , drew silhouettes for long shots and created complicated CG for close @-@ ups . The 3D animators used 3D texture software , BodyPaint 3D , to refine textures for the mikura and karas models , creating seamless details on them .
CG director , Takayuki Chiba studied keren , a kabuki stagecraft technique using various props to surprise audiences and immerse them in the show . Chiba attempted to apply this technique with CG to reproduce a vividness associated with live actor productions . He aimed to produce a smooth 2D @-@ 3D product full of Japanese flavor , rather than something like a " Disney production " . The team scanned real objects and used them in the show . Rice seasoning powder and bird feed became the dust and rubble in scenes of collapsing structures . They also scanned Korean dried seaweed , gim for other scenes . The animation team drew frames interpolating the motion between key frames by hand , and digitally interpolated those frames to create slow motion sequences . Editing teams in the industry normally time stretch the sequence with repeated still frames to produce these shots . Ibira reflected that typical 30 @-@ minute anime episodes consist of approximately 300 key frames . The first episode of Karas , however , consisted of approximately 700 key frames .
Composer Yoshihiro Ike infused the music with the sorrow borne by the karas , and the atmosphere conveyed by the background . Ike obliged the team 's request for Japanese flavored music , and studied kabuki tunes accompanying actors as they strike their mie ( 見得 ) , a picturesque pose to establish their character . He planned to use taikos ( Japanese drums ) to further enhance the music , but felt the show had taken on an international outlook and discarded the notion . He wanted his music to match the quality of the show , and refrained from composing them until he had watched the pre @-@ dubbed version of the first episode . He composed most of his music as he watched the pre @-@ dubbed episodes to synchronize their tempo and dynamics with the action in the show . He chose Prague Symphony Orchestra to perform the main theme because he felt the background of their city and its people suited the character of Karas . Other departments also took extraordinary measures in producing the show . The sound crew procured a Nissan Skyline GT @-@ R and recorded its engine noise for several runs . These were used for the tunnel chase scenes which involved a hand @-@ drawn 1972 – 77 Skyline . The editing team took the additional step of editing cels post @-@ voice recording to ensure lip movements were in synch with the voices . These extra work and the hybrid 2D @-@ 3D approach inflated the budget of the production to three times the usual amount spent on an original video animation .
= = Media information = =
The Japanese episodes initially broadcast one after the other over the dedicated anime pay @-@ per @-@ view channel , Perfect Choice 160 , from March 25 , 2005 , to August 3 , 2007 . Tatsunoko and the East Asian licensors ( providing Chinese subtitles ) released Karas as six single @-@ DVD packages in their regions . The collectors ' editions feature a hardcover book showing the storyboard for the episode . Manga Entertainment released the English DVD edition of Karas as two eighty @-@ five @-@ minute feature length films , The Prophecy and The Revelation , on April 24 , 2006 , and October 22 , 2007 , respectively . Each feature consists of three original episodes joined together , and has an additional English voice track . They have also released Karas : The Prophecy on UMD . Columbia Music Entertainment published Ike 's music for the show on October 24 , 2007 , as a 24 @-@ track audio CD . Dark Horse Comics produced a one @-@ shot comic which went on sale , and is given free with collectors ' editions and The Prophecy . The story written by Phil Amara , author of the comic Sky Ape , is an adaptation of the story in episode one .
= = Reception = =
Karas impressed its reviewers with its animated imagery . Mania Entertainment affirmed its lush imagery are enough to hook viewers , and certain 2D @-@ 3D scenes matched photorealistic standards . They felt Karas could rival or beat live @-@ action films in the visual department . DVD Talk commented they saw evidence a lot of effort went into merging the 2D and 3D animations . They , however , felt setting the scenes in darkness and obscuring points of interest with smoke or other effects marred the high quality imagery . Anime News Network stated the richly detailed images ; fast moving action scenes ; and visual effects of collapsing buildings , explosions , and blood made Karas one of the best action animation . Reviewers praised the fight scenes between the CG generated karas and mikuras , declaring them realistic , tasteful and stunning . DVD Talk , however , complained the camera jerked and moved all over the place never showing fights cleanly . Mania stated the fights in the later half failed to match those in the first half in terms of beauty , intensity , and variety ; the overlaying of characters ' face onto their armored forms in the finale detracted from their viewing experience .
Ike 's music for Karas impressed reviewers . Anime News Network stated his long scores set the mood in the scenes with their tone , enhancing the reviewers ' watching experience . Prague Symphony Orchestra 's performance of the main theme impressed more reviewers who claimed it brought out the heroic essence of Karas with a sense of power and drama , and enhanced the impact of the quick and intense battles .
Karas , however , suffered the worst criticisms for its story . Many reviewers and even the voice actors could not follow its dialogue and presentation . Other reviewers felt the abstract presentation forced viewers who wanted to understand the story , to pay extreme attention to the scant details presented in the show . Reelfilm and DVD Verdict were more critical , stating the viewer should not have to resort to reading summaries on the packaging to make sense of a story populated with incoherent battles and characters hard to tell apart from .
The viewers ' confused reaction to their story based on the first half , disappointed and frustrated Sato and Ibira . Sato explained the first two episodes were to capture the viewers ' attention , and remaining episodes would reveal greater details of the story . Mania complained this franchising tactic is a poor excuse for initial episodes lacking substance . They said although the later half answered much of the questions raised in the first , it created unanswered questions of its own . IGN and DVD Talk felt the story was darker and flowed better in the later half than the first , but IGN felt the revelation of details came too late in the show . DVD Verdict felt the story was pointless . Despite the protagonist reaffirming himself as a protector of the city , his showdown with the antagonist reduced most of Shinjuku to ruins . Reviewers found if they stripped the plot to its basics , it is a shallow good @-@ versus @-@ evil story made complex by its presentation in the first half . They , however , appreciated the surprising deaths of certain characters whose sacrifice in vain rendered a poignant emotion at that point of story .
Reviewers felt part of the failings laid with the underdeveloped characters despite them being slightly different from usual anime stock characters . The story neither properly introduces them nor explains their backgrounds and motivations , making them hard to identify with . Eko 's menace only came by force and not by his personality or schemes , making him a weak villain . DVD Talk found it hard to piece together the relationship between the main characters , but acknowledged the later half addressed some of these issues by revealing the background of some characters . They felt the revelations fleshed out Otoha 's personality and motivation , helping viewers to sympathize and identify with the protagonist .
Overall , reviewers are mixed in their final assessment of Karas . Their common reaction is of a visually stunning show with a confusing story . DVD Talk commented the blending of traditional 2D drawings and 3D CG was interesting ; but with a lacking story , the product is a " triumph of style over substance " . In spite of the criticisms , Karas won Best Original Video at the 2006 Tokyo Anime Award competition , and was one of United States ' top 10 best selling anime titles in 2006 .
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= Body Count =
Body Count is an American heavy metal band formed in Los Angeles , California , in 1990 . The group is fronted by Ice @-@ T , who co @-@ founded the group with lead guitarist Ernie C out of their interest in heavy metal music . Ice @-@ T took on the role of vocalist and writing the lyrics for most of the group 's songs . Lead guitarist Ernie C has been responsible for writing the group 's music . Their controversial self @-@ titled debut album was released on Sire Records in 1992 .
The song " Cop Killer " was the subject of much controversy . Although Sire Records ' parent company , Warner Bros. Records , defended the single , Ice @-@ T chose to remove the track from the album because he felt that the controversy had eclipsed the music itself . The group left Sire the following year . Since then , they have released three further albums on different labels , none of which have been received as commercially or critically well as their debut album .
Three out of the band 's original six members are deceased : D @-@ Roc died from lymphoma , Beatmaster V from leukemia and Mooseman in a drive @-@ by shooting .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ formation = = =
Ice @-@ T 's interest in heavy metal stemmed from sharing a room with his cousin Earl , who was a fan of rock music and only listened to the local rock stations . Ice @-@ T particularly enjoyed heavy metal , citing Edgar Winter , Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath as his favorite bands . Ice @-@ T attended Crenshaw High School , where a few classmates shared his interest in the genre , including musicians Ernie C , Mooseman , Beatmaster V and D @-@ Roc the Executioner . Ice @-@ T began a solo career as a rapper , and later decided to form Body Count with these friends .
Ice @-@ T co @-@ wrote the band 's music and lyrics with lead guitarist Ernie C , and took on the duties of lead vocalist , even though he felt that he did not have a great singing voice . The original line @-@ up consisted of Mooseman on bass , Beatmaster V on drums and D @-@ Roc on rhythm guitar .
= = = Touring and debut album ( 1991 – 1992 ) = = =
Ice @-@ T introduced the band at Lollapalooza in 1991 , devoting half of his set to his hip hop songs , and half to Body Count songs , increasing his appeal with both alternative music fans and middle @-@ class teenagers . Some considered the Body Count performances to be the highlight of the tour . The group made its first album appearance on Ice @-@ T 's 1991 solo album O.G. Original Gangster . The song , " Body Count " , was preceded by a spoken introduction in which Ice @-@ T responds to allegations that he had " sold out " by incorporating rock elements into his rap albums by pointing out that rock music originated with African @-@ American artists such as Chuck Berry , Bo Diddley and Little Richard , in addition to stating that " as far as I 'm concerned , music is music . I don 't look at it as rock , R & B , or all that kind of stuff . I just look at it as music . [ ... ] I do what I like and I happen to like rock ' n ' roll , and I feel sorry for anybody who only listens to one form of music . "
Body Count 's self @-@ titled debut album was released on Sire / Warner Bros. Records on March 31 , 1992 . On the strength of the album , Body Count toured internationally , developing a strong following . When the group performed in Milan , Italy , some of the punks in the crowd began spitting at Ernie C. Ice @-@ T attempted to calm the situation by telling the crowd not to spit , but the spitting continued . As the band prepared to play " Cop Killer " , Ice @-@ T identified an audience member who spit in his direction ; Ice @-@ T responded by rushing into the crowd and punching the spitter . As the band began to play , some of the audience began fighting with Ice @-@ T. Body Count escaped the crowd mid @-@ song , and the promoter immediately shut the concert down .
Outside the venue , angry audience members trashed the band 's tour bus . The band hailed a taxicab , but its driver abandoned the cab when the mob surrounded the taxi , leading Body Count to steal the taxi in order to escape , abandoning it and their tour coats a mile away from the venue . They hailed another cab , and the driver attempted to take them back to the venue until the band screamed at the driver to take them to the hotel . The incident was the subject of much controversy and coverage on Italian television . The band appeared on a Milan radio station , where the disc jockey told his audience , " Some clowns tried to ruin his concert . We should be angry at them . Ice @-@ T is a guest in our country , we invited him to do all these sold @-@ out shows , and we love him ! " Several Italian fans apologized for the behavior of the Milan audience .
= = = Controversy over the song Cop Killer ( 1992 ) = = =
The song " Cop Killer " , intended to criticize corrupt police officers , encountered controversy , as it was seen as an attack against the entire police force . According to Ice @-@ T , " I thought I was safe . I thought within the world of rock 'n'roll , you could be free to write what you want . Hell , I was listening to Talking Heads singin ' ' Psycho Killer . ' Fuck it , I 'll make ' Cop Killer ' ! But , that was the cross of metal with something that was real . Now we ’ re not just killing your family , we ’ re killing somebody so real that everybody just went , ' oh shit . ' "
The Dallas Police Association and the Combined Law Enforcement Association of Texas launched a campaign to force Warner Bros. Records to withdraw the album . Within a week , they were joined by police organizations across the United States . Some critics argued that the song could cause crime and violence . Many defended the song on the basis of the group 's right to freedom of speech . In The Ice Opinion : Who Gives a Fuck , Ice @-@ T wrote that " The people who did have a platform were way off backing me on the First Amendment . That 's not where all the anger should have been directed . The anger should have been generated back at the police . [ ... ] Because people jumped on the wrong issue they were able to drive this thing totally through Warner Brothers . "
Over the next month , controversy against the band grew . Vice President Dan Quayle branded " Cop Killer " as being " obscene , " and President George H.W. Bush publicly denounced any record company that would release such a product . At a Time @-@ Warner shareholders ' meeting , actor Charlton Heston stood and read lyrics from the song " KKK Bitch " to an astonished audience and demanded that the company take action . The criticism escalated to the point where death threats were sent to Time @-@ Warner executives , and shareholders threatened to pull out of the company . Finally , Ice @-@ T decided to remove " Cop Killer " from the album of his own volition . In an interview , Ice @-@ T stated that " I didn 't want my band to get pigeon @-@ holed as that 's the only reason that record sold . It just got outta hand and I was just tired of hearing it . I said , ' fuck it , ' I mean they 're saying we did it for money , and we didn 't . I 'd gave the record away , ya know , let 's move on , let 's get back to real issues , not a record but the cops that are out there killing people . "
" Cop Killer " was replaced by a new version of " Freedom of Speech , " a song from Ice @-@ T 's 1989 solo album The Iceberg / Freedom of Speech ... Just Watch What You Say . The song was re @-@ edited and remixed to give it a more rock @-@ oriented sound . Ice @-@ T left Warner Bros. Records the following year because of disputes over the Ice @-@ T solo album Home Invasion , taking Body Count with him . Despite the controversy , the album received some praise , including A- reviews from Entertainment Weekly and The Village Voice , who later ranked the album among their list of The 40 Best Albums of 1992 . Variety reported that the album had sold 480 @,@ 000 copies by January 29 , 1993 .
= = = Continued albums : Born Dead , Violent Demise and Murder 4 Hire ( 1993 – 2008 ) = = =
In 1993 , Body Count recorded a cover of " Hey Joe " for the Jimi Hendrix tribute album Stone Free : A Tribute to Jimi Hendrix . The band released their second album , Born Dead in 1994 on Virgin Records . Prior to the recording of Body Count 's third album Violent Demise : The Last Days ( 1997 ) , bassist Mooseman left the group and was replaced by Griz . Drummer Beatmaster V died of leukemia soon after the album was completed , and a new drummer named O.T. filled in the position . Bassist Griz left the band later on , and in the meanwhile , former bassist Mooseman was shot in a drive @-@ by shooting in February 2001 after recording an album and preparing for another tour with Iggy Pop in his band the Trolls . In late 2004 , rhythm guitarist D @-@ Roc died due to complications from lymphoma , leaving only Ice @-@ T and Ernie C from the original line @-@ up .
Ice @-@ T has stated that " For me , honestly , after something like that , you can either come to a dead stop or you can go on . [ ... ] It was so emotional . We were in the middle of making a new record together and he goes and dies ? It was like , ' damn ! ' Soon enough , though , everybody was like , ' c 'mon c 'mon you gotta do it . ' It was make @-@ or @-@ break . The key essence of Body Count is it 's a band made up of friends . It 's not about going out and hiring the best drummer or the best guitarist . If we don 't know you , you can ’ t be in the band . "
In July 2006 , Body Count released their fourth album , Murder 4 Hire on the indie record label Escapi Music . Its album cover , featuring Uncle Sam holding a cardboard sign reading " Will Kill for Money , " compares the United States military to contract killers . The then @-@ line @-@ up included drummer O.T. , bassist Vincent Price and rhythm guitarist Bendrix . The band then took an extended hiatus for a couple of years ; in regards to the future of Body Count , Ernie C stated , " We will carry on the band . I don 't know if it will be Body Count , but in some form , Ice and I will always play together . "
= = = Gears of War 3 and Manslaughter ( 2009 – present ) = = =
On September 6 , 2009 , Body Count made an appearance at the Vans Warped Tour 15th @-@ anniversary party at Club Nokia in downtown Los Angeles . The group played a 20 @-@ minute set , covered Slayer , and closed with their controversial classic " Cop Killer " . Also on the bill were NOFX , Katy Perry , Pennywise , Bad Religion and Rise Against . Mike Sullivan of ExploreMusic recently caught up with Ernie C at the 2010 edition of the Vans Warped Tour . While briefly chatting , Ernie C divulged that the band is recording its fifth studio album . Body Count wrote an exclusive song , " The Gears of War " , for the video game Gears of War 3 , and performed it at a party promoting the game .
On December 9 , 2012 , Ice @-@ T announced on Twitter that Body Count would begin production on a fifth studio album in January 2013 . The following day , Ice @-@ T revealed that Body Count has signed with Sumerian Records . Ice @-@ T suggested that the album was going to be titled Rise ! or Manslaughter .
On May 10 , 2013 , Ice @-@ T announced that work on the fifth studio album had begun and that it would be titled Manslaughter . The album was released on June 10 , 2014 . On May 13 , 2014 , Ice @-@ T played the song " Talk Shit , Get Shot " as a teaser for the new album .
The new Body Count album is expected to be released in 2017 .
= = Style = =
= = = Lyrics = = =
Ice @-@ T 's lyrics focus on reality @-@ based themes , including gang life , because he felt it would be scarier than the fantasy @-@ based horror themes of most heavy metal bands . The band 's third album , Violent Demise : The Last Days , featured album cover art depicting the hand signs of these gangs . According to Ice @-@ T , " We named the group Body Count because every Sunday night in L.A. , I 'd watch the news , and the newscasters would tally up the youths killed in gang homicides that week and then just segue to sports . ' Is that all I am , ' I thought , ' a body count ? ' "
When the band 's debut album was released , Ice @-@ T defined it as being " a rock album with a rap mentality . " Like Ice @-@ T 's hip hop albums , the group 's material focused on various social and political issues , with songs focusing on topics ranging from police brutality to drug abuse . Ernie C has stated that " We were just a band that played the songs that we knew how to write . Everybody writes about whatever they learned growing up , and we were no exception . Like the Beach Boys sing about the beach , we sing about the way we grew up . "
= = = Music = = =
Body Count 's musical style derives from the dark , ominous tone of heavy metal bands such as Black Sabbath , as well as faster thrash metal bands such as Slayer . The band 's music is described as speed metal and thrash metal . According to Ernie C , " We wanted to be a big punk band [ ... ] Our first record is almost a punk record . " The presence of a rapper in a heavy metal band has been credited for paving the way for the rise of rap metal and nu metal , even though Ice @-@ T does not rap in most Body Count songs , and considers it to solely be a rock band . According to Ernie C , " A lot of rappers want to be in a rock band , but it has to be done sincerely . You can ’ t just get anybody on guitar and expect it to work . [ ... ] Ice and I , on the other hand , really loved the music we were doing , and it showed . "
= = Members = =
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
Body Count ( 1992 )
Born Dead ( 1994 )
Violent Demise : The Last Days ( 1997 )
Murder 4 Hire ( 2006 )
Manslaughter ( 2014 )
Bloodlust ( 2017 )
= = = Singles = = =
= = Videos = =
DVD
Murder 4 Hire ( 2004 )
Live in L.A. ( 2005 )
Smoke Out Festival Presents : Body Count ( 2005 )
Music Videos
The Winner Loses ( 1992 )
There Goes The Neighborhood ( 1992 )
Body Count 's In The House ( 1992 )
Hey Joe ( 1993 )
Born Dead ( 1994 )
Necessary Evil ( 1994 )
Medley : Masters Of Revenge / Killin ' Floor / Drive By / Street Lobotomy ( 1994 )
I Used To Love Her ( 1997 )
Relationships ( 2006 )
Talk S * * t , Get Shot ( 2014 )
Institutionalized 2014 ( 2015 )
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= Premier League =
The Premier League is an English professional league for men 's association football clubs . At the top of the English football league system , it is the country 's primary football competition . Contested by 20 clubs , it operates on a system of promotion and relegation with the English Football League ( EFL ; known as " The Football League " before 2016 – 17 ) . Welsh clubs that compete in the English football league system can also qualify .
The Premier League is a corporation in which the 20 member clubs act as shareholders . Seasons run from August to May . Teams play 38 matches each ( playing each team in the league twice , home and away ) , totalling 380 matches in the season . Most games are played on Saturday and Sunday afternoons ; others during weekday evenings . It is colloquially known as the Premiership and outside the UK it is commonly referred to as the English Premier League ( EPL ) .
The competition formed as the FA Premier League on 20 February 1992 following the decision of clubs in the Football League First Division to break away from the Football League , which was originally founded in 1888 , and take advantage of a lucrative television rights deal . The deal was worth £ 1 billion a year domestically as of 2013 – 14 , with BSkyB and BT Group securing the domestic rights to broadcast 116 and 38 games respectively . The league generates € 2 @.@ 2 billion per year in domestic and international television rights . In 2014 / 15 , teams were apportioned revenues of £ 1 @.@ 6 billion .
The Premier League is the most @-@ watched football league in the world , broadcast in 212 territories to 643 million homes and a potential TV audience of 4 @.@ 7 billion people . In the 2014 – 15 season , the average Premier League match attendance exceeded 36 @,@ 000 , second highest of any professional football league behind the Bundesliga 's 43 @,@ 500 . Most stadium occupancies are near capacity . The Premier League ranks third in the UEFA coefficients of leagues based on performances in European competitions over the past five seasons .
While 47 clubs have competed since the inception of the Premier League in 1992 , only six have won the title : Manchester United ( 13 ) , Chelsea ( 4 ) , Arsenal ( 3 ) , Manchester City ( 2 ) , Blackburn Rovers and Leicester City ( 1 ) . The current champions are Leicester City , who won the title in 2015 – 16 .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
Despite significant European success in the 1970s and early 1980s , the late ' 80s marked a low point for English football . Stadiums were crumbling , supporters endured poor facilities , hooliganism was rife , and English clubs were banned from European competition for five years following the Heysel Stadium disaster in 1985 . The Football League First Division , the top level of English football since 1888 , was behind leagues such as Italy 's Serie A and Spain 's La Liga in attendances and revenues , and several top English players had moved abroad .
By the turn of the 1990s the downward trend was starting to reverse : at the 1990 FIFA World Cup , England reached the semi @-@ finals ; UEFA , European football 's governing body , lifted the five @-@ year ban on English clubs playing in European competitions in 1990 , resulting in Manchester United lifting the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup in 1991 , and the Taylor Report on stadium safety standards , which proposed expensive upgrades to create all @-@ seater stadiums in the aftermath of the Hillsborough disaster , was published in January of that year .
Revenue from television also became more important : the Football League received £ 6 @.@ 3 million for a two @-@ year agreement in 1986 , but when that deal was renewed in 1988 , the price rose to £ 44 million over four years . The 1988 negotiations were the first signs of a breakaway league : ten clubs threatened to leave and form a " super league " , but were eventually persuaded to stay . As stadiums improved and match attendance and revenues rose , the country 's top teams again considered leaving the Football League in order to capitalise on the influx of money into the sport .
= = = Foundation = = =
At the close of the 1991 season , a proposal was tabled for the establishment of a new league that would bring more money into the game overall . The Founder Members Agreement , signed on 17 July 1991 by the game 's top @-@ flight clubs , established the basic principles for setting up the FA Premier League . The newly formed top division would have commercial independence from The Football Association and the Football League , giving the FA Premier League licence to negotiate its own broadcast and sponsorship agreements . The argument given at the time was that the extra income would allow English clubs to compete with teams across Europe .
The managing director of London Weekend Television ( LWT ) , Greg Dyke , met with the representatives of the " big five " football clubs in England in 1990 . The meeting was to pave the way for a break away from The Football League . Dyke believed that it would be more lucrative for LWT if only the larger clubs in the country were featured on national television and wanted to establish whether the clubs would be interested in a larger share of television rights money . The five clubs decided it was a good idea and decided to press ahead with it ; however , the league would have no credibility without the backing of The Football Association and so David Dein of Arsenal held talks to see whether the FA were receptive to the idea . The FA did not enjoy an amicable relationship with the Football League at the time and considered it as a way to weaken the Football League 's position .
In 1992 , the First Division clubs resigned from the Football League en masse and on 27 May 1992 the FA Premier League was formed as a limited company working out of an office at the Football Association 's then headquarters in Lancaster Gate . This meant a break @-@ up of the 104 @-@ year @-@ old Football League that had operated until then with four divisions ; the Premier League would operate with a single division and the Football League with three . There was no change in competition format ; the same number of teams competed in the top flight , and promotion and relegation between the Premier League and the new First Division remained the same as the old First and Second Divisions with three teams relegated from the league and three promoted .
The league held its first season in 1992 – 93 and was originally composed of 22 clubs . The first ever Premier League goal was scored by Brian Deane of Sheffield United in a 2 – 1 win against Manchester United . The 22 inaugural members of the new Premier League were Arsenal , Aston Villa , Blackburn Rovers , Chelsea , Coventry City , Crystal Palace , Everton , Ipswich Town , Leeds United , Liverpool , Manchester City , Manchester United , Middlesbrough , Norwich City , Nottingham Forest , Oldham Athletic , Queens Park Rangers , Sheffield United , Sheffield Wednesday , Southampton , Tottenham Hotspur , and Wimbledon . Luton Town , Notts County and West Ham United were the three teams relegated from the old first division at the end of the 1991 – 92 season , and did not take part in the inaugural Premier League season .
= = = " Big Four " dominance ( 2000s ) = = =
One significant feature of the Premier League in the mid @-@ 2000s was the dominance of the so @-@ called " Big Four " clubs : Arsenal , Chelsea , Liverpool and Manchester United . During this decade , and particularly from 2002 to 2009 , they dominated the top four spots , which came with UEFA Champions League qualification , taking all top four places in 5 out of 6 seasons from 2003 – 04 to 2008 – 09 inclusive , with Arsenal going as far as winning the league without losing a single game in 2003 – 04 , the only time it has ever happened in the Premier League . In May 2008 Kevin Keegan stated that " Big Four " dominance threatened the division , " This league is in danger of becoming one of the most boring but great leagues in the world . " Premier League chief executive Richard Scudamore said in defence : " There are a lot of different tussles that go on in the Premier League depending on whether you 're at the top , in the middle or at the bottom that make it interesting . "
The years following 2009 marked a shift in the structure of the " Big Four " with Tottenham Hotspur and Manchester City both breaking into the top four . In the 2009 – 10 season , Tottenham finished fourth and became the first team to break the top four since Everton in 2005 . Criticism of the gap between an elite group of " super clubs " and the majority of the Premier League has continued , nevertheless , due to their increasing ability to spend more than the other Premier League clubs . Manchester City won the title in the 2011 – 12 season , becoming the first club outside the " Big Four " to win since 1994 – 95 . That season also saw two of the Big Four ( Chelsea and Liverpool ) finish outside the top four places for the first time since 1994 – 95 . In the following four seasons , Manchester United found themselves outside of the top four twice ( in 2013 – 14 and 2015 – 16 ) while Chelsea finished 10th in the 2015 – 16 season and Liverpool finished outside the top four in three of those four seasons . Arsenal , however , remained in the top four in all four seasons and have never finished outside the top four since Arsène Wenger took charge of the club in 1996 .
= = = Development = = =
Due to insistence by the International Federation of Association Football ( FIFA ) , the international governing body of football , that domestic leagues reduce the number of games clubs played , the number of clubs was reduced to 20 in 1995 when four teams were relegated from the league and only two teams promoted . On 8 June 2006 , FIFA requested that all major European leagues , including Italy 's Serie A and Spain 's La Liga be reduced to 18 teams by the start of the 2007 – 08 season . The Premier League responded by announcing their intention to resist such a reduction . Ultimately , the 2007 – 08 season kicked off again with 20 teams .
The league changed its name from the FA Premier League to simply the Premier League in 2007 .
= = Corporate structure = =
The Football Association Premier League Ltd ( FAPL ) is operated as a corporation and is owned by the 20 member clubs . Each club is a shareholder , with one vote each on issues such as rule changes and contracts . The clubs elect a chairman , chief executive , and board of directors to oversee the daily operations of the league . The current chairman is Sir Dave Richards , who was appointed in April 1999 , and the chief executive is Richard Scudamore , appointed in November 1999 . The former chairman and chief executive , John Quinton and Peter Leaver , were forced to resign in March 1999 after awarding consultancy contracts to former Sky executives Sam Chisholm and David Chance . The Football Association is not directly involved in the day @-@ to @-@ day operations of the Premier League , but has veto power as a special shareholder during the election of the chairman and chief executive and when new rules are adopted by the league .
The Premier League sends representatives to UEFA 's European Club Association , the number of clubs and the clubs themselves chosen according to UEFA coefficients . For the 2012 – 13 season the Premier League has 10 representatives in the Association : Arsenal , Aston Villa , Chelsea , Everton , Fulham , Liverpool , Manchester City , Manchester United , Newcastle United and Tottenham Hotspur . The European Club Association is responsible for electing three members to UEFA 's Club Competitions Committee , which is involved in the operations of UEFA competitions such as the Champions League and UEFA Europa League .
= = Competition format = =
= = = Competition = = =
There are 20 clubs in the Premier League . During the course of a season ( from August to May ) each club plays the others twice ( a double round @-@ robin system ) , once at their home stadium and once at that of their opponents , for a total of 38 games . Teams receive three points for a win and one point for a draw . No points are awarded for a loss . Teams are ranked by total points , then goal difference , and then goals scored . If still equal , teams are deemed to occupy the same position . If there is a tie for the championship , for relegation , or for qualification to other competitions , a play @-@ off match at a neutral venue decides rank . The three lowest placed teams are relegated into the Football League Championship , and the top two teams from the Championship , together with the winner of play @-@ offs involving the third to sixth placed Championship clubs , are promoted in their place .
= = = Qualification for European competitions = = =
As of the 2009 – 10 season qualification for the UEFA Champions League changed , the top four teams in the Premier League qualify for the UEFA Champions League , with the top three teams directly entering the group stage . Previously only the top two teams qualified automatically . The fourth @-@ placed team enters the Champions League at the play @-@ off round for non @-@ champions and must win a two @-@ legged knockout tie in order to enter the group stage .
The team placed fifth in the Premier League automatically qualifies for the UEFA Europa League , and the sixth and seventh @-@ placed teams can also qualify , depending on the winners of the two domestic cup competitions i.e. the FA Cup and the Capital One Cup ( League Cup ) . Two Europa League places are reserved for the winners of each tournament ; if the winner of either the FA Cup or League Cup qualifies for the Champions League , then that place will go to the next @-@ best placed finisher in the Premier League . A further place in the UEFA Europa League is also available via the Fair Play initiative . If the Premier League has one of the three highest Fair Play rankings in Europe , the highest ranked team in the Premier League Fair Play standings which has not already qualified for Europe will automatically qualify for the UEFA Europa League first qualifying round .
An exception to the usual European qualification system happened in 2005 , after Liverpool won the Champions League the year before , but did not finish in a Champions League qualification place in the Premier League that season . UEFA gave special dispensation for Liverpool to enter the Champions League , giving England five qualifiers . UEFA subsequently ruled that the defending champions qualify for the competition the following year regardless of their domestic league placing . However , for those leagues with four entrants in the Champions League , this meant that if the Champions League winner finished outside the top four in its domestic league , it would qualify at the expense of the fourth @-@ placed team in the league . At that time , no association could have more than four entrants in the Champions League . This occurred in 2012 , when Chelsea – who had won the Champions League the previous year , but finished sixth in the league – qualified for the Champions League in place of Tottenham Hotspur , who went into the Europa League .
Starting with the 2015 – 16 season , the Europa League champion automatically qualifies for the following season 's Champions League , and the maximum number of Champions League places for any single association has increased to five . An association with four Champions League places , such as The FA , will only earn a fifth place if a club from that association that does not qualify for the Champions League through its league wins either the Champions League or Europa League .
In 2007 , the Premier League became the highest ranking European League based on the performances of English teams in European competitions over a five @-@ year period . This broke the eight @-@ year dominance of the Spanish league , La Liga .
= = = Premier League clubs in international competition = = =
Between the 1992 – 93 season and the 2015 – 16 season , Premier League clubs had won the UEFA Champions League four times ( as well as supplying five of the runners @-@ up ) , behind Spain 's La Liga with nine wins , and Italy 's Serie A with five wins , and ahead of , among others , Germany 's Bundesliga with three wins ( see table here ) . The FIFA Club World Cup ( or the FIFA Club World Championship , as it was originally called ) has been won by Premier League clubs once ( Manchester United in 2008 ) , and they have also been runners @-@ up twice , behind Brazil 's Brasileirão and Spain 's La Liga with four wins , and Italy 's Serie A with two wins ( see table here ) .
= = Clubs = =
A total of 47 clubs have played in the Premier League from its inception in 1992 , up to and including the 2016 – 17 season .
= = = Champions = = =
Wins by club
= = = Clubs by spell = = =
Due to promotion and relegation , only six of the founder members of the Premier League have never been relegated from it , while another six founders have never returned after being relegated once . Out of the 25 clubs who have gained promotion to the league since it was created , only three have remained without a subsequent relegation , while seven have been relegated after just one spell . The remaining fifteen clubs have spent multiple spells in the league , up to five in the case of founder member Crystal Palace .
= = = 2016 – 17 season = = =
The following 20 clubs will compete in the Premier League during the 2016 – 17 season .
Newcastle United , Norwich City and Aston Villa were relegated to the Championship for the 2016 – 17 season , while Burnley , Middlesbrough and Hull City , as winners , runners @-@ up and play @-@ off final winners respectively , were promoted from the 2015 – 16 Championship season .
AFC Bournemouth , Stoke and Swansea are the only clubs to have remained in the Premier League since their first promotion , having played 2 , 8 and 5 seasons ( out of 25 ) respectively .
a : Founding member of the Premier Leagueb : Never been relegated from Premier Leaguec : One of the original 12 Football League teamsd : Club based in Wales
= = = Non @-@ English clubs = = =
Wales
In 2011 , a Welsh club participated in the Premier League for the first time after Swansea City gained promotion . The first Premier League match to be played outside England was Swansea City 's home match at the Liberty Stadium against Wigan Athletic on 20 August 2011 . In 2012 – 13 , Swansea qualified for the Europa League by winning the League Cup . The number of Welsh clubs in the Premier League increased to two for the first time in 2013 – 14 , as Cardiff City gained promotion , but Cardiff City was relegated after its maiden season .
Because they are members of the Football Association of Wales ( FAW ) , the question of whether clubs like Swansea should represent England or Wales in European competitions has caused long @-@ running discussions in UEFA . Swansea took one of England 's three available places in the Europa League in 2013 – 14 by winning the League Cup in 2012 – 13 . The right of Welsh clubs to take up such English places was in doubt until UEFA clarified the matter in March 2012 .
Scotland and Ireland
Participation in the Premier League by some Scottish or Irish clubs has sometimes been discussed , but without result . The idea came closest to reality in 1998 , when Wimbledon received Premier League approval to relocate to Dublin , Ireland , but the move was blocked by the Football Association of Ireland . Additionally , the media occasionally discusses the idea that Scotland 's two biggest teams , Celtic and Rangers , should or will take part in the Premier League , but nothing has come of these discussions .
= = Sponsorship = =
From 1993 to 2016 , the Premier League had title sponsorship rights sold to two companies ; Barclays was the most recent title sponsor , having sponsored the Premier League from 2001 through 2016 ( until 2004 , the title sponsorship was held through its Barclaycard brand before shifting to its main banking brand in 2004 ) .
Barclays ' deal with the Premier League will expire at the end of the 2015 – 16 season . The FA announced on 4 June 2015 that it would not pursue any further title sponsorship deals for the Premier League , arguing that they wanted to build a " clean " brand for the competition more in line with those of major U.S. sports leagues .
As well as sponsorship for the league itself , the Premier League has a number of official partners and suppliers . The official ball supplier for the league is Nike who have had the contract since the 2000 – 01 season when they took over from Mitre .
= = Finances = =
The Premier League has the highest revenue of any football league in the world , with total club revenues of € 2 @.@ 48 billion in 2009 – 10 . In 2013 – 14 , due to improved television revenues and cost controls , the Premier League had net profits in excess of £ 78 million , exceeding all other football leagues . In 2010 the Premier League was awarded the Queen 's Award for Enterprise in the International Trade category for its outstanding contribution to international trade and the value it brings to English football and the United Kingdom 's broadcasting industry .
The Premier League includes some of the richest football clubs in the world . Deloitte 's " Football Money League " listed seven Premier League clubs in the top 20 for the 2009 – 10 season , and all 20 clubs were in the top 40 globally by the end of the 2013 – 14 season , largely as a result of increased broadcasting revenue . From 2013 , the league generates € 2 @.@ 2 billion per year in domestic and international television rights .
Premier League clubs agreed in principle in December 2012 , to radical new cost controls . The two proposals consist of a break @-@ even rule and a cap on the amount clubs can increase their wage bill by each season . With the new television deals on the horizon , momentum has been growing to find ways of preventing the majority of the cash going straight to players and agents .
= = Media coverage = =
= = = United Kingdom and Ireland = = =
Television has played a major role in the history of the Premier League . The League 's decision to assign broadcasting rights to BSkyB in 1992 was at the time a radical decision , but one that has paid off . At the time pay television was an almost untested proposition in the UK market , as was charging fans to watch live televised football . However , a combination of Sky 's strategy , the quality of Premier League football and the public 's appetite for the game has seen the value of the Premier League 's TV rights soar .
The Premier League sells its television rights on a collective basis . This is in contrast to some other European Leagues , including La Liga , in which each club sells its rights individually , leading to a much higher share of the total income going to the top few clubs . The money is divided into three parts : half is divided equally between the clubs ; one quarter is awarded on a merit basis based on final league position , the top club getting twenty times as much as the bottom club , and equal steps all the way down the table ; the final quarter is paid out as facilities fees for games that are shown on television , with the top clubs generally receiving the largest shares of this . The income from overseas rights is divided equally between the twenty clubs .
The first Sky television rights agreement was worth £ 304 million over five seasons . The next contract , negotiated to start from the 1997 – 98 season , rose to £ 670 million over four seasons . The third contract was a £ 1 @.@ 024 billion deal with BSkyB for the three seasons from 2001 – 02 to 2003 – 04 . The league brought in £ 320 million from the sale of its international rights for the three @-@ year period from 2004 – 05 to 2006 – 07 . It sold the rights itself on a territory @-@ by @-@ territory basis . Sky 's monopoly was broken from August 2006 when Setanta Sports was awarded rights to show two out of the six packages of matches available . This occurred following an insistence by the European Commission that exclusive rights should not be sold to one television company . Sky and Setanta paid a total of £ 1 @.@ 7 billion , a two @-@ thirds increase which took many commentators by surprise as it had been widely assumed that the value of the rights had levelled off following many years of rapid growth . Setanta also hold rights to a live 3 pm match solely for Irish viewers . The BBC has retained the rights to show highlights for the same three seasons ( on Match of the Day ) for £ 171 @.@ 6 million , a 63 per cent increase on the £ 105 million it paid for the previous three @-@ year period . Sky and BT have agreed to jointly pay £ 84 @.@ 3 million for delayed television rights to 242 games ( that is the right to broadcast them in full on television and over the internet ) in most cases for a period of 50 hours after 10 pm on matchday . Overseas television rights fetched £ 625 million , nearly double the previous contract . The total raised from these deals is more than £ 2 @.@ 7 billion , giving Premier League clubs an average media income from league games of around £ 40 million @-@ a @-@ year from 2007 to 2010 .
The TV rights agreement between the Premier League and Sky has faced accusations of being a cartel , and a number of court cases have arisen as a result . An investigation by the Office of Fair Trading in 2002 found BSkyB to be dominant within the pay TV sports market , but concluded that there were insufficient grounds for the claim that BSkyB had abused its dominant position . In July 1999 the Premier League 's method of selling rights collectively for all member clubs was investigated by the UK Restrictive Practices Court , who concluded that the agreement was not contrary to the public interest .
The BBC 's highlights package on Saturday and Sunday nights , as well as other evenings when fixtures justify , will run until 2016 . Television rights alone for the period 2010 to 2013 have been purchased for £ 1 @.@ 782 billion . On 22 June 2009 , due to troubles encountered by Setanta Sports after it failed to meet a final deadline over a £ 30 million payment to the Premier League , ESPN was awarded two packages of UK rights containing a total of 46 matches that were available for the 2009 – 10 season as well as a package of 23 matches per season from 2010 – 11 to 2012 – 13 . On 13 June 2012 , the Premier League announced that BT had been awarded 38 games a season for the 2013 – 14 through 2015 – 16 seasons at £ 246 million @-@ a @-@ year . The remaining 116 games were retained by Sky who paid £ 760 million @-@ a @-@ year . The total domestic rights have raised £ 3 @.@ 018 billion , an increase of 70 @.@ 2 % over the 2010 – 11 to 2012 – 13 rights . The value of the licensing deal rose by another 70 @.@ 2 % in 2015 , when Sky and BT paid a total of £ 5 @.@ 136 billion to renew their contracts with the Premier League for another three years up to the 2018 – 19 season .
UK highlights
Between the 1998 – 99 season and the 2012 – 13 season , RTÉ broadcast highlights on Premier Soccer Saturday and occasionally Premier Soccer Sunday . During then between the 2004 – 05 season and the 2006 – 07 season , RTÉ broadcast 15 live matches on a Saturday afternoon with each match being called Premiership Live .
= = = Worldwide = = =
The Premier League is the most @-@ watched football league in the world , broadcast in 212 territories to 643 million homes and a potential TV audience of 4 @.@ 7 billion people , often on networks owned and / or controlled by 21st Century Fox ( which owns about 39 % of BSkyB in the UK ) . The Premier League 's production arm , Premier League Productions , is operated by IMG Productions and produces all content for its international television partners .
The Premier League is particularly popular in Asia , where it is the most widely distributed sports programme . In Australia , Fox Sports broadcasts almost all of the season 's 380 matches live , and Foxtel gives subscribers the option of selecting which Saturday 3pm match to watch . In India , the matches are broadcast live on STAR Sports . In China , the broadcast rights were awarded to Super Sports in a six @-@ year agreement that began in the 2013 – 14 season . As of the 2013 – 14 season , Canadian broadcast rights to the Premier League are jointly owned by Sportsnet and TSN , with both rival networks holding rights to 190 matches per season .
The Premier League is broadcast in the United States through NBC Sports . Premier League viewership has increased rapidly , with NBC and NBCSN averaging a record 479 @,@ 000 viewers in the 2014 – 15 season , up 118 % from 2012 – 13 when coverage still aired on Fox Soccer and ESPN / ESPN2 ( 220 @,@ 000 viewers ) , and NBC Sports has been widely praised for its coverage . NBC Sports reached a six @-@ year extension with the Premier League in 2015 to broadcast the league through the 2021 – 22 season in a deal valued at $ 1 billion ( £ 640 million ) .
= = Widening gap with lower leagues = =
There has been an increasing gulf between the Premier League and the Football League . Since its split with the Football League , many established clubs in the Premier League have managed to distance themselves from their counterparts in lower leagues . Owing in large part to the disparity in revenue from television rights between the leagues , many newly promoted teams have found it difficult to avoid relegation in their first season in the Premier League . In every season except 2001 – 02 and 2011 – 12 , at least one Premier League newcomer has been relegated back to the Football League . In 1997 – 98 all three promoted clubs were relegated at the end of the season .
The Premier League distributes a portion of its television revenue to clubs that are relegated from the league in the form of " parachute payments " . Starting with the 2013 – 14 season , these payments are in excess of £ 60 million over four seasons . Though designed to help teams adjust to the loss of television revenues ( the average Premier League team receives £ 55 million while the average Football League Championship club receives £ 2 million ) , critics maintain that the payments actually widen the gap between teams that have reached the Premier League and those that have not , leading to the common occurrence of teams " bouncing back " soon after their relegation . For some clubs who have failed to win immediate promotion back to the Premier League , financial problems , including in some cases administration or even liquidation have followed . Further relegations down the footballing ladder have ensued for several clubs unable to cope with the gap .
= = Stadiums = =
As of the 2015 – 16 season , Premier League football has been played in 53 stadiums since the formation of the Premier League in 1992 . The Hillsborough disaster in 1989 and the subsequent Taylor Report saw a recommendation that standing terraces should be abolished ; as a result all stadiums in the Premier League are all @-@ seater . Since the formation of the Premier League , football grounds in England have seen constant improvements to capacity and facilities , with some clubs moving to new @-@ build stadiums . Nine stadiums that have seen Premier League football have now been demolished . The stadiums for the 2010 – 11 season show a large disparity in capacity : Old Trafford , the home of Manchester United has a capacity of 75 @,@ 957 with Bloomfield Road , the home of Blackpool , having a capacity of 16 @,@ 220 . The combined total capacity of the Premier League in the 2010 – 11 season is 770 @,@ 477 with an average capacity of 38 @,@ 523 .
Stadium attendances are a significant source of regular income for Premier League clubs . For the 2009 – 10 season , average attendances across the league clubs were 34 @,@ 215 for Premier League matches with a total aggregate attendance figure of 13 @,@ 001 @,@ 616 . This represents an increase of 13 @,@ 089 from the average attendance of 21 @,@ 126 recorded in the league 's first season ( 1992 – 93 ) . However , during the 1992 – 93 season the capacities of most stadiums were reduced as clubs replaced terraces with seats in order to meet the Taylor Report 's 1994 – 95 deadline for all @-@ seater stadiums . The Premier League 's record average attendance of 36 @,@ 144 was set during the 2007 – 08 season . This record was then beaten in the 2013 – 14 season recording an average attendance of 36 @,@ 695 with a total attendance of just under 14 million , the highest average in England 's top flight since 1950 .
= = Managers = =
Managers in the Premier League are involved in the day @-@ to @-@ day running of the team , including the training , team selection , and player acquisition . Their influence varies from club @-@ to @-@ club and is related to the ownership of the club and the relationship of the manager with fans . Managers are required to have a UEFA Pro Licence which is the final coaching qualification available , and follows the completion of the UEFA ' B ' and ' A ' Licences . The UEFA Pro Licence is required by every person who wishes to manage a club in the Premier League on a permanent basis ( i.e. more than 12 weeks – the amount of time an unqualified caretaker manager is allowed to take control ) . Caretaker appointments are managers that fill the gap between a managerial departure and a new appointment . Several caretaker managers have gone on to secure a permanent managerial post after performing well as a caretaker ; examples include Paul Hart at Portsmouth and David Pleat at Tottenham Hotspur .
The league 's longest @-@ serving manager was Alex Ferguson , who was in charge of Manchester United from November 1986 until his retirement at the end of the 2012 – 13 season , meaning that he was manager for all of the first 21 seasons of the Premier League . Arsène Wenger is now the league 's longest @-@ serving current manager , having been in charge of Arsenal in the Premier League since 1996 .
No English manager has won the Premier League ; the eight managers to have won the title comprise two Scots : Alex Ferguson ( Manchester United , 13 wins ) and Kenny Dalglish ( Blackburn Rovers , one win ) , a Frenchman ( Arsène Wenger , Arsenal , three wins ) , a Portuguese ( José Mourinho , Chelsea , three wins ) , a Chilean ( Manuel Pellegrini , Manchester City , one win ) and three Italians ( Carlo Ancelotti , Chelsea , Roberto Mancini , Manchester City , and Claudio Ranieri , Leicester City , one win each ) .
The current managers in the Premier League are :
= = Players = =
= = = Appearances = = =
Ryan Giggs holds the record number of Premier League appearances and he also has 13 Premier League champion 's medals , more than any other player .
= = = Foreign players and transfer regulations = = =
At the inception of the Premier League in 1992 – 93 , just eleven players named in the starting line @-@ ups for the first round of matches hailed from outside of the United Kingdom or Ireland . By 2000 – 01 , the number of foreign players participating in the Premier League was 36 per cent of the total . In the 2004 – 05 season the figure had increased to 45 per cent . On 26 December 1999 , Chelsea became the first Premier League side to field an entirely foreign starting line @-@ up , and on 14 February 2005 Arsenal were the first to name a completely foreign 16 @-@ man squad for a match . By 2009 , under 40 % of the players in the Premier League were English .
In response to concerns that clubs were increasingly passing over young English players in favour of foreign players , in 1999 , the Home Office tightened its rules for granting work permits to players from countries outside of the European Union . A non @-@ EU player applying for the permit must have played for his country in at least 75 per cent of its competitive ' A ' team matches for which he was available for selection during the previous two years , and his country must have averaged at least 70th place in the official FIFA world rankings over the previous two years . If a player does not meet those criteria , the club wishing to sign him may appeal .
Players may only be transferred during transfer windows that are set by the Football Association . The two transfer windows run from the last day of the season to 31 August and from 31 December to 31 January . Player registrations cannot be exchanged outside these windows except under specific licence from the FA , usually on an emergency basis . As of the 2010 – 11 season , the Premier League introduced new rules mandating that each club must register a maximum 25 @-@ man squad of players aged over 21 , with the squad list only allowed to be changed in transfer windows or in exceptional circumstances . This was to enable the ' home grown ' rule to be enacted , whereby the League would also from 2010 require at least 8 of the named 25 man squad to be made up of ' home @-@ grown players ' .
= = = Player wages and transfer fees = = =
There is no team or individual salary cap in the Premier League . As a result of the increasingly lucrative television deals , player wages rose sharply following the formation of the Premier League when the average player wage was £ 75 @,@ 000 per year . The average salary stands at £ 1 @.@ 1 million as of the 2008 – 09 season . As of 2015 , average salaries in the Premier League are higher than for any other football league in the world .
The record transfer fee for a Premier League player has risen steadily over the lifetime of the competition . Prior to the start of the first Premier League season Alan Shearer became the first British player to command a transfer fee of more than £ 3 million . The record rose steadily in the Premier League 's first few seasons , until Alan Shearer made a record breaking £ 15 million move to Newcastle United in 1996 . The three highest transfer in the sport 's history had a Premier League club on the selling end , with Tottenham Hotspur selling Gareth Bale to Real Madrid for £ 85 million in 2013 , Manchester United 's sale of Cristiano Ronaldo to Real Madrid for £ 80 million in 2009 , and Liverpool selling Luis Suárez to Barcelona for £ 75 million in 2014 .
= = = Top scorers = = =
As of 17 January 2016 .
Italics denotes players still playing professional football , Bold denotes players still playing in the Premier League .
The Golden Boot is awarded to the top Premier League scorer at the end of each season . Former Blackburn Rovers and Newcastle United striker Alan Shearer holds the record for most Premier League goals with 260 . Twenty @-@ four players have reached the 100 @-@ goal mark . Since the first Premier League season in 1992 – 93 , 14 different players from 10 different clubs have won or shared the top scorers title . Thierry Henry won his fourth overall scoring title by scoring 27 goals in the 2005 – 06 season . Andrew Cole and Alan Shearer hold the record for most goals in a season ( 34 ) – for Newcastle and Blackburn respectively . Ryan Giggs of Manchester United holds the record for scoring goals in consecutive seasons , having scored in the first 21 seasons of the league .
= = Awards = =
= = = Trophy = = =
The Premier League maintains two trophies – the genuine trophy ( held by the reigning champions ) and a spare replica . Two trophies are held in the event that two different clubs could win the League on the final day of the season . In the rare event that more than two clubs are vying for the title on the final day of the season – then a replica won by a previous club is used .
The current Premier League trophy was created by Royal Jewellers Asprey of London . It consists of a trophy with a golden crown and a malachite plinth base . The plinth weighs 33 pounds ( 15 kg ) and the trophy weighs 22 pounds ( 10 @.@ 0 kg ) . The trophy and plinth are 76 cm ( 30 in ) tall , 43 cm ( 17 in ) wide and 25 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) deep .
Its main body is solid sterling silver and silver gilt , while its plinth is made of malachite , a semi @-@ precious stone . The plinth has a silver band around its circumference , upon which the names of the title @-@ winning clubs are listed . Malachite 's green colour is also representative of the green field of play . The design of the trophy is based on the heraldry of Three Lions that is associated with English football . Two of the lions are found above the handles on either side of the trophy – the third is symbolised by the captain of the title winning team as he raises the trophy , and its gold crown , above his head at the end of the season . The ribbons that drape the handles are presented in the team colours of the league champions that year .
In 2004 , a special gold version of the trophy was commissioned to commemorate Arsenal winning the title without a single defeat .
= = = Player and manager awards = = =
In addition to the winner 's trophy and the individual winner 's medals awarded to players , the Premier League also awards the monthly Manager of the Month and Player of the Month awards , as well as annual awards for Manager of the Season , Player of the Season , Golden Boot and the Golden Glove awards .
= = = 20 Seasons Awards = = =
In 2012 , the Premier League celebrated its second decade by holding the 20 Seasons Awards :
Fantasy Team of the 20 Seasons
Panel Choice : Peter Schmeichel , Gary Neville , Tony Adams , Rio Ferdinand , Ashley Cole , Cristiano Ronaldo , Roy Keane , Paul Scholes , Ryan Giggs , Thierry Henry , Alan Shearer
Public Vote : Peter Schmeichel , Gary Neville , Tony Adams , Nemanja Vidić , Ashley Cole , Cristiano Ronaldo , Steven Gerrard , Paul Scholes , Ryan Giggs , Thierry Henry , Alan Shearer
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= Max @-@ Hellmuth Ostermann =
Max @-@ Hellmuth Ostermann ( 11 December 1917 – 9 August 1942 ) was a German Luftwaffe fighter ace during World War II . A flying ace or fighter ace is a military aviator credited with shooting down five or more enemy aircraft during aerial combat . He is credited with 102 enemy aircraft shot down claimed in over 300 combat missions . The majority of his victories were claimed over the Eastern Front with eight claims over the Western Front and one over Belgrade . Ostermann was of such short height that wooden blocks had to be attached to his rudder pedals for him to engage in tight turning aerial combat .
Ostermann was born in Hamburg on 11 December 1917 . He joined the military service of the Luftwaffe in 1937 and was trained as a pilot . After a brief period with Zerstörergeschwader 1 ( ZG 1 ) , a heavy fighter unit , he was transferred to Jagdgeschwader 54 ( JG 54 ) . He participated in the Battle of France and Britain before transferring east . He became the sixth fighter pilot in aviation history to achieve 100 aerial victories on the Eastern Front for which he was awarded Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords . He was killed in aerial combat with Soviet fighters southeast of Lake Ilmen on 9 August 1942 .
= = Early life and career = =
Max @-@ Hellmuth Ostermann was born on 11 December 1917 in Hamburg . His father was a civil servant in the justice department . Ostermann joined the Luftwaffe as a Fahnenjunker ( Officer Cadet ) in March 1937 after he had received his Abitur ( diploma ) — the final exams that pupils take at the end of their secondary education . His first assignment was with I. Gruppe ( 1st group ) Zerstörergeschwader 1 ( ZG 1 ) flying the Messerschmitt Bf 110 and participated in the Invasion of Poland in 1939 . In January 1940 Hauptmann ( Captain ) Wolfgang Falck took command of I. / ZG 1 . Falck came to the opinion that the Bf 110 was just a little too big for Ostermann and had him transferred to the Messerschmitt Bf 109 equipped I. / Jagdgeschwader 21 ( JG 21 ) on 7 April 1940 . JG 21 at the time was based at Mönchengladbach and was subordinated to Oberstleutnant ( Lieutenant Colonel ) Max Ibel , the Geschwaderkommodore ( Wing Commander ) of Jagdgeschwader 27 .
He claimed his first of two aerial victories in the Battle of France on 20 May 1940 . Ostermann had been entrusted with leading a Rotte , an element of two aircraft , with Unteroffizier ( non @-@ commissioned officer ) Fritz Marcks as his wingman . The Schwarm ( flight ) led by Oberleutnant ( Senior Lieutenant or First Lieutenant ) Günther Scholz engaged eight French Morane @-@ Saulnier M.S.406 's fighters near Amiens with Ostermann , Marcks and Scholz claiming one each . His second aerial victory was achieved over a Curtiss Hawk @-@ 75 on 26 May 1940 . In a head on firing pass two 20mm shells tore off large parts of the aircraft 's tail fin , which then collided with Osterrmann 's starboard wing . The French pilot was observed to bail out with Ostermann managing to make a safe landing .
By the time I. / JG 21 was ordered to the coastal area of the English Channel the Gruppe was redesignated III . / Jagdgeschwader 54 ( JG 54 ) . Ostermann 's third aerial victory on 12 August 1940 may have been over Flight Lieutenant E.B.B. Smith of No. 610 Squadron RAF , who bailed out of his Supermarine Spitfire I K9818 . Smith was rescued from the Channel and hospitalized . On 8 October 1940 Ostermann claimed his 7th aerial victory of the war and 5th of the Battle of Britain . His opponent may have been the Czech Sergeant Josef František who was killed flying Hurricane Mk . I R4175 from No. 303 Polish Fighter Squadron near Sutton , west of Croydon , in the southern outskirts of London that day . The reason for his fatal crash remains unclear . Apart from Ostermann 's claim , Leutnant ( Second Lieutenant ) Max Clerico and Feldwebel ( Sergeant or warrant officer ) Fritz Oeltjens also claimed one aircraft each at the same time and in the same vicinity . On 5 September 1940 III . / JG 54 's Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) failed to return from a mission and Geschwaderkommodore Hannes Trautloft temporarily appointed Oberleutnant Günther Scholz to lead the Gruppe . The leadership of 7 . Staffel ( 7th squadron ) was filled by Oberleutnant Hans @-@ Ekkehard Bob , who became one of Ostermann 's mentors . During an escort mission on 30 September 1940 , Bob and Ostermann claimed one Spitfire shot down each . In return Ostermann 's wingman was shot down and made a forced landing at Bexhill . He radioed his fellow pilots :
Spinat vier meldet sich ab nach Kanada — Spinach 4 reports off for Canada
His aerial victory on 20 October 1940 over a No. 74 Squadron RAF Spitfire was his sixth — his eight overall — victory over Royal Air Force ( RAF ) fighters and his last during the Battle of Britain . The following day III . / JG 54 was instructed to relocate . Five month later following a long combat pause , JG 54 was moved to the south @-@ east to counter the pro @-@ British coup d 'état in Belgrade , Yugoslavia . He claimed his ninth victory over a Yugoslav Royal Air Force Messerschmitt Bf 109 E @-@ 3 , piloted by Karlo Štrebenk who was killed , on 6 April 1941 over Belgrade during the Balkans Campaign .
= = Eastern Front = =
On 23 June 1941 , during the opening phase of Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union , Ostermann , in a free @-@ hunting mission in the Lithuanian airspace north of Kaunas , intercepted a formation of nine Tupolev SB 's and claimed two shot down in flames . Leutnant Ostermann survived a belly landing following combat with more SBs in south @-@ eastern Latvia on 26 June . On 5 July he claimed three SB @-@ 3 Soviet bombers in combat over the Velikaya River at Ostrov . He claimed his 19th and 20th aerial victory on 6 July in the same combat area . On the Eastern Front he claimed JG 54 's 1,000th victory of the war on 1 August 1941 . He became the eighth member of JG 54 to receive the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 4 September 1941 after 29 aerial victories . The award was presented on 10 September 1941 in Dno by Generaloberst ( Colonel General ) Alfred Keller . He claimed his 50th aerial victory on 9 January 1942 , the 60th on 28 January 1942 and the 70th on 19 February 1942 . After this series of aerial victories Ostermann was sent on home leave . The reason for his leave was that he wanted to get married . Back home , on his way to his wedding ceremony , Ostermann was arrested and put in jail . A German police officer had assumed that Ostermann , with his childlike features , was actually a schoolboy who was playing a prank and illegally wearing a Luftwaffe uniform and military decorations . The consequences endured by the police officer for his bad judgement remain unknown .
After he received the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves for 62 aerial victories on 12 March 1942 he was appointed Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) of the 8 . / JG 54 ( 8th squadron ) . His 80th and 81st aerial victory were claimed on 19 March 1942 followed by victories number 89 and 90 on 27 April 1942 . Ostermann claimed his 100th aerial victory on 12 May 1942 , the second JG 54 pilot — Hans Philipp was the first — and sixth overall to achieve the century , though in the same engagement his Bf 109F @-@ 4 was hit and damaged . Ostermann himself was hit in the right arm and upper thigh . Although severely wounded , he managed to return to his home airfield . Five days later , while in the hospital , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves with Swords . The award was presented at the Führerhauptquartier " Wolf 's Lair " ( Wolfsschanze ) at Rastenburg on 28 and 29 June 1942 .
Ostermann was killed in action on 9 August 1942 far behind Soviet lines east of Lake Ilmen . He and his wingman Unteroffizier Heinrich Bosnin were flying at an altitude of 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) when they spotted a formation of nine Curtiss P @-@ 40 's . Ostermann shot down the rear P @-@ 40 . The two were reforming to make a second attack when they themselves were attacked from behind by a group of Soviet fighters emerging from the broken cloud cover . Ostermann 's Bf 109G @-@ 2 ( Werknummer 10438 — factory number ) was hit in the cockpit by 41 IAP 's ( 41st Fighter Aviation Regiment ) Starshiy Leytenant ( First Lieutenant ) Arkadiy Sukov flying a LaGG @-@ 3 . The aircraft rolled over and crashed into the edge of a small wood . After Werner Mölders and Leopold Steinbatz , Ostermann was the third of 45 recipients of the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords to die in World War II . This made him the first living Swords recipient to be lost in actual air combat , as Mölders death was accidental and Steinbatz had only received the Oak Leaves before he died .
= = Awards = =
Wound Badge in Black
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe in Gold with Pennant " 300 "
Combined Pilots @-@ Observation Badge
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 31 May 1940 )
1st Class ( 1940 )
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords
Knight 's Cross on 4 September 1941 as Leutnant and pilot in the 7 . / Jagdgeschwader 54
81st Oak Leaves on 12 March 1942 as Oberleutnant and Staffelkapitän of the 7 . / Jagdgeschwader 54
10th Swords on 17 May 1942 as Oberleutnant and Staffelkapitän of the 7 . / Jagdgeschwader 54
Mentioned four times in the Wehrmachtbericht
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= Sakhalin Koreans =
Sakhalin Koreans are Russian citizens and residents of Korean descent living on Sakhalin Island , who trace their roots to the immigrants from the Gyeongsang and Jeolla provinces of Korea during the late 1930s and early 1940s , the latter half of the Japanese colonial era . At the time , the southern half of Sakhalin Island , then known as Karafuto Prefecture , was under the control of the Empire of Japan ; the Japanese government both recruited and forced Korean labourers into service and shipped them to Karafuto to fill labour shortages resulting from World War II . The Red Army invaded Karafuto days before Japan 's surrender ; while all but a few Japanese there repatriated successfully , almost one @-@ third of the Koreans could not secure permission to depart either to Japan or their home towns in South Korea . For the next forty years , they lived in exile . In 1985 , the Japanese government offered transit rights and funding for the repatriation of the original group of Sakhalin Koreans ; however , only 1 @,@ 500 of them returned to South Korea in the next two decades . The vast majority of Koreans of all generations chose instead to stay on Sakhalin .
Due to differing language and immigration history , Sakhalin Koreans may or may not identify themselves as Koryo @-@ saram . The term " Koryo @-@ saram " may be used to encompass to all Koreans in the former USSR , but typically refers to ethnic Koreans from Hamgyŏng province whose ancestors emigrated to the Russian Far East in the 19th century , and then were later deported to Central Asia . The issue of self @-@ identification is complicated by the fact that many Sakhalin Koreans feel that Koreans from Central Asia look down on them .
= = History = =
= = = Under Japanese colonialism = = =
= = = = Origins = = = =
Korean immigration to Sakhalin began as early as the 1910s , when the Mitsui Group began recruiting labourers from the peninsula for their mining operations . In 1920 , ten years after the annexation of Korea by Japan , there were fewer than one thousand Koreans in the whole of Karafuto Prefecture , overwhelmingly male . Aside from an influx of refugees from the Maritimes , who escaped to Karafuto during the Russian Revolution of 1917 , the number of Koreans in the province did not rise very rapidly ; as late as the mid @-@ 1930s , there were fewer than 6 @,@ 000 Koreans in Karafuto . However , as Japan 's war effort picked up , the Japanese government sought to put more people on the ground in the sparsely @-@ populated prefecture in order to ensure their control of the territory and fill the increasing demands of the coal mines and lumber yards . Recruiters turned to sourcing workers from the Korean peninsula to take advantage of the low wages there ; at one point , over 150 @,@ 000 Koreans worked on the island . Of those , around 10 @,@ 000 mine workers were relocated to Japan prior to the war 's end ; present @-@ day Sakhalin Koreans ' efforts to locate them proved futile .
The Imperial Japanese Army in Karafuto frequently used local ethnic minorities ( Oroks , Nivkhs , and Ainu ) to conduct intelligence @-@ gathering activities , because , as indigenous inhabitants , their presence would not arouse suspicion on the Soviet half of the island . Ethnic Koreans could also be found on both sides of the border , but the use of Koreans as spies was not common , as the Karafuto police were wary of the support for the independence movement among Koreans . Soviet suspicion towards Korean nationalism , along with fears that the Korean community might harbour Japanese spies , led to the 1937 deportation of Koreans from Soviet @-@ controlled northern Sakhalin and the Russian Far East .
= = = = Soviet invasion and Japanese massacres = = = =
The Soviet Union invaded the Japanese portion of Sakhalin on August 11 , 1945 , resulting the deaths of 20 @,@ 000 civilians ( see Soviet – Japanese War ( 1945 ) ) . In the confusion that ensued , a rumour began to spread that ethnic Koreans could be serving as spies for the Soviet Union , and led to massacres of Koreans by Japanese police and civilians . Despite the generally limited amount of information about the massacres , two examples of massacres are comparatively well @-@ known today : the incident in Kamishisuka ( now Leonidovo ) on August 18 , 1945 , and the incident in Mizuho Village ( now Pozharskoye ) , which lasted from August 20 to August 23 , 1945 .
In Kamishisuka , the Japanese police arrested 19 Koreans on charges of spy activities ; 18 were found shot within the police station the next day . The sole survivor , a Korean known only by his Japanese name Nakata , had survived by hiding in a toilet ; he later offered testimony about the event . In Mizuho Village , Japanese fleeing Soviet troops who had landed at Maoka ( now Kholmsk ) claimed that the Koreans were cooperating with the Red Army and that they were pillaging Japanese property . Though Koreans and Japanese worked alongside each other in the village on farms and construction projects , the Japanese civilians turned against their Korean neighbors , killing 27 between August 20 and 23 . Other individual Koreans may have been killed to cover up evidence of Japanese atrocities committed during the evacuation : one woman interviewed by a US @-@ Russian joint commission investigating the issue of Allied prisoners of war held by the Imperial Japanese Army in camps on Sakhalin reported that her ethnic Korean lover had been murdered by Japanese troops after he had witnessed mass shootings of hundreds of American prisoners of war .
= = = Integration into the Soviet Union = = =
= = = = Repatriation refused = = = =
In the years after the Soviet invasion , most of the 400 @,@ 000 Japanese civilians who had not already been evacuated during the war left voluntarily under the auspices of the US @-@ USSR Agreement on Repatriation of those left in the USSR , signed in December 1946 . Many of the 150 @,@ 000 Koreans on the island safely returned to mainland Japan , and some went to the northern half of the Korean peninsula ; however , roughly 43 @,@ 000 were not accepted for repatriation by Japan , and also could not be repatriated to the southern half of the Korean peninsula due to the political situation ; The Soviet government initially had drawn up plans to repatriate the Koreans along with the Japanese , but the local administration on Sakhalin objected , arguing that incoming Russians from the mainland would not be sufficient to replace the skilled labourers who had already departed . The indecision about the ultimate fate of the Sakhalin Koreans persisted until the outbreak of the Korean War , after which repatriation became a political impossibility . Some sources claim Stalin himself blocked their departure because he wanted to retain them as coal miners on the island . In 1957 , Seoul appealed for Tokyo 's assistance to secure the departure of ethnic Koreans from Sakhalin via Japan , but Tokyo took no real action on the request , and blamed Soviet intransigence for the lack of progress in resolving the issue ; Japan continued its earlier policy of granting entrance only to Sakhalin Koreans who were married to Japanese citizens , or had a Japanese parent .
During the late 1940s , the ranks of ethnic Koreans on the island were augmented by another 8 @,@ 000 North Korean expatriates , recruited by the Soviet government to work in state @-@ owned fisheries .
In an effort to integrate the Korean labourers , who were unfamiliar with the Soviet system and unable to speak Russian , local authorities set up schools using the Korean language as the medium of instruction . However , the Sakhalin Koreans were believed to have been " infected with the Japanese spirit " , and so for the most part the authorities did not trust them to run any of their own collective farms , mills , factories , schools , or hospitals . Instead , these tasks were left to several hundred ethnic Koreans imported from Central Asia , who were bilingual in Russian and Korean . Resentment towards the social dominance of Koreans from Central Asia over the Sakhalin Koreans led to tensions between the two groups ; the latter developed a number of disparaging terms in Korean to refer to the former .
The Sakhalin government 's policy towards the Sakhalin Koreans continued to shift in line with bilateral relations between North Korea and the Soviet Union . During the 1950s , North Korea demanded that the Soviets treat Sakhalin Koreans as North Korean citizens , and , through their consulate , even set up study groups and other educational facilities for them ( analogous to Chongryon 's similar , more successful efforts among the Zainichi Koreans ) . During the late 1950s , it became increasingly difficult for the Sakhalin Koreans to obtain Soviet citizenship , and a growing proportion chose instead to become North Korean citizens rather to than deal with the burdens of remaining stateless , which included severe restrictions on their freedom of movement and the requirement to apply for permission from the local government in order to travel outside of Sakhalin . As of 1960 , only 25 % had been able to secure Soviet citizenship ; 65 % had declared North Korean citizenship , with the remaining 10 % choosing to remain unaffiliated despite the difficulties this entailed . However , as relations between the Soviet Union and North Korea deteriorated , the authorities acted to de @-@ emphasise Korean language education and reduce the influence of North Korea within the community ; by the early 1970s , Sakhalin Koreans were once again encouraged to apply for Soviet citizenship .
= = = = Attention from the outside world = = = =
In the late 1960s and early 1970s , the situation of the Sakhalin Koreans improved as the outside world began to pay much more attention to their situation . Starting in 1966 , Park No Hak , a former Sakhalin Korean who had earlier received permission to leave Sakhalin and settle in Japan by virtue of his having a Japanese wife , petitioned the Japanese government a total of 23 times to discuss the issue of the Sakhalin Koreans with the Soviet government . His actions inspired 500 @,@ 000 South Koreans to form an organisation to work towards the repatriation of their co @-@ ethnics ; in response , the South Korean began radio broadcasts targeted at the Sakhalin Koreans , in an effort to assure them that they had not been forgotten . At the same time , Rei Mihara , a Tokyo housewife , formed a similar pressure group in Japan , and 18 Japanese lawyers attempted to sue the Japanese government to force them to accept diplomatic and financial responsibility for the transportation of the Sakhalin Koreans and their return to South Korea .
Additionally , the Soviet government finally began to permit the Sakhalin Koreans to naturalize . However , as many as 10 % continued to refuse both Soviet and North Korean citizenship , and demanded repatriation to South Korea . By 1976 , only 2 @,@ 000 more of their population had been able to obtain permission to depart from Sakhalin , but that year , the Sakhalin government made a public announcement that people seeking to emigrate to South Korea could simply show up at the Immigration Office to file an application . Within a week , they had received more than 800 such applications , including some from North Korean citizens ; this caused the North Korean embassy to complain to their Soviet counterparts about the new emigration policy . The Soviet authorities in the end chose for unspecified reasons to refuse to issue exit visas to most of those concerned , leading to the unusual case of public demonstrations about the refusals by Korean families . This level of open dissent provoked the authorities to completely reverse their liberalising stance towards the Sakhalin Koreans ; they arrested more than 40 protestors , and in November 1976 deported them , but to North Korea rather than to the South as they desired . Further purges and intimidation of those seeking to emigrate also followed . Through to the early 1980s , locally born Korean youth , increasingly interested in their heritage , were seen as traitors by their Russian neighbours for wanting to know more about their ancestral land and for seeking to emigrate . The nadir of ethnic relations came after the 1983 shooting @-@ down of Korean Air Lines Flight 007 by the Soviet Union .
= = = Perestroika , glasnost , and the post @-@ Soviet period = = =
= = = = Improving relations with Japan = = = =
In 1985 , Japan agreed to approve transit rights and fund the repatriation of the first generation of Sakhalin Koreans ; the Soviet Union also began to liberalize their emigration laws in 1987 . As of 2001 , Japan spends US $ 1 @.@ 2 million a year to fund Sakhalin Koreans ' visits to Seoul . The Foreign Ministry allocated about $ 5 million to build a cultural centre in Sakhalin , which was intended to feature a library , an exhibition hall , Korean language classrooms , and other facilities , but as of 2004 , the project had not begun , causing protests among the Sakhalin Koreans .
On April 18 , 1990 , Taro Nakayama , Japan 's Minister for Foreign Affairs , stated :
" Japan is deeply sorry for the tragedy in which these ( Korean ) people were moved to Sakhalin not of their own free will but by the design of the Japanese government and had to remain there after the conclusion of the war " .
The foreign trade of Sakhalin with Japan is still roughly four times that with Korea , and Japanese companies greatly outnumber their Korean on the island . As a result , while members of the first generation still carry anti @-@ Japanese sentiment , the younger generations have developed an interest in Japanese culture and have taken up the study of the Japanese language , much to the consternation of their elders . On October 28 , 2006 , a Korean student from the Sakhalin State University placed second in the All @-@ CIS Japanese Language Students Competition .
= = = = North and South Korean influence = = = =
During the 1990s , commerce , communication , and direct flights opened up between Sakhalin and South Korea , and the two Koreas began to vie openly for influence among the Sakhalin Koreans . Television and radio programmes from both North and South Korea , as well as local programming , began to be broadcast on Sakhalin Korean Broadcasting , the only Korean television station in all of Russia . North Korea negotiated with Russia for closer economic relations with Sakhalin , and recently sponsored an art show in Yuzhno @-@ Sakhalinsk . They have also permitted delegations of Sakhalin Koreans to visit relatives in North Korea . Scholarly studies suggest that roughly 1 @,@ 000 Sakhalin Koreans have opted to repatriate to North Korea , but the rise of the South Korean economy combined with the ongoing economic and political turmoil in the North have made this option less attractive . Sakhalin Koreans have also provided assistance to refugees fleeing North Korea , either those who illegally escaped across the border , or those who escaped North Korean labour camps in Russia itself .
South Korea and Japan jointly funded the building of a nursing home for elderly Sakhalin Koreans in Ansan , a suburb of Seoul , and under the auspices of the Korean Red Cross , 1 @,@ 544 people had settled there and in other locations by the end of 2002 , while another 14 @,@ 122 had travelled to South Korea on short @-@ term visits at Japanese government expense . South Korean investors also began to participate in the international tenders for works contracts to develop the Sakhalin Shelf , as they are interested in the potential supply of liquefied natural gas . By the year 2000 , South Korean missionaries had opened several churches , and South Koreans comprised the majority of international students at the Sakhalin State University . The Korean Residents ' Association on Sakhalin , an ethnic representative body , is generally described as being pro @-@ South Korean , analogous to Japan 's Mindan . In addition to the elderly , a few younger Koreans have also chosen to move to South Korea , either to find their roots , or for economic reasons , as wages in South Korea are as much as three times those in Sakhalin . However , upon arrival , they often find that they are viewed as foreigners by the South Korean locals , despite their previous exposure to Korean culture in Sakhalin . As one returnee put it , " Sakhalin Koreans live in a different world than Sakhalin Russians but that world isn ’ t Korea " . In general , younger Sakhalin Koreans , especially those lacking fluency in the Korean language , prefer to stay on Sakhalin . Of the 1 @,@ 544 Koreans who repatriated to South Korea as of 2005 , nearly 10 % eventually returned to Sakhalin . Conversely , some foreign students from Korea studying in Sakhalin also reported difficulties in befriending local Koreans , claiming that the latter looked down on them for being foreigners .
= = = = Local interethnic relations = = = =
In the late 1980s , suspicions against the Sakhalin Koreans remained . With the relaxation of internal migration controls and the dissolution of the Soviet Union , Russians began moving en masse back to the mainland , making ethnic Koreans an increasing proportion of the population ; there were fears that they might become a majority of the island 's population , and seek an autonomous republic or even independence . However , the rise of the regional economy and the cultural assimilation of the younger generations drove more than 95 % of Koreans to stay in Sakhalin or move to the Russian Far East rather than leave for South Korea , as they have come to consider Russia their home country . The Sakhalin Koreans ' family connections in South Korea have benefited even those who remained on Sakhalin with easier access to South Korean business and imports ; trade with South Korea has brought the Sakhalin Koreans a better economic standing than the average resident of Sakhalin . By 2004 , inter @-@ ethnic relations between Russians and Koreans had improved greatly and were generally not described as being a problem on Sakhalin . However , Sakhalin Koreans who have travelled to the mainland of Russia , or have relocated to there ( a population of roughly 10 @,@ 000 ) , report that they have encountered various forms of racism .
Among the Koreans who remain on Sakhalin , roughly 7 @,@ 000 of the original generation of settlers survive , while their locally born descendants make up the rest of the local Korean population . They are highly urbanized ; half live in the administrative centre of Yuzhno @-@ Sakhalinsk , where Koreans constitute nearly 12 % of the population . Around thirty per cent of Sakhalin ’ s thirty thousand Koreans still have not taken Russian citizenship . Unlike ethnic Russians or other local minority groups , Sakhalin Koreans are exempted from conscription , but there have been calls for this exemption to be terminated .
= = Culture = =
= = = Personal and family names = = =
See also List of Korean family names and Cyrillization of Korean .
Korean surnames , when Cyrillized , may be spelled slightly differently from the romanisations used in the US ; the resulting common pronunciations also differ , as can be seen in the table at right . Furthermore , Korean naming practices and Russian naming practices conflict in several important ways . While most members of the older generations of Sakhalin Koreans used Korean names , members of the younger generations favor their Russian names . However , with the increasing exposure to South Korean pop culture , some younger Koreans have named their children after characters in Korean television dramas . The use of patronymics is not widespread .
In addition to Korean names , the oldest generation of Sakhalin Koreans are often legally registered under Japanese names , which they had originally adopted due to the sōshi @-@ kaimei policy of the Japanese colonial era . After the Soviet invasion , the Sakhalin authorities conducted name registration for the local Koreans on the basis of the Japanese identity documents issued by the old Karafuto government ; as of 2006 , the Russian government uniformly refused requests for re @-@ registration under Korean names .
= = = Language = = =
Due to their greater population density and expectation that they would one day be allowed to return to Korea , the Sakhalin Koreans have kept something of a sojourner mentality rather than a settler mentality , which influenced their relation to the surrounding society ; even today , they tend to speak much better Korean than those who were deported to Central Asia . A weekly Korean language newspaper , the Saegoryeo Shinmun ( 새고려 신문 ) , has been published since 1949 , while Sakhalin Korean Broadcasting began operation in 1956 . Korean @-@ language television programmes are broadcast locally , but typically with Russian subtitles . Additionally , during the Soviet era , Sakhalin Koreans were often hired to act as announcers and writers for official media aimed at the Koryo @-@ saram in Central Asia . However , unlike the Koryo @-@ saram , the spoken Korean of Sakhalin is not very closely related to Hamgyŏng dialect or Koryo @-@ mar , but is instead descended from Jeolla and Gyeongsang dialects . As a result of the diplomatic situation up until the 1980s , during which South Korea had no relations with the Soviet Union , Korean @-@ language instructional materials were provided by North Korea or developed domestically . Oddly enough , as a result , Sakhalin Koreans ' writing , like that of Koryo @-@ saram , follows the North Korean standard , but their spoken Korean in radio broadcasts has come to resemble the Seoul dialect of South Korea .
= = = Religion = = =
Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union , there has been significant growth in religious activities among the Sakhalin Koreans ; the establishment of churches was noted in scholarly articles as early as 1990 . Christian hymns have become popular listening material , supplementing the more typical Russian , Western , and Korean pop music . Korean churches also broadcast religious content through Sakhalin Korean Broadcasting ; a Baptist church run by ethnic Koreans sponsors a journalist there . However , large @-@ scale religious events can be subjected to restriction by the government authorities : in June 1998 the local Russian Orthodox Church and the regional administration of Sakhalin successfully pressured Korean Presbyterian missionaries to cancel a conference of more than 100 Presbyterian and other Protestant missionaries from around the former Soviet Union . Ethnic Koreans are numerous among the church @-@ goers of the Roman Catholic parish of St. James in Yuzhno @-@ Sakhalinsk . Catholic missions in Kholmsk and Aniva have also a fair amount of Korean parishioners .
= = = Music = = =
In one survey , a third of the Sakhalin Korean population expressed a preference for traditional Korean music , a far higher proportion than in any other ethnic Korean community surveyed . However , despite their better knowledge of Korean language , the same survey showed that Korean pop music is less widespread among Sakhalin Koreans than among ethnic Koreans in Kazakhstan , possessing about the same degree of popularity as in Uzbekistan . Sakhalin Koreans also reported listening to Western popular and classical music at much lower rates than Koreans in the rest of the former Soviet Union . Study of traditional Korean musical instruments has also been gaining popularity across all generations . The Ethnos Arts School was established in 1991 in Yuzhno @-@ Sakhalinsk to teach children 's classes in traditional Korean dance , piano , sight singing , and the gayageum , a zither @-@ like instrument supposedly invented around the time of the Gaya confederacy .
= = Prominent Sakhalin Koreans = =
Park Hae Yong , head of the Korean Residents ' Association on Sakhalin
Kim Chun Ja , editor in chief of Sakhalin Korean Broadcasting
Lee Hoesung , Zainichi Korean author , born in Karafuto and later repatriated to Japan
Nellie Kim , world and Olympic champion in artistic gymnastics
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= Brain =
The brain is an organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals . Only a few invertebrates such as sponges , jellyfish , adult sea squirts and starfish do not have a brain ; diffuse or localised nerve nets are present instead . The brain is located in the head , usually close to the primary sensory organs for such senses as vision , hearing , balance , taste , and smell . The brain is the most complex organ in a vertebrate 's body . In a typical human , the cerebral cortex ( the largest part ) is estimated to contain 15 – 33 billion neurons , each connected by synapses to several thousand other neurons . These neurons communicate with one another by means of long protoplasmic fibers called axons , which carry trains of signal pulses called action potentials to distant parts of the brain or body targeting specific recipient cells .
Physiologically , the function of the brain is to exert centralized control over the other organs of the body . The brain acts on the rest of the body both by generating patterns of muscle activity and by driving the secretion of chemicals called hormones . This centralized control allows rapid and coordinated responses to changes in the environment . Some basic types of responsiveness such as reflexes can be mediated by the spinal cord or peripheral ganglia , but sophisticated purposeful control of behavior based on complex sensory input requires the information integrating capabilities of a centralized brain .
The operations of individual brain cells are now understood in considerable detail but the way they cooperate in ensembles of millions is yet to be solved . Recent models in modern neuroscience treat the brain as a biological computer , very different in mechanism from an electronic computer , but similar in the sense that it acquires information from the surrounding world , stores it , and processes it in a variety of ways , analogous to the central processing unit ( CPU ) in a computer .
This article compares the properties of brains across the entire range of animal species , with the greatest attention to vertebrates . It deals with the human brain insofar as it shares the properties of other brains . The ways in which the human brain differs from other brains are covered in the human brain article . Several topics that might be covered here are instead covered there because much more can be said about them in a human context . The most important is brain disease and the effects of brain damage , covered in the human brain article because the most common diseases of the human brain either do not show up in other species , or else manifest themselves in different ways .
= = Anatomy = =
The shape and size of the brain varies greatly in different species , and identifying common features is often difficult . Nevertheless , there are a number of principles of brain architecture that apply across a wide range of species . Some aspects of brain structure are common to almost the entire range of animal species ; others distinguish " advanced " brains from more primitive ones , or distinguish vertebrates from invertebrates .
The simplest way to gain information about brain anatomy is by visual inspection , but many more sophisticated techniques have been developed . Brain tissue in its natural state is too soft to work with , but it can be hardened by immersion in alcohol or other fixatives , and then sliced apart for examination of the interior . Visually , the interior of the brain consists of areas of so @-@ called grey matter , with a dark color , separated by areas of white matter , with a lighter color . Further information can be gained by staining slices of brain tissue with a variety of chemicals that bring out areas where specific types of molecules are present in high concentrations . It is also possible to examine the microstructure of brain tissue using a microscope , and to trace the pattern of connections from one brain area to another .
= = = Cellular structure = = =
The brains of all species are composed primarily of two broad classes of cells : neurons and glial cells . Glial cells ( also known as glia or neuroglia ) come in several types , and perform a number of critical functions , including structural support , metabolic support , insulation , and guidance of development . Neurons , however , are usually considered the most important cells in the brain . The property that makes neurons unique is their ability to send signals to specific target cells over long distances . They send these signals by means of an axon , which is a thin protoplasmic fiber that extends from the cell body and projects , usually with numerous branches , to other areas , sometimes nearby , sometimes in distant parts of the brain or body . The length of an axon can be extraordinary : for example , if a pyramidal cell , ( an excitatory neuron ) of the cerebral cortex were magnified so that its cell body became the size of a human body , its axon , equally magnified , would become a cable a few centimeters in diameter , extending more than a kilometer . These axons transmit signals in the form of electrochemical pulses called action potentials , which last less than a thousandth of a second and travel along the axon at speeds of 1 – 100 meters per second . Some neurons emit action potentials constantly , at rates of 10 – 100 per second , usually in irregular patterns ; other neurons are quiet most of the time , but occasionally emit a burst of action potentials .
Axons transmit signals to other neurons by means of specialized junctions called synapses . A single axon may make as many as several thousand synaptic connections with other cells . When an action potential , traveling along an axon , arrives at a synapse , it causes a chemical called a neurotransmitter to be released . The neurotransmitter binds to receptor molecules in the membrane of the target cell .
Synapses are the key functional elements of the brain . The essential function of the brain is cell @-@ to @-@ cell communication , and synapses are the points at which communication occurs . The human brain has been estimated to contain approximately 100 trillion synapses ; even the brain of a fruit fly contains several million . The functions of these synapses are very diverse : some are excitatory ( exciting the target cell ) ; others are inhibitory ; others work by activating second messenger systems that change the internal chemistry of their target cells in complex ways . A large number of synapses are dynamically modifiable ; that is , they are capable of changing strength in a way that is controlled by the patterns of signals that pass through them . It is widely believed that activity @-@ dependent modification of synapses is the brain 's primary mechanism for learning and memory .
Most of the space in the brain is taken up by axons , which are often bundled together in what are called nerve fiber tracts . A myelinated axon is wrapped in a fatty insulating sheath of myelin , which serves to greatly increase the speed of signal propagation . ( There are also unmyelinated axons ) . Myelin is white , making parts of the brain filled exclusively with nerve fibers appear as light @-@ colored white matter , in contrast to the darker @-@ colored grey matter that marks areas with high densities of neuron cell bodies .
= = = Evolution = = =
= = = = Generic bilaterian nervous system = = = =
Except for a few primitive organisms such as sponges ( which have no nervous system ) and cnidarians ( which have a nervous system consisting of a diffuse nerve net ) , all living multicellular animals are bilaterians , meaning animals with a bilaterally symmetric body shape ( that is , left and right sides that are approximate mirror images of each other ) . All bilaterians are thought to have descended from a common ancestor that appeared early in the Cambrian period , 485 @-@ 540 million years ago , and it has been hypothesized that this common ancestor had the shape of a simple tubeworm with a segmented body . At a schematic level , that basic worm @-@ shape continues to be reflected in the body and nervous system architecture of all modern bilaterians , including vertebrates . The fundamental bilateral body form is a tube with a hollow gut cavity running from the mouth to the anus , and a nerve cord with an enlargement ( a ganglion ) for each body segment , with an especially large ganglion at the front , called the brain . The brain is small and simple in some species , such as nematode worms ; in other species , including vertebrates , it is the most complex organ in the body . Some types of worms , such as leeches , also have an enlarged ganglion at the back end of the nerve cord , known as a " tail brain " .
There are a few types of existing bilaterians that lack a recognizable brain , including echinoderms , tunicates , and acoelomorphs ( a group of primitive flatworms ) . It has not been definitively established whether the existence of these brainless species indicates that the earliest bilaterians lacked a brain , or whether their ancestors evolved in a way that led to the disappearance of a previously existing brain structure .
= = = = Invertebrates = = = =
This category includes arthropods , molluscs , and numerous types of worms . The diversity of invertebrate body plans is matched by an equal diversity in brain structures .
Two groups of invertebrates have notably complex brains : arthropods ( insects , crustaceans , arachnids , and others ) , and cephalopods ( octopuses , squids , and similar molluscs ) . The brains of arthropods and cephalopods arise from twin parallel nerve cords that extend through the body of the animal . Arthropods have a central brain , the supraesophageal ganglion , with three divisions and large optical lobes behind each eye for visual processing . Cephalopods such as the octopus and squid have the largest brains of any invertebrates .
There are several invertebrate species whose brains have been studied intensively because they have properties that make them convenient for experimental work :
Fruit flies ( Drosophila ) , because of the large array of techniques available for studying their genetics , have been a natural subject for studying the role of genes in brain development . In spite of the large evolutionary distance between insects and mammals , many aspects of Drosophila neurogenetics have been shown to be relevant to humans . The first biological clock genes , for example , were identified by examining Drosophila mutants that showed disrupted daily activity cycles . A search in the genomes of vertebrates revealed a set of analogous genes , which were found to play similar roles in the mouse biological clock — and therefore almost certainly in the human biological clock as well . Studies done on Drosophila , also show that most neuropil regions of the brain are continuously reorganized throughout life in response to specific living conditions .
The nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans , like Drosophila , has been studied largely because of its importance in genetics . In the early 1970s , Sydney Brenner chose it as a model organism for studying the way that genes control development . One of the advantages of working with this worm is that the body plan is very stereotyped : the nervous system of the hermaphrodite contains exactly 302 neurons , always in the same places , making identical synaptic connections in every worm . Brenner 's team sliced worms into thousands of ultrathin sections and photographed each one under an electron microscope , then visually matched fibers from section to section , to map out every neuron and synapse in the entire body . The complete neuronal wiring diagram of C.elegans – its connectome was achieved . Nothing approaching this level of detail is available for any other organism , and the information gained has enabled a multitude of studies that would otherwise have not been possible .
The sea slug Aplysia californica was chosen by Nobel Prize @-@ winning neurophysiologist Eric Kandel as a model for studying the cellular basis of learning and memory , because of the simplicity and accessibility of its nervous system , and it has been examined in hundreds of experiments .
= = = = Vertebrates = = = =
The first vertebrates appeared over 500 million years ago ( Mya ) , during the Cambrian period , and may have resembled the modern hagfish in form . Sharks appeared about 450 Mya , amphibians about 400 Mya , reptiles about 350 Mya , and mammals about 200 Mya . Each species has an equally long evolutionary history , but the brains of modern hagfishes , lampreys , sharks , amphibians , reptiles , and mammals show a gradient of size and complexity that roughly follows the evolutionary sequence . All of these brains contain the same set of basic anatomical components , but many are rudimentary in the hagfish , whereas in mammals the foremost part ( the telencephalon ) is greatly elaborated and expanded .
Brains are most simply compared in terms of their size . The relationship between brain size , body size and other variables has been studied across a wide range of vertebrate species . As a rule , brain size increases with body size , but not in a simple linear proportion . In general , smaller animals tend to have larger brains , measured as a fraction of body size . For mammals , the relationship between brain volume and body mass essentially follows a power law with an exponent of about 0 @.@ 75 . This formula describes the central tendency , but every family of mammals departs from it to some degree , in a way that reflects in part the complexity of their behavior . For example , primates have brains 5 to 10 times larger than the formula predicts . Predators tend to have larger brains than their prey , relative to body size .
All vertebrate brains share a common underlying form , which appears most clearly during early stages of embryonic development . In its earliest form , the brain appears as three swellings at the front end of the neural tube ; these swellings eventually become the forebrain , midbrain , and hindbrain ( the prosencephalon , mesencephalon , and rhombencephalon , respectively ) . At the earliest stages of brain development , the three areas are roughly equal in size . In many classes of vertebrates , such as fish and amphibians , the three parts remain similar in size in the adult , but in mammals the forebrain becomes much larger than the other parts , and the midbrain becomes very small .
The brains of vertebrates are made of very soft tissue . Living brain tissue is pinkish on the outside and mostly white on the inside , with subtle variations in color . Vertebrate brains are surrounded by a system of connective tissue membranes called meninges that separate the skull from the brain . Blood vessels enter the central nervous system through holes in the meningeal layers . The cells in the blood vessel walls are joined tightly to one another , forming the blood – brain barrier , which blocks the passage of many toxins and pathogens ( though at the same time blocking antibodies and some drugs , thereby presenting special challenges in treatment of diseases of the brain ) .
Neuroanatomists usually divide the vertebrate brain into six main regions : the telencephalon ( cerebral hemispheres ) , diencephalon ( thalamus and hypothalamus ) , mesencephalon ( midbrain ) , cerebellum , pons , and medulla oblongata . Each of these areas has a complex internal structure . Some parts , such as the cerebral cortex and the cerebellar cortex , consist of layers that are folded or convoluted to fit within the available space . Other parts , such as the thalamus and hypothalamus , consist of clusters of many small nuclei . Thousands of distinguishable areas can be identified within the vertebrate brain based on fine distinctions of neural structure , chemistry , and connectivity .
Although the same basic components are present in all vertebrate brains , some branches of vertebrate evolution have led to substantial distortions of brain geometry , especially in the forebrain area . The brain of a shark shows the basic components in a straightforward way , but in teleost fishes ( the great majority of existing fish species ) , the forebrain has become " everted " , like a sock turned inside out . In birds , there are also major changes in forebrain structure . These distortions can make it difficult to match brain components from one species with those of another species .
Here is a list of some of the most important vertebrate brain components , along with a brief description of their functions as currently understood :
The medulla , along with the spinal cord , contains many small nuclei involved in a wide variety of sensory and involuntary motor functions such as vomiting , heart rate and digestive processes .
The pons lies in the brainstem directly above the medulla . Among other things , it contains nuclei that control often voluntary but simple acts such as sleep , respiration , swallowing , bladder function , equilibrium , eye movement , facial expressions , and posture .
The hypothalamus is a small region at the base of the forebrain , whose complexity and importance belies its size . It is composed of numerous small nuclei , each with distinct connections and neurochemistry . The hypothalamus is engaged in additional involuntary or partially voluntary acts such as sleep and wake cycles , eating and drinking , and the release of some hormones .
The thalamus is a collection of nuclei with diverse functions : some are involved in relaying information to and from the cerebral hemispheres , while others are involved in motivation . The subthalamic area ( zona incerta ) seems to contain action @-@ generating systems for several types of " consummatory " behaviors such as eating , drinking , defecation , and copulation .
The cerebellum modulates the outputs of other brain systems , whether motor related or thought related , to make them certain and precise . Removal of the cerebellum does not prevent an animal from doing anything in particular , but it makes actions hesitant and clumsy . This precision is not built @-@ in , but learned by trial and error . The muscle coordination learned while riding a bicycle is an example of a type of neural plasticity that may take place largely within the cerebellum . 10 % of the brain 's total volume consists of the cerebellum and 50 % of all neurons are held within its structure .
The optic tectum allows actions to be directed toward points in space , most commonly in response to visual input . In mammals it is usually referred to as the superior colliculus , and its best @-@ studied function is to direct eye movements . It also directs reaching movements and other object @-@ directed actions . It receives strong visual inputs , but also inputs from other senses that are useful in directing actions , such as auditory input in owls and input from the thermosensitive pit organs in snakes . In some primitive fishes , such as lampreys , this region is the largest part of the brain . The superior colliculus is part of the midbrain .
The pallium is a layer of gray matter that lies on the surface of the forebrain and is the most complex and most recent evolutionary development of the brain as an organ . In reptiles and mammals , it is called the cerebral cortex . Multiple functions involve the pallium , including smell and spatial memory . In mammals , where it becomes so large as to dominate the brain , it takes over functions from many other brain areas . In many mammals , the cerebral cortex consists of folded bulges called gyri that create deep furrows or fissures called sulci . The folds increase the surface area of the cortex and therefore increase the amount of gray matter and the amount of information that can be stored and processed .
The hippocampus , strictly speaking , is found only in mammals . However , the area it derives from , the medial pallium , has counterparts in all vertebrates . There is evidence that this part of the brain is involved in complex events such as spatial memory and navigation in fishes , birds , reptiles , and mammals .
The basal ganglia are a group of interconnected structures in the forebrain . The primary function of the basal ganglia appears to be action selection : they send inhibitory signals to all parts of the brain that can generate motor behaviors , and in the right circumstances can release the inhibition , so that the action @-@ generating systems are able to execute their actions . Reward and punishment exert their most important neural effects by altering connections within the basal ganglia .
The olfactory bulb is a special structure that processes olfactory sensory signals and sends its output to the olfactory part of the pallium . It is a major brain component in many vertebrates , but is greatly reduced in humans and other primates ( whose senses are dominated by information acquired by sight rather than smell ) .
= = = = Mammals = = = =
The most obvious difference between the brains of mammals and other vertebrates is in terms of size . On average , a mammal has a brain roughly twice as large as that of a bird of the same body size , and ten times as large as that of a reptile of the same body size .
Size , however , is not the only difference : there are also substantial differences in shape . The hindbrain and midbrain of mammals are generally similar to those of other vertebrates , but dramatic differences appear in the forebrain , which is greatly enlarged and also altered in structure . The cerebral cortex is the part of the brain that most strongly distinguishes mammals . In non @-@ mammalian vertebrates , the surface of the cerebrum is lined with a comparatively simple three @-@ layered structure called the pallium . In mammals , the pallium evolves into a complex six @-@ layered structure called neocortex or isocortex . Several areas at the edge of the neocortex , including the hippocampus and amygdala , are also much more extensively developed in mammals than in other vertebrates .
The elaboration of the cerebral cortex carries with it changes to other brain areas . The superior colliculus , which plays a major role in visual control of behavior in most vertebrates , shrinks to a small size in mammals , and many of its functions are taken over by visual areas of the cerebral cortex . The cerebellum of mammals contains a large portion ( the neocerebellum ) dedicated to supporting the cerebral cortex , which has no counterpart in other vertebrates .
= = = = Primates = = = =
The brains of humans and other primates contain the same structures as the brains of other mammals , but are generally larger in proportion to body size . The most widely accepted way of comparing brain sizes across species is the so @-@ called encephalization quotient ( EQ ) , which takes into account the nonlinearity of the brain @-@ to @-@ body relationship . Humans have an average EQ in the 7 @-@ to @-@ 8 range , while most other primates have an EQ in the 2 @-@ to @-@ 3 range . Dolphins have values higher than those of primates other than humans , but nearly all other mammals have EQ values that are substantially lower .
Most of the enlargement of the primate brain comes from a massive expansion of the cerebral cortex , especially the prefrontal cortex and the parts of the cortex involved in vision . The visual processing network of primates includes at least 30 distinguishable brain areas , with a complex web of interconnections . It has been estimated that visual processing areas occupy more than half of the total surface of the primate neocortex . The prefrontal cortex carries out functions that include planning , working memory , motivation , attention , and executive control . It takes up a much larger proportion of the brain for primates than for other species , and an especially large fraction of the human brain .
= = Development = =
The brain does not simply grow , but rather develops in an intricately orchestrated sequence of stages . It changes in shape from a simple swelling at the front of the nerve cord in the earliest embryonic stages , to a complex array of areas and connections . Neurons are created in special zones that contain stem cells , and then migrate through the tissue to reach their ultimate locations . Once neurons have positioned themselves , their axons sprout and navigate through the brain , branching and extending as they go , until the tips reach their targets and form synaptic connections . In a number of parts of the nervous system , neurons and synapses are produced in excessive numbers during the early stages , and then the unneeded ones are pruned away .
For vertebrates , the early stages of neural development are similar across all species . As the embryo transforms from a round blob of cells into a wormlike structure , a narrow strip of ectoderm running along the midline of the back is induced to become the neural plate , the precursor of the nervous system . The neural plate folds inward to form the neural groove , and then the lips that line the groove merge to enclose the neural tube , a hollow cord of cells with a fluid @-@ filled ventricle at the center . At the front end , the ventricles and cord swell to form three vesicles that are the precursors of the forebrain , midbrain , and hindbrain . At the next stage , the forebrain splits into two vesicles called the telencephalon ( which will contain the cerebral cortex , basal ganglia , and related structures ) and the diencephalon ( which will contain the thalamus and hypothalamus ) . At about the same time , the hindbrain splits into the metencephalon ( which will contain the cerebellum and pons ) and the myelencephalon ( which will contain the medulla oblongata ) . Each of these areas contains proliferative zones where neurons and glial cells are generated ; the resulting cells then migrate , sometimes for long distances , to their final positions .
Once a neuron is in place , it extends dendrites and an axon into the area around it . Axons , because they commonly extend a great distance from the cell body and need to reach specific targets , grow in a particularly complex way . The tip of a growing axon consists of a blob of protoplasm called a growth cone , studded with chemical receptors . These receptors sense the local environment , causing the growth cone to be attracted or repelled by various cellular elements , and thus to be pulled in a particular direction at each point along its path . The result of this pathfinding process is that the growth cone navigates through the brain until it reaches its destination area , where other chemical cues cause it to begin generating synapses . Considering the entire brain , thousands of genes create products that influence axonal pathfinding .
The synaptic network that finally emerges is only partly determined by genes , though . In many parts of the brain , axons initially " overgrow " , and then are " pruned " by mechanisms that depend on neural activity . In the projection from the eye to the midbrain , for example , the structure in the adult contains a very precise mapping , connecting each point on the surface of the retina to a corresponding point in a midbrain layer . In the first stages of development , each axon from the retina is guided to the right general vicinity in the midbrain by chemical cues , but then branches very profusely and makes initial contact with a wide swath of midbrain neurons . The retina , before birth , contains special mechanisms that cause it to generate waves of activity that originate spontaneously at a random point and then propagate slowly across the retinal layer . These waves are useful because they cause neighboring neurons to be active at the same time ; that is , they produce a neural activity pattern that contains information about the spatial arrangement of the neurons . This information is exploited in the midbrain by a mechanism that causes synapses to weaken , and eventually vanish , if activity in an axon is not followed by activity of the target cell . The result of this sophisticated process is a gradual tuning and tightening of the map , leaving it finally in its precise adult form .
Similar things happen in other brain areas : an initial synaptic matrix is generated as a result of genetically determined chemical guidance , but then gradually refined by activity @-@ dependent mechanisms , partly driven by internal dynamics , partly by external sensory inputs . In some cases , as with the retina @-@ midbrain system , activity patterns depend on mechanisms that operate only in the developing brain , and apparently exist solely to guide development .
In humans and many other mammals , new neurons are created mainly before birth , and the infant brain contains substantially more neurons than the adult brain . There are , however , a few areas where new neurons continue to be generated throughout life . The two areas for which adult neurogenesis is well established are the olfactory bulb , which is involved in the sense of smell , and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus , where there is evidence that the new neurons play a role in storing newly acquired memories . With these exceptions , however , the set of neurons that is present in early childhood is the set that is present for life . Glial cells are different : as with most types of cells in the body , they are generated throughout the lifespan .
There has long been debate about whether the qualities of mind , personality , and intelligence can be attributed to heredity or to upbringing — this is the nature and nurture controversy . Although many details remain to be settled , neuroscience research has clearly shown that both factors are important . Genes determine the general form of the brain , and genes determine how the brain reacts to experience . Experience , however , is required to refine the matrix of synaptic connections , which in its developed form contains far more information than the genome does . In some respects , all that matters is the presence or absence of experience during critical periods of development . In other respects , the quantity and quality of experience are important ; for example , there is substantial evidence that animals raised in enriched environments have thicker cerebral cortices , indicating a higher density of synaptic connections , than animals whose levels of stimulation are restricted .
= = Physiology = =
The functions of the brain depend on the ability of neurons to transmit electrochemical signals to other cells , and their ability to respond appropriately to electrochemical signals received from other cells . The electrical properties of neurons are controlled by a wide variety of biochemical and metabolic processes , most notably the interactions between neurotransmitters and receptors that take place at synapses .
= = = Neurotransmitters and receptors = = =
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are released at synapses when an action potential activates them — neurotransmitters attach themselves to receptor molecules on the membrane of the synapse 's target cell , and thereby alter the electrical or chemical properties of the receptor molecules . With few exceptions , each neuron in the brain releases the same chemical neurotransmitter , or combination of neurotransmitters , at all the synaptic connections it makes with other neurons ; this rule is known as Dale 's principle . Thus , a neuron can be characterized by the neurotransmitters that it releases . The great majority of psychoactive drugs exert their effects by altering specific neurotransmitter systems . This applies to drugs such as cannabinoids , nicotine , heroin , cocaine , alcohol , fluoxetine , chlorpromazine , and many others .
The two neurotransmitters that are used most widely in the vertebrate brain are glutamate , which almost always exerts excitatory effects on target neurons , and gamma @-@ aminobutyric acid ( GABA ) , which is almost always inhibitory . Neurons using these transmitters can be found in nearly every part of the brain . Because of their ubiquity , drugs that act on glutamate or GABA tend to have broad and powerful effects . Some general anesthetics act by reducing the effects of glutamate ; most tranquilizers exert their sedative effects by enhancing the effects of GABA .
There are dozens of other chemical neurotransmitters that are used in more limited areas of the brain , often areas dedicated to a particular function . Serotonin , for example — the primary target of antidepressant drugs and many dietary aids — comes exclusively from a small brainstem area called the Raphe nuclei . Norepinephrine , which is involved in arousal , comes exclusively from a nearby small area called the locus coeruleus . Other neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and dopamine have multiple sources in the brain , but are not as ubiquitously distributed as glutamate and GABA .
= = = Electrical activity = = =
As a side effect of the electrochemical processes used by neurons for signaling , brain tissue generates electric fields when it is active . When large numbers of neurons show synchronized activity , the electric fields that they generate can be large enough to detect outside the skull , using electroencephalography ( EEG ) or magnetoencephalography ( MEG ) . EEG recordings , along with recordings made from electrodes implanted inside the brains of animals such as rats , show that the brain of a living animal is constantly active , even during sleep . Each part of the brain shows a mixture of rhythmic and nonrhythmic activity , which may vary according to behavioral state . In mammals , the cerebral cortex tends to show large slow delta waves during sleep , faster alpha waves when the animal is awake but inattentive , and chaotic @-@ looking irregular activity when the animal is actively engaged in a task . During an epileptic seizure , the brain 's inhibitory control mechanisms fail to function and electrical activity rises to pathological levels , producing EEG traces that show large wave and spike patterns not seen in a healthy brain . Relating these population @-@ level patterns to the computational functions of individual neurons is a major focus of current research in neurophysiology .
= = = Metabolism = = =
All vertebrates have a blood – brain barrier that allows metabolism inside the brain to operate differently from metabolism in other parts of the body . Glial cells play a major role in brain metabolism by controlling the chemical composition of the fluid that surrounds neurons , including levels of ions and nutrients .
Brain tissue consumes a large amount of energy in proportion to its volume , so large brains place severe metabolic demands on animals . The need to limit body weight in order , for example , to fly , has apparently led to selection for a reduction of brain size in some species , such as bats . Most of the brain 's energy consumption goes into sustaining the electric charge ( membrane potential ) of neurons . Most vertebrate species devote between 2 % and 8 % of basal metabolism to the brain . In primates , however , the percentage is much higher — in humans it rises to 20 – 25 % . The energy consumption of the brain does not vary greatly over time , but active regions of the cerebral cortex consume somewhat more energy than inactive regions ; this forms the basis for the functional brain imaging methods PET , fMRI , and NIRS . The brain typically gets most of its energy from oxygen @-@ dependent metabolism of glucose ( i.e. , blood sugar ) , but ketones provide a major alternative source , together with contributions from medium chain fatty acids ( caprylic and heptanoic acids ) , lactate , acetate , and possibly amino acids .
= = Functions = =
From an evolutionary @-@ biological perspective , the function of the brain is to provide coherent control over the actions of an animal . A centralized brain allows groups of muscles to be co @-@ activated in complex patterns ; it also allows stimuli impinging on one part of the body to evoke responses in other parts , and it can prevent different parts of the body from acting at cross @-@ purposes to each other .
To generate purposeful and unified action , the brain first brings information from sense organs together at a central location . It then processes this raw data to extract information about the structure of the environment . Next it combines the processed sensory information with information about the current needs of an animal and with memory of past circumstances . Finally , on the basis of the results , it generates motor response patterns that are suited to maximize the welfare of the animal . These signal @-@ processing tasks require intricate interplay between a variety of functional subsystems .
= = = Information processing = = =
The invention of electronic computers in the 1940s , along with the development of mathematical information theory , led to a realization that brains can potentially be understood as information processing systems . This concept formed the basis of the field of cybernetics , and eventually gave rise to the field now known as computational neuroscience . The earliest attempts at cybernetics were somewhat crude in that they treated the brain as essentially a digital computer in disguise , as for example in John von Neumann 's 1958 book , The Computer and the Brain . Over the years , though , accumulating information about the electrical responses of brain cells recorded from behaving animals has steadily moved theoretical concepts in the direction of increasing realism .
The essence of the information processing approach is to try to understand brain function in terms of information flow and implementation of algorithms . One of the most influential early contributions was a 1959 paper titled What the frog 's eye tells the frog 's brain : the paper examined the visual responses of neurons in the retina and optic tectum of frogs , and came to the conclusion that some neurons in the tectum of the frog are wired to combine elementary responses in a way that makes them function as " bug perceivers " . A few years later David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel discovered cells in the primary visual cortex of monkeys that become active when sharp edges move across specific points in the field of view — a discovery for which they won a Nobel Prize . Follow @-@ up studies in higher @-@ order visual areas found cells that detect binocular disparity , color , movement , and aspects of shape , with areas located at increasing distances from the primary visual cortex showing increasingly complex responses . Other investigations of brain areas unrelated to vision have revealed cells with a wide variety of response correlates , some related to memory , some to abstract types of cognition such as space .
Theorists have worked to understand these response patterns by constructing mathematical models of neurons and neural networks , which can be simulated using computers . Some useful models are abstract , focusing on the conceptual structure of neural algorithms rather than the details of how they are implemented in the brain ; other models attempt to incorporate data about the biophysical properties of real neurons . No model on any level is yet considered to be a fully valid description of brain function , though . The essential difficulty is that sophisticated computation by neural networks requires distributed processing in which hundreds or thousands of neurons work cooperatively — current methods of brain activity recording are only capable of isolating action potentials from a few dozen neurons at a time .
Furthermore , even single neurons appear to be complex and capable of performing computations . So , brain models that don 't reflect this are arguably too abstractive to be representative of brain operation ; models that do try to capture this are very computationally expensive and arguably intractable with present computational resources . However , having said this , the Human Brain Project is trying to build a realistic , detailed computational model of the entire human brain . It remains to be seen what level of success they can achieve in the time frame of the project and the wisdom of it has been publicly contested , with high @-@ profile scientists on both sides of the argument .
= = = Perception = = =
One of the primary functions of a brain is to extract biologically relevant information from sensory inputs . The human brain is provided with information about light , sound , the chemical composition of the atmosphere , temperature , head orientation , limb position , the chemical composition of the bloodstream , and more . In other animals additional senses may be present , such as the infrared heat @-@ sense of snakes , the magnetic field sense of some birds , or the electric field sense of some types of fish . Moreover , other animals may develop existing sensory systems in new ways , such as the adaptation by bats of the auditory sense into a form of sonar . One way or another , all of these sensory modalities are initially detected by specialized sensors that project signals into the brain .
Each sensory system begins with specialized receptor cells , such as light @-@ receptive neurons in the retina of the eye , vibration @-@ sensitive neurons in the cochlea of the ear , or pressure @-@ sensitive neurons in the skin . The axons of sensory receptor cells travel into the spinal cord or brain , where they transmit their signals to a first @-@ order sensory nucleus dedicated to one specific sensory modality . This primary sensory nucleus sends information to higher @-@ order sensory areas that are dedicated to the same modality . Eventually , via a way @-@ station in the thalamus , the signals are sent to the cerebral cortex , where they are processed to extract biologically relevant features , and integrated with signals coming from other sensory systems .
= = = Motor control = = =
Motor systems are areas of the brain that are directly or indirectly involved in producing body movements , that is , in activating muscles . Except for the muscles that control the eye , which are driven by nuclei in the midbrain , all the voluntary muscles in the body are directly innervated by motor neurons in the spinal cord and hindbrain . Spinal motor neurons are controlled both by neural circuits intrinsic to the spinal cord , and by inputs that descend from the brain . The intrinsic spinal circuits implement many reflex responses , and contain pattern generators for rhythmic movements such as walking or swimming . The descending connections from the brain allow for more sophisticated control .
The brain contains several motor areas that project directly to the spinal cord . At the lowest level are motor areas in the medulla and pons , which control stereotyped movements such as walking , breathing , or swallowing . At a higher level are areas in the midbrain , such as the red nucleus , which is responsible for coordinating movements of the arms and legs . At a higher level yet is the primary motor cortex , a strip of tissue located at the posterior edge of the frontal lobe . The primary motor cortex sends projections to the subcortical motor areas , but also sends a massive projection directly to the spinal cord , through the pyramidal tract . This direct corticospinal projection allows for precise voluntary control of the fine details of movements . Other motor @-@ related brain areas exert secondary effects by projecting to the primary motor areas . Among the most important secondary areas are the premotor cortex , basal ganglia , and cerebellum .
In addition to all of the above , the brain and spinal cord contain extensive circuitry to control the autonomic nervous system , which works by secreting hormones and by modulating the " smooth " muscles of the gut . The autonomic nervous system affects heart rate , digestion , respiration rate , salivation , perspiration , urination , and sexual arousal , and several other processes . Most of its functions are not under direct voluntary control .
= = = Arousal = = =
Perhaps the most obvious aspect of the behavior of any animal is the daily cycle between sleeping and waking . Arousal and alertness are also modulated on a finer time scale , though , by an extensive network of brain areas .
A key component of the arousal system is the suprachiasmatic nucleus ( SCN ) , a tiny part of the hypothalamus located directly above the point at which the optic nerves from the two eyes cross . The SCN contains the body 's central biological clock . Neurons there show activity levels that rise and fall with a period of about 24 hours , circadian rhythms : these activity fluctuations are driven by rhythmic changes in expression of a set of " clock genes " . The SCN continues to keep time even if it is excised from the brain and placed in a dish of warm nutrient solution , but it ordinarily receives input from the optic nerves , through the retinohypothalamic tract ( RHT ) , that allows daily light @-@ dark cycles to calibrate the clock .
The SCN projects to a set of areas in the hypothalamus , brainstem , and midbrain that are involved in implementing sleep @-@ wake cycles . An important component of the system is the reticular formation , a group of neuron @-@ clusters scattered diffusely through the core of the lower brain . Reticular neurons send signals to the thalamus , which in turn sends activity @-@ level @-@ controlling signals to every part of the cortex . Damage to the reticular formation can produce a permanent state of coma .
Sleep involves great changes in brain activity . Until the 1950s it was generally believed that the brain essentially shuts off during sleep , but this is now known to be far from true ; activity continues , but patterns become very different . There are two types of sleep : REM sleep ( with dreaming ) and NREM ( non @-@ REM , usually without dreaming ) sleep , which repeat in slightly varying patterns throughout a sleep episode . Three broad types of distinct brain activity patterns can be measured : REM , light NREM and deep NREM . During deep NREM sleep , also called slow wave sleep , activity in the cortex takes the form of large synchronized waves , whereas in the waking state it is noisy and desynchronized . Levels of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin drop during slow wave sleep , and fall almost to zero during REM sleep ; levels of acetylcholine show the reverse pattern .
= = = Homeostasis = = =
For any animal , survival requires maintaining a variety of parameters of bodily state within a limited range of variation : these include temperature , water content , salt concentration in the bloodstream , blood glucose levels , blood oxygen level , and others . The ability of an animal to regulate the internal environment of its body — the milieu intérieur , as pioneering physiologist Claude Bernard called it — is known as homeostasis ( Greek for " standing still " ) . Maintaining homeostasis is a crucial function of the brain . The basic principle that underlies homeostasis is negative feedback : any time a parameter diverges from its set @-@ point , sensors generate an error signal that evokes a response that causes the parameter to shift back toward its optimum value . ( This principle is widely used in engineering , for example in the control of temperature using a thermostat . )
In vertebrates , the part of the brain that plays the greatest role is the hypothalamus , a small region at the base of the forebrain whose size does not reflect its complexity or the importance of its function . The hypothalamus is a collection of small nuclei , most of which are involved in basic biological functions . Some of these functions relate to arousal or to social interactions such as sexuality , aggression , or maternal behaviors ; but many of them relate to homeostasis . Several hypothalamic nuclei receive input from sensors located in the lining of blood vessels , conveying information about temperature , sodium level , glucose level , blood oxygen level , and other parameters . These hypothalamic nuclei send output signals to motor areas that can generate actions to rectify deficiencies . Some of the outputs also go to the pituitary gland , a tiny gland attached to the brain directly underneath the hypothalamus . The pituitary gland secretes hormones into the bloodstream , where they circulate throughout the body and induce changes in cellular activity .
= = = Motivation = = =
According to evolutionary theory , individuals are genetically programmed to behave in ways that ensure survival and reproductive success . This overarching goal of genetic fitness translates into a set of specific survival @-@ promoting behaviors , such as seeking food , water , shelter , and a mate . The motivational system in the brain monitors the current state of satisfaction of these goals , and activates behaviors to meet any needs that arise . The motivational system works largely by a reward – punishment mechanism . When a particular behavior is followed by favorable consequences , the reward mechanism in the brain is activated , which induces structural changes inside the brain that cause the same behavior to be repeated later , whenever a similar situation arises . Conversely , when a behavior is followed by unfavorable consequences , the brain 's punishment mechanism is activated , inducing structural changes that cause the behavior to be suppressed when similar situations arise in the future .
Most organisms studied to date utilize a reward – punishment mechanism : for instance , worms and insects can alter their behavior to seek food sources or to avoid dangers . In vertebrates , the reward @-@ punishment system is implemented by a specific set of brain structures , at the heart of which lie the basal ganglia , a set of interconnected areas at the base of the forebrain . There is substantial evidence that the basal ganglia are the central site at which decisions are made : the basal ganglia exert a sustained inhibitory control over most of the motor systems in the brain ; when this inhibition is released , a motor system is permitted to execute the action it is programmed to carry out . Rewards and punishments function by altering the relationship between the inputs that the basal ganglia receive and the decision @-@ signals that are emitted . The reward mechanism is better understood than the punishment mechanism , because its role in drug abuse has caused it to be studied very intensively . Research has shown that the neurotransmitter dopamine plays a central role : addictive drugs such as cocaine , amphetamine , and nicotine either cause dopamine levels to rise or cause the effects of dopamine inside the brain to be enhanced .
= = = Learning and memory = = =
Almost all animals are capable of modifying their behavior as a result of experience — even the most primitive types of worms . Because behavior is driven by brain activity , changes in behavior must somehow correspond to changes inside the brain . Theorists dating back to Santiago Ramón y Cajal argued that the most plausible explanation is that learning and memory are expressed as changes in the synaptic connections between neurons . Until 1970 , however , experimental evidence to support the synaptic plasticity hypothesis was lacking . In 1971 Tim Bliss and Terje Lømo published a paper on a phenomenon now called long @-@ term potentiation : the paper showed clear evidence of activity @-@ induced synaptic changes that lasted for at least several days . Since then technical advances have made these sorts of experiments much easier to carry out , and thousands of studies have been made that have clarified the mechanism of synaptic change , and uncovered other types of activity @-@ driven synaptic change in a variety of brain areas , including the cerebral cortex , hippocampus , basal ganglia , and cerebellum . Brain @-@ derived neurotrophic factor ( BDNF ) and physical activity appear to play a beneficial role in the process .
Neuroscientists currently distinguish several types of learning and memory that are implemented by the brain in distinct ways :
Working memory is the ability of the brain to maintain a temporary representation of information about the task that an animal is currently engaged in . This sort of dynamic memory is thought to be mediated by the formation of cell assemblies — groups of activated neurons that maintain their activity by constantly stimulating one another .
Episodic memory is the ability to remember the details of specific events . This sort of memory can last for a lifetime . Much evidence implicates the hippocampus in playing a crucial role : people with severe damage to the hippocampus sometimes show amnesia , that is , inability to form new long @-@ lasting episodic memories .
Semantic memory is the ability to learn facts and relationships . This sort of memory is probably stored largely in the cerebral cortex , mediated by changes in connections between cells that represent specific types of information .
Instrumental learning is the ability for rewards and punishments to modify behavior . It is implemented by a network of brain areas centered on the basal ganglia .
Motor learning is the ability to refine patterns of body movement by practicing , or more generally by repetition . A number of brain areas are involved , including the premotor cortex , basal ganglia , and especially the cerebellum , which functions as a large memory bank for microadjustments of the parameters of movement .
= = Research = =
The field of neuroscience encompasses all approaches that seek to understand the brain and the rest of the nervous system . Psychology seeks to understand mind and behavior , and neurology is the medical discipline that diagnoses and treats diseases of the nervous system . The brain is also the most important organ studied in psychiatry , the branch of medicine that works to study , prevent , and treat mental disorders . Cognitive science seeks to unify neuroscience and psychology with other fields that concern themselves with the brain , such as computer science ( artificial intelligence and similar fields ) and philosophy .
The oldest method of studying the brain is anatomical , and until the middle of the 20th century , much of the progress in neuroscience came from the development of better cell stains and better microscopes . Neuroanatomists study the large @-@ scale structure of the brain as well as the microscopic structure of neurons and their components , especially synapses . Among other tools , they employ a plethora of stains that reveal neural structure , chemistry , and connectivity . In recent years , the development of immunostaining techniques has allowed investigation of neurons that express specific sets of genes . Also , functional neuroanatomy uses medical imaging techniques to correlate variations in human brain structure with differences in cognition or behavior .
Neurophysiologists study the chemical , pharmacological , and electrical properties of the brain : their primary tools are drugs and recording devices . Thousands of experimentally developed drugs affect the nervous system , some in highly specific ways . Recordings of brain activity can be made using electrodes , either glued to the scalp as in EEG studies , or implanted inside the brains of animals for extracellular recordings , which can detect action potentials generated by individual neurons . Because the brain does not contain pain receptors , it is possible using these techniques to record brain activity from animals that are awake and behaving without causing distress . The same techniques have occasionally been used to study brain activity in human patients suffering from intractable epilepsy , in cases where there was a medical necessity to implant electrodes to localize the brain area responsible for epileptic seizures . Functional imaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging are also used to study brain activity ; these techniques have mainly been used with human subjects , because they require a conscious subject to remain motionless for long periods of time , but they have the great advantage of being noninvasive .
Another approach to brain function is to examine the consequences of damage to specific brain areas . Even though it is protected by the skull and meninges , surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid , and isolated from the bloodstream by the blood – brain barrier , the delicate nature of the brain makes it vulnerable to numerous diseases and several types of damage . In humans , the effects of strokes and other types of brain damage have been a key source of information about brain function . Because there is no ability to experimentally control the nature of the damage , however , this information is often difficult to interpret . In animal studies , most commonly involving rats , it is possible to use electrodes or locally injected chemicals to produce precise patterns of damage and then examine the consequences for behavior .
Computational neuroscience encompasses two approaches : first , the use of computers to study the brain ; second , the study of how brains perform computation . On one hand , it is possible to write a computer program to simulate the operation of a group of neurons by making use of systems of equations that describe their electrochemical activity ; such simulations are known as biologically realistic neural networks . On the other hand , it is possible to study algorithms for neural computation by simulating , or mathematically analyzing , the operations of simplified " units " that have some of the properties of neurons but abstract out much of their biological complexity . The computational functions of the brain are studied both by computer scientists and neuroscientists .
Recent years have seen increasing applications of genetic and genomic techniques to the study of the brain and a focus on the roles of neurotrophic factors and physical activity in neuroplasticity . The most common subjects are mice , because of the availability of technical tools . It is now possible with relative ease to " knock out " or mutate a wide variety of genes , and then examine the effects on brain function . More sophisticated approaches are also being used : for example , using Cre @-@ Lox recombination it is possible to activate or deactivate genes in specific parts of the brain , at specific times .
= = History = =
The oldest brain to have been discovered was in Armenia in the Areni @-@ 1 cave complex . The brain , estimated to be over 5 @,@ 000 years old , was found in the skull of a 12 to 14 @-@ year @-@ old girl . Although the brains were shriveled , they were well preserved due to the climate found inside the cave .
Early philosophers were divided as to whether the seat of the soul lies in the brain or heart . Aristotle favored the heart , and thought that the function of the brain was merely to cool the blood . Democritus , the inventor of the atomic theory of matter , argued for a three @-@ part soul , with intellect in the head , emotion in the heart , and lust near the liver . Hippocrates , the " father of medicine " , came down unequivocally in favor of the brain . In his treatise on epilepsy he wrote :
Men ought to know that from nothing else but the brain come joys , delights , laughter and sports , and sorrows , griefs , despondency , and lamentations . ... And by the same organ we become mad and delirious , and fears and terrors assail us , some by night , and some by day , and dreams and untimely wanderings , and cares that are not suitable , and ignorance of present circumstances , desuetude , and unskillfulness . All these things we endure from the brain , when it is not healthy ...
Hippocrates , On the Sacred Disease
The Roman physician Galen also argued for the importance of the brain , and theorized in some depth about how it might work . Galen traced out the anatomical relationships among brain , nerves , and muscles , demonstrating that all muscles in the body are connected to the brain through a branching network of nerves . He postulated that nerves activate muscles mechanically by carrying a mysterious substance he called pneumata psychikon , usually translated as " animal spirits " . Galen 's ideas were widely known during the Middle Ages , but not much further progress came until the Renaissance , when detailed anatomical study resumed , combined with the theoretical speculations of René Descartes and those who followed him . Descartes , like Galen , thought of the nervous system in hydraulic terms . He believed that the highest cognitive functions are carried out by a non @-@ physical res cogitans , but that the majority of behaviors of humans , and all behaviors of animals , could be explained mechanistically .
The first real progress toward a modern understanding of nervous function , though , came from the investigations of Luigi Galvani , who discovered that a shock of static electricity applied to an exposed nerve of a dead frog could cause its leg to contract . Since that time , each major advance in understanding has followed more or less directly from the development of a new technique of investigation . Until the early years of the 20th century , the most important advances were derived from new methods for staining cells . Particularly critical was the invention of the Golgi stain , which ( when correctly used ) stains only a small fraction of neurons , but stains them in their entirety , including cell body , dendrites , and axon . Without such a stain , brain tissue under a microscope appears as an impenetrable tangle of protoplasmic fibers , in which it is impossible to determine any structure . In the hands of Camillo Golgi , and especially of the Spanish neuroanatomist Santiago Ramón y Cajal , the new stain revealed hundreds of distinct types of neurons , each with its own unique dendritic structure and pattern of connectivity .
In the first half of the 20th century , advances in electronics enabled investigation of the electrical properties of nerve cells , culminating in work by Alan Hodgkin , Andrew Huxley , and others on the biophysics of the action potential , and the work of Bernard Katz and others on the electrochemistry of the synapse . These studies complemented the anatomical picture with a conception of the brain as a dynamic entity . Reflecting the new understanding , in 1942 Charles Sherrington visualized the workings of the brain waking from sleep :
The great topmost sheet of the mass , that where hardly a light had twinkled or moved , becomes now a sparkling field of rhythmic flashing points with trains of traveling sparks hurrying hither and thither . The brain is waking and with it the mind is returning . It is as if the Milky Way entered upon some cosmic dance . Swiftly the head mass becomes an enchanted loom where millions of flashing shuttles weave a dissolving pattern , always a meaningful pattern though never an abiding one ; a shifting harmony of subpatterns .
— Sherrington , 1942 , Man on his Nature
In the second half of the 20th century , developments in chemistry , electron microscopy , genetics , computer science , functional brain imaging , and other fields progressively opened new windows into brain structure and function . In the United States , the 1990s were officially designated as the " Decade of the Brain " to commemorate advances made in brain research , and to promote funding for such research .
In the 21st century , these trends have continued , and several new approaches have come into prominence , including multielectrode recording , which allows the activity of many brain cells to be recorded all at the same time ; genetic engineering , which allows molecular components of the brain to be altered experimentally ; genomics , which allows variations in brain structure to be correlated with variations in DNA properties and neuroimaging .
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= New York State Route 393 =
New York State Route 393 ( NY 393 ) was an east – west state highway in Tompkins County , New York , in the United States . It was a spur route that connected the downtown district of the city of Ithaca to the Ithaca – Dryden town line . The western terminus of the route was at an intersection with NY 13 ( modern NY 366 ) in East Ithaca . Its eastern terminus was at Game Farm Road , a local road that straddled the boundary between the towns of Ithaca and Dryden .
NY 393 was assigned in the early 1930s as a signed designation for a highway that the state of New York had assumed maintenance of in the 1910s . It originally extended west along Mitchell Street to NY 79 , but was truncated to Ithaca Road when NY 13 was rerouted through Ithaca in the mid @-@ 1930s . The NY 393 designation was removed in the mid @-@ 1960s , and its former routing is now maintained by the city of Ithaca and Tompkins County . The designation is currently reserved by the New York State Department of Transportation for a highway in Chautauqua County .
= = Route description = =
NY 393 began at the intersection of Mitchell Street and Ithaca Road in the city of Ithaca . Here , NY 13 turned off Mitchell Street to follow Ithaca Road while NY 393 continued eastward on Mitchell Street . It passed through the community of East Ithaca and entered the surrounding town of Ithaca . In the town of Ithaca , NY 393 intersected Pine Tree Road ( County Route 174 or CR 174 ) and passed through areas with varying levels of development before ending at Game Farm Road , here marking the boundary between the towns of Ithaca and Dryden . The roadway continued eastward into Dryden as a locally maintained highway .
= = History = =
The portion of Mitchell Street and Ellis Hollow Road from the city of Ithaca to the Ithaca – Dryden town line had existed as early as 1900 . In the early 1910s , the state of New York helped finance improvements to the portion of the highway within the town of Ithaca . The highway was added to the state highway system in late October 1914 . In 1916 , construction began on an upgrade of Mitchell Street in Ithaca , again partially paid for by the state of New York . All of Mitchell Street was accepted into the state highway system on August 31 , 1917 .
The state @-@ maintained portion of Mitchell Street and Ellis Hollow Road was designated as NY 393 c . 1933 . The route began at NY 79 ( State Street ) in Ithaca and ended at the Dryden town line , where the road continued east as a local highway . NY 13 was realigned through Ithaca c . 1936 to bypass the campus of Cornell University to the south along Dryden Road , Ithaca Road , and Mitchell Street . As a result , NY 393 was truncated slightly to begin at the junction of Ithaca Road and Mitchell Street . NY 393 remained unchanged until the mid @-@ 1960s when it was removed from the state highway system . The portion of NY 393 's former routing in the city of Ithaca is now city @-@ maintained while the remainder of the highway in the town of Ithaca is now part of CR 110 .
The NY 393 designation is currently reserved by the New York State Department of Transportation for a proposed " Chautauqua Lakeway " in Chautauqua County between Interstate 86 / NY 17 and NY 5 . No timetable exists for the Lakeway 's construction nor for NY 393 's reassignment .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was in Tompkins County .
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= The Casbah Coffee Club =
The Casbah Coffee Club was a rock and roll music venue in West Derby , Liverpool , England started by Mona Best in 1959 in the cellar of the family home . The Casbah , as it became widely known , was planned as a members @-@ only club for Best 's sons Pete , his younger brother , Rory , and their friends . Mona came up with the idea of the club after watching a TV report about The 2i 's Coffee Bar in London 's Soho where several singers had been discovered . She decided to open the club , which was located in her cellar , on 29 August 1959 , for her sons , their friends and young people to meet and listen to the popular music of the day .
The Quarrymen — John Lennon , Paul McCartney , George Harrison , and Ken Brown — went to the club to arrange their first booking , to which Mona agreed , but said she needed to finish painting the club first . All four took up brushes and helped Mona to finish painting the walls with spiders , dragons , rainbows and stars . In addition to the four boys ' artistic contributions , Cynthia Powell , later to become Cynthia Lennon , painted a silhouette of John on the wall , which can still be seen today . The group often played at The Casbah as other venues , like The Cavern Club , had a jazz @-@ only policy at that time . The cellar — with its original decoration — still exists .
In 2006 , Culture Minister David Lammy announced that the Bests ' ex @-@ coal cellar was to be given Grade II listed building status and a blue plaque , after being recommended by English Heritage . It was opened as a tourist attraction in Liverpool , along with McCartney and Lennon 's previous homes at 20 Forthlin Road and 251 Menlove Avenue respectively .
= = History = =
Mona Shaw was born on 3 January 1924 , in Delhi , and married John Best in India before moving with him and their two children , Pete Best ( b . 1941 ) and Rory Best ( b . 1944 ) back to Liverpool in 1945 , where they lived in various houses . After moving to Queenscourt Road in 1948 — where the Bests lived for nine years — Mona was told by Rory about a large Victorian house for sale at 8 Hayman 's Green , in 1954 . The Best family claim that Mona then pawned all her jewellery and placed a bet on a horse that was ridden by Lester Piggott in the 1954 Epsom Derby called , " Never Say Die " , which won at 33 @-@ 1 , and used her winnings to buy the house in 1957 ( to place the bet , Mona would have had to travel more than 220 miles ( 350 km ) from Liverpool to Epsom - as bets were only allowed at race tracks at the time - or placed the bet with an illegal bookmaker in Liverpool ) . The house ( built around 1860 by an unknown architect ) , had previously been owned by the West Derby Conservative Club , and was unlike many other family dwellings in Liverpool , as it was set back from the road , had 15 bedrooms and 1 acre ( 4 @,@ 000 m2 ) of land . All the rooms were painted dark green or brown , the garden was totally overgrown , and the cellar was used for storing coal .
= = = The Casbah = = =
Mona came up with the idea of the club after watching a TV report about The 2i 's Coffee Bar in London 's Soho , where several singers had been discovered . She decided to open the club , which was located in her cellar , on 29 August 1959 , for her sons , their friends and young people to meet and listen to the popular music of the day , unlike The Cavern Club , which had a jazz @-@ only policy at that time . Mona charged half a crown annually for membership — to " keep out the rough elements " — and served soft drinks , snacks , cakes , and coffee from an espresso machine , which no other club had at that time . Records were played on a small Dansette record player , which amplified them through a 3 " speaker . Mona had booked the Les Stewart Quartet to play the opening night with Harrison on guitar , but they cancelled the booking after Stewart and Ken Brown had a quarrel . Stewart was angry that Brown had missed a rehearsal , because Brown was helping Mona to decorate the club . As 300 membership cards had already been sold , Harrison said that he had two friends in a band called The Quarrymen who would play instead . Lennon , McCartney and Harrison went to the club to arrange the booking , to which Mona agreed , but said she needed to finish painting the club first . All four took up brushes and helped Mona to finish painting the walls with spiders , dragons , rainbows and stars , but as Lennon was short @-@ sighted , he mistook gloss for emulsion paint , which took a long time to dry in the dark , damp cellar . Cynthia Powell , later the wife of Lennon , painted a silhouette of him on the wall , which is also still there .
The Quarrymen played a series of seven Saturday night concerts in The Casbah for 15 shillings each , starting on 29 August to October 1959 , featuring Lennon , McCartney , Harrison and Brown , but without a drummer , and only one microphone connected to the club 's small PA system . The opening night concert was attended by about 300 local teenagers , but as the cellar had no air @-@ conditioning , and people were dancing , the temperature rose until it became hard to breathe . After the success of the first night , Mona gave The Quarrymen a residency , and paid the whole group £ 3 a night . Every Saturday thereafter , queues lengthened onto the street , which was financially good for Mona , as she charged one shilling admission on top of the annual membership fee . As there was no amplification , Lennon later persuaded Mona to hire a young amateur guitar player called Harry to play a short set before The Quarrymen , but this was only so they could use his 40 @-@ Watt amplifier .
Best was studying at the Collegiate Grammar School when he decided he wanted to be in a music group , so Mona bought him a drum kit from Blackler 's music store and Best formed his own band ; The Black Jacks , who later played in The Casbah . Chas Newby joined the group , as did Ken Brown , but only after he had left The Quarrymen . The reason for Brown 's exit from the group was that he turned up on the seventh Saturday night of The Quarrymen residency at The Casbah with the flu , so Mona ordered him upstairs to the Best 's living room to rest . This caused a massive quarrel with the rest of the group when Mona came to pay them , as they wanted Brown 's money to be shared amongst the three of them , as Brown had not played . Mona refused , so The Quarrymen angrily cancelled their residency and stormed out .
Colin Manley from The Remo Four was also given a booking to play in the club , which was the only venue that young amateur bands could play at the time . Other artists and groups like Cilla Black , Rory Storm and the Hurricanes , The Searchers and Gerry & The Pacemakers later played in the club . The Black Jacks became the resident group at The Casbah , although The Quarrymen occasionally played there again and often visited . It was in The Casbah Club that Lennon and McCartney persuaded Stuart Sutcliffe to buy a Höfner 500 / 5 model — known in Europe as a President bass — with the money he had won in the John Moores art exhibition . Even though the membership list later spiralled to over a thousand , Mona closed the club on 24 June 1962 , with The Beatles as the last group to perform .
= = Heritage status = =
In 2006 , Culture Minister David Lammy announced that the Bests ' ex @-@ coal cellar was to be given Grade II listed building status and a blue plaque , after being recommended by English Heritage . It has now been opened as a tourist attraction in Liverpool , along with McCartney and Lennon 's previous homes at 20 Forthlin Road , and 251 Menlove Avenue respectively . The club is 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) from the Liverpool city centre , and only booked groups of visitors are accepted . McCartney was quoted as saying , " I think it ’ s a good idea to let people know about The Casbah . They know about The Cavern , they know about some of those things , but The Casbah was the place where all that started . We helped paint it and stuff . We looked upon it as our personal club . "
English Heritage ’ s Head of Heritage Protection in the North of England , Bob Hawkins : " The basement Casbah Club rooms are historically significant because they represent tangible evidence of The Beatles ’ formation , their growth in popularity and their enduring cultural influence throughout the world . The club survives in a remarkably well @-@ preserved condition since its closure in 1962 , with wall and ceiling paintings of spiders , dragons , rainbows and stars by original band members along with 1960 ’ s musical equipment , amplifiers and original chairs . We know of no other survival like it in Liverpool or indeed anywhere else . "
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= Herbert Loper =
Herbert Bernard Loper ( 22 October 1896 – 25 August 1989 ) was a United States Army major general who helped plan the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign and the Okinawa campaign during World War II . He was chief of the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project from 1952 to 1953 , and Chairman of the Military Liaison Committee of the United States Atomic Energy Commission from 1954 to 1961 .
A graduate of the United States Military Academy at West Point , he was commissioned in the US Army Corps of Engineers in 1919 . He graduated from the United States Army Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas in 1940 , and became Assistant Chief , and later Chief , of the Intelligence Division at the Office of the Chief of Engineers in Washington , DC . In May 1942 , he negotiated the Loper @-@ Hotline Agreement , under which responsibility for military mapping and survey of the globe was divided between the United States and the United Kingdom . In 1944 , he was appointed Chief Engineer of US Army Forces , Pacific Ocean Areas . In this role he was involved with the planning of the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign and the Okinawa campaign . After the fighting ended , he participated in the Occupation of Japan .
Loper returned to the United States to become Chief of the Joint Photo and Survey Section of the Joint Chiefs of Staff 's Joint Intelligence Group in 1948 . The next year he was appointed as an Army member of the Military Liaison Committee of the United States Atomic Energy Commission . He wrote a report which became known as the Loper Memorandum , which was influential in the decision to develop thermonuclear weapons . He was Deputy Commander of Joint Task Force 3 , which was responsible for the conduct the Operation Greenhouse nuclear tests in the Pacific . In 1951 became Chief of the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project , but was forced to retire after he suffered a heart attack in 1953 . He subsequently served as Chairman of the Military Liaison Committee from 2 August 1954 to 14 July 1961 .
= = Early life = =
Herbert Bernard Loper was born in Norcatur , Kansas on 22 October 1896 , the son of Gilford ( Gilbert ) Lafayette Loper and Hulda Belle Scott . He graduated from Washburn College with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1916 .
Loper was appointed to the United States Military Academy at West Point from Nebraska and entered on 14 June 1917 . However , due to World War I , the course was truncated and his class was graduated early on 1 November 1918 . He was ranked sixth in the class , two places behind Alfred Gruenther , and was commissioned as a second lieutenant .
After the Armistice with Germany ended the fighting in November 1918 , it was decided to have the 1918 class complete their studies . Loper therefore remained at West Point as a student officer until 11 June 1919 , when he again graduated , and was assigned to the US Army Corps of Engineers , as was normal for highly placed graduates . At this time , officers who had not served overseas were sent to Europe to tour the battlefields , and Loper visited battlefields in France , Belgium and Italy , as well as the Army of Occupation in Germany .
= = Between the wars = =
Loper returned to the United States in September and was initially posted to Camp A.A. Humphreys , Virginia . He was promoted to first lieutenant on 16 October 1919 . In October , he was sent to 8th Engineers at Fort Bliss , Texas . He was stationed at Camp Travis , Texas until June 1920 , when he commenced studies at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , from which he graduated in August 1921 , with a Bachelor of Science degree in engineering .
Loper then became Military Assistant to the District Engineer at Jacksonville , Florida . He reverted to the rank of second lieutenant on 15 December 1922 , a common enough occurrence in the wake of the demobilization after World War I , but was again promoted to the rank of first lieutenant on 22 April 1923 . He married Eleanor Cameron Opie in 1922 .
In October 1923 , Loper was posted to the 11th Engineers in the Panama Canal Zone . He returned to the United States in December 1926 and was with the Engineer Reproduction Plant at the Army War College until 31 August 1929 . He then went back to Camp A. A. Humphreys , first as a student , and then , 1 September 1930 , as an instructor . In December 1933 , he became Assistant to the District Engineer at Omaha , Nebraska , where he was promoted to captain on 25 May 1935 . In February 1938 , he was posted to the 6th Engineers at Fort Lawton , Washington .
= = World War II = =
Loper attended the United States Army Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas from August 1939 to February 1940 . On graduation , he was posted to the 7th Engineer Battalion at Fort McClellan , Alabama . He was Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 3 , and then Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 4 , of the 5th Infantry Division . In June 1940 , he became Assistant Chief of the Intelligence Division at the Office of the Chief of Engineers in Washington , DC , and then chief . Here , he was promoted to major on 1 July 1940 , lieutenant colonel on 18 September 1941 , and colonel on 8 June 1942 . In May 1942 , he negotiated the Loper @-@ Hotline Agreement , under which responsibility for military mapping and survey of the globe was divided between the United States and the United Kingdom . The agreement also specified technical features such as grids , scales and formats , so Allied servicemen everywhere would have common maps . For his services in this post , he was awarded the Army Distinguished Service Medal on 28 May 1944 .
On 28 May 1944 , Loper was appointed Chief Engineer of US Army Forces , Pacific Ocean Areas ( USAFPOA ) , on the specific request of the commander of USAFPOA , Lieutenant General Robert C. Richardson , Jr . Loper immediately became involved in planning for the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign . He discovered that the US Navy and Marine Corps did not have adequate map making units , so the task had to be undertaken by the Army . The 64th Topographic Battalion was assigned to the task of mapping the Caroline Islands and Palau . However , until B @-@ 29 photographic aircraft could be based in the Mariana Islands , much of the aerial survey had to be carried out by aircraft carrier @-@ based naval aircraft . Later Loper , who was promoted to brigadier general on 11 November 1944 , was involved in gathering engineer intelligence for the Battle of Iwo Jima , the Okinawa campaign , and Operation Olympic . When USAFPOA was merged with General of the Army Douglas MacArthur 's Southwest Pacific Area in 1945 , Loper became Chief of Engineer Intelligence under Major General Hugh J. Casey . After the fighting ended , Loper became Deputy Engineer of United States Far East Command during the Occupation of Japan . For his services in the Pacific , he was awarded the Legion of Merit on 22 September 1945 . He was awarded a second Legion of Merit for his services during the Occupation of Japan on 11 September 1948 .
= = Cold War = =
Loper returned to the United States in October 1948 , to become Chief of the Joint Photo and Survey Section of the Joint Chiefs of Staff 's Joint Intelligence Group . On 1 November 1949 , he was appointed as an Army member of the Military Liaison Committee of the United States Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) . Following the revelation of the espionage activities of Klaus Fuchs in 1950 , Loper and the Chief of the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project , Major General Kenneth D. Nichols , were asked to write a report on the impact of Klaus ' activities . Their pessimistic report pessimistically concluded that Soviet Union 's nuclear stockpile and production capacity could well be " equal or actually superior to our own , both as to yields and numbers . " They added that the Soviets might develop , or had already developed , thermonuclear weapon . The Loper Memorandum , as it became known , was influential in persuading the Joint Chiefs , the Secretary of Defense , and ultimately the President to authorize a crash program to develop thermonuclear weapons .
In 1951 , Loper was Deputy Commander of Joint Task Force 3 , which was responsible for the conduct the Operation Greenhouse nuclear tests in the Pacific . In 1951 , he succeeded Nichols as Chief of the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project . Nichols considered that Loper was " a very capable engineer , easygoing but firm , and well liked by his associates . " However , his term in the post was cut short in 1953 when he suffered a heart attack , and he was ultimately forced to retire from the Army in 1955 . However , he served as Chairman of the Military Liaison Committee from 2 August 1954 to 14 July 1961 . He was also a consultant to the AEC and the Secretary of Defense .
= = Later life = =
In the early 1960s , Loper worked for Washington Associates , a Washington , DC , consulting firm . He had lived in Bozman , Maryland , for 28 years . His wife died in 1979 , and he entered a nursing home in Palm Bay , Florida September 1988 , and died there of cardiac arrest on 25 August 1989 . He was survived by his two sons , Herbert Bernard Loper II and Thomas C. Loper , a retired Army colonel .
= = Decorations = =
Legion of Merit for services a Chief , Military Intelligence Division , Office of the Chief of Engineers .
Distinguished Service Medal for services as Chief , Pacific Ocean Areas
Legion of Merit ( Oak Leaf Cluster ) for services as Chief , Engineer Division , Office of the Chief of Engineers , General Headquarters , United States Armed Forces , Pacific .
Honorary Commander of the Order of the British Empire for service as Chief , Military Intelligence Division , Office of the Chief of Engineers .
Campaign Star : Western Pacific Campaign
Campaign Star : Southern Philippine Campaign
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= Gerald S. Lesser =
Gerald Samuel Lesser ( August 22 , 1926 – September 23 , 2010 ) was an American psychologist who served on the faculty of Harvard University from 1963 until his retirement in 1998 . Lesser was one of the chief advisers to the Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW , later known as the Sesame Workshop ) in the development and content of the educational programming included in the children 's television program Sesame Street . At Harvard , he was chair of the university 's Human Development Program for 20 years , which focused on cross @-@ cultural studies of child rearing , and studied the effects of media on young children . In 1974 , he wrote Children and Television : Lessons From Sesame Street , which chronicled how Sesame Street was developed and put on the air . Lesser developed many of the research methods the CTW used throughout its history and for other TV shows . In 1968 , before the debut of Sesame Street , he led a series of content seminars , an important part of the " CTW Model " , which incorporated educational pedagogy and research into TV scripts and was used to develop other educational programs and organizations all over the world . He died in 2010 , at the age of eighty @-@ four , and was survived by his wife , a daughter , a son , and a grandchild .
= = Early life and professional career = =
Lesser was born on August 22 , 1926 in Queens . The younger of two children , he grew up in the Jamaica neighborhood of Queens and graduated from Jamaica High School . After two years at Columbia University , he served in the United States Navy during World War II and returned to finish his undergraduate degree and earn a master 's in psychology at Columbia . He earned a Ph.D. from Yale University in child development and psychology in 1952 , studying the effects of visual media on children and the design of educational programming . He married Stella Scharf in 1953 .
Lesser taught education at Adelphi University and Hunter College , until hired by the Harvard School of Education ( HSE ) in 1963 , where he taught developmental psychology and its application to education . He was also chair of Harvard 's Human Development Program for 20 years , which focused on cross @-@ cultural studies of child rearing and was responsible for recruiting developmental psychologists and cultural anthropologists who influenced the studies of child development and education in the U.S. The HSE honored Lesser with a professorship , the Gerald S. Lesser Professor in Early Childhood Development ; former Harvard dean Kathleen McCartney was a recipient . Lesser retired in 1998 , and was a professor emeritus at Harvard until his death . Lesser 's colleagues reported that he had a big impact on his students and colleagues . Even though he worked all over the world , he remained dedicated to his students and " remained an integral presence in the lives of his graduate students " .
Lesser was one of the first scholars to study the effect of television on young children . He was hired in 1961 by NBC as an educational consultant for the TV show Exploring , which was created in response to Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) chairman Newton Minow 's charge to the networks to create more quality shows for children . Lesser studied how Exploring helped children learn in order to help the producers improve it , observed children while they watched it , and was able to see how TV shows were produced . Lesser 's experiences at NBC led to his involvement with the development of Sesame Street .
In 1964 , Lesser wrote , with Gordon Fifer and Donald H. Clark , Mental Abilities of Children in Different Social and Cultural Groups . Random House published his 1974 book Children and Television : Lessons From Sesame Street , which was called a " how @-@ to " in creating and producing a children 's television show , and was an account of the hard work and dedication required to put Sesame Street on the air .
= = Sesame Street = =
In 1967 , Lesser was asked to help develop and lead the research department of the newly formed Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW , later the Sesame Workshop ) , the organization responsible for the production of Sesame Street and other educational television programs . He was invited by Carnegie Foundation vice @-@ president and Sesame Street co @-@ creator Lloyd Morrisett , whom he had met while they were both psychology students at Yale . At first , Lesser was skeptical about the new show 's potential and its ability to teach children ; according to Morrisett , " he took some convincing " . As Lesser later reported , he would be involved only if he was able to make a real contribution . When he saw that Morrisett and his co @-@ creator , Joan Ganz Cooney , were serious about developing goals and a curriculum for the new show , and that it would be an " experimental venture in education by television " , he became the first chairman of the CTW 's advisory board , a position he held from 1967 to 1997 . Lesser was skeptical about Cooney 's qualifications as CTW 's first CEO , although by the time he wrote Children and Television in 1974 , she stated in the book 's foreword , " ... I couldn 't begin to measure how proud I am to be Gerry Lesser 's colleague and how happy I am to know the pleasure of his company " .
According to The New York Times , Lesser " poured the pedagogy into [ Sesame Street ] , helping ensure from the start that the new , experimental venture in education by television would be both enjoyable and instructive " . Fellow CTW researchers Edward Palmer and Shalom M. Fisch credited Lesser , along with Cooney and Morrisett , as a main architect of the show , and stated that " its extensive use of innovative television techniques meant that it would be highly experimental in nature " . Lesser and Palmer developed many of the research methods used to study the show 's impact on children throughout the show 's history . According to Sesame Workshop CEO Gary Knell , Lesser " trail blazed a path for an entire industry " and " set the standard for education 's intersection with media " . Knell also stated that Lesser challenged the conventional wisdom of the time that television could not teach young children , and proved that " TV was something organic in itself ; it was a technological species that lived under its own rules of engagement " .
Beginning in June 1968 , the CTW conducted a series of seminars at Harvard and in Manhattan , which were led by Lesser . These seminars became an important aspect of " the CTW model " , which incorporated educational pedagogy and research into TV scripts and was used to develop other educational programs and organizations all over the world . The purpose of the seminars was to expose the production team and other filmmakers and illustrators involved in the creative aspects of the new show to scholars , educators , and experts , and to encourage that both groups work together to create a curriculum and goals for the new show . The production team was skeptical regarding the place of research and objective analysis in the production of a television show , but Lesser 's previous experience in television , his warm , informal , unpretentious , and collaborative manner , and his proficiency in leading the meetings , convinced them . CTW researcher Keith Mielke stated , " He was masterful at running meetings . He was never stiff and formal , but casual and friendly " . According to producer Sam Gibbon , despite the participants ' personalities , experiences , and dispositions , Lesser was the only reason the seminars were successful . Lesser set the meetings ' tone and agenda , and recruited the participants . He stated , " The message was clear ; we were there to work . No pretension was going to be allowed " .
Lesser never appeared on Sesame Street , but he did appear in the promotional films the CTW created to persuade television stations to air the program . He worked on other CTW shows , including 3 @-@ 2 @-@ 1 Contact , Square One TV , and Ghostwriter , and was involved in developing versions of Sesame Street created in other countries .
= = Death = =
A resident of Lexington , Massachusetts , Lesser died at the age of 84 on September 23 , 2010 , in Burlington , Massachusetts due to a cerebral hemorrhage . He was survived by his wife , a daughter , a son , and a grandchild .
= = Awards = =
1970 : Guggenheim Fellow
1974 : Distinguished Contribution Award , the American Psychological Association
1986 : Visiting professor , the Institute for Communications Research , Keio University
1988 , 1990 : Senior fellow , Gannet Center for Media Studies
= = Works = =
Wittenborn , J. R. , Elaine G.Bell , and Gerald S. Lesser ( 1951 ) , " Symptom patterns among organic patients of advanced age " . Journal of Clinical Psychology , 7 , pp. 328 – 331 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1002 / 1097 @-@ 4679 ( 195110 ) 7
Wittenborn , J.R. and Gerald S. Lesser ( October 1951 ) . " Biographical factors and psychiatric symptoms " . Journal of Clinical Psychology , 7 ( 4 ) , pp. 317 – 322.doi : 10 @.@ 1002 / 1097 @-@ 4679
Lesser , Gerald S. ( September 1957 ) . " The relationship between overt and fantasy aggression as a function of maternal response to aggression " . The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 55 ( 2 ) , pp. 218 – 221 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1037 / h0042743
_ _ _ _ _ ( 1958 ) . " Conflict analysis of fantasy aggression " . Journal of Personality , 26 , pp. 29 – 41 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1467 @-@ 6494.1958.tb01568.x
_ _ _ _ _ ( 1958 ) . " Application of Guttman 's scaling method to aggressive fantasy in children " . Educational and Psychological Measurement , 18 , pp. 543 – 551 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1177 / 001316445801800308
Abelson , Robert P. and Gerald S. Lesser ( 1959 ) . " The Measurement of Persuasibility in Children " . In Personality and Persuasibility , Irving L. Janis , ed . New Haven , Connecticut : Yale University Press , pp. 141 – 166
_ _ _ _ _ ( 1959 ) . " A Developmental Theory of Persusibility " .
Lesser , Gerald S. and Robert P. Abelson ( 1959 ) . " Personality Correlates of Persuasibility in Children " .
_ _ _ _ _ ( February 1959 ) . " The relationships between various forms of aggression and popularity among lower @-@ class children " . Journal of Educational Psychology , 50 ( 1 ) , pp. 20 – 25 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1037 / h0040182
_ _ _ _ _ ( February 1959 ) . " Population differences in construct validity " . Journal of Consulting Psychology , 23 ( 1 ) , pp. 60 – 65 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1037 / h00434853
_ _ _ _ _ ( 1959 ) . " Religion and the Defensive Responses in Children 's Fantasy " , Journal of Projective Techniques , 23 ( 1 ) , pp. 64 – 68 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 08853126 @.@ 1959 @.@ 10380897
_ _ _ _ _ ( 1961 ) . " Custom @-@ Making Projective Tests for Research " . Journal of Projective Techniques , 25 ( 1 ) , pp. 21 – 31 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 08853126 @.@ 1961 @.@ 10381002
_ _ _ _ _ ( July 1962 ) . " The Identification of Gifted Elementary School Children with Exceptional Scientific Talent " , Educational and Psychological Measurement , 22 , pp. 349 – 364 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 0020486640020305
Lesser , Gerald S. , Rhoda N.Krawitz , and Rita Packard ( January 1963 ) . " Experimental arousal of achievement motivation in adolescent girls " . The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 66 ( 1 ) , pp. 59 – 66 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1037 / h0042942
Lesser , Gerald S. , Kristine M. Rosen ‐ thai , Sally E. Polkoff and Marjorie B. Pfankuch ( 1963 ) . " Some Effects of Segregation in the Schools " , Equity & Excellence in Education ' , 2 ( 3 ) , pp. 20 – 26 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 0020486640020305
French , Elizabeth and Gerald S. Lesser ( February 1964 ) . " Some characteristics of the achievement motive in women . " The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 68 ( 2 ) , pp. 119 – 128 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1037 / h0041417
Stoller , Nathan , Gerald S. Lesser , and Philip I. Freedman ( Summer 1964 ) . " A comparison of methods of observation in preservice teacher training " . AV Communication Review , 12 ( 2 ) , pp 177 – 197
Lesser , Gerald S. , Gordon Fifer , and Donald H. Clark ( 1965 ) . " Mental Abilities of Children from Different Social @-@ Class and Cultural Groups " . Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development , 30 ( 4 ) , pp. 1 – 115
Lesser , Gerald S. and Herbert Schueler ( Fall 1966 ) . " New media research in teacher education " . AV Communication Review , 14 ( 3 ) , pp. 318 – 361
Stodolsky , Susan S.and Gerald S. Lesser ( Winter 1967 ) . " Learning Patterns in the Disadvantaged " . Harvard Educational Review , 37 ( 4 ) , pp. 546 – 593
Fort , Jane G. , Jean C. Watts , and Gerald S. Lesser ( March 1969 ) . " Cultural Background and Learning in Young Children " , The Phi Delta Kappan , 50 ( 7 ) , pp. 386 – 389
Kandel , Denise B. and Gerald S. Lesser ( April 1969 ) . " Parental and Peer Influences on Educational Plans of Adolescents " . American Sociological Review 34 ( 2 ) , pp. 213 – 223
_ _ _ _ _ ( May 1969 ) . " Parent @-@ Adolescent Relationships and Adolescent Independence in the United States and Denmark " . Journal of Marriage and Family 31 ( 2 ) , pp. 348 – 358
_ _ _ _ _ ( February 1972 ) . " Marital Decision @-@ Making in American and Danish Urban Families : A Research Note " . Journal of Marriage and Family 34 ( 1 ) , pp. 134 – 138
_ _ _ _ _ ( Summer 1972 ) . " Learning , Teaching , and Television Production for Children : The Experience of Sesame Street " , Harvard Educational Review , 42 ( 2 ) , pp. 232 – 272
_ _ _ _ _ ( 1974 ) . Children and Television : Lessons From Sesame Street . New York : Vintage Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 394 @-@ 71448 @-@ 2
Palmer , Edward L. , Milton Chen , and Gerald S. Lesser ( 1976 ) . " Sesame Street : Patterns of International Adaptation " . Journal of Communication , 26 , pp. 108 – 123 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1460 @-@ 2466.1976.tb01389.x
_ _ _ _ _ ( Feb 1976 ) . " Applications of psychology to television programming : Formulation of program objectives " . American Psychologist , 31 ( 2 ) , pp. 135 – 136 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1037 / 0003 @-@ 066X.31.2.135
Lesser , Gerald S. and Joel Schneider ( 2001 ) . " Creation and Evolution of the Sesame Street Curriculum " . In " G " is for Growing : Thirty Years of Research on Children and Sesame Street . Mahweh , New Jersey : Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers , pp. 25 – 38 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8058 @-@ 3395 @-@ 1
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= Hawker Siddeley P.1127 =
The Hawker P.1127 and the Hawker Siddeley Kestrel FGA.1 were the experimental and development aircraft that led to the Hawker Siddeley Harrier , the first vertical and / or short take @-@ off and landing ( V / STOL ) jet fighter @-@ bomber . Kestrel development began in 1957 , taking advantage of the Bristol Engine Company 's choice to invest in the creation of the Pegasus vectored @-@ thrust engine . Testing began in July 1960 and by the end of the year the aircraft had achieved both vertical take @-@ off and horizontal flight . The test program also explored the possibility of use upon aircraft carriers , landing on HMS Ark Royal in 1963 . The first three aircraft crashed during testing , one at the 1963 Paris Air Show .
Improvements to future development aircraft , such as swept wings and more powerful Pegasus engines , led to the development of the Kestrel . The Kestrel was evaluated by the Tri @-@ partite Evaluation Squadron , made up of military pilots from Britain , the United States , and West Germany . Later flights were conducted by the U.S. military and NASA .
Related work on a supersonic aircraft , the Hawker Siddeley P.1154 , was cancelled in 1965 . As a result , the P.1127 ( RAF ) , a variant more closely based on the Kestrel , was ordered into production that year , and named Harrier - the name originally intended for the P.1154 - in 1967 . The Harrier served with the UK and several nations , often as a carrier @-@ based aircraft .
= = Design and development = =
= = = Background = = =
In 1957 , the Bristol Engine Company informed Sydney Camm of Hawker that they had a project to combine their Olympus and Orpheus jet engines to produce a directable fan jet . The original idea on which the engine , named Pegasus , was based came from Michel Wibault , a French aviation consultant . Several adaptions and enhancements were made by Bristol to reduce size and weight over Wibault 's original concept . Hawker took the planned Pegasus engine as a basis for a plane that could meet the current NATO specification for a Light Tactical Support Fighter to replace the Fiat G.91. Prior to the P.1127 project , Hawker Aviation had been working on a replacement for the Hawker Hunter — the Hawker P.1121. However , the P.1121 was cancelled shortly after the 1957 Defence White Paper , which advocated a policy shift away from manned aircraft and towards missiles .
By the end of 1958 , barely eighteen months after the start of the project , all the main features of the P.1127 were developed with one exception , the reaction control system - this was resolved by April 1959 . As the P.1127 had been developed at a time of deep UK defense cuts , Hawker had to seek commercial funding , and significant engine development funding came from the U.S. Wind tunnel tests conducted by NASA Langley Research Center using a sub @-@ scale model showed acceptable flight characteristics . Hawker test pilot Hugh Merewether went to the U.S. at NASA 's request to fly the Bell X @-@ 14 . In March 1959 , the company 's board of directors ( Hawker Siddeley then ) decided to privately fund two P.1127 prototypes . In late 1959 the British Ministry of Supply contracted for two P.1127 prototypes .
= = = P.1127 = = =
The first " P.1127 Prototype V / STOL Strike Aircraft " , serial XP831 , was delivered in July 1960 for static engine testing , and in October the Pegasus flight engine was made available . Prior to this Stanley Hooker had asked Camm " I suppose you are going to do some conventional flying first Sydney ? " and Camm replied " What for ? " Hooker said " Well you know , just to make sure the aeroplane is a nice aeroplane , and everything under control . " Camm replied , " Oh , Hawker aeroplanes are always beautiful , nothing wrong with a Hawker aeroplane , not going to bother with that . Vertical first time " . The first tethered flight took place at Dunsfold Aerodrome on the 21 October and free flight hover was achieved on 19 November , after which the first publicity photos were released . The second prototype , XP836 , made its first take off conventionally on 7 July 1961 . The two aircraft proceeded to close the gap between vertical take off and flight , which was achieved by 8 September 1961 .
Four more prototypes were ordered . Throughout this period improved Pegasus engines were being developed , with the Pegasus 3 being capable of 15 @,@ 000 lbf ( 67 kN ) of thrust . Apart from this , the first four aircraft were quite similar , but the fifth , XP980 , introduced the taller fin and tailplane anhedral later seen on the Harrier . The fourth machine was used in part to give the Hawker production test pilots P.1127 familiarisation . The first carrier vertical landing was performed by the first prototype on HMS Ark Royal in 1963 . The last P.1127 , XP984 , introduced the swept wing . It was eventually fitted with the 15 @,@ 000 lbf ( 66 @.@ 7 kN ) Pegasus 5 and functioned as the prototype Kestrel .
The first three P.1127s crashed , the second and third during development . The first prototype ( XP831 ) crashed at the Paris Air Show in 1963 , caused by a speck of dirt in the air feed lines of the nozzle control motor causing the engine nozzles to stick , but the aircraft was fully repaired and resumed development flying . All the pilots involved survived .
= = = Kestrel FGA.1 = = =
Nine evaluation aircraft were ordered as the Kestrel FGA.1 , an improved version of the P.1127 , the first flying on 7 March 1964 . The Kestrel had fully swept wings and a larger tail than the early P.1127s , and the fuselage was modified to take the larger 15 @,@ 000 lbf ( 85 kN ) Pegasus 5 engine as in the P.1127 / Kestrel prototype XP984 . Due to interest from the U.S. and Germany , the Tri @-@ partite Evaluation Squadron ( TES ) was formed on 15 October 1964 at RAF West Raynham , staffed by military test pilots from Britain , the United States and West Germany .
The Kestrel 's first flight was on 7 March 1964 . These equipped the Tripartite Evaluation Squadron formed at RAF West Raynham in Norfolk in March 1965 . The Evaluation pilots developed a typical sortie routine for the Kestrel of conducting short take @-@ offs ( STO ) and returning to base on vertical landings . This manner of operation ( STOVL ) was judged to be the optimal practice . Operating from rough airstrips was also trialled at nearby RAF Bircham Newton , where the aircraft proved adept at traversing boggy ground and taking off from a variety of temporary ground coverings . During testing one aircraft was lost when a pilot tried to do a rolling take @-@ off with the parking brake on ; the evaluations were finalised in November 1965 .
Six of the eight surviving evaluation aircraft ( the three allocated to the U.S. plus those allocated to Germany ) were transferred to the U.S. for evaluation by the Army , Air Force , and Navy as the XV @-@ 6A Kestrel . After Tri @-@ Service evaluation they were passed to the USAF for further evaluation at Edwards Air Force Base , except for two that were assigned to NASA . One of the two remaining British @-@ based Kestrels was attached to the Blind Landing Experimental Unit ( BLEU ) at RAE Bedford and the other , XS693 , went to Blackburn for modification to take the uprated Pegasus 6 engine .
In addition to some strengthening , there were alterations to the air intake , which had throughout the P.1127 and Kestrel series featured an inflatable lip to smooth the intake airflow when the aircraft was almost stationary . There were concerns about the service life of these devices , so they were replaced with conventional suction relief doors . Experience gained during naval testing on board the commando carrier HMS Bulwark in 1966 convinced project officers that less reactive materials would be substituted for all uses of magnesium in the Kestrel 's airframe , in any further prototypes and production aircraft . The Kestrel became the prototype for pre @-@ production Harriers .
= = = P.1127 ( RAF ) = = =
NATO requirement NBMR @-@ 3 specified a VTOL aircraft , but one with the performance of an aircraft such as the F @-@ 4 Phantom II along with VTOL capability . Hawker drafted the P.1150 , a supersonic P.1127 , and the P.1154 , which would meet NBMR @-@ 3 . The P.1154 was a winner of the NATO competition and prototype construction was already underway at the point of cancellation in 1965 . The French government withdrew shortly after its selection over the Dassault Mirage IIIV . The RAF then began looking at a simple upgrade of the Kestrel , and issued Requirement ASR 384 for a V / STOL ground attack jet , known as the P.1127 ( RAF ) .
In late 1965 , the RAF ordered six pre @-@ production P.1127 ( RAF ) aircraft . The first P.1127 ( RAF ) flew on 31 August 1966 . An order for 60 production aircraft was formally received by Hawker Aviation in early 1967 ; at this time the aircraft received the Harrier GR.1 designation . The Harrier became a successful aircraft in British service , and was exported to several nations , often seeing usage as a carrier @-@ based aircraft .
= = Variants = =
P.1127
Experimental V / STOL fighter , two prototypes and four development aircraft .
Kestrel FGA.1
Aircraft for the tripartite evaluation squadron , nine built , six later transferred to the United States where they were designated XV @-@ 6A .
P.1127 ( RAF )
Development V / STOL ground attack and reconnaissance fighter , six built as pre @-@ production evaluation aircraft before the type was ordered into production as the Harrier GR.1. First aircraft flew from Dunsfold on 31 August 1966 .
XV @-@ 6A
United States military designation for the six Kestrel FGA.1 transferred to the U.S.
VZ @-@ 12
U.S. Army designation for two P.1127 development aircraft , not delivered .
= = Operators = =
United Kingdom
Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment P.1127 and Kestrel trials and evaluation
Royal Air Force
Central Fighter Establishment - Kestrel ( P.1127 ) Evaluation Squadron ( also known as the Tripartite Evaluation Squadron ) , nine Kestrel aircraft allocated for evaluation in 1965 . One aircraft was lost in an accident , six aircraft later passed to the United States Army , one to the Royal Aircraft Establishment and one to Hawker Siddeley for further trials .
Royal Aircraft Establishment P.1127 and Kestrel trials and evaluation .
United States
United States Army ( aircrew participated in both the Tri @-@ partite Evaluation Squadron and as part of the American XV @-@ 6A Tri @-@ service evaluation team . Had three Kestrel aircraft allocated after the evaluation at West Raynham and also acquired the three allocated to Germany . Four later transferred to the United States Air Force and two to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ) .
United States Air Force ( aircrew participated in both the Tri @-@ partite Evaluation Squadron and as part of the American XV @-@ 6A Tri @-@ service evaluation team but had no aircraft allocated after the evaluation at West Raynham , four former United States Army aircraft operated for trials ) .
United States Navy ( aircrew participated in both the Tri @-@ partite Evaluation Squadron and as part of the American XV @-@ 6A Tri @-@ service evaluation team but had no aircraft allocated after the evaluation ) .
NASA operated two former United States Army Kestrels .
West Germany
German Air Force ( Luftwaffe ) ( aircrew participated in the Tri @-@ partite Evaluation Squadron , three allocated Kestrel aircraft not delivered and passed to United States Army )
= = Aircraft on display = =
P.1127 XP831 on display at The Science Museum , London , England .
P.1127 XP980 ( fitted with a Harrier GR.1 wing ) is on display at the Fleet Air Arm Museum , Yeovilton , England .
P.1127 XP984 ( temporarily fitted with an earlier P.1127 wing ) is on display at the Brooklands Museum , Surrey , England .
Kestrel FGA.1 XS695 on display at the Royal Air Force Museum Cosford England .
P.1127 ( RAF ) XV277 on display at the National Museum of Flight , Scotland .
P.1127 ( RAF ) XV278 on display at the Luftwaffenmuseum , Germany .
XV @-@ 6A Kestrel 64 @-@ 18262 on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright Patterson AFB , Ohio , United States .
XV @-@ 6A Kestrel 64 @-@ 18263 with NASA livery on display at the Virginia Air and Space Center , Hampton , Virginia , United States
XV @-@ 6A Kestrel 64 @-@ 18264 held in storage by the United States Army Aviation Museum , Alabama , United States .
XV @-@ 6A Kestrel 64 @-@ 18266 with NASA livery on display at Air Power Park , Hampton , Virginia , United States .
= = Specifications ( Kestrel FGA.1 ) = =
Data from Mason .
General characteristics
Crew : 1
Length : 42 ft 6 in ( 12 @.@ 95 m )
Wingspan : 22 ft 11 in ( 6 @.@ 99 m )
Height : 10 ft 9 in ( 3 @.@ 28 m )
Empty weight : approximately 9 @,@ 800 lb ( 4 @,@ 445 kg )
Loaded weight : for VTO 14 @,@ 500 lb ( 6 @,@ 580 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : for STO , approximately 17 @,@ 000 lb ( 7 @,@ 700 kg )
Powerplant : 1 × Bristol Siddeley Pegasus 5 vectored @-@ thrust turbofan , 15 @,@ 000 lbf ( 67 kN )
Performance
Maximum speed : 710 mph , Mach 0 @.@ 92 ( 1 @,@ 142 km / h ) at sea level
Service ceiling : ( service ) approximately 55 @,@ 000 ft ( 16 @,@ 750 m )
Rate of climb : approximately 30 @,@ 000 ft / min ( 150 m / s )
Thrust / weight : 1 @.@ 04
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= 1877 FA Cup Final =
The 1877 FA Cup Final was a football match between Wanderers and Oxford University on 24 March 1877 at Kennington Oval in London . It was the sixth final of the world 's oldest football competition , the Football Association Challenge Cup ( known in the modern era as the FA Cup ) . Wanderers were the reigning cup @-@ holders and had won the competition three times in total . Oxford had also previously won the tournament . Wanderers had reached the final without conceding a goal , defeating Cambridge University in the semi @-@ finals . Oxford had only played three matches in the five rounds prior to the final due to a combination of byes and opponents withdrawing .
Oxford took the lead in the final when Arthur Kinnaird , the Wanderers goalkeeper , stepped behind his goal @-@ line while holding the ball , thereby scoring an own goal . Wanderers equalised in the dying stages of the match and scored the winning goal in extra time . Oxford 's goal was struck from the official records after the match , but reinstated over a hundred years later .
= = Route to the final = =
Wanderers were the reigning cup holders and had also won the tournament in both 1872 and 1873 . Oxford University had won the competition in 1874 . Both teams entered the competition at the first round stage and were allocated home matches against Saffron Walden and Old Salopians respectively . Neither match took place , however , as in each case the away team withdrew from the competition , giving their opponents a bye into the next round . In the second round , Wanderers and Oxford both scored six goals , defeating Southall and 105th Regiment respectively .
In the third round , Wanderers beat Pilgrims 3 – 0 and Oxford again progressed without playing when their scheduled opponents , the leading Scottish club Queen 's Park , withdrew . Wanderers themselves progressed through the quarter @-@ finals on a bye as an uneven number of teams remained in the competition . Oxford were held to a goalless draw by Upton Park , but emerged victorious after a replay two weeks later . In the semi @-@ finals Oxford received a bye , progressing straight to the final , and Wanderers beat the other of the great universities , Cambridge University , 1 – 0 .
= = Match = =
= = = Summary = = =
Both teams chose to play with two full @-@ backs , two half @-@ backs and six forwards , in keeping with the attacking style of play generally employed at the time . Arthur Kinnaird played in goal for Wanderers , even though he had played as a forward in three earlier cup final appearances . At the time , the position of goalkeeper was not considered a specialised one , and players often alternated between playing in goal and playing in outfield positions . The game was played at Kennington Oval , home of Surrey County Cricket Club and took place in extremely bad weather , with rain and sleet hampering the players . Wanderers won the coin toss and chose to begin the match defending the Harleyford Road end of the stadium .
The Wanderers players began the game in relative disarray , which the correspondent from The Sportsman reported was not an uncommon feature of their matches . After fifteen minutes Oxford were awarded a corner kick , which Evelyn Waddington kicked high towards the goal . Kinnaird caught the ball , but in doing so stepped behind the goal @-@ line . The Oxford players immediately appealed for a goal to be awarded , and after a consultation the officials did so , giving the University team the lead . Some time later , Charles Wollaston was injured and swapped positions with Kinnaird . At the time the concept of substitution had not been introduced to the sport , so injured players were obliged to remain in the game unless they were completely unable to play on , but it was common for an injured player to " retire into goal " , where it was felt he would be less of a liability .
As Wanderers pressed for an equaliser , Francis Birley took an indirect free kick , which went into the Oxford goal , but no goal was awarded as the ball had gone straight in without touching another player . Four minutes from the end of the game , Hubert Heron made what The Field called a " splendid run " and passed the ball to Jarvis Kenrick , whose shot eluded Oxford goalkeeper Edward Alington to level the scores and send the game into extra time . Seven minutes into the extra period , William Lindsay 's goalbound shot was headed away by an Oxford player but the ball rebounded to Lindsay who sent it past Alington to give Wanderers a lead which the cup holders kept until the end of the game and thus retained the trophy .
= = = Details = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
Some time after the match , Kinnaird informed the council of the Football Association ( FA ) , of which he was a member , that in his opinion he had not carried the ball over the line for Oxford 's goal . Despite the fact that the referee had awarded the goal and multiple newspaper reports stated that the ball had clearly gone over the line , Kinnaird 's fellow council members took his word for it , and struck the goal from the records , changing the official score to 2 – 0 ( although if Oxford had not scored , there would have been no reason for the game to go to extra time , so by rights they should have annulled Wanderers ' second goal as well ) . For the next century , all sources reported the score of the match as 2 – 0 . In the 1980s , after fresh research into contemporary reports of the game by football historians , the FA reinstated the Oxford goal , and now regard the official final score of the 1877 final as 2 – 1 .
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= Let There Be Love ( Christina Aguilera song ) =
" Let There Be Love " is a song recorded by American singer @-@ songwriter Christina Aguilera for her seventh studio album , Lotus ( 2012 ) . It was written and produced by Max Martin and Shellback , with additional writing from Bonnie McKee , Oliver Goldstein , Oscar Holter and Jakke Erixson . Having originally collaborated with other producers in her earlier works , Aguilera stated that the " full circle " her career had taken became the right time to work with Martin . The song combines dance @-@ pop , EDM and pop music genres , and is influenced by electronica and trance . Its instrumentation incorporates synths , drums and electronics .
" Let There Be Love " garnered positive reviews from music critics . Many praised Aguilera for not over singing and delivering a solid vocal performance , while others complimented the musical structure and composition . The song peaked at number 132 on the South Korea international singles chart following the release of the album , and at number one on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart .
On August 29 , 2013 , an accompanying music video for the song was released on Aguilera 's official channel . It features cameo appearances from Nicole Richie , Christina Milian , Chris Mann , Aguilera 's son Max Bratman and her current boyfriend Matthew Rutler . The video sees everybody makes the " L " sign for the word " love " , alongside positive messages , such as " Racism sucks " , " Accept " , and " Amo a mi hijo gay " ( " I love my gay son " ) . It was described as a " soulful , and completely inexplicable , letter to her fans thanking them for their undying love " . To promote Lotus and the song , Aguilera performed " Let There Be Love " at the 40th American Music Awards and on The Voice in the United States .
= = Background and recording = =
Following the release of her sixth studio album , Bionic ( 2010 ) , Aguilera filed for divorce from her husband Jordan Bratman , starred in her first feature film , Burlesque and recorded the accompanying soundtrack . She then became a coach on NBC 's singing competition show The Voice and appeared as a featured artist on Maroon 5 's single " Moves Like Jagger " ( 2011 ) , which spent four weeks atop the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . Following these events , Aguilera announced that had plans to begin production of her seventh album , stating that she wanted high quality and " personal " songs for the record . Regarding the creative direction , she revealed that the album would be a " culmination of everything I 've experienced up until this point ... I 've been through a lot since the release of my last album , being on ( ' The Voice ' ) , having had a divorce ... This is all sort of a free rebirth for me . " She further said " I 'm embracing many different things , but it 's all feel @-@ good , super @-@ expressive [ and ] super @-@ vulnerable . " Aguilera continued to say that the album would be about " self – expression and freedom " because of the personal struggles she had overcome during the last couple of years .
Speaking about her new material during an interview on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno in 2012 , Aguilera said that the recording process for Lotus was taking a while because " I don 't like to just get songs from producers . I like them to come from a personal place ... I 'm very excited . It 's fun , exciting , introspective , it 's going to be great " . Recorded at MXM Studios by Shellback in Stockholm , Sweden , " Let There Be Love " was written by Max Martin , Savan Kotecha , Bonnie McKee , Oliver Goldstein , Oscar Holter and Jakke Erixson . It was produced by Martin and Shellback . Aguilera 's vocals were recorded by Oscar Ramirez at The Red Lips Room in Beverly Hills in California ; the background vocals engineer was Sam Holland . Programming and keyboards were carried out by Shellback and additional keyboards were performed by Holter , Erixson and Martin .
= = Development = =
Aguilera explained how she and Max Martin had met early on in her career , but it was a creative and mutual decision not to collaborate with each other at that stage in her career as she wanted to explore different avenues . However , she felt at this point in her career with Lotus , it was the right time to work together , stating :
I definitely don 't go the straight and narrow path , and you know , I definitely kinda like to experiment and collaborate . And so , I think it 's taken me and Max this long to work together because of that , because what he does is genius and he is a classic hitmaker . But when I was coming out it was at a time when we had the huge pop explosion , and he was all over radio and I just wanted to work with others like Linda Perry and do that route and do " Beautiful " and songs like that . We built a level of respect for each other . So at this point , coming together , especially embracing my true pop @-@ starness , at this point in my career having come full circle , I was able to really truly embrace it , and embrace him . He gave me the freedom to really sing on these songs , and have a little more creative freedom because I heard he is a stickler for melody and a melody king and I was scared , I was like ' Oh my God ! I won 't be able to collaborate here . ' But he couldn 't have been more great , and this is a really fun song , super up @-@ tempo . It 's probably the most dancey @-@ ish song on my record , but it 's called ' Let There Be Love ' but it 's free and representative of what this album is about .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Let There Be Love " combines a multitude of genres . It is a dance @-@ pop , electronic dance music ( EDM ) , and pop music song . It also contains electronica and trance influences . It lasts for a duration of three minutes and 22 seconds . The instrumental consists of " a propulsive beat and chewy synths " , as well as " loud drums " and " overwhelming " electronica . According to Kitty Empire for The Guardian , the song is " about as formulaic as club pop gets " but " resonates effectively . " Andrew Hampp for Billboard compared the song 's instrumental to two songs recorded by Usher , " DJ Got Us Fallin ' in Love " and " Scream " , both of which were produced by Martin . He also noted that Aguilera was probably aware that the " Let There Be Love " ' s melody bared strong resemblances to the songs , which most likely prompted her to spend " the last minute wailing all over the place . " Aguilera " roars " the lyrics " Let there be let there be love / Here in the here in the dark " over trance beats and projects a " saucy " tone as she sings " " Hit the right spot , making my eyes roll back . "
= = Critical reception = =
" Let There Be Love " garnered positive reviews from music critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine for Allmusic complimented Aguilera 's approach to the song , writing that she sounds " comfortable " and " fresh , " while Andrew Hampp for Billboard wrote that it is a club friendly song but does not show much personality . Chris Younie for 4Music thought that it is obvious from the " initial stabs of synth " that " Let There Be Love " will resonate " Ibiza type " beats . He continued to write that Aguilera had managed to create a " dance anthem " without the assistance of Calvin Harris . The Huffington Post writer Mesfin Fekadu thought that Martin 's production of " Let There Be Love " was superior to " Your Body " , citing it as " typical " but potentially successful on radio . Jim Farber for New York Daily News praised the song , writing that it is " a prime disco diva anthem " .
MTV News writer Christina Garibaldi praised the uptempo track , writing that its " heavy beat " and " sultry lyrics " were perfect for people to dance to in nightclubs . Jenna Hally Rubenstein for MTV Buzzworthy noted that it is easy to become addicted to listening to " Let There Be Love " , and that Aguilera 's vocals " prevail above the noise . " Both Sam Lanksy and Mike Wass for Idolator reviewed " Let There Be Love " : Lanksy predicted that the song had the potential to be a " monster hit " , and complimented Aguilera for not over singing the song , which he described as " epic . " Wass shared Lanksy 's sentiments and elaborated that the production serves as the " perfect destination " for her " powerhouse pipes " . Michael Gallucci for PopCrush thought that the song was not quite as good as " Your Body " and described it as " typical pop . " However , he criticized Aguilera 's vocal performance , stating that her " big voice " should be able to be heard above the instrumental .
Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani thought that " Let There Be Love " would have been a better lead single choice than " Your Body " , as she felt it would have ensured Aguilera a greater comeback . Cinquemani described the song as " a virtual hybrid of recent club bangers by Rihanna , Britney , Katy , and Ke $ ha . " Robert Copsey for Digital Spy thought that the song 's weakness is also its strength , describing it as " a massive clubby raveathon that is ultimately throwaway , but in the best possible way . " Annie Zaleski for The A.V. Club criticized the song as " faceless Top 40 EDM . " Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly found the " bouncy peace @-@ flag @-@ waver " lyrics of the song contradictory and difficult to comprehend because of " a bonus track called ' Shut Up ' that invites the haters to ' suck my [ dick ] . ' "
= = Music video = =
= = = Conception = = =
The music video for " Let There Be Love " was premiered on Aguilera 's official channel on YouTube on August 29 , 2013 . The clip was official released few hours after she posted a 2000 @-@ word thank you message to fans on her official website on August 28 , 2013 . A part of the letter reads ,
I may get quiet at times , but when I do have something to say , I mean every word . I decided to share my thoughts with you at length and tell you openly how I feel . Thank you for filling my soul with melody and song … lyrics and love … and giving me a safe place I feel comforted in being brave enough to always bare my soul and come from an honest and genuine place . Be fearless enough to be a conversation piece … Speak your own truth … As always , thank you for accepting me for who I am . Being human – flaws and all .
The music video for " Let There Be Love " was filmed in a DIY style . In the music video , Aguilera is seen in her one @-@ piece swimsuit with the world " love " written all over it . It also featured guest appearances from Nicole Richie , Christina Milian , Chris Mann , Aguilera 's son , Max Bratman , and her current boyfriend Matthew Rutler . The video begins with Aguilera ' message , " Hey everybody Chrisitina here just thanking you guys so much for filling my life and my heart with so much love continued throughout the years ... Standing by me , I appreciate all your support , this one is just for you " . Everybody is seen joking around with another friend as they make the " L " sign for " love " with their hands , as well as holding up signs with positive messages such as " Don 't judge " , " Equality " , " Racism sucks " , " Accept " , and " Amo a mi hijo gay " ( " I love my gay son " ) , while Aguilera 's son Bratman " excitedly " " shows off his dancing chops " . At the end , Aguilera blows a kiss to the camera .
= = = Reception = = =
Upon its release , the music video for " Let There Be Love " garnered acclaim from media outlets . Lily Harrison from E ! Online labelled it " nothing short of adorable " . Similarly , John Walker for MTV Buzzworthy named it " flawless " . New York Daily News writer Rachel Maresca complimented on Aguilera 's new figure , " she looks happier and healthier than ever as she bops around smiling ear @-@ to @-@ ear in swimsuits showing off her trimmed @-@ down figure " , while Allison Takeda from US Weekly commented that Aguilera 's look in the video is " slim and gorgeous " . Writing for the Daily Mail , George Stark commented that perhaps the clip " might enjoy a new lease of life " . According to Sam Lansky for Idolator , the video 's message is a " soulful , and completely inexplicable , letter to her fans thanking them for their undying love " . Malene Arpe for the Toronto Star was positive toward the clip , calling it a " perfect antidote to a week of thinking about the Miley Cyrus / Robin Thicke porn circus " . She continued , " Aguilera 's new video is so sweet and innocent and full of goodwill towards humanity , it will make you forget all about twerking and foam fingers and the inherent greasiness of Robin Thicke " . Nina Terrero for NBC Latino compared the video for " Let There Be Love " to Aguilera 's previous video for " Beautiful " ( 2002 ) for the same positive portrayal of the LGBT community .
= = Live performances = =
Aguilera performed " Let There Be Love " for the first time at the 40th American Music Awards on November 18 , 2012 , held at the Nokia Theatre in Los Angeles , California . As one of the first singers to be announced as a performer at the award ceremony on October 19 , 2012 , Aguilera sang " Let There Be Love " as part of a medley with two other tracks from Lotus : " Lotus Intro " and " Army of Me " . During an interview with MTV News , Aguilera revealed what the performance would be like and the creative direction behind it :
It 's very exciting . It 's definitely going to be a reflection of what Lotus means to me . If you take that album cover and give it a little performance twist , I 'll bring that album cover to life , so it 's going to be really fun . I can 't give too much away about the songs , but it 's definitely going to represent the album because the album is very multilayered . It doesn 't represent ' Your Body ' as a single tone . It has its ballads ; and everything comes from a very sincere , deep – rooted place whether it 's having fun or being vulnerable .
Wearing a " fuller – figure " " cinched in corset " designed by The Blonds , who also design outfits for Lady Gaga , Leah Simpson for the Daily Mail wrote that Aguilera put a " sexy twist on patriotism with a star – spangled bodysuit and managed to get a few pulses racing in the over – the – top ensemble . " The performance featured dance routines and dancers wearing " torture bags labelled the words ' Freak ' and ' Queen ' over their heads . " Bruna Nessif for E ! Online described the performance as " interesting , " and noted that the theme " to celebrate everyone for who they are " was similar to the moral content presented on Gaga 's album Born This Way ( 2011 ) . As Aguilera finished her set , she was joined on stage by Pitbull to perform his song " Feel This Moment " , on which she is a featured artist . Aguilera also performed " Let There Be Love " with her team of aspiring singers on The Voice , a singing competition on which she is a coach .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at MXM Studios , Stockholm , Sweden .
Vocals recorded at The Red Lips Room , Beverly Hills , CA .
Personnel
Songwriting – Max Martin , Savan Kotecha , Bonnie McKee , Oliver Goldstein , Oscar Holter , Jakke Erixson
Production – Max Martin , Shellback
Recording – Shellback
Vocal recording – Oscar Ramirez
Background vocals engineer – Sam Holland
Programming and keyboards – Shellback
Additional keyboards – Oscar Holter , Jakke Erixson , Max Martin
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Lotus , RCA Records .
= = Chart performance = =
Upon the release of Lotus , " Let There Be Love " debuted on the South Korea Gaon Single Chart at number 132 during the week of November 11 to 17 , 2012 . In the United States , the song debuted at number 44 on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart on February 18 , 2013 . It reached number one with the issue dated June 1 , 2013 . With " Let There Be Love " attaining the number one position on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart , it upped her total tally to seven number @-@ one songs , and the second from Lotus to reach the peak , after " Your Body " in December 2012 .
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
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= Halt im Gedächtnis Jesum Christ , BWV 67 =
Halt im Gedächtnis Jesum Christ ( Keep Jesus Christ in mind ) , BWV 67 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed it in Leipzig for Quasimodogeniti , the first Sunday after Easter , and first performed it on 16 April 1724 .
Based on the prescribed gospel of the appearance of Jesus to the Disciples , first without then with Thomas , an unknown poet compares the situation of the doubtful Thomas to the Christian in general . He places Nikolaus Herman 's Easter hymn " Erschienen ist der herrlich Tag " in the centre of the cantata , repeats the line " Friede sei mit euch " ( Peace be with you ) several times , and ends with the first stanza from Jakob Ebert 's hymn " Du Friedefürst , Herr Jesu Christ " ( Thou Prince of Peace , Lord Jesus Christ ) . Bach structured the work in seven movements , arranged in symmetry around the central chorale , and scored it for three solo voices , a four @-@ part choir and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of a slide horn for hymn tunes , flauto traverso , two oboes d 'amore , strings and basso continuo . Besides the unusual central chorale , the cantata contains a dramatic scenem with Jesus repeating " Peace be with you " against the enemies .
= = History and words = =
Bach composed the cantata in his first year as Thomaskantor in Leipzig , shortly after he first performed his St John Passion , for the First Sunday after Easter , called Quasimodogeniti . The prescribed readings for that Sunday were from the First Epistle of John , " our faith is the victory " ( 1 John 5 : 4 – 10 ) , and from the Gospel of John , the appearance of Jesus to the Disciples , first without then with Thomas , in Jerusalem ( John 20 : 19 – 31 ) . The unknown poet begins with a verse from the Second Epistle to Timothy , " Remember that Jesus Christ … was raised from the dead " ( 2 Timothy 2 : 8 ) . The poet sees Thomas as similar to the doubtful Christian in general , whose heart is not at peace . The center of the cantata is the Easter hymn " Erschienen ist der herrlich Tag " ( The glorious day has appeared ) by Nikolaus Herman ( 1560 ) , praising the day of the resurrection . In contrast , movement 5 recalls the danger by the enemies , until in movement 6 Jesus appears , as he did to his disciples in Jerusalem , finally bringing peace . The line " Friede sei mit euch " ( Peace be with you ) is repeated four times , framing three stanzas of a poem . The closing chorale is the first stanza of " Du Friedefürst , Herr Jesu Christ " ( Thou Prince of Peace , Lord Jesus Christ ) by Jakob Ebert ( 1601 ) .
Bach led the first performance on 16 April 1724 .
= = Structure and scoring = =
Bach structured the cantata in seven movements , arranged symmetrically around a central chorale . He scored the work for three vocal soloists ( alto , tenor , bass ) , a four @-@ part choir and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of corno da tirarsi ( Ct , a slide horn that Bach scored for a short period ) , flauto traverso ( Ft ) , two oboes d 'amore ( Oa ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) , and basso continuo .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
The opening chorus reflects the contrast of hope and resurrection versus simultaneous remembrance and doubt , which is present throughout the cantata . The chorus is structured in symmetry in seven sections , beginning with an instrumental sinfonia of all instruments , the horn introducing a theme representing remembrance in a melody which resembles the choral tune of " O Lamm Gottes , unschuldig " which Bach would later use as a cantus firmus in the opening movement of his St Matthew Passion . Bach thus alludes to the idea that Jesus suffered innocently for the " sins of the world " before he rose again . In the second section , this melody is sung by the sopranos , while the lower voices stress the word " Halt " ( hold ) by several homophonic chords . In the third section , the sopranos repeat the melody in a fugue , while the altos simultaneously sing a countersubject that rises in fast movement for more than an octave , illustrating the resurrection . The fourth section is a reprise of the sinfonia with the voices added , then a variation of sections 2 to 4 follows as 5 to 7 .
The tenor aria Mein Jesus ist erstanden ( My Jesus is arisen ) is accompanied by an obbligato oboe d 'amore . The theme is presented in the opening by the strings and later picked up by the voice , illustrating the word " auferstanden " by an upward run .
The Easter hymn " Erschienen ist der herrlich Tag " marks the center of the composition . In symmetry , it is framed by two alto recitatives , the second a reprise of the first .
The idea of a solo singer alternating with a chorus is extended in the following movement , the bass aria with chorus Friede sei mit euch ( Peace be with you ) . A string introduction depicts in agitated forte passages in 4 / 4 time the attack of the enemies . John Eliot Gardiner describes it as " a dramatic scena in which the strings work up a storm to illustrate the raging of the soul 's enemies " . In sharp contrast the bass as the vox Christi ( voice of Christ ) sings the greeting of Jesus from verse 19 of the Gospel , " Peace be with you " , three times , accompanied by woodwinds in dotted rhythm in 3 / 4 time , marked piano . Musicologist Julian Mincham describes the music as serene , a " gentle , rocking , almost cradle @-@ like rhythm creating a perfect atmosphere of peaceful contemplation " . The upper voices of the choir ( without basses ) answer to the music of the introduction , seeing Jesus as help in the battle ( " hilft uns kämpfen und die Wut der Feinde dämpfen " ) . The greeting and answering is repeated two more times in two stanzas of the poem , reflecting the strengthening of the weary in spirit and body ( " erquicket in uns Müden Geist und Leib zugleich " ) , and finally overcoming death ( " durch den Tod hindurch zu dringen " ) . The following fourth appearance of " Peace be with you " is accompanied by both woodwinds and strings , and peace is finally achieved . Klaus Hofmann describes the movement as an " operatic scene " and continues " Bach resorts to unconventional means ; he shows himself as a musical dramatist and , in the process , stresses the element of contrast : he comments upon the words of the faithful with agitated , tumultuous string figures , whilst Jesus ' peace greeting sounds calmly and majestically , embedded in pastoral wind sonorities . " Bach adapted this movement as the Gloria of his Missa in A major , BWV 234 .
The closing chorale " Du Friedefürst , Herr Jesu Christ " is a four @-@ part setting .
= = Selected recordings = =
The table below is taken from the selection on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Performing groups are roughly marked as large by red background , while green background indicates vocal ensembles singing one voice per part ( OVPP ) and instrumental groups playing period instruments in historically informed performances .
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= Arcadia ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Arcadia " is the fifteenth episode of the sixth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on March 7 , 1999 . The episode was written by Daniel Arkin and directed by Michael Watkins . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Arcadia " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 5 , being watched by 17 @.@ 91 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mostly positive critical reception , with many reviewers praising the episode 's humor .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In this episode , several disappearances at an idyllic planned community lead Mulder and Scully to go undercover as a married couple . They find that the members of the community strictly abide by every single subdivision rule , no matter how inconsequential a rule may seem . What Mulder and Scully soon discover is that the ruler of this small community has enforced his rule with a Tulpa creature from Tibet .
Arkin , a first @-@ year staff writer for the show , was inspired to write the episode based on an incident in his life that involved a planned community . The episode heavily utilized special effects , with various make @-@ up and digital effects inserted into the final film to give the episode an appropriate feel .
= = Plot = =
At the Falls of Arcadia , a fictional planned community in San Diego County , California , disgruntled homeowner Dave Kline arrives at home to find a package from an unknown person . The package contains a tacky whirligig , which Kline puts on his roof to annoy the neighbors . While in bed that night , Kline hears an intruder in the house . He goes to investigate while his wife , Nancy , stays in bed . A mysterious creature attacks and kills the Klines .
Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) investigate the Klines ' disappearance , going undercover as new homeowners under the aliases Rob and Laura Petrie . As Mulder and Scully are moving into the Klines ' former home , neighbor Win Shroeder nervously tucks away Mulder 's basketball hoop into the garage , telling him that it is against the community 's CC & Rs . Settling in , the agents begin searching the house and find what appears to be blood on a blade of the ceiling fan . When Big Mike , another neighbor , wants to let the " Petries " in on the " consequences " of breaking the community rules , homeowner association president Gene Gogolak describes him as " a weak link " to be dealt with . That night , the creature seemingly kills him . While taking a walk , Scully later finds the Schroeder 's dog Scruffy and Big Mike 's necklace in a storm drain . Scruffy 's face is covered in a substance that looks like blood .
Mulder and Scully discuss possible motives for the Klines ' presumed murders , and Scully decides to have the substances analyzed in San Diego . Mulder decides to test his theories that noncompliance with the community rules is the motive by sticking a plastic flamingo in the yard , among other antics . Mulder later finds a note in his mailbox that says , " Be like the others ... before it gets dark " After dark , Mulder brings out his basketball hoop , and Shroeder runs over to frantically argue with Mulder to put it away . Meanwhile , something comes out of the grass at Mrs. Shroeder , who screams . Mulder chases it away , but they all notice their light has burned out .
Shroeder confronts Gogolak , accusing him of trying to kill his family . Instead Schroeder is told " Rob Petrie " is the real problem . Meanwhile , Mulder believes the creature that kills the homeowners moves through the yard , under the grass . Scully shares her lab results : the " blood " on the ceiling fan and on the dog is actually grime , as the neighborhood is built on top of an old landfill . Mulder believes the Klines were buried in their yard , so the next day he gets a backhoe to dig up the front yard , telling the neighbors he 's putting in a reflecting pool , which is not against the community rules . They don 't find the Klines , but they do find the tacky windmill that had been mysteriously delivered to the Klines before they died . The windmill bears a label from Gogolak 's company .
As Scully calls for a forensic team to come out there immediately , she hears something in the house . She goes for her gun in the dresser drawer , but finds it missing . As the creature comes up the stairs , a bloodied Big Mike grabs Scully and tells her to get out , that " it 's coming " for her . He shoves Scully in the closet , and fights with the creature . Meanwhile , Mulder confronts Gogolak about marking the Klines for death by giving them the tacky windmill . Mulder says the creature is a Tulpa , a Tibetan thoughtform , that Gogolak conjured to assure compliance with the HOA rules . Mulder arrests him , handcuffs him to a mailbox , and goes to find Scully . Cuffed to the mailbox , Gogolak begs for help , knowing the creature is coming . The creature attacks Gogolak and , as he dies , it disintegrates into dirt . Scully comes outside too late to see the creature , the remnants of which are at Mulder 's feet .
= = Production = =
= = = Inspiration and writing = = =
Daniel Arkin , a first @-@ year staff writer for the show , was inspired to write the episode based on an incident in his life . In 1991 , Arkin had moved into a co @-@ op apartment in Greenwich Village . His movers showed up late , so the crew began unloading around 4 o 'clock in the evening . Because he had not read the co @-@ ops " three hundred page " -long CC and Rs , Arkin was later fined one thousand dollars for moving in after 5 . In the subsequent years , many of Arkin 's friends moved from homes and apartments into co @-@ ops , a situation he describes as " kind of frightening . "
The story went through many variations . Originally , Arkin wanted to have the main antagonist be some sort of notorious individual that was terrorizing the neighbor and becoming a sort of metaphorical " bogeyman . " Series creator , Chris Carter convinced Arkin to re @-@ write his story and replace the human with an actual monster . Arkin quickly re @-@ wrote his story , and included elements of the Tulpa myth to create a literal monster . The idea to " marry " Mulder and Scully came from a writers meeting . Everyone thought " Arcadia " would be a good story to allow Mulder and Scully to go undercover .
= = = Casting and design = = =
Abraham Benrubi , more noted for his work as Jerry Markovic on the NBC hospital drama ER , was cast by Rick Millikan to play Big Mike . Benrubi 's appearance on the show coincided with one of the final George Clooney episodes filmed for ER and the NBC production staff was hesitant to allow him to appear on the show , for fear of muddling the already @-@ narrow production schedule . Millikan later explained , " there was a small window — he had a few days off — and we were able to squeeze him in there . "
Cheri Montesanto @-@ Medcalf , the make @-@ up department head for The X @-@ Files , was responsible for making Benrubi appear mauled and bloody . It took four hours to get all of his make @-@ up on him , which included prosthetic appliances and a " head @-@ to @-@ toe " application of dirt and a thickening agent , giving him a " cracked and crusty " appearance . Benrubi wore the make @-@ up for almost twelve hours straight . Costume designer Christine Peters was tasked with designing the outfits for Mulder and Scully . Mulder 's outfit was composed largely of " Lacoste Izod alligator shirts , Dockers , Bass Weeguns , " and Scully 's outfit was " jeans and a sweatshirt [ or ] khakis and sneakers . " Peters noted that Scully 's outfit was harder to design because Scully 's character has " a ' look ' that she doesn 't want to give up . "
= = = Effects = = =
When it came down to making the monster ( The Ubermenscher ) , the staffers were torn . Bruce Carter , the assistant director , explained that the two choices were either to make the creature that had created itself through Gene Gogolak 's personality , or make a more conventional garbage creature covered in " banana peels and coffee grounds . " Makeup supervisor John Vulich eventually came up with a design for the monster that was , effectively , a foam suit . The suit was made out of urethane to give it a bubbly appearance . Shredded rubber was then attached to the suit and it was submerged in " gunk " to create the garbage effect . As the film was eventually edited , however , more and more of the monster was cut , until it became more of an " unseen " menace . Various X @-@ Files staffers later gave the character a variety of nicknames , including " Gumby on Steroids , " " Mr. Butterworth , " " Fecal Fred , " and " The Shit Monster . "
Digital effects supervisor Bill Millar was asked to edit Scully 's " evidence video " the Friday before the episode aired . He explained that " they wanted Scully 's point of view rather than the Handicam 's point of view . " Fortunately , the camera was in the trunk of the video playback operator 's car , which was parked near Millar 's editing facility , giving Millar time to edit . The complete special effect sequence took roughly six hours to complete .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Arcadia " premiered on the Fox network on March 7 , 1999 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 5 , with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 5 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 17 @.@ 91 million viewers . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on June 20 , 1999 and received 1 @.@ 02 million viewers , making it the most watched episode that week . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " Mulder and Scully married ! This could be the scariest ' X @-@ Files ' ever ! "
= = = Reviews = = =
" Arcadia " received mostly positive reviews from critics . Rob Bricken from Topless Robot named " Arcadia " the tenth funniest X @-@ Files episode and noted the two levels of humor in the episode — the " blatantly hilarious " pairing of Mulder and Scully as husband and wife , and the " perfect parody " of the planned community way of life . Timothy Sexton from Yahoo ! News named " The Arcadia Garbage Monster " as one of " The Best X @-@ Files Monsters of the Week " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five and noted that the inherent draw of the episode was " seeing Mulder and Scully go under @-@ cover as a yuppie married couple . " Despite the general praise for the episode , however , the two slightly criticized the ending , calling the final scene " rushed . "
Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B + " and called it " a solid example of the show ’ s mid @-@ period form " . However , he noted that the episode is not one of the series bests , unlike the way many fans portray it — due largely to the fact that " it allows us to see what it would be like if Mulder and Scully were a happily married couple " — and that " the episode ’ s monster is a little hard to figure out " . Other reviews were more mixed . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files gave the episode a more mixed review , writing " after watching ' Arcadia ' , I feel like I just had a couple slices of pizza for dinner on Thanksgiving . Not bad , but hardly the feast I have come to expect . " Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a mixed review and awarded it two stars out of four . Vitaris , despite praising David Duchovny 's performance during the scenes wherein he " rebels against the rules " , called the episode 's main villains " stereotypes of self @-@ indulgent , insulated suburbanites . "
In the 1999 FX Thanksgiving Marathon , containing fan @-@ selected episodes , " Arcadia " was presented as the " Best Mulder / Scully Chemistry " .
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= SS Tubantia =
SS Tubantia was an ocean liner for Royal Holland Lloyd ( Dutch : Koninklijke Hollandsche Lloyd ) built in 1913 by Alexander Stephen and Sons of Glasgow . She was built as a fast mail and passenger steamer for service between the Netherlands and South America . Tubantia was a sister ship of Gelria , also of Royal Holland Lloyd .
Tubantia was torpedoed and sunk by German submarine UB @-@ 13 on 16 March 1916 . As a vessel of the neutral Netherlands , her sinking caused great fury amongst the Dutch public . The Germans initially claimed that Tubantia must have been sunk by a mine or a British torpedo , but when fragments of a German torpedo were found in one of Tubantia 's lifeboats , the Germans claimed that UB @-@ 13 had fired the torpedo on 6 March at a British warship but it had remained active until hitting Tubantia ten days later . To redirect Dutch anger over Tubantia 's sinking , Germany spread rumors of an impending British invasion of the Netherlands , which one author called a " propaganda coup " .
Germany initially offered a settlement of £ 300 @,@ 000 — the ship 's original cost — to Royal Holland Lloyd , but was rejected . In 1922 , an international arbitration committee awarded the company £ 830 @,@ 000 compensation from Germany for the loss of the ship .
This was followed by an attempt to recover a fortune in gold coins from the wreck , which was the subject of a landmark court case , but the salvage operation was unsuccessful .
= = Design and construction = =
Tubantia was ordered by Royal Holland Lloyd from the Scottish shipbuilding firm Alexander Stephen and Sons of Glasgow . The 13 @,@ 911 GRT ship was about 560 feet ( 170 m ) long ( overall ) and 66 feet ( 20 m ) abeam . She was powered by twin quadruple @-@ expansion steam engines powered by three double @-@ ended and six single @-@ ended boilers . Her top speed of 17 @.@ 5 knots ( 32 @.@ 4 km / h ) exceeded the design requirements .
Built at a cost of about £ 300 @,@ 000 , Tubantia was , according to author Nigel Pickford , one of the most luxurious passenger ships of the era . Royal Holland Lloyd made extensive use of electricity throughout Tubantia , powering everything from fans and ventilation , to laundry equipment , to cigar lighters for passengers . The ship also boasted her name spelled out in lights , suspended between the two funnels . Tubantia could accommodate up to 1 @,@ 520 passengers : 250 first @-@ class , 230 intermediate @-@ class , 140 special third @-@ class , and 900 third @-@ class passengers . The liner was launched on 13 November 1913 , and completed trials in the River Clyde in March 1914 .
= = Career = =
Upon completion and acceptance by Royal Holland Lloyd , Tubantia was used in service between Amsterdam and Buenos Aires . At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Tubantia was returning from South America with £ 500 @,@ 000 in gold destined for banks in London , a large portion of which was intended for the German Bank of London . She was also carrying about 150 German reservists in steerage and a cargo of grain destined for Germany . After making an intermediate stop in Vigo , Spain , Tubantia was stopped and boarded by an officer and crewmen from the Royal Navy cruiser Highflyer , and escorted into port at Plymouth . There , the German reservists were taken off Tubantia by Royal Marines ; the gold was confiscated and removed from the ship . Although news accounts do not report when it occurred , Tubantia was released from Plymouth and allowed to resume her Royal Holland Lloyd service .
On 18 October , The New York Times carried a report that indicated Tubantia had run aground on the coast of Kent the previous day . According to the report , Tubantia was returning from Buenos Aires and suffered the accident while heading for Rotterdam with a large number of passengers . Although the article also reported that aid had been summoned from Dover , there was no indication of the extent of damage , if any , to Tubantia .
In December 1915 , Tubantia again made news when the Overseas News Agency in Berlin released a report saying that the British had seized all South America mail and parcels from the ship . After the United States expressed concerns about related seizures from two other Dutch ships in service to the United States — Nieuw Amsterdam and Rijndam — the British Foreign Office issued a statement that reported that contraband intended for Germany — which included four packages of rubber , and seven containers of wool — had been found among Tubantia 's mail .
= = Sinking = =
Tubantia began her regularly scheduled voyage from Amsterdam to Buenos Aires on 15 March 1916 nearly empty of passengers , despite Royal Holland Lloyd advertisements that boasted of " submarine signalling apparatus " on their passenger ships . After sailing to a position about 4 nautical miles ( 7 @.@ 4 km ) from the North Hinder Lightship , about 50 nautical miles ( 93 km ) off the Dutch coast , Tubantia anchored at about 02 : 00 on 16 March to wait for daylight and avoid any chance of misidentification or attack . To that end , the ship was completely illuminated .
At about 02 : 30 , crewmen aboard Tubantia spotted a stream of bubbles rapidly approaching the ship 's starboard side , followed by an explosion . The ship quickly began sinking . Distress calls sent out by Tubantia were answered by three ships , Breda , Krakstau , and La Campine , which between them rescued all 80 passengers and all 294 members of the crew . The ship and her cargo were a total loss . Tubantia was the largest neutral vessel sunk during the entire war .
= = Aftermath = =
A war in the British and German press erupted , with vigorous attempts to blame the British by the Germans , and angry rebuttals by the British . Both sides had in mind the egregious violation of Dutch neutrality . The German press first proffered the explanation that Tubantia must have been sunk by a British mine . The British reported that the liner had been sunk by a German torpedo ; the German press countered by saying that if it were a torpedo that sank the ship , it had to have been a British one . The matter was seemingly settled when a stray lifeboat of Tubantia 's was examined and torpedo fragments made of bronze were found embedded in it ; Germany was the only country that used bronze in its torpedoes .
Presented with evidence that it was torpedo no . 2033 which had been assigned to the small , coastal submarine UB @-@ 13 , the Germans presented a forged log from UB @-@ 13 that showed her nowhere near Tubantia at the time of the attack . Further , they reported , UB @-@ 13 had fired that specific torpedo at a British warship on 6 March , ten days before Tubantia was sunk . The U.S. Minister to the Netherlands , Henry van Dyke , writing in Fighting for Peace in 1917 , called this explanation " amazing " and derided it :
This certain U @-@ boat had fired this particular torpedo at a British war @-@ vessel somewhere in the North Sea ten days before the Tubantia was sunk . The shot missed its mark . But the naughty undisciplined little torpedo went cruising around in the sea on its own hook for ten days waiting for a chance to kill somebody . Then the Tubantia came along and the wandering @-@ Willy torpedo promptly , obstinately , ran into the ship and sank her . This was the explanation . Germany was not to blame .
The Dutch public was furious at what they believed a hostile German act . To help divert the public anger against his country , German diplomat Richard von Kühlmann began a coordinated campaign to spread rumors of an impending British invasion of the Netherlands . Author Hubert van Tuyll van Serooskerken called the German plan a " propaganda coup " , and reports in his book The Netherlands and World War I that the rumors caused some panic in the streets and forced the government to declare a four @-@ day emergency from 30 March to 2 April .
Despite denials and rumor @-@ spreading , Germany nevertheless offered compensation in the amount of £ 300 @,@ 000 , Tubantia 's original cost . Rejected by the Dutch , the two countries agreed to have the issue arbitrated after the end of the war . The dispute was finally settled in 1922 , when compensation in the amount of £ 830 @,@ 000 was awarded to Royal Holland Lloyd .
= = = Salvage attempt = = =
In 1924 the wreck was the subject of a salvage dispute between two sets of salvors , both seeking to recover a reputed £ 2 million worth of gold coins from it ( £ 100 million in 2012 prices ) . This was resolved in the English court decision The Tubantia [ 1924 ] P 78 , and remains the leading authority under English law as to when a salvor takes possession of a sunken shipwreck . The winning party , war hero Sydney Vincent Sippe , spent three years and £ 100 @,@ 000 trying to access the gold , but abandoned the attempt after concluding that it was too dangerous for divers to recover it .
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= Windy Nook =
Windy Nook is a village in Tyne and Wear , England , bordered by Carr Hill to the west , Leam Lane Estate to the east , Felling to the north and Sheriff Hill to the south . It lies on steep , sloping land 2 @.@ 25 miles ( 3 @.@ 62 km ) south of Gateshead , 2 @.@ 75 miles ( 4 @.@ 43 km ) south of Newcastle upon Tyne and 12 miles ( 19 km ) north of Durham . In 2011 , the Windy Nook and Whitehills ward had a population of 9 @,@ 781 . Formerly part of Heworth , it was incorporated into the newly formed Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead on 1 April 1974 .
Windy Nook has a long industrial history , with evidence of milling and pottery in the area . The principal industry , however , was stone quarrying , and the initial settlement grew as this industry flourished . By the turn of the 20th century , several quarries operated in Windy Nook and the largest , Kell 's Quarry , provided the sandstone and grindstone used to build St Alban 's Church , a Grade II listed building and principal landmark in the village , which was consecrated on 25 August 1842 .
The decline in industry in the 20th century saw the population fall to pre @-@ industrial levels . Though today an urban suburb , there are no large commercial areas and the new Tesco store is the largest employer . There remains large areas of green space , however , and it is a popular and high @-@ demand place to live . Residents compare favourably with others in the borough in terms of income , employment levels and educational qualifications .
Windy Nook Nature Reserve is a protected wildlife area , as well as one of the largest environmental sculptures in Europe . Mary Elizabeth Wilson , a serial killer , was known as The Merry Widow of Windy Nook . Joseph Hopper , founder of the aged mineworkers scheme , and John Oxberry , a prominent historian , also hailed from the village .
= = History = =
The name Windy Nook derives from " the lofty and exposed nature of the situation it occupies " . In 1784 , Richard Kell began quarrying at Heworth Shore . His business expanded quickly and , by the turn of the 19th century , Kell and his family had established a second quarry at Windy Nook which was known as Kell 's Quarry . This , along with a number of pre @-@ existing , smaller quarries , provided work for the early settlers and by 1820 there existed a " modern but populous village " . The quarries of Windy Nook became renowned , described as equally important to the more vaunted quarries of Yorkshire and producing sandstone and ' Newcastle grindstone ' of sufficient quality that stones from Kell 's Quarry were used to build St Alban 's Church and other local buildings .
As the quarries prospered , the village continued to grow . In 1834 an account described Windy Nook as " a populous hamlet ... chiefly inhabited by workmen employed in the adjoining quarries . Here are three public houses , one farmstead , a corn @-@ mill and several mechanics " . In 1842 , a National school was built by subscription , and within six years the building of two more mills and a pottery saw the population increase to around 2 @,@ 009 inhabitants . The quarries continued to produce high quality grindstone ; in 1860 stone from Kell 's Quarry was used to build the Exchange Building in Newcastle upon Tyne .
In spite of this industrialisation , residents were still able to enjoy " wildly romantic scenery " . Ordnance survey maps of 1862 show that Windy Nook remained isolated from the neighbouring villages at Carr Hill and Sheriff Hill . The principal road , Windy Nook Road , had been established and at the junction between this road and Carr Hill Road , the church of St Alban and the national school are evidenced among a cluster of residential dwellings but there was little else save the quarries which dominated during those formative years . By 1870 there were 430 houses for 2 @,@ 653 inhabitants which by 1887 had increased again to 3 @,@ 554 .
However , by the turn of the 20th century , the quarries slowly fell into disuse and by the 1960s all of the remaining industrial areas had closed and the quarries infilled , though the sandstone properties at St Alban 's Place and Co @-@ Operative Terrace stand as a reminder to Windy Nook 's industrial history . The decrease in employment opportunities led to a steady decline in population and although some housing developed along Stone Street and Coldwell Lane , the urban sprawl that enveloped most of the outlying settlements of Gateshead during the early 20th century never reached Windy Nook , so that in 1945 it remained largely unchanged in location and size . Despite some terraced housing being built in at Crossfield Park and Coltsfoot Gardens in the 1970 – 80 's , the character of the suburb today remains suburban ; the land is split 50 / 50 between residential properties and open green space and only 11 @.@ 3 % of the residential properties today are council housing . The result is that Windy Nook is a high @-@ demand area for privately owned and social housing .
= = Economy = =
The decline of heavy industry in the 20th century left Windy Nook with no major employer and there was little in terms of economic activity . There is no major commercial area and residents usually travel to neighbouring Felling town centre to shop or use the small shopping area at the junction of Windy Nook Road and Carr Hill Road / Albion Street . However , in November 2011 , planning permission was approved for conversion of the Black House Inn at the junction of Carr Hill Road and Coldwell lane into a ' Tesco Extra ' store . The approval was granted in spite of complaints and concerns as to noise and traffic being raised by local residents . This store is now the largest employer in Windy Nook , employing around 20 staff .
Overall , Windy Nook is wholly outside the lowest 20 % of residents in terms of income in Gateshead . The unemployment rate in the Windy Nook and Whitehills Ward measured by those who claim Jobseeker 's Allowance is 5 % , which is the same as the overall Gateshead average , whilst youth unemployment is 10 % . The average income of residents in the ward is £ 23 @,@ 000 per annum . Some 4 @.@ 4 % of residents are self @-@ employed , which compares with a 4 @.@ 5 % borough average .
= = Geography and topography = =
At latitude 54 @.@ 938 ° N and longitude 1 @.@ 5703 ° W , Windy Nook lies 2 @.@ 25 miles ( 3 @.@ 62 km ) south @-@ east of Gateshead and 255 miles ( 410 km ) from London . It sits on a bed of coal , freestone and sandstone known locally as the " Grindstone Post " and occupies an elevated position with a steep slope running from north to south to a maximum natural height of 160 metres ( 520 ft ) above sea @-@ level . This distinctive , steep topography provides residents with " fantastic " views ; especially to the north and in some places panoramic views across the Team Valley in the west and towards the North Sea in the east . Around 50 % of the land is green space ; a combination of urban green space , natural fields , wildlife corridors and a nature reserve . These combine to improve the quality and feel of the area .
Official documents indicate that the boundaries of Windy Nook are Albion Road in the north , Windy Nook Road to the west , Stone Street and the adjoining streets to the south and the Fiddler 's Three public house to the east . Windy Nook was part of County Durham until it was incorporated into the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead by the Local Government Act 1972 . It is now bordered by settlements which are also part of the metropolitan borough . These are Sheriff Hill to the south , Carr Hill to the west , Felling to the north and Leam Lane Estate to the east .
= = Demography = =
According to the United Kingdom Census 2001 , Windy Nook has a population of 2 @,@ 628 – 52 % of the population are female , slightly above the national average , whilst 48 % are male . Less than 1 % of the population are from a black or other minority ethnic group ( BME ) , as opposed to 9 @.@ 1 % of the national population .
Windy Nook has a low proportion of lone parent households at some 7 @.@ 2 % of all households . This is one of the lowest figures in Gateshead and compares with a borough average of 11 @.@ 5 % . Some 31 @.@ 1 % of households have dependent children , as opposed to 29 @.@ 5 % nationally and 28 @.@ 4 % in Gateshead . The Index of Multiple Deprivation , which divides England into 32 @,@ 482 areas and measures quality of life to indicate deprivation , splits Windy Nook into halves and lists the eastern half in the top 20 % of all deprived areas in England in 2011 . The western half is not considered deprived .
In 2011 , Windy Nook had a population of 3 @,@ 165 , compared with 9 @,@ 781 for the Windy Nook and Whitehills .
In 2011 , only 3 @.@ 8 % of Windy Nook 's population were non white British , compared with 2 @.@ 9 % for the ward of Windy Nook and Whitehills and 8 @.@ 0 % for the town of Gateshead . The amount of Ethnic Minorities resident in Windy Nook is low compared with other Gateshead districts like Felling , Deckham and Saltwell .
= = = Population change = = =
The population of Windy Nook rose steadily through the 19th century but decreased as industry declined and is now at the lowest level since 1842 .
= = Governance = =
Windy Nook was initially an ecclesiastical district in the parish of Jarrow , but after the Local Government Act 1972 , it is today wholly within the council ward of Windy Nook and Whitehills in the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead and is approximately 2 @.@ 9 square kilometres ( 1 @.@ 1 sq mi ) in area . It is represented by three councillors . In June 2012 , they were Jim Turnbull , Tom Graham and Pat Ronan .
Windy Nook is part of the Westminster parliamentary constituency of Gateshead . It was previously in the Gateshead East and Washington West constituency which was abolished by boundary changes before the 2010 UK General Election . For many years the MP was Joyce Quin , who retired on 11 April 2005 and was awarded a life peerage into the House of Lords on 13 June 2006 and is now Baroness Quin .
The present MP Ian Mearns , is a member of the Labour party and his office is in Gateshead . He replaced Sharon Hodgson who successfully campaigned in the newly formed constituency of Washington and Sunderland West . In the 2010 UK General Election , Mearns was elected with a majority of 12 @,@ 549 over Frank Hindle . The swing from Labour to the Liberal Democrats was 3 @.@ 9 % .
Windy Nook is in a safe Labour seat . Mearns ' success in 2010 followed of Sharon Hodgson , who in the 2005 UK General Election polled over 60 % of the votes cast whilst in 2001 , Joyce Quin was returned with a majority of 53 @.@ 3 % .
= = Education = =
Windy Nook Primary school is at Albion Street and caters for students aged between 3 and 11 years . It is a much larger than average @-@ sized school though the number of students eligible for free school means is below average . The standard of provision is declining ; in 2001 the school was named by OFSTED as one of the most successful schools in England but subsequent inspections have seen the school 's rating decline so that in the most recent inspection the school was rated as satisfactory overall , with inconsistent levels of attainment and teaching noted .
Windy Nook Primary is the only school in the village . Some children of primary school age attend Colegate Community Primary School , located on the fringe of Windy Nook at Colegate West in neighbouring Leam Lane . This too is a satisfactory school which suffers from inconsistent attainment among pupils . The nearest Roman Catholic school is St Augustine 's Primary ; a good school at Leam Lane Estate . Secondary school provision is at Thomas Hepburn Community Academy on Swards Road in Felling . This is a satisfactory but improving school where the number of pupils entitled to free school meals is more than twice the national average .
Children in Windy Nook achieve better than average results at Key Stages two and three compared to the overall borough average . Approximately 66 % of children leave secondary school with 5 or more A * – C grade GCSEs , which is higher than the national and Gateshead averages ( 59 % and 58 % respectively ) , though overall the total number of residents holding those qualifications is 36 @.@ 5 % . Only 17 @.@ 4 % of residents hold 2 or more A @-@ Levels , as compared to local average of 18 @.@ 4 % and a national average of 28 @.@ 2 % .
= = Culture and religion = =
Windy Nook has two Grade II listed buildings .
The Church of St Alban was designed by Thomas Liddell , the son of a Tory politician , and built between 1841 and 1842 . The completed building cost £ 880 and was consecrated on 25 August 1842 by the Bishop of Durham in attendance with 36 local clergy . Built in locally quarried sandstone and named for the first martyr of the Anglican Church , St Alban 's is a " neat structure in the early English style " with a Welsh slate roof and " satisfactory interior and decoration " . The church was extended in 1888 and is today a Grade II listed building . The gates , gate piers and overthrows , also designed by Liddell and built at the same time as the church , are tall sandstone structures with wrought iron adornments . These are also Grade II listed buildings .
In addition , the residential properties at 1 – 10 East View Terrace were locally listed by Gateshead Council as buildings of special interest in 2004 . At the same panel hearing , the committee elected not to list the Ebenezer Chapel , a Methodist chapel at Stone Street . A New Connexion chapel is evidenced in Windy Nook in 1855 though the chapel at Stone Street was opened in 1865 ; one year later than the " beautiful little Gothic church " opened by the Primitive Methodists at Albion Street at a cost of £ 340 . The New Connexion amalgamated with the Primitive Methodists in 1942 and services were held in Ebenezer until 1963 while the Albion Street chapel hosted Sunday School . By 1976 , a new building was erected alongside the old chapel and that new building still stands as the Windy Nook Methodist Church .
= = Places of interest = =
= = = Venues = = =
There are three venues in Windy Nook . Planning permission was sought on 20 June 2003 to renovate and reopen the near derelict Windy Nook Social Club at Stone Street . Approval was granted and Sutherlands Hotel was opened later that year . Run by Helen Sutherland , today the hotel is a thriving venue which in December 2010 successfully applied for certification allowing marriage and civil partnerships to be performed in the upper ' Tree @-@ House Suite ' .
Other venues are the Bay Horse , an older stone building at the corner of East Street and Stone Street , which has a conservatory , catering facilities and large car park . Whilst open for business , the Bay Horse is currently available for long term lease . The Fiddlers Three public house , located at Albion Street , is another older stone building with modern catering facilities . The Black House Inn , evidenced as the Coal Waggon Inn on ordnance survey maps in 1862 at the junction of Carr Hill Road and Co @-@ operative Terrace , was partially demolished in 2011 to make way for a Tesco Extra store .
= = = ' The Windy Nook ' = = =
'The Windy Nook ' is the title of a local landmark created by sculptor Richard Cole at Whitehill Drive . The sculpture appears at first glance to be an old fortification of interlinked walls and pathways sitting atop Windy Nook Pit Hill ; local children refer to the artwork simply as ' the Fortress ' In fact , the hill is a former slag heap and the ' ruins ' are made from 2 @,@ 500 tons of granite blocks salvaged from the old Scotswood Bridge . It was unveiled in 1986 during Gateshead Sculpture Week .
Today , the ' Windy Nook ' is a popular installation much used for walking and recreation and which is some 180 metres ( 590 ft ) in height and covers 5 @,@ 500 square metres ( 59 @,@ 000 sq ft ) in area . It remains one of the largest environmental sculptures in Europe . As it has matured it has become home to various plant- and animal life and is now considered an ordinary part of the landscape .
= = = Windy Nook Nature Reserve = = =
Windy Nook Nature Park was opened in 1981 and is at the north west corner of Windy Nook . It is a collaborative enterprise between local conservation volunteers and Gateshead Council , seeking to turn two hectares of unattractive wasteland into an urban nature park . Many of the trees were planted by local school children and today the reserve is a large open space offering the same panoramic views as most other parts of the area , with acid @-@ heath grassland , scrub woodland and a small spring @-@ fed pond . The reserve is also a Site of Nature Conservation Importance ( SNCI ) . In 2007 , Gateshead Council invested £ 100 @,@ 000 into the reserve from their ' Safer , Stronger Communities Fund ' to make improvements to an area which had become " blighted by misuse " . The money led to the removal of a BMX track within the reserve , the installation of an extensive footpath network , improved access points and gating and the planting of more trees . Woodland thinning has also been undertaken .
Recent budget cuts by Gateshead Council have seen the local authority transfer the management of the park to the community , despite a local petition raised in protest . The reserve remains popular with residents ; in May 2012 dozens of volunteers cleared rubbish and engaged in a ' Windy Nook Wildlife Festival ' with face @-@ painting and other traditional activities . Local police continue to make ' targeted patrols ' of the reserve to maintain the downward trend of anti @-@ social behaviour in the area . In November 2012 a ' green gym ' was opened at the reserve . This saw fitness equipment installed in clusters of three and four machines which is available for use by the public free of charge . This is one of only two such outdoor public gyms in Gateshead , the other being opened simultaneously at Saltwell Park .
= = Notable residents = =
Joseph Hopper was a local councillor and Methodist preacher who lived in Windy Nook and was the creator of the ' aged mineworkers home scheme ' in 1898 which provided housing for miners who had retired and were no longer eligible for tenure by dint of their employment . The organisation he created , the Durham Aged Mineworkers Homes Association , is today a registered charity which owns around 1 @,@ 500 properties and had a turnover in 2012 of over six million pounds . A celebration of Hopper 's work was produced after his death by John Oxberry , who was himself born in Windy Nook , in 1924 . Oxberry , born in 1857 , was a renowned local historian who traveled to New Zealand but returned to publish various texts , including Windy Nook Village ; its inhabitants and their Co @-@ operative store , and served a variety of roles on Gateshead Council with sufficient distinction that he was made a Freeman of Gateshead in 1937 . Oxberry died three years later .
Arguably the most notable resident , however , is Mary Elizabeth Wilson ; a serial killer who achieved worldwide notoriety as the " Merry Widow of Windy Nook " . Wilson was born in Hebburn but lived with her first husband John Knowles , along with her lover , John Russell in the same house at Windy Nook for 43 years . Knowles died in 1955 and she married Russell five months later . He died two years later and both were attributed to natural causes . Wilson remarried again but her third marriage , to Oliver Leonard , lasted just twelve days and he died leaving £ 50 to his wife in his will . A short time later , Wilson married for a fourth time to Ernest Wilson . At her wedding reception , Wilson joked to a guest that the sandwiches left over could be saved for the funeral . When Ernest died soon after , Wilson joked with the funeral director that she should be offered a trade discount for all of the trade she passed his way . Local residents heard of these comment and began speculating as to the spate of deaths , so that Police eventually exhumed Oliver Leonard and Ernest Wilson in 1958 and found traces of phosphorus caused by rat poison . Despite claiming that sexual stimulation pills were the source of the phosphorus , Wilson was convicted of both murders at Leeds in 1958 and sentenced to hang at Durham ; the last woman to be so sentenced . Due to her age , her execution was commuted to a life sentence , and she died in Holloway prison in 1962 . A later exhumation of her first two husbands also resulted in phosphorus being found , but Wilson died before she could be tried again .
= = Transport = =
The principle roads in Windy Nook are Windy Nook Road and Albion Road , but several housing developments lack cohesive road links and some streets lead to dead ends . Journey time by car or bus to Gateshead town centre is approximately ten minutes , and fifteen minutes into the centre of Newcastle upon Tyne . Residents have a comparatively high level of car ownership ; 71 % as compared to a borough average of 56 @.@ 8 % .
The nearest Metro station is Felling . The nearest British Rail station is Heworth Interchange .
Windy Nook is on a bus route into Gateshead and Newcastle upon Tyne and is served by several bus services , such as the Orbit 51 which travels to Heworth Interchange and terminates at Gateshead , the CityLink 58 which terminates in Hardrian Park , the Pulse 69 which terminates at Winlaton and the 93 / 4 Loop which travels to the Team Valley . All buses serving Windy Nook are operated by Go North East under the administration of Nexus .
= = = Texts and academic sources = = =
Antliff , W ( 1864 ) . the Primitive Methodist Magazine . Richard Davies , London .
Bailey , Brian ( 1988 ) . Almshouses of England and Wales . Robert Hale Ltd . ISBN 0 @-@ 7090 @-@ 3292 @-@ 7 .
Bartholomew , John ( 1887 ) . Gazetteer of the British Isles .
Cox , Charles ( July 1842 – June 1843 ) . The Ecclesiastical Gazette or Monthly Register of the Affairs of the Church of England and of its Religious Societies and Institutions . Bodleian Library Society .
Lewis , Samuel ( 1831 ) . A Topographical Dictionary of England . Lewis & Co . ISBN 0 @-@ 8063 @-@ 1508 @-@ 3 .
Lewis , Samuel ( 1848 ) . A Topographical Dictionary of England . Lewis & Co . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 42864 @-@ 5 .
Oxberry , John ( 1924 ) . Gateshead District Aged Mine @-@ Workers ' Homes . The birth of the movement . A tribute to the memory of Joseph Hopper , etc . With illustrations , including a portrait. unknown . ASIN B0017ATZ80 .
Oxberry , John ( 1924 ) . Windy Nook ; its inhabitants and their Co @-@ Operative Store : a jubilee tribute and historical sketch 1874 – 1924 . Co @-@ operative Wholesale Society 's Printing Works . ASIN B00088H804 .
MacKenzie and Ross ( 1834 ) . An Historical , Topographical and Descriptive View of the County Palatine of Durham . McKenzie and Ross . ISBN 1 @-@ 150 @-@ 79679 @-@ 0 .
Pevsner , Nikolaus ( 1983 ) . The Buildings of England – County Durham . Yale University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 300 @-@ 09599 @-@ 6 .
Surtees , Robert ( 1820 ) . The History and Antiquities of the county Palatine of Durham : vol.2 , Chester ward . London Institute of Historical Research .
Watson , J ( 1911 ) . British and Foreign Building Stone . Institute of Civil Engineers . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7277 @-@ 5068 @-@ 6 .
Whellan , William ( 1855 ) . Whellan 's History , Topography and Directory of Northumberland . Whellan & Co , Manchester .
Wilson , John ( 1870 – 72 ) . Imperial Gazetteer of England and Wales . Fullarton & Co .
= = = Journals , reports and other sources = = =
Where an abbreviation is used in the references this is indicated below in ( brackets ) at the end of the source name . When a source is available online , a link has been included .
Barker , Mike ( 14 December 2010 ) . Application for Approved Premises Status – Sutherlands The Venue , Gateshead . Gateshead Council .
Davies , Katie ( 3 September 2011 ) . " Fears new Windy Nook Tesco will cause chaos " . Newcastle Evening Chronicle .
Davies , Katie ( 15 February 2012 ) . " Gateshead countryside cuts spark protest " . Newcastle Evening Chronicle .
Dowling , Paul ( 9 November 2011 ) . Planning and development Committee , Planning applications for consideration . Gateshead Council .
Lloyd , Chris ( 19 November 2008 ) . " Brassed off by the cold and back again " . The Northern Echo .
Northern , Lee ( 15 – 16 March 2011 ) . " Thomas Hepburn Community Comprehensive School – Inspection Report " ( PDF ) . OFSTED .
Potter , Gordon ( 21 – 22 November 2011 ) . " Windy Nook Primary School – Inspection Report " ( PDF ) . OFSTED .
Pringle , Kate ( 3 – 4 November 2010 ) . " Colegate Community Primary School – Inspection Report " ( PDF ) . OFSTED .
Quinn , David ( February 2004 ) . Report to Council- Local Lists of Buildings , and Parks and Gardens of Special Interest . Gateshead Council .
Robertson , Sarah ( 28 November 2004 ) . " Cops have last laugh " . Sunday Sun .
Singleton , David ( 17 October 2003 ) . " Deep Roots " ( PDF ) . Inside Housing .
Ulyatt , Gianna ( 6 – 7 October 2008 ) . " St Augustine 's Catholic Primary School and Nursery – Inspection report " ( PDF ) . OFSTED .
Ward & Shimmin ( 13 July 2011 ) . Neighbourhood Matters , East Area Forum – Using the Index of Multiple Deprivation ( IMD ) 2010 and other relevant data to inform the future priorities and work programme of the East Area . Gateshead Council .
Unknown ( 2008 ) . " Achieving Excellent Outcomes in Windy Nook and Staneway – Children and Young People " ( PDF ) . Gateshead Council . ( CYP )
Unknown ( 2008 ) . " Achieving Excellent Outcomes in Windy Nook and Staneway – Economy , Skills , Transport and Housing " ( PDF ) . Gateshead Council . ( ESTH )
Unknown ( November 2008 ) . " Neighbourhood Profile East – Windy Nook and Staneway " ( PDF ) . Gateshead Council . ( NPE )
Unknown ( 25 April 2006 ) . " Report for the Gateshead Strategic Partnership Steering Group " . Gateshead Council . ( GSP )
Unknown ( 17 September 2011 ) . The Lady Killers . The Daily Mirror .
Unknown ( 2008 ) . " Urban Character Assessment – GE13 " ( PDF ) . Gateshead Council . ( GE13 )
Unknown ( 2012 ) . " Windy Nook and Whitehills- Ward Factsheet " ( PDF ) . Gateshead Council . ( WFS )
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= Zach Parise =
Zachary Justin Parisé ( born July 28 , 1984 ) is an American professional ice hockey left winger of French @-@ Canadian heritage , an alternate captain for the Minnesota Wild in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He has also played for the New Jersey Devils , where he served as team captain . Parise 's father , J. P. Parisé , was a professional ice hockey player who played for Team Canada at the 1972 Summit Series , and his brother Jordan Parise is a retired professional hockey goaltender . He was an alternate captain for the United States at the 2010 Vancouver Olympics and the captain at the 2014 Sochi Olympics .
Parise played midget AAA hockey for Shattuck @-@ St. Mary 's in Faribault , Minnesota , before spending two seasons at the University of North Dakota , where he was twice nominated for the Hobey Baker Award , given to the top college ice hockey player in America . He was drafted by the Devils 17th overall in the 2003 NHL Entry Draft and turned professional after his sophomore season , spending one year playing for the Albany River Rats of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) . Parise joined the Devils for the 2005 – 06 season . Parise 's best NHL season was in 2008 – 09 , when he was the League 's third @-@ leading goal scorer ( 45 ) behind Jeff Carter with 46 and NHL leader Alexander Ovechkin with 56 , while ranking fifth among all NHL players in points with 94 .
Parise has represented the United States at several different events . He helped the Americans win a gold medal at the 2004 World Junior Championships , where he was named the tournament 's Most Valuable Player and Best Forward and earned a spot on the Tournament All @-@ Star Team . Parise was an alternate captain for the American team at the 2010 Winter Olympics , and scored the tying goal late in the gold medal game against Canada to send it to overtime . Parise and his teammates won a silver medal . After the tournament , Parise was named to the Tournament All @-@ Star Team . Parise was also named captain for the 2014 Winter Olympics .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Amateur = = =
Parise played midget AAA hockey for four seasons for the Shattuck @-@ St. Mary 's Sabres in Faribault , Minnesota , where his father J. P. worked in the hockey program . During his final two years ( 2000 – 01 and 2001 – 02 ) at Shattuck @-@ St. Mary 's , he scored 146 goals and 194 assists in 125 games . While playing for the Sabres , Parise twice participated in the Mac 's AAA Hockey Tournament held in Calgary , Alberta . In 2000 and 2001 , he was named the tournament Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) as well as being named to the tournament All @-@ Star Team . He was the top scorer at the 2001 tournament . After his senior year at Shattuck @-@ St. Mary 's , Parise was named the school 's Best All @-@ Around Athlete .
Parise played NCAA hockey for the University of North Dakota ( UND ) starting with the 2002 – 03 season . In his first game with UND , Parise scored three goals , becoming only the second freshman to record a hat @-@ trick since 1988 . During his freshman season at UND , Parise led the NCAA in rookie scoring ( 26 goals and 35 assists ) , and finished eighth in the national scoring race . He captured a number of awards during the season , including being named the Western Collegiate Hockey Association ( WCHA ) Rookie of the Week four times , and WCHA Offensive Player of the Week once . After the season , he was named a finalist for the Hobey Baker Award , the only freshman nominated that year as well as the first @-@ ever UND freshman nominee . Parise was named UND 's Male Rookie Athlete of the Year after the 2002 – 03 season . In addition to these honors , Parise was named to the WCHA All @-@ Rookie Team and the All @-@ WCHA Third Team . Parise was also named the recipient of the Jeff Anderson Hockey Scholarship , given to the MVP as voted by his teammates .
After his freshman season , Parise was eligible for the 2003 NHL Entry Draft . Heading into the Draft , he was ranked as the ninth @-@ best North American skater by the NHL Central Scouting Bureau . NHL teams had concerns about his size , but were impressed by his skill and work ethic . At the Draft , the New Jersey Devils traded to obtain the 17th overall pick from the Edmonton Oilers and used it to select Parise .
Parise returned to UND for his sophomore season after being drafted . Along with teammates Brandon Bochenski , Matt Smaby and Drew Stafford , Parise helped the University of North Dakota to the MacNaughton Cup as the WCHA Regular Season Champions . Parise was named a First Team All @-@ American after the season . He was named as one of the ten nominees for the Hobey Baker Award , and was one of three finalists , losing out to eventual winner Junior Lessard . Parise was also named to the All @-@ WCHA Academic Team , and the WCHA All @-@ Tournament Team . After his sophomore season , Parise was named as the winner of the Cliff ( Fido ) Purpur Award , awarded by the coaching staff to the player who exemplifies " the characteristics of Purpur , a former UND coach , of hard work , determination and being a creator of excitement on the ice . "
= = = Professional = = =
= = = = New Jersey Devils = = = =
After his sophomore season at UND , Parise chose to forgo his final two years of NCAA eligibility to sign a professional contract with the New Jersey Devils . He signed an entry @-@ level contract with the Devils on March 29 , 2004 . Due to the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout , Parise spent his first professional season in the American Hockey League ( AHL ) with the Albany River Rats . In his first professional season , Parise scored 18 goals and added 40 assists . He was chosen to play in the 2004 – 05 AHL All @-@ Star Game .
Parise made his debut in the NHL at the start of the 2005 – 06 season . In his rookie year , Parise played in all but one game , totaling 14 goals and 18 assists for 32 points . He became just the 12th player for the Devils to score a goal in his first NHL game . Parise scored his first career Stanley Cup playoff goal against the New York Rangers in Game 3 of the Eastern Conference Quarter @-@ finals .
To open the following season , Parise set a franchise record for scoring the quickest season @-@ opening goal , 26 seconds into the first game . For the season , he nearly doubled his scoring output of the previous season , totaling 62 points . Parise was chosen to play in the NHL YoungStars Game during the All @-@ Star weekend , where he scored two goals and four assists and was named the game 's MVP . Heading into the 2007 – 08 season , Parise and the Devils agreed to terms on a new , four @-@ year contract on August 1 , 2007 . Parise led the Devils in scoring during the 2007 – 08 season with 65 points . On November 30 , 2007 , in a game against the Montreal Canadiens , Parise got his first NHL natural hat @-@ trick .
On October 3 , 2008 , Parise was named an alternate captain for the Devils . He had a breakout season during his fourth year in the NHL , which saw the Devils increase their scoring output by nearly half a goal per game , breaking away from the team 's image as a mostly defensive team . While playing in all 82 games , Parise scored 45 goals and added 49 assists for 94 points . Parise finished fifth overall in NHL scoring , and was third in goal scoring , behind only Alexander Ovechkin and Jeff Carter . During the season , Parise was selected to represent the Eastern Conference at the 2009 All @-@ Star Game . After the season , Parise was chosen as one of three nominees for the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy , awarded to the NHL 's most sportsmanlike player . He was also chosen to the NHL 's Second All @-@ Star Team , and named the Devils ' team MVP .
During the 2009 – 10 season , Parise played in 81 games for the Devils , finishing with 38 goals and 44 assists . Parise struggled at times , going 12 games without scoring at one point before recording two goals against the Atlanta Thrashers on December 28 , 2009 . During the playoffs , Parise and the Devils were eliminated in the Eastern Conference Quarter @-@ finals by the Philadelphia Flyers in five games . Parise scored one goal and added three assists in the five playoff games . At the end of the season , he was selected as the Devils ' team MVP for the second year in a row .
In November of the 2010 – 11 season , Parise tore the meniscus in his right knee , underwent surgery and was deemed to be likely out for the remainder of the season . On March 2 , 2011 , Parise was cleared to start skating and returned to play on April 2 , the same night the Devils were mathematically eliminated from playoff contention .
On July 29 , 2011 , Parise signed a one @-@ year contract worth $ 6 million with the Devils . On October 5 , 2011 , the Devils named him captain . Parise became the second captain in Devils history ( the other being Scott Stevens ) to lead them to the Stanley Cup Finals . The Devils were down 0 – 3 in the series before finally losing in six games at the hands of the Los Angeles Kings .
= = = = Minnesota Wild = = = =
In 2012 , Zach left New Jersey to sign with the Minnesota Wild on July 4th . In an interview with media from both NJ and Minnesota , he simply states ' I want to enjoy the lakes and my time here " . After becoming an unrestricted free agent , Parise signed a 13 @-@ year contract worth $ 98 million with the Minnesota Wild . The move represented a homecoming for Parise , who grew up in the twin cities of Minneapolis – Saint Paul and whose father J. P. Parisé once captained the Minnesota North Stars . Parise joined fellow free agent signee Ryan Suter in signing with the Wild ; Suter signed on terms identical to Parise 's deal . Parise would wear number 11 with the Wild , the same number that his father J. P. wore with the North Stars , as number 9 was already taken by team captain Mikko Koivu . Both Parise and Suter were named alternate captains for the Wild on July 10 .
Parise scored 18 goals along with 20 assists during the lockout @-@ shortened 2012 – 13 season as the Wild qualified for the Stanley Cup playoffs for the first time in five years as the eighth seed in the Western Conference , losing to the eventual Stanley Cup champion Chicago Blackhawks in five games in the opening round . Parise scored one goal during the series .
On March 20 , 2014 , Parise returned to the Prudential Center for the first time since leaving the New Jersey Devils in the 2012 off @-@ season . Parise was booed every time he skated with the puck . When interviewed after the game , Parise stated that he was glad it was over .
On November 6 , 2014 , it was announced that Parise was out " indefinitely " due to a concussion he suffered two days earlier during a 4 – 1 loss to the Pittsburgh Penguins . Five games later , on November 16 , he returned to the Wild lineup . He finished the season with 62 points .
The 2015 @-@ 16 season brought a host of struggles for Parise , who struggled through a sprained MCL at the beginning of the season , before injuring his back near the end of the season . In a game against the San Jose Sharks , Parise sustained a hit from Logan Couture that further aggravated the injury , taking him out for the rest of the season and the Wild 's short playoff run . Even with the injuries , Parise led the team in goals and was second in points . He also led the NHL with a total of three hat tricks on the season .
= = = International = = =
Although Parise 's father J. P. played internationally for Canada during his hockey career , Zach and his brother Jordan are American citizens . Parise 's international career started at the under @-@ 18 level , where he played for the United States during the 2002 IIHF World U18 Championships . Parise finished the tournament 14th overall in scoring with seven goals and three assists in eight games and the United States won the gold medal .
Parise next represented the United States at the under @-@ 20 level , playing at the 2003 World Junior Championships . Team USA finished in fourth place and Parise scored four goals and added four assists to finish eighth in tournament scoring . The following year , at the 2004 World Junior Championships , Parise led the Americans to their first @-@ ever gold medal at the tournament . He scored five goals and added six assists and was awarded the Tournament MVP , Best Forward and was named to the Tournament All @-@ Star Team .
In 2005 and 2007 , Parise played for the United States at the World Hockey Championships , although he did not suit up for the full slate of games in either event . In 2008 , Parise served as an alternate captain for the American team at the World Championships . He was named Team USA 's Player of the Game against Germany during this tournament , and he was also selected as one of the team 's Top Three Players at the end of the tournament by the coaching staff .
On January 1 , 2010 , Parise was named to the 2010 Men 's Olympic Hockey Team , and was later named as one of the team 's alternate captains . Parise scored both of Team USA 's goals in 2 – 0 quarter @-@ final win over Switzerland . In the final against Canada , Parise scored a game @-@ tying goal with 24 seconds left in the third period to send the game into overtime , although Parise and his teammates had to settle for the silver medal after a Sidney Crosby goal during overtime . For the tournament , Parise finished third in the tournament in scoring , and he was named to the Olympic All @-@ Star team with countrymen Ryan Miller and Brian Rafalski . In 2014 , Parise was again selected to represent his country at the Olympics , and was given the added responsibility of serving as team captain . Parise and the United States capped off their 2014 Olympic campaign with a 5 – 0 loss to Finland in the bronze medal game .
In 2016 , Parise was selected to play for Team USA at the 2016 World Cup of Hockey .
= = Personal life = =
Parise 's older brother Jordan is a retired professional goaltender who has played in the Devils system in the past . He is sponsored by Easton Hockey . Parise gives his time to New Jersey 's public library system , and serves as a Library Champion , a program which promotes the importance of reading to children .
Parise resides in Orono , Minnesota . He is married to his college sweetheart Alisha Woods .The Parises are parents to twins , Jaxson and Emelia ( born January 2014 ) . Parise 's parents , former NHL player and coach J. P. Parisé and Donna , lived in Prior Lake , Minnesota , until his father died on January 7 , 2015 , after suffering lung cancer . Parise 's father was a Franco @-@ Ontarian from Smooth Rock Falls in Northern Ontario , and was diagnosed with cancer during Winter Olympics . Zach was born during his father 's tenure as assistant coach of the Minnesota North Stars .
Parise trains with EVO Ultrafit .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International statistics = = =
Statistics source
= = Awards = =
= = = Amateur = = =
= = = Professional = = =
= = = International = = =
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= L 'Oiseau Blanc =
L 'Oiseau Blanc ( commonly known in the English @-@ speaking world as The White Bird ) was a French Levasseur PL.8 biplane that disappeared in 1927 , during an attempt to make the first non @-@ stop transatlantic flight between Paris and New York to compete for the Orteig Prize . The aircraft was flown by French World War I aviation heroes , Charles Nungesser and François Coli . The aircraft disappeared after its 8 May 1927 takeoff from Paris . Two weeks later , Charles Lindbergh successfully made the New York – Paris journey and claimed the prize , flying the Spirit of St. Louis .
The disappearance of L 'Oiseau Blanc is considered one of the great mysteries in the history of aviation . Many rumors circulated about the fate of the aircraft and crew , with mainstream opinion at the time being that the aircraft was probably lost in a squall over the Atlantic . Investigations starting in the 1980s suggest that the aircraft probably reached Newfoundland , and may have crashed in Maine .
The disappearance of Nungesser and Coli has an extensive legacy , and is referred to in many films and museums . A street in Paris is named after the aviators , and a commemorative postage stamp was issued in 1967 . A statue at the Paris Le Bourget Airport honors the attempted flight , and there is a memorial on the cliffs of Étretat , from where their aircraft was last seen in France .
= = Background = =
In 1919 , New York hotel owner Raymond Orteig offered a USD $ 25 @,@ 000 prize , the Orteig Prize , to the first aviators to make a non @-@ stop transatlantic flight between New York and Paris during the next five years . With no takers , he renewed the offer in 1924 , when aviation technology had advanced enough at that point that many people tried for the prize . Most were attempting to fly from New York to Paris , but a number of French aviators planned an attempt to fly in the opposite direction , from Paris to New York .
François Coli , age 45 , a World War I veteran and recipient of the French Legion of Honor , had been making record @-@ breaking flights across and around the Mediterranean , and had been planning a transatlantic flight since 1923 . His original plans were to fly with his wartime comrade Paul Tarascon , a flying ace with 12 victories from the war . They became interested in the Orteig Prize in 1925 , but in late 1926 an accident destroyed their Potez 25 biplane . Tarascon was badly burned , and relinquished his place as pilot to 35 @-@ year @-@ old Charles Nungesser , a highly experienced flying ace with over 40 victories , third highest among the French .
Nungesser had been planning an independent attempt at a solo crossing to win the Orteig Prize , but initial discussions with designer Pierre Levasseur had led to the company owner insisting that Coli be considered as his navigator in a new two @-@ place variant of the production Levasseur PL.4.
= = Design and development = =
At the Pierre Levasseur Company in Paris , Nungesser and Coli , working closely with Chief Engineer Émile Farret and production manager Albert Longelot , assisted in the design of the new Levasseur PL.8 biplane . Based on the Levasseur PL.4 developed for the Aéronavale to operate from the French aircraft carrier Béarn , the PL.8 was a conventional , single @-@ bay , wood and fabric @-@ covered biplane that carried a crew of two in a side @-@ by @-@ side , open cockpit .
Major modifications included the reinforcement of the plywood fuselage , and removing two of the forward cockpits so the main cockpit could be widened to allow Nungesser and Coli to sit side @-@ by @-@ side . The wingspan was also increased to approximately 15 m ( 49 ft ) . Two additional fuel tanks were mounted aft of the firewall , meaning the PL.8 's three fuel tanks held a total of 4 @,@ 025 l ( 1 @,@ 063 US gal ) of gasoline .
The PL.8 also incorporated several safety features in case of ditching at sea . Apart from small floats attached directly to the undersides of the lower wing , the main units of the fixed , tailskid undercarriage could be jettisoned on takeoff , in order to reduce the aircraft 's weight . The underside of the fuselage was given a boat @-@ like shape and made watertight for a water landing . Nungesser and Coli 's plan was to make a water landing in New York , in front of the Statue of Liberty .
A single W @-@ 12 Lorraine @-@ Dietrich 340 kilowatts ( 460 hp ) engine was used , with the cylinders set in three banks spaced 60 ° apart from one another , similar to the arrangement used in Napier engines . The engine was tested to ensure it would last the entire flight , and was run for over 40 hours while still in the Parisian factory .
The aircraft , christened L 'Oiseau Blanc , was painted white , and had the French tricolor markings , with Nungesser 's personal World War I flying ace logo : a skull and crossbones , candles and a coffin , on a black heart , painted on the fuselage . The biplane carried no radio and relied only on celestial navigation , a specialty of Coli from his previous flights around the Mediterranean .
In 1928 , a second PL @-@ 8 , and equipped with a Hispano @-@ Suiza 12M , 375 kW ( 500 hp ) engine , was built .
= = Operational history = =
In April 1927 , the PL.8 @-@ 01 was shipped from the factory for Nungesser to begin a series of proving tests to determine aircraft performance . Most of the flights were conducted around Villacoublay and Chartres . Although full fuel loads were never carried , during one flight , he reached a speed of 207 kilometres per hour ( 129 mph ) and flight elevation of 4 @,@ 900 m ( 16 @,@ 100 ft ) .
The evaluations proceeded successfully through the flight envelope without major changes required to the basic design . The only incident of note was a fire that broke out in the hangar where the PL.8 @-@ 01 had been stored . Scorched fabric on the top wing was the result with effective repairs carried out shortly after . On 7 May 1927 , after the tests were complete , the aircraft was prepared for its record flight , flying from Villacoublay to Le Bourget Field .
= = = Transatlantic flight = = =
Nungesser and Coli took off at 5 : 17 a.m. , 8 May 1927 from Le Bourget Field in Paris , heading for New York . Their PL.8 @-@ 01 weighed 5 @,@ 000 kg ( 11 @,@ 000 lb ) on takeoff , extremely heavy for a single @-@ engined aircraft , barely clearing a line of trees at the end of the field . Gathering an escort of French fighter aircraft , Nungesser and Coli turned back as planned , and at low altitude , immediately jettisoned the main undercarriage .
The intended flight path was a great circle route , which would have taken them across the English Channel , over the southwestern part of England and Ireland , across the Atlantic to Newfoundland , then south over Nova Scotia , to Boston , and finally to a water landing in New York .
Once in the air , the biplane was escorted to the French coast by four military aircraft led by French Air Force Captain Venson , and sighted from the coastal town of Étretat . A sighting was made by the commanding officer of the British submarine HMS H50 , who recorded the note in his log , that he observed a biplane at 300 m altitude , 20 nautical miles southwest of the tip of Needles on the Isle of Wight . In Ireland , an aircraft overhead was reported by a resident of the town of Dungarvan and a Catholic priest reported a sighting over the village of Carrigaholt , then no further verified reports were made .
Crowds of people gathered in New York to witness the historic arrival , with tens of thousands of people crowding Battery Park in Manhattan to have a good view of the Statue of Liberty , where the aircraft was scheduled to touch down . Rumors circulated that L 'Oiseau Blanc had been sighted along its route , in Newfoundland , or over Long Island . In France , some newspapers even reported that Nungesser and Coli had arrived safely in New York , evoking a wave of French patriotism . L 'Oiseau Blanc had been carrying a sizable load of fuel , 4 @,@ 000 litres ( 1 @,@ 056 @.@ 7 US gal ) , which would have given them approximately 42 hours of flight time . After this time had passed , with no word as to the aircraft 's fate , it was realized that the aircraft had been lost . In France , the public was scandalized by the newspapers such as La Presse which had printed false reports about the aircraft 's arrival , and outrage was generated against the companies involved , with demonstrations in the streets .
In the immediate aftermath of their disappearance , an international search was launched to find Nungesser and Coli . Aviation Digest sponsored a well @-@ known pilot , Floyd Bennett to search the area between New York and Newfoundland for nine days . The Canadian government search and rescue organizations also sent out two search aircraft ( one of which crashed ) . Searchers including the French Navy , the U.S. Navy , and the Royal Canadian Navy that scoured the route , including Labrador , the northeast coast of the U.S. and the area around the St. Lawrence River . Subsequently , with no sign of the aircraft , further search efforts were abandoned .
Twelve days after Nungesser and Coli 's departure , Charles Lindbergh , flying solo in the Spirit of Saint Louis , took off from New York on his own famous journey . After a flight of 33 hours , 30 minutes , he received a hero 's welcome when he arrived in Paris , even as the French mourned the loss of Nungesser and Coli .
= = Mystery = =
The mainstream view was that L 'Oiseau Blanc crashed over the Atlantic due to a squall . Nonetheless , 12 witnesses in Newfoundland and Maine claimed to have heard the aircraft as it passed overhead . Residents at Harbor Grace , Newfoundland reported sighting a white aircraft circling in haze or fog , late on 9 May 1927 . With no aircraft on the island and no overflights taking place , the local newspapers highlighted a " mystery " aircraft . If these stories were true , they would have meant that the flight was far behind schedule , as they would have been in the 40th hour of flight . This delay may have been explained , however , by the fact that the aircraft was flying against the prevailing weather pattern . Fishermen off the coast of Newfoundland reported that the weather had turned cold and foul , which might have caused the delay . In May 1927 the US Coast Guard found an airplane wing in Napeague Bay at Fort Pond Bay Long Island Sound ; reportedly aircraft wreckage was seen in August 1927 , 200 miles off the New York Coast .
Many rumors swirled around the aircraft 's disappearance , including a theory that was proposed that the aviators had been shot down by rum @-@ runners with tommy guns , as well as the belief that Nungesser and Coli were still alive and living with Indians in Canada . In 1930 , claims circulated that L 'Oiseau Blanc 's engine had been located in Maine , but nothing was confirmed . Later stories emerged in 1948 , from reports that caribou hunters and fur trappers had found aircraft wreckage in Great Gull Pond .
A fresh round of interest in L 'Oiseau Blanc began in the 1980s , after freelance writer Gunnar Hansen of Northeast Harbor , Maine , researched and published an article in the June 1980 issue of Yankee Magazine , titled " The Unfinished Flight of the White Bird " . Hansen revealed how Anson Berry ( d . 1936 ) , a hermit living near Machias , Maine , claimed late in the afternoon of May 9 , 1927 to have heard a sputtering aircraft fly over his isolated camp at Round Lake , Maine . Berry had not been able to see the aircraft because of fog and low clouds , but had heard what sounded like a crash or forced landing in the distance . Hansen and others did a great deal of research during the 1980s , and located multiple other witnesses who reported memories of the aircraft in a line from Nova Scotia down to eastern Maine on that date .
In 1984 , the French government made an official investigation , concluding that it was possible that the aircraft had reached Newfoundland . In 1989 , the NBC television series Unsolved Mysteries advanced the theory that the two aviators made it across the ocean , but crashed and perished in the woods of Maine . One of Nungesser 's relatives , William Nungesser , made several trips to Maine to search , focusing his energies around the north slope of Round Lake Hills in Washington County , Maine , as well as the area around Lake Winnipesaukee .
Famed author Clive Cussler and his NUMA organization also attempted to solve the mystery , searching for the aircraft in Maine and in Newfoundland . They made multiple visits in the 1980s , and interviewed dozens of elderly witnesses : hunters , fishermen and others who said they had seen or heard the aircraft pass by in 1927 . The NUMA expedition was named " Midnight Ghost " , after Lindbergh 's quote in his book The Spirit of St. Louis , where he said that Nungesser and Coli had " vanished like midnight ghosts " . In 1992 , divers traveled to Newfoundland and attempted to locate and search Great Gull Pond for a wreck , but found nothing , and were not even sure that they had located the right lake . Other lakes were also searched , from Machias , Maine , to Chesterfield , Maine .
Certain pieces were found which , though not conclusive , did suggest that L 'Oiseau Blanc had made it to the continent . Little of the aircraft would have remained , since it was created primarily from plywood and canvas . The parts most likely to endure would have been the engine and the aluminum fuel tanks . In Maine , bits and pieces of struts were found , and wood similar to the kind used to build the biplane . Engine metal was also found near the town of Machias , that was not typical to the United States or Canada . Two local residents described a large metal object , a " really big motor " which had been dragged out of the woods for salvage , along a path allegedly made by a logging operation .
In 2011 , the Wall Street Journal reported that an unofficial French team was focusing on theories that the aircraft crashed off the coast of Canada after flying over Newfoundland .
= = Legacy = =
The disappearance of L 'Oiseau Blanc has been called " the Everest of aviation mysteries " . TIGHAR , The International Group for Historic Aircraft Recovery , has called the aircraft , " History 's Most Important Missing Airplane " . Although it has been claimed that " if the aircraft had successfully completed its journey , Lindbergh would not qualify for the Orteig Prize , the sole reason for his attempt . When Lindbergh did succeed with his own flight across the Atlantic , the international attention on his achievement was probably enhanced because of the disappearance of ' L 'Oiseau Blanc just days earlier . It is also suggested that it was Lindbergh 's historic success which gave a major boost to the American aviation industry , without which the course of America 's military and industrial accomplishments might have been quite different .
A monument was erected in Étretat in 1927 , to mark the last place from which the biplane was seen in France , but it was destroyed in 1942 by the occupying German army . A new 24 m ( 79 ft ) high monument , the " Monument Nungesser et Coli " , was erected in 1963 atop one of the cliffs . There is also a nearby museum .
Another monument in France was inaugurated on 8 May 1928 , at Le Bourget airport . Honoring Lindbergh , Nungesser , and Coli , it is inscribed , " A ceux qui tentèrent et celui qui accomplit " ( trans : " To those who tried and to the one who succeeded " ) . The French issued a commemorative postage stamp in 1967 , 40 years after the flight , to honor Nungesser and Coli 's attempt . A street , " Rue Nungesser et Coli " is named after the aviators , along the Stade Jean Bouin in the 16th arrondissement of Paris .
In 1928 , the Ontario Surveyor General named a number of lakes in the northwest of the province to honour aviators who had perished during 1927 , mainly in attempting oceanic flights . Amongst these are Coli Lake ( 51 @.@ 32 ° N 93 @.@ 59 ° W / 51 @.@ 32 ; -93.59 ) and Nungesser Lake ( 51 @.@ 49 ° N 93 @.@ 52 ° W / 51 @.@ 49 ; -93.52 ) .
The fate of L 'Oiseau Blanc is occasionally mentioned in films . The 1999 made @-@ for @-@ TV Canadian film Restless Spirits , a children 's film with the alternate title Dead Aviators , uses the mystery of Nungesser and Coli 's disappearance as the key plot device . A young girl , who struggles with her pilot father 's death in an aircraft crash years before , visits her grandmother in Newfoundland . While there , she encounters the ghosts of Nungesser and Coli , whose restless spirits constantly relive their own unheralded 1927 crash in a nearby pond . The girl decides to help the pair move on to the afterlife by assisting them in rebuilding their aircraft and completing their flight so they may be released and , by doing so , works through her own emotional distress over her father 's test flight death . And in the opening montage of the 2005 film Sahara , based on Cussler 's novel , a French newspaper article is displayed reporting a fictional story of NUMA finding the aircraft .
As of 2008 , the landing gear is the only confirmed part of the biplane remaining , and is on display at the Musée de l 'Air et de l 'Espace ( French Air and Space Museum ) , in Le Bourget airport in Paris , the location from which L 'Oiseau Blanc took off .
= = Operators = =
France
= = Specifications = =
General characteristics
Crew : Two
Length : 9 @.@ 75 m ( 31 ft 11 in )
Wingspan : 15 m ( 49 ft in )
Height : 3 @.@ 89 m ( 12 ft 9 in )
Wing area : 61 @.@ 0 m2 ( 656 ft2 )
Empty weight : 1 @,@ 905 kg ( 4 @,@ 200 lb )
Gross weight : 5 @,@ 000 kg ( 11 @,@ 000 lb )
Powerplant : 1 × Lorraine @-@ Dietrich W @-@ 12ED , 340 kW ( 460 hp ) each
Performance
Maximum speed : 193 km / h ( 120 mph )
Cruising speed : 165 km / h ( 102 mph )
Range : 7 @,@ 000 km ( 4 @,@ 350 miles )
Endurance : 40 hours
Service ceiling : 7 @,@ 000 m ( 22 @,@ 965 ft )
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= Operation Freshman =
Operation Freshman was the codename given to a British airborne operation conducted in November 1942 during World War II . It was the first British airborne operation conducted using gliders , and its target was the Vemork Norsk Hydro chemical plant in Telemark county , Norway which produced heavy water for Nazi Germany . By 1942 the German atomic weapons programme had come close to being able to develop a nuclear reactor , but in order for the reactor to function it would require a great deal of heavy water . The source of the heavy water was the Norsk Hydro plant , which had been occupied in 1940 ; when the British government learned of the German nuclear developments , it was decided that a raid would be launched to destroy the plant and deny the Germans the heavy water required to develop a nuclear weapon . Several tactics were discussed and discarded as impractical , and it was finally decided that a small airborne force composed of sappers from the Royal Engineer units attached to 1st Airborne Division would land by glider a short distance from the plant , demolish it with explosives and then escape over the Norwegian border into Sweden .
After a period of extensive training , the airborne force took off in two aircraft – glider combinations on the night of 19 November 1942 . Both managed to reach the Norwegian coast , but neither was able to reach their objective . The first pair suffered from navigational difficulties and severe weather , which resulted in the tow rope snapping and the first glider crash – landing , with its towing aircraft returning to base ; eight airborne troops were killed outright , four were severely injured and five unhurt , with the survivors captured shortly after the crash . The second pair fared even worse , with both aircraft and glider crashing into a mountain for unknown reasons ; the aircrew and a number of airborne troops were killed outright , and those who survived were taken prisoner . None survived for very long , either being poisoned or executed as a result of Adolf Hitler 's Commando Order , which stated all Commando personnel were to be immediately executed upon capture . At the end of the war , a number of Wehrmacht personnel were tried and condemned to death for their part in the executions .
= = Background = =
The German government began development of an atomic weapons programme in April 1939 when two scientists , Irène and Frédéric Joliot @-@ Curie , declared in an issue of the scientific journal Nature that atomic fission was possible and could produce immense amounts of power . The Joliot @-@ Curies argued that not only did it have possibilities as a power source , it might also be used to create an extremely powerful weapon . By September 1941 the German scientists assigned to the programme had determined how a nuclear reactor could be developed ; this required significant quantities of heavy water to act as a neutron moderator to encase the uranium which would be used to provide the material for a nuclear weapon . Heavy water was extremely scarce and difficult to produce , and Germany only possessed a small amount which had been produced in laboratories . Norway possessed a large amount which was produced by the Vemork Norsk Hydro chemical plant near the village of Rjukan , but the Norwegian government would not sell more than three gallons of heavy water a month , becoming suspicious of the sudden increase in demand for the water by the German government . When Norway was invaded and occupied by Germany in April 1940 , however , this obstruction ended ; the Vemork plant was captured and began producing heavy water for the German atomic weapons programme . Production of heavy water was slowed initially due to the effects of the fighting in Norway and a drought in the area , which led to a lack of water to provide hydroelectric power for the plant . However , once the weather improved and snow began to melt , providing enough water to create sufficient hydroelectric power , production continued .
By mid @-@ 1942 it had come to the attention of the British government that the plant had begun to produce large quantities of heavy water and was stockpiling it for later use . The decision was therefore taken that the plant and the stockpiles of heavy water would have to be destroyed in order to impede the German programme . A number of methods for destroying the plant were considered . The first was a mass raid by Royal Air Force ( RAF ) bombers , but this was rejected due to the difficulty in locating the plant during night bombing , the principal bombing tactic used by the RAF at the time , and the heavy casualties that would be inflicted on the local Norwegian population during a night raid . An attack by Norwegian saboteurs was also ruled out , as was landing troops by PBY Catalina flying boat on Lake Møsvatn , 15 miles ( 24 km ) from the target , the latter due to the steepness of the surrounding mountain slopes and the inability of flying boats to land on the frozen water . It was decided that a raid by glider @-@ borne airborne troops would have the greatest chance of success . The area around the plant would be difficult to land on , but a possible landing site for gliders was located near the Møsvatn dam , although it would require considerable skill on the part of the glider pilots in order to land safely .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Operation Grouse = = =
In March 1942 SOE had recruited Einar Skinnarland , a Norwegian engineer who worked at the Møsvatn dam . Skinnarland had successfully sailed to Britain and was parachuted back to Telemark after ten days of intensive training . Having several contacts within Vemork he was able to roughly identify the disposition of German troops and other defences . Additionally SOE decided to send an advance party of Norwegian agents into Telemark , and began intensively training a four @-@ man team over the summer . The party , code @-@ named Operation Grouse , was led by Jens @-@ Anton Poulsson and also included Knut Haugland , Claus Helberg and Arne Kjelstrup . The Norwegians , all people local to the area with exceptional outdoors skills , underwent extra outdoor training in Scotland as well as learning the skills necessary to operate in occupied territory ; including sabotage , radio transmitting and " irregular warfare " .
The Grouse team were ready to be inserted by October . Several flights were made but aborted due to bad weather , before the team finally dropped on 18 October . The team landed at Fjarifet on the Hardangervidda ( a large wilderness avoided by the German forces ) and spent the next 15 days trekking towards Møsvatn , where they made contact with Skinnarland 's brother , Torstein . Once they had established contact with London the party began making preparations for the arrival of the British commandos . A suitable glider landing site was chosen 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) south west of Møsvatn dam and the team reconnoitred the area to help Combined Operations decide the best way to attack the plant .
= = = = German defences = = = =
The geography of the area around the village and the plant meant that attacking the plant and destroying the existing stocks of heavy water would be extremely difficult . Both were situated in a deep valley which possessed thickly – forested sides that rose almost vertically from a narrow river – bed , and which was overlooked by Gaustatoppen , a mountain approximately 5 @,@ 400 feet ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) high ; the plant itself had been built on a broad rock shelf 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) above the river bed .
Einar Skinnarland had observed the German defences over the summer and passed the information back to SOE . Later reconnaissance by Torstein Skinnerland and the Grouse team was also transmitted to London in the weeks leading up to the operation . In early October Generaloberst Nikolaus von Falkenhorst , the commander in chief of the German forces in Norway , had personally visited the plant . While there he warned the local garrison that he believed the plant was a likely target for British commando raids , but crucially he did not have the resources to increase the manpower there . Although Einar Skinnarland had observed a garrison of some 100 men in the village of Rjukan , 20 at the dam and about 55 near the main plant during the summer , by October this had been reduced to about 12 at the plant , 12 at the dam and approximately 40 in Rjukan . Most of the men were elderly or infirm Austrians under the command of an elderly captain , although well trained German regulars periodically passed through Telemark . Skinnarland also believed that Gestapo agents were in the area .
The Germans had erected three iron hawsers across the valley to prevent low flying bombing raids but on the ground most of their defences were positioned to prevent an assault from the ridge above the plant , the direction from which they believed an attack was most likely . Minefields and booby traps predominantly protected this side of the plant , but there were also searchlights on the roof and a machine gun nest near the entrance . A single bridge crossed the steep gorge in front of the plant , but was normally only protected by two guards . However , there were some 300 @,@ 000 German troops in Norway at this time and reinforcements could quickly be called into the area , which would complicate the commandos ' escape to the Swedish border .
= = = Planning = = =
The Headquarters staff of Combined Operations at the War Office was tasked with devising a plan for the glider @-@ borne assault on the plant , as it had been with previous airborne and commando operations , such as Operation Biting . This would be the first British airborne operation ever to use gliders ; all previous operations had been conducted solely with parachutists . The staff decided that although gliders would be the most suitable for the operation due to the heavy loads to be carried by the airborne troops , and the possibility that they could be widely dispersed if they were dropped by parachute , the airborne troops would still be trained for a possible parachute insertion if the landing zone for the gliders was found to be unsuitable . Because of the complicated and technical nature of the operation , which would see the plant rigged with explosives and then detonated , it was believed that a minimum of twelve to sixteen men would be required , and that they would all have to be skilled engineers . The important nature of the operation also led to the force being doubled in order to duplicate it , to ensure that even if half of the force were killed , the survivors would have the necessary skills to complete the operation . The selected troops were volunteer parachutists chosen from the sappers of 9th Field Company ( Airborne ) Royal Engineers and 261st Field Park Company ( Airborne ) Royal Engineers attached to 1st Airborne Division , because the only parachute @-@ trained Royal Engineers unit in existence at the time , 1st Parachute Squadron Royal Engineers , was already deployed in North Africa with 1st Parachute Brigade . Both of the duplicated units that were to participate in the operation were to be commanded by officers from the Royal Engineers ; the first by Lieutenant A.C. Allen and the second by Second @-@ Lieutenant M.D. Green , who was later replaced by Lieutenant D.A. Methven when he was injured during a training accident three days before the operation was to begin .
The Royal Air Force unit selected to transport the sappers was 38 Wing , which was commanded by Group Captain T.B. Cooper ; it was provided with a special allotment of three Handley Page Halifax heavy bombers for the operation , which were the only British aircraft in existence at the time which were capable of towing Horsa gliders the distance required and then returning to their base . The SOE agents selected a landing zone for the sappers , which was approximately 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) from the Norsk Hydro plant and could not be observed by German patrols . The plan for the operation called for the sappers to land in the two gliders at the landing zone , guided in by the SOE agents equipped with Eureka radio beacons . Once they had successfully landed , the sappers would be escorted to the plant by the SOE agents , demolish the plant and its stocks of heavy water , and then cross the Norwegian border into neutral Sweden .
Combined Operations initially suggested the men should fight their way to the Swedish border , but MI9 believed their chances of survival were better if they attempted to disguise themselves at Norwegians and travel in pairs . In order to facilitate their escape the men were provided with civilian clothes ( to be worn after the operation ) , simple Norwegian phrases ( in the hope no German they encountered would speak Norwegian anyway ) and escape sets containing money and maps . They were also ordered to shave any moustaches and grow their hair long in order to blend in with Norwegian men .
= = = Training = = =
Training began in early October in Wales and was designed to be extremely arduous , not only to ensure that those who took part would be at the peak of their physical and mental fitness , but also to eliminate any individuals unable to cope with the long marches and difficult terrain that would be encountered during the operation . When this portion of the training had been completed , the sappers were then transferred to the area around Fort William in Scotland , where they were familiarized with a hydroelectric plant similar in design to the one in Norway , and received training on the most efficient way to plant explosives in the Norsk Hydro plant to cause maximum damage .
Training also took place at Port Sunlight , where they were shown how to destroy large condensers of the kind found in the plant . The sappers were given detailed briefings on the plant and the surrounding area , and were trained on large models and mock @-@ ups of the buildings that the plant was composed of , all based on information provided by the SOE agents who had arrived earlier in the month . Because the operation was considered to be extremely important , and its results vital to the Allied war effort , security efforts were extremely thorough . A cover story was provided for the sappers as they conducted their training ; a rumour was spread that they were training to compete against a company of American engineers in a fictional ' Washington Cup ' athletic event , which involved a long route march to be completed either by glider or parachute , followed by a complex demolition task and finally a demanding endurance test . The departure airfield was also sealed off to civilians and non @-@ essential military personnel , and all mail and telephone calls were censored .
= = Operation = =
After their training had been completed , on 17 November the sappers were transported to an RAF airfield at Skitten in Scotland , with the operation scheduled to commence two days later . On the evening of 19 November , Group Captain Cooper , with the aid of a Norwegian meteorologist and regular reports from the SOE agents stationed near the landing zone , decided that although the weather was not perfect , it would be best to launch the operation that night ; Cooper believed that if it were delayed , the weather might deteriorate on subsequent days and prevent the operation from being conducted entirely . The first aircraft – glider combination took off from the airfield at 17 : 50 , with the second following at 18 : 10 ; after circling the airfield several times the two combinations headed out across the North Sea towards their objective .
= = = The first combination = = =
The first combination flew through poor weather conditions and managed to reach Norway and fly towards its objective ; however during the flight over Norway the Rebecca receiver , which was supposed to pick up the transponder signal from the Eureka beacons being used by the Norwegian SOE agents , developed a mechanical problem and was unable to pick up the signal . This left the aircrew with only map @-@ reading available to locate the landing zone , but the poor weather made this almost impossible .
On a second attempt to find the correct area , the combination flew into thick clouds approximately 40 miles ( 64 km ) northwest of Rjukan , and ice began to form on both aircraft and glider , as well as the towing rope connecting the two . At this point the combination began to lose altitude , and the towing rope snapped , setting the glider free ; low on fuel , the aircraft was forced to turn back after signaling to Skitten at 23 : 55 that it had released the glider , and only just succeeded in landing back in Britain . Shortly after releasing the glider , the aircraft broadcast a second message , " Glider in sea " , indicating the air crew 's belief that the glider had crashed . The Royal Navy was asked to begin a search @-@ and @-@ rescue mission , but had no ships in the area ; an aerial search of the area was instead conducted , but did not find the glider .
In fact the glider did not land in the sea , but crash @-@ landed in an area called Fyljesdal , overlooking Lysefjord . Of the seventeen men on board , eight were killed outright , four were severely injured and five unhurt .
Thorvald Fylgjedalen , a local farmer , found some of the injured soldiers from the glider , but knew no English , and was unable to communicate with them . Nonetheless , Fylgjedalen and his neighbor Jonas Haaheller decided that they would assist the wounded soldiers , and did not contact the German authorities . After contacting more of the local residents , the soldiers asked for their assistance in escaping to Sweden , but Haaheller and others convinced them that this would be impossible , as it would involve traveling across the entirety of Norway . Thus , the Norwegians sheltered and gave medical attention to the injured soldiers , but did not allow any of them to leave . The Norwegians also burned all of the maps and documents from the glider crash before the Germans could arrive , and managed to keep the entire operation secret for almost twenty @-@ four hours .
German soldiers , including troops from both the Waffen SS and the Army , arrived the next afternoon on two boats from a nearby camp . They quickly took the British soldiers prisoner , and departed with them on the boats . Despite the grave injuries suffered by some of the soldiers , they were still forced to walk under their own power and ride in the unsheltered boats in the cold . The dead soldiers were dumped in a shallow grave .
= = = The second combination = = =
The second combination managed to reach the coast of Norway , but fared even worse than the first combination ; because of a turn in the weather , the tow aircraft ( second Halifax ) piloted by Flight Lieutenant Roland Parkinson , RCAF , released the glider at a great height and then crashed into a mountain at Hestadfjell in high winds , rain and hail . All of the aircrew were killed instantly . Workmen in the area heard the plane pass overhead shortly before crashing and alerted the German authorities , who arrived quickly . Finding no survivors , the Germans threw the bodies of the aircrew into a nearby bog and left the area .
Released just before the tow aircraft crashed , the second glider spiralled out of control and crash @-@ landed in the mountains between Helleland and Bjerkreim . Seven of the men were killed instantly , and the rest were injured to varying degrees . The survivors were unwilling to leave the seriously wounded and two of the British soldiers left the crash site to search for help . After searching for some time , they arrived in the hamlet of Helleland about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from where they had crashed , and made contact with one of the local residents , Trond Hovland . The soldiers told Hovland about their injured comrades , and asked if he could help them find a doctor . Hovland agreed to help , but informed them that the nearest doctor lived 9 @.@ 3 miles ( 15 @.@ 0 km ) away , in the town of Egersund . In order to contact him , Hovland would have to use the telephone system , controlled by the German authorities , which would alert them to the presence of the soldiers . Believing that there was no alternative , the soldiers agreed to contact the Germans , expecting that they would be taken as prisoners of war . A party from the Norwegian Labour Service arrived at the crash site shortly afterwards and helped tend to the injured soldiers who burned all of their sensitive documents and materials . A German party arrived about twenty minutes later and the British then submitted without a struggle . After their arrest , the prisoners were taken to the German camp at Slettebø near Egersund and shot .
= = Aftermath = =
The Allies were unaware of the fate of the operation until they intercepted a German communiqué stating that two gliders and one aircraft had been forced down , and the crews engaged and annihilated . On 11 December they received a message from an SOE agent explaining that the second gliders occupants had all been shot . Many of the details about the fate of the two glider combinations were only discovered after the war had ended .
None of the soldiers or aircrew who survived the crashes remained alive for very long . Of the soldiers from the first glider , three of the four injured men were tortured by the Gestapo and later killed by a doctor who injected air into their bloodstreams . The fourth injured man was shot in the back of the head the next day . All four bodies were dumped at sea . The five uninjured men were held at Grini concentration camp until 18 January 1943 , when they were taken to nearby woods , blindfolded and executed by the Gestapo . The German Wehrmacht and the Gestapo argued over the fate of the prisoners from the second glider . The Wehrmacht believed they should be treated in accordance with the Geneva Convention , but in the end the survivors were interrogated and executed within a few hours of their capture at the German barracks at Bekkebø . They were taken into nearby woods and shot one by one , each being forced to listen to the man before him being executed . Their bodies were stripped and thrown into an unmarked grave . All of the executions were conducted in accordance with the Commando Order issued by Adolf Hitler in October 1942 , which stated that all Commando troops were to be killed immediately upon capture . The local Norwegian population were unable to prevent the prisoners being executed , but tended the graves of the dead until the end of the war .
Although the Allied soldiers believed that they had burnt all of their maps , one from the second glider was missed . When the Germans found it they were able to identify the Vemork plant as the target and increased their defence accordingly . German reprisals started instantly and 200 armed Gestapo agents swept into Rjukan where they arrested 21 Norwegians for questioning , but the members of Operation Grouse slipped away into the wilderness of Hardangervidda . They later contributed to the successful Operation Gunnerside in February 1943 , when a small team of Norwegian SOE agents were parachuted into the area and demolished much of the Vemork heavy water plant . The plant did eventually resume operation , but further bombing raids ensured it produced little heavy water for the German atomic weapons programme .
Although the operation had been a failure , it demonstrated the range , flexibility and possibilities of airborne forces and glider operations , and also highlighted equipment failures that were rectified for later operations . This included developing a new version of the Rebecca @-@ Eureka homing device system , the Mk II , which was ready by 1943 and proved to be very successful when used in later airborne operations ; during Operation Market Garden and Operation Varsity , aircraft that used the system reported a 95 % success rate .
When 1st Airborne Division arrived in Norway in May 1945 , they were informed of the fate of the prisoners , and cooperated with the Norwegian government to have the fallen men buried with full military honours . The five from the first glider were re @-@ interred at the Commonwealth War Graves plot at Vestre Gravlund near Oslo . The second glider 's occupants were reburied at Eiganes churchyard in Stavanger and the Halifax aircrew were reburied at Helleland .
The head of the Gestapo in Oslo , who had signed the order for the prisoners ' executions , committed suicide several days prior to 1st Airborne Division 's arrival in May 1945 , but several Wehrmacht personnel implicated in the decision to execute the prisoners were put on trial and found guilty ; one was shot and another hanged , whilst a senior Non @-@ Commissioned Officer who had shot a prisoner in the back of the head was extradited to the Soviet Union for alleged abuse conducted against Soviet prisoners . Furthermore , the commander of the German forces in Norway – Generaloberst Nikolaus von Falkenhorst – was also found guilty of two of the Freshman deaths during his war crimes trial .
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= Assemblies of God USA =
The Assemblies of God USA ( AG ) , officially the General Council of the Assemblies of God , is a Pentecostal Christian denomination in the United States founded in 1914 during a meeting of Pentecostal ministers at Hot Springs , Arkansas . It is the U.S. branch of the World Assemblies of God Fellowship , the world 's largest Pentecostal body . With a constituency of over 3 million , the Assemblies of God was the ninth largest denomination in the United States in 2011 .
The Assemblies of God holds to a conservative , evangelical and Arminian theology as expressed in the Statement of Fundamental Truths and position papers , which emphasize such core Pentecostal doctrines as the baptism in the Holy Spirit , speaking in tongues , divine healing and the Second Coming of Christ . It defines for itself a fourfold mission to evangelize , worship God , disciple believers , and show compassion .
The fellowship 's polity is a hybrid of presbyterian and congregational models . This tension between local independence and national authority is seen in the AG 's historical reluctance to refer to itself as a denomination , preferring the terms fellowship and movement . The national headquarters are in Springfield , Missouri , where the administrative and executive offices and Gospel Publishing House are located .
It maintains relationships with other Pentecostal groups at both regional and national levels through the Pentecostal / Charismatic Churches of North America and the Pentecostal World Fellowship . It is also a member of the Wesleyan Holiness Consortium and the National Association of Evangelicals .
= = Beliefs = =
= = = Fundamental doctrines = = =
The central beliefs of the Assemblies of God are summarized in its Statement of Fundamental Truths . The following is a summary of these 16 non @-@ negotiable Truths :
The Bible is inspired by God and is " the infallible , authoritative rule of faith and conduct " .
There is only one true God who exists as a Trinity .
Jesus Christ is the Son of God and , as the second person of the Trinity , is God .
Man was created good by God but was separated from God through original sin .
Salvation " is received through repentance toward God and faith toward the Lord Jesus Christ " .
There are two ordinances . Believer 's baptism by immersion is a declaration to the world that the believer has died and been raised together with Christ , becoming a new creation . The Lord 's Supper is a symbol expressing the believer 's sharing in the divine nature of Christ , a memorial of Christ 's suffering and death , and a prophecy of Christ 's second coming .
Baptism in the Holy Spirit is a separate and subsequent experience following conversion . Spirit baptism brings empowerment to live an overcoming Christian life and to be an effective witness .
Speaking in tongues is the initial physical evidence of the baptism in the Holy Spirit .
Sanctification is , " ... an act of separation from that which is evil , and of dedication unto God . " It occurs when the believer identifies with , and has faith in , Christ in his death and resurrection . It is not believed to be a " second definite work of grace " ( see Finished Work ) , as in some other Pentecostal denominations , but is understood to be a process in that it requires continual yielding to the Holy Spirit .
The Church 's mission is to seek and save all who are lost in sin ; the Church is the Body of Christ and consists of all people who accept Christ , regardless of Christian denomination .
Divinely called and scripturally @-@ ordained ministers serve the Church .
Divine healing of the sick is provided for in the atonement .
The " imminent and blessed hope " of the Church is its rapture preceding the bodily return of Christ to earth .
The rapture of the Church will be followed by the visible return of Christ and his reign on earth for a thousand years .
There will be a final judgment and eternal damnation for the " wicked dead " .
There will be future new heavens and a new earth " wherein dwelleth righteousness " .
= = = Core beliefs = = =
The AG considers salvation , baptism in the Holy Spirit with the evidence of speaking in tongues , divine healing and the Second Coming of Christ to be its four core beliefs .
= = = = Salvation = = = =
The Statement of Fundamental Truths states , " Man 's only hope of redemption is through the shed blood of Jesus Christ the Son of God " . The Assemblies of God holds the Arminian position on salvation . While it agrees with the Calvinist position that God is sovereign , at the same time , it believes that mankind has free will — free to accept or reject God 's gift of salvation and eternal life . Therefore , the Assemblies of God disapproves of the doctrines of double predestination and the unconditional security of the believer , which holds that once saved it is impossible for a person to be lost . Instead , the Assemblies of God believes that salvation is received and kept by faith , if faith in Christ is lost , then salvation is lost .
= = = = Baptism in the Holy Spirit = = = =
According to the Statement of Fundamental Truths , " All believers are entitled to and should ardently expect and earnestly seek " the baptism in the Spirit . It also states , " This was the normal experience of all in the early Christian Church " . It is a separate experience from and occurs after salvation . This baptism gives to the receiver an " enduement of power for life and service , the bestowment of the gifts and their uses in the work of the ministry " . There are four experiences listed in the Fundamental Truths that result from Spirit baptism : " overflowing fullness of the Spirit " , " a deepened reverence for God " , intensified consecration and dedication to God and his work , and " a more active love for Christ , for His Word and for the lost " . In addition , this experience initiates the believer in the use of spiritual gifts . The " initial physical sign " of having received this baptism is " speaking with other tongues as the Spirit of God gives them utterance " .
Baptism in the Holy Spirit with the evidence of speaking in tongues is a requirement for ministerial licensing and ordination . However , Spirit baptism and speaking in tongues is not a requirement for membership or participation in an Assembly of God church . An increasing minority of pastors has expressed concern that there is a lack of biblical support for the claim that Spirit baptism must always be accompanied with speaking in tongues . This concern corresponds with a decrease in the number of Assembly of God adherents reporting baptism in the Holy Spirit ; according to the AG 's Office of Statistics as of 2003 less than 50 percent of adherents had this experience . These challenges to the AG 's traditional position were noted in a 2007 report by the AG 's Spiritual Life Committee :
Yet , the distinctive doctrine that once united us has , in some circles , become a point of contention . We lament the increasing rarity of the gifts of the Spirit in our worship setting . We wonder where , in our busy church schedules , will people have an opportunity to tarry at the altars for a transforming Pentecostal experience ?
Despite these challenges , the 53rd General Council in 2009 passed a resolution reaffirming the doctrine of initial physical evidence .
= = = = Divine healing = = = =
The Assemblies of God understands divine healing to have been provided for in the atonement . Looking to scripture , such as James 5 and Isaiah 53 : 5 , the AG believes that Christians can pray for healing . Indeed , it believes scripture gives elders of the church the responsibility to pray " the prayer of faith " over the sick . It believes God can and does heal , but believes that God is sovereign and that , whether one is healed or not , a person 's trust must be in God . It sees no conflict in trusting God for healing while receiving medical care . Healing testimonies regularly appear in the official publication , the Pentecostal Evangel , and prayer for healing and testimony commonly occur in church services .
While adamant that divine healing is a reality , the AG is not dogmatic on the subject of how one is healed . Margaret Poloma summarized this view stating , " Physical healing is not certain , automatic , or subject to formula . At the same time , it remains a tenet and practice of the Assemblies of God " . Officially , the AG rejects the view that healing is caused or influenced by " positive confession " , a belief found in prosperity theology and Word of Faith teachings . Nevertheless , these teachings have influenced some congregations .
= = = = Christ 's Second Coming = = = =
The Statement of Fundamental Truths articles 13 and 14 articulate the Assemblies of God 's official teaching on the return of Christ to Earth . It is a dispensationalist and premillennialist eschatology that includes the pre @-@ Tribulation rapture of the Church — the " imminent and blessed hope " . The rapture of the Church will be followed by Christ 's visible return to earth and his reign of 1 @,@ 000 years . This millennial reign will usher in the salvation of the nation of Israel and universal peace . The Assemblies of God is specifically opposed to the theologies and practices of universal salvation , setting dates for Christ 's return , post @-@ Tribulation rapture , and amillennialism .
= = = Position statements = = =
The Assemblies of God has released statements on various issues not addressed in the Statement of Fundamental Truths . These position papers are usually written by the Doctrinal Purity Commission , a standing committee of the General Council , which reviews and responds to issues referred to it by the Executive Presbytery . Position papers are not official positions of the Assemblies of God unless recommended by the Executive Presbytery and approved by the General Council . Position statements touch on biblical , theological , and social concerns .
Abstinence from alcohol : On the consumption of alcohol , the AG calls on its members and adherents to live life @-@ styles of total abstinence ( see Christianity and alcohol ) .
Apostles and Prophets : The Assemblies of God does not recognize titles or offices of " apostle " and " prophet " . It does , however , believe there are those in the church who " exercise the ministry function of apostles and prophets " . Apostolic functions relate to evangelizing previously unreached areas or people groups , while prophetic functions " occur when believers speak under the anointing of the Spirit to strengthen , encourage , or comfort " . " Prophecy is a continuing gift of the Holy Spirit that is broadly distributed as the Spirit wills throughout Pentecostal churches " . Predictive prophecy that proves false , or prophecy that " departs from biblical truth " is false prophecy . The AG believes in the four ministry gifts of apostles , prophets , evangelists , and pastor / teachers ( see Fivefold ministry ) but notes that there are no biblical instructions for the appointment of apostles and prophets today .
Assisted suicide and abortion : Viewing all human life as sacred , the Assemblies of God opposes assisted suicide and abortion ( unless it is medically confirmed that the mother 's life is in imminent , physical danger ) . It believes scripture is silent on the use of contraception and therefore takes no position on this subject ( see Christian views on suicide , Christianity and abortion and Christian views on contraception ) .
Creation : The Assemblies of God believes that the account of creation in the book of Genesis " accurately communicates God 's creation of the heavens and the earth " and that " the New Testament treats the creation and fall of Adam and Eve as historical events " . It acknowledges that Christians will have different views on " the age of the earth , the age of humankind , and the ways in which God went about the creative processes " but urges them to " avoid divisiveness over debatable theories of creation " . It also affirms that " God reveals himself both in Scripture and the created order " ( see Creationism ) .
Demon Possession : The Assemblies of God believes it is possible for people to be demon possessed and be delivered by the " power of the Spirit , and the name of Jesus " . However , it cautions against overemphasis on demonology and rejects the belief that Christians can be possessed by evil spirits .
Ministry to the disabled : The AG teaches that people with disabilities are loved by God . They should be treated with dignity and fully included in the life of the Church .
Divorce and remarriage : Officially , the AG disapproves of Christians divorcing for any cause except " fornication and adultery " . Where these circumstances exist or where a Christian has been divorced by an unbeliever ( see Pauline privilege ) , the AG allows " the question of remarriage to be resolved by the believer in the Light of God 's Word " . For Christians who were divorced and remarried before their conversion , it is recommended that local AG churches receive them as members . The General Council has offered this guideline for AG churches ; however , churches are free to determine their own standards of membership with the result that many local churches will admit divorced and remarried persons as members even if the above conditions are not met ( see Christian views on divorce ) .
Gambling : The AG opposes gambling , believing that it is a disregard of responsible stewardship , involves a chance of gain at the expense and suffering of others , is inconsistent with the work ethic of scripture , and tends to be habit forming .
Homosexuality : The fellowship takes the position that the biblical ideal of marriage is between one man and one woman and that the Bible condemns all sex outside of marriage , whether heterosexual or homosexual . Furthermore , it emphasizes that " believers who struggle with homosexual temptations must be encouraged and strengthened by fellow Christians " and that believers " must hold no malice toward , or fear , of homosexuals " but " reach out in humility and compassion " ( see Christianity and homosexuality ) .
Positive Confession : While the AG affirms that " All the blessings which God has for His people are received through faith " ( including salvation , Spirit baptism , " divine preservation " , " healing and provision of material needs " , and the motivation to witness ) , it rejects the teaching that faith or " positive confession " " compels God 's action " . It holds that believers must consider the totality of scripture , consider adequately the will of God , recognize that they can expect suffering in life , and recognize the sovereignty of God . It also stresses the importance of persistent prayer , as opposed to simply confessing or " claiming " the promises of God .
Women 's role in ministry : The AG affirms the ministry of women in the church and allows them to be ordained and serve in pastoral roles ( see Ordination of women ) .
= = Worship = =
Because of the congregational nature of the Assemblies of God , it is difficult to define a typical local church . Church identity is influenced by members ' social class , ethnicity , and musical or worship style preferences . Sociologists Margaret Poloma and John Green have categorized AG congregations into four types : traditional , evangelical , renewalist , and alternative . Traditional congregations are those that strongly identify with the AG ( and Pentecostalism in general ) , while encouraging " more intense experiences of the charismata , or gifts of the Holy Spirit " such as Spirit baptism and speaking in tongues . Evangelical AG congregations , the most common type , identify with the AG and Pentecostalism but " are moving ( in varying degrees ) away from the unique experiences that were once important markers of Pentecostal identity " . Renewalist or charismatic AG churches are those that encourage supernatural gifts of the Spirit but weakly identify with the AG or Pentecostalism . Alternative churches are those where both identity with the AG and occurrence of unique Pentecostal experiences are low ; these include churches adopting seeker @-@ sensitive and emerging church models .
Despite the diversity found in the AG , shared beliefs and values are reflected in local churches . The Assemblies of God is " experience @-@ oriented " , and the local church is where experience of the activity of the Holy Spirit will primarily occur . Regular services are usually held on Sunday mornings and Sunday and Wednesday evenings . There is no formal liturgy or order of service ; though , many churches have a familiar routine : opening prayer , congregational and special singing , an offering , a time of intercessory prayer , a sermon , and an altar call . In the traditional and charismatic AG churches , this routine is subject to change spontaneously within a service — possibly being interrupted by an interpretation of a message in tongues , a prophecy , a word of wisdom , or a word of knowledge — and this change is believed to be directed by the Holy Spirit . In addition , evening services may incorporate a time of prayer for those who are seeking something from God either around the altar or in an adjacent prayer room .
During praise and worship , participants may raise their hands as an act of worship . Congregational singing is usually led by a choir or worship team . Full drum sets , a piano , an organ , and various other instruments are frequently used . The type of music sung is generally popular worship choruses , such as those by Calvary Chapel and Hillsong . Worship is often characterized as intense and enthusiastic .
Prayer features prominently in services . Services may feature moments where special prayer is offered , often with laypersons leading the prayer and the rest of the congregation audibly participating . During these corporate prayers , some may pray in tongues . While not in every service , the pastor will pray for the sick . This prayer may include the pastor anointing the sick with olive oil and with the assistance of church elders along with pastoral associates laying hands on the one seeking healing .
Architecturally , smaller churches will feature bright lighting , large windows , a simple platform with a pulpit in the center , and an altar ( " a bench across the front of the church below the platform " ) . Larger churches will have direct access from the balcony to the main sanctuary near the platform so that respondents to altar calls can easily come forward , a large open area in front of the platform to accommodate altar call gatherings , and the platform itself is usually large to accommodate a large choir and musical instruments . Because the Assemblies of God practice baptism by immersion , many churches will include a baptistry at the rear of the platform .
= = Structure = =
The Assemblies of God is defined in its constitution as a " cooperative fellowship " of " churches and credentialed ministers " . It has a representative form of government derived from presbyterian polity and organized in three levels of administration : congregations , district councils and the General Council . The AG has , however , elements of congregational polity , which are limited by the powers of the districts and General Council to license and discipline ordained ministers .
= = = Congregations = = =
= = = = Self @-@ governing churches = = = =
The Assemblies of God uses several classifications of congregations based on their level of local autonomy and their relationship to the General Council . Mature , fully functioning congregations are classified as " General Council affiliated churches " . These churches are " sovereign " and self @-@ governing , but in matters of doctrine local assemblies are subordinate to districts and the General Council . A church is qualified for General Council affiliated status if it :
accepts AG doctrines ,
adopts a standard of membership ,
has an active voting membership of at least 20 persons ,
adopts a governance model that prevents a pastor or governing body from " exert [ ing ] dictatorial control over a church " ,
has an adequate number of spiritually qualified members to fill the offices of the church ,
has made provision for a pastor who is a credentialed minister in good standing with the General Council .
Each local church operates according to its own bylaws and calls its own pastor . The office of pastor is equivalent to that of elder or overseer and is tasked with preaching and teaching the Word of God , in addition to conducting the day @-@ to @-@ day operations of the church . Laypersons are elected as a board of deacons to assist the pastor . A General Council affiliated church may withdraw from the Assemblies of God by a two @-@ thirds vote of the church membership .
At the request of the pastor , deacon board , or 20 percent of voting members , district officials may intervene in the internal affairs of a General Council affiliated church . If district leaders conclude that district supervision is warranted , the church will lose its status as a self @-@ governing church and revert to the status of " district affiliated assembly " until its problems are resolved . A church may also revert to district affiliated status if it no longer meets the minimum requirements for General Council membership , such as having less than 20 voting members .
= = = = District affiliated and cooperative churches = = = =
Local churches , sections , and district councils are able to establish new churches . A church plant may initially be classified as " district affiliated " until it meets requirements for General Council affiliation . District affiliated congregations are under the direct supervision of district officials but are encouraged to develop into fully self @-@ governing churches . In 2009 , the General Council created a new category called " parent affiliated churches " . These are either church plants or campuses of a multi @-@ site church under the supervision of a General Council affiliated " parent " church .
Existing Pentecostal churches considering affiliation with the General Council may request temporary status as a " cooperating assembly " for a term of four years before officially joining the denomination .
= = = Districts = = =
Churches are organized into sections and sections into middle judicatories called districts . The 61 districts oversee " all the ecclesial and sacerdotal activities " within their jurisdiction , which includes recommending ministers for national credentialing and mediating disputes within local congregations . There are two types of districts . Geographical districts serve areas corresponding to state boundaries , while non @-@ geographical language or ethnic districts serve a particular language or ethnic group , such as Hispanic and Samoan churches .
Districts are governed by representative bodies called district councils , which meet annually . District council membership includes all resident ministers and one lay delegate per AG church located within the district . When the district council is not in session , a district is led by a superintendent and a presbytery ( board of directors ) whose members are elected by and represent the sections . A presbyter " minister [ s ] to ministers " and " model [ s ] spiritual maturity and leadership " to the ministers and churches in his section .
= = = General Council = = =
At the top of this organizational framework is the biennial General Council , the highest governing body of the Assemblies of God . All ordained and licensed ministers and one delegate per Assembly of God church are entitled to attend and participate at the General Council . The size of General Council is not static but fluctuating , changing from year to year as there is no requirement that pastors attend or that churches send delegates . In general , however , there are over 3 @,@ 000 voting members .
General Council enacts legislation , credentials ministers , oversees the national and worldwide missions programs , and directs the church ’ s colleges and seminary . The General Council also elects the general superintendent — the chief executive officer of the national organization — and other officers , such as the assistant general superintendent , general secretary , general treasurer , and the directors of U.S. and world missions . These manage the AG 's day @-@ to @-@ day operations and work together as the Executive Leadership Team .
In between General Council sessions , approximately 300 elected representatives from the various districts and foreign mission areas meet as the General Presbytery . When the General Council is not in session , the General Presbytery acts as the official policy @-@ making body of the Assemblies of God . A 20 @-@ member Executive Presbytery , led by the Executive Leadership Team , meets bimonthly and functions as the Assemblies of God 's board of directors . Executive Presbyters are responsible to the General Presbytery and are ex officio members of that body .
= = = General Superintendent = = =
The office of General Superintendent was originally known as the Chairman of the General Council , until it was changed in 1927 . The current General Superintendent of the General Council is Dr. George O. Wood . Wood 's tenure began October 8 , 2007 , when the previous General Superintendent , Dr. Thomas E. Trask stepped down after 14 years of leadership . The following is a list of General Superintendents and their tenures :
= = Clergy = =
The Assemblies of God recognizes three classifications of ministers : certified , licensed , and ordained . District councils examine candidates for all levels of ministry and recommend those qualified to the Executive Presbytery ( which is the General Council 's Credentials Committee ) , which has authority to issue ministerial credentials . The AG 's constitution guarantees that " formal academic achievement ( diploma or degree ) shall not be a requirement for credentials " , but the General Presbytery does mandate courses and examinations .
In preparation for receiving credentials , applicants must either complete correspondence courses through Global University ( the AG 's distance education program ) , receive training through a postsecondary institution such as a college or seminary approved by the AG , or be recommended by a district credentials committee as qualifying for credentials based on self @-@ study and ministerial experience of " substantial duration " . In addition , applicants must pass a standardized exam that tests their knowledge of the Bible , AG doctrines , and ministerial practices . After passing the exam , they are interviewed by their district 's credentials committee . If judged qualified , the district will recommend the applicant to the General Council credentials committee .
The Assemblies of God will not grant credentials to divorced and remarried persons if either partner has a former spouse living unless for specific exceptions . Exceptions include if the divorce occurred prior to an applicant 's conversion or for " scriptural causes " such as a former spouse 's marital unfaithfulness or the abandonment of a Christian by a non @-@ Christian partner ( see Pauline privilege ) . The Executive Presbytery has authority to issue ecclesiastical annulments in cases involving conditions that prevent " the creation of a valid marriage union " , such as fraud . Clergy are also barred from membership in secret societies .
The Assemblies also recognize a local church credential , which can be issued by a General Council affiliated church for those engaged only in local ministry , such as prison or hospital ministry . Local church credential holders may perform the ordinances of the church with the authorization of the issuing church 's senior pastor .
In 2008 , there were a total of 34 @,@ 178 Assemblies of God ministers ( excluding local church credentials ) . Of these , 11 @,@ 544 were senior pastors and 6 @,@ 730 were female .
= = Activities = =
= = = Missions = = =
A primary reason the General Council was formed in 1914 was to create cooperation in Pentecostal missionary work . Missions have remained a central focus of the denomination since that time . In 2009 , there were Assemblies of God churches in 213 countries and territories around the world . Missionary work outside of the United States is overseen by Assemblies of God World Missions . As of December 2009 , AG World Missions was reporting 2 @,@ 719 personnel worldwide . The agency also provides medical evangelism through HealthCare Ministries , founded in 1983 as the Medical Missions Program . This ministry provides free optical , dental , and medical care as well as evangelism . It has operated in 86 countries since its founding .
Missions in the United States are overseen by Assemblies of God U.S. Missions . Its seven departments include chaplaincy , Chi Alpha Campus Ministries , church planting , U.S. Mission America Placement Service ( MAPS ) , intercultural ministries , Teen Challenge , and Youth Alive . MAPS offers volunteers the opportunity to contribute to U.S. missions in several ways . One is through church construction and evangelism , and another is through short or long term missions through summer and missionary associate programs . Youth Alive oversees missionary outreach to elementary and high schools . In 2010 , U.S. Missions reported 1 @,@ 059 appointed missionaries , candidates , and spouses . The same year , it reported 542 endorsed chaplains .
= = = Ministries = = =
The following are some of the ministries and programs of the Assemblies of God USA :
Boys and Girls Missionary Challenge
Convoy of Hope
Marriage Encounter
Missionettes
Royal Rangers
Teen and Junior Bible Quiz
= = = Education = = =
In the United States , the Assemblies of God endorses 10 Bible colleges , 7 universities , and the Assemblies of God Theological Seminary . Enrollment for all AG endorsed colleges and universities was 15 @,@ 584 for 2013 .
Assemblies of God churches operate 842 Christian schools , which may have membership with the Association of Christian Teachers and Schools ( ACTS ) , incorporated as the Association of Assemblies of God Christian Schools in 1992 . In 2008 , there were 105 @,@ 563 students enrolled in these schools .
= = = Publishing = = =
The Assemblies of God operates Gospel Publishing House , located in Springfield , Missouri , which publishes books , curriculum , and church ministry resources primarily for Pentecostals and charismatics , but also for the general evangelical market . The Assemblies of God publishes an official weekly magazine , the Pentecostal Evangel , and Enrichment Journal , a resource for Pentecostal ministers .
= = Demographics = =
The Assemblies of God in the United States " has grown steadily during the 20th century " . In 1925 , there were just 50 @,@ 386 members in 909 churches , but by the early 1970s membership had reached 1 million . Its most rapid growth occurred from 1971 to 1984 , when the AG grew from a constituency of around 1 million to 2 million over a 13 @-@ year period . In 2011 , average Sunday morning worship attendance for all AG churches in the U.S. was 1 @,@ 872 @,@ 399 people . In the same year , the AG 's inclusive membership ( includes persons of any age that identify with the AG ) was 3 @,@ 041 @,@ 957 people attending 12 @,@ 595 churches . That is an increase of 0 @.@ 4 percent since 2010 .
The ethnic diversity of the American AG is increasing ; however , its constituency is still largely white . From 1990 to 2000 , there was a slight decline in white AG churches while ethnic churches , mainly Hispanic , were responsible for much of the denomination 's numerical growth . In 2010 , the AG reported 61 @.@ 1 percent of its adherents as white , 20 @.@ 4 percent as Hispanic , 9 @.@ 1 percent as black , 4 @.@ 1 percent as Asian / Pacific Islander , and 1 @.@ 6 percent as Native American . The remaining 3 @.@ 7 percent were listed as other / mixed .
The AG has created various non @-@ geographical language districts to serve immigrant communities whose primary language is not English . There are nine Spanish and two Korean language districts in addition to one each for Brazilian and German speakers . In 2009 , the language districts oversaw 2 @,@ 195 churches with a combined membership of 279 @,@ 422 .
Members are fairly well distributed across the United States . California has the largest number of members , followed by Texas and Florida . However , the states with the highest membership rates are Oklahoma , Arkansas , Alaska , Montana , and Hawaii . Growing AG congregations tend to be located in suburban areas , as opposed to urban and rural ones .
= = History = =
= = = Origin = = =
The Assemblies of God has roots in the Pentecostal revival in the early 20th century . The Pentecostal aspects of the revival were not generally welcomed by the established churches , and participants in the movement soon found themselves outside existing religious bodies . They were forced to seek their own places of worship , and soon there were hundreds of distinctly Pentecostal congregations .
After Charles Parham began promoting the idea that speaking in tongues was the initial evidence of the baptism in the Spirit around 1901 , he began to attract a considerable following which he organized loosely as the Apostolic Faith Movement ( AFM ) in 1906 . However , with the rise of the Azusa Street Revival in Los Angeles , California , and an accusation of sodomy against him in 1907 , he lost and never recovered his influence . After renouncing Parham , the severely weakened AFM regrouped around Howard A. Goss , L. C. Hall , D. C. O. Opperman , and A. G. Canada . They were later joined by Eudorus N. Bell , previously a Southern Baptist minister . The AFM had its strength in the rural areas of Kansas , Texas , Arkansas , Oklahoma , and Missouri .
In Pentecostalism 's early years , organizational affiliation was fluid , and many ministers of the AFM , which was a white organization , were also licensed by Charles Harrison Mason 's predominantly African @-@ American Church of God in Christ . In 1907 , Goss had received a license to preach from Mason 's group , and he claimed that Mason had given him permission to issue ministerial credentials under the Churches of God in Christ name for the " white work " . By 1910 , the name " Churches of God in Christ " was seen as a more biblical name and began to be preferred over " Apostolic Faith " .
The AFM played a leading role in organizing and institutionalizing Pentecostalism in the Midwest and Southwest and from 1909 – 1912 absorbed smaller Pentecostal groups . It also established relationships with Pentecostal missions in the Midwest . The Midwestern Pentecostal movement centered around the Stone Church , pastored by William Piper , and the North Avenue Mission , pastored by William Howard Durham , both in Chicago , Illinois . Durham was the lead promoter of the Finished Work doctrine which , in time , the AFM would adopt and in doing so discard the Wesleyan view of sanctification as a second work of grace .
Between 1906 and 1908 , the Pentecostal message had spread among Christian and Missionary Alliance ( CMA ) churches and conferences . At first , it was greeted positively by the CMA leadership , but the doctrine of initial evidence divided the organization . Former CMA Pentecostal congregations in the Midwest and Northeast were left without oversight and began associating with the Apostolic Faith Movement and the Chicago Pentecostal missions .
= = = Early history ( 1914 – 1929 ) = = =
= = = = General Council of 1914 = = = =
By 1914 , many white ministers nominally affiliated with the Church of God in Christ had become dissatisfied with the arrangement . AFM leaders Bell , Goss , Opperman , M. M. Pinson , and A. P. Collins issued the call for a general council to " Churches of God in Christ , and to all Pentecostal or Apostolic Faith Assemblies " . What resulted was a merger of the AFM , Chicago , and CMA Pentecostals in 1914 at Hot Springs , Arkansas . The 1st General Council was attended by predominantly white representatives from 20 states and missions in Egypt and South Africa . The fellowship that emerged was incorporated as the General Council of the Assemblies of God . Bell was elected the first general superintendent . Five major reasons were given for calling the meeting :
Create unity in doctrine and in identifying Pentecostal congregations .
Develop ways to conserve the work at home and abroad .
Develop a workable system for the support of missionaries .
Charter local churches under " one Bible name " .
Discuss the possibility of a Bible training school .
Other actions taken at the 1st General Council addressed women in ministry . The Pentecostals who founded the Assemblies of God had no objections to women being engaged in ministry . The Pentecostal belief in personal experience , Spirit baptism as empowerment for service , and the need for evangelists and missionaries encouraged women to be active in all types of ministry . What concerned some Pentecostal leaders , such as Bell , were women exercising independent authority over men . The council therefore approved of the granting of credentials to female evangelists and missionaries while restricting the office of pastor to men , and it was not until 1920 that female evangelists could vote at denominational meetings . By the fall of 1914 , out of 512 credential holders , 142 were female missionaries and evangelists .
After 1914 , the Church of God in Christ would become predominantly black and the Assemblies of God would remain predominantly white . However , there were African Americans involved in the early years of the Assemblies of God . The African @-@ American pastor Garfield Thomas Haywood , for example , pastored one of the largest churches and was an influential voice within the fellowship until he withdrew from the denomination after 1916 .
= = = = " New Issue " and doctrinal clarity = = = =
The founders of the fellowship did not intend to create a denomination and originally had no creed or doctrinal statement . However , in response to several doctrinal issues , the most important being the Oneness teaching , the AG felt the need for agreement on central doctrines and to reassure evangelical Christians of its adherence to orthodox belief . Oneness Pentecostalism rejected Trinitarian theology , instead identifying the Jehovah of the Old Testament with the Christ of the New . Furthermore , Oneness adherents believed that Christians , regardless of a previous baptism , should be baptized in the name of Jesus , rather than in the name of the Trinity . By 1915 , it was adhered to by many in the fellowship , including founders such as Goss , Opperman , Hall , and Henry G. Rodgers . Other influential leaders , such as G. T. Haywood , adopted the Oneness doctrine as well .
In 1916 , the 4th General Council met in St. Louis to resolve the " new issue " . In a move that caused not a little anxiety , a committee introduced the Statement of Fundamental Truths . Oneness proponents and others saw this as an attack on the authority of the Bible , yet it was adopted along with a recommendation that AG ministers use the Trinitarian baptismal formula . Old preaching credentials were recalled and new ones issued with the Fundamental Truths included . Oneness believers , including a third of the fellowship ’ s ministers , were forced to withdraw , a loss especially felt in the South where the Oneness doctrine had the most influence . A side effect of this was a transition in leadership from former Apostolic Faith leaders , many of whom accepted the Oneness teaching , to men with Christian and Missionary Alliance backgrounds . The Oneness dissenters formed the General Assembly of the Apostolic Churches , which later merged with another group to form the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World .
Among the Fundamental Truths was a statement regarding speaking in tongues as the initial physical evidence of Spirit baptism . Its inclusion was challenged by F.F. Bosworth , an executive presbyter , who argued that while for many speaking in tongues was an evidence of the baptism it was not the only evidence . The issue was decided at the General Council of September 1918 where Bosworth , who two months earlier had resigned so as not to damage the fellowship , was present and invited to address the council . Following debate two resolutions were passed which assured that initial evidence would remain an official teaching of the fellowship .
While doctrinal controversy led to the withdrawal of ministers , the fellowship experienced growth in subsequent years . District councils were organized in various regions of the country and , where these did not exist , home missionary fields were designated to maximize evangelistic efforts . In 1917 , W. Jethro Walthall led his Holiness Baptist Association of southwestern Arkansas into the Assemblies of God . District councils and missionary stations were established outside the U.S. also . By 1921 , there were districts in Canada ( see Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada ) , China , Japan ( see Japan Assemblies of God ) , India ( see Assemblies of God in India ) , and Egypt . Central Bible College was started in the basement of the Central Assembly of God church in Springfield , Missouri , in 1922 . In 1929 , the fellowship claimed 91 @,@ 981 members in 1 @,@ 612 churches .
= = = 1930 – 1979 = = =
= = = = Women and ethnic minorities = = = =
Despite Pentecostalism 's origins in a racially inclusive revival , it accommodated itself to America 's culture of racial segregation rather early . The Assemblies of God was no different . As early as 1915 , an executive presbyter wrote in an article for the Pentecostal Evangel that segregation was " ordained of God " ; however , it was not until 1939 that the General Presbytery enacted a policy prohibiting the ordination of African Americans to the ministry . Districts were still allowed to license African Americans to preach but only in the district where the license was issued . Black Pentecostals seeking ordination were referred to " one of the colored organizations " . This was especially true of the Church of God in Christ , which , despite the fact that it predates the Assemblies of God , was seen as a " younger sibling " . It was not until 1962 , under the leadership of General Superintendent Thomas F. Zimmerman , that the denomination finally began issuing ordinations without regard to race . Three years later the 1965 General Council adopted a resolution affirming civil rights and condemning racism and discrimination . By the 1970s , there was renewed focus on inner @-@ city evangelism and integrated urban efforts .
While blacks were excluded from the AG until the 1960s , the denomination 's work among Spanish @-@ speaking people has a long history , first sanctioned explicitly in 1918 . Hispanic outreach became independent of the Foreign Missions Department in 1929 when the first Latin American District was established . By the end of World War II , the AG 's Latin American constituency formed the largest Protestant presence among Hispanics in the United States . The AG also focused on major European immigrant populations , but as later generations assimilated into American culture , these separate European segments were absorbed into the regular geographic districts .
During the time when African Americans were barred from ordination , women began to receive greater opportunities for leadership . Women formed an important part of the Assemblies of God 's constituency , many being Sunday School workers and evangelists , most prominent being Aimee Semple McPherson ( who would later found the Foursquare Church ) . This made the issue of women 's place in the movement important in the 1930s . It was also recognized that many congregations who could not afford male pastors relied on women preachers . Despite the fact that opposition to female pastors had been regularly affirmed since 1914 , the office of pastor was opened to women in 1935 .
= = = = Relations with other denominations and renewal movements = = = =
Between the World Wars , the movement kept a relative isolation from other Pentecostal and evangelical groups , but after World War II , the AG started an approximation with Pentecostal groups overseas . Like the Federation of Pentecostal Churches in Germany and the Assemblies of God in Australia , at that time many national denominations came to affiliate with the U.S. fellowship . These partnerships would later develop into the World Assemblies of God Fellowship . As well as establishing fellowships in other nations , the AG also began to communicate with other U.S. churches . The Assemblies of God was a founding member of both the National Association of Evangelicals and the Pentecostal Fellowship of North America ( now Pentecostal / Charismatic Churches of North America ) .
In the 1950s , the AG was challenged by the Latter Rain Movement , which began among former members of the Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada , the AG 's Canadian counterpart , and quickly spread to the United States . The " New Order " as it was known was highly critical of denominations , such as the AG , and taught that the gifts of the Spirit are channeled through church elders and are given to others by the laying on of hands . However , the Assemblies of God and other classical Pentecostal groups maintained that the charismata are not personally received or imparted but are manifested as the Holy Spirit wills . In 1949 with a meeting of the General Council approaching , there were fears that the fellowship might split over the Latter Rain issue , but in the end , the General Council was united against what were seen as the excesses of the movement . A General Council resolution specified six errors which included : imparting , identifying , bestowing , or confirming gifts by prophecy and the laying on of hands . It also rejected the idea that the Church is built on present @-@ day apostles and prophets . The Latter Rain theology of no pre @-@ tribulation rapture and the manifested sons of God teaching were condemned as heresy . The Latter Rain and the Salvation / Healing Revival of the late 1940s and 50s would be a major influence on later renewal movements .
The affiliation of the Assemblies of God with the National Association of Evangelicals in 1942 signaled the AG 's alignment with evangelicalism and its opposition to mainline Protestantism and the ecumenical movement . The AG and its evangelical partners agreed on most issues and shared similar world views though the AG 's Pentecostal distinctives — Spirit baptism and the operation of spiritual gifts — were not embraced by most evangelical Christians . The AG 's response then to the charismatic movement that began in the 1960s was a cautious one , affirming the move of the Holy Spirit yet urging that all revival must be judged by scripture . For the first time , beliefs and practices which had largely remained confined to the classical Pentecostal denominations began to impact mainline Protestant and Roman Catholic churches on a large scale . The fact that this occurred in these churches ( which were historically seen by Pentecostals as suspect ) , the multifaceted nature of the movement owing to the many different traditions its participants came from , and the perception by Pentecostals that the movement was based too much on experience and not on biblical teaching led some in the Assemblies of God to see it in relation to the ecumenical movement .
The charismatic movement forced a reevaluation of what it was to be Pentecostal . The Assemblies of God understood Spirit baptism in the context of baptistic evangelical theology and , by the 1950s , emphasized certain doctrines and practices as requisite for Spirit baptism . Charismatics challenged these views by claiming to receive Holy Spirit baptism outside of this context ( such as remaining in liturgical churches , failing to reject sacramental theologies , and not adopting Pentecostal taboos on dancing , drinking , smoking , etc . ) . On the local level , Assemblies of God churches were influenced by the charismatic movement . Some charismatics left their original churches and joined less formal Assemblies of God congregations . In addition , the contemporary decreased emphasis on traditional Pentecostal taboos in the AG is in part attributable to the charismatic movement , which accelerated a trend already in existence .
= = = = Changing views on behavior , war and pacifism = = = =
Since their movement 's emergence early in the 20th century , Pentecostals saw themselves as " peculiar people " , and one of the components of this identity were particular prohibitions on behavior . Prohibitions on drug use , gambling , social dancing , consuming alcohol , smoking , attending theaters , bowling , swimming in public pools and beaches , owning television sets , and restrictions on feminine attire and fashion helped distinguish Pentecostals from the larger society . Starting in the 1950s , attitudes in the Assemblies of God on many of these activities underwent dramatic change . The most change probably occurred over views on women 's attire , with the former stance against wearing make @-@ up and jewelry giving way to the acceptance of popular fashion . Most of these " holiness standards " are no longer adhered to ; however , some are still held to , such as proscriptions on smoking , alcohol and drug use .
For much of its history , the Assemblies of God officially opposed Christian participation in war and was listed by The Pacifist Handbook as America 's third largest peace church in 1940 . The official position of the church until 1967 encouraged Christian nonviolence : " We . . . are nevertheless constrained to declare we cannot conscientiously participate in war and armed resistance which involves the actual destruction of human life , since this is contrary to our view of the clear teachings of the inspired Word of God " . Most of the founders and first generation members of the denomination held to this view , and it was presented as official teaching throughout World War I and World War II . The official pacifist position remained unchanged until 1967 when the denomination affirmed " the right of each member to choose whether to declare their position as a combatant , a noncombatant , or a conscientious objector " . This was the culmination of a process begun during World War I , when it was unpopular to hold antiwar views , in which AG adherents questioned their denomination 's pacifist stance .
= = = Recent history ( 1980 – present ) = = =
The Assemblies of God emerged as the leading Pentecostal denomination in terms of status , wealth , influence , and global adherence . In the 1980s , the Assemblies of God saw rapid growth in the US , for several years ranking as the fastest growing American denomination . This growth was mainly the result of its Hispanic outreach ( in 1988 Hispanic members made up some 15 percent of the fellowship 's total constituency ) . The growth of an Asian immigrant constituency was also recognized in this decade when the first Korean district was created . The Assemblies of God gained national visibility in the late 1980s from the popularity and later scandals surrounding two of its ministers , Jimmy Swaggert and Jim Bakker . The Assemblies of God launched an effort to increase evangelism and growth in the 1990s called the " Decade of Harvest " . Such efforts failed to sustain the impressive growth of the 1980s , however . From 2003 to 2008 , growth had slowed to an average annual increase of just over 1 percent .
With increased growth came increased acceptance and acculturation . Since the 1980s , a growing number of AG ministers have been educated and risen to leadership positions at evangelical institutions , such as Fuller Theological Seminary , Gordon @-@ Conwell , and Trinity Evangelical Divinity School . This " evangelicalization of the Assemblies of God " has led to the weakening of Pentecostal distinctives , especially the doctrine of initial evidence . Other traditional practices , such as holding prayer meetings and altar services , have faded over time as well . Despite the efforts of denominational leaders to reassert Pentecostal identity and remain more than " evangelicals plus tongues " , the process of acculturation has continued .
Even so , churches within the Assemblies of God have experienced revivals in the last two decades which featured worship and practices reminiscent of early Pentecostalism . The most prominent of these was the Brownsville Revival , which occurred at the Brownsville Assembly of God in Pensacola , Florida , from 1995 into the early 2000s . These revivals often faced criticism from within and without the Assemblies of God for their unpredictability and the dramatic religious experiences of participants . In the case of the Brownsville Revival , the AG 's national leadership gave it cautious approval and support .
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= And Then There Were Fewer =
" And Then There Were Fewer " is the first episode of the ninth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . This and most of the other season 9 episodes were produced for the eighth production season . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on September 26 , 2010 . The episode follows the citizens of Quahog after they are invited by actor James Woods to his stately mansion on a remote island . While there , a series of murders occurs , and the group struggles to determine who committed the mysterious acts , before ultimately attempting to escape from the island , and avoid being murdered themselves . The name of the episode is a parody of Agatha Christie 's murder mystery , And Then There Were None .
The episode was written by Cherry Chevapravatdumrong and directed by Dominic Polcino . It received high acclaim from critics , who praised its storyline and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 9 @.@ 41 million homes in its original airing . The episode features guest performances by Drew Barrymore , H. Jon Benjamin , Max Burkholder , Colin Ford , Patrick Stewart , Ashley Tisdale and James Woods , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . It was the first Family Guy episode to air in 720p high definition . The episode was nominated for Outstanding Music Composition for a Series at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards . " And Then There Were Fewer " was released on DVD along with two other episodes from the season on December 13 , 2011 . The show confirmed afterwards that it was part of the show 's " real " canon and those characters that died ( i.e. Diane Simmons , Muriel Goldman etc . ) would not be brought back in the future . However , James Woods is seen in the thirteenth episode of season 10 , " Tom Tucker : The Man and His Dream " , in which he tells Peter and Tom that paramedics brought him to a secret science lab made for celebrities and revived him . In the same episode , he hires Peter as his agent after he fired Tucker , but later also fires Peter .
= = Plot = =
The Griffin family , Joe , Quagmire , and other residents of Quahog are sent an anonymous letter inviting them to a party in each of their honor . When they get to the address , they find that they are at the isolated island mansion of James Woods , who wants to make amends with them for his various wrongdoings . While they are having a drink , Woods explains he has become a born @-@ again Christian with the help of his new girlfriend , Priscilla . When he and Priscilla leave to check on dinner , Quagmire 's girlfriend Stephanie sits in Woods ' chair and is mysteriously shot to death . The guests panic , believing Woods intends to kill them all . They attempt to leave , but lightning causes a tree to fall across the bridge , the only way off the island . When Woods returns , the guests accuse him of Stephanie 's murder , which he denies . A sudden blackout occurs , and when the lights come back on , Woods has been stabbed to death with one of the dinner knives . Priscilla faints and is laid on a couch , while Stephanie 's body is found missing . The guests discover none of them can get reception to call for help from their cellphones .
While the guests search for more clues , a plate suddenly smashes , revealing a gun with a silencer connected to a timer . The gun was pointed toward Woods ' chair , indicating that Stephanie was killed accidentally . Tension ensues , with many of the guests blaming each other for the murder ; however , they all have motives for killing Woods . Mort 's wife Muriel disappears after it is discovered that she was providing Woods with prescription Oxycotin from her husband 's pharmacy and was being blackmailed by Woods when she got suspicious , causing everyone to then suspect her as the killer .
After Joe passes out , seeing as it was his fault , Peter organizes several groups to investigate different parts of the mansion . Brian and Stewie hear a scream and discover Muriel dead , having been stabbed in the back . The guests reunite and discover Priscilla missing from the couch where she was laid . Jillian Russell 's husband Derek points out that he is getting a very faint signal on his cellphone and goes to a balcony to get better reception so he can all the police . As he dials the police , he is murdered and sent over the veranda . Dr. Hartman points out a skull fracture on Derek 's forehead , indicating that he was killed with a blunt object before the fall . Consuela points out that one of Woods ' Golden Globe Awards is missing and the group assumes it was used to kill Derek . The group searches the guestrooms and finds the bloodstained award in Tom Tucker 's room . Tom denies murdering anyone and suggests that Priscilla planted the award there to frame him since she was the only one not there the entire time during the murders . However , Priscilla 's dead body is discovered inside the ventilation shaft over Tom 's room shortly after . He is implicated as the murderer and apprehended after a short chase .
The next day , Tom is arrested by the police . Workmen repair the damaged bridge , allowing the guests to return home . Lois goes to comfort Diane over the arrest of her coworker , but a comment Diane makes about her mother packing a blouse for her first solo broadcast — something she could not have known about unless she knew what was going to happen — causes Lois to realize that Diane is the real killer . Diane reveals that she once dated Woods until he dumped her on her fortieth birthday , during which Tom arranged for Diane to be replaced by an attractive younger news anchor . Seeking revenge , Diane bribed Priscilla , a news intern at the time , to talk Woods into becoming a born @-@ again Christian and throw the dinner party so she could get revenge on both men by killing Woods and framing Tom for it .
Diane was forced to kill the other guests after her plan went awry upon Stephanie 's accidental death . During the power outage , she stabbed Woods , and Priscilla woke up while she was removing the knife , so Diane killed her . While hiding Priscilla 's body and planting the knife used to kill James Woods in Tom 's briefcase , Muriel saw her and Diane was forced to kill her as well . Diane had no choice but to leave the knife in Muriel 's back because the guests were alerted and quickly rushing to the scene due to the latter 's scream , but not before she wiped her fingerprints off . Diane then killed Derek to stop the police from arriving too soon , as she did not have enough evidence to frame Tom . Lois is still unsure of what happened to Stephanie 's body , to which Diane responds that it is the only thing she has no knowledge of ( it is revealed Quagmire stowed Stephanie 's corpse in the trunk of his car to take home for sexual gratification ) . Diane takes Lois outside at gunpoint , intending to shoot her . Suddenly , Diane is shot , loses her balance , and falls down a cliff . Lois shouts her thanks to the unknown shooter before joining the other guests as they prepare to leave . It is then revealed that the shooter is Stewie , who proclaims , " If anybody 's gonna take that bitch down , it 's gonna be me . " , showing that he still is intent on killing Lois .
= = Production and development = =
The episode was first announced at the 2009 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International in San Diego , California , on July 25 , 2009 , by series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane . It was directed by series regular Dominic Polcino and written by series regular Cherry Chevapravatdumrong shortly after the conclusion of the eighth production season , which completed its airing on television on June 20 , 2010 . The episode takes its title from the Agatha Christie novel And Then There Were None , and was largely based on the 1985 comedy film Clue . Series regulars Peter Shin and James Purdum served as supervising director , with Andrew Goldberg , Alex Carter , Elaine Ko and Spencer Porter serving as staff writers for the episode . Composer Walter Murphy , who has worked on the series since its inception , returned to compose the music for " And Then There Were Fewer " . " And Then There Were Fewer " was the first episode of Family Guy to be broadcast in high @-@ definition , with series showrunners Mark Hentemann and Steve Callaghan overseeing the transition .
The episode was dedicated to series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane 's mother , Ann Perry MacFarlane , following her death from cancer on July 16 , 2010 . The original idea of the episode was sent to series showrunner and executive producer Mark Hentemann in a text from Seth MacFarlane simply stating " murder mystery . "
" And Then There Were Fewer " , along with the two other episodes from Family Guy 's ninth season , was released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on December 13 , 2011 . The sets include brief audio commentaries by various crew and cast members for several episodes , a collection of deleted scenes and animatics , a special mini @-@ feature which discussed the process behind animating " And Then There Were Fewer " , a mini @-@ feature entitled " The Comical Adventures of Family Guy – Brian & Stewie : The Lost Phone Call " , and footage of the Family Guy panel at the 2010 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International .
In addition to the regular cast , actress Drew Barrymore reprised her role as Jillian Russell , the former girlfriend of Brian ; actor James Woods , in his fifth appearance in the series , reprised his role as the overly exaggerated version of himself ; actress Ashley Tisdale ( who is known for playing Candace Flynn on Disney Channel 's Phineas and Ferb , the show created by Family Guy alumnus Dan Povenmire ) made her first official appearance on Family Guy as James Woods 's girlfriend , Priscilla ; and voice actor H. Jon Benjamin reprised his role as Quahog Market owner Carl . Additionally , actors Max Burkholder , Colin Ford and Patrick Stewart also guest starred in the episode in minor roles . Recurring guest voice actors Lori Alan , John G. Brennan , Nicole Sullivan , Jennifer Tilly , and John Viener reprised their roles as news reporter Diane Simmons , Quahog pharmacist Mort Goldman , Muriel Goldman , Griffin family neighbor Bonnie Swanson , and Jillian 's husband , Derek Wilcox , respectively . A minor appearance was also made by Family Guy writer and regular voice artist Danny Smith .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode borrows heavily from the 1985 comedy film Clue , which itself was based on the 1976 comedy film Murder by Death , and is largely based upon the 1939 Agatha Christie novel And Then There Were None . In the opening scene of the episode , once the Griffin family arrives at the mansion , Lois remarks on the estate 's beauty , wondering if television host Jeff Probst has a similar home . As they walk into the mansion , Sir John Everett Millais 's Ophelia is seen . As dinner commences , Carl begins conversing with Tom Tucker , and discusses the plot of the 1986 fantasy film Labyrinth , directed by Jim Henson .
After Tucker is accused of murdering James Woods , he reveals that Woods talked him out of auditioning for the lead role in the 1984 hit horror film A Nightmare on Elm Street . The finger is then pointed at Mayor West , who tells the group of his hardships on the social networking service Twitter , after Woods stole his originally intended username . Diane Simmons also goes on to state that Woods had promised to introduce her to former CBS news anchor Dan Rather , but ultimately ended up introducing her to actor and comedian Danny Bonaduce instead .
In the extended DVD release , Carl mentions No Way Out , Hard Rain and Days of Thunder .
While searching for Muriel Goldman throughout the mansion , Brian and Stewie begin humming and singing the theme song to several television shows , including the CBS science fiction series Lost in Space , the CBS sitcom The Dick Van Dyke Show , and the ABC soap opera Dynasty . After discovering the Golden Globe Award underneath Tom Tucker 's bed , Tucker begins to profess his innocence , with Peter then instructing him to " tell it to Mike Judge . "
In the scene where Diane tells Lois her conspiracy , Picasso 's painting Le Rêve can be seen on the wall behind Diane .
= = Reception = =
" And Then There Were Fewer " was broadcast on September 26 , 2010 , as a part of an animated television night on Fox , and was preceded by the season premiere of The Simpsons , and Family Guy creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane 's spin @-@ off , The Cleveland Show . It was watched by 8 @.@ 85 million viewers in its first half @-@ hour , and concluded with a total 9 @.@ 41 million viewers in its second half @-@ hour , according to Nielsen ratings , despite airing simultaneously with the season premiere of Desperate Housewives on ABC , the season premiere of The Amazing Race on CBS and Sunday Night Football on NBC . The episode also acquired a 4 @.@ 3 and 4 @.@ 7 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , beating The Simpsons and The Cleveland Show in addition to significantly edging out both shows in total viewership . The episode 's ratings were Family Guy 's highest since the airing of the season eight episode " Family Goy " .
" And Then There Were Fewer " received widespread acclaim from critics and viewers , with one critic calling the storyline " solidly funny , well @-@ plotted , and nearly perfectly executed . " In a simultaneous review of the episodes of The Simpsons and The Cleveland Show that preceded the episode , The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff commented that he enjoyed " the ' a bunch of people go to an isolated place and start getting killed ' murder mystery subgenre " , and that the episode " made fun of the conceits of the genre " . In the conclusion of his review VanDerWerff called the episode " excellent and fun , " and " full of surprisingly gorgeous animation and a nicely creepy feel that hung over all of the jokes " and rated it as a B + , the best rating between The Simpsons episode " Elementary School Musical " and The Cleveland Show episode " Harder , Better , Faster , Browner " . Jason Hughes of TV Squad also praised the episode 's writers for doing a " solid job of creating a genuine mystery throughout the hour , keeping us guessing as to who did it and what their motive may have been . " Hughes went on to comment positively on the episode 's numerous guest stars , and compared its portrayal of Diane Simmons to that of The Simpsons character Sideshow Bob . Natalie Zutter of Ology also praised the episode , calling it , " Surprisingly , the best of the evening . " In the summary of her review , Zutter wrote that it was a " fun murder mystery that lets us see all our favorite Quahog folks , " while continuing to wonder whether the characters who were killed off would remain dead .
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= Caldas da Rainha =
Caldas da Rainha ( Portuguese pronunciation : [ ˈkaɫdɐʒ ðɐ ʁɐˈiɲɐ ] ) is a medium @-@ sized city in western central Portugal in the historical province of Estremadura and the district of Leiria . The city serves as the seat of the larger municipality of the same name and of the Comunidade Intermunicipal do Oeste ( OesteCIM , Intermunicipal Community of the West ) . At the 2011 census , the municipality had a population of 51 @,@ 729 in an area of 255 @.@ 69 square kilometres ( 98 @.@ 72 sq mi ) , with 27 @,@ 378 residing in the city . Although the city itself lies about 10 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 5 mi ) inland , three of the municipality 's civil parishes lie on the Atlantic Ocean . Caldas da Rainha is best known for its sulphurous hot springs and ceramic pottery .
The settlement was founded in the 15th century by Queen Leonor ( Rainha Dona Leonor ) , who established a hospital and a church at the site of some therapeutic hot springs . The Hospital Termal Rainha D. Leonor ( Queen Leonor Spring Water Hospital , or Thermal Hospital ) is the oldest purpose @-@ built institution of its kind in the world , with five centuries of history . The city 's name , often shortened to simply " Caldas " , can be translated as " Queen 's Hot Springs " , " Queen 's Spa " , or " Queen 's Baths " .
Caldas da Rainha is home to many cultural institutions . The city 's nine museums cover art , history , and cycling . Cultural and sports venues include Centro Cultural e de Congressos ( CCC , Cultural and Conference Centre ) , a centre for performing arts , exhibitions , and conferences ; Expoeste – Centro de Exposições do Oeste ( Exhibition Centre of the West ) , which hosts exhibitions and festivals ; a bullring ; several football ( soccer ) pitches ; and a multi @-@ sport municipal complex . Caldas hosts six professional and higher @-@ educational institutions , including a major arts and design school and a school devoted to ceramics . In 2014 Caldas da Rainha had the best public secondary school in Portugal based on national test scores .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
Caldas da Rainha was part of the ancient region Lusitania , inhabited by ancient Romans who took advantage of sulphurous waters sprouting in the region . Barbarian invasions destroyed most of the Roman @-@ built baths . By the 13th century , the springs were known as " caldas de Óbidos " , after the nearby town . At this time , a Benedictine order looked after the needs of the poor and cared for the lepers and rheumatics , who sought the healing waters . With the disbandment of the order by the 15th century , the area fell into disrepair .
Queen Leonor ( Rainha Dona Leonor , in Portuguese ) , the wife of King João II , is credited as the founder of Caldas da Rainha . One day in 1484 , while traveling from Óbidos to Batalha , she happened upon a group of peasants bathing in foul @-@ smelling waters by the roadside . The queen stopped to inquire about this oddity , and the bathers told her that the waters possessed curative powers . She decided to try them and was pleased to find that she was quickly relieved of an unknown affliction that she had been suffering . On that site , the queen ordered a hospital built so that others could enjoy the same relief . Construction began the following year , and although the first patients were admitted in 1488 , the works were not completed until about 1496 or 1497 . To finance the hospital and its adjoining church , the queen sold her jewels and used income from her landholdings . The name of the settlement that grew around the site and became Caldas da Rainha refers to both its founder and the reason for its existence . The city 's name can be translated as " Queen 's Hot Springs " , " Queen 's Spa " , or " Queen 's Baths " . The settlement 's waters remain its major claim to fame .
On 21 March 1511 , King Manuel I , brother of Queen Leonor , conferred the status of town ( vila ) upon Caldas da Rainha . In 1821 , it was made a municipality ( concelho or município ) .
= = = Twentieth century = = =
In 1901 and 1902 , Caldas da Rainha welcomed 350 Boer men , women , and children who sought refuge from the ravages of the Second Boer War in their South African homeland . Initially housed in the thermal hospital , the refugees were transferred to the park pavilions at the onset of the bathing season . Some rented rooms in town , marveling at the low rates .
During World War I , in which Portugal joined the Allies , Caldas had one of three internment camps in the country . In 1916 , most Germans in Portugal were deported , but men aged 15 – 45 were imprisoned to prevent their joining the German military . Originally , all of the approximately 700 prisoners were shipped to Angra do Heroísmo , on Terceira Island in the Azores , where they were held at the Fortress of São João Baptista . In 1918 , to reduce overcrowding at the fortress , 168 internees were moved to Caldas , where they stayed in military barracks located at the Parque D. Carlos I ( Pavilhões do Parque ) . The prisoners were released the following year , after the end of the war .
On 26 April 1919 , President João do Canto e Castro granted the town the title of Dame of the Military Order of the Tower and of the Sword , of Valour , Loyalty and Merit ( Ordem Militar da Torre e Espada do Valor , Lealdade e Mérito ) . Unlike other places similarly honoured , Caldas did not add the honour 's collar to its coat of arms . The town was elevated to the status of city ( cidade ) in August 1927 .
During World War II , in which Portugal remained neutral , hundreds of Jewish refugees came to Caldas da Rainha to escape Nazism . Caldas also served as home to British and American airmen who landed or crashed in Portugal or off its coast . In January 1943 , 230 Britons resident in Axis power Italy were evacuated to Caldas , where they were expected to stay until the end of the war . Most of these evacuees were over 65 years of age and had resided in Italy for a long time .
In a prelude to the Carnation Revolution , in the early morning of 16 March 1974 , the Fifth Infantry Regiment ( Regimento de Infantaria 5 ) , based in Caldas da Rainha in what is now the School of Army Sergeants ( Escola de Sargentos do Exército ) , attempted to stage a coup d 'état against the country 's authoritarian Estado Novo regime . Thirty officers and about 300 sergeants and enlisted men from the regiment left their quarters at 4 : 00 a.m. , heading for Lisbon , where they planned to occupy the airport . On approaching the capital , the Caldas regiment found themselves alone , realizing that the other units supposed to participate in the coup had not joined the upheaval . The regiment turned back and reached their Caldas quarters at around 10 : 00 a.m. , locking themselves in and awaiting a siege . The compound was surrounded by various forces , which penetrated the base at about 5 : 00 p.m. The revolters were arrested and sent to various military prisons , where they were held until the Carnation Revolution on 25 April 1974 , 40 days later .
= = = Symbols = = =
Caldas da Rainha 's coat of arms was granted by Queen Leonor , before municipal coats of arms were typically used in Portugal . The centre of the city 's arms consist of the queen 's personal arms , flanked on the right by a shrimping net , to commemorate the fishermen who rescued her drowning son Prince Afonso , and on the left a pelican feeding its young , a symbol of her husband , King João II . Because of its early introduction , several elements of the arms violate Portuguese heraldic standards . The municipal flag consists of the coat of arms on a purple and yellow gyronny .
The municipality adopted a logo for marketing purposes , to project an image of " relevant historical tradition " , " current dynamism " , and " enormous potential in culture , economy , commerce , and tourism " . The logo shows a stylised outline of Queen Leonor 's crowned head in blue tones , representing the city 's historical connection with water . Below the queen 's image , the municipality 's name appears in all caps in Eras Light . Below this " Câmara Municipal " is written in Gill Sans .
= = Geography = =
Caldas da Rainha , often shortened to just " Caldas " , is located in western central Portugal at 39 ° 24 ′ 26 ″ N 9 ° 8 ′ 9 ″ W. The city lies approximately 76 kilometres ( 47 mi ) as the crow flies , or 91 kilometres ( 57 mi ) by the A8 motorway , north of the Portuguese capital , Lisbon . Although three of the municipality 's civil parishes — Foz do Arelho , Salir do Porto , and Serra do Bouro — lie on the Atlantic Ocean , the city proper lies about 10 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 5 mi ) from the ocean via the N360 road to Foz do Arelho .
The municipality of Caldas da Rainha comprises an area of 255 @.@ 69 square kilometres ( 98 @.@ 72 sq mi ) . The municipality extends 24 kilometres ( 15 mi ) north to south and 22 kilometres ( 14 mi ) east to west . The perimeter measures 106 kilometres ( 66 mi ) . At its lowest point , the municipality lies at sea level , and its highest point reaches 255 metres ( 837 ft ) . The municipality is bordered to the north by Alcobaça , to the east by Rio Maior , and to the south by Bombarral , Cadaval , and Óbidos .
Caldas da Rainha is the seat of the Comunidade Intermunicipal do Oeste ( OesteCIM , Intermunicipal Community of the West ) . For statistical purposes , Caldas is in the NUTS III Oeste ( West ) subregion — coterminous with OesteCIM — within the NUTS II Centro ( Centre ) region , which is part of the NUTS I division called Continente ( Continental , or Mainland , Portugal ) . The municipality is part of the Comissão de Coordenação e Desenvolvimento Regional de Lisboa e Vale do Tejo ( CCDR LVT , Regional Commission for Coordination and Development of Lisbon and Tagus Valley ) . Caldas da Rainha belongs to the historical province of Estremadura and to the district of Leiria . In the Roman Catholic Church , the parish of Caldas da Rainha belongs to the Caldas da Rainha - Peniche vicariate of the Patriarchate of Lisbon .
Along with the rest of Continental Portugal , Caldas da Rainha is in the Western European time zone ( UTC ± 00 : 00 ) , observing Western European Summer Time ( UTC + 01 : 00 ) from late March to late October . The postal code for Caldas da Rainha is 2500 , and its telephone area code is 262 .
= = = Freguesias ( Civil Parishes ) = = =
Caldas da Rainha has 12 freguesias ( civil parishes ) . Before 29 January 2013 , Caldas had 16 civil parishes . On that date , a law came into effect causing the number of civil parishes throughout the country to be reduced . Seven of the municipality 's civil parishes were combined into three new " unions of civil parishes " ( uniões de freguesias , singular : união de freguesias ) . Nine civil parishes remained unchanged , except for minor border adjustments to ensure the contiguity of the new unions .
Before the 2013 administrative reorganisation , the seven aggregated civil parishes had the following populations and areas , based on the 2011 census :
According to the Instituto Nacional de Estatística ( National Institute of Statistics , or Statistics Portugal ) , the city of Caldas da Rainha contains the entirety of Santo Onofre , most of Nossa Senhora do Pópulo ( excluding the settlements of Lagoa Parceira , Imaginário , and Casal do Tanqueirão ) and the southernmost portion of Tornada , but the municipal assembly does not accept any portion of Tornada as part of the city . Nossa Senhora do Pópulo and Santo Onofre are separated by the Linha do Oeste ( Western Line ) railway line , as specified in the 1984 law ( effective 1 January 1985 ) that carved Santo Onofre out of the civil parish that was called Caldas da Rainha at that time .
= = = Neighbourhoods = = =
The city of Caldas da Rainha has several named neighbourhoods ( bairros ) . Centro ( City Centre ) , in the middle of Nossa Senhora do Pópulo , is the heart of the city . Most of Caldas da Rainha 's shops , eateries , businesses , services , government , and transportation are concentrated here . Public squares in the city centre include Praça da República ( Republic Square ) and Praça 5 de Outubro ( 5 October Square ) . Zona Histórica ( Historic Zone ) , in Nossa Senhora do Pópulo adjacent to the city centre , is the oldest part of the city . The neighbourhood includes the thermal hospital , Igreja de Nossa Senhora do Pópulo ( Church of Our Lady of the Populace ) , and Parque D. Carlos I ( King Charles I Park ) .
Bairro Azul ( Blue Neighbourhood ) , west of the city centre in Nossa Senhora do Pópulo , was named for its many blue @-@ tiled buildings . The neighbourhood is home the city 's silos , formerly used for storing grain , now a centre for innovative start @-@ ups . Bairro Azul has several shops , restaurants , drinking establishments , and services . Bairro Avenal , south of Parque D. Carlos I in Nossa Senhora do Pópulo , is a residential area that includes some mansions . The neighbourhood is home to the ceramics museum and the multi @-@ museum arts centre . Avenal contains some eating and drinking establishments . Bairro da Encosta do Sol ( Sun Hill Neighbourhood ) , east of the city centre in Nossa Senhora do Pópulo , is a residential area with a few businesses . The hospital lies at the edge of the neighbourhood .
Bairro Além da Ponte ( Beyond the Bridge Neighbourhood ; commonly called Bairro da Ponte , or Bridge 's Neighbourhood ) , in the centre of Santo Onofre , lies west of the railroad tracks that divide the city 's two civil parishes . The neighbourhood developed during the late 19th century and was home to many of the city 's ceramics workers . Bairro Cidade Nova ( New City Neighbourhood ) , in the northern area of Santo Onofre , while mostly residential , is home to Expoeste , the largest exhibition centre in Caldas da Rainha . The neighbourhood is home to a few businesses . Bairro das Morenas ( Morenas Neighbourhood , literally " brunettes " or " dark @-@ skinned " ) , in the southern area of Santo Onofre , was originally built for social housing , but now includes other homes . Bairro dos Arneiros ( Arneiros Neighbourhood , literally " sandy area " ) , in the western part of Santo Onofre , started out as a social housing estate comprising 96 flats , spread among six four @-@ storey buildings , with four flats per floor . The edifices , built in two phases in 1998 and 1990 , are predominantly white , each with a different colour trim . The neighbourhood has grown beyond the initial development and now has numerous businesses .
= = = Climate = = =
Caldas da Rainha has a warm @-@ summer Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification Csb ) .
= = Demographics = =
Between the 2001 and the 2011 censuses , the population of the municipality increased 5 @.@ 90 % from 48 @,@ 846 residents to 51 @,@ 729 . Females made up 52 @.@ 63 % of the population , and males accounted for 47 @.@ 37 % . The population density was 202 @.@ 3 inhabitants per square kilometre ( 524 / sq mi ) . The 2011 census found that the municipality contained 20 @,@ 598 families , with an average of 2 @.@ 5 people per family . The municipality had 19 @,@ 202 buildings and 31 @,@ 063 dwellings . The population of the statistical city grew from 25 @,@ 316 residents in 2001 to 27 @,@ 378 in 2011 , an increase of 8 @.@ 1 % . A resident of Caldas da Rainha is a caldense ( plural : caldenses ) .
= = Government = =
The Câmara Municipal ( city council , literally " municipal chamber " ) is the executive body of municipal government . The council is led by a president ( presidente da câmara municipal , the mayor ) and has six other members ( vereadores , or councilors ) , as required by Portuguese law based on the number of registered voters in the municipality . Fernando Manuel Tinta Ferreira ( PSD ) serves as president of the council , and Hugo Patrício Martinho de Oliveira ( PSD ) serves as vice president . The other members are : Maria da Conceição Jardim Pereira ( PSD ) , Alberto Pereira ( PSD ) , Jorge Sobral ( PS ) , Rui Correia ( PS ) , and Manuel Isaac ( CDS – PP ) . Fernando José da Costa , the prior mayor , now serves as a member of the city council of Loures , a suburb of Lisbon .
The Assembleia Municipal ( municipal assembly ) is the deliberative body of municipal government . The assembly has 33 members . The presidents of each of the 12 juntas de freguesia ( civil parish councils ) serve on the assembly . Directly elected members of the assembly number 21 , triple the number of members on the city council , the minimum required by Portuguese law . Luís Manuel Pereira Monteiro Ribeiro is president of the assembly . Vasco da Cruz Antunes de Oliveira serves as the first secretary , and Maria João dos Santos Ribeiro Querido serves as the second secretary .
In addition to the junta de freguesia as its executive body , each civil parish has an assembleia de freguesia ( civil parish assembly ) as its deliberative body . Each body is led by a president , the presidente da junta de freguesia and the presidente da assembleia de freguesia , respectively .
Caldas da Rainha is twinned with the following places :
Poços de Caldas , Minas Gerais , Brazil , since 2001
Huambo , Angola , since 1 May 2007
The municipality has intentions of twinning with the following places :
Cambo @-@ les @-@ Bains , France
Badajoz , Spain
Coria , Spain
Dinant , Belgium
Le Raincy , France
Lubango , Angola
Perth Amboy , New Jersey , United States
Ribeira Grande , Cape Verde
= = Economy = =
= = = Commerce = = =
Caldas da Rainha has about 600 commercial establishments and calls itself Capital do Comércio Tradicional ( capital of traditional commerce ) . The city 's downtown / city centre ( centro ) shopping area contains shops specializing in clothing , jewellry , beauty supplies , decoration , housewares , and other goods . The main shopping streets include Rua dos Heróis da Grande Guerra , Rua Almirante Cândido dos Reis ( popularly known as Rua das Montras , Street of Storefronts ) , Rua Doutor Miguel Bombarda , Rua da Liberdade , and surrounding streets . Praça da Republica ( Republic Square ) , popularly known as Praça da Fruta ( Fruit Square ) , hosts an outdoor farmers ' market every morning . A weekly market selling cheap clothing and domestic items is held on Mondays uphill from the square . Several small indoor shopping centres , most with only a few shops , exist throughout the city . The Associação Comercial dos Concelhos das Caldas da Rainha e Óbidos ( ACCCRO , Commercial Association of the Municipalities of Caldas da Rainha and Óbidos ) , founded in 1902 , promotes and supports commercial and service businesses in Caldas da Rainha and neighboring Óbidos .
Several international chains have locations in Caldas da Rainha , including Benetton , Bershka , Claire 's , Kiddy 's Class , Mango , McDonald 's , Oysho , Pull and Bear , Staples , and Stradivarius . Caldas has several supermarkets and hypermarkets , including Aldi , Continente Modelo , E.Leclerc , Lidl , Meu Super , Minipreço ( two locations ) , Pão de Açúcar , and Pingo Doce ( three locations ) .
Vivaci Caldas da Rainha , opened in November 2008 next to the rebuilt Hotel Lisbonense , is the first large shopping centre in Caldas . Vivaci 's four floors contain sixty stores and services , including fourteen restaurants , a five @-@ screen movie theater , and a supermarket . The CaldasShopping building , opened in December 2008 at the intersection of Rua Dr. Miguel Bombarda and Rua Raul Proença , has space for about forty shops , indoor and outdoor esplanades seating 200 to 250 , offices , and thirteen apartments . The Centro Bordalo shopping centre — to be built across the street from and connected by a pedestrian bridge to the existing Continente Modelo hypermarket — was originally scheduled to open in 2010 with 95 stores and 1 @,@ 100 parking spaces . Developer Sonae Sierra planned to invest 56 million euros in the 24 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 260 @,@ 000 sq ft ) centre , but the financial crisis of 2007 – 08 caused postponement of the project .
= = = Statistics = = =
Caldas da Rainha has ten lodging establishments , six of which are hotels ( one 4 @-@ star , three 3 @-@ star , and two 2 @-@ star ) , and four of which are guest houses ( pensões ) . Lodging capacity totals 948 , with 790 in the hotels and 158 at the guest houses . In 2012 , there were 25 banks in the municipality .
Average monthly earnings in the municipality is € 894 @.@ 81 according to 2011 data . Nova Serviços , with 1 @,@ 504 employees , is the largest employer in Caldas and the second largest in the district of Leiria . Schaeffler Portugal , with 387 employees , is the second largest employer in Caldas and tenth largest in the district . Caldas counts three firms among the district 's top fifty exporters : Schaeffler Portugal ( 5th ) , Promol ( 22nd ) , and Sotrapex ( 24th ) .
Based on 2012 sales volume , Caldas has 17 of the 250 largest business firms in the district of Leiria :
Sotrapex – T. Rod . , Exp / Imp. de Cereais , Lda ( 9th )
A Júlio ( 15th )
Schaeffler Portugal , S.A. ( 17th )
Tabaqueira BEL ( 25th )
Thomaz dos Santos ( 46th )
Plural II – Distribuidora Farmacêutica , Lda ( 84th )
Promol – Indústria de Velas , S.A. ( 88th )
Franco & Filhos – Com. de Gado por Grosso , Lda ( 132nd )
Nova Serviços , Lda ( 154th )
LFG – Com. de Veículos e Combustíveis , Lda ( 163rd )
Monte da Balaia – Construções , Lda ( 175th )
Rações Avenal , S.A. ( 184th )
Becosa – Com e Dist. de Bebidas , S.A. ( 201st )
Frigosto – Ind . Transf . Prep . Prod . Cong . , Lda ( 202nd )
Sociedade Avícola Avarela , Lda ( 218th )
PetroCaldas – Comércio de Combustíveis , Lda ( 241st )
Alberto Pereira , Lda ( 245th )
= = Arts and culture = =
= = = Institutions = = =
The Centro Cultural e de Congressos ( CCC , Cultural and Conference Centre ) , inaugurated on 15 May 2008 by President Aníbal Cavaco Silva and Mayor Fernando José da Costa , is a cultural , performing arts , and conference centre that hosts music , theatre , dance , and cinema , as well as various expositions ( expos ) and conferences . Expoeste - Centro de Exposições do Oeste ( Exhibition Centre of the West ) , is an indoor event space . The centre hosts various events , including bridal expos , seasonal festivals , fruit expos , car shows , and animal shows . During the annual Expotur - Festa de Verão ( Summer Party ) , popularly called " tasquinhas " , which takes place over the span of about week and a half at the beginning of August , food from each of the civil parishes is available for purchase and on @-@ site consumption .
Caldas da Rainha has nine museums , covering ceramic art , painting , sculpture , local history , and cycling . The Centro de Artes ( Arts Centre ) , a multi @-@ building complex hosts three museums of sculpture : the Museu @-@ Atelier António Duarte , the Museu @-@ Atelier João Fragoso , and the Museu Barata Feyo . The arts centre contains the Pavilhão de Ateliers ( Studios Pavilion ) — providing workspace and residence for active artists — and O Espaço da Concas , exhibiting the paintings of Maria da Conceição Nunes , known as Concas . The Arts Centre hosts the biennial SIMPPETRA – International Stone Sculpture Symposium , with the resulting works being permanently displayed outdoors throughout the municipality . The Museu de Cerâmica ( Museum of Ceramics ) , in an old manor house , exhibits ceramic pieces from Caldas , from throughout Portugal , and from international sources . Casa Museu de São Rafael concentrates on the ceramic creations of Rafael Bordalo Pinheiro 's factory . The Museu do Hospital e das Caldas ( Museum of the Hospital and of Caldas ) , installed in the Caza Real ( royal house ) where Queen Leonor stayed during her visits to Caldas , features exhibits related to the thermal hospital and the city . The Museu de José Malhoa , in the middle of Parque D. Carlos I , displays paintings by the namesake artist and his contemporaries , as well as sculptures and ceramics . The museum building was declared a property of public interest ( imóvel de interesse público , IIP ) in 2002 . The Museu do Ciclismo ( Museum of Cycling ) , opened in 1999 and sited in an Art Nouveau building on Rua de Camões across from Parque D. Carlos I , contains exhibits on the history of cycling and bicycles .
= = = Traditions = = =
Caldas da Rainha is well known for its glazed ceramic pottery ( louça das Caldas ) . The New York Times has called Caldas " [ t ] he capital of Portuguese pottery " . The city is at " the center of a region rich in clay " , where pottery has been made since the Neolithic Era . Caldas gained fame for its ceramic wares when Rafael Bordalo Pinheiro and his brother Feliciano founded their Fábrica de Faianças , now called Faianças Artísticas Bordallo Pinheiro . The factory 's output includes large decorative pieces ; tableware shaped like fruits , vegetables , and animals ; and figurines of Zé Povinho , a bearded peasant everyman character . Caldas has a tradition of ceramic phalluses dating to the late 19th century .
Caldas has a tradition of embroidery ( bordado ) possibly dating to the 15th century . Legend has it that Queen Leonor 's handmaidens , seeing the monarch without her usual brilliance after selling off her jewellery , embroidered her cloak so that it appeared to have golden threads . Caldas embroidery is almost always made with three shades of molasses brown thread on white linen , and on rare occasion with white thread on brown linen . Known for its symmetry , the craft 's common themes include arachnids , spirals , angles , birds , hearts , crowns , and shrimp nets .
Caldas has several traditional sweets . Cavacas das Caldas are a small @-@ bowl @-@ sized , concave confection of flour and eggs , with a crunchy sugar covering . In June 2005 , a 26 @-@ metre ( 85 ft ) pyramid containing 48 @,@ 900 cavacas was erected on Praça 25 de Abril in front of the city hall . Beijinhos das Caldas ( " little kisses " ) are similar , but are smaller and spherical . Other local sweets include trouxas de ovos ( poached eggs ) , lampreias de ovos ( egg lampreys ) , and pão @-@ de @-@ ló do Landal ( Landal sponge cake ) . Savory dishes typical of Caldas include ensopado de enguias da lagoa ( stewed lagoon eels ) , bacalhau à lagareiro ( cod in olive oil ) , polvo à lagareiro ( octopus in olive oil ) , and fatias de carne frita à moda do Landal ( Landal @-@ style sliced fried meat ) .
= = Attractions = =
= = = City = = =
Igreja de Nossa Senhora do Pópulo ( Church of Our Lady of the Populace ) , adjacent to the thermal hospital , is a late gothic church with Mudéjar and Manueline characteristics . It serves as the mother church ( igreja matriz ) of Caldas . It was built c . 1500 by order of Queen Leonor and designed by Mateus Fernandes . The church was declared a national monument ( monumento nacional ) in 1910 . Igreja de Nossa Senhora da Conceição ( Church of Our Lady of the Conception ) is a 20th @-@ century church located on Praça 25 de Abril , near the city hall and the courthouse , and surrounded on three sides by Hemiciclo João Paulo II ( John Paul II Semicircle ) . The Cardinal – Patriarch of Lisbon broke ground on 20 August 1950 , and the church was inaugurated on 21 October 1951 .
Ermida de São Sebastião ( Hermitage of Saint Sebastian ) is a mannerist and baroque 16th @-@ century chapel located just off Praça da República . An 18th @-@ century reconstruction added tiles about depicting the life of the chapel 's namesake saint . The chapel was declared a property of public interest ( imóvel de interesse público , IIP ) in 1984 . Ermida do Espírito Santo ( Hermitage of the Holy Spirit ) is a mannerist and baroque chapel located on Largo João de Deus , uphill from the thermal hospital . Originally built in the 16th century , the hermitage was rebuilt in the 18th century . The chapel was declared a property of public interest in 1984 .
Praça da República ( Republic Square ) is a public square in the centre of town . The plaza , popularly known as Praça da Fruta ( Fruit Square ) , hosts Portugal 's only daily outdoor farmers ' market . The square is surrounded by buildings , most containing shops , banks , and cafés on the ground floor . Built 1747 – 1750 on the northern side of the square , the baroque former city hall ( paços do concelho ) , now used by the junta de freguesia ( civil parish council ) of the União das Freguesias de Caldas da Rainha — Nossa Senhora do Pópulo , Coto e São Gregório , was declared a property of public interest in 1984 . Praça 5 de Outubro ( 5 October Square ) , also known as Antiga Praça do Peixe ( Old Fish Square ) , formerly hosted the city 's open @-@ air fish market , which has since moved to an indoor location ( Mercado do Peixe ) . The plaza is now used for outdoor café seating and free cultural events . A statue of Queen Leonor stands in the middle of the roundabout at Largo Conde de Fontalva ( Count of Fontalva Square ) , popularly called Largo da Rainha ( Queen 's Square ) .
The Parque D. Carlos I is a large park in the centre of town . The park contains a doughnut @-@ shaped lake with a small island in the middle . Visitors can rent rowboats on the lake . The José Malhoa Museum sits in the middle of the park . The Jardim da Água ( Water Garden ) is a large @-@ scale outdoor sculpture combining concrete , ceramic tiles , and water . Caldas has three mid @-@ 18th @-@ century baroque fountains which were declared properties of public interest in 1982 : Chafariz da Estrada da Foz ( Fountain of Foz do Arelho Road ) , Chafariz da Rua Nova ( Fountain of the New Street ) , and Chafariz das Cinco Bicas ( Fountain of the Five Spouts ) .
= = = Rural civil parishes = = =
The civil parish of Foz do Arelho has a beach on the Atlantic Ocean , 10 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 5 mi ) from the centre of town . The Lagoa de Óbidos , which straddles the border with the municipality of Óbidos , is a lagoon that empties into the Atlantic Ocean near Foz do Arelho . The ocean beach and the lagoon beach have each been awarded a Blue Flag by the Foundation for Environmental Education . The civil parish of Salir do Porto has a beach on River of Tornada which empties into the Bay of São Martinho off the Atlantic Ocean . The Reserva Natural Local do Paul de Tornada ( Tornada Swamp Local Natural Reserve ) is a protected wetland area .
The Estação da Mala @-@ Posta do Casal dos Carreiros ( mail coach station of Casal dos Carreiros ) , built in the 19th century in the civil parish of A dos Francos , was declared a property of public interest in 1977 . The Pelourinho de Santa Catarina ( pillory of Saint Catherine ) in the civil parish of Santa Catarina , constructed in the 16th century , was declared a property of public interest in 1933 . Capela de São Jacinto ( Chapel of Saint Hyacinth ) , located in Casais de São Jacinto in the civil parish of Coto , was originally built in the 16th century and reconstructed in baroque style in the 18th century . The chapel was declared a property of public interest in 2009 .
= = Transport = =
= = = Public transport = = =
Caldas da Rainha has a railway station served by the Linha do Oeste ( western line ) of Comboios de Portugal . Regional trains , which make frequent local stops , run south to Lisbon , to its suburbs , or to Torres Vedras , and north to Leiria . Interregional trains , which make select stops , run north to Coimbra via Leiria . Salir do Porto , a civil parish on the Atlantic Ocean , is the next station north of Caldas and the only other active train stop in the municipality . Former train stops in the municipality are Campo – Serra and Bouro .
Caldas da Rainha has a bus station ( terminal rodoviário ) located in the city centre . Rede Nacional de Expressos provides express bus service to various destinations within Portugal . Rodoviária do Tejo ( also known as Rodotejo ) provides interurban services to the cities , towns , villages , and hamlets near and around Caldas . Rodotejo also provides three Rápida ( literally " rapid " , express @-@ like , limited @-@ stop ) services from Caldas , serving Campo Grande in Lisbon , Óbidos , and Bombarral ( Rápida Verde , Green Rapid ) ; Leiria , São Martinho do Porto , and Nazaré ( Rápida Rosa , Pink Rapid ) ; and Santarém and Rio Maior ( Rápida Caldas da Rainha – Santarém ) . The Caldas @-@ based operations of Rodotejo became a separate company called RDO - Rodoviária do Oeste , Lda on 1 July 2015 .
On 15 May 2007 , the municipal holiday , the city council inaugurated local bus service called TOMA . The name means " take this " in Portuguese and commemorates everyman figure Zé Povinho , whose image appears on the buses . TOMA service consists of three routes : Linha Azul ( Blue Line ) , Linha Laranja ( Orange Line ) , and Linha Verde ( Green Line ) . The Blue line uses two minibuses and runs between the western and eastern ends of town . The Orange and Green lines each operate using a single twenty @-@ nine @-@ seat minibus on loop routes .
" Projecto Tornada " seeks to improve bus services along the busy N8 road in Tornada , the civil parish just north of the city . The municipal government , in coordination with Rodoviário do Tejo and Rocaldas - Empresa de Transportes Auto Penafiel , has undertaken to distribute a combined schedule of services and to improve bus stops . Rede RoCaldas is an initiative to join intra @-@ municipal bus service outside the city proper under a single banner and pricing scheme . Introduced in September 2013 , Rede RoCaldas combines all services of Rocaldas - Empresa de Transportes Auto Penafiel with the short @-@ haul services of Rodotejo . Rocaldas is a wholly owned subsidiary of Rodotejo , operating as a separate brand . The combined service promises various benefits , including use of the Rodotejo 's central bus terminal , restructuring city @-@ centre bus stops , more frequent service , and streamlined ticketing .
= = = Roads = = =
Caldas da Rainha is served by an extensive network of roads . Two motorways ( autoestradas ) , operated by Auto @-@ Estradas do Atlântico , serve the municipality . The A8 motorway , also known as Autoestrada do Oeste , goes south to Óbidos , Bombarral , Torres Vedras , Loures , and Lisbon , and north to Nazaré , Alcobaça , Marinha Grande , and Leiria . The A15 motorway goes west to Santarém via Rio Maior . The IP6 road is a main route ( itinerário principal ) connecting to Peniche , Rio Maior , Santarém , Torres Novas , Abrantes , and Castelo Branco . For much of its route , IP6 runs concurrent with various motorways , including the entire length of A15 and the portion of A8 in Óbidos . The IC1 road is a secondary route ( itinerário complementar ) which runs the length of the country from Valença in the north to Guia ( Albufeira ) in the south via Porto and Lisbon . North of Lisbon , IC1 runs concurrent with various motorways , including almost the entire length of A8 .
Several national roads ( estradas nacionais ) , which are older and not as well @-@ maintained as motorways and main routes , serve the municipality . The N8 road ( EN 8 ) , the municipality 's main roadway before the A8 motorway was built , crosses the municipality from north to south through the city centre , connecting with Alcobaça to the north and with Óbidos , Bombarral , Torres Vedras , and Loures — a suburb of Lisbon — to the south . The N114 road ( EN 114 ) , in the centre and southeast of the municipality , goes to Peniche , Rio Maior and Santarém . The N114 @-@ 1 road ( EN 114 @-@ 1 ) , in the centre and east of the municipality , connects the city centre to N114 . The N115 road ( EN 115 ) , along the south and southwest border of the municipality , goes south to Loures . The N360 road ( EN 360 ) crosses the municipality southwest to northeast through the city , connecting Foz do Arelho to Benedita in Alcobaça Municipality . The N361 road ( EN 361 ) , in the southwest of the municipality , connects Lourinhã and Rio Maior . Avenida Atlântica ( or Variante Atlântica ) , which has no numerical designation , connects the western end of city to the beach at Foz do Arelho , and serves as an alternate route in lieu of N360 .
= = Education = =
Caldas da Rainha is home to many educational institutions . During the 2012 – 2013 school year , 10 @,@ 882 students were enrolled in schools of various levels , from preschool to vocational and higher education .
= = = Compulsory education = = =
As in the rest of Portugal , compulsory public education consists of basic education ( ensino básico ) taught in " basic " schools ( escolas básicas ) and of secondary education ( ensino secundário ) taught in secondary schools ( escolas secundárias ) . Basic education is divided into three " cycles " ( ciclos ) : the first cycle ( primeiro [ 1 ° ] ciclo ) for years one though four , the second cycle ( segundo [ 2 ° ] ciclo ) for years five and six , and the third cycle ( terceiro [ 3 ° ] ciclo ) for years seven through nine . Secondary schools teach years ten through twelve .
Caldas da Rainha has two public secondary schools , both of which also include the third cycle of basic education . The Escola Secundária com 3º CEB Rafael Bordalo Pinheiro ( Rafael Bordalo Pinheiro Secondary School with Third Cycle of Basic Education ) is in Nossa Senhora do Pópulo , and the Escola Secundária com 3º CEB Raul Proença ( Raul Proença Secondary School with Third Cycle of Basic Education ) is in the neighbourhood of Bairro do Arneiros in Santo Onofre . The Raul Proença school ranked as the best public secondary school in the country in 2014 .
The municipality has three public schools which offer the second and third cycles of basic education without including secondary education . The Escola Básica 2 , 3 D. João II ( King John II Second- and Third @-@ Cycle Basic School ) , in Nossa Senhora do Pópulo , offers classes to second- and third @-@ cycle students only . The Escola Básica Integrada Santo Onofre ( Santo Onofre Integrated Basic School ) , in the neighbourhood of Bairro das Morenas , offers all three cycles of basic education . The Escola Básica Integrada de Santa Catarina ( Santa Catarina Integrated Basic School ) offers all three cycles of basic education , as well as kindergarten . There are 27 public schools for the first cycle of basic education throughout the municipality . The municipality has 28 public kindergartens ( jardims de infância ) . Several private schools offer kindergarten and first @-@ cycle classes .
Colégio Rainha D. Leonor ( Queen Leonor College ) , in Santo Onofre , offers private first @-@ cycle basic education . For years five through twelve , the school offers privately managed public education . Colégio Frei Cristóvão ( Friar Christopher College ) offers privately managed public education in years five through nine in A dos Francos .
= = = Higher , professional , and other education = = =
The Escola Superior de Artes e Design de Caldas da Rainha ( ESAD.CR , Upper School of Arts and Design ) , founded in 1990 , is a division of the Instituto Politécnico de Leiria ( IPL , Polytechnic Institute of Leiria ) . ESAD.CR offers courses in plastic arts , ambient design , industrial design , ceramic and glass design , graphic and multimedia design , product design , typographic design , theatre , sound , image , and cultural management . Former institutions of higher learning in Caldas include a campus of the Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa ( UAL , Autonomous University of Lisbon ) and a branch of the Escola Superior de Biotecnologia ( ESB , Upper School of Biotechnology ) of the Universidade Católica Portuguesa ( UCP , Catholic University of Portugal ) from 1999 to 2011 .
Caldas da Rainha has five institutions offering professional development and vocational education . The Escola Técnica Empresarial do Oeste ( ETEO , Technical Business School of the West ) offers courses in business and technology . The Centro de Formação Profissional Para a Indústria Cerâmica ( CENCAL , Vocational Training Centre for the Ceramics Industry ) offers training related to the ceramics industry . The Centro de Formação Profissional da Indústria Metalúrgica e Metalomecânica ( CENFIM , Vocational Training Centre of Metallurgical and Metalworking Industry ) offers courses in metallurgy and metalworking . The Escola de Sargentos do Exército ( ESE , School of Army Sergeants ) trains sergeants for the Portuguese Army . The Escola de Hotelaria e Turismo do Oeste @-@ Caldas da Rainha ( EHTO , School of Hospitality and Tourism of the West ) offers training in hospitality and tourism .
The Centro de Educação Especial Rainha Dona Leonor ( CEERDL , Queen Leonor Special Education Centre ) offers special education . The Conservatório Caldas da Rainha ( CCR , Conservatory of Caldas da Rainha ) is a conservatory of music . The Escola Vocacional de Dança " Os Pimpões " ( " Os Pimpões " Vocational School of Dance ) offers training in dance .
= = Health and safety = =
Caldas da Rainha is home to the Hospital Distrital Caldas da Rainha ( Caldas da Rainha District Hospital ) , which is managed by the multi @-@ city Centro Hospitalar do Oeste ( CHO , Hospital Centre of the West ) . The hospital serves all general emergency needs of residents in all civil parishes of Bombarral , Caldas da Rainha , and Óbidos , plus parts of Alcobaça ; paediatric emergencies for the aforementioned municipalities , plus Peniche ; and obstetric and gynecological emergency needs for the aforementioned municipalities , plus Cadaval , Lourinhã , Mafra , and Torres Vedras . In 2012 , the municipality had 326 inhabitants per physician .
The Hospital Termal Rainha D. Leonor ( Queen Leonor Spring Water Hospital , or Thermal Hospital ) , a medical spa offering physician @-@ prescribed treatment in sulphurous waters , is managed by CHO . The hospital is the world 's oldest purpose @-@ built thermal medical institution . Among the non @-@ medical holdings of the Centro Hospitlar – legacies of Queen Leonor – are the Museu do Hospital e das Caldas ( Museum of the Hospital and Spa ) ; the Igreja de Nossa Senhora do Pópulo and Igreja de São Sebastião , churches ; Parque D. Carlos I , a public park ; and Mata Rainha D. Leonor , woods adjacent to the park . In 1512 , Queen Leonor established the Santa Casa da Misericórdia das Caldas da Rainha ( Holy House of Mercy ) , a charitable institution dedicated to helping those in need . Having expanded to other cities , the Holy House continues its work to the present day .
Caldas da Rainha is served by a health centre , Centro de Saúde Caldas da Rainha , which offers primary and non @-@ urgent care . In addition to several units co @-@ located with the main health centre , there are extensions located in the outlying civil parishes of A dos Francos , Alvorninha , Foz do Arelho , Landal , Santa Catarina , Tornada , and Vidais .
The municipality has fifteen pharmacies . Seven are found in the city , and each of the following civil parishes has one : A dos Francos , Alvorninha , Foz do Arelho , Landal , Salir de Matos , Santa Catarina , Tornada , and Vidais .
Fire protection is provided by the Bombeiros Voluntários de Caldas da Rainha ( BVCR , Volunteer Firefighters of Caldas da Rainha ) . Police protection in the urban areas of the municipality is provided by the Polícia de Segurança Pública ( PSP , Public Security Police ) . Rural areas of the municipality are patrolled by the Guarda Nacional Republicana ( GNR , Republican National Guard ) . The GNR 's base is located within the city proper .
= = Sports = =
The municipal Complexo Desportivo ( Sports Complex ) , located on the western edge of the city in Santo Onofre , features a rugby field and a running track . The field is home to Caldas Rugby Clube and can be used for association football ( soccer ) . In 2008 the municipality added five tennis courts ( two of which are covered ) in an adjacent facility . The municipal pools are located nearby .
Four multi @-@ use sports pavilions are found throughout the city . Santo Onofre hosts a skateboard park . The municipality has designated five cycling routes , three of which can be used on foot . All five routes are in the western portion of the municipality , and one crosses into São Martinho do Porto in Alcobaça municipality .
Caldas da Rainha has a bullring ( praça de touros ) in Nossa Senhora do Pópulo , inaugurated on 13 June 1883 . The octagonal arena originally seated 4 @,@ 000 spectators , but now has capacity for 3 @,@ 250 . In a typical year , the ring hosts between three and six bullfights . The arena also hosts concerts . The Grupo de Forcados Amadores das Caldas da Rainha ( Amateur Forcado Group of Caldas da Rainha ) participate in a phase of the Portuguese bullfight wherein they attempt to immobilize the bull by grabbing it , using no tools but their hands and bodies .
Caldas Sport Clube ( CSC ) was founded 15 May 1916 . The club sponsors teams in several levels of football ( soccer ) and futsal . The team 's main pitch is Campo da Mata , a 13 @,@ 000 @-@ seat field located in a wood adjacent to Parque D. Carlos I.
The Federação Portuguesa de Badminton ( Portuguese Badminton Federation ) is headquartered in Caldas da Rainha . The Centro de Alto Rendimento de Badminton ( High Performance Badminton Centre ) was inaugurated in Santo Onofre on 6 February 2010 .
= = Notable people = =
Rafael Bordalo Pinheiro ( 21 March 1846 , Lisbon – 23 January 1905 , Lisbon ; sometimes rendered in pre @-@ reform spelling of " Raphael Bordallo Pinheiro " ) was a caricaturist , illustrator , ceramist , cartoonist , editor , decorator , and figurist . In 1875 he created the enduring everyman character of Zé Povinho . In 1884 Bordalo Pinheiro co @-@ founded Faianças Artísticas Bordallo Pinheiro , a ceramics factory still in existence in Caldas . In addition to his factory , his name has been applied to the Casa Museu São Rafael ( Saint Rafael House Museum ) and the Escola Secundária Rafael Bordalo Pinheiro , one of two public secondary schools in Caldas .
José Malhoa ( 28 April 1885 , Caldas da Rainha – 26 October 1933 , Figueiró dos Vinhos ) was a painter . The Museu de José Malhoa ( José Malhoa Museum ) in Caldas displays several of his works .
José da Cruz Policarpo ( 26 February 1936 , Alvorninha , Caldas da Rainha – 12 March 2014 , Lisbon ) became the sixteenth Patriarch of Lisbon , as José IV , on 24 March 1998 . Pope John Paul II made Policarpo a cardinal on 21 February 2001 .
Raul Proença ( 10 May 1884 , Caldas da Rainha – 20 May 1941 , Porto ) was a politician , writer , journalist , and intellectual . One of the two public secondary schools in Caldas bears his name .
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= Scotland =
Scotland ( / ˈskɒt.lənd / ; Scots : [ ˈskɔt.lənd ] ; Scottish Gaelic : Alba [ ˈal ̪ ˠapə ] ) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain . It shares a border with England to the south , and is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean , with the North Sea to the east and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the south @-@ west . In addition to the mainland , the country is made up of more than 790 islands , including the Northern Isles and the Hebrides .
Edinburgh , the country 's capital and second @-@ largest city , was the hub of the Scottish Enlightenment of the 18th century , which transformed Scotland into one of the commercial , intellectual , and industrial powerhouses of Europe . Glasgow , Scotland 's largest city , was once one of the world 's leading industrial cities and now lies at the centre of the Greater Glasgow conurbation . Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea , containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union . This has given Aberdeen , the third @-@ largest city in Scotland , the title of Europe 's oil capital .
The Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707 . By inheritance in 1603 , James VI , King of Scots , became King of England and King of Ireland , thus forming a personal union of the three kingdoms . Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain . ( The Treaty of Union was agreed in 1706 and enacted by the twin Acts of Union 1707 , passed by the Parliaments of both kingdoms , despite popular opposition and anti @-@ union riots in Edinburgh , Glasgow , and elsewhere ) . The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain , which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England . ( In 1801 , Great Britain itself entered into a political union with the Kingdom of Ireland to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland ; the Parliament of Ireland merging with that of Great Britain to form the Parliament of the United Kingdom . Since the creation of the Irish Free State in 1922 , the United Kingdom has comprised Great Britain and Northern Ireland ) .
The monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of pre @-@ union styles , titles and other royal symbols of statehood specific to Scotland , including : the Royal Standard of Scotland , the Royal coat of arms used in Scotland together with its associated Royal Standard , royal titles including that of Duke of Rothesay , certain Great Officers of State , the chivalric Order of the Thistle , and , since 1999 , reinstating a former ceremonial role for the Crown of Scotland . Scotland 's legal system has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland , and Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in public and private law . The continued existence of legal , educational , religious and other institutions distinct from those in the remainder of the UK have all contributed to the continuation of Scottish culture and national identity since the 1707 union .
Following a referendum in 1997 , a Scottish Parliament was re @-@ established , this time as a devolved legislature comprising 129 members , having authority over many areas of domestic policy . The Scottish National Party , ( SNP ) , which supports Scottish independence , won an overall majority in the 2011 Scottish Parliament general election and legislated for an independence referendum to be held on 18 September 2014 ; a majority of 55 % to 45 % rejected independence on an 85 % voter turnout . The UK Conservative Party won an overall majority in the 2015 UK general election and legislated for a referendum on the UK 's membership of the European Union to be held on 23 June 2016 ; within Scotland , a majority of 62 % to 38 % rejected withdrawal from the EU on a 67 % voter turnout . Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs . Scotland is also a member nation of the British – Irish Council , and the British – Irish Parliamentary Assembly .
= = History = =
= = = Etymology = = =
" Scotland " comes from Scoti , the Latin name for the Gaels . The Late Latin word Scotia ( " land of the Gaels " ) was initially used to refer to Ireland . By the 11th century at the latest , Scotia was being used to refer to ( Gaelic @-@ speaking ) Scotland north of the river Forth , alongside Albania or Albany , both derived from the Gaelic Alba . The use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages .
= = = Early history = = =
Repeated glaciations , which covered the entire land mass of modern Scotland , destroyed any traces of human habitation that may have existed before the Mesolithic period . It is believed the first post @-@ glacial groups of hunter @-@ gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12 @,@ 800 years ago , as the ice sheet retreated after the last glaciation .
Groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9 @,@ 500 years ago , and the first villages around 6 @,@ 000 years ago . The well @-@ preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period . Neolithic habitation , burial and ritual sites are particularly common and well preserved in the Northern Isles and Western Isles , where a lack of trees led to most structures being built of local stone .
The 2009 discovery in Scotland of a 4000 @-@ year @-@ old tomb with burial treasures at Forteviot , near Perth , the capital of a Pictish Kingdom in the 8th and 9th centuries AD , is unrivalled anywhere in Britain . It contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark . It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves .
Scotland may have been part of a Late Bronze Age maritime trading culture called the Atlantic Bronze Age , which included other Celtic nations , and the areas that became England , France , Spain , and Portugal .
In the winter of 1850 , a severe storm hit Scotland , causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths . In the Bay of Skaill , the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll , known as " Skerrabra " . When the storm cleared , local villagers found the outline of a village , consisting of a number of small houses without roofs . William Watt of Skaill , the local laird , began an amateur excavation of the site , but after uncovering four houses , the work was abandoned in 1868 . The site remained undisturbed until 1913 , when during a single weekend the site was plundered by a party with shovels who took away an unknown quantity of artefacts . In 1924 , another storm swept away part of one of the houses and it was determined the site should be made secure and more seriously investigated . The job was given to University of Edinburgh 's Professor Vere Gordon Childe who travelled to Skara Brae for the first time in mid @-@ 1927 .
= = = Roman influence = = =
The written protohistory of Scotland began with the arrival of the Roman Empire in southern and central Great Britain , when the Romans occupied what is now England and Wales , administering it as a province called Britannia . Roman invasions and occupations of southern Scotland were a series of brief interludes .
According to the Roman historian Tacitus , the Caledonians " turned to armed resistance on a large scale " , attacking Roman forts and skirmishing with their legions . In a surprise night @-@ attack , the Caledonians very nearly wiped out the whole 9th Legion until it was saved by Agricola 's cavalry .
In AD 83 – 84 , the General Gnaeus Julius Agricola defeated the Caledonians at the Battle of Mons Graupius . Tacitus wrote that , before the battle , the Caledonian leader , Calgacus , gave a rousing speech in which he called his people the " last of the free " and accused the Romans of " making the world a desert and calling it peace " ( freely translated ) . After the Roman victory , Roman forts were briefly set along the Gask Ridge close to the Highland line ( only Cawdor near Inverness is known to have been constructed beyond that line ) . Three years after the battle , the Roman armies had withdrawn to the Southern Uplands .
The Romans erected Hadrian 's Wall to control tribes on both sides of the wall so the Limes Britannicus became the northern border of the Roman Empire ; although the army held the Antonine Wall in the Central Lowlands for two short periods – the last of these during the time of Emperor Septimius Severus from 208 until 210 .
The Roman military occupation of a significant part of what is now northern Scotland lasted only about 40 years ; although their influence on the southern section of the country , occupied by Brythonic tribes such as the Votadini and Damnonii , would still have been considerable between the first and fifth centuries . The Welsh term Hen Ogledd ( " Old North " ) is used by scholars to describe what is now the North of England and the South of Scotland during its habitation by Brittonic @-@ speaking people around AD 500 to 800 . According to writings from the 9th and 10th centuries , the Gaelic kingdom of Dál Riata was founded in the 6th century in western Scotland . The ' traditional ' view is that settlers from Ireland founded the kingdom , bringing Gaelic language and culture with them . However , recently some archaeologists have argued against this view , saying there is no archaeological or placename evidence for a migration or a takeover by a small group of elites .
= = = Middle Ages = = =
The Kingdom of the Picts ( based in Fortriu by the 6th century ) was the state that eventually became known as " Alba " or " Scotland " . The development of " Pictland " , according to the historical model developed by Peter Heather , was a natural response to Roman imperialism . Another view places emphasis on the Battle of Dun Nechtain , and the reign of Bridei m . Beli ( 671 – 693 ) , with another period of consolidation in the reign of Óengus mac Fergusa ( 732 – 761 ) .
The Kingdom of the Picts as it was in the early 8th century , when Bede was writing , was largely the same as the kingdom of the Scots in the reign of Alexander I ( 1107 – 1124 ) . However , by the tenth century , the Pictish kingdom was dominated by what we can recognise as Gaelic culture , and had developed a traditional story of an Irish conquest around the ancestor of the contemporary royal dynasty , Cináed mac Ailpín ( Kenneth MacAlpin ) .
From a base of territory in eastern Scotland north of the River Forth and south of the River Oykel , the kingdom acquired control of the lands lying to the north and south . By the 12th century , the kings of Alba had added to their territories the English @-@ speaking land in the south @-@ east and attained overlordship of Gaelic @-@ speaking Galloway and Norse @-@ speaking Caithness ; by the end of the 13th century , the kingdom had assumed approximately its modern borders . However , processes of cultural and economic change beginning in the 12th century ensured Scotland looked very different in the later Middle Ages .
The push for this change was the reign of David I and the Davidian Revolution . Feudalism , government reorganisation and the first legally recognised towns ( called burghs ) began in this period . These institutions and the immigration of French and Anglo @-@ French knights and churchmen facilitated cultural osmosis , whereby the culture and language of the low @-@ lying and coastal parts of the kingdom 's original territory in the east became , like the newly acquired south @-@ east , English @-@ speaking , while the rest of the country retained the Gaelic language , apart from the Northern Isles of Orkney and Shetland , which remained under Norse rule until 1468 . The Scottish state entered a largely successful and stable period between the 12th and 14th centuries , there was relative peace with England , trade and educational links were well developed with the Continent and at the height of this cultural flowering John Duns Scotus was one of Europe 's most important and influential philosophers .
The death of Alexander III in March 1286 , followed by that of his granddaughter Margaret , Maid of Norway , broke the centuries @-@ old succession line of Scotland 's kings and shattered the 200 @-@ year golden age that began with David I. Edward I of England was asked to arbitrate between claimants for the Scottish crown , and he organised a process known as the Great Cause to identify the most legitimate claimant . John Balliol was pronounced king in the Great Hall of Berwick Castle on 17 November 1292 and inaugurated at Scone on 30 November , St. Andrew 's Day . Edward I , who had coerced recognition as Lord Paramount of Scotland , the feudal superior of the realm , steadily undermined John 's authority . In 1294 , Balliol and other Scottish lords refused Edward 's demands to serve in his army against the French . Instead the Scottish parliament sent envoys to France to negotiate an alliance . Scotland and France sealed a treaty on 23 October 1295 , known as the Auld Alliance ( 1295 – 1560 ) . War ensued and King John was deposed by Edward who took personal control of Scotland . Andrew Moray and William Wallace initially emerged as the principal leaders of the resistance to English rule in what became known as the Wars of Scottish Independence ( 1296 – 1328 ) .
The nature of the struggle changed significantly when Robert the Bruce , Earl of Carrick , killed his rival John Comyn on 10 February 1306 at Greyfriars Kirk in Dumfries . He was crowned king ( as Robert I ) less than seven weeks later . Robert I battled to restore Scottish Independence as King for over 20 years , beginning by winning Scotland back from the Norman English invaders piece by piece . Victory at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314 proved the Scots had regained control of their kingdom . In 1315 , Edward Bruce , brother of the King , was briefly appointed High King of Ireland during an ultimately unsuccessful Scottish invasion of Ireland aimed at strengthening Scotland 's position in its wars against England . In 1320 the world 's first documented declaration of independence , the Declaration of Arbroath , won the support of Pope John XXII , leading to the legal recognition of Scottish sovereignty by the English Crown .
However , war with England continued for several decades after the death of Bruce . A civil war between the Bruce dynasty and their long @-@ term Comyn @-@ Balliol rivals lasted until the middle of the 14th century . Although the Bruce dynasty was successful , David II 's lack of an heir allowed his half @-@ nephew Robert II to come to the throne and establish the Stewart Dynasty . The Stewarts ruled Scotland for the remainder of the Middle Ages . The country they ruled experienced greater prosperity from the end of the 14th century through the Scottish Renaissance to the Reformation . This was despite continual warfare with England , the increasing division between Highlands and Lowlands , and a large number of royal minorities .
This period was the height of the Franco @-@ Scottish alliance . The Scots Guard – la Garde Écossaise – was founded in 1418 by Charles VII of France . The Scots soldiers of the Garde Écossaise fought alongside Joan of Arc against England during the Hundred Years War . In March 1421 , a Franco @-@ Scots force under John Stewart , 2nd Earl of Buchan , and Gilbert de Lafayette , defeated a larger English army at the Battle of Baugé . Three years later , at the Battle of Verneuil , the French and Scots lost around 7000 men . The Scottish intervention contributed to France 's victory in the war .
= = = Early modern era = = =
In 1502 , James IV of Scotland signed the Treaty of Perpetual Peace with Henry VII of England . He also married Henry 's daughter , Margaret Tudor , setting the stage for the Union of the Crowns . For Henry , the marriage into one of Europe 's most established monarchies gave legitimacy to the new Tudor royal line . A decade later , James made the fateful decision to invade England in support of France under the terms of the Auld Alliance . He was the last British monarch to die in battle , at the Battle of Flodden . Within a generation the Auld Alliance was ended by the Treaty of Edinburgh . France agreed to withdraw all land and naval forces . In the same year , 1560 , John Knox realised his goal of seeing Scotland become a Protestant nation and the Scottish parliament revoke papal authority in Scotland . Mary , Queen of Scots , a Catholic and former queen of France , was forced to abdicate in 1567 .
In 1603 , James VI , King of Scots inherited the thrones of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Ireland , and became King James I of England and Ireland , and left Edinburgh for London . With the exception of a short period under the Protectorate , Scotland remained a separate state , but there was considerable conflict between the crown and the Covenanters over the form of church government . The Glorious Revolution of 1688 – 89 saw the overthrow of the King James VII of Scotland and II of England by the English Parliament in favour of William and Mary . As late as the 1690s , Scotland experienced famine , which reduced the population of parts of the country by at least 20 per cent .
In 1698 , the Scots attempted an ambitious project to secure a trading colony on the Isthmus of Panama . Almost every Scottish landowner who had money to spare is said to have invested in the Darien scheme . Its failure bankrupted these landowners , but not the burghs . Nevertheless , the nobles ' bankruptcy , along with the threat of an English invasion , played a leading role in convincing the Scots elite to back a union with England .
On 22 July 1706 , the Treaty of Union was agreed between representatives of the Scots Parliament and the Parliament of England and the following year twin Acts of Union were passed by both parliaments to create the united Kingdom of Great Britain with effect from 1 May 1707 .
= = = 18th century = = =
With trade tariffs with England now abolished , trade blossomed , especially with Colonial America . The clippers belonging to the Glasgow Tobacco Lords were the fastest ships on the route to Virginia . Until the American War of Independence in 1776 , Glasgow was the world 's premier tobacco port , dominating world trade . The disparity between the wealth of the merchant classes of the Scottish Lowlands and the ancient clans of the Scottish Highlands grew , amplifying centuries of division .
The deposed Jacobite Stuart claimants had remained popular in the Highlands and north @-@ east , particularly amongst non @-@ Presbyterians , including Roman Catholics and Episcopalian Protestants . However , two major Jacobite Risings launched in 1715 and 1745 failed to remove the House of Hanover from the British throne . The threat of the Jacobite movement to the United Kingdom and its monarchs effectively ended at the Battle of Culloden , Great Britain 's last pitched battle . This defeat paved the way for large @-@ scale removals of the indigenous populations of the Highlands and Islands , known as the Highland Clearances .
The Scottish Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution made Scotland into an intellectual , commercial and industrial powerhouse – so much so Voltaire said " We look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilisation . " With the demise of Jacobitism and the advent of the Union , thousands of Scots , mainly Lowlanders , took up numerous positions of power in politics , civil service , the army and navy , trade , economics , colonial enterprises and other areas across the nascent British Empire . Historian Neil Davidson notes " after 1746 there was an entirely new level of participation by Scots in political life , particularly outside Scotland . " Davidson also states " far from being ' peripheral ' to the British economy , Scotland – or more precisely , the Lowlands – lay at its core . "
= = = 19th century = = =
The Scottish Reform Act 1832 increased the number of Scottish MPs and widened the franchise to include more of the middle classes . From the mid @-@ century there were increasing calls for Home Rule for Scotland and the post of Secretary of State for Scotland was revived . Towards the end of the century Prime Ministers of Scottish descent included William E. Gladstone , and the Earl of Rosebery . In the later 19th century the growing importance of the working classes was marked by Keir Hardie 's success in the Mid Lanarkshire by @-@ election , 1888 , leading to the foundation of the Scottish Labour Party , which was absorbed into the Independent Labour Party in 1895 , with Hardie as its first leader .
Glasgow became one of the largest cities in the world , and known as " the Second City of the Empire " after London . After 1860 the Clydeside shipyards specialised in steamships made of iron ( after 1870 , made of steel ) , which rapidly replaced the wooden sailing vessels of both the merchant fleets and the battle fleets of the world . It became the world 's pre @-@ eminent shipbuilding centre . The industrial developments , while they brought work and wealth , were so rapid that housing , town @-@ planning , and provision for public health did not keep pace with them , and for a time living conditions in some of the towns and cities were notoriously bad , with overcrowding , high infant mortality , and growing rates of tuberculosis .
While the Scottish Enlightenment is traditionally considered to have concluded toward the end of the 18th century , disproportionately large Scottish contributions to British science and letters continued for another 50 years or more , thanks to such figures as the physicists James Clerk Maxwell and Lord Kelvin , and the engineers and inventors James Watt and William Murdoch , whose work was critical to the technological developments of the Industrial Revolution throughout Britain . In literature the most successful figure of the mid @-@ 19th century was Walter Scott . His first prose work , Waverley in 1814 , is often called the first historical novel . It launched a highly successful career that probably more than any other helped define and popularise Scottish cultural identity . In the late 19th century , a number of Scottish @-@ born authors achieved international reputations , such as Robert Louis Stevenson , Arthur Conan Doyle , J. M. Barrie and George MacDonald . Scotland also played a major part in the development of art and architecture . The Glasgow School , which developed in the late 19th century , and flourished in the early 20th century , produced a distinctive blend of influences including the Celtic Revival the Arts and Crafts Movement , and Japonisme , which found favour throughout the modern art world of continental Europe and helped define the Art Nouveau style . Proponents included architect and artist Charles Rennie Mackintosh .
This period saw a process of rehabilitation for Highland culture . In the 1820s , as part of the Romantic revival , tartan and the kilt were adopted by members of the social elite , not just in Scotland , but across Europe , prompted by the popularity of Macpherson 's Ossian cycle and then Walter Scott 's Waverley novels . However , the Highlands remained very poor and traditional . The desire to improve agriculture and profits led to the Highland Clearances , in which much of the population of the Highlands suffered forced displacement as lands were enclosed , principally so that they could be used for sheep farming . The clearances followed patterns of agricultural change throughout Britain , but were particularly notorious as a result of the late timing , the lack of legal protection for year @-@ by @-@ year tenants under Scots law , the abruptness of the change from the traditional clan system , and the brutality of many evictions . One result was a continuous exodus from the land — to the cities , or further afield to England , Canada , America or Australia . The population of Scotland grew steadily in the 19th century , from 1 @,@ 608 @,@ 000 in the census of 1801 to 2 @,@ 889 @,@ 000 in 1851 and 4 @,@ 472 @,@ 000 in 1901 . Even with the development of industry there were not enough good jobs . As a result , during the period 1841 – 1931 , about 2 million Scots migrated to North America and Australia , and another 750 @,@ 000 Scots relocated to England .
After prolonged years of struggle in the Kirk , in 1834 the Evangelicals gained control of the General Assembly and passed the Veto Act , which allowed congregations to reject unwanted " intrusive " presentations to livings by patrons . The following " Ten Years ' Conflict " of legal and political wrangling ended in defeat for the non @-@ intrusionists in the civil courts . The result was a schism from the church by some of the non @-@ intrusionists led by Dr Thomas Chalmers , known as the Great Disruption of 1843 . Roughly a third of the clergy , mainly from the North and Highlands , formed the separate Free Church of Scotland . In the late 19th century growing divisions between fundamentalist Calvinists and theological liberals resulted in a further split in the Free Church as the rigid Calvinists broke away to form the Free Presbyterian Church in 1893 . Catholic Emancipation in 1829 and the influx of large numbers of Irish immigrants , particularly after the famine years of the late 1840s , mainly to the growing lowland centres like Glasgow , led to a transformation in the fortunes of Catholicism . In 1878 , despite opposition , a Roman Catholic ecclesiastical hierarchy was restored to the country , and Catholicism became a significant denomination within Scotland .
Industrialisation , urbanisation and the Disruption of 1843 all undermined the tradition of parish schools . From 1830 the state began to fund buildings with grants ; then from 1846 it was funding schools by direct sponsorship ; and in 1872 Scotland moved to a system like that in England of state @-@ sponsored largely free schools , run by local school boards . The historic University of Glasgow became a leader in British higher education by providing the educational needs of youth from the urban and commercial classes , as opposed to the upper class . The University of St Andrews pioneered the admission of women to Scottish universities . From 1892 Scottish universities could admit and graduate women and the numbers of women at Scottish universities steadily increased until the early 20th century .
= = = Early 20th century = = =
Scotland played a major role in the British effort in the First World War . It especially provided manpower , ships , machinery , fish and money . With a population of 4 @.@ 8 million in 1911 , Scotland sent over half a million men to the war , of whom over a quarter died in combat or from disease , and 150 @,@ 000 were seriously wounded . Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig was Britain 's commander on the Western Front .
The war saw the emergence of a radical movement called " Red Clydeside " led by militant trades unionists . Formerly a Liberal stronghold , the industrial districts switched to Labour by 1922 , with a base among the Irish Catholic working class districts . Women were especially active in building neighbourhood solidarity on housing issues . However , the " Reds " operated within the Labour Party and had little influence in Parliament and the mood changed to passive despair by the late 1920s .
The shipbuilding industry expanded by a third and expected renewed prosperity , but instead a serious depression hit the economy by 1922 and it did not fully recover until 1939 . The interwar years were marked by economic stagnation in rural and urban areas , and high unemployment . Indeed , the war brought with it deep social , cultural , economic , and political dislocations . Thoughtful Scots pondered their declension , as the main social indicators such as poor health , bad housing , and long @-@ term mass unemployment , pointed to terminal social and economic stagnation at best , or even a downward spiral . Service abroad on behalf of the Empire lost its allure to ambitious young people , who left Scotland permanently . The heavy dependence on obsolescent heavy industry and mining was a central problem , and no one offered workable solutions . The despair reflected what Finlay ( 1994 ) describes as a widespread sense of hopelessness that prepared local business and political leaders to accept a new orthodoxy of centralised government economic planning when it arrived during the Second World War .
The Second World War brought renewed prosperity , despite extensive bombing of cities by the Luftwaffe . It saw the invention of radar by Robert Watson @-@ Watt , which was invaluable in the Battle of Britain as was the leadership at RAF Fighter Command of Air Chief Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding .
= = = Since 1945 = = =
After 1945 , Scotland 's economic situation became progressively worse due to overseas competition , inefficient industry , and industrial disputes . Only in recent decades has the country enjoyed something of a cultural and economic renaissance . Economic factors contributing to this recovery include a resurgent financial services industry , electronics manufacturing , ( see Silicon Glen ) , and the North Sea oil and gas industry . The introduction in 1989 by Margaret Thatcher 's government of the Community Charge ( widely known as the Poll Tax ) one year before the rest of the United Kingdom , contributed to a growing movement for a return to direct Scottish control over domestic affairs . Following a referendum on devolution proposals in 1997 , the Scotland Act 1998 was passed by the United Kingdom Parliament to establish a devolved Scottish Parliament and Scottish Government with responsibility for most laws specific to Scotland .
= = = Education = = =
The Scottish education system has always remained distinct from the rest of the United Kingdom , with a characteristic emphasis on a broad education . In the 15th century , the Humanist emphasis on education cumulated with the passing of the Education Act 1496 , which decreed that all sons of barons and freeholders of substance should attend grammar schools to learn " perfyct Latyne " , resulting in an increase in literacy among a male and wealthy elite . In the Reformation the 1560 First Book of Discipline set out a plan for a school in every parish , but this proved financially impossible . In 1616 an act in Privy council commanded every parish to establish a school . By the late seventeenth century there was a largely complete network of parish schools in the lowlands , but in the Highlands basic education was still lacking in many areas . Education remained a matter for the church rather than the state until the Education Act ( 1872 ) .
= = Geography and natural history = =
The mainland of Scotland comprises the northern third of the land mass of the island of Great Britain , which lies off the north @-@ west coast of Continental Europe . The total area is 78 @,@ 772 km2 ( 30 @,@ 414 sq mi ) , comparable to the size of the Czech Republic . Scotland 's only land border is with England , and runs for 96 kilometres ( 60 mi ) between the basin of the River Tweed on the east coast and the Solway Firth in the west . The Atlantic Ocean borders the west coast and the North Sea is to the east . The island of Ireland lies only 21 kilometres ( 13 mi ) from the south @-@ western peninsula of Kintyre ; Norway is 305 kilometres ( 190 mi ) to the east and the Faroes , 270 kilometres ( 168 mi ) to the north .
The territorial extent of Scotland is generally that established by the 1237 Treaty of York between Scotland and the Kingdom of England and the 1266 Treaty of Perth between Scotland and Norway . Important exceptions include the Isle of Man , which having been lost to England in the 14th century is now a crown dependency outside of the United Kingdom ; the island groups Orkney and Shetland , which were acquired from Norway in 1472 ; and Berwick @-@ upon @-@ Tweed , lost to England in 1482 .
The geographical centre of Scotland lies a few miles from the village of Newtonmore in Badenoch . Rising to 1 @,@ 344 metres ( 4 @,@ 409 ft ) above sea level , Scotland 's highest point is the summit of Ben Nevis , in Lochaber , while Scotland 's longest river , the River Tay , flows for a distance of 190 kilometres ( 118 mi ) .
= = = Geology and geomorphology = = =
The whole of Scotland was covered by ice sheets during the Pleistocene ice ages and the landscape is much affected by glaciation . From a geological perspective , the country has three main sub @-@ divisions .
The Highlands and Islands lie to the north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault , which runs from Arran to Stonehaven . This part of Scotland largely comprises ancient rocks from the Cambrian and Precambrian , which were uplifted during the later Caledonian Orogeny . It is interspersed with igneous intrusions of a more recent age , remnants of which formed mountain massifs such as the Cairngorms and Skye Cuillins .
A significant exception to the above are the fossil @-@ bearing beds of Old Red Sandstones found principally along the Moray Firth coast . The Highlands are generally mountainous and the highest elevations in the British Isles are found here . Scotland has over 790 islands divided into four main groups : Shetland , Orkney , and the Inner Hebrides and Outer Hebrides . There are numerous bodies of freshwater including Loch Lomond and Loch Ness . Some parts of the coastline consist of machair , a low lying dune pasture land .
The Central Lowlands is a rift valley mainly comprising Paleozoic formations . Many of these sediments have economic significance for it is here that the coal and iron bearing rocks that fuelled Scotland 's industrial revolution are found . This area has also experienced intense volcanism , Arthur 's Seat in Edinburgh being the remnant of a once much larger volcano . This area is relatively low @-@ lying , although even here hills such as the Ochils and Campsie Fells are rarely far from view .
The Southern Uplands are a range of hills almost 200 kilometres ( 124 mi ) long , interspersed with broad valleys . They lie south of a second fault line ( the Southern Uplands fault ) that runs from Girvan to Dunbar . The geological foundations largely comprise Silurian deposits laid down some 4 – 500 million years ago . The high point of the Southern Uplands is Merrick with an elevation of 843 m ( 2 @,@ 766 ft ) . The Southern Uplands is home to the UK 's highest village , Wanlockhead ( 430 m or 1 @,@ 411 ft above sea level ) .
= = = Climate = = =
The climate of Scotland is temperate and oceanic , and tends to be very changeable . As it is warmed by the Gulf Stream from the Atlantic , it has much milder winters ( but cooler , wetter summers ) than areas on similar latitudes , such as Labrador , southern Scandinavia , the Moscow region in Russia , and the Kamchatka Peninsula on the opposite side of Eurasia . However , temperatures are generally lower than in the rest of the UK , with the coldest ever UK temperature of − 27 @.@ 2 ° C ( − 17 @.@ 0 ° F ) recorded at Braemar in the Grampian Mountains , on 11 February 1895 . Winter maxima average 6 ° C ( 42 @.@ 8 ° F ) in the Lowlands , with summer maxima averaging 18 ° C ( 64 @.@ 4 ° F ) . The highest temperature recorded was 32 @.@ 9 ° C ( 91 @.@ 2 ° F ) at Greycrook , Scottish Borders on 9 August 2003 .
The west of Scotland is usually warmer than the east , owing to the influence of Atlantic ocean currents and the colder surface temperatures of the North Sea . Tiree , in the Inner Hebrides , is one of the sunniest places in the country : it had more than 300 hours of sunshine in May 1975 . Rainfall varies widely across Scotland . The western highlands of Scotland are the wettest , with annual rainfall in a few places exceeding 3 @,@ 000 mm ( 118 @.@ 1 in ) . In comparison , much of lowland Scotland receives less than 800 mm ( 31 @.@ 5 in ) annually . Heavy snowfall is not common in the lowlands , but becomes more common with altitude . Braemar has an average of 59 snow days per year , while many coastal areas average fewer than 10 days of lying snow per year .
= = = Flora and fauna = = =
Scotland 's wildlife is typical of the north west of Europe , although several of the larger mammals such as the lynx , brown bear , wolf , elk and walrus were hunted to extinction in historic times . There are important populations of seals and internationally significant nesting grounds for a variety of seabirds such as gannets . The golden eagle is something of a national icon .
On the high mountain tops species including ptarmigan , mountain hare and stoat can be seen in their white colour phase during winter months . Remnants of the native Scots pine forest exist and within these areas the Scottish crossbill , the UK 's only endemic bird species and vertebrate , can be found alongside capercaillie , wildcat , red squirrel and pine marten . In recent years various animals have been re @-@ introduced , including the white @-@ tailed sea eagle in 1975 , the red kite in the 1980s , and more recently there have been experimental projects involving the beaver and wild boar . Today , much of the remaining native Caledonian Forest lies within the Cairngorms National Park and remnants of the forest remain at 84 locations across Scotland . On the west coast , remnants of ancient Celtic Rainforest still remain , particularly on the Taynish peninsula in Argyll , these forests are particularly rare due to high rates of deforestation throughout Scottish history .
The flora of the country is varied incorporating both deciduous and coniferous woodland and moorland and tundra species . However , large scale commercial tree planting and the management of upland moorland habitat for the grazing of sheep and commercial field sport activities impacts upon the distribution of indigenous plants and animals . The UK 's tallest tree is a grand fir planted beside Loch Fyne , Argyll in the 1870s , and the Fortingall Yew may be 5 @,@ 000 years old and is probably the oldest living thing in Europe . Although the number of native vascular plants is low by world standards , Scotland 's substantial bryophyte flora is of global importance .
= = Demographics = =
The population of Scotland at the 2001 Census was 5 @,@ 062 @,@ 011 . This rose to 5 @,@ 295 @,@ 400 , the highest ever , at the 2011 Census .
In the 2011 Census , 62 % of Scotland 's population stated their national identity as ' Scottish only ' , 18 % as ' Scottish and British ' , 8 % as ' British only ' , and 4 % chose other national identities .
Although Edinburgh is the capital of Scotland , the largest city is Glasgow , which has just over 584 @,@ 000 inhabitants . The Greater Glasgow conurbation , with a population of almost 1 @.@ 2 million , is home to nearly a quarter of Scotland 's population . The Central Belt is where most of the main towns and cities are located , including Glasgow , Edinburgh , Dundee and Perth . Scotland 's only major city outside the Central Belt is Aberdeen .
In general , only the more accessible and larger islands retain inhabited . Currently , fewer than 90 remain inhabited . The Southern Uplands are essentially rural in nature and dominated by agriculture and forestry . Because of housing problems in Glasgow and Edinburgh , five new towns were created between 1947 and 1966 . They are East Kilbride , Glenrothes , Livingston , Cumbernauld , and Irvine .
Immigration since World War II has given Glasgow , Edinburgh and Dundee small South Asian communities . In 2011 , there were an estimated 49 @,@ 000 ethnically Pakistani people living in Scotland , making them the largest non @-@ White ethnic group . Since the Enlargement of the European Union more people from Central and Eastern Europe have moved to Scotland , and the 2011 census indicated that 61 @,@ 000 Poles live there .
Scotland has three officially recognised languages : English , Scots , and Scottish Gaelic . Scottish Standard English , a variety of English as spoken in Scotland , is at one end of a bipolar linguistic continuum , with broad Scots at the other . Scottish Standard English may have been influenced to varying degrees by Scots . The 2011 census indicated that 63 % of the population had " no skills in Scots " . Others speak Highland English . Gaelic is mostly spoken in the Western Isles , where a large proportion of people still speak it ; however , nationally its use is confined to just 1 % of the population . The number of Gaelic speakers in Scotland dropped from 250 @,@ 000 in 1881 to 60 @,@ 000 in 2008 .
There are many more people with Scottish ancestry living abroad than the total population of Scotland . In the 2000 Census , 9 @.@ 2 million Americans self @-@ reported some degree of Scottish descent . Ulster 's Protestant population is mainly of lowland Scottish descent , and it is estimated that there are more than 27 million descendants of the Scots @-@ Irish migration now living in the US . In Canada , the Scottish @-@ Canadian community accounts for 4 @.@ 7 million people . About 20 % of the original European settler population of New Zealand came from Scotland .
In August 2012 , the Scottish population reached an all @-@ time high of 5 @.@ 25 million people . The reasons given were that , in Scotland , births were outnumbering the number of deaths , and immigrants were moving to Scotland from overseas . In 2011 , 43 @,@ 700 people moved from Wales , Northern Ireland or England to live in Scotland .
The total fertility rate ( TFR ) in Scotland is below the replacement rate of 2 @.@ 1 ( the TFR was 1 @.@ 73 in 2011 ) . The majority of births today are to unmarried women ( 51 @.@ 3 % of births were outside of marriage in 2012 ) .
Life expectancy for those born in Scotland between 2010 and 2012 is 76 @.@ 5 years for males and 80 @.@ 7 years for females . This is the lowest of any of the four countries of the UK .
= = Religion = =
Just over half ( 54 % ) of the Scottish population reported being a Christian while nearly 37 % reported not having a religion in a 2011 census . Since the Scottish Reformation of 1560 , the national church ( the Church of Scotland , also known as The Kirk ) has been Protestant in classification and Reformed in theology . Since 1689 it has had a Presbyterian system of church government , and enjoys independence from the state . Its membership is 398 @,@ 389 , about 7 @.@ 5 % of the total population , though according to the 2011 census , 32 @.@ 4 % identified Church of Scotland as their religion . The Church operates a territorial parish structure , with every community in Scotland having a local congregation .
Scotland also has a significant Roman Catholic population , 19 % claiming that faith , particularly in the west . After the Reformation , Roman Catholicism in Scotland continued in the Highlands and some western islands like Uist and Barra , and it was strengthened during the 19th century by immigration from Ireland . Other Christian denominations in Scotland include the Free Church of Scotland , various other Presbyterian offshoots , and the Scottish Episcopal Church .
Islam is the largest non @-@ Christian religion ( estimated at around 75 @,@ 000 , which is about 1 @.@ 4 % of the population ) , and there are also significant Jewish , Hindu and Sikh communities , especially in Glasgow . The Samyé Ling monastery near Eskdalemuir , which celebrated its 40th anniversary in 2007 , is the first Buddhist monastery in western Europe .
= = Politics and government = =
Scotland 's head of state is the monarch of the United Kingdom , currently Queen Elizabeth II ( since 1952 ) . The regnal numbering " Elizabeth II " caused controversy around the time of the Queen 's coronation because there had never been an Elizabeth I in Scotland . A legal action , MacCormick v. Lord Advocate ( 1953 SC 396 ) , was brought to contest the right of the Queen to entitle herself Elizabeth II within Scotland , arguing that this was a breach of Article 1 of the Treaty of Union . The Crown won the case . It was decided that future British monarchs would be numbered according to either their English or their Scottish predecessors , whichever number is higher . For instance any future King James would be styled James VIII — since the last Scottish King James was James VII ( also James II of England , etc . ) — while the next King Henry would be King Henry IX throughout the UK even though there have been no Scottish kings of that name .
Scotland has limited self @-@ government within the United Kingdom , as well as representation in the UK Parliament . Executive and legislative powers respectively have been devolved to the Scottish Government and the Scottish Parliament at Holyrood in Edinburgh since 1999 . The UK Parliament retains control over reserved matters specified in the Scotland Act 1998 , including UK taxes , social security , defence , international relations and broadcasting . The Scottish Parliament has legislative authority for all other areas relating to Scotland , as well as a limited power to vary income tax .
The Scottish Parliament can give legislative consent over devolved matters back to the UK Parliament by passing a Legislative Consent Motion if United Kingdom @-@ wide legislation is considered more appropriate for a certain issue . The programmes of legislation enacted by the Scottish Parliament have seen a divergence in the provision of public services compared to the rest of the UK . For instance , university education and care services for the elderly are free at point of use in Scotland , while fees are paid in the rest of the UK . Scotland was the first country in the UK to ban smoking in enclosed public places .
The Scottish Parliament is a unicameral legislature with 129 members ( MSPs ) : 73 of them represent individual constituencies and are elected on a first past the post system ; the other 56 are elected in eight different electoral regions by the additional member system . MSPs serve for a four @-@ year period ( exceptionally five years from 2011 – 16 ) . The Parliament nominates one of its Members , who is then appointed by the Monarch to serve as First Minister . Other ministers are appointed by the First Minister and serve at his / her discretion . Together they make up the Scottish Government , the executive arm of the devolved government . The Scottish Government is headed by the First Minister , who is accountable to the Scottish Parliament and is the minister of charge of the Scottish Government . The First Minister is also the political leader of Scotland . The Scottish Government also comprises of the Deputy First Minister , currently John Swinney MSP , who deputises for the First Minister during a period of absence of overseas visits . Alongside the Deputy First Minister 's requirements as Deputy , the minister also has a cabinet ministerial responsibility . Swinney is also currently Cabinet Secretary for Education and Skills . The Scottish Government 's cabinet comprises of nine cabinet secretaries , who form the Cabinet of Scotland . There are also twelve other ministers , who work alongside the cabinet secretaries in their appointed areas . As a result , junior ministers do not attend cabinet meetings .
In the 2016 election , the Scottish National Party ( SNP ) won 63 of the 129 seats available . Nicola Sturgeon , the leader of the SNP , has been the First Minister since November 2014 . The Conservative Party became the largest opposition party in the 2016 elections , with the Labour Party , Liberal Democrats and the Green Party also represented in the Parliament . The next Scottish Parliament election is due to be held on 6 May 2021 .
Scotland is represented in the British House of Commons by 59 MPs elected from territory @-@ based Scottish constituencies . In the most recent general election , held on 7 May 2015 , the Scottish National Party won 56 of the 59 seats and saw elected the youngest current member of the House of Commons , Mhairi Black . The next United Kingdom general election is due to be held in May 2020 . The Scotland Office represents the UK government in Scotland on reserved matters and represents Scottish interests within the UK government . The Scotland Office is led by the Secretary of State for Scotland , who sits in the Cabinet of the United Kingdom ; the current incumbent is David Mundell .
= = = Constitutional changes = = =
A policy of devolution had been advocated by the three main UK parties with varying enthusiasm during recent history . The late Labour leader John Smith described the revival of a Scottish parliament as the " settled will of the Scottish people " . The devolved Scottish Parliament was created after a referendum in 1997 found majority support for both creating the Parliament and granting it limited powers to vary income tax . The constitutional status of Scotland is nonetheless subject to ongoing debate .
The Scottish National Party ( SNP ) , which supports Scottish independence , was first elected to form the Scottish Government in 2007 . The new government established a " National Conversation " on constitutional issues , proposing a number of options such as increasing the powers of the Scottish Parliament , federalism , or a referendum on Scottish independence from the United Kingdom . In rejecting the last option , the three main opposition parties in the Scottish Parliament created a commission to investigate the distribution of powers between devolved Scottish and UK @-@ wide bodies . The Scotland Act 2012 , based on proposals by the commission , is currently in the process of devolving additional powers to the Scottish Parliament .
In August 2009 the SNP proposed a bill to hold a referendum on independence in November 2010 . Opposition from all other major parties led to an expected defeat . After the 2011 elections gave the SNP an overall majority in the Scottish Parliament , a referendum on independence for Scotland was held on 18 September 2014 . The referendum rejected independence by a majority of 55 % to 45 % . During the campaign , the three main parties in the UK Parliament pledged to extend the powers of the Scottish Parliament . An all @-@ party commission chaired by Lord Smith of Kelvin was formed , which led to a further devolution of powers through the Scotland Act 2016 .
Following the referendum on the UK 's membership of the European Union on 23 June 2016 , where a UK @-@ wide majority voted to withdraw from the EU whilst a majority within Scotland voted to remain , Scotland 's First Minister , Nicola Sturgeon , announced that as a result a new independence referendum was " highly likely " .
= = = Administrative subdivisions = = =
Historical subdivisions of Scotland included the mormaerdom , stewartry , earldom , burgh , parish , county and regions and districts . Some of these names are still sometimes used as geographical descriptors .
Modern Scotland is subdivided in various ways depending on the purpose . In local government , there have been 32 single @-@ tier council areas since 1996 , whose councils are responsible for the provision of all local government services . Community councils are informal organisations that represent specific sub @-@ divisions of a council area .
In the Scottish Parliament , there are 73 constituencies and eight regions . For the Parliament of the United Kingdom , there are 59 constituencies . Until 2013 , the Scottish fire brigades and police forces were based on a system of regions introduced in 1975 . For healthcare and postal districts , and a number of other governmental and non @-@ governmental organisations such as the churches , there are other long @-@ standing methods of subdividing Scotland for the purposes of administration .
City status in the United Kingdom is conferred by letters patent . There are seven cities in Scotland : Aberdeen , Dundee , Edinburgh , Glasgow , Inverness , Stirling and Perth .
= = Law and criminal justice = =
Scots law has a basis derived from Roman law , combining features of both uncodified civil law , dating back to the Corpus Juris Civilis , and common law with medieval sources . The terms of the Treaty of Union with England in 1707 guaranteed the continued existence of a separate legal system in Scotland from that of England and Wales . Prior to 1611 , there were several regional law systems in Scotland , most notably Udal law in Orkney and Shetland , based on old Norse law . Various other systems derived from common Celtic or Brehon laws survived in the Highlands until the 1800s .
Scots law provides for three types of courts responsible for the administration of justice : civil , criminal and heraldic . The supreme civil court is the Court of Session , although civil appeals can be taken to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom ( or before 1 October 2009 , the House of Lords ) . The High Court of Justiciary is the supreme criminal court in Scotland . The Court of Session is housed at Parliament House , in Edinburgh , which was the home of the pre @-@ Union Parliament of Scotland with the High Court of Justiciary and the Supreme Court of Appeal currently located at the Lawnmarket . The sheriff court is the main criminal and civil court , hearing most cases . There are 49 sheriff courts throughout the country . District courts were introduced in 1975 for minor offences and small claims . These were gradually replaced by Justice of the Peace Courts from 2008 to 2010 . The Court of the Lord Lyon regulates heraldry .
For many decades the Scots legal system was unique for being the only legal system without a parliament . This ended with the advent of the Scottish Parliament , which legislates for Scotland . Many features within the system have been preserved . Within criminal law , the Scots legal system is unique in having three possible verdicts : " guilty " , " not guilty " and " not proven " . Both " not guilty " and " not proven " result in an acquittal , typically with no possibility of retrial in accordance with the rule of double jeopardy . There is however the possibility of a retrial where new evidence emerges at a later date that might have proven conclusive in the earlier trial at first instance , where the person acquitted subsequently admits the offence or where it can be proved that the acquittal was tainted by an attempt to pervert the course of justice – see the provisions of the Double Jeopardy ( Scotland ) Act 2011 . Many laws differ between Scotland and the other parts of the United Kingdom , and many terms differ for certain legal concepts . Manslaughter , in England and Wales , is broadly similar to culpable homicide in Scotland , and arson is called wilful fire raising . Indeed , some acts considered crimes in England and Wales , such as forgery , are not so in Scotland . Procedure also differs . Scots juries , sitting in criminal cases , consist of fifteen , rather than twelve jurors , as is more common in English @-@ speaking countries .
The Scottish Prison Service ( SPS ) manages the prisons in Scotland , which collectively house over 8 @,@ 500 prisoners . The Cabinet Secretary for Justice is responsible for the Scottish Prison Service within the Scottish Government .
= = Health care = =
Healthcare in Scotland is mainly provided by NHS Scotland , Scotland 's public health care system . This was founded by the National Health Service ( Scotland ) Act 1947 ( later repealed by the National Health Service ( Scotland ) Act 1978 ) that took effect on 5 July 1948 to coincide with the launch of the NHS in England and Wales . However , even prior to 1948 , half of Scotland 's landmass was already covered by state funded health care , provided by the Highlands and Islands Medical Service . Healthcare policy and funding is the responsibility of the Scottish Government 's Health Directorates . The current Cabinet Secretary for Health and Wellbeing is Alex Neil and the Director @-@ General ( DG ) Health and chief executive , NHS Scotland is Paul Gray .
In 2008 , the NHS in Scotland had around 158 @,@ 000 staff including more than 47 @,@ 500 nurses , midwives and health visitors and over 3 @,@ 800 consultants . In addition , there are also more than 12 @,@ 000 doctors , family practitioners and allied health professionals , including dentists , opticians and community pharmacists , who operate as independent contractors providing a range of services within the NHS in return for fees and allowances . These fees and allowances were removed in May 2010 , and prescriptions are entirely free , although dentists and opticians may charge if the patient 's household earns over a certain amount , about £ 30 @,@ 000 per annum .
= = Economy = =
Scotland has a western style open mixed economy closely linked with the rest of Europe and the wider world . Traditionally , the Scottish economy has been dominated by heavy industry underpinned by shipbuilding in Glasgow , coal mining and steel industries . Petroleum related industries associated with the extraction of North Sea oil have also been important employers from the 1970s , especially in the north east of Scotland .
In February 2012 , the Centre for Economics and Business Research concluded that " Scotland receives no net subsidy " from the UK , as greater per capita tax generation in Scotland balanced out greater per capita public spending . More recent data , from 2012 – 13 , show that Scotland generated 9 @.@ 1 % ( £ 53.1bn ; this included a geographical share of North Sea oil revenue – without it , the figures were 8 @.@ 2 % and £ 47.6bn ) of the UK 's tax revenues and received 9 @.@ 3 % ( £ 65.2bn ) of spending . Scotland 's public spending deficit in 2012 – 13 was £ 12bn , a £ 3.5bn increase on the previous year ; over the same period , the UK 's deficit decreased by £ 2.6bn. Over the past thirty years , Scotland contributed a relative budget surplus of almost £ 20billion to the UK economy .
In the third quarter of 2015 , the Scottish economy grew by 0 @.@ 1 % , below the 0 @.@ 4 % recorded for the UK . As of September 2015 , the Scottish unemployment rate of 5 @.@ 9 % was above the UK rate of 5 @.@ 5 % , while the Scottish employment rate of 74 @.@ 0 % was higher than the UK figure of 73 @.@ 5 % . De @-@ industrialisation during the 1970s and 1980s saw a shift from a manufacturing focus towards a more service @-@ oriented economy .
Edinburgh is the financial services centre of Scotland , with many large finance firms based there , including : Lloyds Banking Group ( owners of HBOS ) ; the Government owned Royal Bank of Scotland and Standard Life . Edinburgh was ranked 15th in the list of world financial centres in 2007 , but fell to 37th in 2012 , following damage to its reputation , and in 2016 was ranked 56th out of 86 .
In 2012 , total Scottish exports ( excluding intra @-@ UK trade ) were estimated to be £ 26 billion , of which 59 % ( £ 15 @.@ 4 billion ) were attributable to manufacturing . Scotland 's primary exports include whisky , electronics and financial services . The United States , Netherlands , Germany , France and Norway constitute the country 's major export markets . Scotland 's Gross Domestic Product ( GDP ) , including oil and gas produced in Scottish waters , was estimated at £ 150 billion for the calendar year 2012 . If Scotland became independent , it would hold 95 % of the UK 's current oil and gas reserves if they were split geographically using a median line from the English @-@ Scottish border . If the reserves were split by population , that figure would be reduced to 9 % .
Whisky is one of Scotland 's more known goods of economic activity . Exports increased by 87 % in the decade to 2012 and were valued at £ 4 @.@ 3 billion in 2013 , which was 85 % of Scotland 's food and drink exports . It supports around 10 @,@ 000 jobs directly and 25 @,@ 000 indirectly . It may contribute £ 400 – 682 million to Scotland , rather than several billion pounds , as more than 80 % of whisky produced is owned by non @-@ Scottish companies .
A briefing published in 2002 by the Scottish Parliament Information Centre ( SPICe ) for the Scottish Parliament 's Enterprise and Life Long Learning Committee stated that tourism accounted for up to 5 % of GDP and 7 @.@ 5 % of employment .
= = = Currency = = =
Although the Bank of England is the central bank for the UK , three Scottish clearing banks still issue their own Sterling banknotes : the Bank of Scotland ; the Royal Bank of Scotland ; and the Clydesdale Bank . The value of the Scottish banknotes in circulation in 2013 was £ 3 @.@ 8 billion , underwritten by the Bank of England .
= = Military = =
Of the money spent on UK defence , about £ 3 @.@ 3 billion can be attributed to Scotland as of 2013 . Although Scotland has a long military tradition predating the Treaty of Union with England , its armed forces now form part of the British Armed Forces , with the notable exception of the Atholl Highlanders , Europe 's only legal private army . In 2006 , the infantry regiments of the Scottish Division were amalgamated to form the Royal Regiment of Scotland . Other distinctively Scottish regiments in the British Army include the Scots Guards , the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards and the Scottish Transport Regiment , a Territorial Army Regiment of the Royal Logistic Corps .
Because of their topography and perceived remoteness , parts of Scotland have housed many sensitive defence establishments . Between 1960 and 1991 , the Holy Loch was a base for the US fleet of Polaris ballistic missile submarines . Today , Her Majesty 's Naval Base Clyde , 25 miles ( 40 kilometres ) north west of Glasgow , is the base for the four Trident @-@ armed Vanguard class ballistic missile submarines that comprise the UK 's nuclear deterrent . Scapa Flow was the major Fleet base for the Royal Navy until 1956 .
A single front @-@ line Royal Air Force base is located in Scotland . RAF Lossiemouth , located in Moray , is the most northerly air defence fighter base in the United Kingdom and is home to Typhoon and Tornado fast @-@ jet squadrons
The only open @-@ air live depleted uranium weapons test range in the British Isles is located near Dundrennan . As a result , over 7000 potentially toxic munitions lie on the seabed of the Solway Firth .
= = Education = =
The Scottish education system is distinct from the rest of the United Kingdom . The " Curriculum for Excellence " provides the curricular framework for children and young people from age 3 to 18 . All 3- and 4 @-@ year @-@ old children in Scotland are entitled to a free nursery place . Formal primary education begins at approximately 5 years old and lasts for 7 years ( P1 – P7 ) ; today , children in Scotland study Standard Grades , or Intermediate qualifications between the ages of 14 and 16 . These are being phased out and replaced by the National Qualifications of the Curriculum for Excellence . The school leaving age is 16 , after which students may choose to remain at school and study for Access , Intermediate or Higher Grade and Advanced Higher qualifications . A small number of students at certain private , independent schools may follow the English system and study towards GCSEs and A and AS @-@ Levels instead .
There are fifteen Scottish universities , some of which are amongst the oldest in the world . These include the University of St Andrews , the University of Glasgow , the University of Aberdeen , the University of Edinburgh and the University of Dundee — many of which are ranked amongst the best in the UK . Proportionally , Scotland has more universities in QS ' World University Rankings ' top 100 than any other nation in the world . The country produces 1 % of the world 's published research with less than 0 @.@ 1 % of the world 's population , and higher education institutions account for 9 % of Scotland 's service sector exports . Scotland 's University Courts are the only bodies in Scotland authorised to award degrees . Scotland 's Universities are complemented in the provision of Further and Higher Education by 43 Colleges . Colleges offer National Certificates , Higher National Certificates and Higher National Diplomas . These Group Awards , alongside Scottish Vocational Qualifications , aim to ensure Scotland 's population has the appropriate skills and knowledge to meet workplace needs .
In 2014 , research reported by the Office for National Statistics found that Scotland was the most highly educated country in Europe and among the most well @-@ educated in the world in terms of tertiary education attainment , with roughly 40 % of people in Scotland aged 16 – 64 educated to NVQ level 4 and above . Based on the original data for EU statistical regions , all four Scottish regions ranked significantly above the European average for completion of tertiary @-@ level education by 25- to 64 @-@ year @-@ olds .
= = Culture = =
Scottish music is a significant aspect of the nation 's culture , with both traditional and modern influences . A famous traditional Scottish instrument is the Great Highland Bagpipe , a wind instrument consisting of three drones and a melody pipe ( called the chanter ) , which are fed continuously by a reservoir of air in a bag . Bagpipe bands , featuring bagpipes and various types of drums , and showcasing Scottish music styles while creating new ones , have spread throughout the world . The clàrsach ( harp ) , fiddle and accordion are also traditional Scottish instruments , the latter two heavily featured in Scottish country dance bands . Today , there are many successful Scottish bands and individual artists in varying styles including Annie Lennox , Amy Macdonald , Runrig , Boards of Canada , Cocteau Twins , Deacon Blue , Franz Ferdinand , Susan Boyle , Emeli Sandé , Texas , The View , The Fratellis , Twin Atlantic and Biffy Clyro . Other Scottish musicians include Shirley Manson , Paolo Nutini and Calvin Harris .
Scotland has a literary heritage dating back to the early Middle Ages . The earliest extant literature composed in what is now Scotland was in Brythonic speech in the 6th century , but is preserved as part of Welsh literature . Later medieval literature included works in Latin , Gaelic , Old English and French . The first surviving major text in Early Scots is the 14th @-@ century poet John Barbour 's epic Brus , focusing on the life of Robert I , and was soon followed by a series of vernacular romances and prose works . In the 16th century the crown 's patronage helped the development of Scots drama and poetry , but the accession of James VI to the English throne removed a major centre of literary patronage and Scots was sidelined as a literary language . Interest in Scots literature was revived in the 18th century by figures including James Macpherson , whose Ossian Cycle made him the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation and was a major influence on the European Enlightenment . It was also a major influence on Robert Burns , whom many consider the national poet , and Walter Scott , whose Waverley Novels did much to define Scottish identity in the 19th century . Towards the end of the Victorian era a number of Scottish @-@ born authors achieved international reputations as writers in English , including Robert Louis Stevenson , Arthur Conan Doyle , J. M. Barrie and George MacDonald . In the 20th century the Scottish Renaissance saw a surge of literary activity and attempts to reclaim the Scots language as a medium for serious literature . Members of the movement were followed by a new generation of post @-@ war poets including Edwin Morgan , who would be appointed the first Scots Makar by the inaugural Scottish government in 2004 . From the 1980s Scottish literature enjoyed another major revival , particularly associated with a group of writers including Irvine Welsh . Scottish poets who emerged in the same period included Carol Ann Duffy , who , in May 2009 , was the first Scot named UK Poet Laureate .
As one of the Celtic nations , Scotland and Scottish culture is represented at interceltic events at home and over the world . Scotland hosts several music festivals including Celtic Connections ( Glasgow ) , and the Hebridean Celtic Festival ( Stornoway ) . Festivals celebrating Celtic culture , such as Festival Interceltique de Lorient ( Brittany ) , the Pan Celtic Festival ( Ireland ) , and the National Celtic Festival ( Portarlington , Australia ) , feature elements of Scottish culture such as language , music and dance .
The image of St. Andrew , martyred while bound to an X @-@ shaped cross , first appeared in the Kingdom of Scotland during the reign of William I. Following the death of King Alexander III in 1286 an image of Andrew was used on the seal of the Guardians of Scotland who assumed control of the kingdom during the subsequent interregnum . Use of a simplified symbol associated with Saint Andrew , the saltire , has its origins in the late 14th century ; the Parliament of Scotland decreeing in 1385 that Scottish soldiers should wear a white Saint Andrew 's Cross on the front and back of their tunics . Use of a blue background for the Saint Andrew 's Cross is said to date from at least the 15th century . Since 1606 the saltire has also formed part of the design of the Union Flag . There are numerous other symbols and symbolic artefacts , both official and unofficial , including the thistle , the nation 's floral emblem ( celebrated in the song , The Thistle o ' Scotland ) , the Declaration of Arbroath , incorporating a statement of political independence made on 6 April 1320 , the textile pattern tartan that often signifies a particular Scottish clan and the royal Lion Rampant flag . Highlanders can thank James Graham , 3rd Duke of Montrose , for the repeal in 1782 of the Act of 1747 prohibiting the wearing of tartans .
Although there is no official national anthem of Scotland , Flower of Scotland is played on special occasions and sporting events such as football and rugby matches involving the Scotland national teams and since 2010 is also played at the Commonwealth Games after it was voted the overwhelming favourite by participating Scottish athletes . Other currently less popular candidates for the National Anthem of Scotland include Scotland the Brave , Highland Cathedral , Scots Wha Hae and A Man 's A Man for A ' That .
St Andrew 's Day , 30 November , is the national day , although Burns ' Night tends to be more widely observed , particularly outside Scotland . In 2006 , the Scottish Parliament passed the St. Andrew 's Day Bank Holiday ( Scotland ) Act 2007 , designating the day an official bank holiday.Tartan Day is a recent innovation from Canada .
The national animal of Scotland is the unicorn , which has been a Scottish heraldic symbol since the 12th century .
= = Media = =
National newspapers such as the Daily Record , The Herald , and The Scotsman are all produced in Scotland . Important regional dailies include the Evening News in Edinburgh The Courier in Dundee in the east , and The Press and Journal serving Aberdeen and the north . Scotland is represented at the Celtic Media Festival , which showcases film and television from the Celtic countries . Scottish entrants have won many awards since the festival began in 1980 .
Television in Scotland is largely the same as UK @-@ wide broadcasts , however the national broadcaster is BBC Scotland , a constituent part of the British Broadcasting Corporation , the publicly funded broadcaster of the United Kingdom . It runs three national television stations , and the national radio stations , BBC Radio Scotland and BBC Radio nan Gaidheal , amongst others . Scotland also has some programming in the Gaelic language . BBC Alba is the national Gaelic @-@ language channel . The main Scottish commercial television station is STV .
= = Sport = =
Scotland hosts its own national sporting competitions and has independent representation at several international sporting events , including the FIFA World Cup , the Rugby Union World Cup , the Rugby League World Cup , the Cricket World Cup and the Commonwealth Games . Scotland has its own national governing bodies , such as the Scottish Football Association ( the second oldest national football association in the world ) and the Scottish Rugby Union . Variations of football have been played in Scotland for centuries , with the earliest reference dating back to 1424 . Association football is the most popular sport and the Scottish Cup is the world 's oldest national trophy .
Scotland contested the first ever international football game in 1872 against England . The match took place at Hamilton Crescent , Glasgow , home of the West of Scotland Cricket Club . Scottish clubs have been successful in European competitions with Celtic winning the European Cup in 1967 , Rangers and Aberdeen winning the UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup in 1972 and 1983 respectively , and Aberdeen also winning the UEFA Super Cup in 1983 . Dundee United have also made it to a European final , reaching the UEFA Cup Final in 1987 , but losing 2 – 1 on aggregate to IFK Göteborg .
With the modern game of golf originating in 15th century Scotland , the country is promoted as the home of golf . To many golfers the Old Course in the Fife town of St. Andrews , an ancient links course dating to before 1574 , is considered a site of pilgrimage . In 1764 , the standard 18 @-@ hole golf course was created at St Andrews when members modified the course from 22 to 18 holes . The world 's oldest golf tournament , and golf 's first major , is The Open Championship , which was first played on 17 October 1860 at Prestwick Golf Club , in Ayrshire , Scotland , with Scottish golfers winning the earliest majors . There are many other famous golf courses in Scotland , including Carnoustie , Gleneagles , Muirfield , and Royal Troon . Other distinctive features of the national sporting culture include the Highland games , curling and shinty . In boxing , Scotland has had 13 world champions , including Ken Buchanan , Benny Lynch and Jim Watt .
Scotland has competed at every Commonwealth Games since 1930 and has won 356 medals in total — 91 Gold , 104 Silver and 161 Bronze . Edinburgh played host to the Commonwealth Games in 1970 and 1986 , and most recently Glasgow in 2014 .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Transport = = =
Scotland has five main international airports ( Glasgow , Edinburgh , Aberdeen , Prestwick and Inverness ) , which together serve 150 international destinations with a wide variety of scheduled and chartered flights . GIP operates Edinburgh airport and BAA operates ( Aberdeen and Glasgow International ) , while Highland and Islands Airports operates 11 regional airports , including Inverness , which serve the more remote locations . Infratil operates Prestwick .
The Scottish motorways and major trunk roads are managed by Transport Scotland . The remainder of the road network is managed by the Scottish local authorities in each of their areas .
= = = Water transport = = =
Regular ferry services operate between the Scottish mainland and many islands . These ferries are mostly run by Caledonian MacBrayne , but some are operated by local councils . Other ferry routes , served by multiple companies , connect to Northern Ireland , Belgium , Norway , the Faroe Islands and also Iceland .
= = = Rail = = =
Network Rail Infrastructure Limited owns and operates the fixed infrastructure assets of the railway system in Scotland , while the Scottish Government retains overall responsibility for rail strategy and funding in Scotland . Scotland 's rail network has around 340 railway stations and 3 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 900 mi ) of track . Over 62 million passenger journeys are made each year .
The East Coast and West Coast main railway lines connect the major cities and towns of Scotland with each other and with the rail network in England . Domestic rail services within Scotland are operated by ScotRail . During the time of British Rail the West Coast Main Line from London Euston to Glasgow Central was electrified in the early 1970s , followed by the East Coast Main Line in the late 1980s . British Rail created the ScotRail brand . When British Rail existed , many railway lines in Strathclyde were electrified . Strathclyde Passenger Transport Executive was at the forefront with the acclaimed " largest electrified rail network outside London " . Some parts of the network are electrified , but there are no electrified lines in the Highlands , Angus , Aberdeenshire , the cities of Dundee or Aberdeen , or Perth & Kinross , and none of the islands has a rail link ( although the railheads at Kyle of Lochalsh and Mallaig principally serve the islands ) .
The East Coast Main Line crosses the Firth of Forth by the Forth Bridge . Completed in 1890 , this cantilever bridge has been described as " the one internationally recognised Scottish landmark " . Scotland 's rail network is managed by Transport Scotland .
= = = Specialized monographs = = =
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= Brian Griffin 's House of Payne =
" Brian Griffin 's House of Payne " is the 15th episode of the eighth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on March 28 , 2010 . The episode features Brian after he discovers an old script he had written that Stewie found in the basement , and subsequently pitches the show to television executives . The show is quickly and dramatically altered by the executives and James Woods , however , much to the frustration of Brian , who nevertheless attempts to adapt to the new format . Meanwhile Chris and Meg attempt to hide the fact that Stewie is unconscious , after they accidentally bump him down a flight of stairs .
The episode was written by Spencer Porter and directed by Jerry Langford . It received mixed reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 7 @.@ 27 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Jennifer Birmingham , Rob Lotterstein , Danielle Panabaker , Charlie Sheen , Elijah Wood and James Woods , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . " Brian Griffin 's House of Payne " was released on DVD along with ten other episodes from the season on December 13 , 2011 .
= = Plot = =
Stewie rams a toy spaceship into Peter 's ear , annoying him , so Peter throws Rupert into the basement . Stewie follows the bear , discovering an old television script that Brian wrote entitled What I Learned on Jefferson Street . Stewie tosses the script onto the kitchen table , prompting Lois to question what it is about . Brian suggests she read it and tell him what she thinks . Lois falls in love with it , and suggests he meet with network executives about producing the show . When Brian pitches it to CBS , the executives respond positively . While the initial casting session goes well , with Elijah Wood auditioning for the lead , the producers assigned by the executives also bring in James Woods , who performs the role in a more comedic fashion , winning over the executives . Brian 's serious drama is turned into a sitcom , bringing in a live studio audience as well as a chimpanzee , and renaming it Class Holes . When Brian objects to the changes , the producers remind him of what he had tried to achieve for many years — his own television show — and threaten him with unemployment if he objects to those changes . Disappointed that Brian allowed the executives to change his show so dramatically , Lois demands that he stand up for himself and object to everything James Woods changed about the show . The producers , however , do not take kindly to Brian 's desire to start over , so Brian quits in frustration . Brian reveals his disappointment that he no longer has his own television show , but Lois convinces him that it is his integrity that matters . Peter interrupts , with his own show appearing on the screen , entitled Bigger Jaws .
Meanwhile , Chris sneaks into Meg 's bedroom and reads her diary . Discovering him , Meg chases after Chris while Stewie walks by the staircase . Accidentally bumped by them , Stewie tumbles down the stairs and becomes unconscious , suffering a severe head wound . Chris and Meg hide the wound with a hat . Continuing the charade , they are approached by Peter , who asks how long Stewie has been unconscious . Peter reveals that he has knocked both of them out plenty of times , and wants to continue hiding Stewie 's injury from Lois until he can frame her for it . The next day , noticing Lois pulling out of the driveway , Peter throws Stewie behind her car , making it appear Lois has run him over . Lois suggests they frame someone else , but Peter professes his love for her and suggests they take Stewie to the hospital . At the end of the show , Stewie walks in on the family with his head wrapped in bandages , revealing that many months have passed since his accident , he asks what happened to him .
= = Production and development = =
In his first official episode for the series , the show was written by Spencer Porter , who had previously worked as a writing assistant for series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane on both Family Guy , as well as The Cleveland Show and American Dad ! . In addition , the episode was directed by series regular Jerry Langford , his second episode for the season , the first being " Quagmire 's Baby " . Series regulars Peter Shin and James Purdum served as supervising directors , with Andrew Goldberg and Alex Carter serving as staff writers for the episode . Composer Ron Jones , who has worked on the series since its inception , returned to compose the music for " Brian Griffin 's House of Payne " . The opening scene of the episode , involving Stewie in the Star Wars @-@ like universe , was originally attempted to be animated by the traditional Korean animators , which regularly provide the animation for Family Guy . According to Shannon Smith , producer for Family Guy , half @-@ way through production of the sequence , they decided to approach a Vancouver @-@ based animation company instead , who had previously worked for Battlestar Galactica and Stargate . The sequence was created during the 2010 Winter Olympics , which took place in Vancouver , during which the company was on hiatus from their regularly scheduled work .
" Brian Griffin 's House of Payne " , along with the eleven other episodes from Family Guy 's eighth season , was released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on December 13 , 2011 . The sets include brief audio commentaries by various crew and cast members for several episodes , a collection of deleted scenes and animatics , a special mini @-@ feature which discussed the process behind animating " And Then There Were Fewer " , a mini @-@ feature entitled " The Comical Adventures of Family Guy – Brian & Stewie : The Lost Phone Call " , and footage of the Family Guy panel at the 2010 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International .
Returning for his fourth official appearance in the series , the first being " Peter 's Got Woods " , the second being " Back to the Woods " and the third being a brief cameo appearance in the The Empire Strikes Back parody entitled " Something , Something , Something , Dark Side " , actor James Woods reassumed his role as the overly exaggerated version of himself . Actress Danielle Panabaker , who played Woods ' character 's daughter in the TV series Shark , voiced Woods ' fictional daughter . In addition , voice actress Jennifer Birmingham , writer Rob Lotterstein , and actors Charlie Sheen and Elijah Wood guest star as themselves . Recurring guest voice actor Ralph Garman and writers Mark Hentemann , Chris Sheridan , Danny Smith , Alec Sulkin and John Viener also made minor appearances . Actress Jennifer Tilly and Actor Patrick Warburton guest appeared as well . " Brian Griffin 's House of Payne " was Elijah Wood 's first episode of Family Guy , however he previously provided a voice for Seth MacFarlane 's second show American Dad ! , in the Season 3 episode " Iced , Iced , Babies " .
= = Cultural references = =
In the opening scene of the episode , a Battlestar Galactica and Star Wars @-@ inspired space fight is shown between Stewie , Rupert , and a giant spaceship in the shape of Peter 's head , along with a series of lookalike TIE fighters . In addition , Stewie paraphrases a series of lyrics from the 1972 single " Rocket Man " by singer @-@ songwriter and composer Elton John . When Brian 's script is brought up during breakfast , Peter mentions his own idea for a script entitled Big Jaws , in which the shark from the 1975 film Jaws has to team up with the guys , including Martin Brody , Quint and Matt Hooper , to go after him to get " bigger Jaws . " After it 's produced , Peter already has a sequel in mind called Way Bigger Jaws . Most of the storyline following Stewie , Chris and Meg is an homage to the 1989 film Weekend at Bernie 's . The episode 's title is also a reference to the TBS series Tyler Perry 's House of Payne . As the family gathers around the television to watch Brian 's show , actors Charlie Sheen , Jon Cryer and Angus T. Jones of the CBS sitcom Two and a Half Men appear in the Griffin family living room , with Sheen attacking Brian for always criticizing their show .
= = Reception = =
In an improvement over the previous four episodes , the episode was viewed in 7 @.@ 27 million homes in its original airing , according to Nielsen ratings , despite airing simultaneously with The Amazing Race on CBS , Celebrity Apprentice on NBC and WWE WrestleMania XXVI on pay @-@ per @-@ view . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 7 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , beating The Simpsons , The Cleveland Show , and Sons of Tucson , in addition to significantly edging out all three shows in total viewership .
Reviews of the episode were mixed . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club called Brian 's plotline a " pretty funny , if uninspired , take on the pilot process . " VanDerWerff also criticized the Stewie storyline , calling it an unnecessary " grossout gag . " In a more positive review , Jason Hughes of TV Squad noted that " both storylines were funny to their respective ends , " in addition to praising James Woods ' performance in the episode . Ramsey Isler of IGN criticized Brian 's plotline , writing that it " really didn 't work as comedy " and " if the episode had been entirely about Stewie 's predicament , it might have been much better " .
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= Shimer College =
Shimer College ( pronounced / ˈʃaɪmər / SHY @-@ mər ) is an American Great Books college in Chicago , Illinois . Founded in 1853 as the Mt . Carroll Seminary in Mount Carroll , Illinois , the school became affiliated with the University of Chicago and was renamed the Frances Shimer Academy in 1896 . It was renamed Shimer College in 1950 , when it began offering a four @-@ year curriculum based on the Hutchins Plan of the University of Chicago . Although the University of Chicago parted with Shimer ( and the Hutchins Plan ) in 1958 , Shimer has continued to use a version of that curriculum . The college left Mount Carroll for Waukegan in 1978 , moving to Chicago in 2006 .
Its academic program is based on a core curriculum of sixteen required courses in the humanities , social sciences and natural sciences . All courses are small seminars with no more than twelve students , and are based on original sources from a list of about 200 core texts broadly based on the Great Books canon . Classroom instruction is Socratic discussion . Considerable writing is required , including two comprehensive examinations and a senior thesis . Students are admitted primarily on the basis of essays and interviews ; no minimum grades or test scores are required . Shimer has one of the highest alumni doctorate rates in the country .
The college occupies a complex designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe on the main campus of the Illinois Institute of Technology ( IIT ) in the Bronzeville neighborhood of Chicago 's Near South Side . The American Institute of Architects has called the IIT campus one of the 200 most significant works of architecture in the United States , and it was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2005 .
Shimer is governed internally by an assembly in which all community members have a vote .
According to The New York Times , students " share a love of books [ and ] a disdain for the conventional style of education . Many say they did not have a good high school experience " . Students , who tend to be individualistic and creative thinkers , are encouraged to ask questions . Shimer has historically averaged 125 students , and enrolled 97 in 2014 . Most Shimer alumni go on to graduate studies .
Shimer has announced an agreement to be acquired by North Central College " with the intention of a completed acquisition on or around March 1 , 2017 . "
= = History = =
In 1852 , the pioneer town of Mount Carroll , Illinois , lacking a public school , incorporated the Mount Carroll Seminary with no land , no teachers and no money . The town persuaded Frances Wood and Cindarella Gregory , two schoolteachers from Ballston Spa , New York , to come and teach . On May 11 , 1853 , the new seminary opened in a local church with eleven students .
Unable to raise sufficient funds locally , the seminary 's founders borrowed money to construct a building in 1854 . They were discouraged by the school 's finances and sold it to Wood and Gregory , who borrowed money for the purchase . In 1857 Wood married Henry Shimer , a mason who was a creditor of the seminary . In 1864 , the overcrowded school began accepting female students only .
To ensure the seminary 's long @-@ term survival , in 1896 Frances Shimer reached an agreement with the University of Chicago in which the school became the Frances Shimer Academy of the University of Chicago and was loosely affiliated with the Baptist Church . She retired to Florida , never returning to the school , and died in 1901 . University of Chicago president William Rainey Harper was the first to champion junior colleges in the United States , and in 1907 Shimer became one of the first schools to offer a junior @-@ college program . The two @-@ year junior @-@ college program , operating with the original preparatory program , was accredited in 1920 .
The college had a precipitous decline in enrollment and financial stability during and after the Great Depression , weathering the storm under five successive presidents . Its survival was due in part to the reorganization of the six @-@ year preparatory program into a four @-@ year junior college program and in part to steep salary reductions . In 1943 , Shimer president Albin C. Bro invited the Department of Education at the University of Chicago to evaluate the college community ; its 77 recommendations became the basis for Shimer 's transformation from a conservative finishing school to a nontraditional , co @-@ educational four @-@ year college .
The school was renamed Shimer College in 1950 , adopting the great @-@ books curriculum then in place at the University of Chicago . The university connection dissolved in 1958 after the latter 's decision to abandon the great @-@ books plan , and Shimer narrowly avoided bankruptcy in 1957 . The great @-@ books program at Shimer continued , and the school enjoyed national recognition and a rapid growth in enrollment during the 1960s . In 1963 , a Harvard Educational Review article listed Shimer as one of 11 colleges with an " ideal intellectual climate " . According to a 1966 article in the education journal Phi Delta Kappan , Shimer " present [ ed ] impressive statistical evidence that their students are better prepared for graduate work in the arts and sciences and in the professions than those who have specialized in particular areas " .
During the late 1960s Shimer experienced a period of internal unrest known as the Grotesque Internecine Struggle , with disputes over curriculum changes , the extent to which student behavior should be regulated and inadequate fundraising by president Francis Joseph Mullin . Half the faculty and a large portion of the student body left as a result . Its financial problems worsened , and the school 's survival was uncertain . Although Shimer 's trustees voted to close the college at the end of 1973 , the school was saved by intense student and faculty fundraising . In the school 's 1977 bankruptcy filing the trustees , in the words of board chair Barry Carroll , " put responsibility for the school 's continuing on the shoulders of a very dedicated faculty of 12 and students who volunteered " .
During the 1978 Christmas break , the faculty and 62 students borrowed trucks and moved the college into two " run @-@ down " homes in Waukegan , Illinois , a suburb north of Chicago . Shimer emerged from bankruptcy in 1980 . During the next 25 years , the college purchased 12 surrounding homes to form a makeshift campus and slowly progressed towards financial stability . By 1988 its enrollment had grown from a low of 40 to 114 , and income exceeded expenses . In 1991 , Shimer received a grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities with the help of NEH chair and core @-@ curriculum advocate Lynne Cheney ; the grant revitalized the school 's fundraising , helping it raise $ 2 million .
In 2006 , Shimer again moved to the campus of the Illinois Institute of Technology ( IIT ) in Chicago . Although the institutions operate independently , they cooperate closely under a long @-@ term agreement .
Shimer received national attention in 2009 , when it was embroiled in " a battle over what some saw as a right @-@ wing attempt to take over its board and administration " . In February 2012 the college announced the appointment of Susan Henking , former professor of religious studies at Hobart and William Smith Colleges , as Shimer 's 14th president .
In September 2014 Shimer again received media attention when Ben Miller of Washington Monthly ranked it as one of the worst colleges in America , according to a formula adjusting graduation rates to the percentage of minority and low @-@ income students and factoring net expense to low @-@ income students . In December 2014 Jon Ronson of The Guardian disputed Miller 's claim , citing Miller 's assertion that the ranking was " at least partly due to small sample sizes " .
= = Academics = =
= = = Curriculum history = = =
Shimer is one of four colleges in the U.S. which follow the great @-@ books tradition begun by John Erskine . Erskine 's Socratic seminar at Columbia University ( begun in 1919 ) impacted his colleague , Mortimer J. Adler , who came to believe that the purpose of education was to engage student minds " in the study of individual works of merit ... accompanied by a discussion of the ideas , the values , and the forms embodied in such products of human art " . Robert Maynard Hutchins , head of the University of Chicago from 1929 to 1951 , brought Adler to the university and implemented a program ( known as the Chicago Program and , later , the Hutchins Plan ) based on Adler 's ideas .
The Chicago program comprised sequences in the natural sciences , the humanities , and the social sciences which were supposed to integrate past and present work within these divisions of knowledge . In addition , these sequences were capped by work in philosophy and history . The emphasis in teaching was on small classes with bright students , where discussion could supplant monologue as the dominant pedagogic technique .... At the same time , in order to retain high academic standards and contact with the " frontiers of knowledge " , the College 's pedagogy emphasized reading originals ( sometimes although not invariably , defined as Great Books ) .
Shimer , affiliated with the University of Chicago since 1896 , adopted the Hutchins plan ( including University of Chicago syllabi , comprehensive examinations and several university instructors ) in 1950 . When Hutchins left the university in 1951 and it abandoned the Hutchins Plan , Shimer continued to use it and it is still reflected in the college 's curriculum .
= = = Degree program = = =
Shimer is accredited by the Higher Learning Commission of the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools . Its core curriculum is a sequence of sixteen required courses in the humanities , social sciences , natural sciences and interdisciplinary studies . Basic @-@ studies courses are generally taken during the first two years , advanced @-@ studies during the final two years and integrative @-@ studies courses in the final year . In addition to core courses students take electives , which offer basic instruction or in @-@ depth work in particular subjects . Students may also take tutorials , with one or two students per course , tailored to their interests and similar in structure to the Oxford tutorial system .
Shimer College students do not pursue traditional majors , instead having broad concentrations in the humanities , natural sciences or social sciences . Within these areas , students may specialize in literature , mathematics , philosophy , political science or psychology .
The school 's 200 @-@ book reading list remains largely faithful to the original Hutchins plan , with new works judiciously added to the core curriculum . These include voices originally overlooked in the formation of the canon : Martin Luther King , Jr . , Carol Gilligan , Frantz Fanon , Michel Foucault and other contemporary authors . Readings are organized by broad historical and philosophical themes .
Small seminars remain the sole form of instruction in all subjects , from mathematics to poetry . Classes are composed of no more than twelve students ( the average class size is seven ) , who read and discuss only source material . In a process Shimer calls " shared inquiry " , " the text is the teacher , and thus the faculty member 's role is to facilitate interaction between the text and the students " . According to a former Shimer professor :
At Shimer , the professor is a facilitator , a guide on the side , not a sage on the stage – encouraging each student to contribute to the intellectual light being kindled in every class . Each student is expected to question and comment upon the text , to respond to one other ’ s insights , actively taking part in every discussion .... Students know their insights matter ; they have something to offer to their peers , and to the life of the text being discussed . Some students are more exuberant than others , some would rather talk than listen ; others may be a bit shy . The professor / facilitator must make sure that each student has a chance to shine , that each can feel confident , each can have the courage to ask what they think might be a stupid question . What are feared to be stupid questions are often the most provocative ones .
The curriculum emphasizes writing ; students are required to complete a semester project each term on a topic chosen in conjunction with an advisor , and are required to complete a research paper during their third year . All students must pass a basic @-@ studies comprehensive examination to register for upper @-@ level courses , and at least one area @-@ studies comprehensive examination ( usually in their area of concentration ) to graduate . A senior thesis is required of all students . Usually an analytic or expository essay , it may also be a piece of original fiction , poetry , a performance or work of visual art . Students are encouraged to present their theses orally , and the public is invited to the presentations .
= = = Special programs = = =
= = = = Early Entrance program = = = =
The Early Entrance program , which admits students who have not yet graduated from high school , was pioneered by Hutchins at the University of Chicago in 1937 and adopted by Shimer in 1950 . It has continued with the support of the Ford Foundation , the Carnegie Foundation and the Surdna Foundation . In the past , up to 80 percent of Shimer 's student body was composed of Early Entrance students .
Early entrants are admitted after the 10th or 11th grade , and follow the regular curriculum . The college considers applications from any interested students , with motivation , willingness to learn and intellectual curiosity the most important qualifications . Shimer encourages applications from home @-@ schooled students , accommodating their lack of credentials such as transcripts . In 2008 , 16 percent of new students were early entrants or home @-@ schooled .
= = = = Joint programs = = = =
The Great Books + Law program , introduced in 2007 , is offered in conjunction with the Chicago @-@ Kent College of Law ( the law school of the Illinois Institute of Technology ) and the Vermont Law School and allows students to complete undergraduate and law degrees in six ( instead of seven ) years . Shimer has a dual @-@ enrollment program with Harold Washington College , one of the few community colleges in the U.S. with a great @-@ books program . The program allows HWC students to take a Shimer course , and is intended to encourage students to transfer to Shimer to complete their bachelor 's degree .
= = = = Study abroad = = = =
Shimer first offered a year of study abroad ( in Paris ) in 1961 , and the college has had a biennial program in Oxford since 1963 . The Shimer @-@ in @-@ Oxford program allows third- or fourth @-@ year students to study for one or two semesters in Oxford , supervised by a Shimer professor . Students take a core class each term with the supervising faculty ; the rest of their work is completed in tutorials of self @-@ selected subjects under the guidance of academics associated with the University of Oxford .
= = = = Teaching Fellows Program = = = =
The Teaching Fellows Program , now discontinued , was a graduate @-@ level great @-@ books course designed for kindergarten through 12th @-@ grade teachers . Although Shimer does not award graduate degrees , teachers could then earn professional development credit with the program ; it complements traditional education courses by providing background knowledge for teachers to impart more content @-@ rich instruction . The program was developed in conjunction with the Core Knowledge Foundation , founded in 1986 by E. D. Hirsch ( author of Cultural Literacy : What Every American Needs to Know ) to promote a common core in U.S. elementary education .
= = = Faculty = = =
As of 2014 Shimer had eleven full @-@ time faculty and one part @-@ time faculty member , and the student @-@ faculty ratio is eight to one . All full @-@ time faculty have doctoral degrees . Shimer instructors teach across disciplines ; the " ideal is that any faculty member can teach any one of the core courses " .
= = = Admission = = =
Shimer applicants are evaluated according to their academic potential , and no minimum grade @-@ point average or test score is required . Applicants are required to write essays analyzing their academic experience and demonstrating their creative talent . These essays and interviews are the primary criteria for admission . The college accepts students it believes will benefit from , and contribute to , its intellectual community . Barron ’ s Profiles of American Colleges rates Shimer " very competitive plus " . Candidates are counseled before applying , and nearly 90 percent of those who apply are admitted .
In 2010 , the average GPA of incoming students was 3 @.@ 29 out of 4 @.@ 0 . Average composite scores on standardized college @-@ admissions tests were 28 on the ACT ( the 92nd percentile ) and 1917 on the SAT ( the 90th percentile ) .
= = = Tuition and fees = = =
In 2014 full @-@ time tuition was $ 27 @,@ 491 , and the total cost of attendance ( including room , board and fees ) was $ 41 @,@ 615 . All students received financial aid , with the average aid package $ 13 @,@ 956 .
= = = Recognition and rankings = = =
Shimer has one of the highest rates of doctoral candidates in the U.S. In a 1998 University of Wisconsin – Madison study , the college had the highest rate of graduates receiving doctoral degrees of any liberal @-@ arts college and the third @-@ highest rate of any undergraduate program in the nation . A 2009 report by Washington Monthly ranked Shimer third in graduate Ph.D. rate among U.S. liberal @-@ arts colleges . Studies based on Higher Education Data Sharing Consortium data found that Shimer had the seventh @-@ highest alumni Ph.D. rate of U.S. colleges and universities , and the highest rate for Ph.D.s in linguistics .
Shimer students who take the Graduate Record Exam outscore three out of four potential graduate students , " consistently rank [ ing ] among the best in the nation in scores on the verbal and analytical portions of the test " with average analytic scores in the 91st percentile .
Insight Magazine named Shimer one of its 15 Most Politically @-@ Incorrect Colleges : " colleges that had strong and effective traditional curricula that were not ' obsessed with the recent educational fads and fetishes such as multiculturalism and diversity ' " . Barron 's called Shimer one of the 300 best buys in college education , noting that " the success of the Shimer curriculum depends a great deal on the knowledge and skill of the faculty facilitators , who receive accolades ranging from ' fantastic ' to ' brilliant ' " . Shimer was one of the top 50 colleges in All @-@ American Colleges : Top Schools for Conservatives , Old @-@ Fashioned Liberals , and People of Faith , which highlights " programs that connect in a special way with the core values of the American founding and the vibrant intellectual traditions of the West " .
In 2007 , Shimer joined a national effort by the Education Conservancy to boycott participation in college @-@ ranking surveys . President William Craig Rice said , " What Shimer does well — educating ourselves in on @-@ going dialogue with the greatest minds of the past — can ’ t be captured in the U.S. News measurements " . Washington Monthly ranks Shimer 200th among liberal @-@ arts colleges , based on social mobility , research and service . The college is unranked by U.S. News & World Report .
= = Campus = =
Shimer is located on the main campus of the Illinois Institute of Technology . IIT 's 120 @-@ acre ( 48 @.@ 6 ha ) campus is at the intersection of 33rd and State Streets , about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) south of the Chicago Loop , and borders the Bridgeport and Bronzeville neighborhoods of Chicago 's Near South Side . In 1976 the American Institute of Architects named the IIT campus one of the 200 most significant works of architecture in the United States , and it was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2005 .
Shimer occupies 17 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 580 m2 ) on two floors of the former Institute of Gas Technology complex . The complex , designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe , consists of four buildings ( the southernmost formerly hosting the first industrial nuclear reactor in the U.S. ) The college has access to the Paul V. Galvin Library , IIT 's main research library , and Shimer 's collection of 15 @,@ 000 books has also been housed in the Galvin Library since the school relocated from Waukegan .
= = Organization and administration = =
According to the college , " As a function of its mission to promote active citizenship " it is " devoted to internal self @-@ governance to an extent that is rare among institutions of higher education " . Since 1977 , Shimer has been governed internally by a body known as the Assembly . Begun informally in the years before the move to Waukegan , the Assembly was formalized with a constitution in 1980 . Voting members include students , faculty , administrators , staff and trustees ; alumni are members , but do not vote .
The Assembly has no independent legal authority , but governs " by virtue of the moral suasion established by communal deliberation " . Its goal is to foster an environment in which " all the top @-@ down bureaucracy of traditional colleges and universities has been replaced by participatory democracy committed to dialogue . " Shimer students participate in the IIT Student Government Association , a liaison between students and university administration and a forum for student opinion .
= = Student life = =
The New York Times , calling Shimer " one of the smallest liberal arts colleges in the United States " , described its students as " both valedictorians and high school dropouts . What the students share , besides a love of books , is a disdain for the conventional style of education . Many say they did not have a good high school experience . " Shimer students tend to be individualistic , creative thinkers and are encouraged to be inquisitive . The college enrolled 97 students in 2014 , about half from Illinois . Of these students 41 were women , 25 percent were students of color and 76 percent were age 24 or over . Forty percent were first @-@ time , full @-@ time college students . Of the full @-@ time students attending for the first time in 2012 , 86 percent returned for their second year . Sixty percent of students who entered in 2007 completed a bachelor 's degree in six years .
The college has a tradition of community meals dating back to the Waukegan campus , when the community would meet for potluck meals and discuss matters of general interest . The Orange Horse , Shimer 's biennial talent show since the 1960s , invites students , faculty and alumni to read poetry , sing , play music or tell jokes , individually or in groups . The Shimer theater program produces plays complementing its curriculum , offering anyone who wants to participate the chance to do so . Recent productions have included Anton Chekhov 's Uncle Vanya and Eve Ensler 's The Vagina Monologues .
In addition to student services at the McCormick Tribune Campus Center and its health and athletic facilities , Shimer students may participate in the more than 150 student organizations sponsored by IIT ( including Liit Magazine , IIT 's student @-@ run literary magazine and IIT 's on @-@ campus radio station , WIIT , where students can host a show ) .
= = Alumni = =
Most Shimer alumni continue to graduate school ; 50 percent earn master 's degrees , and 21 percent earn doctorates . Another ten percent attend law school and five percent go to business school . As of 2008 , Shimer had 5 @,@ 615 living alumni . Nearly 25 percent of graduates are employed in education ( elementary school through college ) , seven percent are attorneys and seven percent work in the computer @-@ software industry . The remainder occupy all walks of life , from consulting to social services to non @-@ profit organizations .
Notable alumni include :
Peter Cooley : Prize @-@ winning poet , author , and professor of English at Tulane University
Alan Dowty : Arab Israeli conflict scholar and professor emeritus at the University of Notre Dame
Robert Keohane : Political scientist , international relations scholar and professor at the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs best known for After Hegemony : Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy
John Norman Maclean : Pulitzer Prize @-@ nominated author of the 1999 bestseller Fire on the Mountain
Daniel J. Sandin : Pioneer in computer graphics , electronic art and visualization , professor emeritus and director of the Electronic Visualization Laboratory at the University of Illinois Chicago
Jayne Barron Sherman : Producer of the Tony Award @-@ winning Broadway shows A Raisin in the Sun , The Normal Heart , Kinky Boots and Hedwig and the Angry Inch
Phoebe Snow : Grammy @-@ nominated singer @-@ songwriter best known for her 1974 hit , " Poetry Man "
Laurie Spiegel : Composer , software engineer and electronic and computer music pioneer
Sydney Spiesel : Medical inventor , Slate columnist and professor at the Yale University School of Medicine
Daniel Perlman : Former president of Suffolk University in Boston , Massachusetts and Webster University in Webster Groves , Missouri
Nick Pippenger : Computing researcher and theorist , IBM Fellow and professor at Harvey Mudd College . Known for his work on the foundations of computer science , including complexity , computability and communications theory
Tucker Viemeister : Award @-@ winning industrial designer and holder of 32 US patents , called " industrial design 's elder wonderkind " by I.D.
Phyllis Westberg : Literary agent and president of Harold Ober Associates , whose clients have included J. D. Salinger and Langston Hughes
Mary Wings : Writer , artist , and musician known for publishing the first lesbian underground comic book and a series of novels with lesbian detective Emma Victor
Roland Winston : Leading figure in nonimaging optics and its applications to solar energy who has been called the " father of non @-@ imaging optics " . Director of the California Advanced Solar Technologies Institute
Catherine " Cat " Yronwode : Award @-@ winning writer and comic @-@ book editor
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= Titania ( moon ) =
Titania is the largest of the moons of Uranus and the eighth largest moon in the Solar System at a diameter of 1 @,@ 578 kilometres ( 981 mi ) . Discovered by William Herschel in 1787 , Titania is named after the queen of the fairies in Shakespeare 's A Midsummer Night 's Dream . Its orbit lies inside Uranus 's magnetosphere .
Titania consists of approximately equal amounts of ice and rock , and is probably differentiated into a rocky core and an icy mantle . A layer of liquid water may be present at the core – mantle boundary . The surface of Titania , which is relatively dark and slightly red in color , appears to have been shaped by both impacts and endogenic processes . It is covered with numerous impact craters reaching up to 326 kilometres ( 203 mi ) in diameter , but is less heavily cratered than the surface of Uranus 's outermost moon , Oberon . Titania probably underwent an early endogenic resurfacing event which obliterated its older , heavily cratered surface . Titania 's surface is cut by a system of enormous canyons and scarps , the result of the expansion of its interior during the later stages of its evolution . Like all major moons of Uranus , Titania probably formed from an accretion disk which surrounded the planet just after its formation .
Infrared spectroscopy conducted from 2001 to 2005 revealed the presence of water ice as well as frozen carbon dioxide on the surface of Titania , which in turn suggested that the moon may have a tenuous carbon dioxide atmosphere with a surface pressure of about 10 nanopascals ( 10 − 13 bar ) . Measurements during Titania 's occultation of a star put an upper limit on the surface pressure of any possible atmosphere at 1 – 2 mPa ( 10 – 20 nbar ) .
The Uranian system has been studied up close only once , by the spacecraft Voyager 2 in January 1986 . It took several images of Titania , which allowed mapping of about 40 % of its surface .
= = History = =
Titania was discovered by William Herschel on January 11 , 1787 , the same day he discovered Uranus 's second largest moon , Oberon . He later reported the discoveries of four more satellites , although they were subsequently revealed as spurious . For nearly fifty years following their discovery , Titania and Oberon would not be observed by any instrument other than William Herschel 's , although the moon can be seen from Earth with a present @-@ day high @-@ end amateur telescope .
All of Uranus 's moons are named after characters created by William Shakespeare or Alexander Pope . The name Titania was taken from the Queen of the Fairies in A Midsummer Night 's Dream . The names of all four satellites of Uranus then known were suggested by Herschel 's son John in 1852 , at the request of William Lassell , who had discovered the other two moons , Ariel and Umbriel , the year before .
Titania was initially referred to as " the first satellite of Uranus " , and in 1848 was given the designation Uranus I by William Lassell , although he sometimes used William Herschel 's numbering ( where Titania and Oberon are II and IV ) . In 1851 Lassell eventually numbered all four known satellites in order of their distance from the planet by Roman numerals , and since then Titania has been designated Uranus III .
Shakespeare 's character 's name is pronounced / tᵻˈteɪnjə / , but the moon is often pronounced / taɪˈteɪniə / , by analogy with the familiar chemical element titanium . The adjectival form , Titanian , is homonymous with that of Saturn 's moon Titan . The name Titania is ancient Greek in origin , meaning " Daughter of the Titans . "
= = Orbit = =
Titania orbits Uranus at the distance of about 436 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 271 @,@ 000 mi ) , being the second farthest from the planet among its five major moons . Titania 's orbit has a small eccentricity and is inclined very little relative to the equator of Uranus . Its orbital period is around 8 @.@ 7 days , coincident with its rotational period . In other words , Titania is a synchronous or tidally locked satellite , with one face always pointing toward the planet .
Titania 's orbit lies completely inside the Uranian magnetosphere . This is important , because the trailing hemispheres of satellites orbiting inside a magnetosphere are struck by magnetospheric plasma , which co @-@ rotates with the planet . This bombardment may lead to the darkening of the trailing hemispheres , which is actually observed for all Uranian moons except Oberon ( see below ) .
Because Uranus orbits the Sun almost on its side , and its moons orbit in the planet 's equatorial plane , they ( including Titania ) are subject to an extreme seasonal cycle . Both northern and southern poles spend 42 years in a complete darkness , and another 42 years in continuous sunlight , with the sun rising close to the zenith over one of the poles at each solstice . The Voyager 2 flyby coincided with the southern hemisphere 's 1986 summer solstice , when nearly the entire northern hemisphere was unilluminated . Once every 42 years , when Uranus has an equinox and its equatorial plane intersects the Earth , mutual occultations of Uranus 's moons become possible . In 2007 – 2008 a number of such events were observed including two occultations of Titania by Umbriel on August 15 and December 8 , 2007 .
= = Composition and internal structure = =
Titania is the largest and most massive Uranian moon , and the eighth most massive moon in the Solar System . Its density of 1 @.@ 71 g / cm ³ , which is much higher than the typical density of Saturn 's satellites , indicates that it consists of roughly equal proportions of water ice and dense non @-@ ice components ; the latter could be made of rock and carbonaceous material including heavy organic compounds . The presence of water ice is supported by infrared spectroscopic observations made in 2001 – 2005 , which have revealed crystalline water ice on the surface of the moon . Water ice absorption bands are slightly stronger on Titania 's leading hemisphere than on the trailing hemisphere . This is the opposite of what is observed on Oberon , where the trailing hemisphere exhibits stronger water ice signatures . The cause of this asymmetry is not known , but it may be related to the bombardment by charged particles from the magnetosphere of Uranus , which is stronger on the trailing hemisphere ( due to the plasma 's co @-@ rotation ) . The energetic particles tend to sputter water ice , decompose methane trapped in ice as clathrate hydrate and darken other organics , leaving a dark , carbon @-@ rich residue behind .
Except for water , the only other compound identified on the surface of Titania by infrared spectroscopy is carbon dioxide , which is concentrated mainly on the trailing hemisphere . The origin of the carbon dioxide is not completely clear . It might be produced locally from carbonates or organic materials under the influence of the solar ultraviolet radiation or energetic charged particles coming from the magnetosphere of Uranus . The latter process would explain the asymmetry in its distribution , because the trailing hemisphere is subject to a more intense magnetospheric influence than the leading hemisphere . Another possible source is the outgassing of the primordial CO2 trapped by water ice in Titania 's interior . The escape of CO2 from the interior may be related to the past geological activity on this moon .
Titania may be differentiated into a rocky core surrounded by an icy mantle . If this is the case , the radius of the core 520 kilometres ( 320 mi ) is about 66 % of the radius of the moon , and its mass is around 58 % of the moon ’ s mass — the proportions are dictated by moon 's composition . The pressure in the center of Titania is about 0 @.@ 58 GPa ( 5 @.@ 8 kbar ) . The current state of the icy mantle is unclear . If the ice contains enough ammonia or other antifreeze , Titania may have a subsurface ocean at the core – mantle boundary . The thickness of this ocean , if it exists , is up to 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) and its temperature is around 190 K. However the present internal structure of Titania depends heavily on its thermal history , which is poorly known .
= = Surface features = =
Among Uranus 's moons , Titania is intermediate in brightness between the dark Oberon and Umbriel and the bright Ariel and Miranda . Its surface shows a strong opposition surge : its reflectivity decreases from 35 % at a phase angle of 0 ° ( geometrical albedo ) to 25 % at an angle of about 1 ° . Titania has a relatively low Bond albedo of about 17 % . Its surface is generally slightly red in color , but less red than that of Oberon . However , fresh impact deposits are bluer , while the smooth plains situated on the leading hemisphere near Ursula crater and along some grabens are somewhat redder . There may be an asymmetry between the leading and trailing hemispheres ; the former appears to be redder than the latter by 8 % . However , this difference is related to the smooth plains and may be accidental . The reddening of the surfaces probably results from space weathering caused by bombardment by charged particles and micrometeorites over the age of the Solar System . However , the color asymmetry of Titania is more likely related to accretion of a reddish material coming from outer parts of the Uranian system , possibly , from irregular satellites , which would be deposited predominately on the leading hemisphere .
Scientists have recognized three classes of geological feature on Titania : craters , chasmata ( canyons ) and rupes ( scarps ) . The surface of Titania is less heavily cratered than the surfaces of either Oberon or Umbriel , which means that it is much younger . The crater diameters range from a few kilometers at the low end to 326 kilometers for the largest known crater , Gertrude . Some craters ( for instance , Ursula and Jessica ) are surrounded by bright impact ejecta ( rays ) consisting of relatively fresh ice . All large craters on Titania have flat floors and central peaks . The only exception is Ursula , which has a pit in the center . To the west of Gertrude there is an area with irregular topography , the so @-@ called " unnamed basin " , which may be another highly degraded impact basin with the diameter of about 330 kilometres ( 210 mi ) .
Titania 's surface is intersected by a system of enormous faults , or scarps . In some places , two parallel scarps mark depressions in the satellite 's crust , forming grabens , which are sometimes called canyons . The most prominent among Titania 's canyons is Messina Chasma , which runs for about 1 @,@ 500 kilometres ( 930 mi ) from the equator almost to the south pole . The grabens on Titania are 20 – 50 kilometres ( 12 – 31 mi ) wide and have a relief of about 2 – 5 km . The scarps that are not related to canyons are called rupes , such as Rousillon Rupes near Ursula crater . The regions along some scarps and near Ursula appear smooth at Voyager 's image resolution . These smooth plains were probably resurfaced later in Titania 's geological history , after the majority of craters formed . The resurfacing may have been either endogenic in nature , involving the eruption of fluid material from the interior ( cryovolcanism ) , or , alternatively it may be due to blanking by the impact ejecta from nearby large craters . The grabens are probably the youngest geological features on Titania — they cut all craters and even smooth plains .
The geology of Titania was influenced by two competing forces : impact crater formation and endogenic resurfacing . The former acted over the moon 's entire history and influenced all surfaces . The latter processes were also global in nature , but active mainly for a period following the moon 's formation . They obliterated the original heavily cratered terrain , explaining the relatively low number of impact craters on the moon 's present @-@ day surface . Additional episodes of resurfacing may have occurred later and led to the formation of smooth plains . Alternatively smooth plains may be ejecta blankets of the nearby impact craters . The most recent endogenous processes were mainly tectonic in nature and caused the formation of the canyons , which are actually giant cracks in the ice crust . The cracking of the crust was caused by the global expansion of Titania by about 0 @.@ 7 % .
= = Atmosphere = =
The presence of carbon dioxide on the surface suggests that Titania may have a tenuous seasonal atmosphere of CO2 , much like that of the Jovian moon Callisto . Other gases , like nitrogen or methane , are unlikely to be present , because Titania 's weak gravity could not prevent them from escaping into space . At the maximum temperature attainable during Titania 's summer solstice ( 89 K ) , the vapor pressure of carbon dioxide is about 300 μPa ( 3 nbar ) .
On September 8 , 2001 , Titania occulted a bright star ( HIP106829 ) with a visible magnitude of 7 @.@ 2 ; this was an opportunity to both refine Titania 's diameter and ephemeris , and to detect any extant atmosphere . The data revealed no atmosphere to a surface pressure of 1 – 2 mPa ( 10 – 20 nbar ) ; if it exists , it would have to be far thinner than that of Triton or Pluto . This upper limit is still several times higher than the maximum possible surface pressure of the carbon dioxide , meaning that the measurements place essentially no constraints on parameters of the atmosphere .
The peculiar geometry of the Uranian system causes the moons ' poles to receive more solar energy than their equatorial regions . Because the vapor pressure of CO2 is a steep function of temperature , this may lead to the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the low @-@ latitude regions of Titania , where it can stably exist on high albedo patches and shaded regions of the surface in the form of ice . During the summer , when the polar temperatures reach as high as 85 – 90 K , carbon dioxide sublimates and migrates to the opposite pole and to the equatorial regions , giving rise to a type of carbon cycle . The accumulated carbon dioxide ice can be removed from cold traps by magnetospheric particles , which sputter it from the surface . Titania is thought to have lost a significant amount of carbon dioxide since its formation 4 @.@ 6 billion years ago .
= = Origin and evolution = =
Titania is thought to have formed from an accretion disc or subnebula ; a disc of gas and dust that either existed around Uranus for some time after its formation or was created by the giant impact that most likely gave Uranus its large obliquity . The precise composition of the subnebula is not known ; however , the relatively high density of Titania and other Uranian moons compared to the moons of Saturn indicates that it may have been relatively water @-@ poor . Significant amounts of nitrogen and carbon may have been present in the form of carbon monoxide and N2 instead of ammonia and methane . The moons that formed in such a subnebula would contain less water ice ( with CO and N2 trapped as a clathrate ) and more rock , explaining the higher density .
Titania 's accretion probably lasted for several thousand years . The impacts that accompanied accretion caused heating of the moon 's outer layer . The maximum temperature of around 250 K ( − 23 ° C ) was reached at a depth of about 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) . After the end of formation , the subsurface layer cooled , while the interior of Titania heated due to decay of radioactive elements present in its rocks . The cooling near @-@ surface layer contracted , while the interior expanded . This caused strong extensional stresses in the moon 's crust leading to cracking . Some of the present @-@ day canyons may be a result of this . The process lasted for about 200 million years , implying that any endogenous activity ceased billions of years ago .
The initial accretional heating together with continued decay of radioactive elements were probably strong enough to melt the ice if some antifreeze like ammonia ( in the form of ammonia hydrate ) or salt was present . Further melting may have led to the separation of ice from rocks and formation of a rocky core surrounded by an icy mantle . A layer of liquid water ( ocean ) rich in dissolved ammonia may have formed at the core – mantle boundary . The eutectic temperature of this mixture is 176 K ( − 97 ° C ) . If the temperature dropped below this value , the ocean would have subsequently frozen . The freezing of the water would have caused the interior to expand , which may have been responsible for the formation of the majority of the canyons . However , the present knowledge of Titania 's geological evolution is quite limited .
= = Exploration = =
So far the only close @-@ up images of Titania have been from the Voyager 2 probe , which photographed the moon during its flyby of Uranus in January 1986 . Since the closest distance between Voyager 2 and Titania was only 365 @,@ 200 km ( 226 @,@ 900 mi ) , the best images of this moon have a spatial resolution of about 3 @.@ 4 km ( only Miranda and Ariel were imaged with a better resolution ) . The images cover about 40 % of the surface , but only 24 % was photographed with the precision required for geological mapping . At the time of the flyby , the southern hemisphere of Titania ( like those of the other moons ) was pointed towards the Sun , so the northern ( dark ) hemisphere could not be studied .
No other spacecraft has ever visited the Uranian system or Titania , and no mission is currently planned . One possibility , now discarded , was to send Cassini on from Saturn to Uranus in an extended mission . Another mission concept proposed was the Uranus orbiter and probe concept , evaluated around 2010 . Uranus was also examined as part of one trajectory for a precursor interstellar probe concept , Innovative Interstellar Explorer .
A Uranus orbiter was listed as the third priority for a NASA Flagship mission by the NASA Planetary Science Decadal Survey , and conceptual designs for such a mission are currently being analyzed .
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= Birchington @-@ on @-@ Sea =
Birchington @-@ on @-@ Sea is a village in north @-@ east Kent , England , with a population of around 10 @,@ 000 .
It is part of the Thanet district and forms part of the civil parish of Birchington . It lies on the coast facing the North Sea , east of the Thames Estuary , between the seaside resorts of Herne Bay and Margate . As a seaside resort , the village is a tourist and retirement destination . The village 's Minnis Bay is a family beach with attractions such as sailing , windsurfing , a paddling pool and coastal walking routes . Its three smaller beaches are surrounded by chalk cliffs , cliff stacks and caves .
The village was first recorded in 1240 . Its parish church , All Saints ' , dates to the 13th century and its churchyard is the burial place of the 19th @-@ century Pre @-@ Raphaelite artist Dante Gabriel Rossetti . Quex Park , a local 19th @-@ century manor house , is home to the Powell @-@ Cotton Museum and a twelve @-@ bell tower built for change ringing . The museum contains a large collection of stuffed exotic animals collected by Major Percy Powell @-@ Cotton on his travels in Africa , and also houses artefacts unearthed in and around Birchington by his daughter , Antoinette Powell @-@ Cotton , a keen archeologist .
= = History = =
Birchington was first recorded in 1240 as Birchenton , a name derived from the Old English words ' bircen tun ' , meaning a farm where birch trees grow . Archaeological evidence has shown the area was inhabited before the existence of the village : Roman and prehistoric artefacts have been discovered in the area , and Minnis Bay was once the site of an Iron Age settlement .
Archives show the village 's All Saints ' Church dates to around 1350 . In the early 15th century , Quex Park manor house — named after the park 's second owner , John Quek — was built just south of the village . The ownership of the manor passed to various families until 1770 when it was acquired by the present owners , the Powell family . In the late 17th century , the house was visited by King William III . In 1565 , a report on the coast of Thanet by the commissioners of Queen Elizabeth I stated that Birchington had 42 houses and did not have an active port . Before the 19th century , the village coastline was frequented by smugglers , leading to skirmishes between them and excise officers . Several of the older houses in the village contain cellars and bricked up tunnels , once used for storing contraband .
The 1801 census recorded the village 's population as 537 . In the early 19th century , the Tudor Quex House had to be demolished and a replacement manor house was built in its place . In 1818 , the Waterloo Tower was built on the grounds of Quex Park . It is a bell tower built by the owner of Quex Park , John Powell Powell , who had an interest in change ringing . Waterloo Tower was the first twelve @-@ bell tower in Kent . The village was a farming community until the late 19th century , when it began to develop into a coastal resort . Birchington railway station was opened in 1863 and the Railway Hotel , now the Sea View Hotel pub , was opened in 1865 . Station Road was subsequently built to serve as Birchington 's main shopping street . Coast Guard cottages were built at Minnis Bay in the 1870s and the first shops appeared by the bay in 1903 .
= = Geography = =
Birchington @-@ on @-@ Sea is located at 51 ° 22 ′ 37 ″ N 1 ° 18 ′ 18 ″ E ( 51 @.@ 377 , 1 @.@ 305 ) in northeast Kent , on the coast of the Thames Estuary . The village is 14 kilometres ( 9 mi ) to the east of Herne Bay and 6 kilometres ( 4 mi ) to the west of Margate . The small town of Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea lies between Birchington and Margate .
The village is built beside four sandy bays ; Minnis Bay to the west , Grenham Bay and Beresford Gap towards the centre and Epple Bay to the east . The village is situated on the Isle of Thanet , which was a separate island from mainland Kent until around two hundred years ago , when the channel in between became silted up . The area to the west of the village , between Birchington and Herne Bay , was once part of the channel and is now low @-@ lying marshland . In the east of the village the land rises , forming chalk cliffs and cliff stacks around the beaches at Grenham Bay , Beresford Gap and Epple Bay . A sea wall stretches along the foot of the cliffs to prevent further erosion . The geology of Thanet consists mainly of chalk , deposited when the area was below the sea . Isle of Thanet became exposed above sea @-@ level once the English Channel broke through between Kent and France , causing the sea @-@ level to fall . The whole of the northeast Kent coast has been designated a Site of Special Scientific Interest .
The drinking water in the village is classed as being ' very hard ' , having just over 120 mg of calcium per litre . The hardness is due to water being obtained from underground chalk sources by the water company Southern Water .
= = = Climate = = =
In East Kent , the warmest time of the year is July and August , when maximum temperatures average around 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) . The coolest time of the year is January and February , when minimum temperatures average around 1 ° C ( 34 ° F ) . East Kent 's average maximum and minimum temperatures are around 1 / 2 ° C higher than the national average . East Kent 's average annual rainfall is about 728 millimetres ( 29 in ) , with October to January being the wettest months . The national average annual rainfall is about 838 millimetres ( 33 in ) .
= = Demography = =
At the 2011 census , the village had 9 @,@ 961 residents . There were 4 @,@ 944 households , of which 43 @.@ 6 % were married couples living together , 13 @.@ 0 % were cohabiting couples ; 43 @.@ 4 % of all households were made up of lone individuals . For every 100 females , there were 86 @.@ 2 males . The age distribution was 6 % aged 0 – 4 years , 13 @.@ 1 % aged 5 – 15 years , 5 @.@ 1 % aged 16 – 19 years , 28 @.@ 2 % aged 20 – 44 years , 26 @.@ 4 % aged 45 – 64 years and 21 @.@ 2 % aged 65 years and over . The village had a high percentage of residents over 65 , compared with the national average of 16 @.@ 4 % . The ethnicity of the village was predominately white , with over 95 % of its residents being born in the United Kingdom and other Western European countries . About 61 % of residents claimed to be Christian , with less than 1 % claiming to be Buddhist , Jewish , Hindu or an alternative religion , while 7 @.@ 4 % did not state their religion , and 28 @.@ 6 % claimed no religious affiliation .
= = Economy = =
At the 2011 UK census , the economic activity of residents in the village aged 16 – 74 was 31 @.@ 7 % in full @-@ time employment , 14 @.@ 4 % in part @-@ time employment , 10 @.@ 1 % self @-@ employed , 5 @.@ 7 % unemployed , 3 @.@ 0 % students with jobs , 4 @.@ 3 % students without jobs , 18 @.@ 2 % retired , 4 @.@ 9 % looking after home or family , 5 @.@ 5 % permanently sick or disabled and 2 @.@ 1 % economically inactive for other reasons . The percentage of retired people was significantly higher than the national figure of 13 @.@ 7 % . 20 @.@ 6 % of the village 's residents aged 16 – 74 had Level 4 qualification or higher , compared to 27 @.@ 3 % nationwide . According to Office for National Statistics estimates , during the period of April 2001 to March 2002 the average gross weekly income of households in the Birchington @-@ on @-@ Sea electoral wards was £ 460 ( £ 23 @,@ 986 per year ) .
The industry of employment of residents in 2011 was 16 @.@ 1 % retail , 17 @.@ 2 % health and social work , 5 @.@ 8 % manufacturing , 12 @.@ 3 % education , 1 @.@ 3 % real estate , 9 @.@ 6 % construction , 4 @.@ 9 % transport and storage , 2 @.@ 2 % communications , 6 @.@ 7 % public administration , 4 @.@ 3 % hotels and restaurants , 3 @.@ 1 % finance , 0 @.@ 8 % agriculture , 1 @.@ 1 % energy and water supply , and 5 @.@ 2 % other community , social or personal services . Compared to national figures , the village had a relatively high number of workers in the construction and health / social care industries and a relatively low number in manufacturing . Many residents commute to work outside the town ; at the 2001 census , the town had 3 @,@ 370 employed residents , but only 1 @,@ 711 jobs .
As a seaside resort , the village has an economy based around tourism , with several hotels , caravan parks and leisure attractions . The village shopping centre attracts walk @-@ in trade from tourists . One of the largest retailers is the Co @-@ Op ( formerly Somerfield ) supermarket . The elderly population of the village has generated health and social care jobs at local care homes and at the Birchington Medical Centre . At the 2001 census , 1 @.@ 4 % of the village 's population resided in a medical or care establishment , compared to the national average of only 0 @.@ 8 % .
= = Culture = =
Minnis Bay is a popular family beach with attractions such as sailing , windsurfing , cafes , beach huts , public houses , restaurants , a paddling pool and coastal walking / cycling routes . The beach has gained a European Blue Flag Award for its cleanliness and safety . The village has three other smaller beaches , which are surrounded by chalk cliffs and cliff stacks . Wildlife that can be observed in the Thames Estuary includes seals , velvet swimming crabs and the migrant turnstone .
Paintings by local artists are displayed at the David Burley Gallery in Birchington Library . Community activities take place at the Birchington Village Centre , including adult education classes , drama productions by the Birchington Guild of Players and concerts by the Birchington Silver Band . In 1989 , Birchington @-@ on @-@ Sea was twinned with the town of La Chapelle d 'Armentieres , near Lille in northern France ; Birchington Twinning Association arranges events between the two communities , such as school trips , concerts and war remembrance services . Since 1932 , Birchington has held a street carnival each summer .
= = = Sport = = =
Several teams compete in local leagues : the Birchington United Services Club runs a football team in the Thanet Sunday Football League Premier Division and a netball team in the Thanet and District Netball League , while Birchington Chess Club competes in the Thanet League . Westgate and Birchington Golf Club has an 18 @-@ hole 4 @,@ 889 @-@ yard ( 4 @,@ 471 m ) course on the cliff tops between Westgate and Birchington . Birchington Bridge Club meets twice a week at the Our Lady and St Benedict 's Church Hall . A football pitch is provided at the council owned Birchington Recreation Ground .
As a seaside resort , the village has several clubs for watersports . Minnis Bay Sailing Club , founded in 1950 , is a dinghy and catamaran club where members can sail for fun , but competitions are also held most weekends . Speed boats , jet skis and water skis can be hired for use near the beach at Beresford Gap by members of Beresford Wakeboard and Water Ski Club , which was established in 2004 to help alleviate anti @-@ social behaviour in the area . Anglers are catered for by Birchington Sea Angling Society .
= = = Media = = =
There are two local weekly newspapers providing news on the Thanet district area . Isle Of Thanet KM Extra is a free newspaper , while Isle of Thanet Gazette is paid @-@ for . Isle Of Thanet KM Extra is owned by the KM Group , Isle of Thanet Gazette is owned by Trinity Mirror . There are two local newsmagazines produced for the people of Birchington : The Birchington Roundabout , which began publishing in April 2003 , and The Birchington Forum . KMFM Thanet is a radio station on frequency 107.2FM , owned by the KM Group . Community radio station Academy FM ( Thanet ) launched in 2010 on 107.8FM.
= = Quex House and Park = =
To the south of the village is Quex House , a 200 ‑ year ‑ old manor house situated in 250 acres ( 1 @.@ 0 km2 ) of parkland and gardens . Several rooms , decorated with oriental and English period furniture , are open to visitors , and guided tours are provided . The Powell @-@ Cotton Museum houses three galleries of stuffed animal displays , depicting more than 500 African and Asian animals against their natural habitats . Further galleries display a vast collection of African artefacts , European firearms , European and Asian cutting weapons , European and Chinese porcelain , and important archaeological finds from Thanet and East Kent . The total amount of artefacts have not been counted , though the ethnography items alone total approximately 18 @,@ 000 .
Percy Powell @-@ Cotton was born in 1866 , and was a Major in the Northumberland Fusiliers . His expeditions were conducted for scientific research , and would sometimes take 18 months . In 1896 , Major Powell @-@ Cotton founded the Powell @-@ Cotton Museum at Quex Park to display his collection of mammals and artefacts acquired on his expeditions to Africa and Asia . The animals were mounted by the noted taxidermist Rowland Ward .
During World War I , Quex House became an Auxiliary Military Hospital run by the Birchington Voluntary Aid Detachment . In 1923 , the Memorial Ground was donated to the village by Mr H. A. Erlebach for sport and recreational use . Mr Erlebach owned the village 's now defunct Woodfood House School and purchased land from the Quex House estate for the school . He gave the southern part of the land to the people of Birchington and dedicated it in memory of his three sons who had been killed in World War I. The land is now owned by Thanet District Council .
= = Politics = =
Since 1983 , the Member of Parliament for North Thanet , covering northern Thanet and Herne Bay , has been the Conservative Roger Gale . At the 2015 general election , in North Thanet the Conservatives won a majority of 10 @,@ 948 and 49 @.@ 0 % of the vote . The UK Independence Party won 25 @.@ 7 % of the vote , Labour 17 @.@ 9 % , the Green Party 3 @.@ 7 % , the Liberal Democrats 3 @.@ 5 % and the Party for a United Thanet 0 @.@ 3 % .
Birchington @-@ on @-@ Sea is in the Thanet local government district . The village 's electoral wards of Birchington North and Birchington South have five of the fifty six seats on the Thanet District Council . At the 2007 local elections , all five of those seats were held by the Conservative Party . The village has its own civil parish , the lowest unit of local government . Birchington Parish Council has ten members and deals with issues specifically affecting Birchington .
= = Education = =
Birchington @-@ on @-@ Sea 's secondary school is the secondary modern King Ethelbert School . In 2006 , it had around 750 pupils and was seeking government support to become a specialist visual arts school . In 2005 , 15 percent of its pupils gained at least five GCSEs at grades A * – C including English and maths , ranking it 103rd out of 120 Kent secondary schools . The school failed the 30 % GCSE target . Many secondary students living in Birchington @-@ on @-@ Sea commute to schools in nearby towns , especially to the grammar schools in Ramsgate and Broadstairs . The village 's primary school is Birchington Church of England Primary School , which is a state school owned by the Church of England but run by Kent County Council . In 2006 , the school 's Key Stage 2 performances ranked 340th out of 386 Kent state primary schools .
= = Transport = =
Birchington @-@ on @-@ Sea railway station is on the Chatham Main Line which runs between Ramsgate in East Kent and London Victoria . Other stations on this line include Broadstairs , Margate , Herne Bay , Faversham , Gillingham , Chatham , Rochester and Bromley South . Birchington is around 1 hour and 40 minutes from London by Mainline train . A National Express coach service also runs between London Victoria and Ramsgate via Birchington @-@ on @-@ Sea . A selection of early morning and evening trains run on weekdays to London 's Cannon Street station and high speed services to St. Pancras International , primarily for business commuting .
There are Stagecoach bus services running to Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea , Margate , Broadstairs , Canterbury and Herne Bay . The A28 road runs between Hastings and Margate via Ashford , Canterbury , Birchington and Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea . 3 miles ( 5 km ) southwest of Birchington @-@ on @-@ Sea , the A28 crosses the A299 road which leads along North Kent towards London , becoming the M2 motorway at Faversham .
= = Notable residents = =
Residents of Birchington @-@ on @-@ Sea have included the British screenwriter Tudor Gates , who wrote a number of stories about female vampires for Hammer Studios in the early 1970s . Gates died in the village in January 2007 . In early 1882 , Pre @-@ Raphaelite artist and poet Dante Gabriel Rossetti rented a bungalow in the village , in an attempt to recuperate from ill @-@ health . He died in April the same year and was buried in the churchyard of All Saints , under a tombstone designed by fellow artist , Ford Madox Brown .
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= Treehouse of Horror VIII =
" Treehouse of Horror VIII " is the fourth episode of The Simpsons ' ninth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 26 , 1997 . In the eighth annual Treehouse of Horror episode , Homer Simpson is the last man left alive when a neutron bomb destroys Springfield until a gang of mutants come after him , Homer buys a transporter that Bart uses to switch bodies with a housefly , and Marge is accused of witchcraft in a Puritan rendition of Springfield in 1649 . It was written by Mike Scully , David X. Cohen and Ned Goldreyer , and was directed by Mark Kirkland .
= = Plot = =
= = = The HΩmega Man = = =
Mayor Quimby generates controversy after making an offensive joke about France . After refusing to apologize , the French president launches a neutron bomb directly into Springfield . Homer had been inspecting a bomb shelter he was considering buying from Herman 's military surplus store . After the blast , Homer emerges from the shelter and seems to be the only person in town to have survived . Homer is soon confronted by a band of hostile Springfield citizens who have become mutants . Homer flees back home where he finds that his family survived the blast because their house was protected by its layers of lead paint . Marge and the children kill the mutants with shotguns that they were hiding behind their backs and the family head off to steal some Ferraris .
= = = Fly vs. Fly = = =
Homer buys a matter transporter from Professor Frink . That night , Bart , after experimentations involving the family pets , steps into the teleporter with a fly on his arm , thinking that he will become a mutant superhero . He comes out with his normal head , but with the fly 's body whilst the fly has his body . Bart enlists the help of Lisa . However , she is chased by the fly and cornered in the kitchen . Bart tries to stop the fighting , but is quickly eaten by the fly . Lisa then sees this as an opportunity to undo the process and pushes the fly into the teleporter . Bart comes out the other end , now with his head back on his real body . Homer then pulls out an axe and angrily chases Bart for using the device .
= = = Easy @-@ Bake Coven = = =
In 1649 , the town is witness to many witch burnings . In the church , the townspeople try to figure out whom to condemn next . People begin accusing others and soon they erupt into chaos , until Marge intervenes . She tries to talk sense into the townspeople , but Moe accuses her of being a witch . Quimby assures her that she is entitled to due process which means she will be thrown off a cliff with a broomstick ; if she is a witch she will be able to fly to safety , in which case the authorities expect her to report back for punishment . If she is not a witch , then she will fall to an honorable Christian death . After being shoved off the cliff , Marge flies up on the broomstick revealing that she really is a witch and vows to conquer the whole entire town . She returns to her sisters Patty and Selma . The sisters watch Ned and Maude Flanders talking about how the witches eat children , which gives them the notion to do just that . They knock on the Flanders ' door and demand their sons , but before they leave , Maude offers the witches gingerbread men instead . The witches like these better than the children so they go to each house , getting goodies in exchange for not eating the children . As they fly off , the Sea Captain says that is how the tradition of Halloween and trick @-@ or @-@ treating started .
= = Production = =
" The HΩmega Man " was written by Mike Scully , " Fly Vs . Fly " was written by David X. Cohen , and " Easy @-@ Bake Coven " was written by Ned Goldreyer . Large portions of the " Fly vs. Fly " segment were cut , including the original ending where the fly also emerges from the teleporter , but is considerably larger and the Simpson family ride it to the mall .
The producers had trouble with the censors over several segments in this episode . The opening segment of the episode , which features a Fox censor being stabbed to death , was pitched by David Mirkin and had a difficult time getting through the real @-@ life censors . They had issues with the size of the knife and the sound effects used . Originally , the TV @-@ rating was supposed to stab the censor with a dagger , but Fox objected because it was too gruesome and was changed to a cutlass . The censors also objected to an unaired scene where Homer does his naked church dance on an altar . The scene was reanimated so that Homer was dancing naked in the front row .
This episode was the only Treehouse of Horror episode that was directed by Mark Kirkland . It was also the last episode Brad Bird worked on ; he left the show to direct The Iron Giant . " Easy @-@ Bake Coven " was storyboarded by Kirkland and the backgrounds were designed by Lance Wilder . Although Kang and Kodos make brief appearances in every Treehouse of Horror episode , their brief appearance in this one was nearly cut . David X. Cohen managed to persuade the producers to leave the scene in .
= = Cultural references = =
As with the majority of the Treehouse of Horror episodes , numerous cultural references are made throughout the episode . " The HΩmega Man " is an extended homage to film The Omega Man , which was one of Mike Scully 's favorite movies as a child . In the same segment , Homer runs over Johnny and Edgar Winter while fleeing the mutants pursuing him , mistaking them as mutants as the Winter brothers are both albino .
The title " Fly vs. Fly " is a reference to the Mad magazine comic strip " Spy vs. Spy " , while the segment itself is based on the film The Fly . In " Easy @-@ Bake Coven " , the animators referenced the film The Crucible for many of their designs , and Edna Krabappel is wearing a Scarlet A , which is a reference to the novel The Scarlet Letter .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Treehouse of Horror VIII " finished 18th in ratings for the week of October 20 – 26 , 1997 , with a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 2 , equivalent to approximately 10 @.@ 9 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , beating King of the Hill .
" Treehouse of Horror VIII " won a Golden Reel Award in 1998 for " Best Sound Editing - Television Animated Specials " for Robert Mackston , Travis Powers , Norm MacLeod and Terry Greene . Alf Clausen received an Emmy Award nomination for " Outstanding Music Composition for a Series ( Dramatic Underscore ) " for this episode , which he ultimately lost . The A.V. Club named Comic Book Guy 's line " Oh , I 've wasted my life " as one of the quotes from The Simpsons that can be used in everyday situations .
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= Just Dance ( video game ) =
Just Dance is a dance video game developed by Ubisoft Milan and Ubisoft Paris and published by Ubisoft . The game was released exclusively for Wii on 17 November 2009 in North America , 26 November 2009 in Australia , and 27 November 2009 in Europe . Expanding upon a concept introduced in a minigame for Rayman Raving Rabbids : TV Party , players mimic the motions of an on @-@ screen dancer 's choreography for a selected song , using the Wii Remote to judge the player 's motions and accuracy .
Just Dance was released to mixed reviews , with criticism directed towards its simplistic gameplay , poor motion detection , and a lack of progression or additional content beyond what was included on @-@ disc . At the same time , the simplistic gameplay of Just Dance was praised for making the game more accessible to a casual audience , and was also praised for featuring a " fun " soundtrack and dance routines , and for becoming more enjoyable when played as a multiplayer party game rather than alone . Just Dance was a major commercial success , selling over 4 @.@ 3 million copies worldwide. and establishing a franchise that , as of October 2013 , had collectively sold over 40 million units , making it Ubisoft 's second @-@ largest franchise .
= = Gameplay = =
After selecting a song , players are presented with an on @-@ screen dancer , as well as an occasional display of scrolling pictograms representing specific poses . While holding a Wii Remote in their hand , players follow the motions of the on @-@ screen dancer and their choreographed routine . Players are judged on a ranking scale for the accuracy of each of their moves in comparison to that of the on @-@ screen dancer , and receive points . Just Dance can be played by up to four players at once .
Along with standard play , three other modes are included ; the " Warm Up " mode serves as a practice mode . In " Strike a Pose " mode , players are instructed at random to freeze ( similarly to Red light green light ) . In " Last One Standing " mode , players are given seven lives ; players lose lives on mistakes , and gain them back after hitting five correct moves in a row .
= = Development = =
The concept of Just Dance originated from a minigame developed for inclusion in the Rayman Raving Rabbids series . Ubisoft France 's managing director Xavier Poix and his team felt the Wii Remote and Nunchuck would work well for music games ; Rayman Raving Rabbids 2 featured a music minigame that IGN compared to Guitar Hero — where players shook the Wii Remote or Nunchuck when prompted to play an instrument . For Rayman Raving Rabbids : TV Party , the concept was iterated into a pose @-@ based dance game . Proving popular in demonstrations , the concept was refined and re @-@ developed into a stand @-@ alone game .
Just Dance was developed by a small team of around 20 at Ubisoft Paris , and was only officially pitched six months prior to its eventual release . Poix explained that unlike the Raving Rabbids games , which he described as being a " gamer 's game " , Just Dance was designed to contrast skill @-@ based rhythm games with a concept and control scheme that would be accessible to a mainstream audience , encouraging them to " [ get ] off the couch and [ have ] fun together " . Ubisoft producer Florian Granger noted that Just Dance was designed to help players overcome their inhibitions and anxiety towards dance , helping them build a " vocabulary " of moves they can practice in a " safe context " , and with the game itself being the focal point of attention rather than themselves . He reminisced that " everyone remembers going to a nightclub or school disco where it takes a couple of hours before anyone has the bottle to get up and dance . Most guys do the fix @-@ placed @-@ beer @-@ bottle dance or neck @-@ shake to the beat . "
Creative director Gregoire Spillmann argued that existing dance games were merely instructing players to press buttons with their feet , rather than actually dance . Acknowledging Dance Dance Revolution players who use its gameplay as a base for their own dance routines , Spiller likened Just Dance to be a reversal of the concept , in which the dance moves themselves were " fit " into the gameplay , and could be applied outside the game as well . The team deliberately focused on building the mechanics of Just Dance solely around the Wii Remote , eschewing dedicated accessories such as dance pads , arm or leg bands , as well as the Nunchuck attachment . Spillmann explained that such accessories were " distractions " that restricted the motion of players ; for instance , the team felt that the Nunchuck 's short cord limited how it could be used in routines , and that removing it helped the game focus less on precision and more on letting players feel like they are dancing . The lack of dedicated peripheral also contrasted with other music games that utilized increasingly intricate and expensive controllers .
While Poix felt that his team had developed a game that could potentially become successful , his colleagues at Ubisoft Paris doubted Just Dance . Poix explained that " people thought it would never work , because people don 't dance , or that it wasn 't precise enough for people to actually learn to dance . " Granger felt that the development team would be " cynical " of Just Dance due to the oversaturated market of casual games on the Wii , but noted that there was a " sense of excitement " among them , as it would be based upon a proven codebase , and used " respected " games such as Dance Dance Revolution as an example to build upon .
= = Soundtrack = =
Just Dance features a soundtrack consisting of 32 songs . There is no unlock system , nor any downloadable content .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Just Dance received mixed to negative reviews from critics ; Metacritic lists the game with an aggregate score of 49 out of 100 based on 21 critic reviews , indicating a " generally unfavorable " reception .
GameSpot was relatively positive , praising Just Dance for having simplistic gameplay , and remarking that its dance routines were " both fun and at times downright hilarious " . However , GameSpot felt that the game 's motion detection system was " frustrating and unrewarding " , and also panned the game 's graphical quality and lack of career modes or downloadable content . In conclusion , giving the game a 5 @.@ 5 out of 10 , GameSpot felt that Just Dance would appeal best as a multiplayer party game , where players " [ can ] attempt the silly dances , laugh at each other 's mistakes , and sing along to the cheesy pop tunes " , but was " water @-@ thin " as a single @-@ player game .
Nintendo World Report noted that the soundtrack of Just Dance consisted primarily of " fun " pop music , but contained a few songs considered " cheesy " . The game 's user interface was described as being " colorful " but minimalistic , while the appearance of the on @-@ screen dancers drew comparisons to iPod commercials . It was also noted that the pictograms additionally used to represent moves sometimes contradicted with the instructions implied to the player via the on @-@ screen dancer , " making it look like timing relies on the pose you make rather than the movements you do " , but that " once you ' get it ' , Just Dance becomes very enjoyable , very enduring , and extremely silly and fun . " In conclusion , it was felt that Just Dance was " very rough but shows promise , especially when played with friends . "
IGN felt that Just Dance was " an experience so devoid of depth or even basic game concepts that it would be considered a rip @-@ off even if it was one of those Chinese knock @-@ off systems masquerading as an existing console " , further criticizing the game for its basic gameplay mechanics , " sloppy " motion detection , lack of variation or unlockable content , and ironically excluding the Lady Gaga song the game 's title references . IGN concluded by urging readers not to buy , rent , look at , or think about Just Dance , " lest someone at Ubisoft find out and they prep a Just Dance 2 . Such would be the end of all things , mark my words . "
= = = Sales = = =
In contrast to its critical reception , Just Dance was a major commercial success for Ubisoft ; for a period , it was the top @-@ selling video game in the United Kingdom , and in March 2010 , Ubisoft announced that Just Dance had sold 2 million copies worldwide . In October 2010 , the company announced that over 4 @.@ 3 million copies of the game had been sold worldwide .
= = Legacy = =
The success of Just Dance led to the development of a sequel , Just Dance 2 , which focused on adding new features and refinements to the game — such as improvements to its motion tracking system , new game modes , and support for downloadable content . Sales of Just Dance 2 surpassed that of the original ; with over 5 million copies as of January 2011 , it was the best @-@ selling third @-@ party title for the Wii . Laurent Detoc , CEO of Ubisoft 's North American operations , stated that this achievement " [ solidified ] the Just Dance brand as a pop culture phenomenon . " Poix felt that " there 's a pressure within Ubisoft to keep Just Dance enormous , and we think we can make it enormous . But it wasn 't like that initially , because at the end of the first one , people — even us — had our doubts that it would last . After the first one we thought maybe there would be a second one , and then it would be over . "
The release of motion control accessories for the Wii 's competitors in the seventh generation of video game consoles — PlayStation Move for PlayStation 3 , and Kinect for Xbox 360 , spawned competing motion @-@ controlled dance games such as Dance Central , Dance Masters , Dance Paradise , and SingStar Dance . The 2010 Wii release of Dance Dance Revolution also added a mode combining its traditional dance pad gameplay with choreography gestures performed using the Wii Remote and Nunchuck ; in its review , IGN declared that the dance pad had become " antiquated " by motion @-@ controlled dance games .
Just Dance 3 would introduce versions of the game for PS3 and Xbox 360 , as well as Wii , and was ultimately the second best @-@ selling video game of 2011 overall , finishing only behind Call of Duty : Modern Warfare 3 . Tony Key , Ubisoft 's senior vice president of sales and marketing , complimented the success of Dance Central for proving the viability of dance games for Kinect , but iterated that as a brand , Just Dance had become " a juggernaut way beyond anything that any dance franchise has ever done . " As of October 2013 , the overall Just Dance franchise had collectively sold over 40 million units , making it Ubisoft 's second @-@ largest franchise behind Assassin 's Creed .
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= Brereton Jones =
Brereton Chandler Jones ( born June 27 , 1939 ) is an American politician and horse breeder from Kentucky . From 1987 to 1991 , he served as the 50th Lieutenant Governor of Kentucky and from 1991 to 1995 , he was the state 's 58th governor . He now chairs the Kentucky Equine Education Project ( KEEP ) , a lobbying organization for the Kentucky horse industry .
Born in Ohio and raised in West Virginia , Jones became the youngest @-@ ever member of the West Virginia House of Delegates in 1964 . Two years later , he was chosen as the Republican floor leader in the House . In 1968 , he decided to leave politics and focus on his real estate business . He married Elizabeth " Libby " Lloyd in 1970 and in 1972 , the family moved to historic Airdrie Farm , Libby 's family estate in Woodford County , Kentucky . There , Jones founded Airdrie Stud , now an internationally recognized Thoroughbred farm . Although he remained mostly out of politics , Jones changed his party affiliation to Democratic in 1975 , and was appointed to various boards and commissions by governors John Y. Brown , Jr. and Martha Layne Collins .
In 1987 , Jones announced his candidacy for lieutenant governor , admitting that he considered the office a stepping stone to some day becoming governor . He was elected , but experienced a poor relationship with Governor Wallace Wilkinson throughout their four @-@ year terms . Jones was elected governor in 1991 , turning back a challenge from Governor Wilkinson 's wife Martha in the Democratic primary . ( Wilkinson was ineligible to succeed himself in office . ) Although Jones maintained a strained relationship with the Kentucky General Assembly following comments he made in the wake of the federal Operation Boptrot investigation , he was still able to pass much of his agenda , including an amendment that would allow state officials to succeed themselves in office once . ( Jones was able to secure passage of the amendment by exempting the state 's sitting officials , including himself . ) However , he achieved only a partial victory on his top priority – health care reform . While the legislature acceded to many of Jones ' proposals , such as eliminating the practice of denying insurance coverage to those with pre @-@ existing conditions , they did not approve his mandate for universal health care for all Kentuckians . Following his term in office , Jones founded the Kentucky Equine Education Project . He considered running for governor again in 2003 , but never formally became a candidate .
= = Early life = =
Although his family lived in Point Pleasant , West Virginia , Brereton Jones was born on June 27 , 1939 in Gallipolis , Ohio , the site of the nearest hospital to the family 's home . One of six children born to E. Bartow Jones II , who served two terms in the West Virginia Senate , and Nedra Wilhelm Jones , he was raised on a dairy farm in Point Pleasant .
Jones was a star football player in the public schools of Point Pleasant ( Point Pleasant High School , Class of 1957 ) . After graduating from high school as valedictorian , he attended the University of Virginia on a football scholarship , playing both offensive and defensive end . He earned a bachelor 's degree in commerce in 1961 . For one semester , he studied at the University of Virginia School of Law , but he returned home to West Virginia and established a real estate and construction business .
In 1964 , Jones ' political career began with his election as a Republican to the West Virginia House of Delegates . He was the youngest person ever elected to that body . In 1966 , he was chosen as the Republican floor leader in the House . In 1968 , Jones announced that he would not seek re @-@ election to his seat , despite facing no opposition . Among the factors influencing his decision was his perception of corruption in state politics .
After his service in the West Virginia House , Jones began to concentrate on his real estate business and established a small horse farm just outside Huntington . His interest in the horse business led him to make several trips to Keeneland race track in central Kentucky ; it was on one of these trips that he met his future wife , Elizabeth " Libby " Lloyd , daughter of Arthur Lloyd , the former Adjutant General of Kentucky . Jones and Lloyd married in 1970 ; they had two children – Lucy and Bret . In 1972 , the Joneses moved to Airdrie Farm , Libby 's childhood home in Woodford County , Kentucky . Jones leased a portion of the farm from his father @-@ in @-@ law and founded Airdrie Stud , a thoroughbred horse farm that has since been internationally recognized for its horses . Airdrie contains the original site of Woodburn Stud , a top thoroughbred farm in the 1800s . The property had not been used for breeding for 70 years prior to Jones ' creation of Airdrie Stud . Jones went on to chair the Kentucky Thoroughbred Commission and serve as treasurer of the Breeders ' Cup .
= = Political career in Kentucky = =
In 1975 , Jones registered as a Democrat , citing his disenchantment with the Nixon administration and his desire to participate in Kentucky primary elections . At the time , Democrats outnumbered Republicans in Kentucky by a 2 @-@ to @-@ 1 margin . Governor John Y. Brown , Jr. named him to the board of directors for the University of Kentucky and the Chandler Medical Center . In the mid @-@ 1980s , Jones created the Kentucky Health Care Access Foundation to provide free health care to individuals who fell below the poverty line but did not qualify for Medicaid . Governor Martha Layne Collins chose Jones to chair her Medicaid Program Review Team and serve on her Council on Education Reform .
= = = Lieutenant governor = = =
In late 1985 , Jones announced his candidacy for lieutenant governor in the 1987 election , conceding that he sought the office because he would like to serve as governor in the future . He convincingly won in the Democratic primary against Paul E. Patton , who later became governor , and David L. Armstrong , the sitting Attorney General and later Mayor of Louisville . Wallace G. Wilkinson , winner of the Democratic gubernatorial primary , praised Jones and said that , if elected , he would make Jones the head of a blue @-@ ribbon economic development council . Wilkinson and Jones went on to win the general election ; Jones defeated Republican nominee Lawrence R. Webster by a convincing vote of 517 @,@ 811 to 186 @,@ 321 .
Soon after the election results were announced , Jones was quoted in a newspaper as saying that he had talked with Wilkinson about opening channels with the media , whom Wilkinson often refused to speak with . Jones also said that he did not agree with all of Wilkinson 's political positions and would not be his " yes man " . These comments angered Wilkinson , who backtracked on his promise to give Jones an active role in the administration . Relations between Jones and Wilkinson further deteriorated as both men tried to recoup the money spent during their campaigns .
During the 1988 legislative session , Governor Wilkinson proposed an amendment to the Kentucky Constitution that would allow state officials , including the sitting incumbents , to succeed themselves in office once . As presiding officer in the Senate , Jones insisted that any such measure also include a runoff provision if a candidate did not receive a majority of votes in the party primary . Wilkinson opposed this provision , and the measure died in the state senate . Wilkinson 's proposed education program also failed in the session , and Jones suggested that the governor should build a consensus among legislators before including the program on the agenda of a special legislative session , which Wilkinson had proposed for January 1989 . After the 1988 session , Wilkinson called Jones a backstabber and accused him of sabotaging the succession amendment . The two did not meet for six months following the session .
As lieutenant governor , Jones advocated for the preservation of family farms and for school reform . He won praise for his efforts to include a " Made in Kentucky " label on produce grown in the state . Further , he claimed the state could save $ 500 @,@ 000 a year by merging the offices of lieutenant governor , secretary of state , and state treasurer . Jones maintained that the arrangement would give the lieutenant governor something specific to do between legislative sessions and would provide a broader record upon which voters could judge the officeholder should they seek higher office . Jones ' proposal , which would have required a constitutional amendment , was never adopted . Jones also claimed to have saved his office $ 200 @,@ 000 by choosing not to live in the lieutenant governor 's mansion , by reducing the number of Kentucky State Police troopers used for security at the mansion , and by giving up seven cars assigned to the office – two for him and wife Libby , and five used by the state troopers .
= = = Governor = = =
In 1991 , Jones was the front @-@ runner for the governorship for the entire gubernatorial campaign . The rivalry between Jones and Wilkinson had become so strong that Wilkinson 's wife Martha was among Jones ' challengers in the Democratic primary ; she ended her candidacy 18 days before the primary . Advocating campaign finance reform , Jones garnered 184 @,@ 703 votes in the primary , enough to best a field including Scotty Baesler ( 149 @,@ 352 votes ) , Dr. Floyd Poore ( 132 @,@ 060 votes ) , and Gatewood Galbraith ( 25 @,@ 834 ) .
In the general election , Jones faced Republican Larry Hopkins , a seven @-@ term congressman representing Kentucky 's 6th congressional district . Hopkins was considered the Republicans ' best hope of capturing the governorship since Louie B. Nunn in 1967 . Instead , Hopkins ' negative campaign ads , mistakes about his record , and involvement in a House scandal involving bounced checks all hurt his chances . Jones won the election by a vote of 540 @,@ 468 to 294 @,@ 542 , the largest margin of victory in a Kentucky gubernatorial race .
A supporter of " good government " , Jones ' first policy action as governor was to issue an executive order restricting the post @-@ government employment of his appointees . He also secured passage of one of the nation 's toughest ethics laws , limiting the activities of lobbyists and instituting campaign finance reform to diminish the advantage of wealthy candidates for office . The so @-@ called " trustees bill " , passed in 1992 , provided for an independent review of all appointees to university boards of trustees . Jones later removed former governor Wilkinson from the board of the University of Kentucky using the bill 's provisions . Despite these reforms , Jones drew criticism from ethics watchdogs because no law required him to disclose the identities of his business partners and associates with Airdrie Stud and because the farm benefited from a 1992 law that set up off @-@ track betting parlors and allowed some of their proceeds to go to successful breeders .
The state faced a $ 400 million revenue shortfall when Jones took office . Shortly after his election , Jones created the Quality and Efficiency Commission to study ways to streamline state government . Among the enacted recommendations were refinancing state bonds at lower interest rates , cutting the state workforce by 2 @,@ 000 employees ( mostly through attrition ) , and spurring local economic growth through tax incentives . By the end of Jones ' term , the state enjoyed a $ 300 million budget surplus .
During the first year of his administration , Jones and five others were traveling in a state helicopter from Frankfort to Fort Knox when a tail rotor blade snapped , causing the helicopter to crash in Shelby County . The pilot was able to guide the helicopter into a treetop to soften the impact . No one was killed , but Jones suffered a severe back strain and a bruised kidney . The National Transportation Safety Board later determined that the pilot and co @-@ pilot had not properly attached an engine cowling that knocked off the tail rotor blade . Both pilots maintained that they did nothing wrong , and Jones credited them for the survival of the passengers aboard the helicopter .
Although fellow Democrats controlled two @-@ thirds of the Kentucky General Assembly , Jones never developed a good working relationship with the legislature . This was due in part to remarks Jones made in the wake of the Operation Boptrot investigation that led to the conviction of 15 sitting or former state legislators . Jones called the investigation " a cleansing process " ; legislators reacted negatively , claiming Jones was trying to take " the high ground " above them . Following Jones ' remarks , state senate president John " Eck " Rose became Jones ' bitter political foe . Nevertheless , Jones was able to enact many of his legislative priorities during his term .
Jones ' top priority as governor was the passage of health care reform . He appointed two health care reform study commissions , and in May 1993 , he called the legislature into a special session to consider a universal health care bill . The only measure to come out of this session was a temporary tax on health care providers . Legislators also agreed to work toward a bill that could be passed in the next regular legislative session . On March 2 , 1994 , the Kentucky House of Representatives passed a health care reform bill that did not include universal coverage . Angered , Jones began campaigning against the bill , but the Kentucky Senate passed its version on March 22 .
Both chambers worked to reconcile differences between their respective versions of the bill , and on April 1 , 1994 , the last regular day of the legislative session , the Senate passed a compromise bill , but the House killed it on a procedural motion . On April 15 , the last day of the session , which legislators had set aside to override any gubernatorial vetos , the health care bill was reintroduced and passed both houses of the General Assembly . Jones then reversed course and signed it . Among the reforms included in the bill were a mechanism making the policies of all companies uniform and the creation of a Health Policy Board to regulate rate increases . It ensured that insurance companies could not deny coverage because of a pre @-@ existing condition and allowed workers to retain their insurance after changing jobs .
Jones also advocated for an amendment to the state constitution that had major implications for the governor 's office . Under the terms of the amendment , the lieutenant governor no longer became acting governor when the sitting governor left the state . It also allowed candidates for governor and lieutenant governor to run as a ticket instead of being elected on separate ballots . The centerpiece of the amendment , however , was the removal of the restriction on governors from succeeding themselves in office . The state constitution had previously barred the incumbent from seeking a second consecutive term ; under the new amendment , the sitting governor would be allowed to succeed himself once . Succession amendments had been proposed and defeated during the administrations of John Y. Brown , Jr. and Wallace Wilkinson , but Jones was able to see it passed because , unlike Brown and Wilkinson , he was willing to exempt the present incumbents , including himself , from the succession provision . Separate legislation passed during Jones ' term required a runoff election if no gubernatorial candidate won a majority in his or her party primary . ( Each of Jones ' three immediate predecessors would have faced a runoff had this law been in effect during their primaries . )
Among Jones ' other accomplishments were the passage of a mandatory seat belt law , an increase in funding for the state park system , and the phasing out of the state inheritance tax . He also established the state 's largest @-@ ever reserve trust fund using income from the state 's sales , income , corporate , coal , severance , and property taxes . He exceeded his goal of having a 7 @.@ 4 percent minority representation in the state workforce , and appointed three times more African @-@ Americans than the previous administration had recruited . He also appointed more women to government positions than his predecessor , including Sara Combs , the first woman to serve on the Kentucky Supreme Court .
= = Later life = =
At the end of his term as governor , Jones retired to Airdrie Stud . He started Commonwealth Broadcasting and joined with partners to purchase several radio and television stations in Kentucky and Tennessee . He remained a public advocate of campaign finance reform and health care reform and was a supporter of posting the Ten Commandments in public schools .
Jones talked openly of running for governor in 2003 but did not enter the race . In 2004 , he founded the Kentucky Equine Education Project ( KEEP ) , an organization dedicated to educating the public about Kentucky 's horse industry and lobbying the General Assembly for more horse @-@ friendly legislation . He presently serves as chair of KEEP .
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= Infrastructure of the Brill Tramway =
The Brill Tramway , also known as the Quainton Tramway , Wotton Tramway , Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad and Metropolitan Railway Brill Branch , was a six @-@ mile ( 10 km ) rail line in the Aylesbury Vale , Buckinghamshire , England . It was privately built in 1871 by the 3rd Duke of Buckingham as a horse tram line to transport goods between his lands around Wotton House and the national railway network . Lobbying from residents of the nearby town of Brill led to the line 's extension to Brill and conversion to passenger use in early 1872 . Two locomotives were bought for the line , but as it had been designed and built with horses in mind , services were very slow ; trains travelled at an average speed of only 4 miles per hour ( 6 @.@ 4 km / h ) .
In 1883 , the Duke of Buckingham announced plans to upgrade the route to main line railway standards and extend the line to Oxford , creating a through route from Aylesbury to Oxford . If built , the line would have been the shortest route between Aylesbury and Oxford at the time . Despite the backing of the wealthy Ferdinand de Rothschild , investors were deterred by the costly tunnelling proposed , and the Duke was unable to raise sufficient funds . In 1888 a cheaper scheme was proposed , in which the line would be built to a lower standard and wind around hills to avoid tunnelling . In anticipation of this , the line was named the Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad . Although the existing line was upgraded in 1894 , the extension to Oxford was never built . Instead , the operation of the Brill Tramway was taken over by London 's Metropolitan Railway , and Brill became one of their two north @-@ western termini . The line was rebuilt a second time in 1910 , and more advanced locomotives were introduced , allowing trains to run faster .
In 1933 the Metropolitan Railway was taken into public ownership and became the Metropolitan line of London Transport . As a result , the Brill Tramway became a part of the London Underground . The management of London Transport aimed to concentrate on electrification and the improvement of passenger services in London , and saw little possibility that the former Metropolitan Railway routes in Buckinghamshire could ever become viable passenger routes . In 1935 all services on the Brill Tramway were withdrawn , and the line was closed . The infrastructure of the route was dismantled and sold shortly afterwards . Very little trace of the Brill Tramway remains , other than the former junction station at Quainton Road , now the Buckinghamshire Railway Centre .
= = Stations = =
When the line was opened in 1871 – 72 the stations were crude earth banks 6 inches ( 150 mm ) high , held in place by wooden planks . In 1894 , in preparation for the Oxford extension , Waddesdon , Westcott , Wotton and Brill stations were provided with buildings containing a booking office , waiting rooms and toilets , while Wood Siding station was equipped with a small waiting room " with shelf and drawer " . Church Siding station was not included in the rebuilding , and ceased to be listed in the timetable at this time .
= = = Quainton Road = = =
Quainton Road originally consisted of two separate stations , one on the Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway and one on the Wotton Tramway . The only physical link between the two lines was a turntable . Before 1895 , the station was referred to as both " Quainton Road " and " Quainton " indiscriminately . Between 1895 – 97 the Metropolitan Railway repositioned the station building from the west to the east side of the former A & BR line , freeing space for a junction between the two lines to be built . The section of the station serving the Aylesbury line remained open to passengers until 4 March 1963 , and to goods traffic until 4 July 1966 . In 1969 the Quainton Road Society was formed to preserve the station . The station , along with former wartime emergency food depots and sections of siding preserved as a demonstration line , is now the Buckinghamshire Railway Centre . Between 1999 and 2000 , the original Buckinghamshire Railway 's Oxford terminus of Oxford Rewley Road railway station was dismantled and reassembled alongside the existing station buildings at Quainton Road .
Quainton Road is still connected to the railway network and used by occasional special passenger services , and freight trains continue to pass through , but the station no longer has a scheduled passenger service .
= = = Waddesdon = = =
Waddesdon was known as " Waddesdon Road Siding " at the time of the line 's opening , but was renamed " Waddesdon " when the line was converted for passenger use . It was heavily used during the construction of Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild 's estate at Waddesdon Manor in the 1870s and 1880s . Other than that , the station was little used other than for shipping milk from nearby farms to Aylesbury and London . Inconveniently sited away from any nearby towns and villages , and with the far more frequently served Quainton Road and Waddesdon Manor stations within easy walking distance , the station saw very little passenger use . In 1932 , the last year of private operation , Waddesdon Road station saw only 281 passengers and made only £ 4 ( about £ 300 in 2016 ) in passenger receipts over the entire year . It was renamed " Waddesdon Road " in 1922 , when Waddesdon Manor station on the former Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway between Aylesbury and Quainton Road was renamed " Waddesdon " .
= = = Westcott = = =
Westcott was sometimes known in early years as " Wescott " . Two cottages for tramway staff were built next to the station in 1871 . It was removed from the timetable by 1931 , although trains continued to stop on request . Westcott was a small village with a population of about 150 , and passenger usage was low ; in 1932 Westcott station saw only 1 @,@ 560 passengers and made only £ 27 ( about £ 1 @,@ 700 in 2016 ) in passenger receipts . The station building remains in place in the back garden of the former station house , now a private residence , and carries an exact replica of its original " Westcott " station sign . Aside from Quainton Road station , the two buildings at Westcott are the only significant structures associated with the Tramway to have survived .
= = = Wotton = = =
Wotton was a focal point of the line , and the site of the Tramway 's forge and the stables for its horses . With a population at the time of the line 's opening of 220 , Wotton served a smaller populated area than Brill , but as the loading place for goods from Church Siding and the Kingswood branch it handled the majority of goods traffic . As much as 90 per cent of milk traffic carried by the Tramway was loaded at Wotton . The station was situated on a sharp curve and , had the extension to Oxford been built , it would have needed resiting to accommodate longer and faster trains . Wotton had the highest passenger numbers on the line other than Brill itself and the junction station at Quainton Road ; in 1932 the station saw 2 @,@ 648 passenger journeys earning a total of £ 144 ( about £ 9 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) in passenger receipts . Wotton station on the Great Western and Great Central Joint Railway , which in 1923 had been taken over by the London and North Eastern Railway , remained open ( albeit little used and served by only two trains per day in each direction ) until 7 December 1953 , when the line was abandoned . All buildings of the Tramway station at Wotton were subsequently demolished , other than a small building which had once housed the Tramway 's forge , which was left derelict .
= = = Church Siding = = =
Church Siding was immediately west of Wotton . It was treated as a station during the Tramway 's early years and listed as such in timetables , but was never redeveloped following the conversion to locomotive haulage and its " platform " remained an earth bank with no buildings . Trains heading down the Quainton Road – Brill line would pause at the entrance to the siding , and any wagons intended for the siding would be detached and hauled down the siding by rope . It ceased to be listed in timetables in September 1894 , although there is some evidence that passenger trains ceased to make scheduled stops at Church Siding before this date . Freight trains are recorded as stopping at Church Siding to load goods as late as 1899 . Church Siding was the scene of the Tramway 's only fatal accident , on 8 March 1883 .
= = = Wood Siding = = =
Wood Siding initially had no facilities for passengers , not even a platform . In 1894 a low platform and small corrugated iron waiting room were built for passengers . As well as the passenger platform , a short siding led to a raised wooden platform , alongside the through line to Brill , which served both as a buffer stop for the siding , and as a loading platform for milk . The station was staffed by a single porter , responsible for opening the gates of a nearby level crossing and for loading and unloading freight ( mainly milk ) ; a small , unheated hut was provided for his use . While the original Aveling & Porter locomotive was slow and noisy and could be heard by the porter long before its arrival , later locomotives were quieter and quicker ; a ladder was installed against a large oak for the porter to watch for oncoming trains . Wood Siding station and its siding were rebuilt at the GWR 's expense between 1908 – 1910 to stand on a wide bridge above the new Chiltern Main Line . Wood Siding was removed from the timetable by 1931 , although trains continued to stop on request . While Wood Siding station was demolished shortly after closure , the abutments of the bridge which carried the station and sidings remain intact . The porter 's hut survives as a nearby garden shed .
= = = Brill = = =
Brill was valuable as a shipment point between the dairy farms of Buckinghamshire and the markets of Aylesbury and London . Around 30 carts per day would deliver milk to Brill station for the first train each morning . There was also a small amount of coal traffic to the station ; Brill coal dealer George Green received three coal wagons per month . In addition , a storehouse at the station held beer supplied by the breweries of Brackley and Aylesbury . Two cottages for station staff were built near the station in 1871 . A third cottage was built in 1885 , possibly to serve as an office . Brill station was relatively little used by passengers ; in 1932 Brill and Wood Siding saw only 3 @,@ 272 passenger journeys and raised only £ 191 ( about £ 12 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) in passenger receipts . Since the closure , all buildings in Brill associated with the railway station have been demolished , with the exception of the station cottages , and the station site is now mostly open fields .
= = Locomotives = =
The first two locomotives operated on the line were 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 single @-@ cylinder geared steam locomotives of the traction engine type built by Aveling and Porter , works numbers 807 and 846 . A crankshaft drove a 3 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 07 m ) flywheel which in turn drove chains attached to the wheels . They were delivered in 1872 , and numbered 1 & 2 . Following the 1894 authorisation of the rebuilt line to operate as a railway , both locomotives failed to meet minimum speed requirements for railway operations . Both were sold on 23 September 1895 to the Heyford Iron Company in Northamptonshire . No. 2 was found to have a faulty boiler , and was used as a source of spares for No. 1 . By 1922 the Heyford Iron Company had developed a brickworks , and No 1 was used for haulage there until the closure of the brickworks in 1940 . In the 1950s No. 1 was restored by London Transport at Neasden Depot , and was transferred to the Clapham Museum of British Transport on 19 January 1957 . It was displayed there until March 1973 , when it was transferred to the London Transport Museum . Since then it has been displayed at the London Transport Museum and at the Buckinghamshire Railway Centre at Quainton Road .
The next two locomotives were manufactured by W. G. Bagnall : Buckingham , 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 0ST , works number 16 , built 1876 , and Wotton , 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 0T , works number 120 , built 1877 . They were unusual in having " reversed " inside cylinders , which drove the front axle . Bagnall used a single numbering scheme for all their products ; although the locomotives had the works numbers 16 and 120 , they were in fact the first and third locomotives made by the company . Buckingham was hired , not owned ; it was returned to Bagnall 's in February 1878 . Wotton was sold in around 1894 .
By 1894 two Manning Wardle locomotives were in use : Huddersfield , works number 616 , built 1876 , and Earl Temple , works number 1249 , built 1894 . Huddersfield was bought second @-@ hand and had originally been named Prestwich . Earl Temple , later renamed Brill No.1 , was identical to Huddersfield other than having a covered cab , and was bought new . The Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad could not afford the price , and thus Earl Temple was owned directly by the Earl and rented to the O & AT . Wotton No. 2 , works number 1415 , built 1899 , was bought on 7 February 1899 to replace Huddersfield . All three were 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0ST with inside cylinders . The decrepit Huddersfield was sold in 1901 , and the other two Manning Wardle locomotives were sold in 1909 .
From 1903 the Manning Wardle locomotives were replaced by Metropolitan Railway D Class 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 tank engines , numbered 71 and 72 . The D Class locomotives were unsatisfactory to the MR , and between 1916 and 1922 the MR sold their entire stock of D Class engines . Their place on the O & AT was taken by two Metropolitan Railway A Class 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0T locomotives numbered 23 and 41 , built by Beyer , Peacock and Company in 1866 and 1869 respectively . The A Class locomotives would alternate in service , each operating the route for a week . No. 41 was scrapped in 1936 , but No. 23 continued to be used by London Transport until 1948 , and is now preserved in the London Transport Museum .
= = Carriages and wagons = =
Details of the carriages and wagons used in the very early years of the Tramway are uncertain . By 1879 the company operated a fleet of nine four @-@ wheeled goods wagons , some with 9 @-@ inch ( 230 mm ) and some with 11 @-@ inch ( 280 mm ) high sides . All nine wagons were fitted with dumb buffers , and as a consequence did not comply with Railway Clearing House standards and could not be used on other lines . When it was necessary to run through traffic from the Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway onto the Tramway via the Quainton Road turntable , appropriate wagons and trucks were hired from the GWR or London and North Western Railway . It is also known that a passenger tram carriage was owned by the Tramway by March 1873 . This passenger carriage seated 16 – 20 passengers and although it had been designed as a horse tram , was fitted with buffers allowing it to be used in trains . By 1878 ( when it is recorded as being repaired ) the company also owned a passenger carriage divided into a third @-@ class compartment , a second @-@ class compartment and a luggage compartment .
In 1895 two new passenger carriages , each accommodating 40 passengers , were bought by the Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad Company from the Bristol Wagon & Carriage Works as part of the programme of improvements in anticipation of the extension to Oxford . On 4 October 1899 the MR loaned the O & AT an eight @-@ wheeled 70 seat passenger carriage . Following the takeover of the O & AT by the MR , goods services were operated by a fleet of five eight @-@ wheeled carriages built in 1865 – 66 . Two cattle wagons were added to the line 's stock in the 1920s .
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= American Life ( song ) =
" American Life " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna . It is the title track from her ninth studio album American Life ( 2003 ) , and was released digitally as the lead single from the album on April 8 , 2003 by Maverick Records . It was written and produced by Madonna and Mirwais Ahmadzaï ; the lyrics to " American Life " feature violent transitions and a political and religious view from Madonna . She questions the shallowness of modern life and the American dream under President George W. Bush 's conservative watch . Towards the end of the song , Madonna raps naming the people who were working for her .
" American Life " was panned by music critics , with Billboard criticizing Madonna 's rapping , and Blender naming it as the ninth worst song of all time . Despite receiving mostly negative reviews from music commentators , " American Life " reached number one in Canada , Denmark , Italy , Japan and Switzerland , and the top ten in Australia , where the song was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . However , the song peaked at number 37 in the US Billboard Hot 100 , staying in the chart for eight weeks , while it debuted and peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart .
Two music videos were shot for the song , both directed by Swedish director Jonas Åkerlund . The first one featured Madonna at a military @-@ themed fashion show , cavorting with a brigade of female soldiers and in the end , she throws a hand grenade at George W. Bush . Prior its release , it caused controversy regarding its political , racial , violence and religious views , leading Madonna to release a statement explaining its concept . After the invasion of Iraq started , Madonna cancelled the release of the original music video , because of the political climate of the country at the time , and released an alternative version , featuring her in front of a backdrop of flags from around the world . The song was performed during promotion for American Life in 2003 and on the Re @-@ Invention World Tour ( 2004 ) .
= = Background and release = =
" American Life " was written and produced by Madonna and Mirwais Ahmadzaï . " I could be having a guitar lesson and something will just come to me , " the former observed . " Or Mirwais will send me over music – rough stuff that doesn 't have an arrangement : basic chord progressions . ' American Life ' itself came about like that . " In April 2003 , Madonna discussed her motivations behind " American Life " with VH1 while talking about her experience in the music industry . She stated " I look back at the 20 years behind me and I realized that a lot of things that I 'd valued weren 't important " , in response to the non @-@ materialistic themes of the record . Discussing the album , Madonna said about " American Life " :
" [ The song ] was like a trip down memory lane , looking back at everything I 've accomplished and all the things I once valued and all the things that were important to me . What is my perspective now ? I 've fought for so many things , I 've tried so hard to be number one and to stay on top , to look good , to be the best . And I realized that a lot of things that last and the things that matter are none of those things . "
To counter illegal Internet downloads of the song both before and after the single 's release , Madonna 's associates created a number of false song files of similar length and size . Some of these files delivered a brief message from Madonna saying " What the fuck do you think you 're doing ? " followed by minutes of silence . However , the song leaked online one day before its official premiere . " American Life " premiered on March 25 , 2003 , through AOL . The song was released in the United States on April 8 , 2003 . " American Life " went on sale two days later , through digital services Liquid Audio , RioPort , and also through Madonna 's website in MP3 format .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
Starting with Madonna 's voice multi @-@ tracked questioning – " Am I gonna be a star ? " , " Should I change my name ? " – the lyrics develop into what Rikky Rooksby of The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna states is a complaint about modern @-@ day life . She also questions the shallowness of modern life and the " American dream . " " I know it sounds clichéd , " she admitted . " But I 've had 20 years of fame and fortune , and I feel that I have the right to an opinion on what it is and isn 't . All everyone is obsessed about now is being a celebrity . I 'm saying that 's bullshit , and who knows better than me ? Before it happens , you have all kinds of notions about how wonderful celebrity is and how much joy it 's going to bring you . Then you arrive ... In America , more than any other place in the world , you have the freedom to be anything you want to be . Which is all well and good , but it only works if you have a value system – and we seem not to have one anymore . It 's , ' Whatever it takes to get to the top , that 's what you gotta do . ' It 's the allure of the beautiful life : ' Look like this , you 're gonna be happy . Drive this car , you 're gonna be popular . Wear these clothes and people are gonna want to fuck you . ' It 's a very powerful illusion and people are caught up in it , including myself . Or I was . "
After three minutes , Madonna performs a rap naming the people who are working for her . Basically , we [ she and Ahmadzaï ] had recorded the whole song and we had this instrumental thing at the end , " said Madonna , " and Mirwais was like , ' You know what , you have to go and do a rap . ' And I was like , ' Get out of here , I don 't rap . ' And he was like , ' Yeah you do . Just go in there , just do it . ' He totally encouraged me . I had nothing planned , nothing written , and he just told me to do stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness , whatever I was thinking . Because I was always drinking soy lattes in the studio , and I drive my Mini Cooper to the studio , I was just like , ' OK , let me just talk about the things that I like . ' So I went and it was just total improv and obviously it was sloppy at first , but I got out all my thoughts and then I wrote everything down that I said and then I perfected the timing of it . So it was totally spontaneous . "
The repeated acoustic guitar riff " adds a touch of pathos " to the song , according to biographer Carol Gnojewski . The lyrics accompany a " punchy octave synth figure " synchronized with a drum and bass beat . " American Life " is written in the time signature of common time with a moderate tempo of 102 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of F @-@ sharp minor with Madonna 's voice spanning from C3 to B4 .
= = Critical reception = =
" American Life " was met with generally negative reception from music critics . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine labeled it a " trite , self @-@ aggrandizing and often awkward song about privilege " and a " dour and robotic " track . Stylus Magazine gave a negative review and said that when one of the world 's richest women complains about commercialism and the emptiness of entertainment culture , it seems hypocritical rather than insightful . He also noted that in the song , she 's raging against the life she herself is leading .
Chuck Taylor of Billboard gave a negative review for the song , criticizing Madonna 's rapping and calling the song " a blurry snarl of style and composition that 's sounds more like a disjointed medley than a song . " Alexis Petridis from The Guardian was disappointed by the lyrics saying that " what on earth might her extreme point of view involve ? That the world is ruled by a shadowy cabal of super @-@ intelligent lizards ? ... Sadly not . Her extreme point of view turns out to be that money can 't buy you happiness and that fame isn 't all it 's cracked up to be . " He also panned the lyric " I like to express my extreme point of view " , saying that it 's difficult to hear that line without feeling a prickle of excitement .
Entertainment Weekly called the song a list of celeb perks : trainer , butler , assistant , three nannies , a bodyguard or five . It seems , at first , not like the clever self @-@ twitting she clearly intended , but rather a facile confirmation of her haters ' conviction : that the middle @-@ aged Madonna does not have a worldview beyond her next Pilates appointment . In 2004 , Blender magazine listed the song at number nine on the list of the 50 Worst Songs Ever , stating that Madonna " updates the ' Material Girl ' -era satire of commercialism and spiritual emptiness ... with what is hands @-@ down the most embarrassing rap ever recorded . Nervous and choppy , she makes Debbie Harry sound as smooth as Jay @-@ Z. " The magazine also said that the worst moment of the song is when after rapping , Madonna sings ' Nothing is what it seems ' with no profundity . Stephen Thompson of The A.V. Club considered the song to be " jittery , tuneless , and shallow to the point of self @-@ parody " .
= = Chart performance = =
" American Life " debuted at number 90 on the US Billboard Hot 100 on the week of April 5 , 2003 . A few weeks later on April 26 , 2003 , the song peaked at number 37 , being the greatest gainer song of that week . In Canada , the song peaked at number one on the singles chart . In Australia , " American Life " debuted at its peak of number seven , during the week of April 24 , 2003 . In the following week , the song began its decline , and experienced a total chart trajectory of eight weeks . The song was certified Gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . In the New Zealand , the song peaked at number 33 , and remained on the chart for one week . On the UK Singles Chart , " American Life " debuted at its peak of number two on the week of April 26 , 2003 .
On April 27 , 2003 , " American Life " debuted at number seven on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 chart , spending a total of 11 weeks in the chart . The song achieved moderate chart positions in both the Flemish and Wallonian territories in Belgium , peaking at numbers 12 and 10 , respectively . Making its debut at number 61 , " American Life " charted for a total of 11 weeks in France and peaked at number 10 , before falling out on July 6 , 2003 . The song was certified Silver by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) . On the Dutch Top 40 chart , the song made its debut at number 34 . The following week it rose to number 21 and peaked at number 4 , before the ending of its eleven @-@ week run . On April 24 , 2003 , " American Life " debuted at number three on the Swedish Singles Chart . Similarly in Switzerland , the song debuted at number one on the Swiss Singles Chart , spending 13 weeks on the chart . In Germany , the song peaked at number 10 .
= = Music videos = =
There are two different music videos for " American Life " , the first of which was not released by Madonna . It was shot in the first week of February 2003 at Los Angeles Center Studios in Los Angeles , California by Swedish director Jonas Åkerlund , who worked with Madonna in the videos for " Ray of Light " ( 1998 ) and " Music " ( 2000 ) . Madonna had the idea for the music video in November 2002 , then she and Åkerlund developed the idea to make an anti @-@ war and anti @-@ fashion mini @-@ movie . With " American Life " , she took her music videos to a different level by focusing on war , politics and , according to media interpretation , the then @-@ upcoming invasion of Iraq . " It is an antiwar statement ... " she subsequently clarified , " but it 's not necessarily against this war . At any given moment there 's at least 30 wars going on in this world and I 'm against all of them . " Shortly after it was filmed , Warner Bros. Records released a statement regarding the music video : " [ The video ] expresses a panoramic view of our culture and looming war through the view of a female superhero portrayed by Madonna . Starting as a runway show of couture army fatigues , the fashion show escalates into a mad frenzy depicting the catastrophic repercussions and horrors of war . " An exclusive sneak peek of the video was available on VH1 's program Backstage at the Grammys .
The video begins with several male and female models dressed up as soldiers on a fashion runway , wearing military garb and gas masks with one male model sports a shirt that reads " Fashion Victim " while it is inter @-@ cut with scenes of Madonna singing in front of a black background . In the second chorus , middle @-@ eastern children are seen walking on the runway , and being bullied by the soldier models . During the bridge , Madonna and her group prepare to enter the runway in a restroom , while she carves " Protect Me " on the partition of a stall and dances angrily with them to the song . The women also are seen dancing in front of surveillance cameras . When the rap section starts , Madonna is seen crashing into the show driving a Mini Cooper and pummel the photographers with an industrial @-@ strength water hose , while rapping and dancing on top of the car with her gang . In the end of the video , Madonna frantically drives out of the runway into the amused audience , and pull a hand grenade with her teeth and then throws it to George W. Bush , and the video ends with him using it to light up his cigar .
Due to the political climate of the country at the time , on April 1 , 2003 , Madonna pulled the video and released a statement explaining why : " I have decided not to release my new video . It was filmed before the war started and I do not believe it is appropriate to air it at this time . Due to the volatile state of the world and out of sensitivity and respect to the armed forces , who I support and pray for , I do not want to risk offending anyone who might misinterpret the meaning of this video . " After pulling the original video , it was then released an edited version that premiered on April 16 , 2003 on VH1 , immediately after a special program called Madonna Speaks . This version features Madonna singing in front of a backdrop of ever @-@ changing flags of different countries .
In 2005 , a director cut of the video leaked onto the Internet . It shows heavier scenes , like wounded and maimed soldiers , war scenes , images of poverty and death . In 2010 , Slant Magazine placed this alternate video on the nineteenth place of decade 's fifty best music videos list , stating : " It isn 't like either the video 's message about viewing war as a form of popular entertainment or its striking , loaded images leave much room for misinterpretation . Prescient ? Yes . Relevant ? Surely . Subtle ? Not so much . " This version of the video ends with the tossed grenade landing on the catwalk and Madonna putting her hands on her ears .
= = Live performances = =
To promote American Life , Madonna embarked on the American Life Promo Tour . A performance on Tower 's Fourth Street in Manhattan was presented to around 400 people ; the set started with Madonna , wearing black beret , polka @-@ dot blouse , black trousers and heels , performing an acoustic performance of " American Life " followed by the track " X @-@ Static Process " . The promotional show also saw Madonna perform two other tracks from the album being " Mother and Father " and " Hollywood " , before performing an " impromptu " performance of " Like a Virgin " , and lastly performing the album version of " American Life " . A stage was built in preparation for the performances with long dark drapes and large speakers , and according to Billboard was so that over one thousand fans nearby could hear the performance . Madonna also performed the song at HMV store in Oxford to around 500 people . While in the United Kingdom , she performed " American Life " and " Hollywood " at BBC One 's Top of the Pops .
The following year , " American Life " was included on her Re @-@ Invention World Tour . It opened the Military @-@ Army segment and started with the sound of a helicopter in the background as Madonna 's backup dancers , dressed as soldiers , crawled on their bellies as though in the middle of battle , then hugged each other as if saying goodbye . Madonna appeared onstage , on top of a structure made up of TV sets , wearing camouflage pants , an olive army jacket and black beret . She started performing the song as war footage of death and destruction flashed on screens behind her . At the end of the song , it showed a George W. Bush look @-@ alike lovingly resting his head on the shoulder of a Saddam Hussein look @-@ alike , as though the pair were waiting for a marriage license . During the performance , Madonna ran down a lengthy V @-@ shaped catwalk that descended from the ceiling and allowed her to reach the middle of the stadium . Toronto Sun 's Jane Stevenson praised the performance , but called the background images " sober " . The performance was included in the I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret live album and documentary .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – songwriter , producer
Mirwais Ahmadzaï – producer , programming , guitar
Mike " Spike " Stent – mixing
Tim Young – mastering
Tom Hannen – assistant engineer
Simon Changer – assistant engineer
Credits and personnel adapted from American Life album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= At Long Last Leave =
" At Long Last Leave " is the fourteenth episode of The Simpsons ' twenty @-@ third season , and the 500th episode overall of the series . In the episode , the Simpsons discover that the inhabitants of Springfield have grown tired of them and have secretly decided to throw them out of the city . After being evicted from Springfield , the family members end up in a rugged place without rules and regulations called The Outlands . There , they briefly come across their neighbor Julian Assange , who created WikiLeaks . Assange , who is in fear of extradition to Sweden and then the United States , guest @-@ starred in the episode as himself and recorded his lines over the phone having been granted asylum in the Ecuadorian embassy in Britain , while waiting for the results of Assange v Swedish Prosecution Authority .
Michael Price wrote " At Long Last Leave " without the intention of it becoming the 500th episode and felt honored when it was selected for the milestone . Television critics have given the episode generally positive reviews , particularly praising it for a montage of the series ' couch gags that was included in the opening sequence . The storyline of " At Long Last Leave " has , however , received criticism for being similar to stories previously done on The Simpsons and in The Simpsons Movie .
During its original airing on the Fox network in the United States on February 19 , 2012 , the episode was watched by about 5 @.@ 77 million people and received a 2 @.@ 6 Nielsen rating in the demographic for adults aged 18 – 49 . Before this broadcast , Fox promoted the 500th episode milestone by arranging an attempt to break the Guinness World Record for longest continuous television viewing . A hundred fans of The Simpsons were invited to watch a marathon of the series ' episodes , starting on February 8 , 2012 . The record was broken 86 hours and 37 minutes later on February 12 , 2012 , with only two fans left watching the marathon .
= = Plot = =
The Simpson family is advised of a citywide nuclear safety drill and all the inhabitants of Springfield are told to stay in their basements for three hours . The family members quickly become bored in the basement and decide to leave the house and go see the empty city . As they walk through Springfield , they see an unusual number of cars parked by the City Hall . The Simpsons go in and discover that everyone in town has gathered for a secret town meeting and have voted unanimously to kick them out of Springfield forever . Mayor Quimby reveals that the city has gone bankrupt due to the constant cleaning up of the family 's shenanigans over the years , ranging from Homer 's drunken antics , Bart 's various pranks , and Lisa 's environmental concerns . Marge delivers a heart @-@ felt plea to the residents to let the Simpsons live in the one place they call home , but they refuse , with Quimby declaring her the " worst Simpson " for always trying to see the family in a positive light .
A big celebration is held by the city 's population as the Simpsons are officially evicted from Springfield . When the family drives out into the middle of nowhere at night with no place to stay , they come across a man who takes them to a county called The Outlands , which is a dirty , run @-@ down place where there are no rules and regulations . The Simpsons settle in The Outlands and meet Julian Assange — their unfriendly next @-@ door neighbor who operates the WikiLeaks Headquarters there .
While the rest of the family gets used to their new home , Marge becomes homesick . Homer sneaks her back into Springfield one night under the disguise of Mr. Burns and Smithers , and they spend the night getting drunk and having sex in their old abandoned home . However , Chief Wiggum sees through their disguises , and rallies the people of Springfield to the Simpson home to capture Homer and Marge . Marge is initially angry at the members of the mob , but she stuns them by saying that she does not want to live in Springfield or deal with them anymore , having found a place to live where she and her family can be accepted for who they are and love each other without worry of hate and judgment from others . Marge and Homer march through the visibly disillusioned crowd and return to The Outlands . Back in the Simpsons ' new home , Bart discovers Lenny and Carl sneaking in . They tell the family they long to start a new life in The Outlands . Soon , Moe , Mayor Quimby , and many other Springfield residents show up , wishing to abandon their lives in Springfield and start over in The Outlands . Soon , all of Springfield moves there to start new lives with the Simpsons , and they begin rebuilding a new city which they name Springfield .
= = Production = =
" At Long Last Leave " , which is the 500th episode of The Simpsons , was written by Michael Price . The Simpsons ' showrunner Al Jean has described it as " a tribute to people who love the show . " Being a fan of musical theater , Price titled the episode in reference to the Cole Porter song " At Long Last Love " . Price did not write " At Long Last Leave " with the intention of it becoming the 500th episode ; that decision was made afterwards when the staff members realized the story offered an opportunity for a look @-@ back at the history of the Simpson family . He said in an interview with the magazine Channel Guide that he was " deeply honored " when his episode was selected for the milestone . As acknowledged by Price in that interview , the plot of the episode features similarities to the 2007 film The Simpsons Movie , in which the Simpsons are forced to flee to Alaska after Homer angers the townspeople in Springfield by polluting a lake . However , Price commented that " I think it 's different from the movie in that it sort of does reference back the entire history of the show , the collective experience of Springfield vis @-@ a @-@ vis the Simpsons , whereas the movie they were forced to run away due to that very specific thing " . He further noted that despite the similarities " we [ the staff ] liked it enough to go with it anyway . " The plot was first announced to the press at the Comic @-@ Con convention in San Diego , California on July 23 , 2011 , during a panel with the cast and crew of The Simpsons .
The episode features several guest appearances , with Kelsey Grammer and Jackie Mason returning for short cameos as Sideshow Bob and Rabbi Krustofski , respectively . American musician Alison Krauss and her band Union Station recorded a bluegrass version of the Simpsons theme song that is played in the episode and over the closing credits .
Australian activist Julian Assange — the founder of WikiLeaks — appeared as himself . Many of his lines were written by Australian author Kathy Lette , who is one of Assange 's friends . According to Lette , " Julian and The Simpsons producers asked me to rewrite his scene and dialogue . I guess they just wanted me to add a little Aussie irony to the script . Julian does not suffer from an irony deficiency ! I used to write a sitcom for Columbia Pictures , the long @-@ running series The Facts of Life , so the producers knew I could fire off a quip or two . " In 2010 , Swedish authorities issued a European Arrest Warrant to extradite Assange from Britain to Sweden for questioning in relation to sexual assault allegations made against him there . Assange was arrested in England , before being freed on conditional bail until a decision would be made as to whether or not he should be extradited to Sweden . Assange recorded his lines over the phone while under house arrest in England . Jean , who directed Assange 's performance from Los Angeles , only acquired a phone number to call and received no information about the whereabouts of the activist . According to Jean in an interview with Entertainment Weekly , The Simpsons creator Matt Groening had found out through a rumor that Assange wanted to appear on the show . Casting director Bonnie Pietila was therefore given the task to contact Assange and make sure the guest appearance could happen . The episode features no reference to Assange 's legal situation at the time of his recording . Jean commented that he is " a controversial figure , and there 's a good reason he 's controversial . There was discussion internally whether or not to have him on the show , but ultimately we went ahead and did it . " Groening has said in an interview that " We [ the staff ] dare ourselves to do things and Julian Assange was a dare . "
= = Promotion = =
To promote the 500th episode milestone , the Fox network , which airs The Simpsons , attempted to break the Guinness World Record for longest continuous television viewing by arranging a marathon screening of the show 's episodes at Hollywood & Highland . The record of 86 hours , six minutes , and 41 seconds was set in 2010 when three people watched all episodes of the Fox show 24 . A hundred fans were selected to participate in the Simpsons marathon , which was also a contest to determine which fan could last the longest into the marathon . The screening started on February 8 , 2012 with " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " , the first episode of the series , and ended on February 12 of that same year with " Faith Off , " the eleventh episode of the eleventh season . At that point , 86 hours and 37 minutes had passed , which meant the record was broken . The two remaining viewers — Jeremiah Franco and Carin Shreve — were crowned joint winners of the contest and each won US $ 10 @,@ 500 . They also got to attend the 500th Episode Celebration party held on February 13 , 2012 for the cast and crew of The Simpsons .
= = Reception = =
The episode was originally broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on February 19 , 2012 . It was watched by approximately 5 @.@ 77 million people during this broadcast , and in the demographic for adults aged 18 – 49 , it received a 2 @.@ 6 Nielsen rating and a seven percent share . The rating was a thirty percent increase from the previous episode , " The Daughter Also Rises " . " At Long Last Leave " became the most @-@ watched broadcast in Fox 's Animation Domination lineup for the night in terms of total viewers , finishing higher than new episodes of the four series Family Guy ( 5 @.@ 47 million ) , American Dad ! ( 4 @.@ 43 million ) , Napoleon Dynamite ( 4 @.@ 41 million ) , and The Cleveland Show ( 2 @.@ 61 million ) . It also became the second highest @-@ rated broadcast among adults aged 18 – 49 , being exceeded only by the Family Guy episode which received a 2 @.@ 8 rating .
" At Long Last Leave " has received generally positive reviews from television critics , particularly for its couch gag in the Simpsons opening sequence . This couch gag features a frame @-@ by @-@ frame montage of previous couch gags that pulls back into a photomosaic of the number " 500 " . The A.V. Club critic Hayden Childs wrote that the " best thing about the 500th Simpsons episode is the opening couch montage , which hits the nostalgia bullseye almost perfectly . " HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall praised the couch gag as being " marvelous " , noting that it " actually made me choke up a bit . " Sepinwall commended " At Long Last Leave " , commenting that " like many latter @-@ day Simpsons outings , [ it ] features a story we 've seen variations on several times before ( including in The Simpsons Movie ) , but also features many funny jokes that affirm my belief that I 'm happier to live in a world that keeps giving us new Simpsons episodes [ ... ] than I will be in the one where that inevitably stops . " Similarly to Sepinwall , Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter wrote : " I got a few laughs and that 's all I ever look for in The Simpsons these days . I just like knowing it 's still there . [ ... ] It doesn 't have the spring in the legs quite like it used to . It 's not going to dazzle at the same spectacular rate . But even after 500 episodes , it still has a little something left . " Goodman described the couch gag as " lovely " .
Matt Roush of TV Guide wrote favorably about " At Long Last Leave " , describing it as a " keeper " and highlighting the " dazzling opening sequence " . He concluded that The Simpsons " once again delivers the goods , proving itself to be a classic for our age and for the ages . " Childs was less positive , writing that the episode is " nothing special " as " all of the elements seem drawn from earlier stories " and " only a few of the jokes rise to the lowered bar of latter @-@ day Simpsons humor . " He added , however , that " nothing in the episode goes outrageously wrong , either . There is little Family Guy @-@ style stupidity and randomness , the satire is gently pointed inward , and the guest star , while splashy for his controversiality , does not hijack the plot — instead appearing for a single joke before vanishing . " TIME critic James Poniewozik commented that " At Long Last Leave " was an " all right " episode , noting that certain gags felt " forced by the writers ’ room " . Poniewozik , who thinks the quality of The Simpsons declined at the end of the 1990s , added however that " a few moments made me bark out loud and realize why I loved the show in the first place . "
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= Pilot ( Veronica Mars ) =
The pilot episode of the television series Veronica Mars premiered on UPN on September 22 , 2004 . It was written by series creator Rob Thomas , and directed by Mark Piznarski . Set in the fictional town of Neptune , the pilot introduces Kristen Bell as the title character , a high @-@ school student moonlighting as a private investigator under the wing of her detective father . Two separate mysteries are presented in the episode , which are explored throughout the season and resolved in the final and penultimate episodes .
Thomas originally wrote Veronica Mars as a young adult novel , featuring a male as the protagonist . He changed the gender of the protagonist because he thought a noir piece told from a female point of view would be more interesting and unique . The original pilot script was darker in tone than the one filmed , and several details were changed . Although it ranked low in the ratings , the pilot was critically acclaimed and Bell 's performance as the protagonist was praised .
= = Plot = =
Flashbacks reveal Veronica 's backstory : in small @-@ town Neptune , California , Veronica - daughter of well @-@ respected County Sheriff Keith Mars ( Enrico Colantoni ) is a typical teen who was dating Duncan Kane ( Teddy Dunn ) , and was popular with loving parents . But when her best friend and Duncan 's sister , Lilly Kane ( Amanda Seyfried ) , is murdered , Veronica 's life falls apart . Keith accuses software billionaire Jake Kane ( Kyle Secor ) , Lilly 's father , of being involved in the murder . This provokes Neptune 's wrath , and Keith is ousted from office and replaced by Don Lamb ( Michael Muhney ) in a recall election . Veronica 's mother , Lianne Mars ( Corinne Bohrer ) , unable to face the loss of status and economic security , develops a drinking problem and suddenly leaves town . Veronica 's boyfriend also ends their relationship , and her friends turn their backs on her . To prove that she is unaffected by the rejection , Veronica attends wealthy classmate Shelly Pomroy 's " 09er " party . Her drink is spiked with GHB and she is raped , but Sheriff Lamb refuses to take her report seriously . These events shock Veronica and she changes her attitude towards her former friends , becoming tough and cynical .
Estranged from all her " 09er " friends — wealthy students from the fictional 90909 ZIP code — including Duncan and Lilly 's ex @-@ boyfriend , Logan Echolls ( Jason Dohring ) , and feeling the drop in income and status that her father 's dismissal from office brings , Veronica takes a part @-@ time job in her father 's newly opened private investigation agency , Mars Investigations . Although the case of Lilly 's murder is officially closed following the confession of a former Kane Software employee , Abel Koontz ( Christian Clemenson ) , Veronica continues her own investigation into what happened . Her investigation discovers new evidence which suggests that Koontz is innocent .
In the present , Veronica starts her Junior year at Neptune High by freeing new student Wallace Fennel ( Percy Daggs III ) , who had been stripped and duct @-@ taped to the school flag pole . Wallace explains that while working at the local Sac @-@ n @-@ Pac , he alerted the sheriff 's department to two PCH ( Pacific Coast Highway ) bikers who took alcohol without paying . Sheriff Lamb exposes Wallace as the witness , and despite Wallace 's attempts to retract his accusation , Lamb walks away with proof from the in @-@ store video camera . Wallace 's duct @-@ taping is PCH retribution for his honesty . In a convoluted scheme to help Wallace , Veronica sets up Logan by placing a bong in his locker . Once the bong is taken to the evidence room at the sheriff 's department , Veronica triggers it to smoke and spark by remote control , leading to the arrival of the fire department . The fire chief , a friend of Veronica , switches the video from the Sac @-@ n @-@ Pac with one Veronica filmed of a deputy receiving sexual favors . When the bikers are in court , that video is shown instead , embarrassing Lamb and undermining the case against the bikers . Wallace is forgiven and Eli " Weevil " Navarro ( Francis Capra ) , the bikers ' leader , becomes Veronica 's occasional ally .
At Mars Investigations , Duncan and Lilly 's mother , Celeste Kane ( Lisa Thornhill ) hires Keith to ascertain if her husband Jake is having an affair , despite her open contempt for both Keith and Veronica . Keith is busy with other projects , and Veronica takes it upon herself to follow Jake . Veronica takes photos of him at the Camelot hotel as he meets with an unseen woman after midnight . Once Keith sees the license plate number of the woman 's car , he stops the investigation and files the photograph . Puzzled by his actions , Veronica finds the file and learns that Keith has continued his own personal investigation of Lilly 's murder . Veronica discovers that the car belongs to her missing mother , Lianne , and begins to investigate the murder herself .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Rob Thomas originally wrote Veronica Mars as a young adult novel for publishing company Simon & Schuster . Prior to his first television job on Dawson 's Creek , Thomas sold two novel ideas . One of these was provisionally titled Untitled Rob Thomas Teen Detective Novel , which formed the basis for the series . The novel had many elements similar to Veronica Mars , however the protagonist was male . Thomas 's father was a vice @-@ principal at Westlake High School in Austin , Texas , and the main character attended a " thinly disguised version " of the school . As Thomas had begun writing for film and television , he did not resume his teen detective idea for several years . Writing a novel could take months for Thomas , whereas a television script only took several weeks . Knowing that television scripts paid more , Thomas wrote the television version of the teen detective project as a spec script before it became a novel . Since no studio or network had asked him to write it , and he would not get paid unless it sold , Thomas said that " it was never a very pressing project for me " . Tinkering with it from time to time , Thomas wrote project notes a year before he actually started writing the television script . Most of his original ideas made it into the script , but some changed drastically . Thomas wanted to use flashbacks , and he had to shorten the timeline so that the murder could happen in a recent time . Thomas changed the gender of the protagonist because he thought a noir piece told from a female point of view would be more interesting and unique .
= = = Casting = = =
Kristen Bell was chosen to portray Veronica Mars from more than 500 women who auditioned for the role . On casting the lead role , Thomas later commented , " When you 're casting 20 @-@ year @-@ old hot girl , you see a lot of bad actors . " Bell felt that it was " just luck " that Rob Thomas saw that " I have some sass to me , and that 's exactly what he wanted " . Bell thought that it was her cheerleader looks and an outsider 's attitude that set her apart from the other women who auditioned . Bell 's life shared many similarities with that of her character — her father had " an investigative bent " , and her best friend died in high school in a car crash .
Jason Dohring , who played Logan Echolls , originally auditioned for the role of Duncan Kane . Teddy Dunn originally auditioned for Logan , but ended up portraying Duncan Kane . Dohring felt that his audition for Duncan " was a little dark " , and he was told by the producers that it was " not really right " . The producers asked Dohring to read for the role of Logan , which involved reading Duncan 's lines . Dohring acted one scene from the pilot , in which he shattered the headlights of a car with a crowbar . During the final auditions , Dohring read two times with Bell and met with the studio and the network . When reading with Bell , Dohring acted the whole scene as if he had raped her , and tried to give the character an evil and fun feel . At the time of Dohring 's audition for Logan , the character was only going to be a guest star in the pilot .
Percy Daggs III auditioned for the role of Wallace Fennel twice before being cast , and he had to go through three tests with the studio and network executives . During his first audition , Daggs read four scenes from the pilot . Before his studio test , Daggs read with Bell and had " a great conversation " . He said that she " made me feel comfortable about auditioning " and was a big reason why he became more comfortable playing Wallace as the season went on . Thomas described Amanda Seyfried , who portrayed the murdered Lilly Kane , as " the biggest surprise of the year " . When casting a series regular , he was able to see all the best actors in town , mainly because they all wanted to be a series regular . When casting Lilly , who would only appear from time @-@ to @-@ time as " the dead girl " , Thomas did not receive the same level of actors . Thomas said that he had " never had a more cut and dry audition " than he did with Seyfried ; she was " about 100 times better than anyone else that we saw , she was just spectacular " . He said that she ended up being so good in the series that he used her three or four times more than he initially planned .
= = = Filming = = =
The original pilot script was darker in tone than the one filmed . Thomas intended to take the script to FX , HBO or Showtime , but gave UPN " credit " as they only wanted it a bit lighter to match their standards and practices . There was also a lengthy debate as to whether Veronica could be a rape victim ; UPN eventually consented . In the aired version of the episode , Lilly Kane was found by the pool in the same spot where she was murdered . However , Thomas stated that Lilly 's body was originally going to be found in the ocean , and he had a plan for events which led to Lilly 's body being dumped . When Thomas pitched the idea to UPN , the network felt that it was " too dark and creepy " for Jake Kane to dispose of his daughter 's body to protect his son , and the idea was changed . Much of the series ' scenes were filmed at Stu Segall Productions in San Diego . During the filming of the pilot , producer Paul Kurta said that much of the filming would take place in Oceanside , California . Kurta liked that it was " a seaside town that still feels like middle @-@ class people live there ... Most of the seaside towns feel resort driven . " The setting of Neptune High , which was featured in the first two seasons , was also located in Oceanside . The school , Oceanside High School , was paid $ 7 @,@ 750 by Stu Segall Productions for the use of the campus and extras . When Thomas watched the final cut of the scene in which Veronica realizes that she has been raped , Thomas thought that he had casted the role correctly . " I ’ m watching her from the monitor , and tears start streaming down her face , and I ’ m just like , ' Holy shit ! We have a star ! ' "
= = Music = =
" We Used to Be Friends " by The Dandy Warhols was used as the series ' theme song . Composer Josh Kramon was originally going to produce a noir version of an ' 80s song for the theme . However , Rob Thomas was " pretty much set on finding a song " , and " We Used to Be Friends " was chosen right from the beginning . Kramon wrote the original background music to convey the film noir themes . For the pilot , Thomas wanted " a really atmospheric , kind of modern noir type of vibe " , and Kramon used sounds similar to that of Air and Zero 7 . Kramon used " traditional sounds " for the series , but also processed and filtered them . Among the instruments used were piano , vibraphone and guitar . When using an acoustic piano , Kramon would use compression so that it did not sound like a traditional piano . Live bass and percussion was also used , as Kramon did not like to program them . The main instrument used was guitar , but Kramon felt that piano was " by far the most important instrument for working on TV shows , especially when you 're doing everything yourself . " A week before choosing the sounds for the pilot , the crew had a " spotting session " , where they would discuss with Thomas and the producers which type of music was going to be featured . Kramon did not decide the songs to be featured , but composed and created the whole score . Since there was little orchestral music , and Kramon could play guitar , piano , bass and drums , he played the whole score without hiring a musician .
= = = Other songs heard in this episode = = =
" La Femme d 'Argent " by Air
" What You Want " by The Wayouts
" Insincere Because I " by The Dandy Warhols
" Sittin ' On Top Of The World " by Botany Boyz
" Just Another " by Pete Yorn
" White Lines ( Don 't Do It ) " by Grandmaster Flash
" Give You More " by Taxi Doll
" Girls " by Death In Vegas
" Bathroom Stall " by DAMe Lee
" Weak Become Heroes " by The Streets
" ( Don 't Fear ) The Reaper " by Blue Öyster Cult
" Pata Pata " by Miriam Makeba
" Cemetary Party " by Air
" Atomic Girl " by The Wannabes
" Butterflies " by Davíd Garza
= = Reception = =
The pilot was viewed by an average of 2 @.@ 49 million American viewers on its original broadcast , ranking 108 out of 112 in the weekly charts . Debra Leithauser and Amy Amatangelo of The Washington Post praised the pilot for relying " on strong storytelling and casting " , but hoped that viewers would be able to follow the multiple storylines . Barry Garron of The Hollywood Reporter said that the pilot was " so cleverly constructed , the hero so engaging and complicated and the story so filled with great dialogue that I wonder how anyone can sustain this level of accomplishment . " He said that the protagonist " has all the sass , strength , resolve and ingenuity of any of literature 's classic detectives [ ... ] and Bell is so convincing in the role that it all somehow makes perfect sense . " He praised the pilot and Thomas ' writing , saying it had " comedy , deathly serious drama , parody and danger , ingredients not typically mixed together " , and said that " if future episodes are half as good , this still will be one of TV 's bright spots " . Kay McFadden of The Seattle Times felt that Veronica Mars was the best new series on UPN , and that the title character was potentially " this season 's most interesting character creation " . McFadden described the series as " Alias in its attitude , Raymond Chandler in its writing and The O.C. in its class @-@ consciousness " .
Phil Gallo of Variety called Veronica Mars " the smartest teen @-@ oriented drama since Freaks and Geeks " . He enjoyed Bell 's acting , describing her " as charismatic as she is tough and intelligent , giving a multilayered perf that touches on simple 17 @-@ year @-@ old insecurity and convincingly incorporates deeper issues concerning family , love and disappointment . " Gallo discussed the pilot 's reliance on flashbacks and voiceover , and felt that neither got in the way of the storytelling or felt too obvious . He praised Thomas ' writing of the " fine script " and Piznarski 's directing . Robert Bianco of USA Today felt that Veronica Mars was more akin to Buffy Summers than Nancy Drew , with " sharp wits , steely nerves and a wicked sense of humor " . Bianco praised Bell 's portrayal of the character , saying " whether you buy the idea of teen crime @-@ solvers or not , there 's no questioning Bell 's credentials as a TV star . " Melanie McFarland of the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer said that the pilot was " showing signs of being network television 's next Buffy " , emanating from a tough , emotionally battered heroine . McFarland found the acting to be fantastic , and said that Bell and Colantoni " create a wonderful father @-@ daughter dynamic " . Samantha Bonar of the Los Angeles Times thought that the writing was clever , and praised Bell ability to channel charisma , smarts and frustration .
IGN rated the pilot episode 10th on its list of the top ten Veronica Mars episodes , writing that " The smooth introduction to all things Veronica makes you care for her instantly . Anyone wrestling with creating a female character who is multifaceted and real needs only to study Veronica . We see many different sides , and there isn 't any stereotyping . They sell her tough exterior so well that even though Veronica has been through a pile of crap , you don 't pity her – which is good , because she doesn 't want it anyway . "
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= Battle of Torrence 's Tavern =
The Battle of Torrence 's Tavern ( also referred to as the Skirmish at Torrence 's Tavern or the Battle at Tarrant 's Tavern ) was a minor engagement of the American Revolutionary War that took place in what was the western portion of Rowan County , North Carolina , approximately 10 miles ( 16 km ) east of the Catawba River near modern @-@ day Mooresville in Iredell County . Torrence 's Tavern was a part of the larger Southern campaign of the American Revolution , which , by 1780 – 1781 involved a series of clashes between the British Army and Loyalist milita and the Continental Army and Patriot militia in the Piedmont region of North and South Carolina .
The engagement took place on either February 1 or February 2 , 1781 immediately following the Battle of Cowan 's Ford , and resulted in a victory for British cavalry units under the command of Colonel Banastre Tarleton . The British victory served to demoralize Patriot supporters in western North Carolina , and forced General Nathanael Greene , commander of the Continental Army in the southern theater , to withdraw his forces further east . This withdrawal allowed Greene to unite his army with several detached Patriot forces in the Piedmont prior to the Battle of Guilford Courthouse . After the conclusion of the war , the site of Torrence 's Tavern was commemorated by two state and local historical markers .
= = Prelude = =
Throughout the winter of 1780 @-@ 1781 , the British Army in the Carolinas , under the command of General Charles Cornwallis , pursued the southern Continental Army , commanded by Nathanael Greene , from central South Carolina to North Carolina . At the Battle of Cowpens on January 17 , 1781 , the Continental Army scored a victory against a force , detached from the main British Army , commanded by Tarleton . After the defeat , Cornwallis set out to pursue Greene into nearby North Carolina . The victor of Cowpens , Daniel Morgan , had requested that Greene relieve him of his command of the Patriot militia due to a flare @-@ up of sciatica , but Greene refused . Morgan then set about establishing defenses on the Catawba River , which Cornwallis ' army would be forced to cross in order to drive into central and eastern North Carolina . Defensive positions were established at every ford on the river in that state in expectation of the British assault . By January 30 , Morgan had received word that the British were indeed preparing to cross the river .
On January 31 , 1781 , Greene and Morgan left the Catawba River defenses in the hands of militia General William Lee Davidson , and rode towards Salisbury to establish a rallying point . The Continental force crossed the Catawba River ahead of Cornwallis ' army , and followed Davidson and Morgan to the rallying point . At Cowan 's Ford on February 1 , 1781 , a force of Patriot militia commanded directly by Davidson held back the British Army for a period of time , and slowed their crossing of the Catawba River . Davidson 's militia inflicted numerous casualties before withdrawing towards the rally point . Davidson was killed in the battle at the ford , leaving the surviving militia temporarily without effective strategic command .
= = Battle and aftermath = =
= = = Date of the engagement = = =
Confusion exists over the exact date of the Battle of Torrence 's Tavern ; official North Carolina historical sources often cite February 2 as the date , but Tarleton 's memoirs indicate that the engagement occurred at two o 'clock in the afternoon of February 1 , after the early @-@ morning confrontation at Cowan 's Ford .
= = = Tarleton 's pursuit of the militia = = =
Cornwallis , whose army took a longer amount of time to cross the Catawba , wanted to prevent Greene 's forces from withdrawing quickly and being able to regroup , and so he ordered Colonel Tarleton , the commander of the British Legion , to pursue the militia formerly commanded by Davidson . After the engagement at Cowan 's Ford , citizens between the Catawba and Yadkin rivers who were sympathetic to the Patriots became panicked , and many fled their homes with whatever valuables they could pack in a short period of time .
Tarleton 's British Legion was a force that contained infantry , cavalry , and artillery units , but Tarleton was forced to take only his mounted soldiers with him due to heavy rains in the area . Upon nearing the site of what Tarleton labelled " Tarrant 's Tavern " , the British commander gained information that led him to believe the militia ahead were unprepared for any engagement , and were waiting on reinforcements from Mecklenburg and Rowan county militias . At the time of the battle , Torrence 's Tavern sat on a roadway that ran from Beatty 's and Cowan 's fords on the Catawba directly to Salisbury . Additionally , the same rain that forced Tarleton to shed his foot @-@ soldiers had rendered much of the militia 's gunpowder supply useless . Refugees with Patriot sympathies who had fled in advance of Cornwallis ' army had also used Torrence 's Tavern as a rendezvous point , and a large number of both militiamen and refugees consumed alcohol from the tavern 's stores .
= = = Assault of the British Legion = = =
Despite lacking support from Cornwallis ' main army , Tarleton 's cavalry struck immediately upon arriving at the scene , charging into the militia 's makeshift camp . At the first sign of the British approach , the Patriots attempted to organize a defense under the ad @-@ hoc command of Captain Nathaniel M. Martin , who tried to rally the militia to a line behind a nearby rail fence . There is also evidence that Col. Thomas Farmer and some 300 militia were stationed at the tavern as a secondary defensive line . Tarleton claimed to have led the charge by reminding his cavalrymen to " remember the Cowpens " . The British won in a quick and convincing fashion , dispersing the outnumbered militia units before they managed to complete their rally . Martin was captured in the first few moments of the battle , thereafter leaving the Patriots without any effective tactical command . With Patriot forces under the effects of such confusion , Tarleton divided his dragoons into smaller parties , ordering them to chase and further disburse the militia from the area .
While the battle was a minor engagement , the defense provided some additional time for Greene 's main army of regulars to cross the Yadkin River without harassment near Salisbury , which allowed that force to regroup and resupply . At the time of the skirmish , Greene was at a farm owned by David Carr ( sometimes attributed as " Cain " ) , approximately 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) from the tavern . Carr 's farm had been set as a secondary rendezvous point for the Patriot militia , but none of the expected units rallied to that location following the Torrence 's Tavern engagement . Upon reaching Salisbury after the loss , and finding nearly 1 @,@ 700 stands of muskets rusted and in useless condition , Greene reportedly exclaimed " These are the happy effects of defending the Country with Militia from which the good Lord deliver us ! " The tavern that stood at the location of the battle was burned to the ground the day after the engagement by the main British army , as it had been operated by the widow of a Patriot militiaman killed at the Battle of Ramsour 's Mill .
= = Legacy = =
The battle 's impact on the American Revolutionary War in the southern theater was minor , but the failure of Patriot militia to significantly stall Cornwallis at Cowan 's Ford and Torrence 's Tavern caused Greene to hasten his retreat towards his ultimate goal , Guilford Courthouse , where he determined to rendezvous with a detached force under the command of Isaac Huger . The total impact of Torrence 's Tavern alone , however , has been rated as especially minor , since the Continental Army force commanded by Greene managed to escape Cornwallis ' advance regardless of the short engagement 's outcome , and given the more substantial delay to the British caused by the defense at Cowan 's Ford the previous day .
John Buchanan , an American historian and archivist , postulated that at most , Torrence 's Tavern discouraged further militia turnout among North Carolinians of fighting age , noting , however , that turnout had previously been very low in that state . Buchanan went so far as to state that " had Tarleton not lived to write his history of the campaign Torrence 's Tavern probably would have merited at most a footnote . " Cornwallis , however , wrote to George Germain , 1st Viscount Sackville about the engagements of February 1 – 2 , 1781 , and stated that " this stroke , with our passage of the ford , so effectively dispirited the militia , that we met with no further opposition on our march to the Yadkin . "
A Daughters of the American Revolution stone marker was placed near the battle site in 1914 , marking the site of the tavern and commemorating the members of nearby Centre Presbyterian Church who had fought in the war . In 1939 , the State of North Carolina placed a Historical marker on the south @-@ bound shoulder of N.C. Highway 115 in Mount Mourne marking the approximate location of the battle .
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= Boadicea @-@ class cruiser =
The Boadicea @-@ class cruiser was a pair of scout cruisers built for the Royal Navy in the first decade of the 20th century . They were the first class of this type to be fitted with steam turbine machinery . Upon completion in 1909 – 10 , the sister ships served as flotilla leaders for destroyer flotillas of the First Fleet until 1913 when they were assigned to battleship squadrons . When the First World War began in August 1914 , they remained with their squadrons as the First Fleet was incorporated into the Grand Fleet , although they changed squadrons over the course of the war . Both ships were present during the Battle of Jutland in mid @-@ 1916 , but neither fired a shot . They were converted into minelayers the following year and both ships laid minefields in early 1918 in addition to other missions . The sisters were reduced to reserve in 1919 and sold for scrap in 1921 and 1926 .
= = Design = =
Like the earlier scout cruisers , the Boadicea class was designed to provide destroyer flotillas with a command ship , theoretically offering the ability to scout ahead of the group and locate targets for the smaller ships to attack . They were enlarged and more powerfully armed versions of the earlier ships , fitted with steam turbines . Curiously , they were no faster than the older ships and equally unsuccessful in their intended role as they lacked the speed of the destroyers they were supposed to escort .
Displacing 3 @,@ 350 long tons ( 3 @,@ 400 t ) , the ships had an overall length of 405 feet ( 123 @.@ 4 m ) , a beam of 41 feet 6 inches ( 12 @.@ 6 m ) and a deep draught of 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) . They were powered by two sets of Parsons steam turbines , each driving two shafts . The turbines produced a total of 18 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 13 @,@ 000 kW ) , using steam produced by 12 Yarrow boilers that burned both fuel oil and coal , and gave a maximum speed of 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) . They carried a maximum of 780 long tons ( 790 t ) of coal and 189 long tons ( 192 t ) of fuel oil that gave them a range of 4 @,@ 260 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 890 km ; 4 @,@ 900 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Her crew consisted of 317 officers and enlisted men .
The main armament of the Boadicea class consisted of six breech @-@ loading ( BL ) four @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) Mk VII guns . The forward pair of guns were mounted side by side on a platform on the forecastle , the middle pair were amidships , one on each broadside , and the two remaining guns were on the centreline of the quarterdeck , one ahead of the other . The guns fired their 31 @-@ pound ( 14 kg ) shells to a range of about 11 @,@ 400 yards ( 10 @,@ 400 m ) . Her secondary armament was four quick @-@ firing ( QF ) three @-@ pounder ( 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) ) Vickers Mk I guns and two submerged 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes . During the war , four additional four @-@ inch guns were added amidships to increase her firepower . A QF three @-@ inch 20 cwt anti @-@ aircraft gun was also added . In 1918 it was replaced by a four @-@ inch gun .
As scout cruisers , the ships were only lightly protected to maximise their speed . They had a curved protective deck that was 1 inch ( 25 mm ) thick on the slope and 0 @.@ 5 inches ( 13 mm ) on the flat . Their conning tower was protected by 4 inches of armour .
= = Ships = =
= = Service = =
Both Boadicea and Bellona began their careers with destroyer flotillas of the First Fleet , Boadicea as senior officers ' ship for the 1st Destroyer Flotilla and Bellona with the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla . The former was transferred to the 3rd Destroyer Flotilla in mid @-@ 1912 and the sisters were transferred to the 2nd and the 1st Battle Squadrons , respectively , of the First Fleet in 1913 . Both ships were assigned to positions at the rear of their squadrons and did not fire their guns during the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 .
The sisters remained with their squadrons until 1917 when they were converted into minelayers , Bellona in May and Boadicea in October , Bellona replacing her sister in the 2nd Battle Squadron that month . After her conversion , Boadicea was assigned to the 4th Battle Squadron in January 1918 and neither ship was reassigned before the end of the war . They laid mines at the entrance to the Kattegat on the nights of 18 / 19 and 24 / 25 February 1918 and both made several other sorties to lay their mines before the end of the war . They were placed in reserve after the war and taken out of service in 1920 . Bellona was quickly sold for scrap in 1921 , but Boadicea was not sold until 1926 .
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= Erik Gjems @-@ Onstad =
Erik @-@ Ørn Gjems @-@ Onstad , MBE ( 22 February 1922 – 18 November 2011 ) was a Norwegian resistance member , officer , lawyer , sports official , politician , author and anti @-@ immigration activist .
Gjems @-@ Onstad joined the Norwegian resistance movement after Nazi Germany invaded Norway in 1940 . He was arrested in Sweden for his involvement with Norwegian resistance activity in the country in 1941 , and was sent to the United Kingdom where he joined the Norwegian Independent Company 1 ( Kompani Linge ) and received British military training . He was deployed to Norway in 1943 as part of Lark , assigned with establishing radio connection with London . He led Lark in Trøndelag between 1943 and 1945 , which constituted the leadership of Milorg in the region . His other activities included to assist with weapons smuggling , prepare the sinking of the German battleship Tirpitz and plotting to assassinate Nazi collaborator Ivar Grande . He also founded the Durham organisation for conducting psychological warfare towards the end of the war , and he took part in blowing up railway tracks . Gjems @-@ Onstad 's efforts during the Second World War led him to become one of Norway 's highest decorated war heroes .
He joined the Norwegian Home Guard after the war , where he served as a captain . He completed education in law , and also worked as a judge and lawyer . He ultimately reached the rank of colonel in the military , as military lawyer of a branch of the Royal Norwegian Air Force . For some years he was CEO of a project that planned to develop the Vaterland neighbourhood in Oslo . Gjems @-@ Onstad also had a career in sports , representing the sports club SK Rye in cycling and racewalking . He later worked as a sports official as board member and chairman of various national sports bodies .
A former member of the Conservative Party and the libertarian organisation Libertas , Gjems @-@ Onstad joined Anders Lange 's Party when it was founded in 1973 and became the party 's deputy leader . He was elected a Member of Parliament in the 1973 parliamentary election , and became the party 's parliamentary leader following Anders Lange 's death in 1974 . Many of his views and proposals caused controversy , and he got in conflict with the new leadership of the party , which was eventually headed by Carl I. Hagen . Gjems @-@ Onstad was expelled from the party in 1976 , and finished his term as an independent . He also became known for criticising the Norwegian government 's policy in Africa , and for defending the governments of countries such as Rhodesia and South Africa . In the 1980s he worked as a defender for several anti @-@ immigration activists , and from the late 1980s he became involved in anti @-@ immigration politics himself . He stood in election for the Stop Immigration party in 1989 and for the Fatherland Party in 1991 , and he was later involved in the organisations Folkebevegelsen mot innvandring and Stop Islamisation of Norway . He was briefly active locally in the Conservative Party and the Pensioners ' Party in the late 2000s .
= = Early life = =
Erik @-@ Ørn Gjems @-@ Onstad was born in Kristiania ( modern @-@ day Oslo ) to jurist and civil servant Olaf Gjems @-@ Onstad ( 1882 – 1945 ) and architect Ågot Urbye ( 1886 – 1959 ) . He worked at sea as a cabin boy in 1937 , and went to port in both Africa and Asia . He finished his secondary education in 1940 .
Gjems @-@ Onstad was active in the boy scouts before the invasion , and he was because of his experience there asked to instruct in map and compass for a volunteer military training program in late 1939 . He thereafter became scout leader as the former leader went to fight in the Winter War . Due to the war in Europe , the scout exercises became increasingly serious , and the scout movement arguably had a big part in the early organisation of the Norwegian resistance . In the winter of 1939 / 40 , Gjems @-@ Onstad commenced training in orienteering and signaling during the night . The weekend before the invasion , he and a friend prepared " for war " by training and sleeping in a tent in the snow in the forest Vestmarka , which was seen as unusual to do at the time .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Early activities = = =
On 9 April 1940 , Nazi Germany invaded and occupied Norway as a part of the Second World War . Gjems @-@ Onstad became aware of the German presence when he and his family saw German planes flying right over their home . They did not get any notification of what was happening , and only music was played on the radio . Gjems @-@ Onstad took his bike and cycled to his school , the Oslo Cathedral School , only to find it closed and in a chaotic state . He thereafter went to the city centre and Karl Johans gate , where he witnessed the Germans marching through . The next ( or possibly the same ) day , a German Junkers plane crashed near him and his friend when they were on their way from Lysaker to get a closer view of the captured Fornebu Airport . He briefly found himself in the situation of attempting to rescue the Germans trapped inside the plane , but the heat was unbearable and the two were told by the Germans to run away and get in safety just moments before the plane exploded . The proclamation by Norwegian Prime Minister Johan Nygaardsvold on 10 April ( that rejected the German claim to appoint Vidkun Quisling as Norwegian Prime Minister ) , was according to Gjems @-@ Onstad received with great disappointment by him and his friends . He thought it contained nothing but verbiage , with no remarks about mobilisation , defence , fighting or war . He thereafter wanted to join the resistance , but on his way met a man who told him that he would be rejected if he had not been through recruit training , and he thus returned home . After a few days , he and a friend nevertheless set out for Northern Norway . They came as far north as Nord @-@ Trøndelag , where they however gave up and returned home .
Gjems @-@ Onstad started studying at the University of Oslo in late 1940 , and he got in touch with students who wanted to organise a resistance movement . One time , he and other youth who sympathised with the resistance disrupted a public meeting held by the fascist party Nasjonal Samling ( NS ) . They deliberately clapped their hands so relentlessly ( they considered that they could not get punished for " cheering " ) that the speakers could not speak , and thereafter started leaving the room . Many were however blocked from leaving , and Gjems @-@ Onstad and a few others were arrested and fined due to their role in the event . In September he participated in a clash between students and a group of Hird members ( the NS 's paramilitary organisation ) outside the university . A young boy came by during the initial stand @-@ off , asking Gjems @-@ Onstad what was happening . Gjems @-@ Onstad responded that the others were traitors , and Hird members thus captured him and beat him up . Later , due to an outbreak of foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease in December , Gjems @-@ Onstad took part in digging mass graves for slaughtered cows in Dikemark and in Nesøya .
In late 1940 , an engineer had created some military inventions which Gjems @-@ Onstad 's group wanted to bring to the Allied forces . It was decided that one of them was to travel to the UK , while Gjems @-@ Onstad was to travel to Stockholm . Gjems @-@ Onstad was joined by three others , and they decided to let themselves be arrested in Östmark in Sweden . They were transported to Stockholm , but the Norwegian legation was not interested in the inventions . Gjems @-@ Onstad was later tipped to contact the British military attaché . He got in contact with Major Malcolm Munthe , who in turn was interested in the inventions . Gjems @-@ Onstad was arrested by Swedish police in Stockholm on 25 March 1941 , as parts of Munthe 's organisation had been exposed . Gjems @-@ Onstad was imprisoned at the Stockholm police station for 13 days , and then for 59 days in the Stockholm Remand Prison . On 23 May 1941 the government decided that he was to be expelled and banned from entering Sweden ( the ban was repealed after the war ) . He was originally scheduled to be deported to Canada via Moscow and China , but the plans were halted due to the German invasion of the Soviet Union . He was instead sent to the Norwegian refugee camp in Öreryd . He was ordered by the British to escape from Öreryd in October 1941 and travel to Norway . He was captured by the Swedish Home Guard close to the Norwegian border , but was sent by plane to the UK by Swedish authorities in December .
= = = In the resistance = = =
After arriving in the UK , Gjems @-@ Onstad joined the Norwegian Independent Company 1 ( Kompani Linge ) and took British military education . The British decided in 1943 to deploy him to Trøndelag in Norway together with Odd Sørli , Johnny Pevik and Nils Uhlin Hansen . The deployment was necessary as Evald Hansen and Herluf Nygaard had been captured and tortured in December 1942 ( Nygaard later escaped , Hansen died at Falstad ) . Sørli and Gjems @-@ Onstad were set to maintain Lark , establish radio connection with London and get intelligence about the German battleship Tirpitz , at the time located in the Trondheimsfjord . When he was training at Glen More Lodge near Aviemore , Gjems @-@ Onstad was ordered to go to London , where he was supplied with a 20 kg radio transmitter and other equipment . Together with Sørli he travelled to Inverness by train , and to Shetland by plane , under stormy weather conditions . They initially set out with the fishing boat Harald II from Scalloway in late February , but due to unusually stormy weather they were driven back to Shetland three times after three unsuccessful attempts to reach Ålesund ; the last attempt destroyed their equipment as the boat was bursted open . They had their equipment replaced , and set out for Kristiansund in March instead on a bigger boat . With easier , yet still poor weather , the voyage took two days . When they reached land they noticed that they had reached Kya Lighthouse , much farther to the north of their original destination , but they decided to make landfall anyway . From there they travelled with fake identification via Namsos to Trondheim , where they reunited with fellow Lark members Johnny Pevik and Nils Uhlin Hansen , the other group sent from London . Gjems @-@ Onstad thereafter assisted Pevik and Hansen with transporting five tons of weapons from an uninhabited island near Lyngvær to Trondheim .
Lark received missions from London ( sometimes via Stockholm ) , and constituted the leadership of Milorg in Trøndelag where they in practice were the same entity . Gjems @-@ Onstad started his operations in Trondheim by establishing radio connection with London and operating the radio transmitter , and he soon became one of the most important persons in the leadership of Milorg . His saboteur activity included to prepare the sinking of Tirpitz , but the plans were never realised as the ship had left the Trondheimsfjord in early 1943 . Sørli commanded Gjems @-@ Omstad to a spontaneous assassination of Nazi collaborator Ivar Grande after spotting him incidentally , but Gjems @-@ Onstad aborted after noticing a division of Russian POWs , fearing for what in turn might happen to them if he went through with the assassination . Some days later he again plotted to assassinate Grande together with Sørli and Ingebrigt Gausland . They delivered a box booby trapped with an egg hand grenade to his home , but Grande foiled the attempt with advice Norwegian Gestapo agent Henry Rinnan ( who was present at the time ) had received on not to open such boxes . Following the attempted assassination , he was ordered to not get himself involved in any further such attempts , as it was considered too risky for him . Gjems @-@ Onstad took over as leader of the group from Sørli in October 1943 , and it was decided to pull him out of Norway and close the radio station following news that Pevik had been arrested . He left Trondheim for Stockholm later that month , and received training in psychological warfare .
When Sørli came to Stockholm in January 1944 he took over for Gjems @-@ Onstad , while Gjems @-@ Onstad was to take over the leadership of Lark as well as to reorganise Milorg . Gjems @-@ Onstad also founded the propaganda organisation Durham when he came back to Trondheim in March 1944 . Lark and Durham were to be kept completely separate , with Gjems @-@ Onstad as their only mutual connection . Durham 's mission was to influence the moral of the enemy , mainly through distributing brochures ( an estimated 115 @,@ 000 copies in total ) and posters ( an estimated 257 @,@ 000 ) , while also to cause irritation by minor sabotage . The brochures were chiefly distributed in the enemy 's quarters , and the posters were put up throughout Trondheim . Members of the group also tore down Nazi posters , sabotaged German vehicles , threw stink bombs into restaurants and cinemas , and applied itching powder — notably in condoms for sale to German soldiers . Sabotage on a bigger scale had to be authorised from London , and was largely discouraged as it would risk unnecessary German reprisals . Gjems @-@ Onstad reported back in Stockholm at the end of June . Eager to bring supplies to Trondheim , he and Sørli soon decided to transport propaganda material , handguns and explosives to the Norwegian border . After finding a lost resistance member in the mountains , Gjems @-@ Onstad joined a course in Alby near Stockholm where he worked as instructor in " silent killing " for a month . He went for a short mission to Trondheim in July in order to insert Egil Løkse as Lark 's new radio operator there .
By his next time in Trondheim , the Gestapo had gained knowledge of Gjems @-@ Onstad 's activities , and did their outermost to capture him . Gjems @-@ Onstad went back to Trondheim at the end of October . He was to establish a new radio station , and investigate if Milorg and Lark could be rebuilt , as the organisation had been severely damaged by multiple arrests and murders . Durham was however largely intact . The mission went into a new phase , as the Norwegian resistance started organising defence against potential destructions during the now largely inevitable German withdrawal . A continuation of the scorched earth policy practiced in Northern Norway was particularly feared . Gjems @-@ Onstad and Lark were not to lead the defence , but rather to organise it and train new recruits . In November he authorised the creation of the illegal newspaper For Friheten by his own initiative , the first in Trondheim in years . He also operated the paper DFP , or Deutsche Freiheitspartei , a form of black propaganda distributed to German soldiers and officers . He became increasingly frustrated with the damages caused by Rinnan and his gang of Nazi collaborators , and he vocally advocated their assassination . He reported back to Stockholm in November , and as he saw it , little remained of Milorg in Trøndelag after this . He however noted the importance of Durham , which he considered to have grown very powerful .
In early 1945 Gjems @-@ Onstad took part in blowing up railway tracks on the stretches around Støren Station , but the group had a limited supply of explosives , and the practical effects of the bombings could thus not cause as much effect as wanted . They could for instance not go through with blowing up the railway bridge near Hovin , which they sought as their main target . He was transferred back to Stockholm in March 1945 , and Durham was dissolved . He reacted with shock that London had decided that it was too dangerous for him to return to Trondheim . He was uneasy about being set on the sideline , and headed a mission of four men from Stockholm to Namsvatnet at the end of the month to receive British sabotage supplies . They established a base of operations , as well as radio connection to the UK by the station Quail . The mission returned to Stockholm in early April , and Gjems @-@ Onstad was transferred to a mission in Northern Norway . He was in Troms at the time of the German capitulation .
= = = Decorations , comments = = =
In 1944 Gjems @-@ Onstad was promoted to second lieutenant ( fenrik ) . He was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire in 1941 , and decorated with the Haakon VII 70th Anniversary Medal in 1942 , the St. Olav 's Medal With Oak Branch in 1944 , the Defence Medal , War Medal 1939 – 1945 , 1939 – 45 Star and the Norwegian Defence Medal in 1945 and the Norwegian War Cross with Sword in 1947 . As such he was one of Norway 's highest decorated war heroes . In 1947 he played himself in the documentary film Det grodde fram about the Norwegian resistance movement in Trondheim .
Gjems @-@ Onstad became critical of the " retracted regional leadership " of the Home Front ( hjemmefronten ) which he became aware of in late 1944 . According to him , he and his fellow resistance members had not even heard of their existence . He sent a wire to London requesting that they should take over what remained of Milorg , rather than remaining passive during the occupation only to step forward as leaders of Milorg when the war was over . He became more critical when he became aware that they had started entering the administration in London and Stockholm , according to him without the necessary experience from practical fieldwork . He was shocked at the recklessness of one of them who arrived at one of their bases in Trondheim , concluding that they " obviously had no idea about how strong the infiltration really was in Trondheim , nor how we worked . " The regional leadership that stepped forward after the war was according to Gjems @-@ Onstad not identical with the actual leadership of Lark and Milorg during the war .
Historians have noted that it was " very surprising " that Erling Gjone stepped forward as the leader of the Home Front in Trøndelag after the German capitulation . He had entered the administration in Stockholm in February 1945 , but he had not been contacted whatsoever by Lark . The decision of putting Gjems @-@ Onstad on the sideline in March 1945 led him to become increasingly critical of the leadership in London , which had gradually become more Norwegian than British , and subsequently decayed into what Gjems @-@ Onstad considered to be a lack of professionality . He also questioned Norway 's military abilities in a possible future war in Norway , based on post @-@ war developments . According to Gjems @-@ Onstad , what influenced him and his contemporaries to join the resistance was a national feeling that — speaking some 60 years after war — he then considered that was " almost gone . "
Gjems @-@ Onstad deliberated his post @-@ war views on the war in a 2008 ten @-@ minute television special . As he saw it , the Norwegian Labour Party government before the war stood " entirely on the side of the Soviet Union . " He pointed to the Soviet Union as the greatest murderer of the war , and considered that nobody had " opened their eyes " to the fact that the Soviet Union was the only country that won territorial gains following the war . While he maintained that the coup headed by Vidkun Quisling was both bad and illegal , he considered that Quisling should be judged softer in light of the situation at the time . He pointed to the government fleeing the country , and what he considered the " pitiful " reaction of Prime Minister Johan Nygaardsvold . He also noted that while some of the figures in the Quisling regime had acted out far too harshly , some others had tried to maintain Norway 's interests against the occupiers ; the alternative of letting the Germans run the country completely unopposed under Josef Terboven could in his mind have ended up far worse . Gjems @-@ Onstad said he believed that the treason by Quisling should be compared with the lack of preparations for war by Nygaardsvold and the Labour Party government . Gjems @-@ Onstad also complained that he for unexplained reasons had been kept away from public arrangements related to the Second World War . He said he had not been invited to a single such event . He was also in possession of a large archive of wartime material from the resistance movement in Trøndelag , but said he had not been approached with interest by any public institution .
= = Professional career = =
Gjems @-@ Onstad joined the Norwegian Home Guard after the war . From 1947 to 1959 he held the rank of captain there . He was mobilisation manager as military lawyer colonel at Strike Command Southern Norway ( Luftkommando Sør @-@ Norge ) , one of the Air Commands of the Royal Norwegian Air Force , from 1970 to 1980 . He also completed his education in law , graduating with a cand.jur. degree in 1948 . He worked as a judge in southern Buskerud from 1948 to 1949 , and in 1949 he opened a law firm in Oslo . From 1957 he had access to work with Supreme Court cases . He was also a consultant or secretary for Norsk Gartnerforening , Bruktbilhandlerforeningen / Autoriserte Bruktbilhandleres handelsforbund and for the local branch of the Norwegian Bar Association . He was a board member of the local Bar Association chapter from 1960 to 1964 and of Max Manus AS , the eponymous company belonging to former resistance member Max Manus , from 1965 to 1969 . Gjems @-@ Onstad had served with Manus in the Norwegian Home Guard after the war , and had met his later wife Tikken Manus for the first time in 1943 when she worked as a military attaché in Stockholm . The three remained lifetime close friends ever since they met during the war .
In 1961 Gjems @-@ Onstad left his lawyer 's firm to work as a consultant in Den norske Creditbank . He became a central figure in the DnC 's plans to develop the Vaterland neighbourhood in Oslo . AS Vaterland was created soon after the DnC had been granted construction rights in 1965 , and was a project designated for planning to develop the Vaterland neighbourhood into a business and office centre . Gjems @-@ Onstad was a board member of AS Vaterland from 1966 to 1972 , and was its CEO from 1970 . He soon got the nickname the " Vaterland King " ( Vaterlandskongen ) , after a local 1930s house owner . After a while , the plans for the development was dropped , as neither the bank nor the municipality saw it to be in their interests to realise the plans . Gjems @-@ Onstad was removed from his position with a golden parachute of NOK 500 @,@ 000 in 1972 and lost his faith in the project .
From 1972 to 1977 he operated a lawyer 's firm in Oslo again , and from 1977 he moved his office to Hvalstad and worked as a defender in Asker and Bærum District Court . He retired as a defender in 1990 , but remained a lawyer until 2001 . During the 1980s he defended several anti @-@ immigration activists , including Vivi Krogh , Jan Ødegård and Arne Myrdal . He also stated that he by 1994 had helped draft the wills of several anonymous persons who wanted to designate their fortunes , ranging from NOK 100 @,@ 000 to NOK 10 million , to persons and organisations working against immigration .
= = Sports official = =
Gjems @-@ Onstad had an active career in sports . He represented the club SK Rye which he joined on 1 August 1936 , and was made an honorary member of the club in 1986 . He became the Norwegian junior champion in cycling in 1939 . He was also an active race walker , with two sixth places in the Norwegian championships achieved between 1967 and 1969 . He chaired the Norwegian Cycling Federation from 1959 to 1965 and the Norwegian Walking Association from 1967 to 1973 . He was a member of the Norwegian Olympic Committee from 1959 to 1973 and a deputy board member of the Norwegian Confederation of Sports from 1965 to 1967 . He was an official for Norway at the Summer Olympics in 1960 and 1972 , and in 1993 he sat on the committee that organized the 1993 UCI Road World Championships . In 1967 he initiated Styrkeprøven , a yearly cyclosportive from Trondheim to Oslo . He completed the race himself more than fifteen times ; the last times with the starting number " 1 " .
= = Politics = =
= = = Member of Parliament = = =
From 1960 to 1964 Gjems @-@ Onstad was a member of the school board in Oslo , representing the Conservative Party . He was also a member of the libertarian organisation Libertas , but had left it by 1971 as he considered that it had become " too tame . " When Anders Lange 's Party ( ALP ) was founded in 1973 he joined the party and became deputy leader under Anders Lange . He had been present at the founding meeting at Saga kino , and was offered a place in the party 's central leadership by Anders Lange after they one day incidentally met outside Gjems @-@ Onstad 's lawyer 's office . From then on he was the most central person in the party after Lange himself . Besides his leading positions in business and sports , Gjems @-@ Onstad had for years expressed his political views in newspapers and journals , which broadly coincided with Lange 's views . By offering him positions in the party , Lange particularly thought that Gjems @-@ Onstad could help develop the party politically and organisationally . In the 1973 parliamentary election he won a seat in the Norwegian Parliament from Akershus , and became a member of the Standing Committee on Finance and the Election Committee . During his term he set a new record for number of times speaking to the assembly — 325 times in one year .
At the start of his parliamentary term he made some proposals that were opposed by the entire parliament , including his own party . He proposed in November 1973 to introduce gun and shooting training as an optional course for students in high school , and to separate church and state ( with its financial implications ) . The proposals were criticised in a press statement by Anders Lange and the party 's two other MPs . Turmoil later also erupted in the Akershus and Bærum chapters of the party , and calls were made for expelling Gjems @-@ Onstad due to his proposals in parliament ; this wing however left the party in 1975 after being in clear minority . Gjems @-@ Onstad and Lange nonetheless stood together in their conflict with Carl I. Hagen and Kristofer Almås , who sought to strengthen the party 's deliberately loose organisation . After Lange 's death in 1974 , Gjems @-@ Onstad became leader of the party 's parliamentary group . While Hagen and Almås had broken out and formed the Reform Party earlier the same year , Gjems @-@ Onstad welcomed Hagen back to the party in 1975 for " constructive cooperation " . He thereafter changed to support the work led by Hagen and Arve Lønnum of strengthening the party organisation .
Gjems @-@ Onstad 's cooperation with Hagen was however not to last . In early 1976 Gjems @-@ Onstad voiced his discontent with the ever @-@ ongoing conflicts within the party , and he had by mid @-@ year not decided whether or not he wanted to run for re @-@ election . He eventually felt squeezed out of the party , and wanted no part in the intriguing he considered Hagen to represent . He was replaced as parliamentary leader of the party at the start of October . After he in turn recommended voters to rather vote for the Conservative Party in an interview with Aftenposten , he was finally expelled from the party by a unanimously approved motion put forward by Carl I. Hagen later the same month . Gjems @-@ Onstad finished his term as an independent .
= = = Positions in parliament = = =
Before the 1973 election Gjems @-@ Onstad advocated a restrictive immigration policy in an interview with Morgenbladet . After being elected to parliament , he was the sole member of the Finance Committee to oppose agreements of raising fuel taxes in 1973 . He proposed steep budget cuts in 1974 , notably in press support and in the Office of the Prime Minister . He proposed to abolish the Ministry of the Environment and the Ministry of Consumer Affairs and Administration , as well as 22 laws the same year . Gjems @-@ Onstad also wanted to abolish conscription . In 1975 he criticised parliament for violating the Norwegian Constitution by regularly holding session with less than half of the representatives present . Prime Minister Trygve Bratteli in turn claimed that Gjems @-@ Onstad " undermined democracy " because he was present and spoke in parliament too much .
Gjems @-@ Onstad was among the signatories of a petition in 1974 that called on the Norwegian government to secure Israel 's existence . He wanted to terminate the Norwegian government 's support of liberation movements in Portuguese Guinea the same year . He proposed to end all public foreign aid , and instead grant tax deduction to private donations . He also proposed to prioritise Norwegian interests in Antarctica higher , and to align Norway 's ambassador to Thailand with South Vietnam . He advocated expelling the five Soviet KGB spies who had been exposed in Norway in 1975 , but gained no support from the government . He was criticised by the Norwegian Foreign Minister the same year for claiming that Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere used Norwegian taxes for " national socialist " experiments of forcibly moving populations .
= = = Gjems @-@ Onstad and Africa = = =
Gjems @-@ Onstad travelled extensively in Africa . He toured Angola for a week in 1973 , and was in Guinea @-@ Bissau in 1974 . He later claimed that blacks and whites had lived peacefully together in these countries when he had visited them before their decolonisation — after which he considered the conditions to be grim — and that the standard of living among blacks had been higher there than in many other places in Africa . He came to regard it as a life 's mission to work for Africa , and believed that the Norwegian government 's policy in Africa contributed to destroy the continent through supporting " wars of liberation " and failed foreign aid . He maintained that his prime concern was to warn against the entrenchment of socialism and communism in Africa .
He also travelled extensively throughout South Africa , and said that conditions for blacks were better there than in other African countries . He was introduced to a South African official visiting Norway in 1974 by Anders Lange , and visited the country himself in 1975 after being invited by the South African Department of Information . He met with figures including Connie Mulder , and following Lange 's death he considered himself as the continuation of Lange 's legacy with regards to the country . He supported the South African policy since the 1970s of gradually dismantling the apartheid system , which included the granting of independence to tribal homelands . He was in the country in April 1976 for a conference that was to prepare the establishment of Transkei . He later considered the homelands to be true democratic states governed by the rule of law , which he considered that many other African states were not . Gjems @-@ Onstad strongly opposed the African National Congress and the Norwegian government 's support of the group , as he believed their agenda would lead to civil war and a government led by revolutionary socialists — as had happened in other African countries . He later pointed to the development in former Rhodesia , Robert Mugabe 's Zimbabwe . He arranged several study trips to South Africa , and was part of a group of eight Norwegians who toured the country in 1987 and issued an " apology " to the South African government for the Norwegian government 's policy towards the country .
He went to Rhodesia in April 1979 as the sole Norwegian observer of the general election , after he had been invited by the Rhodesian Department of Information . He admitted at the same time that he for years had corresponded with the Rhodesian government about how he considered various institutions and individuals in Norway , particularly in the news media . The relationship was initiated after Gjems @-@ Onstad had written a letter of sympathy to Rhodesian Prime Minister Ian Smith some years ahead . When in Salisbury , he met with Smith , Foreign Minister P. K. van der Byl and Head of the Military Peter Walls . Eager to participate with the government army during the Rhodesian Bush War , he was authorised by Walls to patrol with Rhodesian Security Forces around a garrison near Lake Kariba for two days . While he earlier had written he did not think democracy and human rights was optimal in the country — he considered Botswana to be one of the better countries — he considered rule of law to be better than in countries the Norwegian government had supported financially , such as Idi Amin 's Uganda .
= = = Later political activity = = =
Carl I. Hagen wrote in his book Ærlighet varer lengst in 1984 that he would put his office on the line in order to prevent Gjems @-@ Onstad from making a " comeback " to the Progress Party ( ALP 's successor ) , despite his alleged requests . Gjems @-@ Onstad criticised Hagen strongly for his complicity in the establishment of a Labour Party government in 1986 , and was a member of the Conservative Party by 1988 . He supported prospects of a Conservative Party government led by Jan P. Syse , but criticised the Norwegian political system for being a " caricature " of democracy , instead considering it a particracy . Gjems @-@ Onstad had according to his own statement in 1987 not seen any reason for getting himself involved in the public debate about immigration until then . The reaction followed a comment by Conservative Party student politician Knut Albert Solem , in which he " presupposed " that anti @-@ immigration sentiment was based on feelings of " foreign @-@ hate " , something which Gjems @-@ Onstad disputed . Gjems @-@ Onstad contested the 1989 parliamentary election for the Stop Immigration party in Akershus , and chaired its regional chapter from 1988 to 1990 . He was expelled from the party together with Hege Søfteland and Torfinn Hellandsvik due to their vocal criticism of the leadership of the party 's leader Jack Erik Kjuus . In 1991 Gjems @-@ Onstad ran unsuccessfully in the local election for the Fatherland Party , and he was later active in Folkebevegelsen mot innvandring . He was also present at the meeting at Godlia kino in 1995 . Gjems @-@ Onstad expressed his outrage at the Lund Report in 1996 after it was revealed that he had been under surveillance by the Norwegian Police Security Service ( POT ) , considering it defamatory and demanding an apology .
Gjems @-@ Onstad came to believe that the recent mass immigration to Norway was a greater threat than the Nazi invasion of Norway , although he made clear he had nothing against " normal immigration " and individuals , nor about Norwegians finding spouses in other countries . What he stated he was concerned about was increasing ethnic tensions and Norwegians being outnumbered in Norway in the course of the 21st century , and he stated that what worried him the very most was the growth of Islam . Gjems @-@ Onstad praised Progress Party MPs Vidar Kleppe and Øystein Hedstrøm at their election campaign rally in 1999 , and participated in the non @-@ partisan demonstration against Muslim prayer calling in 2000 . He was involved in the Conservative Party in Asker from 2005 to 2007 , but joined the Pensioners ' Party in 2007 as their top ballot candidate for the municipal election . As Gjems @-@ Onstad called for a halt of immigration to Asker , he was instantly denounced by his own party . He also maintained that " Norway is the fatherland of the Norwegians , and Norwegians are a nation within the white race , " and during a television debate with fellow lawyer and politician Abid Raja said that he could not call himself a Norwegian , only a Pakistani @-@ Norwegian — they both nevertheless affirmed that they had great respect for each other . Gjems @-@ Onstad was expelled from the Pensioners ' Party before the election , but removal from the ballot is legally impossible . As the election was held the Pensioners ' Party did not win any seats , and the local party leadership expressed their delight . Gjems @-@ Onstad was also a member of Stop Islamisation of Norway , and participated in a demonstration alongside the organisation 's leader Arne Tumyr in 2009 .
Gjems @-@ Onstad made news in 2008 when he had talks with the disturbed man who fired a gun towards a refugee centre . He was also involved in an heritage distribution controversy . In her will , millionaire Clara Westin declared that NOK 2 @.@ 5 million be given to anti @-@ immigration activists , and that the distribution be decided by a board consisting of four people . Egil Karlsen backed out and gave up his vote to Gjems @-@ Onstad , and the other three were Gjems @-@ Onstad , Norvald Aasen of Folkebevegelsen mot innvandring and Bjarne Pettersen . It surfaced that suggestions by board members included the mother of child murder convict Ole Nicolai Kvisler . While the background for involving Kvisler was his anti @-@ immigration views , the pressing issue was the matter of his court ruling . Having followed the case closely as a former lawyer , Gjems @-@ Onstad had disputed the court ruling as he believed there was not evidence to conclude that Kvisler had any more than possibly a subsidiary role in the murder ; he thus explained the suggestion with providing funds for reopening his case . Gjems @-@ Onstad maintained that it was only the other convict , Joe Erling Jahr , who had committed the murder . Pettersen had in addition wanted to distribute money to people from his circle around Vigrid ( a group Gjems @-@ Onstad loathed ) , such as Tore Tvedt and Øyvind Heian , but was squeezed out of the board after this was opposed by Gjems @-@ Onstad and Aasen . The left @-@ wing anti @-@ racist organization SOS Rasisme petitioned the Norwegian state to confiscate Gjems @-@ Onstad 's war decorations , but to no avail . After all disputes were resolved , it was not made public who actually received any money .
= = Personal life = =
Gjems @-@ Onstad was married in 1949 to Borgny Pedersen ( 9 November 1921 – 2 July 2003 ) . They divorced in 1973 . He was married for the second time to Inger Opseth ( born 2 October 1937 ) in 1974 . Gjems @-@ Onstad met Inger when he worked for the Vaterland @-@ project , where she worked as an interior architect . Gjems @-@ Onstad had three children , including his son , jurist Ole Gjems @-@ Onstad .
He lived in Hvalstad , Asker , where he owned a nine decare small farm . The property included three equal parts of garden , forest and arable land . He often cut lumber from the forest to build his own furniture . At various times , he had rabbits , sheep , cows , calves , piglets and a fish pond of brown trout at his property . According to himself , he kept the livestock largely in protest against tax authorities , while also as a hobby .
Erik Gjems @-@ Onstad died in November 2011 after short illness at the Bærum Hospital . He left behind his wife , children , grandchildren and great @-@ grandchildren .
= = Writings = =
Gjems @-@ Onstad has authored several books . He wrote about the psychological warfare of the Norwegian resistance movement in DURHAM : hemmelige operasjoner i Trøndelag mot tysk okkkupasjonsmakt 1943 @-@ 45 , released in 1981 . Durham was the codeword for the operations which to a large extent consisted of distributing flyers , brochures and posters with the purpose of demoralising the Germans . This was also the topic in Psykologisk krigføring i Norge under Annen Verdenskrig 1940 @-@ 45 , published in 1994 . In 1990 he wrote about the resistance group Lark in LARK : Milorg i Trøndelag 1940 @-@ 1945 . He released the book Krigskorset og St. Olavsmedaljen med ekegren in 1995 , which gives an overview of all the holders of Norway 's highest wartime decorations . The reasons given for awarding the War Cross ( Norway 's highest decoration ) was in the book also made public for the first time .
In 1984 he published the books Dagbok fra Tanzania : U @-@ hjelp uten mening , a travel diary from Tanzania discussing what he considered to be failed foreign aid , and a travel diary from Israel , Dagbok fra Israel : Reiser og tanker . He wrote about alternative Norwegian policies towards South Africa in the 1985 book Syd @-@ Afrika i dag : Boikott eller samarbeid . These books were published by Afrikainstituttet , of which he was board chairman from 1983 to 1990 . In 1994 , he chronicled the trials against Arne Myrdal in Myrdal @-@ sakene . Gjems @-@ Onstad has in addition released his own periodical , Nytt og kommentarer .
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= List of battleships of Spain =
In the latter half of the 19th century , the Spanish Navy had built a series of ironclad warships that culminated in the barbette ship Pelayo in the 1880s . Following the destruction of much of the Spanish fleet in the Spanish – American War in 1898 , Spain slowly began to rebuild its navy . In the early 20th century , the Spanish Navy built three battleships and planned several more ; the three ships that were completed were the vessels of the España class . These ships were the smallest dreadnought @-@ type battleships ever built . A further three ships of the Reina Victoria Eugenia class were authorized by the Navy Law of 1913 , but the outbreak of World War I prevented these ships from being built , as Spain was heavily dependent on Great Britain for material and technical expertise . The three completed battleships all served in the Rif War in North Africa , where the lead ship , España , ran aground and was wrecked .
Following the end of the First World War , occasional plans for the construction of new battleships were proposed , including a small design deriving from Britain 's powerful Nelson @-@ class battleships . However , nothing had come of these efforts by the time of the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War . Following the victory of Francisco Franco 's Nationalists in that conflict , in which both of the surviving Spanish battleships — one serving on the side of the Nationalists , the other on that of the Republicans — had been destroyed , proposals for the construction of four fast battleships to an Italian design , as well as the construction of " large cruisers " - the only battlecruiser designs proposed for or by Spain - were made . However , the outbreak of the Second World War resulted in these plans being disrupted .
= = España class = =
Authorized under the Navy Law of 1908 and assigned to the Primera Escuadra ( First Squadron ) , the España class were the first and only Spanish dreadnoughts , and also the smallest of that type of ship ever to be built . Considered by some to be more " Dreadnought @-@ type coast @-@ defense ships " than pure battleships , the three ships of the class were built in Ferrol by Sociedad Española de Construcción Naval ( SECN ) , the lead ship being completed in under four years , but the onset of World War I resulted in delays to the remaining two ships , and especially the third , as equipment and armament deliveries from England were disrupted due to the war .
Obsolete before completion due to the rapid progress of naval technology , the Españas saw combat service in the Rif Wars and the Spanish Civil War , España being wrecked on the Moroccan coast in 1923 , Alfonso XIII being renamed España following the establishment of the Second Spanish Republic in 1931 . In the mid @-@ 1930s , it was proposed that the two surviving ships of the class be rebuilt as " pocket battleships " , including a lengthening of the hull and rearranging of the turrets to a centreline alignment . By 1936 , a more modest rebuild was proposed , including conversion to oil firing , but the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War put this plan to rest .
The remaining two ships of the class , one operating on each side , were both lost in the Spanish Civil War . España ( ex @-@ Alfonso XIII ) , serving the Nationalist side , struck a mine in April 1937 and sunk , while Jaime I fighting as part of the Republican navy , suffered an internal explosion at Cartagena in June 1937 , being scuttled as a precautionary measure afterwards . The wreck was raised the following year before being scrapped in 1939 .
= = Reina Victoria Eugenia class = =
Authorized as the Plan de la Segunda Escuadra under the Navy Law of 1913 , the three ships of the Reina Victoria Eugenia @-@ class , named for King Alfonso 's queen consort and designated ships " A " , " B " and " C " ( only " A " having a formally proposed name ) , were designed by Vickers @-@ Armstrongs and were planned to displace 21 @,@ 000 long tons ( 21 @,@ 000 t ) with a speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . Early plans for the type called for an armament of 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) guns , however financial difficulties resulted in the selection of an armament of eight 13 @.@ 5 in ( 343 mm ) weapons instead . As significant technical assistance from Britain would have been required for construction of the class , the outbreak of the First World War led to the cancellation of the project .
= = Postwar projects = =
Following the end of the First World War , Spain did not participate in the Washington Naval Conference which limited battleship construction for its signatories . Nevertheless , battleships of the 35 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 36 @,@ 000 t ) displacement class — the limit under the Washington Naval Treaty — were considered by the Spanish Navy in the early 1920s . By the early 1930s , the navy made proposals for a " reduced Nelson type " ship , although nothing came of either project .
After his victory in the Spanish Civil War , Francisco Franco 's plans for the Spanish Navy included the acquisition of four modern battleships , and a variation on the Italian Littorio @-@ class battleships was the favored candidate to fill the requirement . In late 1939 , a Spanish mission to Italy received assurances of technical support for the construction of ships of the class in Spanish yards , and a slipway of sufficient size to construct two ships at a time was built at Ferrol . However , Italy 's entry into the Second World War in 1940 , combined with the limited resources of Spain , led to the cancellation of the project .
A " super @-@ Treaty cruiser " type was also projected as part of Franco 's naval expansion plans , with some designs proposed for the type calling for an armament of six 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) guns ; alternatively , some have speculated that the Spanish desired to purchase the two triple 283 @-@ millimetre ( 11 @.@ 1 in ) turrets that were available following the decision by the German Kriegsmarine to rebuild the damaged battleship Gneisenau with twin 381 @-@ millimetre ( 15 @.@ 0 in ) turrets . The war situation meant that nothing was to come of this project either .
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= Stan Musial =
Stanley Frank " Stan " Musial ( / ˈmjuːziəl / or / ˈmjuːʒəl / ; born Stanisław Franciszek Musiał ; November 21 , 1920 – January 19 , 2013 ) , nicknamed " Stan the Man " , was an American Major League Baseball ( MLB ) outfielder and first baseman . He spent 22 seasons playing for the St. Louis Cardinals , from 1941 to 1944 and 1946 to 1963 . Widely considered to be one of the greatest and most consistent hitters in baseball history , Musial was a first @-@ ballot inductee into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1969 , and was also selected to the St. Louis Cardinals Hall of Fame in the inaugural class of 2014 .
Musial batted .331 over his career and set National League ( NL ) records for career hits ( 3 @,@ 630 ) , runs batted in ( 1 @,@ 951 ) , games played ( 3 @,@ 026 ) , at bats ( 10 @,@ 972 ) , runs scored ( 1 @,@ 949 ) and doubles ( 725 ) , most of which were later broken by Pete Rose ; his 475 career home runs then ranked second in NL history behind Mel Ott 's total of 511 . His 6 @,@ 134 total bases remained a major league record until surpassed by Hank Aaron , and his hit total still ranks fourth all @-@ time , and is the highest by any player who spent his career with only one team . A seven @-@ time batting champion with identical totals of 1 @,@ 815 hits at home and on the road , he was named the National League 's ( NL ) Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) three times and led St. Louis to three World Series championship titles . He also shares the major league record for the most All @-@ Star Games played ( 24 ) with Hank Aaron and Willie Mays .
Musial was born in Donora , Pennsylvania , where he frequently played baseball , whether informally or in organized settings , eventually playing on the baseball team at Donora High School . Signed to a professional contract by the St. Louis Cardinals as a pitcher in 1938 , Musial was converted into an outfielder prior to his major league debut in 1941 . Noted for his unique batting stance , he quickly established himself as a consistent and productive hitter . In his first full season , 1942 , the Cardinals won the World Series . The following year , he led the NL in six different offensive categories and earned his first MVP award . He was also named to the NL All @-@ Star squad for the first time ; he appeared in every All @-@ Star game in every subsequent season he played . Musial won his second World Series championship in 1944 , then missed the entire 1945 season while serving with the Navy .
When he returned to baseball in 1946 , Musial resumed his consistent hitting . That year he earned his second MVP award and third World Series title . His third MVP award came in 1948 , when he finished one home run shy of winning baseball 's Triple Crown . After struggling offensively in 1959 , Musial used a personal trainer to help maintain his productivity until he decided to retire in 1963 . At the time of his retirement , he held or shared 17 major league records , 29 National League records , and nine All @-@ Star Game records . Ironically , in 1964 , the season following his retirement , the Cardinals went on to defeat the New York Yankees in an epic 7 @-@ game clash , for St. Louis ' first World Series championship in nearly two decades ( a team which included future Hall of Famer Lou Brock performing what would have likely been Musial 's left field duties ) . In addition to overseeing businesses , such as a restaurant both before and after his playing career , Musial served as the Cardinals ' general manager in 1967 , winning the pennant and World Series , then quitting that position . He also became noted for his harmonica playing , a skill he acquired during his playing career . Known for his modesty and sportsmanship , Musial was selected for the Major League Baseball All @-@ Century Team in 1999 . In February 2011 , President Barack Obama presented Musial with the Presidential Medal of Freedom , one of the highest civilian awards that can be bestowed on a person by the United States government .
= = Early life = =
Musial was born in Donora , Pennsylvania , the fifth of the six children ( four girls and two boys ) of Lukasz and Mary ( Lancos ) Musiał ( / ˈmuːʃaʊ / , MOO @-@ show ) . His mother was of Carpatho @-@ Rusyn descent and his father was a Polish immigrant who chose the name Stanisław Franciszek for his first son , though his father always referred to Musial using the Polish nickname Stasiu , pronounced " Stashu " . Musial frequently played baseball with his brother Ed and other friends during his childhood , and considered Lefty Grove his favorite ballplayer . Musial also had the benefit of learning about baseball from his neighbor Joe Barbao , a former minor league pitcher . When he enrolled in school , his name was formally changed to Stanley Frank Musial .
At age 15 Musial joined the Donora Zincs , a semi @-@ professional team managed by Barbao . In his Zincs debut he pitched 6 innings and struck out 13 batters , all of them adults . Musial also played one season on the newly revived Donora High School baseball team , where one of his teammates was Buddy Griffey , father of MLB player Ken Griffey , Sr. and grandfather to Ken Griffey , Jr . Baseball statistician Bill James described the younger Griffey , in comparison to Musial , as " the second @-@ best left @-@ handed hitting , left @-@ handed throwing outfielder ever born in Donora , Pennsylvania , on November 21 . " His exploits as a rising player in Pennsylvania earned him the nickname " The Donora Greyhound " .
Musial also played basketball , for which he was offered a scholarship by the University of Pittsburgh . Meanwhile , the St. Louis Cardinals had scouted Musial as a pitcher and , in 1937 , offered him a professional contract after a workout with their Class D Penn State League affiliate . Musial 's father initially resisted the idea of his son pursuing a baseball career , but reluctantly gave his consent after lobbying by both Musial and his mother . Musial also credited his school librarian Helen Kloz for pointing out that baseball was his dream and advising him to pursue it professionally . In what was then a common practice , the Cardinals did not file the contract with the baseball commissioner 's office until June 1938 . This preserved Musial 's amateur eligibility , and he was still able to participate in high school sports , leading Donora High School 's basketball team to a playoff appearance . He then reported to the Cardinals ' Class D affiliate in West Virginia , the Williamson Red Birds .
= = Professional baseball career = =
= = = Minor leagues ( 1938 – 41 ) = = =
Musial 's rookie year with Williamson in 1938 was a period of adjustment both on and off the field . He began gaining more in @-@ depth knowledge about baseball strategy while posting a 6 – 6 win – loss record and a 4 @.@ 66 earned run average ( ERA ) , to go along with a .258 batting average . Off the field he confronted feelings of homesickness , while learning to live comfortably and independently on his $ 65 @-@ per @-@ month salary . Musial finished his high school education before returning to Williamson in spring 1939 . That season his numbers improved to a 9 – 2 record , a 4 @.@ 30 ERA , and a .352 batting average .
Musial spent the 1940 season with the Cardinals ' other Class D team , the Daytona Beach Islanders , where he developed a lifelong friendship with manager Dickie Kerr . His pitching skills improved under the guidance of Kerr , who also recognized his hitting talent , playing him in the outfield between pitching starts . On May 25 , 1940 , Musial married fellow Donora resident , Lillian " Lil " Labash , in Daytona Beach , and the couple 's first child followed in August . During late August , Musial suffered a shoulder injury while playing in the outfield , and later made an early exit as the starting pitcher in a 12 – 5 playoff game loss . For a while Musial considered leaving baseball entirely , complaining that he could not afford to support himself and his wife on the $ 16 a week pay . Kerr talked him out of it , and even took the Musials into his own home to relieve the financial burden . To repay the debt Musial bought Kerr a $ 20 @,@ 000 home in Houston in 1958 . In 113 games in 1940 he hit .311 , while compiling an 18 – 5 pitching record that included 176 strikeouts and 145 walks .
Musial was assigned to the Class AA Columbus Red Birds to begin 1941 , though manager , Burt Shotton , and Musial himself quickly realized that the previous year 's injury had considerably weakened his arm . He was reassigned to the Class C Springfield Cardinals as a full @-@ time outfielder , and he later credited manager Ollie Vanek for displaying confidence in his hitting ability . During 87 games with Springfield , Musial hit a league @-@ leading .379 before being promoted to the Rochester Red Wings of the International League . He was noted for his unique batting stance , a crouch in which his back was seemingly square to the pitcher . This stance was later described by pitcher Ted Lyons as " a kid peeking around the corner to see if the cops were coming " . According to a 1950 description by author Tom Meany , " The bent knees and the crouch give him the appearance of a coiled spring , although most pitchers think of him as a coiled rattlesnake . " Musial continued to play well in Rochester — in one three @-@ game stretch , he had 11 hits . He was called up to the Cardinals for the last two weeks of the 1941 season .
= = = Major leagues ( 1941 – 44 ) = = =
Musial made his major league debut during the second game of a doubleheader at Sportsman 's Park on September 17 , 1941 . The Cardinals were in the midst of a pennant race with the Brooklyn Dodgers ; in 12 games , Musial collected 20 hits for a .426 batting average . Despite Musial 's late contributions , the Cardinals finished two and one @-@ half games behind the 100 @-@ game @-@ winning Dodgers .
Cardinals manager Billy Southworth used Musial as a left fielder to begin 1942 , sometimes lifting him for a pinch @-@ hitter against left @-@ handed pitching . Musial was hitting .315 by late June , as the Cardinals resumed battling the Dodgers for first place in the National League ( NL ) . The Cardinals took sole possession of first place on September 13 , and when Musial caught a fly ball to end the first game of a doubleheader on September 27 they clinched the pennant with their 105th win . He finished the season with a .315 batting average and 72 runs batted in ( RBI ) in 140 games . Musial received national publicity when he was named by St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch sports editor J. Roy Stockton as his choice for Rookie of the Year in a Saturday Evening Post article .
The Cardinals played the American League champion New York Yankees in the 1942 World Series . Representing the winning run in the bottom of the ninth inning of Game 1 at Sportsman 's Park , Musial grounded out with the bases loaded to seal a Yankees victory . Musial 's first hit of the Series was an RBI single that provided the margin of victory in Game 2 , allowing the Cardinals to tie the Series . Over the next three games at Yankee Stadium , Musial had three more hits as the Cardinals defeated the Yankees in the Series four games to one . Musial batted .222 for the Series , with two runs scored .
Musial 's 1943 season started with a brief contract holdout in spring training . He made the National League All @-@ Star team for the first time as a starting left fielder and got a double in the All @-@ Star Game on July 13 . He finished the season leading the major leagues in hitting with a .357 batting average and led the NL in hits ( 220 ) , doubles ( 48 ) , triples ( 20 ) , total bases ( 347 ) , on @-@ base percentage ( .425 ) , and slugging percentage ( .562 ) . This performance earned him his first NL Most Valuable Player Award , ahead of teammate and catcher Walker Cooper ( .318 batting average ) . After romping to another NL pennant by 18 games , the Cardinals again faced the Yankees in the 1943 World Series . Musial had a single in the Cardinals ' Game 1 loss , and scored a run in a Game 2 win . The Cardinals did not win another game in the Series , but the loser 's bonus share paid to each Cardinals player ( $ 4 @,@ 321 @.@ 99 ) still amounted to nearly two @-@ thirds of Musial 's regular season salary .
United States involvement in World War II began to impinge on Musial 's baseball career in 1944 , as he underwent a physical examination in prelude to possible service in the armed forces . He ultimately remained with the Cardinals for the entire season , posting a .347 batting average with 197 hits . The Cardinals claimed the NL pennant for the third consecutive season , and faced St. Louis 's other major league team , the Browns , in the 1944 World Series . The Browns took a 2 – 1 lead , while Musial hit .250 with zero RBI . He broke out in Game 4 with a two @-@ run home run , single , double , and a walk as part of a 5 – 1 Cardinals win . The Cardinals went on to defeat the Browns in six games , and Musial posted a .304 batting average for the Series .
= = = Sojourn in the U.S. Navy ( 1945 – 46 ) = = =
Musial enlisted in the United States Navy on January 23 , 1945 , during World War II . He was initially assigned to noncombat duty at the Naval Training Station in Bainbridge , Maryland . In June 1945 , he was assigned to Special Services in Hawaii , and was assigned to a ferry launch unit to bring back damaged ship crews entering Pearl Harbor where he was able to play baseball every afternoon in the naval base 's eight @-@ team league . After being granted emergency leave to see his ailing father in January 1946 , he was briefly assigned to the Philadelphia Navy Yard before his honorable discharge from the Navy as a Seaman Second Class in March 1946 .
In 2007 , Musial received the Navy Memorial 's Lone Sailor Award , which honors Navy veterans who have excelled in civilian life .
= = = Major leagues ( 1946 – 63 ) = = =
= = = = 1946 – 49 = = = =
Rejoining the Cardinals under new manager Eddie Dyer , Musial posted a .388 batting average by the middle of May 1946 . He also became close friends with new teammate Red Schoendienst , who had joined the Cardinals during Musial 's absence in 1945 . During the season , Musial ( who was under contract to the Cardinals for $ 13 @,@ 500 in 1946 ) was offered a five @-@ year , $ 125 @,@ 000 contract , plus a $ 50 @,@ 000 bonus , to join the Mexican League . He declined the offer , and after manager Dyer spoke to club owner Sam Breadon , Musial was given a $ 5 @,@ 000 raise later in 1946 .
It was also during the 1946 season that Musial acquired his nickname of " The Man " . During the June 23 game against the Dodgers at Ebbets Field , St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch sportswriter Bob Broeg heard Dodger fans chanting whenever Musial came to bat , but could not understand the words . Later that day over dinner , Broeg asked Cardinals traveling secretary Leo Ward if he had understood what the Dodger fans had been chanting . Ward said , " Every time Stan came up they chanted , ' Here comes the man ! ' " " ' That man , ' you mean " , Broeg said . " No , the man " , replied Ward . Broeg mentioned this story in his Post @-@ Dispatch column , and Musial was thereafter known as Stan " The Man " .
In June 1946 , Dyer began to use Musial as a first baseman . The Cardinals finished the season tied with the Dodgers , prompting a three @-@ game playoff for the pennant . Musial 's Game 1 triple and Game 2 double contributed to the Cardinals ' two @-@ games @-@ to @-@ none series victory . Facing the Boston Red Sox , the Cardinals won the 1946 World Series four games to three , as Musial had six hits and four RBI . He batted .365 for the season and won his second NL MVP Award , receiving 22 out of a possible 24 first @-@ place votes , finishing ahead of Brooklyn 's Dixie Walker ( .319 batting average ) .
Musial began the 1947 season by hitting .146 in April . On May 9 , team doctor Dr. Robert Hyland confirmed a previous diagnosis of appendicitis , while discovering that Musial was concurrently suffering from tonsillitis . He received treatment , but did not have either his appendix or tonsils surgically removed until after the season ended . Despite his health woes , he finished the year with a batting average of .312 .
Fully recovered from his ailments , Musial recorded his 1,000th career hit on April 25 , 1948 . After a May 7 St. Louis Globe @-@ Democrat article criticized baseball players for appearing in cigarette advertisements , he made a personal decision to never again appear in such ads . By June 24 , his batting average was .408 , prompting Brooklyn pitcher Preacher Roe to comically announce his new method for retiring Musial : " Walk him on four pitches and pick him off first . " Given a mid @-@ season pay raise by new Cardinals owner Robert E. Hannegan for his outstanding performance , Musial hit a home run in the All @-@ Star Game . On September 22 , he registered five hits in a game for the fourth time in the season , tying a mark set by Ty Cobb in 1922 .
Musial finished 1948 leading the major leagues in batting average ( .376 ) , hits ( 230 ) , doubles ( 46 ) , triples ( 18 ) , total bases ( 429 ) , and slugging percentage ( .702 ) . Winning the NL batting title by a 43 @-@ point margin , with an on @-@ base percentage lead of 27 points and a 138 @-@ point slugging percentage margin — the latter being the largest gap since Rogers Hornsby 's 1925 season — Musial became the first player to win three NL MVP awards . If a home run he hit during a rained out game had been counted in his season totals , he would have won the Triple Crown by leading the NL in batting average , home runs , and runs batted in .
Anticipating life after his baseball career , Musial began the first of several business partnerships with Julius " Biggie " Garagnani in January 1949 , opening " Stan Musial & Biggie 's " restaurant . He approached the 1949 season with the intent to try to hit more home runs , stating he had hit 39 the previous season " without trying " . His new focus on hitting for power backfired , as pitchers began using the outside part of the plate to induce him to ground out to the first or second baseman . Musial soon stopped focusing on hitting home runs and resumed his consistent offensive production by the end of May . He received his sixth consecutive All @-@ Star player selection and finished the season leading the NL in hits ( 207 ) while playing in every game . However , the Cardinals , with 96 wins , finished one game behind the Dodgers .
In the late 1940s , when baseball was slowly becoming integrated , Musial — along with his roommate Red Schoendienst — would be lauded by newcomers such as Dodgers ' pitcher Don Newcombe for their tolerance . " They never ... had the need to sit in the dugout and call a black guy a bunch of names " , Newcombe said , " because he was trying to change the game and make it what it should have been in the first place , a game for all people . "
= = = = 1950 – 54 = = = =
Musial began the 1950s by posting a .350 batting average before participating in the 1950 All @-@ Star Game , where in fan balloting he was the NL 's number two choice . He had the longest hitting streak of his career during the 1950 season — a 30 @-@ game stretch that ended on July 27 . With the Cardinals falling 14 games out of first place by September , manager Dyer used him at first base and all three outfield positions . New Cardinals manager Marty Marion led the team to a third @-@ place finish in 1951 , while Musial was named The Sporting News Major League Player of the Year .
National media attention inadvertently turned to Musial a month before the 1952 season began , after Ty Cobb wrote an article regarding modern baseball players that was published in Life magazine . Cobb singled out Musial and Phil Rizzuto as the only players " who can be mentioned in the same breath with the oldtime greats " . Cobb went on to refer to Musial as " a better player than Joe DiMaggio was in his prime . " In response , Musial displayed his characteristic modesty , saying , " Cobb is baseball 's greatest . I don 't want to contradict him , but I can 't say that I was ever as good as Joe DiMaggio . "
The only major league pitching appearance of Musial 's career occurred as a publicity stunt during the last Cardinals home game of the 1952 season . Manager Eddie Stanky had a reluctant Musial pitch to Frank Baumholtz , the runner @-@ up to Musial for the best batting average in the NL that season . With Baumholtz batting right @-@ handed for the first time in his career , Musial 's first pitch was hit so hard it ricocheted off the shin of third baseman Solly Hemus and into the left field corner . The play was ruled an error , and Musial was embarrassed enough by his complicity in the gimmick to avoid pitching again for the remainder of his career .
The Cardinals franchise was up for sale in early 1953 , and Musial and Schoendienst advised their friend and fellow duck @-@ hunter Gussie Busch to consider buying the team . Busch used the resources of the Anheuser @-@ Busch company to purchase the Cardinals , keeping Musial in St. Louis by averting the possibility of a move by the team to another city . The 1953 season marked Musial 's 10th NL All @-@ Star selection , and the 12th consecutive time he finished a major league season with a batting average above .300 .
Musial accomplished another historical feat on May 2 , 1954 , in a doubleheader in St. Louis against the New York Giants : he hit three home runs in the first contest , then added two more in the second to become the first major leaguer to hit five home runs in a doubleheader . In addition to his five home runs , he also hit a single in the first game , setting a new record of 21 total bases for a doubleheader . The only player besides Musial to hit five home runs in a doubleheader is Nate Colbert , who achieved the feat in 1972 .
= = = = 1955 – 59 = = = =
Musial made his 12th NL All @-@ Star appearance in 1955 as a reserve player , when Cincinnati 's Ted Kluszewski outpolled him by 150 @,@ 000 votes to get on the starting lineup at first base . Musial entered the game as a pinch hitter in the fourth inning , and played left field as the game entered extra innings . Leading off the bottom of the 12th , he hit a home run to give the NL a 6 – 5 victory .
The 1956 season marked another milestone for Musial , when he broke Mel Ott 's NL record for extra @-@ base hits on August 12 . Earlier that season , Cardinals general manager " Trader Frank " Lane began negotiations to trade him for Philadelphia pitcher Robin Roberts . When Cardinals owner Gussie Busch learned of the possible move , he made it clear that Musial was not available for any trade . Instead , Lane dealt Musial 's close friend Schoendienst to the New York Giants ; an upset Musial made no immediate comment to the press .
On June 11 , 1957 , Musial tied the NL record for consecutive games played with his 822nd , a streak that began on the last day of the 1951 season . Despite ballot stuffing by Cincinnati Reds fans , he was selected and played in the All @-@ Star Game held at Sportsman 's Park . When he overextended his swing while batting during a game on August 23 , Musial fractured a bone in his left shoulder socket and tore muscles over his collarbone . He was unable to play again until September 8 , ending his consecutive games @-@ played streak at 895 . He finished 1957 as Sports Illustrated 's " Sportsman of the Year " .
Musial signed one of the first $ 100 @,@ 000 contracts in NL history on January 29 , 1958 . ( According to Baseball Almanac , Hank Greenberg was the first with Pittsburgh in 1947 . ) He quickly demonstrated a return on the investment by sharing with Willie Mays the inaugural ( and for the only time in Musial 's career ) NL Player of the Month in May ( no such award was given in April until 1969 ) batting .374 , with 4 HR , and 16 RBI . Also that month , as he was approaching the 3 @,@ 000 @-@ hit milestone in his major league career , he expressed a desire to record the hit in St. Louis . He ultimately reached the mark with a pinch @-@ hit , sixth inning RBI double at Chicago 's Wrigley Field on May 13 . The eighth major league player to reach 3 @,@ 000 hits , and the first to reach the milestone with an extra @-@ base hit , Musial was greeted at St. Louis Union Station that evening by roughly 1 @,@ 000 fans . Finishing the season in sixth place , the Cardinals embarked on an exhibition tour of Japan , winning 14 of 16 games against top players from the Central and Pacific Japanese Leagues .
Taking a new approach to preparation for the 1959 season , Musial was given permission to report late to spring training so that he might conserve his energy for the duration of the year . Musial , at 6 feet ( 180 cm ) tall , had maintained a weight of around 175 pounds ( 79 kg ) throughout his career . He reported to spring training approximately 10 pounds ( 4 @.@ 5 kg ) overweight and in substandard physical condition . He began the season with one hit in 15 at @-@ bats . Despite his early offensive struggles , he single @-@ handedly spoiled potential no @-@ hitters on April 16 and 19 . A game @-@ winning home run on May 7 made him the first major league player ever with 400 home runs and 3 @,@ 000 hits . As he continued to hit at a relatively low pace , his playing time was limited by Cardinals manager Solly Hemus at various points during the season . Seeking more revenue for the players ' pension fund , Major League Baseball held two All @-@ Star games in a season for the first time through 1962 . Musial made his 16th All @-@ Star appearance ( 16th season ) and pinch @-@ hit in both contests , flying out in the July 7 game and drawing a walk in the August 3 game . He finished the season with 115 regular game appearances , a .255 batting average , 37 runs , and a slugging percentage of .428 .
During the 1959 season , John F. Kennedy approached Musial about supporting Kennedy 's campaign for President , citing their close ages . Musial campaigned for Kennedy later that year and became a supporter of the Democrat .
On June 30 , 1959 , Musial was the batter in one of baseball history 's oddest plays . In a game between the Cardinals and Chicago Cubs , he was at the plate with a count of 3 – 1 . Bob Anderson 's next pitch was errant , evading catcher Sammy Taylor and rolling all the way to the backstop . Umpire Vic Delmore called ball four , even as Anderson and Taylor contended that Musial had foul tipped the ball . Because the ball was still in play and Delmore was embroiled in an argument with the catcher and pitcher , Musial kept running in attempt to make second base . Seeing that Musial was trying for second , Alvin Dark ran to the backstop to retrieve the ball . The ball wound up in the hands of field announcer Pat Pieper , but Dark ended up getting it back anyway . Absentmindedly , however , Delmore pulled out a new ball and gave it to Taylor . Anderson finally noticed that Musial was trying for second , took the new ball , and threw it to second baseman Tony Taylor . Anderson 's throw flew over Taylor 's head into the outfield . Dark , at the same time that Anderson threw the new ball , threw the original ball to shortstop Ernie Banks . Musial did not see Dark 's throw and only noticed Anderson 's ball fly over the second baseman 's head , so he tried to go to third base . On his way there , he was tagged by Banks , and after a delay he was ruled out .
= = = = 1960 – 63 = = = =
Based on his 1959 performance , Musial accepted a pay cut in 1960 from his previous $ 100 @,@ 000 salary to $ 80 @,@ 000 . Eager to prove his mediocre performance was the result of improper physical conditioning , he enlisted the help of Walter Eberhardt , Saint Louis University 's director of physical education . In June 1960 , newspaper articles began speculating that Musial would soon retire , yet he finished the season with a .275 batting average . He addressed the speculation in September , confirming that he would play again in 1961 . His .288 batting average that season reaffirmed his decision . In 1962 , Musial posted a .330 batting average , good for third in the batting race , with 19 homers and 82 RBI . As a pinch @-@ hitter , he had 14 base hits in 19 at @-@ bats ( .615 ) . Along the way , he established new NL career marks for hits , RBI , and runs scored . That same year , on July 8 , the 41 @-@ year @-@ old Musial became the oldest player ever to hit three home runs in one game .
The Cardinals began 1963 by winning 10 of their first 15 games , as Musial posted a .237 batting average . He set a new major league record for career extra @-@ base hits on May 8 and improved his batting average to .277 by the end of the month . Making his 20th All @-@ Star appearance and 24th All @-@ Star Game appearance on July 9 , 1963 , he pinch @-@ hit in the fifth inning . Asked by general manager Bing Devine on July 26 what his plans were , Musial decided to retire at season 's end . He waited until the Cardinals team picnic on August 12 to publicly announce his decision , hopeful he could retire on a winning note .
Musial became a grandfather for the first time in the early hours of September 10 ; later that day , he hit a home run in his first at @-@ bat . After sweeping a doubleheader on September 15 , the Cardinals had won 19 of their last 20 games , and were one game behind the Los Angeles Dodgers . The Dodgers then swept the Cardinals in a three @-@ game series in St. Louis and clinched the NL pennant on September 25 . Musial 's last game , on September 29 , 1963 , was preceded by an hour @-@ long retirement ceremony . Speakers at the event included baseball commissioner Ford Frick , Cardinals broadcaster Harry Caray , and Cardinals owner Gussie Busch , who announced that Musial 's uniform number " 6 " would be retired by the team . During the game , Musial recorded a single in the fourth inning , then hit a single to right field that scored teammate Curt Flood in the sixth . Cardinals manager Johnny Keane brought in Gary Kolb as a pinch @-@ runner for Musial , bringing his major league career to an end . Just as he had recorded two base hits in his major league debut , Musial finished his last game with two hits , as well . Musial finished with the all @-@ time National League record and second to only Ty Cobb on the all @-@ time Major League list . Musial 's last hit in his career was hit past the Cincinnati Reds second baseman at the time , Pete Rose , who later broke Cobb 's record to become the all @-@ time hit king .
At the time of his retirement , Musial held or shared 17 major league records , 29 NL records , and nine All @-@ Star Game records . Among those records , he ranked as the major league career leader in extra @-@ base hits ( 1 @,@ 377 ) and total bases ( 6 @,@ 134 ) . He also held NL career marks in categories such as hits ( 3 @,@ 630 ) , games played ( 3 @,@ 026 ) , doubles ( 725 ) , and RBI ( 1 @,@ 951 ) . He finished his career with 475 home runs despite never having led the NL in the category . Jerry Lansche speculates Musial would likely have become the second player , after Babe Ruth , with 2 @,@ 000 RBI , and would have exceeded 500 career home runs had he not served in the military . His lowest full season RBI output before the war was 72 ( in 1942 ) and as he needed only 49 RBI to reach 2 @,@ 000 for his full career , he certainly would have exceeded 2 @,@ 000 RBI by playing without injury in 1945 . His home run production is a different story and it is highly unlikely he would have reached 500 . He did not hit more than 13 home runs in any season before he entered the navy and did not hit as many as 25 ( the number he would have needed to become a 500 career homer club member ) until 1948 , 3 years after returning to baseball from World War II . His career hit total was evenly split between 1 @,@ 815 hits at home and 1 @,@ 815 hits on the road . Steven R. Bullock speculates that it is possible that without military service Musial might have continued playing to attempt to exceed Ty Cobb 's career hit record of 4 @,@ 191 . Even if Musial had hit safely 207 times ( the average of his hits in the 2 years before and the 2 years after his service in the navy ) in 1945 , he still would have been 354 hits short of tying Ty . His hit total in his last season at age 43 was only 86 ; even if he could have had 103 hits a season ( the average of his last 5 seasons ) he would have had to play to age 47 to attain the hits record .
He was the first major league player to appear in more than 1 @,@ 000 games at two different positions , registering 1 @,@ 896 games in the outfield and 1 @,@ 016 at first base . Since Musial 's retirement in 1963 , the only player to finish his career with a higher lifetime batting average has been Tony Gwynn . Hank Aaron has been the only player to surpass his record of 6 @,@ 134 total bases .
In Musial 's 3 @,@ 026 major league appearances , he was never ejected from a game . Speaking about his quiet reputation within the sport 's history , sportscaster Bob Costas said , " He didn 't hit a homer in his last at @-@ bat ; he hit a single . He didn 't hit in 56 straight games . He married his high school sweetheart and stayed married to her . ... All Musial represents is more than two decades of sustained excellence and complete decency as a human being . "
= = Post @-@ playing career and family life = =
Musial was named a vice president of the St. Louis Cardinals in September 1963 , and he remained in that position until after the 1966 season . From February 1964 to January 1967 , he also served as President Lyndon Johnson 's physical fitness adviser , a part @-@ time position created to promote better fitness among American citizens . Before the 1967 season began , the Cardinals named Musial the team 's general manager , and he oversaw the club 's World Series championship that year . He won the allegiance of Cardinals players by making fair offers from the outset of player @-@ contract negotiations and creating an in @-@ stadium babysitting service so players ' wives could attend games . His longtime business partner Biggie Garagnani died in June 1967 , prompting Musial to devote more time to managing his restaurant and other business interests . He came to realize that the detail @-@ oriented desk job was not his forte . He consequently decided to step down as general manager , before even completing a full year on the job .
Musial was noted for his harmonica playing , including his rendition of " Take Me Out to the Ball Game " . Through the 1990s , he frequently played the harmonica at public gatherings , such as the annual Baseball Hall of Fame induction ceremony and various charity events . He performed on the television show Hee Haw and in 1994 recorded 18 songs that were sold in tandem with a harmonica @-@ playing instruction booklet .
Even though Musial left Donora after high school , he retained close ties to the town throughout the rest of his life . He maintained membership in local social clubs , and regularly sent a local doctor boxes of autographed baseballs , with the town 's mayor using some for United Way fundraising . Musial also gave free meals at the restaurant he owned in St. Louis to any customers who presented valid ID proving they were Donora residents .
Musial met Lillian Susan Labash , the daughter of a local grocer , in Donora when both were 15 , and married her in St. Paul 's Catholic Church in Daytona Beach , Florida on May 25 , 1940 . They had four children : son Richard , and daughters Gerry , Janet , and Jeanie . Lillian Musial died at 91 , on May 3 , 2012 ; their marriage had lasted for almost 72 years . In his final years , Musial suffered from Alzheimer 's disease .
= = Honors and recognition = =
On August 4 , 1968 , a statue of Musial was erected outside of Busch Memorial Stadium on the northeast grounds of the St. Louis stadium . The statue was moved from its original location to the west side of the new Busch Stadium for its first season in 2006 , where it became a popular meeting place for generations of Cardinals fans . Musial 's statue is inscribed with a quote attributed to former baseball commissioner Ford Frick : " Here stands baseball 's perfect warrior . Here stands baseball 's perfect knight . "
Musial was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in his first year of eligibility in 1969 , named on 93 @.@ 2 percent of the ballots . On June 14 , 1973 he was the first inductee into the National Polish @-@ American Hall of Fame , housed at St. Mary 's College in Orchard Lake , Michigan . In 1989 , he was inducted into the St. Louis Walk of Fame . Five years later , a baseball field was named after him in his hometown of Donora . He was ranked tenth on The Sporting News ' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players published in 1998 . He was also one of the 30 players selected to the Major League Baseball All @-@ Century Team , added by a special committee after he finished 11th in fan voting among outfielders . In 2000 , he was inducted into the Hall of Famous Missourians , and a bronze bust depicting him is on permanent display in the rotunda of the Missouri State Capitol . In January , 2014 , the Cardinals announced Musial among 22 former players and personnel to be inducted into the St. Louis Cardinals Hall of Fame Museum for the inaugural class of 2014 .
Nearly two decades after Musial retired , baseball statistician Bill James and the sabermetrics movement began providing new ways of comparing players across baseball history . In 2001 , James ranked Musial the tenth @-@ greatest baseball player in history , and the second @-@ best left fielder of all time . According to Baseball @-@ Reference.com , he ranks fifth all @-@ time among hitters on the Black Ink Test , and third all @-@ time on the Gray Ink Test — measures designed to compare players of different eras . He ranks first on Baseball @-@ Reference 's Hall of Fame Monitor Test , and is tied for second in the Hall of Fame Career Standards Test . Despite his statistical accomplishments , he is sometimes referred to as the most underrated or overlooked athlete in modern American sports history . For instance , in his analysis of baseball 's under- and overrated players in 2007 , sportswriter Jayson Stark said , " I can 't think of any all @-@ time great in any sport who gets left out of more who 's @-@ the @-@ greatest conversations than Stan Musial . "
Musial threw out the first pitch in the fifth game of the 2006 World Series and delivered the ceremonial first pitch ball to President Barack Obama at the 2009 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game . A " Stan the Man " day was held in his honor by the Cardinals on May 18 , 2008 . In 2010 , another one of the Cardinals ' greatest sluggers , Albert Pujols , whose nickname was " El Hombre " , said he didn 't want to be called " The Man " , even in Spanish , because " There is one man that gets that respect , and that is Stan Musial . " Also in 2010 , the Cardinals launched a campaign to build support for awarding Musial the Presidential Medal of Freedom for his lifetime of achievement and service . The campaign realized its goal , and on February 15 , 2011 , Musial was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama who called him " an icon untarnished , a beloved pillar of the community , a gentleman you 'd want your kids to emulate . "
On October 17 , 2012 , Musial made his final appearance at Busch Stadium , riding in a golf cart around the warning track before Game 4 of the National League Championship Series . Musial stopped at both dugouts and greeted San Francisco Giants manager Bruce Bochy and Cardinals manager Mike Matheny . The Cardinals would go on to win Game 4 by a score of 8 @-@ 3 , but lost the pennant to the eventual World Series champion Giants .
= = MLB statistics = =
= = = Hitting = = =
= = = Fielding = = =
= = = Value = = =
= = Death = =
Musial died at age 92 of natural causes on January 19 , 2013 , at his home in Ladue , Missouri , on the same day as fellow MLB Hall of Fame inductee Earl Weaver . Musial was surrounded by his family as he died peacefully . Cardinals owner Bill DeWitt , Jr. released the following statement :
We have lost the most beloved member of the Cardinals family . Stan Musial was the greatest player in Cardinals history and one of the best players in the history of baseball . The entire Cardinals organization extends its sincere condolences to Stan 's family , including his children Richard , Gerry , Janet and Jean , as well as his eleven grandchildren and twelve great grandchildren . We join fans everywhere in mourning the loss of our dear friend and reflect on how fortunate we all are to have known ' Stan the Man ' .
Upon hearing the news of his death , fans gathered and began an impromptu memorial by his statue outside Busch Stadium ; the Cardinals issued a release saying the memorial would be left in place for some time . In a laudatory obituary , The New York Times quoted famed New York manager Leo Durocher : " There is only one way to pitch to Musial — under the plate . "
Missouri Governor Jay Nixon commented : " Stan Musial was a great American hero who — with the utmost humility — inspired us all to aim high and dream big . The world is emptier today without him , but far better to have known him . The legacy of ' baseball 's perfect warrior ' will endure and inspire generations to come . "
St. Louis Mayor Francis Slay tweeted : " Sad as we are , we are fortunate to have had Stan in STL for so long , and are also glad that Stan and Lil are together again . " He ordered flags at half @-@ mast in the city .
" Major League Baseball has lost one of its true legends in Stan Musial , a Hall of Famer in every sense and a man who led a great American life " , Commissioner Bud Selig said . " He was the heart and soul of the historic St. Louis Cardinals franchise for generations , and he served his country during World War II . A recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2011 , Stan 's life embodies baseball 's unparalleled history and why this game is the national pastime . "
Thousands of fans braved cold temperatures on January 24 for a public visitation at the Cathedral Basilica of Saint Louis , where Musial lay in state , dressed in his trademark cardinal @-@ red blazer and with a harmonica in his lapel pocket , flanked by a Navy honor guard . A private funeral Mass was held on Saturday , January 26 , 2013 , at the New Cathedral in St. Louis , televised locally by KTVI and KPLR as well as Fox Sports Midwest on pay @-@ television . New York 's Cardinal Timothy Dolan , who in his first episcopal post served as an auxiliary bishop of the Archdiocese of Saint Louis , was the principal celebrant , and Knoxville 's Bishop Richard F. Stika , Musial 's former parish priest , was the homilist . Bob Costas gave the principal eulogy , calling him " the genuine hero who as the years and decades passed , and disillusionment came from other directions , never once let us down " , and quoting fellow Cooperstown honoree Mickey Mantle , who once said that Musial " was a better player than me because he was a better man than me " . Following the funeral , Musial 's family led a procession from the New Cathedral to Busch Stadium , where they laid a memorial wreath at his statue . Once the wreath was placed and Musial 's family began to walk back to their vehicles , the hundreds of Cardinal fans gathered for the wreath ceremony gave both Musial and his family one final salute . That salute was the fans singing " Take Me Out to the Ball Game " before Musial was taken to his final place of rest .
Musial was the last living member of the Cardinals team that won the 1942 World Series . At the time of his death , no living players had played on an earlier World Series @-@ winning team .
= = Legacy = =
As a reflection of his popularity Musial has had infrastructure named after him . In May 2011 the Pennsylvania State Senate changed the name of the bridge that carries the C. Vance Deicas Memorial Highway ( S.R. 1077 ) over the Monongahela River from Donora @-@ Monessen Bridge to Stan Musial Bridge after Musial who was a native of the area . In October 2013 the St. Louis Fire Department started operating a fireboat named after Musial . In July 2013 , the new Interstate 70 bridge over the Mississippi River between Illinois and Missouri at St. Louis received the official name of " Stan Musial Veterans Memorial Bridge "
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= Lazarus ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Lazarus " is the fifteenth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on February 4 , 1994 . It was written by Alex Gansa and Howard Gordon , directed by David Nutter , and featured guest appearances by Cec Verrell and Christopher Allport . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Lazarus " earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 6 , being watched by 7 @.@ 2 million households in its initial broadcast ; and received mixed reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . After an old partner of Scully 's is wounded in a bank robbery , Scully and Mulder come to believe that the injured man has been possessed by the spirit of the dead bank robber .
In the episode 's original plot , the bank robber was to have jumped into Mulder 's body . There was , however , a belief at the time that neither Scully nor Mulder should directly experience such phenomena . After Fox and the studio argued against the idea of using Mulder in such a way , the producers agreed to make the change . The opening bank robbery scene was filmed on location in Vancouver , where Jason Schombing 's acting led some bystanders to believe that robbery was a real one .
= = Plot = =
Dana Scully assists a fellow FBI agent , Jack Willis , in apprehending violent bank robbers Warren Dupre and Lula Phillips . Following an anonymous tip , the two agents corner Dupre during an attempted robbery . Dupre shoots Willis with a shotgun , but is himself shot by Scully . Dupre dies , but Willis is eventually revived ; however , Dupre 's corpse is seen reacting to the jolts from the defibrillators used on Willis .
Willis wakes up a few days later , but now has a more sinister personality . He finds Dupre 's body and cuts off his fingers to retrieve a wedding ring before fleeing the hospital . Scully explains to Fox Mulder that Willis has been obsessed with the Dupre @-@ Phillips case for the past year , and admits to dating Willis while he was her instructor at the FBI Academy . It is discovered that left @-@ handed shears were used to cut off Dupre 's fingers , despite the fact that Willis is right @-@ handed , leading Mulder to believe that Willis ' body is inhabited by Dupre 's consciousness . The agents visit a University of Maryland medical professor who theorizes that during near @-@ death experiences , an energy release can occur that could radically change someone 's personality .
Willis , who finds Dupre 's tattoo appearing on his arm , confronts Lula 's brother Tommy and kills him , believing that he sold him out to the FBI and caused his " death " . When Mulder and Scully investigate the next day , Willis arrives . He passes the tests that Scully gives him , but when Mulder asks him to sign a fake birthday card for Scully — whose birthday is months away — he signs it . Scully is skeptical of Mulder 's claims that Dupre is in Willis 's body , believing that he is under stress due to his near @-@ death experience .
When a landlord calls the FBI to tip them off about Phillips ' location , Scully and Willis move in to capture her . However , when Scully corners Phillips , Willis holds Scully at gunpoint and forces her to instead handcuff herself . Scully is taken to Phillips ' house , where she is beaten and handcuffed to a radiator . Willis then successfully convinces Lula that he is actually Dupre . Willis calls Mulder to tell him that he and Phillips are holding Scully hostage , leaving Mulder frustrated and angry .
After seeing Willis / Dupre consume a large quantity of soda , Scully reveals that Willis is a diabetic and will require insulin to survive . Phillips and Willis / Dupre rob a pharmacy to obtain the necessary insulin . However , Phillips refuses to let Willis use it , revealing that it was she who betrayed him , having fled the scene the night of the botched bank robbery . Phillips calls Mulder , demanding a $ 1 million ransom for Scully . By using audio of a plane nearby , Mulder and his task force are able to track their general location , and a disguised cop going door to door spots Phillips .
Willis / Dupre feigns death , and when Phillips drops her wedding ring on him , he grabs her gun and kills her . He dies seconds later due to the lack of insulin . Mulder , who has just arrived on the scene , releases Scully . Later Scully retrieves Willis ' possessions from the morgue , including a watch she gave him for his thirty @-@ fifth birthday . The watch stopped at 6 : 47 , the moment Willis died after the bank shooting .
= = Production = =
In the episode 's original plot , Dupre was to have jumped into Mulder 's body . There was , however , a belief at the time that neither Scully nor Mulder should directly experience such phenomena ; Fox and the studio argued against the idea of using Mulder in such a way . With more than a little reluctance , the producers agreed to make the change . As writer Howard Gordon later recalled , " We 'd wanted Mulder to experience the soul switch " . Eventually , however , Fox 's stance was changed ; most notably , in the two @-@ part sixth season episode , " Dreamland " , when Mulder 's consciousness is exchanged with government agent Morris Fletcher . Gordon ultimately came to believe that the final decision was almost certainly for the best and saw the benefit of introducing Scully 's former boyfriend as it provided a welcome opportunity to delve into her history .
The opening bank robbery scene was filmed on location in Vancouver , where Jason Schombing 's acting led some bystanders to believe that robbery was a real one . Interior shots set in Dupre 's basement were filmed in an asbestos @-@ lined apartment building , where a translator was required to interface with the mostly @-@ Asian tenants . This episode features the first of several occasions in which Scully is abducted . Her birthday , February 23 , is revealed for the first time in this episode ; though the year of her birth , 1964 , would not be established until the second season episode " One Breath " .
= = Reception = =
" Lazarus " premiered on the Fox network on February 4 , 1994 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on January 5 , 1995 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 6 , with a 12 share and was viewed by 7 @.@ 2 million households , meaning that roughly 7 @.@ 2 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 12 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode .
Series creator Chris Carter was very pleased with the episode , stating that it was " a very good and well @-@ acted episode . I like it because it actually seemed too real to me . It played less as a paranormal science fiction show than as whether or not something could really happen . The entire cast was wonderful . Overall that was a terrific episode " . In a retrospective of the first season in Entertainment Weekly , " Lazarus " was rated a C + , being described as " as exciting as Scully 's taste in men ( not very ) " . The episode 's supporting cast , however , was described as " solid " . Zack Handlen , writing for The A.V. Club , rated episode a B- , finding that it had " no real thematic resonance " . He found that the episode left its premise " largely unexplored " , and would have benefited from a stronger focus on the relationship between the characters of Willis and Dupre . Matt Haigh , writing for Den of Geek , reviewed the episode negatively , feeling that it " wasn 't up to much " , and that it " plays more like an episode of Diagnosis Murder than anything else " . However , the exploration of Scully 's character history was cited as a positive aspect of the episode . Anna Johns , writing for TV Squad , was critical of " Lazarus " , stating that its opening scene was " the only good part " of the episode .
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= New Jersey Route 179 =
Pennsylvania Route 179 ( PA 179 ) and Route 179 is an 8 @.@ 7 @-@ mile ( 14 @.@ 00 km ) state highway in Bucks County , Pennsylvania and Hunterdon County , New Jersey , United States , running along an old alignment of U.S. Route 202 ( US 202 ) from west of New Hope , Pennsylvania northeast through Lambertville , New Jersey to Ringoes , where it ends at an intersection with US 202 and Route 31 . Past this intersection , the road continues east as County Route 514 ( CR 514 ) . It is two @-@ lane , undivided highway for most of its length with the exception of a four @-@ lane stretch in Lambertville . The route crosses the Delaware River on the New Hope @-@ Lambertville Bridge , where the designation changes from PA 179 to Route 179 .
PA 179 and Route 179 follow a part of the 18th @-@ century Old York Road which ran between Philadelphia and New York City . Prior to 1953 , the road was Route S29 from the Delaware River to downtown Lambertville , a part of Route 29 between Lambertville and Ringoes , and a concurrency of Route 29 and Route 30 in Ringoes . The route was also part of US 202 , which was designated over 1926 @-@ created US 122 in the mid @-@ 1930s . In 1953 , the Route S29 and 29 designations were removed in favor of US 202 and Route 30 became Route 69 ( now Route 31 ) . Route 179 was formed in 1965 when a bypass for Ringoes was built for US 202 and Route 69 . Route 179 extended to Lambertville and PA 179 was created in 1974 when the new US 202 freeway , running over the New Hope @-@ Lambertville Toll Bridge , was completed .
= = Route description = =
= = = Pennsylvania = = =
PA 179 begins at an intersection with US 202 in Solebury Township , Bucks County , Pennsylvania , heading east on two @-@ lane undivided Lower York Road through commercial areas . The road crosses into New Hope and becomes Bridge Street as it passes near a shopping center and more businesses . Farther east , the route gains a center left @-@ turn lane and enters more residential surroundings as it passes New Hope @-@ Solebury High School . From this point , PA 179 loses the center left @-@ turn lane and passes more homes . Upon crossing the New Hope and Ivyland Railroad , the route heads into the downtown of New Hope and intersects PA 32 . PA 179 continues east to the New Hope @-@ Lambertville Bridge over the Delaware River .
= = = New Jersey = = =
At the middle of the New Hope @-@ Lambertville Bridge , the road enters Lambertville , Hunterdon County , New Jersey and becomes Route 179 . It heads east through Lambertville on Bridge Street through the downtown area . At the intersection with Main Street , Route 29 joins Route 179 for a block , forming a wrong @-@ way concurrency At the end of the concurrency , Route 29 turns south onto Route 165 and Route 179 turns north . From here the road continues northeast as the four @-@ lane , undivided Thomas Paine Highway , entering West Amwell Township , where the road heads into farmland and narrows to two lanes . In East Amwell Township , the route intersects CR 603 , CR 601 , and CR 605 ( Queen Road ) , which heads to an interchange with the US 202 freeway .
The road eventually forms the border between West Amwell and East Amwell Township . Route 179 intersects the US 202 freeway at a partial cloverleaf interchange , where the route is entirely in East Amwell Township . Past this interchange , the route runs along the West Amwell / East Amwell township line until it entirely enters East Amwell Township again and heads into the residential community of Ringoes . In Ringoes , Route 179 intersects the old Route 31 ( now CR 579 ) , forming a brief concurrency that lasts with that route until CR 579 heads north on John Ringo Road . Route 179 continues northeast through residential areas on Old York Road to its terminus at the combined US 202 / Route 31 , where Old York Road continues to the northeast as CR 514 .
= = History = =
The current alignment of PA 179 and Route 179 was a part of Old York Road , a historical 18th @-@ century road that connected Philadelphia to New York City . With the establishment of the U.S. Highway System in 1926 , the route was designated as a part of US 122 , which became US 202 in the mid @-@ 1930s . In Pennsylvania , the route was initially cosigned with PA 52 ; that designation was removed by 1930 . Prior to the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , today 's Route 179 was composed of three state routes : Route S29 , designated in 1949 from the New Hope @-@ Lambertville Bridge into Lambertville , a part of Route 29 from Lambertville to Ringoes that was designated in 1927 , and a concurrency of Routes 29 and 30 northeast from Ringoes that was also designated in 1927 . In the original 1927 plan , Route 29 would have continued northeast from the end of Route 179 along current CR 514 , but it was instead modified to continue north with Route 30 to Flemington and using what had been planned as Route 12 to Somerville .
In the 1953 renumbering , the Route S29 and Route 29 designations were removed from the route in favor of US 202 , with Route 29 was realigned to follow former Route 29A to Frenchtown . In addition , Route 30 became Route 69 ( now Route 31 ) to avoid conflicting with US 30 in South Jersey . The bypass of Ringoes for US 202 and Route 69 was opened in the 1960s , and Route 179 was designated along the old alignment of US 202 within Ringoes . The new US 202 freeway between the New Hope @-@ Lambertville Toll Bridge and Route 179 southwest of Ringoes was completed in October 1974 . As a result , Route 179 was extended along the old US 202 alignment to the state line in Lambertville and PA 179 was designated along the former US 202 through New Hope . Solebury Township is pushing for a roundabout at the intersection of US 202 and PA 179 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= St. Anger =
St. Anger is the eighth studio album by American heavy metal band Metallica , released on June 5 , 2003 by Elektra Records . It was the band 's last album released through Elektra , thus marking the end of the second @-@ longest timespan between studio albums from Metallica , with nearly six years between the release of Reload and this album . It is also the final collaboration between Metallica and producer Bob Rock , whose relationship began with the band 's fifth studio album , 1991 's Metallica . St. Anger was originally intended for release on June 10 , 2003 , but was released five days earlier due to concerns over unlicensed distribution through peer @-@ to @-@ peer file sharing networks . The St. Anger sessions also mark the only time Rock actually played when the music was being recorded , filling in for the departed bassist Jason Newsted .
Newsted left the band prior to the initial sessions for the album , leaving Rock to temporarily take his place until a permanent replacement could be found . Recording of the album initially started on April 23 , 2001 , but was postponed indefinitely when rhythm guitarist and singer James Hetfield entered rehab for " alcoholism and other addictions " . St. Anger is often recognized for being a radical musical departure from Metallica 's earlier work ; it features a modern heavy metal style , raw production , and no guitar solos . The artwork was created by Pushead , who had previously collaborated with the band .
Metallica spent the next couple of years touring to promote the album . St. Anger debuted at the top of sales charts in 30 countries , including the US Billboard 200 . Upon its release , it received mixed reviews . In 2004 , the album 's lead single , " St. Anger " , won a Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance . The album was certified 2 × platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipping two million copies in the US . St. Anger has sold nearly six million copies worldwide .
= = Background , writing and recording = =
Metallica rented an old Army barracks on the Presidio of San Francisco , California and converted it into a makeshift studio in January 2001 . As plans were being made to enter the studio to write and record its first album in nearly five years , Metallica postponed the recording due to the departure of bassist Jason Newsted . Newsted left Metallica on January 17 , 2001 , stating his departure was due to " private and personal reasons and the physical damage I have done to myself over the years while playing the music that I love " . Uncomfortable with immediately writing and recording with a new bassist , Metallica opted to include Bob Rock as bassist . The band stated they would find another bass player upon the album 's completion .
In July 2001 , recording came to a halt when James Hetfield entered rehab for alcoholism and other undisclosed addictions . Hetfield returned to the band in April of the next year , but was only allowed to work on the album from 12 : 00 to 4 : 00 PM . Due to his personal dilemmas , as well as Metallica 's internal struggles , the band hired a personal enhancement coach , Phil Towle , to help them . This and the recording of the album was documented by filmmakers Joe Berlinger and Bruce Sinofsky . Throughout two years of filming , over 1 @,@ 000 hours of video were recorded , documenting the band 's recording process . Subsequent to the album 's release , Berlinger and Sinofsky released the edited material as the film Some Kind of Monster .
Hetfield stated that the album was written with " a lot of passion " . He said , " There 's two years of condensed emotion in this . We 've gone through a lot of personal changes , struggles , epiphanies , it 's deep . It 's so deep lyrically and musically . [ St. Anger ] is just the best that it can be from us right now . " The band purposely wanted a raw sound on the album ; therefore Rock did not polish the sound while mixing . The band desired the raw sound because of the depth of the emotion they felt and did not want to " mess with it " . Rock commented , " I wanted to do something to shake up radio and the way everything else sounds . To me , this album sounds like four guys in a garage getting together and writing rock songs . There was really no time to get amazing performances out of James . We liked the raw performances . And we didn 't do what everyone does and what I 've been guilty of for a long time , which is tuning vocals . We just did it , boom , and that was it . "
Guitarist Kirk Hammett commented on the lack of guitar solos on St. Anger , a departure from what Metallica has done in the past : " We wanted to preserve the sound of all four of us in a room just jamming . We tried to put guitar solos on , but we kept on running into this problem . It really sounded like an afterthought . " Hammett said that he was happy with the final product . Rock stated , " We made a promise to ourselves that we 'd only keep stuff that had integrity . We didn 't want to make a theatrical statement by adding overdubs . "
Drummer Lars Ulrich achieved a unique sound on St. Anger by turning off the snares on his snare drum resulting in a drum tone with far more " ring " than is usual in rock and metal . This sound received much backlash from fans and critics alike . Ulrich said , " One day I forgot to turn the snare on because I wasn 't thinking about this stuff . At the playbacks , I decided I was really liking what I was hearing — it had a different ambience . It sang back to me in a beautiful way . " Regarding the backlash about the sound , he stated , " It 's crazy , that kind of closed @-@ mindedness . " Rock said , " I would say I 've only [ done something ] this brutal [ sounding ] when I 've done demos . It probably sounds heavier because it 's Metallica , but really this was a 15 @-@ minutes @-@ on @-@ the @-@ drum @-@ sound type of thing . "
When St. Anger was completed , Metallica kept true to its earlier statement and hired a new permanent bassist . In February 2003 , Robert Trujillo joined the band . Trujillo appeared on the footage of studio rehearsals of St. Anger in its entirety , which was included on DVD in the album package .
= = = Album artwork = = =
Brian " Pushead " Schroeder designed the album cover and interior artwork for St. Anger . Pushead has designed a number of items for Metallica in the past , including liner artwork of ... And Justice for All , several single covers , and many T @-@ shirts ; however , the album marks his first studio album cover art for the band . Originally , according to Metallica 's official website , four different limited color variations of the cover were planned , but the idea was eventually scrapped .
= = Release and promotion = =
St. Anger was released on June 5 , 2003 . It was originally scheduled for June 10 , but due to Metallica 's previous battle with Napster and fear that it would be illegally released onto peer @-@ to @-@ peer file sharing networks , the band pushed the release date five days ahead . A special edition of the album was released with a bonus DVD , featuring live , in @-@ the @-@ studio rehearsals of all of the St. Anger tracks . First week sales of the album were 417 @,@ 000 copies , and it debuted at # 1 on the U.S. Billboard 200 , as well as 30 other countries in the world . In 2004 , Metallica won the award for Best Metal Performance , for the title track .
After St. Anger 's release , Metallica embarked on a tour that would last nearly two years . The first leg was the U.S. 2003 Summer Sanitarium tour with support from Limp Bizkit , Deftones , Linkin Park , and Mudvayne . After Summer Sanitarium , the band began the Madly in Anger with the World Tour with support from Godsmack ( and Slipknot on certain European dates ) , which lasted until late 2004 . The St. Anger songs " Frantic " , " St. Anger " , " Dirty Window " and " The Unnamed Feeling " were performed frequently during the tour . " Sweet Amber " and " Some Kind of Monster " were also played live , but not as often as other songs on the album . The album tracks were altered when played live ; sometimes they were shortened , or in some cases a guitar solo was added . Sometimes , only one song from the album was played live . By 2009 , the songs from St. Anger were completely absent from Metallica 's set lists . The last time any song was performed from the album on a major tour was " Frantic " on October 21 , 2008 in Glendale , Arizona , although " Dirty Window " and " Frantic " were performed again on December 10 , 2011 during the last concert of Metallica 's special and private 30th Anniversary Tour , in San Francisco , California . " St. Anger " was also played again during the " Metallica by Request " tour in 2014 when it was voted by the fans . In October 2007 , " All Within My Hands " was performed live for the first time , acoustically , at both nights of the Bridge School Benefit concerts .
Metallica also released four singles from St. Anger . The order of the releases was " St. Anger " , " Frantic " , " The Unnamed Feeling " and " Some Kind of Monster " . On the U.S. Mainstream Rock chart , these singles charted at # 2 , # 21 , # 28 and # 18 , respectively . Promotional music videos were also made of all four of the songs . These videos can be found on Metallica 's DVD video collection , titled The Videos 1989 @-@ 2004 , and the video for " Some Kind of Monster " can also be found on the film Some Kind of Monster .
= = Critical reception = =
St. Anger received mixed to positive reviews from critics ; the album holds a score of 65 out of 100 , based on 20 reviews , on review @-@ aggregating website Metacritic . Adrien Begrand of PopMatters took both sides , saying : " While it 's an ungodly mess at times , what you hear on this album is a band playing with passion for the first time in years . " Producer Bob Rock said that it was intended to sound like " a band jamming together in a garage for the first time , and the band just happened to be Metallica " . Talking about the album , Greg Kot from Blender said , " It may be too late to rehabilitate Metallica 's image , but once again , their music is all about bringing the carnage . " Writing for NME , Ian Watson said that " the songs are a stripped back , heroically brutal reflection of this fury . You get the sense that , as with their emotional selves , they 've taken metal apart and started again from scratch . There 's no space wasted here , no time for petty guitar solos or downtuned bass trickery , just a focused , relentless attack . " Johnny Loftus of AllMusic praised the album and described it as a " punishing , unflinching document of internal struggle — taking listeners inside the bruised yet vital body of Metallica , but ultimately revealing the alternately torturous and defiant demons that wrestle inside Hetfield 's brain . St. Anger is an immediate record . " Barry Walter from Rolling Stone magazine also had a positive reaction to the direction taken in " St. Anger " , stating " No wonder there 's an authenticity to St. Anger 's fury that none of the band 's rap @-@ metal followers can touch . " He also went further to note the lack of commercial influence and modern rock aspects of previous albums , continuing ; " There 's no radio @-@ size , four @-@ minute rock here , no pop @-@ friendly choruses , no ballads , no solos , no wayward experimentation . "
Although many reviews were positive toward St. Anger , some reviewers had a strong distaste for the album . Brent DiCrescenzo from Pitchfork Media strongly disliked the album and criticized Ulrich and Hammett , saying that Ulrich was " playing a drum set consisting of steel drums , aluminum toms , programmed double kicks , and a broken church bell . The kit 's high @-@ end clamor ignored the basic principles of drumming : timekeeping , " he added , " Hetfield and Hammett 's guitars underwent more processing than cat food . When they both speedstrummed through ' St. Anger ' , and most other movements , [ Hetfield and Hammett ] seemed to overwhelm each other with different , terrible noise . Also the duration of most songs made it boring to hear them . " PopMatters reporter Michael Christopher said " St. Anger dispenses with the recent spate of radio friendly pleasantries in favor of pedal to the floor thrash , staggered and extended song structures , quick changes and a muddled production that tries to harken back to the Kill ' Em All days . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by James Hetfield , Lars Ulrich , Kirk Hammett and Bob Rock .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Metallica = = =
James Hetfield – vocals , guitar
Kirk Hammett – guitar , backing vocals
Lars Ulrich – drums
Session members
Bob Rock – bass
= = = Production = = =
Produced by Bob Rock and Metallica
Engineered and mixed by Bob Rock , assisted by Mike Gillies and Eric Helmkamp
Digital engineering by Mike Gillies
Mastered by Vlado Meller
Album design by Metallica
Cover illustrations by Pushead
Photography by Anton Corbijn
Production design by Brad Klausen
St. Anger illustration , James image and Kirk image by Matt Mahurin
Lars image by Forhelvede Productions
Robert image by Pascal Brun and Comenius Röthlisberger
Management by Q Prime Inc .
= = = St. Anger Rehearsals DVD = = =
Directed by Wayne Isham
Produced by Dana Marshall
Edited by Greg Rodgers and Gary Rodgers
Cinematography by Alex Poppas
Cameras by Jean Pellerin , Mike Hatchet , Dave Hatchet , Colin Mitchell , Ryan Smith , and Nick Pectol
Gaffer - Logan Lebo
Monitors by Paul Owen
Production manager - Scott Cunningham
Script supervisor - Connie Isham
Additional editing by Jean Pellerin and Tracy Loth , assisted by Jason Bridges
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= French battleship Diderot =
Diderot was one of the six Danton class semi @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the French Navy in the early 1900s . Shortly after World War I began , the ship participated in the Battle of Antivari in the Adriatic Sea and helped to sink an Austro @-@ Hungarian protected cruiser . She spent most of the rest of the war blockading the Straits of Otranto and the Dardanelles to prevent German , Austro @-@ Hungarian and Turkish warships from breaking out into the Mediterranean . Diderot briefly participated in the occupation of Constantinople after the end of the war . She was modernized in 1922 – 25 and subsequently became a training ship . The ship was condemned in 1936 and later sold for scrap .
= = Design and description = =
Although the Danton @-@ class battleships were a significant improvement from the preceding Liberté class , they were outclassed by the advent of the dreadnought well before they were completed . This , combined with other poor traits , including the great weight in coal they had to carry , made them rather unsuccessful ships , though their numerous rapid @-@ firing guns were of some use in the Mediterranean .
Diderot was 146 @.@ 6 meters ( 481 ft 0 in ) long overall and had a beam of 25 @.@ 8 meters ( 84 ft 8 in ) and a full @-@ load draft of 9 @.@ 2 meters ( 30 ft 2 in ) . She displaced 19 @,@ 736 metric tons ( 19 @,@ 424 long tons ) at deep load and had a crew of 681 officers and enlisted men . The ship was powered by four Parsons steam turbines using steam generated by twenty @-@ six Belleville boilers . The turbines were rated at 22 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower ( 16 @,@ 800 kW ) and provided a top speed of around 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . Diderot , however , reached a top speed of 19 @.@ 9 knots ( 36 @.@ 9 km / h ; 22 @.@ 9 mph ) on her sea trials . She carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 027 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 995 long tons ) of coal which allowed her to steam for 3 @,@ 370 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 240 km ; 3 @,@ 880 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Diderot 's main battery consisted of four 305mm / 45 Modèle 1906 guns mounted in two twin gun turrets , one forward and one aft . The secondary battery consisted of twelve 240mm / 50 Modèle 1902 guns in twin turrets , three on each side of the ship . A number of smaller guns were carried for defense against torpedo boats . These included sixteen 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) L / 65 guns and ten 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns . The ship was also armed with two submerged 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . The ship 's waterline armor belt was 270 mm ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) thick and the main battery was protected by up to 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) of armor . The conning tower also had 300 mm thick sides .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
During the war 75 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns were installed on the roofs of the ship 's two forward 240 mm gun turrets . During 1918 , the elevation of the 240 mm guns was increased which extended their range to 18 @,@ 000 meters ( 20 @,@ 000 yd ) .
= = Career = =
Construction of Diderot began on 26 December 1906 by Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire in Saint @-@ Nazaire and the ship was laid down on 20 October 1907 . She was launched on 19 April 1909 and was completed on 1 August 1911 . The ship was assigned to the First Division of the First Squadron ( escadre ) of the Mediterranean Fleet when she was commissioned . The ship participated in combined fleet maneuvers between Provence and Tunisia in May – June 1913 and the subsequent naval review conducted by the President of France , Raymond Poincaré on 7 June 1913 . Afterwards , Diderot joined her squadron in its tour of the Eastern Mediterranean in October – December 1913 and participated in the grand fleet exercise in the Mediterranean in May 1914 .
= = = World War I = = =
In early August 1914 , the ship cruised the Strait of Sicily in an attempt to prevent the German battlecruiser Goeben and the light cruiser Breslau from breaking out to the West . On 16 August 1914 the combined Anglo @-@ French Fleet under Admiral Auguste Boué de Lapeyrère , including Voltaire , made a sweep of the Adriatic Sea . The Allied ships encountered the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruiser SMS Zenta , escorted by the destroyer SMS Ulan , blockading the coast of Montenegro . There were too many ships for Zenta to escape , so she remained behind to allow Ulan to get away and was sunk by gunfire during the Battle of Antivari off the coast of Bar , Montenegro . Voltaire subsequently participated in a number of raids into the Adriatic later in the year and patrolled the Ionian Islands . From December 1914 through 1917 , the ship participated in the distant blockade of the Straits of Otranto while based in Corfu . In May 1918 , Diderot became flagship of the First Division of the Second Squadron and was transferred that month to Mudros with her sister ships , Mirabeau and Vergniaud , to prevent Goeben from breaking out into the Mediterranean and remained there until the end of the war .
= = = Postwar = = =
After the Armistice of Mudros was signed on 30 October between the Allies and the Ottoman Empire , the ship participated in the early stage of the occupation of Constantinople from 12 November to 12 December . Diderot was based in Toulon throughout 1919 and was modernized in 1922 – 25 to improve her underwater protection . The ship became a training ship in 1927 and was condemned in on 17 March 1937 ; sold to M. Gosselin @-@ Duriez on 30 July 1937 for 3 @,@ 557 @,@ 010 FF , she arrived at Dunkirk for breaking up on 31 August .
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= James W. Stephenson =
James W. Stephenson ( 1806 – August 1838 ) was an American militia officer and politician from the state of Illinois . He was born in Virginia but spent most of his youth in Edwardsville , Illinois . In 1825 he was indicted for the murder of a family acquaintance , but never went to trial . Upon the outbreak of the Black Hawk War in 1832 , Stephenson raised a company and saw combat , suffering severe wounds at the Battle of Waddams Grove . After the war ended Stephenson entered public life , and served as a member of the Illinois State Senate in 1834 . In December 1837 Stephenson was nominated as the Democratic candidate for Governor of Illinois . Within six months of his nomination , accusations of embezzlement were leveled against him , and he was forced to withdraw from the election . In August 1838 , Stephenson died at home of tuberculosis .
= = Early life = =
James W. Stephenson was born in Virginia in 1806 , the oldest son of Benjamin Stephenson and his wife , Lucy , and was named in honor of his grandfather and uncle . The Stephenson family came to Edwardsville from Kaskaskia in 1816 , and in 1820 the family moved into the Benjamin Stephenson House in Edwardsville .
On January 29 , 1825 , while at the Wiggins Hotel in lower town , area resident Daniel D. Smith was stabbed to death following an argument with James Stephenson , James Henry and Palemon Winchester . Smith was stabbed in the neck ; as those present attended to him , he uttered " Winchester " and died . Reports in Edwardsville 's The Spectator indicated that Smith was " killed in an affray " at the Stephenson House . James W. Stephenson , James D. Henry and Palemon Winchester were indicted for Smith 's murder . All three men were charged with the crime , though only Stephenson and Henry were released on bond .
Winchester was the only defendant to face trial on the charges . Winchester 's lawyer argued that Smith was guilty of verbal assault against the defendant , and Winchester was found not guilty . The verdict was reported in The Spectator on March 22 , 1825 . In 1828 Stephenson left Edwardsville , and moved to Galena in Jo Daviess County where he made his home for much of the rest of his life .
= = Military service = =
= = = Background = = =
As a consequence of an 1804 treaty between the Governor of Indiana Territory and a group of Sauk and Fox leaders regarding land settlement , the tribes vacated their lands in Illinois and moved west of the Mississippi in 1828 . However , Sauk leader Black Hawk and others disputed the treaty , claiming that the full tribal councils had not been consulted , nor did those representing the tribes have authorization to cede lands . Angered by the loss of his birthplace , between 1830 – 31 Black Hawk led a number of incursions across the Mississippi River into Illinois , but was persuaded to return west each time without bloodshed . In April 1832 , encouraged by promises of alliance with other tribes and the British , he again moved his so @-@ called " British Band " of around 1 @,@ 000 warriors and non @-@ combatants into Illinois . Finding no allies , he attempted to return to Iowa , but the undisciplined Illinois militia 's actions led to the Battle of Stillman 's Run . A number of other engagements followed , and the militias of Michigan Territory and Illinois were mobilized to hunt down Black Hawk 's Band . The conflict became known as the Black Hawk War .
= = = Black Hawk War = = =
As an officer in the Illinois militia James W. Stephenson served in a combat command capacity during the war . He first raised a company of 134 men in the early stages of the war as a captain , later , he was elected major and his company was taken over by Captain Enoch Duncan . Stephenson 's company was mustered into service in May and was released on September 14 , 1832 .
Stephenson fought in battles during the war as well as playing a role in the prelude and aftermath of some of the fighting . At the June 18 , 1832 Battle of Waddams Grove Stephenson led a dozen men against an unknown number of hostile Sauk . The battle , which descended into a hand @-@ to @-@ hand fight , resulted in three of Stephenson 's men being killed . Stephenson was shot and severely wounded in the encounter . Though Waddams Grove did little to put an end to Sauk raids in the region , it did help bolster public confidence in the militia . Less than two weeks later , Stephenson was involved in the aftermath of the raid at Sinsinawa Mound , in present @-@ day Grant County , Wisconsin . When news of the attack at Sinsinawa Mound reached Galena , Captain Stephenson set out with 30 soldiers to pursue the raiders . Once at Sinsinawa , they buried the " most shockingly mutilated " dead at the mound ; both of the men killed , John Thompson and John Boxley , had been scalped , and Thompson 's heart was missing . Stephenson followed the Sauk trail to the Mississippi River and stopped , the raiders having apparently crossed the river . Stephenson 's party returned to Galena without finding the group responsible for the attack .
In the week preceding another of the war 's major turning points , the June 16 Battle of Horseshoe Bend , Stephenson helped Colonel Henry Dodge and his men bury the victims of the St. Vrain massacre . Stephenson continued on to Galena after assisting in this task and did not accompany Dodge to Horseshoe Bend .
= = Political career = =
Stephenson was well @-@ connected , and received letters from prominent people , including Jefferson Davis in 1834 . That same year , Stephenson was elected to his first public office , the Illinois State Senate , after which he sought an appointment to the Land Office in Galena . From December 1834 until April 1835 Stephenson was absent from Galena . He spent time in St. Louis , where he married Ellen Kyle in December , then traveled on to Edwardsville and Vandalia , Illinois ; the couple eventually had two children . In April 1835 the couple returned to Galena where James took office as Register of Lands at Galena and Chicago , and they lived an elegant lifestyle .
In December 1837 , at the first " regularly constituted " Illinois state Democratic convention in Vandalia , James W. Stephenson was nominated as the party 's candidate for governor of Illinois . Within six months of his nomination , Stephenson was caught in a funds embezzling scandal , surrounding his time as Register of Lands , and forced to withdraw from the election . The Democrats reconvened their convention on June 6 , 1838 and nominated Thomas Carlin , a " most unexceptionable man " who had a reputation for being honest .
Older accounts of Stephenson 's withdrawal from the race give differing reasons for his departure . Former Democratic Illinois Governor Thomas Ford 's 1854 A History of Illinois stated that Stephenson 's reason for withdrawing from the election was " on account of sickness . " James Washington Sheahan wrote in his 1860 biography of Stephen A. Douglas that Stephenson 's early exit from the election was due to being " charged with being a defaulter . " John Moses ' 1 @,@ 316 @-@ page work , Illinois , Historical and Statistical ( 1889 ) , characterized the accusations against Stephenson as " serious charges . "
= = Death = =
Less than a week after Carlin was elected governor of Illinois , Stephenson died of tuberculosis in August 1838 . He died at his home in Galena , at the age of 32 . He was buried the day of his death with military honors and left behind his wife , Ellen , and two children Lucy and Kyle .
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= Askam and Ireleth =
Askam and Ireleth is a civil parish close to Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness in the county of Cumbria , in North West England . Historically part of Lancashire , it originally consisted of two separate coastal villages with different origins and histories which , in recent times , have merged to become one continuous settlement . The population of the civil parish taken at the 2011 Census was 3 @,@ 632 .
Ireleth has its origins as a mediaeval farming village clustered on the hillside overlooking the flat sands of the Duddon Estuary . Askam was established following the discovery of large quantities of iron ore near the village in the middle of the 18th century .
The pair originally fell within the boundaries of the Hundred of Lonsdale ' north of the sands ' in the historic county of Lancashire , but following local government reforms in 1974 became part of the county of Cumbria , along with the rest of Furness .
The nearby River Duddon estuary and surrounding countryside have made the area well known for its wildlife , while the villages ' exposed position on the eastern bank facing the Irish Sea have encouraged the establishment of wind energy generation , amid local controversy .
= = History = =
= = = Ireleth = = =
Ireleth is the smaller and older of the two villages , with its origins stretching back to the Viking occupation of Britain . It was originally clustered along a stream , named ' Hole Beck ' , about half a mile up the hill from the estuary below . It was also the junction of four roads passing through the area . Firstly , there was the ' Sands ' road , named ' Marsh Lane ' in maps of the 1850s , heading down the hill towards the shore , where it met one of the possible routes for crossing the treacherous tidal sands of the Duddon at low tide . Secondly , there was the lane heading north along a ridge towards Kirkby @-@ in @-@ Furness . Part of these two roads form today 's A595 main road . There was also a road leading up the stream 's valley towards the hamlet of Marton , and finally a road east over the hills towards Dalton @-@ in @-@ Furness .
Viking origins exist in two forms : remains have been found near St. Peter 's parish church and the name of the village itself is Viking , translated from the Old Norse as ' hill @-@ slope of the Irish ' .
It is thought the village was included in the Domesday Book , compiled soon after the Norman Conquest , but there is debate over which of the entries for the Furness area in William the Conqueror 's census actually refers to modern day Ireleth . Several sources name a settlement called Gerleuuorde , part of the Manor of Hougun , as the correct entry but there is no conclusive evidence to support this , not least because of the discrepancies in spelling . Samuel Lewis ' A Topological Dictionary of England , written 1848 , posits a different contender as the true Ireleth . He claimed Ouregrave referred to the village because of the existence of a mill named Orga @-@ Mill , but he conceded this was also conjecture . Lewis ' full text on Ireleth is below .
During the Middle Ages , the entire area was controlled by the Cistercian monks of Furness Abbey . During this time , Ireleth was little more than one of many farming communities in Furness . The iron ore developments of Askam largely bypassed Ireleth , and the village developed slowly , housing farmers and workers from local towns . The religious history of the village is recorded as starting around the year 1608 , when an endowment was created to fund a village school . Giles Brownrigg , named variously as a local landowner or a tailor who had left the area to make his fortune in London , gave money to establish a school house and a salary for a schoolmaster . This building existed on what is today Sun Street ; the only remains today are a font and a plaque , kept in the modern day school building , inscribed :
Ireleth featured in the Imperial Gazetteer of England and Wales . In this , it is said-
Ireleth did not have a parish church at this point , falling into the ' Above Town ' area , together with the hamlets of Marton and Lindal , of the parish of Dalton @-@ in @-@ Furness . Lacking a place of worship , it was decided the newly built school could also be put to use as a chapel . Fishwick 's ' Lancashire & Cheshire Church Surveys , 1649 – 1655 ' of 1849 cites this record from a church survey taken in 1650 :
In 1860 , Ireleth , along with the newly founded Askam , petitioned for the creation of its own parish following the rapid increase in population . Construction of a parish church began , with the money to build St. Peter 's coming from the new @-@ found profits of iron ore mining , giving rise to the name the ' Iron Church ' . It was dedicated for use on St. Peter 's Day , 29 June 1865 , but approval for a new ecclesiastical parish of ' Ireleth @-@ with @-@ Askam ' did not come until almost ten years later in 1874 .
= = = Askam = = =
Askam 's history starts much more recently . In 1850 , iron ore deposits were discovered in the area by Henry Schneider . These turned out to be the second largest iron ore deposits in the country , with over 7 million tons of ore extracted . By 1896 , 547 men were employed in the pits by the village and in nearby Roanhead , 347 of them underground . Several hundred others worked in local mines at Mouzell ( between Ireleth and Dalton @-@ in @-@ Furness ) , Roanhead and Dalton . Some were owned by the Kennedy Brothers Ltd. firm of Ulverston Barrow Haematite Steel Co and the Millom and Askam Iron Company . The latter built four blast furnaces in the village to smelt the iron ore being brought from mines all over the peninsula by rail . The village continued to grow with terraced houses and allotments erected for the flood of immigrant labour needed to work the mines . They came from all parts of the British Isles , with a large proportion coming from existing mining areas in Cornwall and Ireland . The Cornish in particular tended to bring their families and settle , while the Irish often moved on to wherever there was work . Others came from areas where Askam 's mine owners had other concerns , such as Scotland and Wales .
Remnants of the steel industry remain in Askam , as evidenced by a pier , consisting of slag from the works , that juts out into the bay toward Millom . Also , numerous streets are named after the industry and its owners . For example , ' Steel Street ' is so named because of the steel industry ; ' Sharp Street ' is named after Joseph Sharp , one of the earliest people involved in Askam 's steel industry ; and ' Crossley Street ' after William Crossley , an early investor in the Askam steel industry . The large numbers of slag banks left by the steel industry around the village are now important sites for wildlife . By 1918 , the iron ore had run out and most of the industrial buildings were demolished in 1933 . Since then , Askam has grown with commuter homes , exploiting the views over the Duddon Estuary to the Lake District .
Askam and Ireleth
Askam and Ireleth are both part of the Furness peninsula , where the suffix " -in @-@ Furness " is sometimes added to place names , such as Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness and Dalton @-@ in @-@ Furness . Askam , when referred to on its own , often uses this but it is rare for Ireleth to be called Ireleth @-@ in @-@ Furness . A possible explanation for this is that the majority of in @-@ Furness place names were inventions of the railway that either created the settlements or caused their rapid expansion ; Ireleth , untouched by the railway , was not affected by this convention . However , Ireleth is often confused in archival records with ' Kirkby Ireleth ' , the former name for the community ( two miles to the north ) now known as Kirkby @-@ in @-@ Furness . These communities are differentiated in the Imperial Gazetteer of England and Wales .
While the strip development has effectively created one larger community in the past fifty years , residents of both villages still retain a strong sense of being either from Askam or Ireleth . Road signs read ' Askam and Ireleth ' on entering the villages by road , but an older ' A595 – Ireleth ' sign still stands on the former boundary between the two .
In administration terms , the civil parish of which they are both part uses the name Askam with Ireleth , as does the local Women 's Institute ( WI ) which had previously been called Ireleth WI .
= = Environment = =
The upper slopes of the hill near Ireleth are home to dark blue slate and is found on the roofs of several local dwellings . Haematite , the bright red iron ore , was discovered in an exceptionally large deposit — the second largest in the country — south of the current villages in the 1840s . Askam sprung up on the Ireleth marshes as a home for the miners attacking the new deposit . The other mineral found in large quantities , conveniently with a commercial use , is shale . This is fired with water to make red brick , and the brickworks , which is still operational today , was built in 1845 to exploit this .
Much wildlife is found on the Duddon Estuary , perhaps most notably 20 % of the national natterjack toad population , who are attracted to the shallow breeding pools . The slagbanks around Askam are also very important as nesting sites for the rare Sandwich terns that live in the area . The beach is designated an Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) because of the range of flora and fauna present on the sands .
The Askam and Ireleth Wind Farm can be found two kilometres east of the village , on the southern slopes of Hare Slack Hill . Work on the turbines started in late 1998 , and the wind farm took eight months to complete .
The Marton , Askam and Ireleth Windfarm Action Group ( MAIWAG ) was one of the first such organisations in the UK dedicated to fighting windfarm development .
= = Location and transport = =
The A595 is the main coastal route , designated a primary route , connecting Dalton and Carlisle via the Cumbrian Coast . Its southern end is two miles ( 3 km ) south of Askam at the junction with the A590 Dalton @-@ in @-@ Furness bypass although formerly continued into Dalton . The area is served by Stagecoach Cumbria service , 7A and X7 as well as various school services . There are plans to construct a crossing over the Duddon between Askam and Millom to reduce the long journey times between Furness and Copeland , due to the circuitous route of the A595 around the estuary . A scheme to build such a ' Duddon Crossing ' remains at the planning stage , but is nominated as a future project in county transport planning .
Askam is located on the 150 @-@ mile ( 240 km ) Cumbrian Coastal Walk , which winds around the edge of the county . The railway line passing through the two villages virtually bisecting them , with a bridge and a level crossing by the station allowing people to cross the line . There is a stop called Askam Railway Station . Services run south to Barrow and some continue on to the West Coast Mainline at Lancaster . To the north the lines links to the Sellafield nuclear power plant , a major local employer , and onwards to Carlisle .
= = Politics and demographics = =
As a civil parish , the villages have a parish council which usually meets monthly , normally the third Tuesday of each month . All eight councillors will be up for election at the forthcoming English local government elections on 3 May 2007 . The villages also fall into the Dalton North ward of the borough , with voters electing three councillors to represent them on the council . The ward also elects one councillor to represent it on Cumbria County Council . It is part of the Barrow and Furness parliamentary constituency , represented by Labour MP John Woodcock . According to the most recent census , in 2001 , the population of the ( civil ) parish is 3 @,@ 632 , with an even balance of male and female .
= = Sport = =
The villages have several sporting facilities , including the Fallowfield Park rugby league ground , home of Askam Amateur Rugby League Football Club . Formed in 1879 , the amateur club is a member of British Amateur Rugby League Association and in 2007 – 2008 were elected to the National Conference League Division 2 , but withdrew before the start of the season . There is Askam United Football Club who play in the West Lancashire Football League Division Two and Duddon SC , a cricket team based at the old K Shoes factory social club , now called Duddon Sports and Social Club . There is also a newly formed junior football team and due to playing on the Sports Club pitches , has taken the name of Duddon Sports Junior Football Club .
A 10 @-@ hole links golf course , belonging to the Dunnerholme Golf Club , lies to the north of Askam . The course has one particularly interesting feature , namely a green atop Dunnerholme Rock , a large uneroded limestone rock which stands out from the surrounding flat course and sands . The golf club has been in existence since 1905 .
= = Public buildings = =
Askam and Ireleth has four village halls : Temperance Hall in Ireleth , Askam Community Centre ( formerly part of Askam School ) which was refurbished in 2010 , Band Hall in Sandy Lane , the home of Askam & Ireleth Silver Band , the local brass band , and venue for dances , and Rankin Hall in Askam . Temperance Hall was built by the Quakers in 1872 ; it was marked as a place of worship on Ordnance Survey maps of the late 19th century , and was used by the Bible Christians , a Methodist denomination . It later fell out of use as a religious centre , being marked on maps in 1913 as simply a hall . The Temperance Hall was closed before being renovated in the 1990s , and is now used as a community centre and the location of parish council alternate months with the Rankin Hall , which is also the meeting place for the local Women 's Institute .
As already mentioned , there is St. Peter 's Church overlooking the two villages atop Ireleth Hill , which is the oldest of the churches in the villages , and holds the only churchyard in the villages and adjoins the local cemetery ; and the Temperance Hall that was once used as a church . There are three other places of worship within the village .
In 1907 , at a cost of £ 350 , The Christian Meeting House was built on Crossley Street in Askam , as a Church of Christ Church . This became , in 1956 , St. Anthony 's Catholic Church , and is still used in that capacity today . Sadly it is due to close by the end of 2009 . On Duddon Road , in Askam , there is also a Methodist Church , called Duddon Road Church . This is a shared building with the Church of England and is the headquarters of the local scouts , cubs , beavers , rainbows and brownies .
There were once two other churches in the village , but they are no longer in use as Churches . Zion , on Beach Street , Askam , was a Primitive Methodist church that was founded in 1870 . It closed in 1985 . There was also a United Methodist Church in Askam , and though the building still stands on Duke Street , it is now used as a social club . The Church was opened in 1878 , on land that was donated by the Furness Iron and Steel Company. and became the Rankin Hall ( see above ) The Gospel hall on Duke Street closed some five years ago .
There is a lifeboat station , home of the Duddon Inshore Rescue , that was established in 1970 . Askam has a fountain commemorating Queen Victoria 's Jubilee . There are two schools , Ireleth St Peter 's CE Primary School and Askam Village School , both of which are primary schools . There are no secondary schools in the village . There is a public library in Lord Street in Askam . It was originally built in 1904 as a reading room branch of Dalton @-@ in @-@ Furness Library .
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= Orochimaru ( Naruto ) =
Orochimaru ( 大蛇丸 ) is a fictional character from the Naruto universe created by Masashi Kishimoto and developed into a media franchise , which consists of a series of manga , anime , soundtracks , OVAs , movies , video games , and other collectibles . He was created as one of the series ' main antagonists , and intended to represent the opposite of the protagonists ' morals and values .
In the anime and manga , Orochimaru is a former ninja of the village of Konohagakure who is known for his abilities . However , creating his ninja village Otogakure as means to perform inhuman experimentation , Orochimaru sought a means to gain power and cheat death . In the latter , Orochimaru obtained a means for immortality by transferring between different host bodies which became one of his driving motivations throughout the series as he targets Sasuke Uchiha for his genetic heritage . While the main antagonist in Part I of the series , Orochimaru 's role became overshadowed by the Akatsuki prior to the Fourth Ninja War arc . Orochimaru has appeared in media outside the Naruto anime and manga , including several video games .
Several anime and manga publications have praised and criticized Orochimaru 's character . As one of the series ' premier villains , he has been praised in this regard ; IGN compared his character to Darth Vader of Star Wars fame . His lack of redeeming qualities and open malevolence was also praised by reviewers , with Mania.com calling him the " first real villain " of the series . Among the Naruto reader base , Orochimaru has been popular , ranking within the top twenty characters in several polls . Numerous pieces of merchandise in Orochimaru 's likeness have also been released , including action figures and plush dolls .
= = Creation and conception = =
As one of the villains in the story , Kishimoto created Orochimaru as an antithesis to the protagonists ' values . His snake @-@ like appearance and related features were intended to make it easier for the reader to recognize that he is a villain . In an interview , Kishimoto asserted that making the villains " flamboyant " was one of his " guiding principles , " and attributed this to his desire to have the villains have a " powerful aura . " When asked if Orochimaru was still good , Kishimoto answered that Orochimaru is " truly good " and that he is one of the several " hopeless evil characters " that appear in the series .
Following this theme of distinguishing villains , Kishimoto attempted to make Orochimaru 's face appear " pasty and sickly , " which serves to emphasize the " scary looks " that Kishimoto frequently has Orochimaru performing in the manga . Orochimaru 's nature type is fire , earth , and wind . As these occurrences are his " trademark , " Kishimoto modifies Orochimaru 's appearance and the scene to focus on Orochimaru 's face ; for instance , highlights that are normally added to Orochimaru 's hair are removed and the background is blanked out to create a " creepy atmosphere . "
= = Appearances = =
= = = In Naruto = = =
Orochimaru acts as the primary antagonist for the first part of the series . After his parents were killed when he was young , Orochimaru 's only source of affection was received from his teacher , the Third Hokage Hiruzen Sarutobi , and his two teammates . As they grew older Orochimaru , Jiraiya , and Tsunade collectively became known as the " Legendary Sannin " ( 伝説の三忍 , Densetsu no Sannin ) due to their exemplary ninja abilities in the Second Great Ninja War against Hanzo . Much of Orochimaru 's arsenal of abilities deals with snakes , using them in summoning to battle multiple opponents while simultaneously keep himself out of harm 's way . Through his experimentations he has also been able to add some snake @-@ like characteristics to his own body . Desiring immortality to learn every jutsu , Orochimaru developed a forbidden jutsu to steal his victim 's body . Though essentially immortal , Orochimaru learns the process can not be done more than once every three years .
Orochimaru , however , craved more power than could be obtained from training with his master , and began abducting villagers of Konohagakure for various experiments with Yamato among his surviving victims . Unwilling to bring himself to harm Orochimaru upon learning of his actions , Hiruzen allowed his former pupil to escape and flee the village . In time Orochimaru joined the criminal organization Akatsuki and became partners with a fellow Rogue Ninja named Sasori . However , after his attempt to steal the body of Itachi Uchiha through a forbidden jutsu so as to gain the Sharingan failed , Orochimaru is forced to leave the Akatsuki . Orochimaru then founded his own ninja village , Otogakure , populated with ninja loyal to him who mostly serve as test subjects in his experimentation to become an ultimate being and as pawns to do his dirty work .
During the Chunin Exams , Orochimaru plans the invasion of Konoha with the ninja of Sunagakure to not only kill Hiruzen but also claim the body of Itachi 's brother Sasuke Uchiha . To that end , Orochimaru infiltrated the Chunin Exam 's Forest of Death round by killing a Grass ninja named Shiore and assuming his identity to personally test Sasuke before branding him with a Curse Mark once satisfied with the youth 's abilities . For the duration of the Exams , Orochimaru laid in wait and secretly murdered the Fourth Kazekage to assume his identity and get close to his mentor as the invasion begins . However , Orochimaru is forced to retreat when Hiruzen sacrifices himself through the Reaper Death Seal to take away Orochimaru 's ability to perform jutsu with his forces pulling back while Sunagakure later learns of Orochimaru 's treachery . Wanting to regain the ability to use jutsu , Orochimaru attempted to get aid from Tsunade before seeking out another way to cure himself . When all his efforts prove unsuccessful , Orochimaru sends his Sound Four to fetch Sasuke , hoping that a body @-@ transfer will allow him to use his arms again . Though he waits as long as he can , Sasuke takes too long to arrive and Orochimaru is forced to switch to the body of one of his prisoners instead . Once Sasuke arrives , still unable to use ninjutsu despite having functional arms again , Orochimaru decides to train him instead until the day that he will be able to take the body for himself .
Two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years later , in the second part of the series , Orochimaru confronts Naruto and his friends when they attempted to track down Sasuke . Taunting Naruto , Orochimaru manages to hold his own after the youth is being consumed by the Nine Tails chakra . Later , when Sasuke attempts to kill Naruto , Orochimaru stays his hand by pointing out the boy 's use in taking down the Akatsuki and thus lessening the number of enemies he has . Eventually , when his host body begins to fail him , Orochimaru is left with no other choice but to proceed with the body @-@ switch sooner than expected as he reveals the mass of white snakes that he became as the result of his self experimentation . Sasuke , unwilling to give himself up to a weakened Orochimaru , uses his Sharingan to void Orochimaru 's technique and retains control of his body while trapping Orochimaru 's soul within him . The suppression , in turn , gives Sasuke access to many of Orochimaru 's abilities in the process . During Sasuke 's later fight with Itachi , Sasuke is left too weak to continue suppressing Orochimaru 's soul , allowing Orochimaru to escape and try to take his body again . Before he can do so , Itachi , using the legendary sword of Totsuka , seals him away .
In the aftermath of Kabuto 's defeat and needing answers , Sasuke exposes Orochimaru 's survival as the Cursed Seals are revealed to hold a copy of Orochimaru 's consciousness in it along with the cells of Orochimaru that Kabuto injected into himself and subjugated . Using the Cursed Seal Orochimaru placed on his former student , Anko Mitarashi , Sasuke releases Orochimaru and gives him a new body which Jugo provides with an absorbed part of Kabuto 's flesh . Despite expressing no interest in the ongoing war and still desiring to claim Sasuke 's body , Orochimaru then joins Sasuke in his quest for answers over the nature of ninja , taking him and Taka to the Nara Shrine where he undoes the Reaper Death Seal and regains the use of ninjutsu before transferring his being into one of the White Zetsu clones placed on Sasuke . In his new body , Orochimaru then brings the first four Hokage back to life with the Reanimation Jutsu to give Sasuke the answers he wants . Once Sasuke got his answer from Hashirama , out of curiosity to see his former apprentice 's new path while the actions of Madara and Obito jeopardize his laboratories , Orochimaru offers to help the Allied Shinobi Forces by first coming to the aid of Tsunade and the Kage and assist in subduing the Shinju . After the Fourth Great Ninja War ended , among those caught under Madara 's Infinite Tsukiyomi before being freed , Orochimaru resumes his experiments with Team Taka ( minus Sasuke who returns to Konoha ) supporting him as lab assistants , though Konoha remains suspicious of him and keeps tabs on him in case he resumes his former human experimentation activities . Over the next several years , Orochimaru creates an artificial human , whom he names Mitsuki , and refers to him as his son . At some point , he sends Mitsuki to live in Konoha after helping Mitsuki decide his choice of what path in life he prefers . In Naruto Gaiden : The Seventh Hokage and the Scarlet Spring , Orochimaru was approached by Sasuke regarding a boy with the Sharingan , and Orochimaru revealed that most of his Sharingan research is tied to his highly adaptive test subject : A Uchiha @-@ fanatic named Shin. in Boruto : Naruto the Movie , Orochimaru is seen watching his son with his teammates .
= = = Appearances in other media = = =
Orochimaru so far has only appeared in the fifth Naruto film , Naruto Shippūden 2 : Bonds . He is not present in the other four films in the series , had a small part in fifth OVA " The Cross Roads " , and is mentioned and makes a cameo appearance in the post @-@ credit scene of Boruto : Naruto the Movie . Orochimaru is a playable character in nearly all Naruto video games , including the Clash of Ninja series and the Ultimate Ninja series . In some games , he utilizes variations of his techniques not seen in the anime or manga , and in the second installment of the Ultimate Ninja series , his state after his arms were sealed by the Third Hokage is available as a separate character . Naruto Shippūden : Gekitou Ninja Taisen EX 2 marks the first appearance of Orochimaru in a video game set in Part II , with the second one being Naruto Shippūden : Narutimate Accel .
= = Reception = =
Orochimaru has been featured consistently in the Weekly Shonen Jump popularity polls , commonly placing in the top twenty characters . However , in the last popularity poll , he was out of the top thirty characters . Merchandise based on Orochimaru has also been released , including action figures , plush dolls , and key chains . AnimeCentral listed him as tenth best villain in anime owing to his objectives and methods , most notably how he scares Sasuke Uchiha the first time seeing him despite Sasuke 's strength .
Several publications for manga , anime , video games , and other related media have provided praise and criticism on Orochimaru 's character . IGN compared Orochimaru 's search for power and subsequent fall into villainy to that of Darth Vader , and labeled Orochimaru as " something more than just pure evil . " Mania Entertainment considered Orochimaru the " first real villain " of the series , noting that he had no redeeming qualities , as versus Zabuza Momochi , the villain of the previous arc . DVDTalk celebrated the introduction of Orochimaru into the series , as well as the potential plot development from the curse seal Orochimaru placed on Sasuke , noting it was one of the best parts of the series . Instead , Anime News Network labeled Orochimaru to be a character that can not be killed . However , they considered Kujira , Orochimaru 's Japanese voice actress , as one of the best ones from the series .
Despite the character 's small appearances in Part II , most of them were well received . The way Orochimaru angers Naruto Uzumaki in their battle as well as how he manages events ever since his reintroduction have been deemed as " near perfectly " by Mania 's Chris Beveridge . Orochimaru 's fight against Sasuke in later parts from the series was praised by Mangalife 's Park Cooper due to how it changes " the nature of things " in a short time . While agreeing with Cooper , Beveridge found that the fight did not bring a certain end to Orochimaru which he thought it would have made it more entertaining . On the other hand , Beveridge liked how during the fight between the two a flashback showed Orochimaru 's backstory in Konoha , which helped in expanding his character . His apparent redemption to follow Sasuke in later parts of the story was criticized by writer Jason Thompson .
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= Guardians of the Free Republics =
Guardians of the Free Republics , active around 2010 , was a group based in the U.S. state of Texas regarded as being part of the sovereign citizen movement . The group was associated with Sam Kennedy ( whose real name is Glenn Richard Unger ) , a talk @-@ show host , and with Clive Boustred , a British @-@ born conspiracy theorist living in California . The group was described as having an anti @-@ government ideology . The Guardians of the Free Republics called for a " Restore America Plan " that included a " bold achievable strategy for behind @-@ the @-@ scenes peaceful reconstruction of the de jure institutions of government without controversy , violence or civil war . "
= = Ideology = =
The group was described as an anti @-@ government group and as associated with the sovereign citizen movement . Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) Special Agent J.J. Klaver said , " These are individuals who reject all forms of government and they believe they are emancipated from all the responsibilities associated with being U.S. citizens , such as paying taxes and obeying laws . " Hal Epperson , coordinator of the group 's unit in Phoenix , Arizona , stated that the group was " a nonviolent group that has a lawful remedy for the corporate government . "
Some members of the group stated that they were influenced by Martin Luther King , Jr. and Mohandas Gandhi . On their website , the Guardians of the Free Republics called for a " Restore America Plan " that included a " bold achievable strategy for behind @-@ the @-@ scenes peaceful reconstruction of the de jure institutions of government without controversy , violence or civil war . " The group advocated the end of " tax prosecutions for resisting the transfer of private wealth to foreign banking cartels " and issuing " orders to the military and police powers to enforce the Peoples ’ divine rights of birth . " The Guardian of the Free Republics stated that they wanted to accomplish their goals " Behind the scenes , lawfully , peacefully , without violence and without risking civil war . " A section of their website titled " Rationale " laid out the ideas behind the group ’ s goal to " restore Biblical law to a devoutly secular population . " The group believed its plan could act as a " vehicle for relieving corporate tyranny . In due time , the higher goal of salvaging the souls of mankind can be addressed . "
= = Governor letters = =
During the week of March 31 , 2010 , all 50 U.S. state governors received letters from the group , warning them to leave office within three days or be removed . Governor Mike Beebe of Arkansas said , " It basically said , resign , ask for forgiveness and then we 'll reinstate you , and if you sign this we 'll consider you re @-@ elected . "
The FBI and the Department of Homeland Security stated that they did not believe the group was violent . Some investigators believed , however , that the letters could cause others to commit violent acts . John Stadtmiller , who runs Republic Broadcasting Network in Round Rock , Texas , which broadcast Sam Kennedy 's weekly show , said that Kennedy was behind the idea of sending out the letters . The FBI interviewed Kennedy for two hours on April 2 , 2010 , but did not arrest him . The interview concentrated on two shows Kennedy did about the " Restore America " project , in which Kennedy set a March 31 , 2010 deadline as the day to " begin to reclaim the continent . "
= = Aftermath = =
In March 2011 , an " elder " of the Guardians of the Free Republics organization named Samuel Lynn Davis pleaded guilty to 31 counts of money laundering in Federal district court in Nevada . Davis was snared in a sting operation after he agreed to launder more than $ 1 @.@ 29 million in what he believed to be illicit funds . Davis accepted $ 73 @,@ 782 in fees to launder the money , not realizing he was dealing with Federal law enforcement agents . In October 2011 , Davis was sentenced to four years and nine months in Federal prison , and was ordered to pay over $ 95 @,@ 000 in restitution . As of late July 2012 , Davis had been classified as a fugitive , having failed to surrender to authorities to begin his prison sentence in June 2012 . On August 7 , 2012 , Davis was arrested by sheriff 's deputies in White Earth , North Dakota . Davis is incarcerated at the Federal Correctional Institution - La Tuna in Anthony , Texas , near El Paso , and is scheduled for release on April 24 , 2017 .
On September 18 , 2012 , James Timothy ( " Tim " ) Turner , one of the individuals involved in sending the letters to the state governors , was arrested after having been indicted by a federal grand jury in Alabama on one count of conspiracy to defraud the United States under 18 U.S.C. § 371 by , among other things , filing a false 300 million dollar bond in an attempt to pay taxes , one count of passing a false 300 million dollar bond , five additional counts of violations of section 514 ( a ) ( 2 ) of title 18 of the U.S. Code ( relating to fictitious documents ) , one count of filing false Form 1096 reports with the Internal Revenue Service , one count of willful failure to file a federal income tax return , and one count of giving false testimony in a federal bankruptcy proceeding . On March 22 , 2013 , Turner was found guilty on all charges . On July 31 , 2013 , he was sentenced to 18 years in Federal prison .
On December 29 , 2012 , " Dr. Sam Kennedy , " whose real name is Glenn Richard Unger , was arrested after having been indicted on one count of attempting to interfere with the administration of the internal revenue laws under Internal Revenue Code section 7212 ( a ) , four counts of filing false claims for tax refunds under 18 USC section 287 , one count of tax evasion under Internal Revenue Code section 7201 , and one count of uttering a fictitious obligation under 18 USC section 514 ( a ) ( 2 ) . He was charged with filing more than $ 36 million in fraudulent federal income tax refund claims . On January 2 , 2013 , a federal prosecutor asserted in a court hearing for Unger that Unger was a danger to the community and that Unger had stated that he would rather die than become subject to the government . The indictment alleged , among other things , that in June 2011 Unger submitted false documents with the Clerk 's Office of Saratoga County , New York , in an attempt to release a $ 116 @,@ 410 @.@ 43 federal tax lien against him , for taxes and penalties for years 2004 , 2005 , and 2006 . The Federal Bureau of Investigation began looking at Unger ( alias " Sam Kennedy " ) in the spring of 2010 , after the incident involving the letters sent to the state governors . Prosecutors also charged that Unger filed no valid federal income tax returns between 1999 and 2005 . On May 23 , 2013 , the court ordered a mental competency hearing for Unger after he referred to himself as being " deceased . " On August 7 , 2013 , the Court ruled that Unger was competent to stand trial . After a four @-@ day trial Unger was found guilty of all charges by a jury in Federal court in Albany , New York , on October 21 , 2013 . On April 21 , 2014 , Unger was sentenced to eight years in Federal prison .
As of March 2011 , the web site for Guardians of the Free Republics had been taken down .
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= Soon I Will Be Invincible =
Soon I Will Be Invincible is a novel by Austin Grossman . It was published by Pantheon Books and released on June 5 , 2007 . The novel uses two alternating first person narratives . One narrative is told from the point of view of Fatale , a female cyborg who is recruited by the superhero group The New Champions as they investigate the disappearance of superhero CoreFire . The other narrative is told from the point of view of Dr. Impossible , a supervillain who possesses super @-@ human strength and intellect and suffers from Malign Hypercognition Disorder ( " evil genius " syndrome ) , as he escapes from jail and makes his thirteenth attempt at taking over the world .
It is Austin Grossman 's first novel . He was better known as a video game designer but was studying literature . While the book uses characters , settings , and storylines generally associated with comic books and superhero fiction , it is written entirely in prose . The story looks at how superheroes cope with their powers and interact with one another . The potential motivations and perspectives of supervillains are also explored . The book has been variously described as clever , engaging , and fun — but overstuffed with comic book tropes . An audiobook was released along with the hardcover and a movie has been in development since 2008 .
= = Background = =
The novel Soon I Will Be Invincible is the first novel by Austin Grossman , a man better known for designing video games . Grossman had come from a literary family , son of Judith and Allen Grossman and brother of Lev Grossman , which had fostered his ambition to write his own novel . Instead , Grossman accepted a job working in the video game medium which he credited with teaching him to realistically portray creative characters and situations . He always had an interest in the superhero genre , citing Alan Moore and Frank Miller as literary influences . In the mid @-@ 1990s , the idea behind what would become his first novel came to him in the form of a supervillain 's voice . Grossman spent the next few years casually developing the character that would become Dr. Impossible , adding supporting characters , and writing short stories . By 2006 , Penguin 's imprint Michael Joseph purchased the publishing rights for the UK , as did Rizzoli for an Italian version . By the time , the book was being published Grossman was 37 years old and had entered the University of California @-@ Berkeley 's doctoral program studying English Literature , specializing in Romantic and Victorian literature .
= = Plot = =
After CoreFire , the world 's greatest superhero , goes missing , the former members of The Champions re @-@ unite to investigate his disappearance , bringing in two new replacement heroines , Lily and Fatale . They immediately suspect CoreFire 's nemesis , Dr. Impossible , was involved , even though he has been incarcerated in a maximum security prison since his defeat by Damsel during his twelfth world domination attempt . An interrogation by two novice heroes about CoreFire 's disappearance gives Dr. Impossible the chance to escape and initiate a new attempt at world domination . The New Champions search for Impossible , convinced he is responsible for CoreFire 's demise , while he gathers the materials needed to advance his plan . This is intercut with flashbacks to earlier times and his origin , as well as reflections on other paths he could have taken in life .
Fatale observes the actions of the New Champions as its newest member . She feels uncomfortable replacing a popular , deceased member and unworthy of belonging to a superhero group , but she proves herself to be highly competent and earns the respect of her teammates . Fatale 's closest friend on the team is another new member , Lily , a reformed supervillain and former girlfriend of Dr. Impossible . Fatale contrasts Dr. Impossible 's flashbacks by having no memory of her life before the accident in Brazil that made her a cyborg , with her exposition coming from her new experiences with the other superheroes . During the investigation , she discovers that the corporation that transformed her into a cyborg was a front for Dr. Impossible during one of his previous plans .
The climax is reached on Dr. Impossible 's island , as he attempts to start a controlled Ice Age , making him Earth 's ruler and only source of energy . He almost succeeds , using the hammer formerly belonging to the supervillain The Pharaoh to defeat the New Champions . CoreFire suddenly returns but is also unsuccessful against Dr. Impossible . Lily , who had quit the team earlier , eventually returns and defeats Dr. Impossible . Lily reveals that she is actually Erica Lowenstein , Dr. Impossible 's childhood crush before his transformation and frequent kidnapee when she was the girlfriend of CoreFire . In the final chapter , Dr. Impossible ponders what it truly means to conquer the world , and whether such a feat can really be achieved , as he prepares for yet another escape from custody to start the cycle all over again with a new plan .
= = Main characters = =
CoreFire , a Superman @-@ like character . His disappearance motivates former members of the Champions to re @-@ unite as the New Champions . He gained his powers as a college student when a lab experiment by a classmate , who would later become his nemesis Dr. Impossible , irradiates him with ' zeta radiation ' giving him superpowers . CoreFire became one of the three founding members of the original Champions .
Dr. Impossible , the supervillain narrator . The novel chronicles his escape from maximum security prison and his thirteenth attempt at world conquest . He is the " smartest man in the world . " A lab accident involving ' zeta radiation ' gave him superpowers , consisting of super @-@ reflexes , reasonable super @-@ strength , and toughened skin . He was diagnosed with Malign Hypercognition Disorder . He is a loose analog of Lex Luthor .
= = = The New Champions = = =
Fatale , a superhero recruited by the New Champions and the narrator of the superhero @-@ half of the novel . She is a cyborg , the result of experimental surgery following a near @-@ fatal accident in São Paulo . She eventually discovers that the corporation responsible for creating and maintaining her cybernetic parts were a cover for one of Doctor Impossible 's schemes . For a time she worked National Security Agency missions .
Damsel , a Wonder Woman @-@ like character . She is the leader of both the original Champions and the New Champions . She is the daughter of a golden age superhero and a princess of an alien planet . She is also Blackwolf 's ex @-@ wife . Her powers are flight , super @-@ strength , micro @-@ vision , and a protective forcefield .
Blackwolf , co @-@ founder of the Champions and Damsel 's ex @-@ husband . A Batman @-@ like character , he is the team 's only unpowered member , but he is athletically trained and intellectually gifted . He is motivated by the death of family members and has mild autism . He divides his time between managing his successful corporation and work as a superhero .
Feral , a half @-@ human / half @-@ tiger . He is the only member of the team who still patrols and fights street crime .
Elphin , the last fairy on Earth . Though born in the 10th century , she continues to have the appearance of a teenager but with insectoid wings . Inhumanly fast and strong , she uses a magical spear as a weapon and has some nature @-@ controlling powers .
Mr. Mystic , a magician . He was a stage magician before travelling the world and discovering the secret of true magic . He wears a tuxedo and top hat as his costume . His powers are undefined but include illusion and teleportation . Real name is William Zard .
Rainbow Triumph , a teenage girl given experimental treatment for her terminal illness . The treatment saved her life and gave her superpowers , such as super @-@ speed , but she needs to keep taking her medicine every few hours or she will die .
Lily , a reformed supervillainess and former girlfriend of Dr. Impossible and CoreFire . She claims to come from the far future , having been sent back to prevent an ecological disaster that would destroy humanity . However , she later is revealed to be Erica Lowenstein , the Lois Lane @-@ like one @-@ time girlfriend of CoreFire . She is super @-@ strong , invulnerable and transparent .
= = Style and themes = =
The story is divided into 21 chapters , with each chapter switching between the points @-@ of @-@ view of the supervillain Dr. Impossible and the superhero Fatale . The narrative is written in the first person , like a memoir , describing the inner monologues of the two protagonists . The dual narrative foils and " blur [ s ] the distinction " between the superheroes and the supervillain . The language was described as having a " sincere tone of glory " and " boyish indulgence " with " an undercurrent of sadness and a surprisingly human universality " . While the story uses standard comic book story elements , like superheroes fighting supervillains , the book is written entirely in prose . The story combines a satire of superhero archetypes and comic book clichés , such as the use of many superlatives , with realist elements that portray the sometimes mundane lives and everyday challenges of its characters , like coping with cybernetic body parts that weigh far more than a natural body and that react before the brain registers what is happening . Common social situations and psychological issues , like loneliness and trying to connect with a group , are also portrayed . Reviewers identified numerous themes , such as power , greed , fame , ego , loneliness , belonging , and identity .
= = = Characterization of superheroes = = =
The novel uses characters with generic superhero traits . While they are public celebrities for being heroes , the novel deals more with the personal lives of superheroes , how they cope with their powers and interact with one another . The character Fatale , being asked to join the New Champions superhero group , is used as a " useful outsider looking in " behind the scenes . They exist in a " cult of overachievement " , constantly competing and trying to distinguish themselves from one another , which results in characters as " colorful as playing cards but all from different decks , a jumble of incompatible suits and denominations dealt out for an ' Alice in Wonderland ' game . " Despite their celebrity status and heroic facade , they exist in a " mundane reality " with a normal routine ; as the villain devises new means of committing crimes and conquering the world , the heroes chat among themselves , reliving past adventures , and practice fighting one another . From the perspective of the supervillain Dr. Impossible , superheroes live in " a dumb , hackneyed world " .
= = = Characterization of the supervillain = = =
Dr. Impossible is used as an archetype or stock character supervillain . He is characterized as an evil genius or mad scientist who continually attempts to take control of the world 's population . This is seen as a sub @-@ type of the hero 's journey and his calm deconstruction of his own futile , repetitive and self @-@ destructive behaviours is compared to existentialist literature . The supervillains , especially Dr. Impossible , are portrayed as sympathetic characters afflicted with " Malign Hypercognition Disorder " , a psychological condition which makes highly intelligent people use their advantages to perform non @-@ virtuous , or evil , actions . Grossman explained that from Dr. Impossible 's point of view , he is not inherently evil but rejects societal norms : " it 's a matter of integrity — he 's sticking to his principles , doing science his own way , pursuing his goals — even if it means the entire world is against him , even if he looks ridiculous in his costume , even if he knows he 's going to lose . The superheroes are taking the conformist path , and getting all the applause . " From the literary point of view , Grossman believes the supervillains are more interesting characters , " they are usually the most dynamic characters and the most creative . ... Their plans usually start with a great invention , which gives the story all its color and energy . The hero just has to come in and smash it up . " Grossman admitted that much of the Dr. Impossible character was inspired by his feelings as a graduate student , " On the one hand , you 're supposed to be really smart , and on the other hand , it 's a humiliating experience . You 're psyched about your intellect and kind of arrogant , but at the same time , you 're [ insignificant ] in the eyes of the world . "
= = = Genre = = =
Soon I Will Be Invincible takes characters , settings , and storylines generally associated with the comic book format and re @-@ casts them using the novel 's prose format . This use of superhero fiction in an alternate format was compared to other similar , successful attempts , like Sam Raimi 's Spider @-@ Man films , Brad Bird 's The Incredibles , and the TV serial No Heroics . Several reviewers contrasted the novel 's elements of realism with Alan Moore 's Watchmen and Rick Veitch 's Bratpack which portrayed a darker side of more realistic superheroes . Novels cited as being similar included Donald Barthelme 's Snow White , Robert Coover 's Stepmother , and the works of Michael Chabon and Jonathan Lethem . The novel format allowed for more character development , which Grossman took advantage of by portraying them as " real , human characters , with all of the foibles that come with the territory " in what one reviewer called a " hybridization of character and genre " . Grossman described it as " a book about real people who happen to be superheros [ sic ] or supervillains " and that if it were a comic , it would be " page after page of thought balloons " . Compared to comic stories , the reviewer for the Richmond Times @-@ Dispatch wrote " The common denominator for most superhero comic books is that they don 't make fun of themselves - the believability of their stories is never called into question . They take the heroes seriously . Not so in literature . When a novel appears with comic books as its focus , its author will undoubtedly believe that his or her theme is far more important - far more serious - than the comic books that inspired them . ... tries to do it all , combining humor and comic @-@ book adventure with a literary sense of character . ... The result is a postmodern , inventive , comic @-@ book plot with literary aspirations , and its only problem is that it isn 't entirely successful as either humor or as straight adventure . "
= = Publication and reception = =
Soon I Will Be Invincible was published by Pantheon Books , an imprint of the Knopf Doubleday division of Random House , and released on June 5 , 2007 , as a hardcover . In the UK it was published by the Penguin Group imprint Michael Joseph . An audiobook was released at the same time featuring the voices of J. Paul Boehmer and Coleen Marlo . Grossman promoted the book by attending book signings in major American cities . In the UK it was promoted by wrapping telephone booths in advertising , in reference to Superman changing outfits in such booths . The cover art , which features photos of stereotypical comic book character clothing like a mask and gloves , by Chip Kidd was called " excellent ... [ and ] sure to attract readers " . By contrast , Bryan Hitch 's cover art on the British edition , which features hand @-@ drawn illustrations of the book 's characters , was called " counter @-@ productive ... [ or ] unnecessary " due to its graphical interpretations of characters that were deliberately written in prose only . The book was short @-@ listed for the 2007 John Sargent Sr. First Novel Prize . Work on a film adaption began in 2008 through Strike Entertainment with scripts being written Dan Weiss and Grossman .
Several reviewers described book as clever , well @-@ written , engaging , amusing , and fun . The prose was described as " effortless " , " colorful " , " kinetic and often witty " . Numerous reviewers thought the Dr. Impossible character was the highlight of the novel . The Library Journal review " highly recommended [ the novel ] for all public libraries " calling it " fun and thought @-@ provoking book " . In The New York Times Book Review reviewer Dave Itzkoff wrote that the novel " can 't completely measure up [ to other superhero fiction and film ] , but its ambition and persistence in the face of formidable odds make it an admirable addition to the genre " . The Publishers Weekly review noted that the comic book scenario written in a prose novel , with " thoughtfully portrayed " characters , would broaden the appeal of the genre . Similarly , regarding the comic book set @-@ up written in prose , Mat Johnson in USA Today wrote that Grossman 's " fabulist vision is meticulously captured so that it might be gleefully explored , nostalgically , within its traditional boundaries " . Journalist Carlo Wolff wrote that " it takes some time to engage because ... Grossman is so enamored of the worlds he 's fashioning that he overstuffs them ... [ but it ] is a fresh , warm take on comic books , science fiction and pop culture . " The Kirkus Reviews summary notes that the action scenes are " unimpressive , interrupted by more talk as ... the battle seesaws in an arbitrary fashion . For all the special effects , a debut novel that 's lifeless and inert . " Both the reviewers for Entertainment Weekly and Christian Science Monitor gave the book a " B " grade , though the The A.V. Club gave it an " A " grade . It is currently ranked # 2 as the Best Superhero fiction Books on ListNerd .
A musical theater adaptation of Soon I Will Be Invincible ran at Lifeline Theatre in Chicago from May to July , 2015 .
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= Zarqa River =
The Zarqa River ( Arabic : نهر الزرقاء , Nahr az @-@ Zarqāʾ , lit . " the Blue River " ) is the second largest tributary of the lower Jordan River , after the Yarmouk River . It is the third largest river in the region by annual discharge , and its watershed encompasses the most densely populated areas east of the Jordan River . It rises in springs near Amman , and flows through a deep and broad valley ( which is identified with the biblical Jabbok River ) into the Jordan , at an elevation 1 @,@ 090 metres ( 3 @,@ 580 ft ) lower . The river is heavily polluted and its restoration is one of the top priorities for the Jordanian Ministry of the Environment .
The Zarqa River is commonly identified with the biblical Jabbok River ( Hebrew : נָּחַל יַבֹּק , Nahal Yabok ) .
Geologically , the Zarqa River is about 30 million years old . At the river 's origin is ' Ain Ghazal , a major archaeological site that dates back to the Neolithic . Archeological finds along the course of the river indicate the area was rich in flora and fauna in the past . The Zarqa River is well known for its amber deposits that date back to the Hauterivian era of the Early Cretaceous ( 135 m.y. ) . A remarkable flora and fauna was reported from this amber reflecting tropical paleoenvironmental conditions prevailing during the time of resin deposition ( Kaddumi , 2005 ; 2007 ) .
= = Name = =
The modern Arabic name , Nahr az @-@ Zarqa ' ( نهر الزرقاء ) means " the blue river " , where nahr means river and zarqa ' ( زرقاء ) means blue .
= = Biblical Jabbok = =
The Zarqa River is identified with the biblical river Jabbok ( Hebrew : יבוק ) . The Biblical Jacob crossed the Jabbok on his way back to Canaan , after leaving Harran . It leads west into the Sukkot Valley , from where one crosses over the Jordan and can easily reach Shechem , as Jacob eventually did . The biblical cities of Zaretan and Adam are also at the mouth of the valley .
The river is first mentioned in connection with the meeting of Jacob and Esau , and with the struggle of Jacob with the angel ( Genesis 32 : 23 et seq . ) . It was the boundary separating the territory of Reuben and Gad from that of Ammon ( Deuteronomy 3 : 16 ) , the latter being described as lying along the Jabbok ( Numbers 21 : 24 ; Deuteronomy 2 : 37 , 3 : 16 ; Joshua 12 : 2 ) . The territory of Sihon is described as extending " from Arnon unto Jabbok " ( Numbers 21 : 24 ) , and it was reclaimed later by the King of Ammon ( Judges 11 : 13 , 22 ) . Eusebius places the river between Gerasa and Philadelphia .
= = Course = =
The headwaters of the Zarqa begin just northeast of Amman , rising from a spring named Ain Ghazal ( " Gazelle spring " ) . The river flows to the north before heading west . Rising on the eastern side of the mountains of Gilead , it runs a course of about 105 kilometers ( 65 mi ) in a wild and deep ravine before flowing into the Jordan River between Gennesaret and the Dead Sea , at a point 1 @,@ 090 meters ( 3 @,@ 576 ft ) below its origin . At its higher reaches , the river banks are mostly steep and canyon @-@ like . Near Ain Ghazal , two tributary wadis join the river , and it opens up into a shallow basin . It forms the border between the Jordanian administrative regions of Irbid and Balqa Governorate .
The river is perennial , but with a very low base flow of about 2 – million to 3 million cubic meters per month during the summer months , and as much as 5 – million to 8 million cubic meters per month during the rainy winter months . This makes it the second largest tributary of the lower Jordan River , after the Yarmouk River , and the third largest river in the region by annual discharge . Irregular floods after rain storms may increase the flow to as much as 54 million cubic meters . The median annual flow is 63 @.@ 3 million cubic meters . The total basin area is 3 @,@ 900 km2 ( 1 @,@ 500 sq mi ) the largest in Jordan . A small dam , Al @-@ Rwyha dam , near the village of Dayr Alla , marks the end of the upstream portion of the river , where it is natural and fast flowing with very clear water . There is very little agriculture along the banks of the river in this region , which are very rocky . Downstream from this dam , the water level is very low , and the river banks are intensively used for agriculture , as well as grazing by sheep and goats
The King Talal Dam was built across the lower Zarqa in 1970 , and created a reservoir with a capacity of 55 million cubic meters , and increased in 1987 to 86 million cubic meters . When built , it was expected that the reservoir would supply water for municipal use in the Amman region . However , the current levels of pollution in the lake make the water unfit for human consumption , and it is used for irrigation only .
= = = Bridges = = =
The new Jerash Bridge crosses the Zarqa upstream of King Talal reservoir , on the road from Amman to Jerash . The bridge is the site of a gauging station where flow measurements are continuously taken .
In the city of Zarqa , several bridges , vehicular and pedestrian , cross the river . The earliest of these was built by the Chechen founders of the city . Current bridges include the Zawahreh Bridge , a vehicular bridge connecting Baha ' al @-@ Din Street with al @-@ Zuhur Street and another connecting Baha ' al @-@ Din Street with King Talal Street . Two pedestrian bridges connect al @-@ Zuhur Street and Baha ' al @-@ Din Street , and Wasfi al @-@ Tal Street and Petra Street .
= = Natural history = =
The geological origins of the Zarqa river are about 30 million years old , when the Jordan Rift Valley was formed . A ripple effect of its formation was the creation of side @-@ wadis . The Zarqa river carved into the western edge of one of these side wadis . The earliest exposed formations in the area date from the Triassic and early Jurassic periods , and have been named Zerqa and Kurnub formations . The rock formations are marine sediments , remnants of the prehistoric Tethys Sea , which used to cover the area running roughly east - west , halfway across the present Dead Sea . Along the Zarqa , we find crystalline limestone alternating with shale . The next layer is a 20 @-@ 30 meter high layer of gypsum , argillaceous marly lime , shales and iron @-@ rich stone and sandstone . This layer is rich in fossils . The Zarqa valley was an important passageway connecting the Eastern Desert with the Jordan Valley .
= = = Flora = = =
Archaeological finds of charcoaled remains indicate that poplar and tamarix used to grow along the banks of the Zarqa , with forests of wild oak growing on the hillsides . Today , tamarix thickets are still widespread in the floodplains , and the banks are cultivated with fruit orchards and vegetable fields . Along the course of Zarqa river , water is pumped directly and used to irrigate crops of leafy vegetables such as parsley , spinach , cabbage , cauliflower and lettuce , as well as potatoes . Olive trees are also found along the river 's banks . Tulips grow on many hillsides of the river , while in the springs area and the watercourse , water vegetation is found . Natural pine forests grow in the King Talal Dam area . Along the upstream banks , where the river runs wild , one finds the common reed , oleander and Typha species . Since the waters of the Zarqa are highly contaminated , with high levels of organic matter and various chemical compounds ( especially detergents and dyes ) , the use of Zarqa water for irrigation has significantly altered the biodiversity of the natural flora , and caused the disappearance of the majority of fresh water species .
= = = Fauna = = =
In prehistoric times , the area was rich with fauna , and 45 distinct animal species have been identified , half of them wild animals . Domesticated goats were the most common , and gazelles were the most frequently occurring wild animal species .
Today , the area is still home to a diverse population of birds and mammals , and some of the breeding species found do not breed anywhere else in Jordan . Among the bird species found are the European roller , desert lark , Dead Sea sparrow , desert finch and blue @-@ cheeked bee @-@ eater . The King Talal dam has created a lake which is a habitat for migratory waterfowl and various fish species . Notable birds found in the lake area include the little bittern , cattle egrets , grey herons , white storks , common teal and Eurasian coot . The lake 's waters sustain fish , some of which are indigenous species and some are introduced species . The most common are tilapia . Migratory birds also winter in the man @-@ made pools which make up the Kherbit Al @-@ Samra Sewage Treatment Plant , located in a broad depression close to Wadi Dhulayl , the main tributary of the Zarqa River . As many as 6 @,@ 000 white storks have been spotted roosting there . Mammals found in the area include the common otter ( Lutra lutra ) , and the Persian squirrel ( Sciurus anomalus ) . The otter is considered a threatened species .
= = History = =
'Ain Ghazal , the origin of the spring the feeds the Zarqa river , is a major archaeological site , dating back to the Neolithic period . It was continuously occupied for more than two thousand years , and the earliest finds date to 7200 BCE . ' Ain Ghazal is one of the earliest known human settlements with evidence of domesticated animals . With a population of around 3 @,@ 000 at its height , it was also one of the largest prehistoric population centers in the Near East , with about five time the population of neighboring Jericho .
During a 1982 survey of the Zarqa valley , a number Early Iron Age sites were discovered , concentrated along the banks of the Zerqa and its tributaries . One of them , Tulul adh @-@ Dhahab , is under further research now .
Wadi Jarash , a northern tributary of the Zarqa River , flows through the modern city of Jerash . Inhabited since the Bronze Age , Jerash was an important Greco @-@ Roman city known as Gerasa , home to noted mathematician Nicomachus . The ruins of the city are well preserved and have been extensively excavated .
Zarqa , Jordan 's second largest city , is built on the banks of the Zarqa River , and is the largest settlement along its course . Today , most of the land and plantations on the riverbanks are owned by the heirs of the patrician El @-@ Wir clan , the rest is owned by the Bani @-@ Hassan tribe , and other local tribes . The town of Zarqa was founded in 1902 by Chechen immigrants . Its population grew rapidly with an influx of Palestinian refugees who fled the West Bank during the Six @-@ Day War .
= = Environmental concerns = =
The Zarqa river is highly polluted . In many areas , raw sewage flows untreated directly into the river through dry riverbeds ( wadis ) , contaminating it and creating a stench which has been a cause of numerous complaints , particularly during the summer months . Though sewage treatment stations have been built in a couple of locations ( including Ain Ghazal and Khirbet As Samara ) , these stations often receive more water than they can handle . Such overflow occurs during winter floods , as well as during summer months when the population increases with the return of migrant workers to Amman . During overflow , untreated water runs directly to the Zarqa river . As a result , the Zarqa 's water is brownish colored , often with dense foam due to large amounts of organic matter . Other sources of pollutants are the illegal dumping of industrial waste , including those from textile factories , and batteries and oils from garages .
The river 's watershed encompasses the most densely populated areas east of the Jordan River , and it flows through an industrialized area that is home to more than 52 % of Jordan 's industrial plants , including the Jordan Petroleum Refinery Company . During the summer months , treated domestic and industrial waste @-@ water compose nearly all of the flow , and substantially degrade the water quality . Coupled with over @-@ extraction of water from the underground aquifer and the naturally low base flow of the Zarqa , this has created a major problem , described as one of Jordan 's " environmental black spots " . and has made rehabilitation of the Zarqa a top priority for the Jordanian Ministry of the Environment . The restoration project is estimated to cost $ 30 million .
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= Phil Fish =
Philippe Poisson ( born 1984 ) , better known as Phil Fish , is a French Canadian former indie video game designer best known for his work on the 2012 platform game Fez published by his company , Polytron Corporation . He was born and raised in Quebec , where his experiences with Nintendo games in his youth would later influence his game design . He studied game design at the Montreal National Animation and Design Centre , and worked at Ubisoft and Artificial Mind and Movement before starting Polytron in 2008 .
Fish was a founding member of Kokoromi , a collective that explores experimental gameplay ideas , and organized Montreal 's annual GAMMA games events . While Fez was in development , Fish worked on other unreleased games at Polytron including Super Hypercube and Power Pill .
Fez was released in April 2012 to widespread acclaim after a protracted five @-@ year development cycle . Its final phases of development were shown in the 2012 documentary Indie Game : The Movie , which brought Fish fame unusual for game developers . Following an online argument in July 2013 , Fish publicly announced his exit from game development , citing long @-@ term mistreatment by the industry .
= = Early life and career = =
Phil Fish was born Philippe Poisson in Montreal in 1984 . He was raised in Quebec , where his parents shared their interest in art and gaming with him . Fish 's father translated The Legend of Zelda into French so the two could play together . Fish credits these memories as formative , and later cited their influence on Fez . He graduated from the 2004 Design and Digital Art for Video Games program at the Montreal NAD ( National Animation and Design Centre ) .
Fish began his career at the video game publisher Ubisoft , where he worked on Open Season as a level designer . He was initially excited for the job but grew disenchanted with their large development teams and working conditions . Fish later described it as " the worst experience of [ his ] life " . He was later fired from the company .
On May 24 , 2006 , Fish won the Artificial Mind and Movement Award for Best Cut @-@ Scene at the annual NAD Center Awards of Excellence Gala . Later that year , Fish began work as a level designer at Artificial Mind and Movement , where he designed for film tie @-@ in games including The Golden Compass .
Fish is a founding member of Kokoromi , a group that designs and promotes experimental video games . His November 2006 Arcadia Festival event , GAMMA 01 Audio Feed , featured games that incorporated live sound . Fish planned a similar event , GAMMA 256 , for 2007 , and a third event , GAMMA 3D , for November 2008 in Montreal . Fish was invited to present a lecture on GAMMA 01 at the 2007 Game Developers Conference . He also wrote a review of the 1999 Legacy of Kain : Soul Reaver in the 2007 book Space Time Play : Synergies Between Computer Games , Architecture and Urbanism : the Next Level . Additionally , Fish has been characterized by Sean Hollister of The Verge as " notorious for voicing angry , controversial opinions about the state of video games " .
= = Polytron = =
Fish began to work with Toronto @-@ based indie developer Shawn McGrath on McGrath 's idea for a puzzle game that showed 2D views of a 3D space . Fish provided the project 's art until the partnership crumbled due to creative differences : Fish wanted their product to be more of a platform game . Fish continued to work on the game in his spare time , and incorporated the idea of voxels ( 3D pixels ) , where a 2D pixel could be seen from four sides . The game would become Fez and the game 's design , lore , and art derived from this game mechanic . Fish searched for a programmer on DeviantArt and Renaud Bédard , the first person to apply , became the game 's programmer . Fez was first announced in July 2007 and was nominated for two awards at the 2008 Game Developers Conference Independent Games Festival . Fish 's employer , Artificial Mind and Movement , would not let him take leave from work to attend , so Fish quit . He marked this January 2008 moment as " when I became indie " . The game received widespread attention upon its showing at the festival , leading Fish to open Polytron Corporation as a startup company with a government loan .
Polytron later ran out of money and was on the verge of folding when the company 's Québécois neighbor , developer @-@ producer Trapdoor , offered to help Polytron without transferring its intellectual property rights . According to Fish , the partnership saved Fez . The game was delayed several times over the next few years for which it received some notoriety .
In late 2009 , Polytron presented an iPhone game called Power Pill at Pecha Kucha Montreal . The game features a panacean pill that travels through human bodies as its playable protagonist , and it uses the iPhone 's multi @-@ touch screen . GameSetWatch 's Eric Caoili compared it to Soul Bubbles and Irritating Stick . The game was developed with Alec Holowka of Infinite Ammo , and a level editor was expected to be included . While working on Fez , Fish revived a game project called Super Hypercube , which was based on Wiimote motion capture input and stereoscopic navigation . Fish felt the game would work better with the new Kinect motion tracking . The adapted game was a finalist at Indiecade 2011 .
Fish and Fez were featured prominently in the 2012 documentary Indie Game : The Movie , through which Fish received celebrity unusual for game developers . The film chronicles the stories of several indie developers at various stages of their games ' development cycles , and Fish is shown preparing for Fez 's booth at PAX East in March 2011 . The film presents Fish amidst a legal dispute with a former business partner that jeopardizes the game 's release . The partner , believed to be Jason DeGroot , is portrayed negatively and does not participate onscreen . The film also tracks Fish 's personal and emotional investment in the game . Eurogamer wrote that the part where Fish resolves to kill himself if he does not release his game is " the film 's most startling moment " . Rock , Paper , Shotgun wrote that Fish is portrayed as melodramatic , theatrical , and neurotic , and that the film will exacerbate his outspoken public perception . Game Informer called Fish the film 's " most memorable developer " . The film 's end credits were later revised to reflect that Fish 's business partner was not asked for input .
Near the end of development , Fish felt " burnt out " and that his personal health had suffered . Fez was released on April 13 , 2012 and sold 200 @,@ 000 copies in its yearlong exclusivity to the Xbox Live Arcade platform . The video game review aggregator Metacritic described reviews for the 2012 Xbox 360 Fez as " generally favorable " and those for the 2013 PC version as " universal acclaim " . While in development , Fez had won the 2012 GDC Independent Games Festival 's Seamus McNally Grand Prize , the 2011 Indiecade Best in Show and Best Story / World Design , and the 2008 GDC Independent Games Festival 's Excellence in Visual Art . Eurogamer awarded Fez a perfect score and named the " perfect , wordless sci @-@ fi parable " their 2012 Game of the Year . Fish announced eventual ports for " ' pretty much ' every platform " but the Nintendo 3DS . It sold one million copies by the end of 2013 . The New York Times 's Chris Suellentrop called Fish " a Quentin Tarantino of 8 @-@ bit gaming " .
A Fez sequel was announced as " one more thing " at end of the Horizon indie game press conference during the June 2013 Electronic Entertainment Expo . A Twitter argument between Fish and GameTrailers journalist Marcus Beer a month later culminated in the project 's cancellation and Fish 's exit from the industry . In an episode of his show Invisible Walls , Beer had criticized Fish 's recent response to questions about Microsoft 's Xbox One self @-@ publishing policy change . On Twitter , Fish condemned the industry for its negativity before his final tweet announced the cancellation and his leave . The news came as a surprise to the rest of Polytron , which has not commented on upcoming projects other than ports since the sequel 's cancellation . Polygon listed Fish in their top 50 newsmakers of 2013 for the social power of his " caustic use of Twitter " .
= = = Polytron Partners = = =
In June 2014 , Fish announced Polytron Partners — a new effort by Polytron to fund and support potential indie game efforts , like a publisher . For their first game , Polytron will work with Finji to provide the daily operations capacity for an " interactive musical landscape anthology " game named Panoramical . Fish 's personal and company records were released publicly in August 2014 as part of a spate of hacks on video game developers . Fish responded by announcing that the company and Fez property were for sale .
= = Works = =
Fez ( 2012 , Polytron , as designer )
Super Hypercube ( unreleased , as designer )
Power Pill ( unreleased , as designer )
The Golden Compass ( 2007 , Artificial Mind and Movement , as asst. level designer )
Open Season ( 2006 , Ubisoft , as level designer )
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= Patriot ( Worlds of Fun ) =
Patriot is a steel inverted roller coaster designed by Bolliger & Mabillard at the Worlds of Fun amusement park in Kansas City , Missouri . Announced on September 7 , 2005 , the roller coaster opened to the public on April 8 , 2006 . The ride lasts about 2 minutes and 18 seconds and features four inversions , a maximum height of 149 feet ( 45 m ) and a length of 3 @,@ 081 feet ( 939 m ) .
= = History = =
Patriot was announced on September 7 , 2005 and was the park 's largest investment at the time . Construction started in the transfer track and station area before progressing to the lift hill in early @-@ October 2005 . Just over two weeks later , the roller coaster 's 149 @-@ foot ( 45 m ) lift hill was topped off . After erecting the first drop and loop , construction on the zero @-@ gravity @-@ roll was complete by mid @-@ November . The third inversion , and Immelmann loop , was completed about a week later followed by the placement of the inclined loop pieces . After the corkscrew and other track elements were completed , the final piece of track was placed in the morning of January 13 , 2006 .
After testing was completed , the attraction opened to the public on April 8 , 2006 .
= = Ride experience = =
After departing from the station , the train makes a left turn leading directly to the beginning of the 149 @-@ foot ( 45 m ) lift hill . Once the train reaches the top of the lift hill , it makes a sharp , downward 129 @-@ foot ( 39 m ) drop followed by a 89 @-@ foot ( 27 m ) loop . After exiting the loop and making a slight right turn , the train goes up leading into a zero @-@ gravity roll . The train drops back to the ground before going through an Immelmann loop . Next , the train enters an inclined loop . Then the train , goes over a small inverted hill , drops to the ground , and makes a left turn into a corkscrew . Then the train makes a right turn which leads to the brake run . The train then makes a left turn back into the station where the next riders board .
One complete cycle of the roller coaster lasts about 2 minutes and 18 seconds .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Trains = = =
Patriot operates with two steel and fibreglass train which were manufactured in Switzerland before being shipped to Kansas City . Each train has seven cars that can seat four riders in a single row for a total of 28 riders per train . The train structure is colored blue , yellow , and white and the seats and over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraints are both red .
= = = Track = = =
The steel track of Patriot is approximately 3 @,@ 081 feet ( 939 m ) long . The height of the lift hill is approximately 149 feet ( 45 m ) high , and ( with the supports ) weighs approximately 1 @,@ 850 @,@ 000 pounds ( 840 @,@ 000 kg ) . It was fabricated by Clermont Steel Fabricators in Batavia , Ohio , who manufactures Bolliger & Mabillard 's roller coasters and was erected by Lico Steel . The track color is red with a continuous white strip running through the middle , and the supports are blue .
= = Reception = =
Mike ( no last name given ) from NewsPlusNotes likes the fact that Patriot and Talon at Dorney Park & Wildwater Kingdom are very similar in terms of their layouts . He also praises the ride for its speed and enjoyability , " [ The train ] heads through those elements at a good clip and keeps the fun factor up throughout the ride . "
= = = Awards = = =
In Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll , Patriot peaked at position 48 in its second year of operation . The ride 's ranking in subsequent polls is shown in the table below .
The roller coaster has never placed in Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Awards .
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= Seattle Sounders FC =
Seattle Sounders FC is an American professional soccer club based in Seattle , Washington . The Sounders compete in the Western Conference of Major League Soccer ( MLS ) . The club was established on November 13 , 2007 , as an MLS expansion team , making it the 15th team in the league and the third Seattle soccer club to share the name .
The club 's majority owner is Adrian Hanauer , and its minority owners are Joe Roth , Paul Allen and Drew Carey . Former USL Sounders coach and assistant coach Brian Schmetzer took over as interim head coach in July 2016 after the departure of Sigi Schmid . The Sounders play their home matches at CenturyLink Field . Along with several organized groups , a 53 @-@ member marching band called ' Sound Wave ' supports the club at each home match . Seattle competes with rival MLS clubs Portland and Vancouver in the Cascadia Cup .
The Sounders played its inaugural match on March 19 , 2009 , winning 3 – 0 over the New York Red Bulls . Seattle has set MLS records for average attendance , led the league in season ticket sales , and qualified for the MLS Cup Playoffs in each of its first seven seasons . The Sounders have led MLS attendance since their inaugural season , consistently drawing an average of 50 @-@ 65 % more than the next highest @-@ drawing team in the league , LA Galaxy . The club 's announced attendance average was 43 @,@ 144 in 2012 . The team 's players have included United States men 's national soccer team captain Clint Dempsey , Shanghai Greenland Shenhua forward Obafemi Martins , Academy product and current Sunderland player DeAndre Yedlin , striker Fredy Montero , and Osvaldo Alonso .
The Sounders have won the Open Cup three times in a row , in four consecutive Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup final appearances . In 2014 , Seattle won their fourth U.S. Open Cup title , defeating the Philadelphia Union in overtime , 3 – 1 . For the first time in franchise history , the Sounders won the Supporters ' Shield over the LA Galaxy in the 2014 regular season , also completing their double .
= = History = =
Even before the first cities in the United States were chosen to host Major League Soccer teams , Seattle was considered a viable location for a professional team . In 1994 , as the U.S. was preparing to host the FIFA World Cup , more than 30 cities were pursuing the rights to an MLS team , Seattle being among them . However , despite the strong soccer fan base in Seattle , the absence of a soccer @-@ only stadium was a drawback to establishing an MLS team . Cities seeking consideration for an inaugural MLS team were also expected to secure 10 @,@ 000 assurances from fans for season tickets . By the June 3 , 1994 deadline for MLS team bids , Seattle organizers had secured fewer than 1 @,@ 500 such assurances . These low numbers were a result of competition between the ticket campaign for the MLS expansion team and for the American Professional Soccer League ( APSL ) Sounders expansion team .
In a June 14 , 1994 announcement , Seattle was not included among the first seven cities to be awarded an MLS team . Five more teams were to be announced later in the year , and to improve their chances this time , Seattle MLS organizers began working with the University of Washington to secure use of Husky Stadium as an interim stadium while they pursued the construction of a permanent soccer @-@ specific facility . In November 1994 , the start of the first MLS season was postponed until 1996 , and it was noted that the absence of an " adequate grass @-@ field facility " in the area and the presence of the new APSL Seattle Sounders team had thwarted Seattle 's MLS bid . In the end , Seattle was not among the cities chosen to establish a team during the first season of MLS .
In 1996 , as Seattle Seahawks owner Paul Allen worked with the city to build a new football stadium for his team , the potential of an MLS expansion team that could be a co @-@ tenant helped drive public support for the effort . Many of the state 's voters supported the referendum to construct Seahawks Stadium because it was also expected to be a professional soccer venue . While the stadium problem was being resolved , a new issue emerged . By 2000 , MLS was moving away from league @-@ operated teams to investor @-@ operated teams , so wealthy individuals would need to step forward for Seattle to obtain an MLS expansion team .
In 2003 , Seattle was again listed as a possibility for an MLS expansion team when the ten @-@ team league announced plans to expand into new markets . In 2004 , MLS commissioner Don Garber indicated that Seattle had been " very close " to receiving the expansion team ultimately awarded to Salt Lake . Adrian Hanauer , then @-@ owner of the United Soccer League 's ( USL ) Sounders ( formerly the APSL Sounders ) , was in discussions with MLS about an estimated payment of $ 1 million to secure rights to a Seattle franchise for 2006 . However , when Seattle was passed over again in 2006 , Hanauer announced that he would not be able to secure an expansion team without the help of more investors willing to cover the increasing MLS franchise fees which had grown beyond $ 10 million .
= = = MLS expansion arrives = = =
In 2007 , Hanauer teamed up with Hollywood producer Joe Roth to make another bid for MLS expansion into Seattle , at a cost of $ 30 million . Paul Allen , whose First and Goal company operated Qwest Field ( now CenturyLink Field ) , joined the ownership group that same year , making the bid the most promising yet for Seattle . During the first week of November 2007 , rumors began to build that MLS would be announcing an expansion into Seattle the following week , and that the ownership group had taken on a fourth member , TV personality Drew Carey . In a press conference on November 13 , 2007 , it was announced that Seattle had been awarded an expansion team . The announcement marked the return of top @-@ level soccer to Seattle for the first time since the dissolution of its North American Soccer League ( NASL ) team in 1983 . The announcement also meant that the Seattle Sounders of the USL First Division would play its final season the year before the new MLS franchise was formed . " Seattle Sounders FC " was announced as the team name on April 7 , 2008 , along with the team logo , colors and badge design , in a presentation held at the Space Needle . The " FC " in the team moniker stands for Football Club , but the team name is officially " Seattle Sounders FC " .
= = = Inaugural season = = =
Seattle Sounders FC , the league 's 15th team , began play in the 2009 season . All 22 @,@ 000 season ticket packages offered by the club for its inaugural season were sold , giving them the most season ticket holders in MLS . The club played its first home match on March 19 , 2009 in front of a sold @-@ out crowd of 32 @,@ 523 , defeating the New York Red Bulls 3 – 0 . During the pre @-@ match ceremonies , the first Golden Scarf was awarded to MLS Commissioner Don Garber . Seattle was the first MLS expansion team to win its first three matches , and they did so with a shutout in each . The club set a state record for attendance at a soccer match on August 5 , 2009 , when 66 @,@ 848 attended a friendly match with FC Barcelona , a record which was later broken when they hosted Manchester United in front of 67 @,@ 052 fans .
On September 2 , 2009 , the Sounders became the second MLS expansion team in league history ( Chicago was the first ) to win the U.S. Open Cup tournament in its first season . They did so by defeating D.C. United 2 – 1 on the road at RFK Stadium . In winning the U.S. Open Cup tournament , they qualified for the preliminary round of the 2010 – 11 CONCACAF Champions League .
On October 17 , 2009 , the Sounders became the second MLS expansion team in league history to qualify for the playoffs in its first season . They clinched a playoff berth with a come @-@ from @-@ behind victory over the Kansas City Wizards 3 – 2 at Kansas City . Seattle finished the regular season with a record of 12 wins , 7 losses , and 11 draws . The club set a new MLS record for average attendance with 30 @,@ 943 fans per match . Its inaugural season came to an end in the 2009 MLS Cup Playoffs with a loss in the conference semi @-@ finals to the Houston Dynamo by a 1 – 0 aggregate score in a two @-@ legged series . During the 2009 season , all 15 Sounders MLS regular season home matches , its home playoff match , and its four home U.S. Open Cup matches ( played at Starfire Sports Complex ) were sold out .
= = = 2010 season = = =
Before the first match of the Sounders ' second season , the club increased the number of season ticket holders to 32 @,@ 000 . The first match of the season was played at CenturyLink Field , with Seattle hosting a new MLS expansion team , the Philadelphia Union . The Sounders won 2 – 0 on goals from Brad Evans and Fredy Montero . However , Seattle followed the win by losing 8 of its next 14 matches . In the latter half of the regular season , Seattle reversed its fortune . The team won 10 of its last 15 matches , and clinched a playoff berth for the second consecutive year with a 2 – 1 win on October 10 , 2010 at Kansas City . They finished the season with 14 wins , 10 losses , and 6 ties . In the playoffs , the Sounders were eliminated in the conference semi @-@ finals by the Los Angeles Galaxy on a 3 – 1 aggregate score . The club broke its own single @-@ season attendance record , averaging 36 @,@ 173 fans per match , and again sold out every league match .
The Sounders also competed in two additional competitions during the 2010 season – the CONCACAF Champions League and the U.S. Open Cup . In the Champions League , Seattle progressed through the preliminary round , beating Isidro Metapán 2 – 1 on aggregate , but was eliminated in the group stage . In the U.S. Open Cup , Seattle won matches at Portland and at home against the Los Angeles Galaxy and Chivas USA before reaching the final , which they hosted at CenturyLink Field against the Columbus Crew . On October 5 , 2010 , Seattle won the U.S. Open Cup final , 2 – 1 , becoming the first team since 1983 to repeat as U.S. Open Cup champions . The final was played in front of a U.S. Open Cup record crowd of 31 @,@ 311 , and the victory ensured Seattle 's return to the Champions League in 2011 .
= = = 2011 season = = =
The Sounders began 2011 by hosting the opening match of the MLS season for the third straight year . The club hosted the Los Angeles Galaxy , and lost 1 – 0 . On April 22 , 2011 , in a match against the Colorado Rapids , Seattle 's star midfielder Steve Zakuani suffered a broken leg in a challenge by the Rapids ' Brian Mullan , which ended his season . Despite setbacks and a slow start to the season ( the club won just 3 of its first 10 matches ) , the Sounders went on to finish the season with the second @-@ best record in the league at 18 wins , 9 draws , 7 losses , and qualified for the playoffs for a third consecutive year .
On October 4 , 2011 , Seattle won its third consecutive U.S. Open Cup , becoming the first club to do so in 42 years , as they defeated the Chicago Fire 2 – 0 in front of another tournament record crowd of 35 @,@ 615 at CenturyLink Field .
In the MLS playoffs , Seattle lost its Western Conference semi @-@ final series 3 – 2 on aggregate to Real Salt Lake . The club dug itself a hole by losing 3 – 0 in Salt Lake , and could only net two goals in the second leg at home .
Sounders midfielder Mauro Rosales was recognized by the league as the 2011 Newcomer of the Year . In 2011 , Seattle again broke its own league record for average attendance at 38 @,@ 496 . On October 15 , 2011 , the club hosted the third @-@ largest crowd ever for a single MLS match , as 64 @,@ 140 attended the final regular season home match .
In the 2011 – 12 CONCACAF Champions League , the club finished second in its group and advanced to the knockout round , which was played starting in March 2012 . In champions league group play , Seattle became only the second MLS team in history to win a competitive match in Mexico , defeating CF Monterrey 1 – 0 on August 23 , 2011 .
= = = 2012 and 2013 = = =
In 2013 , the Sounders completed the largest transfer deal ever in the history of MLS , paying $ 9 million to Tottenham Hotspur for Clint Dempsey , captain of the U.S. national team and considered one of the best American players to date . The Sounders agreed to pay Dempsey the fourth @-@ largest salary to date in MLS , approximately $ 5 million per year until 2016 .
Seattle Sounders continued breaking the MLS attendance record for the fourth and fifth consecutive year in 2012 and 2013 with the average crowd of 43 @,@ 144 and 44 @,@ 038 respectively
= = = 2014 season = = =
After a disappointing 2013 season , the Sounders replaced starting goalkeeper Michael Gspurning with Toronto 's Stefan Frei . Several veteran players , including Eddie Johnson , Patrick Ianni , Jhon Kennedy Hurtado , Mauro Rosales , and Steve Zakuani , left the club as part of a major restructure ; Brad Evans was named as club captain . Marco Pappa , an experienced MLS player and Guatemalan international , was added to the team . Homegrown player DeAndre Yedlin was transferred overseas to Tottenham Hotspur at the end of the season .
The Sounders advanced to the 2014 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup Final and defeated the Philadelphia Union in extra time , to win their fourth trophy of the tournament . On October 25 , 2014 , the final game of the 2014 regular season , the Sounders defeated the LA Galaxy 2 – 0 to secure and win their first Supporters ' Shield .
Entering the playoffs as the top seed , Seattle defeated FC Dallas on the away goals rule and advanced to the Western Conference Semi @-@ Finals to face the LA Galaxy once again . The Sounders lost on aggregate score and the away goals rule after losing 1 – 0 away and winning 2 – 1 at home . LA would go on to win the MLS Cup .
= = = 2015 season = = =
Former Real Salt Lake general manager Garth Lagerwey was hired by the club in January 2015 , replacing Adrian Hanauer .
Seattle was unable to repeat their successes in the 2014 season . The season started successfully , with several key wins that saw the team at the top of the Western Conference by June . During a 2015 Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup match against the Portland Timbers on June 16 , however , Obafemi Martins left the game with a groin injury and Clint Dempsey was suspended after tearing a referee 's pocketbook , though he would be called away for the 2015 CONCACAF Gold Cup .
The injury and suspension of the team 's main attacking duo led to a death spiral during the summer , with Seattle winning only one match in nine games . By late August , Martins had recovered and led the team to a 8 @-@ match unbeaten streak to secure a playoff spot , finishing 4th in the Western Conference . The Sounders had also successfully topped their group in the 2015 – 16 CONCACAF Champions League , beating the Vancouver Whitecaps and Club Deportivo Olimpia , with two wins , one draw , and one loss . Paraguayan international Nelson Haedo Valdez was signed as the club 's newest designated player , and was joined by fellow international signings Andreas Ivanschitz and Román Torres in August 2015 ; Erik Friberg also returned to the club after his stint in Europe .
During the playoff 's opening knockout round , the Sounders defeated the LA Galaxy 3 – 2 , ending a " curse " for the club , who had lost to LA in each of the three previous playoff matchups . The playoff run would end in the next round , the Western Conference semifinals against FC Dallas , during a penalty shootout after both teams were tied on aggregate score after extra time in Frisco , Texas .
In November 2015 , Adrian Hanauer was made majority owner of the club , succeeding Joe Roth . The club set a new attendance record during the 2015 season , with an average attendance of 44 @,@ 247 .
= = = 2016 to present = = =
Prior to the 2016 season , Obafemi Martins abruptly left the club to sign with Shanghai Greenland Shenhua F.C. in the Chinese Super League , a move that would hamper the Sounders ' offense during the season . The move was mitigated somewhat by the signing of homegrown product Jordan Morris . GM Lagerwey also traded Marco Pappa and Lamar Neagle to other clubs in the offseason .
On July 26 , 2016 , the Sounders and coach Sigi Schmid agreed to part ways , ending his tenure at the club . Assistant coach Brian Schmetzer was promoted to interim head coach .
= = Team colors and crest = =
The badge design resembles a heraldic shield , and consists of two layers which represent " the partnership between the ownership , the community , the players and the fans . " The logo incorporates the Space Needle , an internationally recognized Seattle landmark . The official team colors are Sounder Blue , signifying the waters of the Puget Sound ; Rave Green , representing the forests of the Pacific Northwest ; and Cascade Shale , representing the Cascade Range to the east of Seattle . Fans chose a name for the team in an online poll held between March 27 and 31 , 2008 . The initial list of possibilities – Seattle FC , Seattle Republic and Seattle Alliance – deliberately did not include Seattle Sounders in order to provide a " fresh start . " Despite the names having been selected through fan research and internal committees , the omission of the traditional Sounders name embittered many in the Seattle community . In response to the backlash , the team added a fourth " write @-@ in " option for the team name , allowing for any name to be suggested on the ballot . Of the more than 14 @,@ 500 votes received in choosing the new team name , 49 % of the votes included some form of the name " Sounders " . Upon announcing the name of the club , Hanauer acknowledged the significance of keeping with tradition : " The team playing at the highest level in our region has always been called Sounders . Starting with the NASL and then the USL 1st Division , we now have the chance to create a separate and distinct identity with the new MLS team . "
= = = Sponsorship = = =
Team ownership revealed the first Sounders jersey on May 28 , 2008 , and announced Microsoft as the team 's sponsor in a five @-@ year deal worth approximately $ 20 million . As part of the agreement , Xbox branding appeared on the front of the Sounders ' jerseys and throughout the stadium , beginning with the Xbox 360 and Xbox Live and later replaced with the Xbox One ( simply shown as " XBOX " ) .
In 2012 , the club hired a consultant to explore other jersey partnerships , but ultimately added a one @-@ year extension to its Microsoft sponsorship deal in September 2013 to last through the 2014 season . A second extension signed in December 2014 , lasting through the end of the 2016 season ; the extension came amid rumors that Emirates Airlines was interested in a sponsorship as part of their marketing campaign in Seattle .
= = Stadium = =
Seattle Sounders FC plays home matches at CenturyLink Field in Seattle , also home to the Seattle Seahawks . Sounders minority owner Paul Allen is also the owner of the Seahawks , who have a 30 @-@ year lease on CenturyLink Field . Because of this relationship , the Sounders makes use of CenturyLink Field without paying rent . For Sounders matches , the pitch is called " The Xbox Pitch at CenturyLink Field " as part of the sponsorship deal with Microsoft .
CenturyLink Field is a 69 @,@ 000 @-@ seat stadium designed for both teams . The Sounders artificially limits the stadium 's capacity for MLS matches , with certain seating sections covered with tarpaulins to provide " a more intimate atmosphere . " However , the club does open the entire stadium for international friendly matches , and some league matches . The team 's original business plan expected only 12 @,@ 000 tickets per game . Based on high initial demand , capacity for the stadium was limited to 24 @,@ 500 for the beginning of the inaugural 2009 season . However , due to continued high demand , capacity has been increased multiple times , to 38 @,@ 500 for the 2012 season and to 39 @,@ 115 for 2015 season . On October 7 , 2012 , a record was established when a crowd of 66 @,@ 452 attended a Sounders 3 @-@ 0 win over the rival Portland Timbers : the second @-@ highest to @-@ date in MLS . The Sounders then beat their own record on August 25 , 2013 again against the Timbers with 67 @,@ 385 in attendance for Clint Dempsey 's home debut , a 1 @-@ 0 win for the Sounders .
While the Sounders currently play on FieldTurf , CenturyLink Field has previously had temporary natural grass installed for international soccer events . In 2012 , an updated FieldTurf surface was installed and certified by FIFA with a 2 @-@ star quality rating , the highest possible rating . If an MLS rule change requires natural grass playing surfaces , the field will be permanently replaced with natural grass .
The team 's training facilities and offices are located at the Starfire Sports Complex in nearby Tukwila . Smaller than CenturyLink Field , Starfire is also used to host U.S. Open Cup matches . Sounders representatives have said they prefer the more intimate atmosphere for smaller cup matches .
= = Supporters = =
The Sounders FC Alliance was established at the request of minority owner Drew Carey . Based on the fan association at FC Barcelona , members of the Alliance have the ability to vote on the removal of the General Manager and on other team decisions . Season ticket holders become automatic members , while non @-@ season ticket holders may buy into the Alliance for a fee . Membership benefits include voting privileges , an invitation to the annual meeting and other team perks . Members may also be elected to the Sounders FC Alliance Council by receiving at least 25 nominations from other members on an annual basis . The first vote on retaining or replacing Sounders General Manager Adrian Hanauer was scheduled to be held between October to December 2012 . After 13 @,@ 775 votes registered , Hanauer was retained by the Alliance . Drew Carey is the chairman of the Sounders FC Alliance .
Carey also requested that the Sounders have their own marching band , the first of its kind in MLS . This led to the creation of the Sound Wave , a 53 @-@ member marching band consisting of brass and marching percussion . The band plays music from multiple genres , such as Latin , rock and pop , and sits on the north end of CenturyLink Field . The March to the Match , in which fans march from Occidental Park to CenturyLink Field before each home match , has been accompanied by the Sound Wave .
Besides the Alliance , there are currently four recognized , independent supporters groups for the Sounders . Emerald City Supporters ( ECS ) , which formed in 2005 to support the USL Sounders , is the largest supporter group and sits in the south end of the stadium in sections 121 – 123 . Eastside Supporters is a group which can be found in section 150 which they call " The Pod " . Gorilla FC is a Sounders supporters group that sits in the south end of CenturyLink Field in Sections 119 and 120 . The North End Faithful sit in the north end of the stadium beneath the " Hawks Nest " in sections 100 and 144 – 152 .
= = Rivalries = =
The Seattle – Portland and Seattle – Vancouver rivalries formed in the years that the NASL @-@ Sounders and USL @-@ Sounders were playing in Seattle . In 2004 , the fan @-@ based Cascadia Cup was created to formalize the competition between the Seattle , Portland , and Vancouver USL teams . This geographic rivalry went on without Seattle for two years after 2009 saw the Sounders enter MLS , and was restored to all three cities when the MLS expansion teams in Portland and Vancouver began play in the 2011 season .
The fan @-@ created Heritage Cup competition with the San Jose Earthquakes began in the 2009 MLS season . MLS teams that carry on the names of their NASL predecessors are eligible to compete . The results of their league matches determine the winner .
Although there is no official rivalry between the Sounders and Los Angeles Galaxy , the two teams have met several times in the MLS Cup Playoffs . The relationship between head coaches Bruce Arena and Sigi Schmid , the two most successful in league history , also plays a factor in the clubs ' rivalry .
= = Ownership and team management = =
The ownership group of the club is composed of four investors . The majority owner is the former owner of the now defunct USL @-@ 1 team Seattle Sounders Adrian Hanauer , with minority owners Joe Roth , a Hollywood producer ; Paul Allen , Microsoft co @-@ founder and owner of the Seattle Seahawks and Portland Trail Blazers ; and Drew Carey , comedian and game show host . Allen 's partnership allowed for the team to share certain resources with the Seahawks , including over half of the team 's full @-@ time staff , with merged ticket , marketing , and financial operations . This arrangement ended on April 30 , 2014 , with the Sounders becoming a fully independent business operation .
Brian Schmetzer is , as of July 26 , 2016 , the Sounders ' interim head coach . He was promoted from his role as assistant coach after Sigi Schmid parted ways with the club on mutual terms . Schmid had been introduced as the first head coach of the team on December 16 , 2008 , after leaving the Columbus Crew following their MLS Cup victory . The club 's assistant coaches are Ante Razov , a retired MLS player , and Djimi Traoré , a retired Sounders player who played for Liverpool F.C. Tom Dutra was hired in 2008 as the club 's goalkeeper coach .
Garth Lagerwey was hired from Real Salt Lake in January 2015 as the club 's general manager and President of Soccer . Former MLS player and Everett , Washington native Chris Henderson was named technical director on January 24 , 2009 . Former Sounders defender Taylor Graham was hired as the club 's Vice President of Business Operations in 2012 , replacing longtime Seattle Seahawks executive Gary Wright .
SportsBusiness Journal and SportsBusiness Daily recognized Seattle Sounders FC as the Professional Sports Team of the Year in 2009 because of the team 's record @-@ setting success in attendance , as well as making the playoffs in its inaugural season . Former Seahawks and Sounders CEO Tod Leiweke was recognized by the Puget Sound Business Journal as the newspaper 's 2009 Executive of the Year . Gary Wright was named MLS Executive of the Year in 2009 . In 2012 , he was named Seattle Sports Star Executive of the Year .
= = = USL reserve team = = =
On October 14 , 2014 , the Sounders announced that they would field a reserve team , named Seattle Sounders FC 2 ( S2 ) , in the United Soccer League beginning in 2015 . The team , managed by former assistant coach Ezra Hendrickson and playing at Starfire Sports Complex in Tukwila , began its inaugural season on March 21 , 2015 .
= = Broadcasting = =
Seattle Sounders matches are televised locally in English on either Q13 FOX ( KCPQ ) or JOEtv ( KZJO ) within the Seattle market , regionally on Root Sports Northwest and nationally on ESPN and Fox Soccer . English television broadcasts were called by Keith Costigan , who works alongside color commentator and former Sounders goalkeeper Kasey Keller . Matches are televised in Spanish on Univision Seattle ( KUNS ) with Jaime Mendez and analyst Diego Arrioja . On radio , Sounders matches are called in English on KIRO @-@ FM by Matt Johnson , and in Spanish on El Rey 1360 AM ( KKMO ) by Mario Rodriguez and Felipe Maqueda .
Former Seattle SuperSonics announcer Kevin Calabro and former U.S. soccer star Greg Vanney called the play @-@ by @-@ play for the local broadcasts during the Sounders ' inaugural season in 2009 . However , they were replaced by former BBC cricket and general sport commentator Arlo White for the 2010 and 2011 seasons , who called English language broadcasts without a partner . In 2012 , White was hired by NBC Sports Network to be the voice of their soccer coverage . That led to BBC commentator Ross Fletcher becoming the club 's television and radio play @-@ by @-@ play commentator beginning with the 2012 season , working alongside Kasey Keller as the color commentator . Fletcher left the club at the end of the 2015 season and was controversially replaced by Keith Costigan .
= = Profitability and revenue = =
A 2015 study by Forbes ranked the Sounders number one in the league in terms of annual revenues ( $ 50 million ) and operating income ( $ 10 million ) . Consequently , the Sounders were also ranked as the most valuable franchise ( $ 245 million ) in MLS — a 717 % increase over the expansion fee it paid to join the league . The Sounders financial success is driven in large part by their high attendance figures .
= = Players and staff = =
= = = Current roster = = =
Where a player has not declared an international allegiance , nation is determined by place of birth . Squad correct as of March 1 , 2016 .
= = = Out on loan = = =
= = = Head coach = = =
= = = Staff = = =
As of July 26 , 2016
= = Honors = =
Supporters ' Shield
Winners : 2014
Runners Up : 2011
Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup
Winners ( 4 ) : 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2014
Runners Up : 2012
Western Conference
Winners ( Regular Season ) : 2014
Cascadia Cup
Winners ( 2 ) : 2011 , 2015
Minor Cups
Community Shield ( 2 ) : 2011 , 2012
Heritage Cup ( 3 ) : 2010 , 2011 , 2013
Desert Diamond Cup : 2013
= = Record = =
= = = Year @-@ by @-@ year = = =
= = = Leading scorers = = =
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= Me and Juliet =
Me and Juliet is a musical comedy by Richard Rodgers ( music ) and Oscar Hammerstein II ( lyrics and book ) and their sixth stage collaboration . The work tells a story of romance backstage at a long @-@ running musical : assistant stage manager Larry woos chorus girl Jeanie behind the back of her electrician boyfriend , Bob . Me and Juliet premiered in 1953 and was not considered a success , although it ran for much of a year on Broadway and returned a small profit to its backers . The show received no Tony Award nominations .
Rodgers had long wanted to write a musical comedy about the cast and crew backstage at a theatre . After Rodgers and Hammerstein had another hit with The King and I , Rodgers proposed the backstage project to his partner . Hammerstein was unenthusiastic , thinking the subject matter trivial , but agreed to do the project . The play required complex machinery , designed by Jo Mielziner , so that the audience could view action not only on the stage of the theatre where the show @-@ within @-@ the @-@ show ( also named Me and Juliet ) takes place , but in the wings and on the light bridge ( high above the stage , from which the lighting technicians train spotlights ) as well .
When Me and Juliet began tryout performances in Cleveland , the duo realized that the show had problems with the plot and staging . Extensive revisions during the remaining Cleveland and Boston tryouts failed to cure the difficulties with the plot , which the critics considered weak and uninteresting . The show was met with less than favorable reviews , though Mielziner 's staging won praise from audience and critics . The show closed once it had exhausted its advance sales . With the exception of a short run in Chicago , there was no national tour , and the show is almost never seen — although a small @-@ scale production was presented by London 's Finborough Theatre in 2010 .
= = Inception = =
The origins of Me and Juliet can be traced to the early days of the relationship between Rodgers and Hammerstein . The musical Oklahoma ! opened in 1943 ; it was Rodgers and Hammerstein 's first work together and a massive hit . Soon after Oklahoma ! opened , Rodgers began considering the idea of a musical set backstage at a theatre staging a musical . The production could explore different areas of the backstage world . Rodgers also saw it as the opportunity to write a pure musical comedy , without the serious themes which had marked their early works — such as the attacks on racism in South Pacific , and the cultural tolerance in The King and I.
Hammerstein was initially unenthusiastic , thinking the subject matter trivial , but Rodgers pressed the matter . It was Hammerstein 's turn to give in to his partner ; Rodgers had agreed to the project that became the 1947 musical , Allegro , their initial failure , under pressure from Hammerstein , who had long dreamed of doing a serious musical about an ordinary man . According to Stephen Sondheim , a protégé of Hammerstein , " Oscar was able to keep the partnership together by taking Dick 's suggestion [ for a backstage musical ] , which he did not want to take . " As the two discussed the backstage idea , Hammerstein became more enthusiastic , suggesting that the show start with the stage entirely bare , as if the audience had come in not at performance time but at another time during the day . Such effects are today well @-@ known following the success of other " backstagers " such as A Chorus Line ; in the early 1950s they were unrealized and novel .
The two discussed the matter at a meeting in Palm Beach , Florida , in early 1952 , where Rodgers was vacationing as he worked on melodic sketches for the television program Victory at Sea . Rodgers suggested dispensing with the overture , reserving that for the overture of the show @-@ within @-@ the @-@ show . Following another meeting in mid @-@ 1952 , they called in long @-@ time Rodgers and Hammerstein stage designer Jo Mielziner and hired him to design the sets . Mielziner confirmed that a scene could be played part onstage and part in the backstage world , but that this would be expensive . In August 1952 , Hammerstein began a sketch of the plot ; by early October he had a near @-@ complete first draft . As the show was to be musical comedy , the pair hired one of the top musical comedy directors , George Abbott , who accepted the position without reading the script . He regretted the haste of this decision as soon as he read the script , finding it sentimental and melodramatic . He confided his concerns to the pair ; in response , Hammerstein told him to make whatever changes in the script he thought best . With Hammerstein 's permission , Abbott made major changes to the plot .
Hammerstein had only briefly described the show @-@ within @-@ the @-@ show . Fearing the show would be uninteresting , Abbott hoped that some highlights would be furnished when the show @-@ within @-@ the @-@ show , as yet only briefly described by Hammerstein , was fleshed out . According to author and composer Ethan Mordden in his book about the duo 's works , Hammerstein thought the show @-@ within @-@ the @-@ show was to be :
something bizarre , to stand out and amaze us , the better to set off the plain life of the actor ... We shall imagine some rather advanced musical of the near future , something beyond even Allegro , with archetypical characters — a simple hero and his lovable Juliet , the rapacious Don Juan and his volatile Carmen . Then the audience will always know where it is . Contrast is the key . The show @-@ within must look and sound , at every moment , as far from real life as possible .
Hammerstein included an incident he had seen when he was a neophyte assistant stage manager : a chorus boy came up to a chorus girl and asked to use some of her mascara — to disguise a hole in the boy 's black socks . Hammerstein stated , " we were religious in keeping away from the trite things — the kindly old stage door man named Pop , the pretty little understudy who replaces the star on opening night . We steered clear , too , of the backstage story of a company putting on a new show , with all the anxieties of the actors and producers ... It seemed right to focus on a show which is already running because we wanted to tell a story about a community , the backstage community , and this community becomes settled and established after a show opens . "
In addition to Abbott , the duo recruited other professionals experienced in musical comedy . Choreographer Robert Alton had worked in such hits as Panama Hattie and in movie musicals . Don Walker was hired to do the orchestrations ; his would be simpler than those of Robert Russell Bennett , who usually performed that function in the pair 's musicals but who was not available . Irene Sharaff was engaged to design the more than 300 costumes which would be needed . The show was originally named Hercules and Juliet , but they soon changed it to Me and Juliet . The Majestic Theatre , which Rodgers and Hammerstein desired to have for Me and Juliet , was currently occupied by their South Pacific , four years into its run . Arrangements were made to shift South Pacific to the Broadway Theatre , though due to schedule conflicts , this meant moving that show to Boston for five weeks .
= = Plot = =
For theatrical terminology , see Stage ( theatre ) .
The entire action of the show takes place in and close to a Broadway theatre in which the long @-@ running musical " Me and Juliet " ( the " show @-@ within @-@ the @-@ show " ) is playing . The setting is the early 1950s .
= = = Act 1 = = =
A half @-@ hour remains before the show is to begin . Electrician Sidney and chorus girl Jeanie are irritated at Sidney 's fellow electrician , Bob , for not being there . Sidney needs Bob 's help ; Jeanie , Bob 's girlfriend , is annoyed at being stood up . Sidney warns Jeanie that Bob may not be the right man for her ; these are doubts she has too ( Musical numbers : " A Very Special Day " / " That 's the Way it Happens " ) .
Jeanie leaves , and Bob appears . Bob tells Sidney he likes dating Jeanie , but does not plan to marry her . When Sidney jokes that Jeanie can do better than Bob , the larger man momentarily chokes him . Jeanie sees this , adding to her doubts about Bob . Larry , the assistant stage manager , is also attracted to Jeanie ( reprise of " That 's the Way it Happens " ) .
Stage manager Mac sees to the final preparations , and the overture to the internal show is played by the orchestra , led by Dario , the conductor ( " Overture to Me and Juliet " ) . The internal show 's curtain rises ( " Marriage Type Love " ) : the main male character , " Me " ( performed by Charlie , a singer ) , tells the audience about the girl he wants to marry , Juliet ( Lily , a singer ) . He also tells the audience of the girl he is determined not to marry , Carmen , who scares him . " Me " feels Carmen ( the lead female dancing role ) is better suited to his boss , Don Juan ( the lead male dancer ) . As the internal show continues , Bob and Sidney are on the light bridge . Bob identifies with Don Juan for his reluctance to marry ( " Keep It Gay " ) .
Another day at Me and Juliet , and the dancers are practicing under Mac 's supervision ( conclusion of " Keep It Gay " ) . At Larry 's urging , Jeanie decides to audition for the position of second understudy for the role of Juliet . On learning this , Mac takes Larry aside and warns him never to get involved with a cast member of a show while in charge of it . No sooner has Mac said this than his girlfriend Betty ( currently in the show across the street ) auditions for the role of Carmen . The producer gives her the role . As Larry looks on with amusement , Mac accepts this professionally , then stamps off in disgust .
Jeanie practices for her own audition ( " No Other Love " ) , and Larry tells her that the audience will accept her if she 's " a real kid " like Juliet , but reject her if she 's a " phony " ( " The Big Black Giant " ) . Larry desires a romance with Jeannie , but fears the larger and stronger Bob .
Several months pass , during which Jeanie gets the job as second understudy . Larry and Jeanie are meeting secretly and keeping their budding romance from Bob . The rest of the cast is aware of their dates — one dancer spotted them in a chili restaurant on Eighth Avenue .
Mac , true to his principles , has dumped Betty , but the two are still attracted to each other . Betty enjoys acting ( " It 's Me " ) . As she performs in the internal show , Bob and Sidney are on the light bridge again .
Bob has been fooled by Jeanie 's lies about why they are not going out , and is enlightened when Sidney lets slip that Larry and Jeanie are seeing each other . Bob demands proof , and Sidney tells Bob to watch what happens in the wings during the upcoming Act 1 finale to Me and Juliet . Bob sees Larry and Jeanie kiss after she comes offstage with a tray of flowers , an action caught by Bob 's spotlight . Mac enters , grasps the situation , sends Larry away , then puts the tray back in Jeanie 's hands and pushes her onstage . She is pursued by Bob 's spotlight , which relentlessly follows her around the stage as more and more of the dancers become aware something has gone badly wrong . Bob drops a sandbag from the light bridge ; it knocks the tray Jeanie is holding to the ground . Mac orders the curtain lowered in front of a stage in panic .
= = = Act 2 = = =
In the downstairs lounge , a few minutes before the Act 2 curtain for Me and Juliet rises , the ushers comment on the remarkable conclusion to Act 1 — although the audience has noticed nothing unusual ( " Intermission Talk " ) . As Act 2 of the internal show starts , an enraged Bob is searching the theatre for Jeannie and Larry . Unable to find them , he takes up position at a bar across the street where he can watch the theatre doors ( " It Feels Good " ) . The perspective shifts to the onstage action in Me and Juliet , where Don Juan and Carmen are on a date ( " We Deserve Each Other " ) , before moving to the manager 's office where Larry and Jeanie are hiding out ( " I 'm Your Girl " ) . Mac has only just begun his lecture to them when Bob enters through the window , having heard familiar voices . In the ensuing fight , Bob knocks out Mac , but when the electrician grabs for Jeannie , Larry strongly defends her . The fight ends when Bob accidentally hits his head on a radiator and is knocked out as well .
Ruby , the company manager , sends Larry and Jeannie down to the stage to continue the play . After Bob and Mac recover , Ruby informs Bob that Larry and Jeanie had secretly married earlier that day , and , surprised , the electrician leaves . Mac , fearful of more mayhem , goes in search of him . As Mac exits , the phone rings , and Ruby takes the call . It is the producer , calling for Mac to transfer him to another show , thereby setting him free to resume his romance with Betty .
Onstage , Me and Juliet is concluding . After the internal show finishes ( " Finale to Me and Juliet " ) , Larry , who will be the new stage manager , insists on rehearsing a scene from the show . Seeing Bob enter with a scowl , Larry orders him and Sidney to be present the next morning to re @-@ angle the lights . Taken aback , and rather sheepishly , Bob says " I didn 't know you were married " before quietly leaving , after stating , " I 'll be here , I guess . " Jeanie is congratulated by her showmates , but Larry , all business , waves them to their places to rehearse the scene . As Lily has had to leave , Jeanie stands in for her as Juliet , while Larry sings the part of Me in the scene , as the curtain falls ( " Finale of Our Play " ) .
= = Rehearsals and tryouts = =
The cast consisted mostly of unknowns , though Isabel Bigley , who had just originated Sister Sarah Brown in Guys and Dolls , was given the leading role of chorus girl Jeanie . For Larry , the assistant stage manager who falls in love with Jeanie , they cast Bill Hayes , a well @-@ known stage and television actor . William Tabbert , the original Lt. Joe Cable in South Pacific was considered for the part of Larry , but lost out because he was thought to be too tall to be afraid of Mark Dawson , hired as the towering bully Bob .
Chorus auditions began March 10 , 1953 , at Broadway 's Majestic Theatre ; Rodgers , Hammerstein , and Abbott listened to more than 1 @,@ 000 people . Rehearsals opened at the Majestic for principals and the Alvin Theatre for dancers . According to Saul Pett , a freelance reporter who was allowed to observe the rehearsals , " everyone seems relaxed except Hammerstein . " The lyricist 's son James served as second assistant stage manager . James Hammerstein remembered having a difficult relationship with Rodgers ; the composer suggested James do his work from front of house , rather than from backstage . " I think he thought it was his show and his bailiwick . Why should a Hammerstein be back there ? " James Hammerstein found the lead female dancer attractive , and asked her out . Just before the date , Rodgers fired her , telling James Hammerstein to break the news .
Pett recorded the technical problems which had to be solved to accomplish the complex staging :
A number of key scenes required the audience to both see the play @-@ within @-@ the @-@ play and at the same time observe the realism of the stage manager 's operations in the wings . To achieve this result and to make both elements simultaneous , the major part of the production had to hang on specially @-@ constructed overhead steel tracks . Synchronized electric motors slowly moved the stage pictures off into the wings far enough to expose the stage manager 's desk and actors and stagehands offstage awaiting their cues .
During the rehearsals , the duo took out two production numbers , " Wake Up , Little Theatre " and " Dance " , concerned that the show was running long . The actress playing Juliet in the internal play proved to be a fine singer but a poor actress ; she was replaced by Helena Scott . Abbott had few negative comments after the final New York run @-@ through , and the company entrained for Cleveland , where the first tryouts were to be , in high spirits , sleeping little on the train ride . RCA Records put up the $ 350 @,@ 000 cost of the production in exchange for a fifty @-@ percent interest and rights to the original cast recording .
The tryouts in Cleveland were at the Hanna Theatre . The dress rehearsal the night before the initial performance revealed a number of problems with the show ; during the first act alone , Hammerstein dictated eight pages of notes . The sandbag which falls from the light bridge near the end of Act 1 dropped off @-@ cue , nearly striking Isabel Bigley , who played Jeanie . Pett remembered that the rehearsal was stopped often , as Rodgers sought to work out each problem as it arose , and the rehearsal , which began at 8 p.m. did not end until 2 a.m.
The Cleveland premiere on the evening of April 20 , 1953 , saw a distinguished crowd turn out . When the stage backdrop failed to come down on time , Hammerstein was heard to mutter , " Damn and damn and damn ! This is a new way : they saved it for the performance ! " Nevertheless , the crowd gave the show a rousing welcome . The Cleveland critics thought well of the show , but were concerned about the weak story . After the Cleveland reactions and problems , according to Rodgers biographer Meryle Secrest , " what had seemed to be a show needing minor adjustments became a musical in serious trouble " . Bigley remembered that she had just come from a hit and " there just wasn 't the same energy " . Hammerstein had intended to omit the overture , with the audience to watch , after the curtain rose , a blank stage on which the play @-@ within @-@ the @-@ play performers and crew drifted in and began their preparations . Expecting the orchestra to begin the evening , the audience talked throughout the initial scenes before being quieted by the internal show 's overture ; in response , the duo abandoned Hammerstein 's concept and opened with an overture .
In contrast to the levity on their first train ride , the company was downcast and exhausted en route from Cleveland to Boston for the final tryouts . The show opened in Boston on May 6 . A majority of the Boston critics liked the show , and expressed confidence that Rodgers and Hammerstein could fix the problems with the plot . The pair took out one song , " Meat and Potatoes " , which was felt to be too raunchy . After watching it performed by Joan McCracken , who played Betty ( Carmen in the play @-@ within @-@ the @-@ play ) , the pair decided it had too many double entendres and cut it . It was replaced by " We Deserve Each Other " , which the pair had written in a Cleveland hotel room . Another cut song , " You Never Had It So Good " , included lyrics which satirized the duo 's own earlier efforts . Its lyrics , " I 'll sew , I 'll bake / I 'll try to make your evenings all enchanted . / My honeycake , / I 'm yours to take , but don 't take me for granted " , alluded to two songs from South Pacific , " Some Enchanted Evening " and " Honey Bun " . Audiences continued to greet the show warmly .
During the Boston previews , the duo heard the audience praise the sets , a reaction which usually augered ill for the show itself . Hammerstein wrote to The King and I director John van Druten :
Me and Juliet looks like a great big hit . It is a change of pace for us and in some quarters we may be criticized because it is not as high @-@ falutin ' as our most recent efforts . It is in fact an out and out musical comedy . If this be treason , make the most of it .
= = Production = =
The musical opened on Broadway on May 28 , 1953 at the Majestic Theatre . Large advance sales guaranteed a considerable run ; by the start of November , it had paid back its advance , and closed after 358 performances , paying a small profit to RCA . Thomas Hischak , in his The Rodgers and Hammerstein Encyclopedia , suggests that business fell off after the advance was exhausted " because audiences had come to expect more from a Rodgers and Hammerstein musical " . According to Frederick W. Nolan in his book about the duo 's works , " despite a $ 500 @,@ 000 advance sale , despite a ten @-@ month run ( which , for anyone except Rodgers and Hammerstein , would have represented a major success ) , and despite an eventual profit in excess of $ 100 @,@ 000 , Me and Juliet has to be classed as a failure " .
The backstage drama portrayed in the musical was matched by actual difficulties among the cast . McCracken , who played Betty , was the wife of choreographer Bob Fosse and became pregnant during the run . Bill Hayes later wrote that she lost her baby through miscarriage about the same time she lost her husband to Gwen Verdon . The baby was in fact aborted , because the pregnancy would have endangered McCracken 's health as a result of her diabetes . Hayes noted that in the fifteen months he played Larry , he did not recall ever having a conversation with Isabel Bigley , who was supposedly his love interest and wife : " I doubt that the audience ever believed we were deeply in love . " The show received no Tony Award nominations . During the run , Hammerstein followed his usual practice of visiting the theatre now and again to ensure that the performers were not taking liberties with his book . Upon his return , Hammerstein 's secretary asked him how the show was going . The lyricist thought for a second , then said only " I hate that show . "
No national tour was attempted , but the show did have a six @-@ week run in Chicago in 1954 . Among those who played in the chorus during the New York run was future star Shirley MacLaine ; Shirley Jones was a chorus girl in the Chicago performances . Subsequent productions include one by Kansas City 's Starlight Theatre in 1955 . Equity Library Theatre produced it in New York in 1970 ; it returned to that city , though not to Broadway , in 2002 with the York Theatre . A London production was presented by the Finborough Theatre in 2010 in a fifty @-@ seat theatre ; the production was billed as the show 's European premiere .
= = Musical numbers = =
= = Musical treatment and recording = =
One source of Rodgers 's excitement for the concept that became Me and Juliet was his view that a contemporary musical gave him the opportunity for a contemporary score . At the time Rodgers wrote the score , a Latin dance craze had swept the United States , and its influence found its way into the music for Me and Juliet . Rodgers put an onstage jazz trio in the production and encouraged the members to improvise . Among the trio was jazz artist Barbara Carroll as Chris , rehearsal pianist . " Intermission Talk " , the chatter among audience members early in the second act , is given a bouncy melody and sly references to a number of shows then on Broadway — including the duo 's own The King and I. According to author and composer Ethan Mordden , Rodgers 's score " found [ Rodgers & Hammerstein ] going for impish , nimble , the sound of the Hit Parade as reimagined by [ them ] " .
Rodgers borrowed the music for " No Other Love " from his award @-@ winning score for Victory at Sea . RCA , which had those rights , arranged for Perry Como to record the song , and it was rushed onto the market to coincide with the show 's Broadway opening . The record became a number @-@ one hit for Como on the Disc Jockey chart , though # 2 as a best seller , remaining on the charts for 22 weeks .
Hischak described the original cast album as " surprisingly lively and mostly enjoyable for a musical that was considered so dull on stage . " He pointed to " Intermission Talk " as a number which probably works better in a recording than on stage and states that " there is no mistaking the hypnotic power of ' No Other Love ' " . The original cast recording was released on compact disc in 1993 .
= = Critical reception and assessment = =
Critics ' views were neutral to unfavorable . The New York Times critic Brooks Atkinson praised the acting and choreography , but stated , " This is their Valentine to show business , expressed in the form of a show @-@ within @-@ a @-@ show ; and it has just about everything except an intelligible story . " Herald @-@ Tribune critic Walter Kerr noted that " Rodgers and Hammerstein have come perilously close to writing a show @-@ without @-@ a @-@ show . " George Jean Nathan of the Journal American stated that " Hammerstein 's book has the effect of hanging idly around waiting for an idea to come to him . " Robert Coleman of the Daily Mirror noted , " Having set new high standards for musicals throughout the world , Rodgers and Hammerstein dipped into the lower drawer of their desk for Me and Juliet . It proved a big disappointment for this dyed @-@ in @-@ the @-@ wool R. & H. fan . " John Chapman of the Daily News commented , " It is at its most interesting when Jo Mielziner 's sets are in motion " . According to Steven Suskin in his compilation of Broadway opening night reviews , the seven major New York critics allotted the production no raves , one favorable review , one mixed , four unfavorable , and one pan .
One well @-@ received number was " Keep It Gay " , a song which in rehearsal had been assigned to several different performers before ending with Bob . The song was liked in part due to the novelty of its setting : it begins with Bob singing from the light bridge high above the stage ; following a blackout the internal play performers take it up on the stage below , and following another blackout , the performers are seen in their workout clothes , at a rehearsal some weeks later . Hammerstein gave credit for the scene to Mielziner , and suggested that it demonstrated one way in which the book had affected the music .
Abbott stated that there were two reasons for what he considered to be the show 's failure . The first was Rodgers and Hammerstein 's overconfidence ; they thought of themselves as Broadway 's " Golden Boys " who could do no wrong . The other was the play @-@ within @-@ the @-@ play , which had not been thoroughly thought out by anyone . According to Abbott , Hammerstein remained " positively Sphinx @-@ like " on the subject . At a loss to understand the characters of the play @-@ within @-@ the play , Alton came up with nothing more than routine song @-@ and @-@ dance numbers . During the run , the duo approached choreographer Jerome Robbins and asked him if he could fix the dances . Robbins said that he could , but he would not , as " it would kill Bob Alton " . According to Hammerstein biographer Hugh Fordin , " [ the ] intended contrast between onstage and backstage life was never achieved because the onstage show was so tepid and confusing . "
" That 's the Way it Happens " was included in the 1996 stage version of Rodgers and Hammerstein 's 1945 movie musical , State Fair . According to David Lewis in his history of the Broadway musical , " The Rodgers and Hammerstein office has , it would appear , given up on [ later R & H musical ] Pipe Dream and [ Me and ] Juliet ever finding an audience ... so these songs are up for grabs . "
Composer and author Ethan Mordden , in his book on the duo 's works , wrote of the conceptual difficulties which Rodgers and Hammerstein had with the musical :
[ Me and Juliet ] was the first of their plays without a powerful sense of destiny , of characters consequentially interconnected . In Oklahoma ! , Carousel , South Pacific and The King and I especially , the principals — whether noble or weak , just or impetuous — change each other 's lives . Me and Juliet 's characters appear to be thrown together by chance and — except for the lovers — will part company unaffected by each other as soon as the show closes . This left Hammerstein with nothing to seek out in his people , and Rodgers with nothing to illustrate .
= = Characters and opening night cast = =
Principal characters :
Jeanie , chorus singer — Isabel Bigley
Bob , electrician — Mark Dawson
Larry , assistant stage manager — Bill Hayes
Mac , stage manager — Ray Walston
Dario , conductor — George S. Irving
Sidney , electrician — Edwin Phillips
Herbie , candy counter boy — Jackie Kelk
Ruby , company manager — Joe Lautner
Buzz , principal dancer — Buzz Miller
Characters in " Me and Juliet " ( play @-@ within @-@ the @-@ play ) :
Charlie ( Me ) , featured lead — Arthur Maxwell
Lily ( Juliet ) , singing principal — Helena Scott
Jim ( Don Juan ) , principal dancer — Robert Fortier
Susie ( Carmen ) , principal dancer — Svetlana McLee
Betty , successor to Susie as principal dancer — Joan McCracken
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= Pat Nixon =
Thelma Catherine " Pat " Nixon ( née Ryan ; March 16 , 1912 – June 22 , 1993 ) was the wife of Richard Nixon , 37th President of the United States , and First Lady of the United States from 1969 to 1974 .
Born in Ely , Nevada , she grew up with her two brothers in what is now Cerritos , California , graduating from high school in 1929 . She attended Fullerton Junior College and later the University of Southern California . She paid for her schooling by working multiple jobs , including pharmacy manager , typist , radiographer , and retail clerk . In 1940 , she married lawyer Richard Nixon and they had two daughters . Nixon campaigned for her husband in his successful congressional campaigns of 1946 and 1948 . Richard Nixon was elected Vice President in the Eisenhower administration , whereupon Pat undertook many missions of goodwill with her husband and gained favorable media coverage . She assisted her husband in both his unsuccessful 1960 presidential campaign and later in his successful 1968 presidential campaign .
As First Lady , Pat Nixon promoted a number of charitable causes , including volunteerism . She oversaw the collection of more than 600 pieces of historic art and furnishings for the White House , an acquisition larger than that of any other administration . She was the most traveled First Lady in U.S. history , a record unsurpassed until twenty @-@ five years later . She accompanied the President as the first First Lady to visit China and the Soviet Union and her solo trips to Africa and South America gained her recognition as " Madame Ambassador " ; she was the first First Lady to enter a combat zone as well . These trips gained her favorable reception in the media and the host countries . Her tenure ended when , after being re @-@ elected in a landslide victory in 1972 , President Nixon resigned two years later amid the Watergate scandal .
Her public appearances became increasingly rare later in life . She and her husband returned to California , and later moved to New Jersey . She suffered two strokes , one in 1976 and another in 1983 , then was diagnosed with lung cancer in 1992 . She died in 1993 , aged 81 .
= = Early life = =
Thelma Catherine Ryan was born in the small mining town of Ely , Nevada , the day before Saint Patrick 's Day . Her father , William M. Ryan Sr. , was a sailor , gold miner , and truck farmer of Irish descent ; her mother , Katherine Halberstadt , was a German immigrant . " Pat " was a nickname given to her by her father , referring to her birthdate and Irish ancestry . Upon enrolling in college in 1931 she dropped her first name of Thelma , replacing it with Pat and occasionally rendering it as Patricia ; the name change , however , was not a legal action , merely one of preference .
After her birth , the Ryan family moved to California , and in 1914 settled on a small truck farm in Artesia ( present @-@ day Cerritos ) . Thelma Ryan 's high @-@ school yearbook page gives her nickname as " Buddy " and her ambition to run a boarding house .
During this time she worked on the family farm , and also at a local bank as a janitor and bookkeeper . Her mother died of cancer in 1924 . Pat , who was 12 at the time , assumed all the household duties for her father , who died in 1929 of silicosis , and two older brothers , William Jr . ( 1910 – 1997 ) and Thomas ( 1911 – 1992 ) . She also had a half @-@ sister , Neva Bender ( born 1909 ) , and a half @-@ brother , Matthew Bender ( born 1907 ) , from her mother 's first marriage ; her mother 's first husband had died during a flash flood in South Dakota .
= = Education and career = =
It has been said that few , if any , First Ladies worked as consistently before their marriage as did Pat Nixon . As she told the writer Gloria Steinem during the 1968 presidential campaign , " I never had time to think about things like that — who I wanted to be , or who I admired , or to have ideas . I never had time to dream about being anyone else . I had to work . "
After graduating from Excelsior High School in 1929 , she attended Fullerton Junior College . She paid for her education by working odd jobs , including as a driver , a pharmacy manager , a telephone operator , and a typist . She also earned money sweeping the floors of a local bank , and from 1930 until 1932 , she lived in New York City , working as a secretary and Radiographer .
Determined " to make something out of myself " , she enrolled in 1931 at the University of Southern California ( USC ) , where she majored in merchandising . A former professor noted that she " stood out from the empty @-@ headed , overdressed little sorority girls of that era like a good piece of literature on a shelf of cheap paperbacks . " She held part @-@ time jobs on campus , worked as a sales clerk in Bullock 's @-@ Wilshire department store , taught typing and shorthand at a high school , and supplemented her income by working as an extra in the film industry . She appeared as part of a brief walk @-@ on in the 1935 film Becky Sharp , as well as the 1936 film The Great Ziegfeld .
In 1937 , Pat Ryan graduated cum laude from USC with a Bachelor of Science degree in merchandising , together with a certificate to teach at the high school level , which USC deemed equivalent to a Master 's degree . Pat accepted a position as a high school teacher in Whittier , California .
= = Marriage and family , early campaigns = =
While in Whittier , Pat Ryan met a young lawyer recently graduated from the Duke University School of Law , Richard Milhous Nixon . The two became acquainted at a Little Theater group when they were cast together in The Dark Tower . Known as Dick , he asked Pat Ryan to marry him the first night they went out . " I thought he was nuts or something ! " she recalled . He courted the redhead he called his " wild Irish Gypsy " for two years , even driving her to and from her dates with other men .
Eventually they married at the Mission Inn in Riverside , California , on June 21 , 1940 . She said that she had been attracted to the young Nixon because he " was going places , he was vital and ambitious ... he was always doing things " . Later , referring to Richard Nixon , she said , " Oh but you just don 't realize how much fun he is ! He 's just so much fun ! " Following a brief honeymoon in Mexico , the two lived in a small apartment in Whittier . As U.S. involvement in World War II began , the couple moved to Washington , D.C. , with Richard taking a position as a lawyer for the Office of Price Administration ( OPA ) ; Pat worked as a secretary for the American Red Cross , but also qualified as a price analyst for the OPA . He then joined the United States Navy , and while he was stationed in San Francisco , she resumed work for the OPA as an economic analyst .
Veteran UPI reporter Helen Thomas suggested that in public , the Nixons " moved through life ritualistically " , but privately , however , they were " very close " . In private , Richard Nixon was described as being " unabashedly sentimental " , often praising Pat for her work , remembering anniversaries and surprising her with frequent gifts . During state dinners , he ordered the protocol changed so that Pat could be served first . Pat , in turn , felt that her husband was vulnerable and sought to protect him . Of his critics , she said that " Lincoln had worse critics . He was big enough not to let it bother him . That 's the way my husband is . "
Pat campaigned at her husband 's side in 1946 when he entered politics , running successfully for a seat in the United States House of Representatives . That same year , she gave birth to a daughter and namesake , Patricia , known as Tricia . In 1948 , Pat had her second and last child , Julie . When asked about her husband 's career , Pat once stated , " The only thing I could do was help him , but [ politics ] was not a life I would have chosen . " Pat participated in the campaign by doing research on his opponent , incumbent Jerry Voorhis . She also wrote and distributed campaign literature . Nixon was elected in his first campaign to represent California 's 12th congressional district . During the next six years , Pat saw her husband move from the U.S. House of Representatives to the United States Senate , and then be nominated as Dwight D. Eisenhower 's vice presidential candidate .
Although Pat Nixon was a Methodist , she and her husband attended whichever Protestant Church was nearest to their home , especially after moving to Washington . They attended the Metropolitan Memorial Methodist Church because it sponsored her daughters ' Brownie troop , occasional Baptist services with the Reverend Dr. Billy Graham , and Norman Vincent Peale 's Marble Collegiate Church .
= = Wife of the Vice President , 1953 – 1961 = =
During the Presidential campaign of 1952 , Pat Nixon 's attitude toward politics changed when her husband was accused of accepting illegal campaign contributions . Pat encouraged him to fight the charges , and he did so by delivering the famed " Checkers speech " , so @-@ called for the family 's dog , a Cocker Spaniel given to them by a political supporter . This was Pat 's first national television appearance , and she , her daughters , and the dog were featured prominently . Defending himself as a man of the people , Nixon stressed his wife 's abilities as a stenographer , then said , " I should say this , that Pat doesn 't have a mink coat . But she does have a respectable Republican cloth coat , and I always tell her she would look good in anything . "
Pat Nixon accompanied her husband abroad in his vice presidential years . She visited 53 nations , often bypassing luncheons and teas and instead visiting hospitals , orphanages , and even a leper colony in Panama . On a trip to Venezuela , the Nixons ' limousine was pelted with rocks and the couple was spat upon as representatives of the U.S. government .
A November 1 , 1958 , article in The Seattle Times was typical of the media 's favorable coverage of the future First Lady , stating that " Mrs. Nixon is always reported to be gracious and friendly . And she sure is friendly . She greets a stranger as a friend . She doesn 't just shake hands but clasps a visitor 's hand in both her hands . Her manner is direct ... Mrs. Nixon also upheld her reputation of always looking neat , no matter how long her day has been . " A year and a half later , during her husband 's campaign for the presidency , The New York Times called her " a paragon of wifely virtues " whose " efficiency makes other women feel slothful and untalented " .
Pat Nixon was named Outstanding Homemaker of the Year ( 1953 ) , Mother of the Year ( 1955 ) , and the Nation 's Ideal Housewife ( 1957 ) , and once admitted that she pressed all of her husband 's suits one evening . " Of course , I didn 't have to , " she told The New York Times , " But when I don 't have work to do , I just think up some new project . "
= = Her husband 's campaigns — 1960 , 1962 and 1968 = =
Vice President Nixon ran for President of the United States in the 1960 election against Senator John F. Kennedy . Pat was featured prominently in the campaign ; an entire advertisement campaign was built around the slogan " Pat for First Lady " . Nixon conceded the election to Kennedy , although the race was very close and there were allegations of voter fraud . Pat had urged her husband to demand a recount of votes , though Nixon declined . Pat was most upset about the television cameras , which recorded her reaction when her husband lost — " millions of television viewers witnessed her desperate fight to hold a smile upon her lips as her face came apart and the bitter tears flowed from her eyes " , as one reporter put it . This permanently dimmed Pat Nixon 's view of politics .
In 1962 , the Nixons embarked on another campaign , this time for Governor of California . Prior to Richard Nixon 's announcement of his candidacy , Pat 's brother Tom Ryan said , " Pat told me that if Dick ran for governor she was going to take her shoe to him . " She eventually agreed to another run , citing that it meant a great deal to her husband , but Richard Nixon lost the gubernatorial election to Pat Brown .
Six years later , Richard Nixon ran again for the presidency . Pat was reluctant to face another campaign , her eighth since 1946 . Her husband was a deeply controversial figure in American politics , and Pat had witnessed and shared the praise and vilification he had received without having established an independent public identity for herself . Although she supported him in his career , she feared another " 1960 " , when Nixon lost to Kennedy . She consented , however , and participated in the campaign by traveling on campaign trips with her husband . Richard Nixon would make a political comeback with his presidential victory of 1968 over Vice @-@ President Hubert Humphrey — and the country would have a new First Lady .
= = First Lady of the United States , 1969 – 1974 = =
= = = Major initiatives = = =
Pat Nixon felt that the First Lady should always set a public example of high virtue as a symbol of dignity , but she refused to revel in the trappings of the position . When considering ideas for a project as First Lady , Pat refused to do ( or be ) something simply to emulate her predecessor , Lady Bird Johnson . She decided to continue what she called " personal diplomacy " , which meant traveling and visiting people in other states or other nations .
One of her major initiatives as First Lady was the promotion of volunteerism , in which she encouraged Americans to address social problems at the local level through volunteering at hospitals , civic organizations , and rehabilitation centers . She stated , " Our success as a nation depends on our willingness to give generously of ourselves for the welfare and enrichment of the lives of others . " She undertook a " Vest Pockets for Volunteerism " trip , where she visited ten different volunteer programs . Susan Porter , in charge of the First Lady 's scheduling , noted that Pat " saw volunteers as unsung heroes who hadn 't been encouraged or given credit for their sacrifices and who needed to be " . Her second volunteerism tour — she traveled 4 @,@ 130 miles ( 6 @,@ 647 km ) within the United States — helped to boost the notion that not all students were protesting the Vietnam War . She herself belonged to several volunteer groups , including Women in Community Services and Urban Services League , and was an advocate of the Domestic Volunteer Service Act of 1973 , a bill that encouraged volunteerism by providing benefits to a number of volunteer organizations . Some reporters viewed her choice of volunteerism as safe and dull compared to the initiatives undertaken by Lady Bird Johnson and Jacqueline Kennedy .
Pat Nixon became involved in the development of recreation areas and parkland , was a member of the President 's Committee on Employment of the Handicapped , and lent her support to organizations dedicated to improving the lives of handicapped children . For her first Thanksgiving in the White House , Pat organized a meal for 225 senior citizens who did not have families . The following year , she invited wounded servicemen to a second annual Thanksgiving meal in the White House . Though presidents since George Washington had been issuing Thanksgiving proclamations , Pat became the only First Lady to issue one .
= = = Life in the White House = = =
After her husband was elected president in 1968 , Pat Nixon met with the outgoing First Lady Lady Bird Johnson and toured the private quarters of the White House on December 12 . Eventually she asked Sarah Jackson Doyle — an interior decorator who had worked for the Nixons since 1965 and who decorated the family 's 10 @-@ room apartment on Fifth Avenue in New York with French and English antiques — to serve as a design consultant . She hired Clement Conger from the State Department to be the Executive Mansion 's new curator- replacing the house 's first curator , James Ketchum , who had been hired by Jacqueline Kennedy . To the White House residence staff , the Nixons were perceived as more stiff and formal than other first families , but nonetheless kind . Pat in particular liked the butlers and maids to be very quiet when they were around her .
Pat Nixon had an interest in adding artifacts to the Executive Mansion , and built on Jacqueline Kennedy 's more publicized efforts . She added more than 600 paintings and furnishings to the White House and its collections , the largest number of acquisitions by any administration . She created the Map Room and renovated the China room , and refurbished nine others . She worked with engineers to develop an exterior lighting system for the entire White House , literally making it glow a soft white . She ordered the flag flown , day and night , even when the president was not there .
She ordered pamphlets describing the rooms of the house for tourists so they could understand everything , and had them translated into Spanish , French , Italian and Russian for foreigners . She had ramps installed for the handicapped and physically disabled . She instructed the police who served as tour guides to attend sessions at the Winterthur Museum , Garden and Library ( to learn how tours were guided " in a real museum " ) , and arranged for them to wear less menacing uniforms , with their guns hidden underneath . The tour guides were to speak slowly to deaf groups , to help those who lip @-@ read , and Pat ordered that the blind be able to touch the antiques .
The First Lady had long been irritated with the perception that the White House and access to the President and First Lady were exclusively for the wealthy and famous ; she would routinely come down from the family quarters to greet tourists , shake hands , sign autographs , and pose for photos . Her daughter Julie Eisenhower reflected , " she invited so many groups to the White House to give them recognition , not famous ones , but little known organizations ... "
She invited former First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy and her children Caroline and John Jr. to dine with her family and view the White House 's official portraits of her and her husband , the late President Kennedy . It was the first time the three had returned to the White House since the president 's assassination eight years prior to the trip , which the First Lady ordered kept undisclosed to the media until after it had concluded . In doing so , she attempted to maintain privacy for the Kennedys . She also invited President Kennedy 's mother Rose Kennedy to see her son 's official portrait .
She opened the White House for evening tours so that the public could see the interior design work that had been implemented . Among these tours were those conducted in December , displaying the White House 's Christmas decor . In addition , she instituted a series of performances by artists at the White House in varied American traditions , from opera to bluegrass ; among the guests were The Carpenters in 1972 . These events were described as ranging from " creative to indifferent , to downright embarrassing " . When they entered the White House in 1969 , the Nixons began inviting families to non @-@ denominational Sunday church services in the East Room of the White House . She also oversaw the White House wedding of her daughter , Tricia , to Edward Ridley Finch Cox in 1971 .
She spoke out in favor of women running for political office and encouraged her husband to nominate a woman to the Supreme Court , saying " woman power is unbeatable ; I 've seen it all across this country " . She was the first of the American First Ladies to publicly support the Equal Rights Amendment , though her views on abortion were mixed . Following the Court 's 1973 Roe vs. Wade decision , Pat stated she was pro @-@ choice . However , in 1972 , she said , " I 'm really not for abortion . I think it 's a personal thing . I mean abortion on demand — wholesale . "
In 1972 , she became the first Republican First Lady to address a national convention . Her efforts in the 1972 reelection campaign — traveling across the country and speaking on behalf of her husband — were copied by future candidates ' spouses .
= = = Travels = = =
Pat Nixon held the record as the most @-@ traveled First Lady before Hillary Rodham Clinton . In President Nixon 's first term , Pat traveled to 39 of 50 states , and in the first year alone , shook hands with a quarter of a million people . She undertook many missions of goodwill to foreign nations as well . Her first foreign trip took in Guam , India , the Philippines , Indonesia , Thailand , Pakistan , Romania , and England . On such trips , Pat refused to be serviced by an entourage , feeling that they were an unnecessary barrier and a burden for taxpayers . Soon after , during a trip to South Vietnam , Pat became the first First Lady to enter a combat zone . She had tea with the wife of President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu in a palace , visited an orphanage , and lifted off in an open @-@ door helicopter — armed by military guards with machine guns — to witness U.S. troops fighting in a jungle below . She would later admit to experiencing a " moment of fear going into a battle zone " , because , as author and historian Carl Sferrazza Anthony noted , " Pat Nixon was literally in a line of fire . " She later visited an army hospital , where , for two hours , she walked through the wards and spoke with each wounded patient . The First Lady of South Vietnam , Madame Thieu , said Pat Nixon 's trip " intensified our morale " .
After hearing about the Great Peruvian earthquake of 1970 , which caused an avalanche and additional destruction , Pat initiated a " volunteer American relief drive " and flew to the country , where she aided in taking relief supplies to earthquake victims . She toured damaged regions and embraced homeless townspeople ; they trailed her as she climbed up hills of rubble and under fallen beams . Her trip was heralded in newspapers around the world for her acts of compassion and disregard for her personal safety or comfort , and her presence was a direct boost to political relations . One Peruvian official commented : " Her coming here meant more than anything else President Nixon could have done , " and an editorial in Peru 's Lima Prensa said that Peruvians could never forget Pat Nixon . Fran Lewine of the Associated Press wrote that no First Lady had ever undertaken a " mercy mission " resulting in such " diplomatic side effects " . On the trip , the Peruvian government presented her with the Grand Cross of the Order of the Sun , the highest Peruvian distinction and the oldest such honor in the Americas .
She became the first First Lady to visit Africa in 1972 , on a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ mile ( 16 @,@ 093 km ) , eight @-@ day journey to Ghana , Liberia , and the Ivory Coast . Upon arrival to Liberia , Pat was honored with a 19 @-@ gun salute , a tribute reserved only for heads of government , and she reviewed troops . She later donned a traditional native costume and danced with locals . She was awarded the Grand Cordon of the Most Venerable Order of Knighthood , Liberia 's highest honor . In Ghana , she again danced with local residents , and addressed the nation 's Parliament . In the Ivory Coast , she was met by a quarter of a million people shouting " Vive Madame Nixon ! " She conferred with leaders of all three African nations . Upon her return home , White House staffer Charles Colson sent a memo to the President reading in part , " Mrs. Nixon has now broken through where we have failed ... People — men and women — identify with her , and in return with you . "
Another notable journey was the Nixons ' historic visit to the People 's Republic of China in 1972 . While President Nixon was in meetings , Pat toured through Peking in her red coat . According to Carl Sferrazza Anthony , China was Pat Nixon 's " moment " , her turning point as an acclaimed First Lady in the United States . She accompanied her husband to the Nixon – Brezhnev summit meetings in the Soviet Union later in the year . Though security constraints left her unable to walk freely through the streets as she did in China , Pat was still able to visit with children and walk arm @-@ in @-@ arm with Soviet First Lady Viktoria Brezhneva . Later , she visited Brazil and Venezuela in 1974 with the unique diplomatic standing of personal representative of the president . The Nixons ' last major trip was in June 1974 , to Austria , Egypt , Saudi Arabia , Syria , Israel , and Jordan .
= = = Fashion and style = = =
The fashion press tends to take special interest in First Ladies . The traditional role of a First Lady as the nation 's hostess puts her personal appearance and style under scrutiny , and the attention to Pat was lively . Women 's Wear Daily stated that Pat had a " good figure and good posture " , as well as " the best @-@ looking legs of any woman in public life today " . Some fashion writers tended to have a lackluster opinion of her well tailored , but nondescript , American @-@ made clothes . " I consider it my duty to use American designers " , she said , and favored them because , " they are now using so many materials which are great for traveling because they 're non crushable " . She preferred to buy readymade garments rather than made @-@ to @-@ order outfits . " I 'm a size 10 , " she told The New York Times . " I can just walk in and buy . I 've bought things in various stores in various cities . Only some of my clothes are by designers . " She did , however , wear the custom work of some well @-@ known talents , notably Geoffrey Beene , at the suggestion of Clara Treyz , her personal shopper . Many fashion observers concluded that Pat Nixon did not greatly advance the cause of American fashion . Nixon 's yellow @-@ satin inaugural gown by Harvey Berin was criticized as " a schoolteacher on her night out " , but Treyz defended her wardrobe selections by saying , " Mrs. Nixon must be ladylike . "
Nixon did not sport the outrageous fashions of the 1970s , because she was concerned about appearing conservatively dressed , especially as her husband 's political star rose . " Always before , it was sort of fun to get some ... thing that was completely different , high @-@ style " , she told a reporter . " But this is not appropriate now . I avoid the spectacular . "
= = = Watergate = = =
At the time the Watergate scandal broke to the media , Nixon " barely noticed " the reports of a break @-@ in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters . Later , when asked by the press about Watergate , she replied curtly , " I know only what I read in the newspapers . " In 1974 , when a reporter asked " Is the press the cause of the president 's problems ? " , she shot back , " What problems ? " Privately , she felt that the power of her husband 's staff was increasing , and President Nixon was becoming more removed from what was occurring in the administration .
Pat Nixon did not know of the secret tape recordings her husband had made . Julie Nixon Eisenhower stated that the First Lady would have ordered the tapes destroyed immediately , had she known of their existence . Once she did learn of the tapes , she vigorously opposed making them public , and compared them to " private love letters — for one person alone " . Believing in her husband 's innocence , she also encouraged him not to resign and instead fight all the impeachment charges that were eventually leveled against him . She said to her friend Helene Drown , " Dick has done so much for the country . Why is this happening ? "
After President Nixon told his family he would resign the office of the presidency , she replied , " But why ? " She contacted White House curator Clement Conger to cancel any further development of a new official china pattern from the Lenox China Company , and began supervising the packing of the family 's personal belongings . On August 7 , 1974 , the family met in the solarium of the White House for their last dinner . Pat sat on the edge of a couch and held her chin high , a sign of tension to her husband . When the president walked in , she threw her arms around him , kissed him , and said , " We 're all very proud of you , Daddy . " Later Pat Nixon said of the photographs taken that evening , " Our hearts were breaking and there we are smiling . "
The next morning , a televised 20 @-@ minute farewell speech to the White House staff took place in the East Room , during which the President read from Theodore Roosevelt 's biography and praised his own parents . The First Lady could hardly contain her tears ; she was most upset about the cameras , because they recorded her anguish , as they had during the 1960 election defeat . The Nixons walked onto the Executive Mansion 's South Lawn with Vice President Gerald Ford and Betty Ford to Marine One . As they walked , Pat , with one arm around her husband 's waist and one around Betty 's , said to Betty , " You 'll see many of these red carpets , and you 'll get so you hate ' em . " The helicopter carried them to Andrews Air Force Base ; from there they flew to California .
Pat Nixon later told her daughter Julie , " Watergate is the only crisis that ever got me down ... And I know I will never live to see the vindication . "
= = Public perception = =
Historian Carl Sferrazza Anthony noted that ordinary citizens responded to Nixon . When a group of rural people visited the White House to present a quilt to the First Lady , many were overcome with nervousness ; upon hearing their weeping , Pat hugged each individual tightly , and the tension dissipated . When a young boy doubted that the Executive Mansion was her house because he could not see the washing machine , Pat led him through the halls and up an elevator , into the family quarters and the laundry room . She mixed well with people of different races , and made no distinctions on that basis . During the Nixons ' trip to China in 1972 , foreign minister Zhou En @-@ lai was suffienciently smitten with her so as to give two rare giant pandas to the ambassador as a gift from China .
Pat Nixon was listed on the Gallup Organization 's top @-@ ten list of the most admired women fourteen times , from 1959 to 1962 and 1968 to 1979 . She was third in 1969 , and remained at number two until 1972 , when she was ranked number one as the most admired woman . She remained on the top @-@ ten list until 1979 , five years after her husband left office . To many , she was seen as an example of the " American Dream , " having risen from a poor background , with her greatest popularity among the " great silent majority " of voters . Mary Brooks , the director of the United States Mint , described the First Lady as " a good example to the women of this country – if they 're not part of those Women 's Liberation groups . " Additionally , it was the view of veteran UPI correspondent Helen Thomas that Pat " was the warmest First Lady I covered and the one who loved people the most . I think newspeople who covered her saw a woman who was sharp , responsive , sensitive . "
Press accounts framed Nixon as an embodiment of Cold War domesticity , in stark contrast to the second @-@ wave feminism of the time . Journalists often portrayed her as dutiful and selfless and seeing herself as a wife first and individual second . Time magazine described her as " the perfect wife and mother – pressing [ her husband 's ] pants , making dresses for daughters Tricia and Julie , doing her own housework even as the Vice President 's wife . " In the early years of her tenure as First Lady she was tagged ' Plastic Pat , ' the derogatory nickname applied because , according to critics , she was always smiling while her face rarely expressed emotion and her body language made her seem reserved , and at times , artificial . Some observers described Pat Nixon as " a paper doll , a Barbie doll – plastic , antiseptic , unalive " and that she " has put every bit of the energy and drive of her youth into playing a role , and she may no longer recognize it as such " .
As for the criticisms , she said , " I am who I am and I will continue to be . " She portrayed some of her views on her life in a 1968 interview aboard a campaign plane with Gloria Steinem : " Now , I have friends in all the countries of the world . I haven ’ t just sat back and thought of myself or my ideas or what I wanted to do . Oh no , I ’ ve stayed interested in people . I ’ ve kept working . Right here in the plane I keep this case with me , and the minute I sit down , I write my thank you notes . Nobody gets by without a personal note . I don ’ t have time to worry about who I admire or who I identify with . I ’ ve never had it easy . I ’ m not like all you ... all those people who had it easy . "
Despite her largely demure public persona as a traditional wife and homemaker , Nixon was not as self @-@ effacing and timid as her critics often claimed . When a news photographer wanted her to strike yet another pose while wearing an apron , she firmly responded , " I think we 've had enough of this kitchen thing , don 't you ? " Some journalists , such as columnist and White House Correspondent Robert Thompson felt that Pat was an ideal balance for the 1970s ; Thompson wrote that she proved that " women can play a vital role in world affairs " while still retaining a " feminine manner . " Other journalists felt that Pat represented the failings of the feminine mystique , and portrayed her as being out of step with her times . Those who opposed the Vietnam War identified her with the Nixon administration 's policies , and , as a result , occasionally picketed her speaking events . After she had spoken to some of them , though , one student told the press that " she wanted to listen . I felt like this is a woman who really cares about what we are doing . I was surprised . " Veteran CBS correspondent Mike Wallace expressed regret that the one major interview he was never able to conduct was that of Pat Nixon .
= = Later life = =
After returning to San Clemente , California , in 1974 and settling into the Nixons ' home , La Casa Pacifica , Pat Nixon rarely appeared in public and only granted occasional interviews to the press . In late May 1975 , Pat went to her girlhood town of Artesia to dedicate the Patricia Nixon Elementary School . In her remarks , she said , " I 'm proud to have the school carry my name . I always thought that only those who have gone had schools named after them . I am happy to tell you that I 'm not gone — I mean , not really gone . " It was Pat 's only solo public appearance in five and a half years in California .
Nixon suffered a stroke on July 7 , 1976 , at La Casa Pacifica , which resulted in the paralysis of her entire left side . Physical therapy enabled her to eventually regain all movement . She said that her recovery was " the hardest thing I have ever done physically " . In 1979 , she and her husband moved to a townhouse on East 65th Street in Manhattan , New York City . They lived there only briefly and in 1981 moved to a 6 @,@ 000 square feet ( 557 m2 ) house in Saddle River , New Jersey . This gave the couple additional space , and enabled them to be near their children and grandchildren . Pat , however , sustained another stroke in 1983 and two lung infections the following year .
In December 1987 , Richard Nixon wrote to Donald Trump about Pat Nixon believing that Trump had performed well on the The Phil Donahue Show , Nixon furthering that his wife was " an expert on politics " and that she had predicted Trump would do well when he decided to run for office . Decades later , Trump would enter and become the front @-@ runner in the Republican Party presidential primaries , 2016 .
Appearing " frail and slightly bent " , she appeared in public for the opening of the Richard Nixon Library & Birthplace ( now Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum ) in Yorba Linda , California on July 19 , 1990 . The dedication ceremony included 50 @,@ 000 friends and well @-@ wishers , as well as former Presidents Ford , Reagan , and Bush and their wives . The library includes a Pat Nixon room , a Pat Nixon amphitheater , and rose gardens planted with the red @-@ black Pat Nixon Rose developed by a French company in 1972 , when she was first lady . Pat also attended the opening of the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley , California in November 1991 . Former First Lady Barbara Bush reflected , " I loved Pat Nixon , who was a sensational , gracious , and thoughtful First Lady " , and at the dedication of the Reagan Library , Bush remembered , " There was one sad thing . Pat Nixon did not look well at all . Through her smile you could see that she was in great pain and having a terrible time getting air into her lungs . "
The Nixons moved to a gated complex in Park Ridge , New Jersey in 1991 . Pat 's health was failing , and the house was smaller and contained an elevator . A heavy smoker most of her adult life who nevertheless never allowed herself to be seen with a cigarette in public , she eventually endured bouts of oral cancer , emphysema , and ultimately lung cancer , with which she was diagnosed in December 1992 while hospitalized with respiratory problems .
= = Death and funeral = =
Pat Nixon died at her Park Ridge , New Jersey home at 5 : 45 am on June 22 , 1993 , the day after her 53rd wedding anniversary . She was 81 . Her daughters and husband were by her side .
The funeral service for Pat Nixon took place in the grounds of the Richard Nixon Library in Yorba Linda on June 26 , 1993 . Speakers at the ceremony , including California Governor Pete Wilson , Kansas senator Bob Dole , and the Reverend Dr. Billy Graham , eulogized the former First Lady . In addition to her husband and immediate family , former presidents Ronald Reagan and Gerald Ford and their wives , Nancy and Betty , were also in attendance . Lady Bird Johnson was unable to attend because she was in the hospital recovering from a stroke , and Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis did not attend either . President Nixon sobbed openly , profusely , and at times uncontrollably during the ceremony . It was a rare display of emotion from the former president , and Helen McCain Smith said that she had never seen him more distraught .
Nixon 's tombstone gives her name as " Patricia Ryan Nixon " , the name by which she was popularly known . Former President Nixon survived her by 10 months , dying on April 22 , 1994 . Her epitaph reads :
= = Legacy = =
In 1994 , the Pat Nixon Park was established in Cerritos , California . The site where her girlhood home stood is on the property . The Cerritos City Council voted in April 1996 to erect a statue of the former first lady , one of the few statues created in the image of a first lady .
Pat has been portrayed by Joan Allen in the 1995 film Nixon , Patty McCormack in the 2008 film Frost / Nixon and Nicole Sullivan in the 2009 film Black Dynamite . She was sung by soprano Carolann Page in the 1987 opera Nixon in China world premiere in Houston , Texas , and later by Scottish soprano Janis Kelly in the 2011 Metropolitan Opera premiere in New York .
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= Loveless ( album ) =
Loveless is the second studio album by Anglo @-@ Irish rock band My Bloody Valentine . Released on 4 November 1991 , the album was recorded over a two @-@ year period between 1989 and 1991 . The group cycled through nineteen studios and a larger number of engineers during the album 's two @-@ year creation , with total recording costs rumoured to have reached £ 250 @,@ 000 . Vocalist and guitarist Kevin Shields dominated the arduous recording process , intent on achieving a particular sound ; he experimented with guitar tremolo and tuning systems , unorthodox production techniques , obscured vocals , and sampled feedback and percussion .
While Loveless did not achieve great commercial success upon its release , it received enthusiastic reviews from critics , who praised its sonic innovations . Following the record 's release , My Bloody Valentine were removed from their record label Creation Records due to the difficulty and expense of working with Shields , a factor that was alleged to have contributed to the bankruptcy of the label . In the subsequent years , the group struggled to record a follow @-@ up album and would eventually break up in 1997 . Loveless would be their last full @-@ length release for over two decades .
Since its release , Loveless has been widely proclaimed as among the best albums of the 1990s by critics , as a landmark work of the shoegazing genre , and as an influence on various subsequent artists . The album was reissued as a two @-@ disc CD set on Sony in May 2012 , containing remastered editions of the original digital tape and a previously unreleased ½ -inch analogue tape . The reissues placed in several international charts and in July 2013 , Loveless was certified Silver in the United Kingdom by the British Phonographic Industry .
= = Recording and production = =
My Bloody Valentine were scheduled to record at Blackwing Studios in Southwark , London for the month of February 1989 , and intended to use the time to conceptualise a new , more studio @-@ based sound for their second album . Shields said that Creation first believed the album could be recorded " in five days " . According to Shields " when it became clear that wasn 't going to happen , they [ Creation ] freaked . " After several unproductive months , the band relocated in September to the basement studio The Elephant and Wapping , where they spent eight unproductive weeks . In @-@ house engineer Nick Robbins said Shields made it clear from the outset that he ( Robbins ) " was just there to press the buttons . " Robbins was quickly replaced by Harold Burgon , but according to Shields , Burgon 's main contribution was to show the group how to use the in @-@ studio computer . Burgon and Shields spent three weeks at the Woodcray studio in Berkshire working on the Glider EP , which Shields and Creation owner Alan McGee agreed would be released in advance of the album . Alan Moulder was hired to mix the Glider song " Soon " at Trident 2 studio in Victoria ( the song would reappear as the closing track on Loveless ) . Shields said of Moulder , " As soon as we worked with him we realized we 'd love to some more ! " When the group returned to work on the album Moulder was the sole engineer Shields trusted enough to perform tasks such as miking the amplifiers ; all the other credited engineers were told " We 're so on top of this you don 't even have to come to work . " Shields has since stated that " these engineers — with the exception of Alan Moulder and later Anjali Dutt — were all just the people who came with the studio ... everything we wanted to do was wrong , according to them , " although the band did give credit on the album sleeve to anyone who was present during the recordings , " even if all they did was fix tea " , according to Shields .
During the spring of 1990 , Anjali Dutt was hired to replace Moulder , who had left to work with the bands Shakespears Sister and Ride . Dutt assisted in the recording of vocals and several guitar tracks . During this period , the band recorded in various studios , often spending just a single day at a studio before deciding that it was unsuitable . In May 1990 , My Bloody Valentine settled on Protocol in Holloway as their primary location , and work began in earnest on the album , as well as a second EP , Tremolo . Like Glider , Tremolo contained a song — " To Here Knows When " — that would later appear on Loveless . The band stopped recording during the summer of 1990 in order to tour in support of the release of Glider . When Moulder returned to the project in August , he was surprised by how little work had been completed . By that point Creation Records was concerned at how much the album was costing . Moulder left again in March 1991 to work for the noise pop band The Jesus and Mary Chain .
In an interview with Select , Shields explained the stop @-@ start nature of his recording , using " When You Sleep " as an example :
" We recorded the drums in September ' 89 . The guitar was done in December . The bass was done in … er … April . 1990 we 're in , now . Then nothing happens for a year really . " So it doesn 't have vocals at this stage ? " No . " Does it have words ? " No . " Does it even have a title ? " No . It has a song number . ' Song 12 ' it was called . And … I 'm trying to remember … the melody line was done in ' 91 . The vocals were ' 91 . There were huge gaps though . Months and months of not touching songs . Years . I used to forget what tunings I 'd used . "
The vocal tracks were taped in Britannia Row and Protocol studios between May and June 1991 . This was the first time vocalist Bilinda Butcher was involved in the recording . Shields and Butcher hung curtains on the window between the studio control room and the vocal booth , and only communicated with the engineers when they would acknowledge a good take by opening the curtain and waving . According to engineer Guy Fixsen , " We weren 't allowed to listen while either of them were doing a vocal . You 'd have to watch the meters on the tape machine to see if anyone was singing . If it stopped , you knew you had to stop the tape and take it back to the top . " On most days , the couple arrived without having written the lyrics for the song they were to record . Dutt recalled : " Kevin would sing a track , and then Bilinda would get the tape and write down words she thought he might have sung " .
In July 1991 , Creation agreed to relocate the production to Eastcote studio , following unexplained complaints from Shields . However , the cash @-@ poor Creation Records was unable to pay the bill for their time at Britannia Row , and the studio refused to return the band 's equipment . Dutt recalled , " I don 't know what excuse Kevin gave them for leaving . He had to raise the money himself to get the gear out . " Shields ' unexpected and random behaviour , the constant delays , and studio changes were having a material effect both on Creation 's finances and the health of their staff . Dutt later admitted being desperate to leave the project , while Creation 's second @-@ in @-@ command Dick Green had a nervous breakdown around this time . Green later recalled , " It was two years into the album , and I phoned Shields up in tears . I was going ' You have to deliver me this record ' . " During this time , both Shields and Butcher became affected with tinnitus , and had to delay recording for a further number of weeks while they recovered . Concerned friends and band members suggested this was a result of the unusually loud volumes the group played at their shows . Shields dismissed these concerns as " Ill @-@ informed hysteria " . Although Alan McGee was still upbeat and positive about his investment , the 29 @-@ year @-@ old Green , who by this time was opening the label 's morning post " shaking with fear " , became a concern to his co @-@ workers . Publicist Laurence Verfaillie , aware of the label 's inability to cover further studio bills , recalled Green 's hair turning grey overnight . " He would have not gone grey if it was not for that album " , Verfaillie said .
With the vocal tracks completed , a final mix of the album was undertaken with engineer Dick Meaney at the Church in Crouch End during the autumn of 1991 ; it was the nineteenth studio in which Loveless had been worked on . The album was edited on an aged machine that had previously been used to cut together dialog for movies in the 1970s . Its computer threw the entire album out of phase . Shields was able to put it back together from memory , yet when it came to mastering the album , to Creation 's dismay , he needed 13 days , rather than the usual one day .
As the previously prolific band were unusually quiet , the UK music press began to speculate . Melody Maker calculated that the total recording cost had come close to £ 250 @,@ 000 ; however , McGee , Green , and Shields dispute this . Shields argued that that estimated cost ( and Creation 's near @-@ bankruptcy ) was a myth exaggerated by McGee because the Creation owner " thought it would be cool . " According to Shields , " The amount we spent nobody knows because we never counted . But we worked it out ourselves just by working out how much the studios cost and how much all the engineers cost . 160 thousand pounds was the most we could come to as the actual money that was spent . " In Green 's opinion , the Melody Maker 's estimate erred on the low side , by £ 20 @,@ 000 . He said , " Once you 'd even got it recorded and mixed , the very act of compiling , EQ @-@ ing , etcetera took weeks on its own . " In a December 1991 interview , Shields said that most of the money claimed to have been spent on the album was simply " money to live on " over three years , with the album itself only costing " a few thousand " . He also claimed that the album represented only four months work over two years . Shields later said that most of the money spent was the band 's own money , and that " Creation probably spent fifteen to twenty thousand pounds of their own money on it , and that 's it . They never showed us any accounts , and then they got bought out by Sony . "
= = Music = =
While Butcher contributed about a third of the album 's lyrics , most of the music on Loveless was written and performed by Shields . Shields stated , " I 'm actually the only musician on the record except for the Colm song [ ' Touched ' ] . " Shields assumed Butcher 's guitarist duties during the recording process ; Butcher admitted that she had not minded because she felt she " was never a great guitarist " . Bassist Debbie Googe did not perform on the album , though she received a credit on the album sleeve . Googe said , " At the beginning I used to go down [ to the studio ] most days but after a while I began to feel pretty superfluous so I went down less . " Butcher explained , " for Kevin to actually translate to Debbie what he had in his head and play it right would have been an agonizing process . " " It wasn 't collaborative at all " , Alan Moulder said of the album 's recording . " Kevin had a clear view of what he wanted , but he never explained it . "
Taking influence from the Wall of Sound practices established by the likes of Phil Spector and Brian Wilson , Loveless was largely recorded in mono sound , as Shields felt it important that the album 's sound consisted of " the guitar smack bang in the middle and no chorus , no modulation effect " . Shields wavers his guitar 's tremolo bar as he strums , which contributes , in part , to the band 's distinctive sound . This technique — nicknamed " Glide guitar " — causes the guitar strings to bend slightly in and out of tune . Shields said that due to his use of the tremolo bar , " People were thinking it 's hundreds of guitars , when it 's actually got less guitar tracks than most people 's demo tapes have . " The guitarist asserted that unlike other bands of the shoegazing movement of the early 1990s , My Bloody Valentine did not use chorus or flanger pedals . He insisted , " No other band played that guitar like me [ ... ] We did everything solely with the tremolo arm " . Shields aimed to use " very simple minimal effects " which often were the result of involved studio work . He stated , " The songs are really simply structured . A lot of them are purposely like that . That way you can get away with a lot more when you mess around with the contents " . In a 1992 Guitar World interview , Shields described how he achieved a sound akin to a wah @-@ wah pedal on " I Only Said " by playing his guitar through an amplifier with a graphic equaliser preamp . After recording the track , he then bounced it to another track through a parametric equaliser while he adjusted the EQ levels manually . The interviewer asked if Shields could have achieved the same effect more easily by simply using a wah @-@ wah pedal , to which the guitarist replied , " In attitude toward sound , yes . But not in approach . "
All but two of the drum tracks are composed of samples performed by drummer Colm Ó Cíosóig . Because Ó Cíosóig was suffering from physical and personal problems during the album 's recording , samples of various drum patterns that he was able to perform in his condition were recorded . According to Shields , " [ i ] t 's exactly what Colm would have done , it just took longer to do . " Ó Cíosóig recovered enough to play live on two of the album 's songs , " Only Shallow " and " Touched " , the latter of which was composed and performed entirely by the drummer . Shields believes that listeners are unable to tell the difference between Ó Cíosóig 's live drumming and the drum loops aside from the tracks intended to have an obviously " sampled " sound , like the dance @-@ oriented " Soon " . The album makes extensive use of samples , with Shields stating , " Most of the samples are feedback . We learnt from guitar feedback , with lots of distortion , that you can make any instrument , any one that you can imagine " .
The vocals , handled jointly by Shields and Butcher , are kept relatively low in the mix , and are for the most part highly pitched . On occasion Shields sang the higher register and Butcher the lower one . According to Shields , because the band had spent so long working on the album 's vocals , he " couldn 't tolerate really clear vocals , where you just hear one voice " , thus " it had to be more like a sound . " Butcher explained her " dreamy , sensual " style vocals , saying , " Often when we do vocals , it 's 7 : 30 in the morning ; I 've usually just fallen asleep and have to be woken up to sing . " To aid this effect , Shields and Ó Cíosóig even sampled Butcher 's voice and reused it as instrumentation . The layered vocals on " When You Sleep " were born out of frustration with trying to get the right take . Shields commented that " The vocals sound like that because it became boring and too destructive trying to get the right vocal . So I decided to put all the vocals in . ( It had been sung 12 or 13 times ) . " He explained :
" On ' When You Sleep ' it sounds like me and Bilinda singing together , but it 's just me – me slowed down and me speeded up at the same time . Some songs we sang over and over until we got bored – usually between 12 and 18 times . I started sorting through the tapes and it did my head in , so I just played them all together and it was really good – like one , vaguely distinct voice . "
The lyrics are deliberately obscure ; Shields joked that he once considered rating various attempts to decipher the words on the band 's website according to a percentage of accuracy . He claims that he and Butcher " spent way more time on the lyrics than ever on the music " . The words were often written in late @-@ night eight- to ten @-@ hour @-@ long sessions before the pair were due to record the vocals . The pair worked diligently to ensure the lyrics were not lackluster , even though few changes actually resulted ; Shields said , " There 's nothing worse than bad lyrics . " Nonetheless , pressed by Select 's David Cavanagh to reveal just the first line of " Loomer " , Butcher refused , and Shields claimed to have " absolutely no idea " what she was singing .
= = Release = =
Following the album 's low @-@ budget release , Shields boasted , " We know more about how the record industry works than our record company half the time . We do . I 'm not joking . " That winter the band toured Europe , an event music critic David Cavanagh described as a " unique chapter in live music " . To recreate the higher tones from Loveless , Shields employed American flautist Anna Quimby . According to a friend of the band , " She had a little skirt on , black tights ... she was a little indie girl . But when she blew into the flute , it was like fucking Woodstock " . NME editor Danny Kelly attended a show he described as " more like torture than entertainment , I had a half pint of lager ; they hit their first note and it was so loud that it sent the glass hurtling " . A U.S. spring tour followed , during which Shields and Butcher tested their audiences ' ability to sustain noise played at high volumes . Critic Mark Kemp said of the American tour , " After about thirty seconds the adrenaline set in , people are screaming and shaking their fists . After a minute you wonder what 's going on . After another minute it 's total confusion . The noise starts hurting . The noise continues . After three minutes you begin to take deep breaths . After four minutes , a calm takes over . " The tour saw My Bloody Valentine accused of criminal negligence by the music press , who took exception to the long period of extreme noise played during " You Made Me Realise " , referring to it as " the holocaust " . In December 2000 Mojo magazine rated the tour as the second loudest in history .
= = Reception = =
Although Shields feared a critical panning , reviews of Loveless were almost unanimously favourable . " An album without parallel , " wrote Andrew Perry in Select . " Its creative inspiration defies belief . Though ' To Here Knows When ' is pretty well the weirdest track of the eleven , that glorious distortion gives a fair signal of what to expect – the unexpected . Everything you hear confounds your idea of how a pop song should be played , arranged and produced . " " The instrumental ' Touched ' is especially startling , " noted Martin Aston in Q , " like a drunken fight between a syrupy Disney soundtrack and an Eastern mantra . All in all , Loveless amounts to a virtual reinvention of the guitar . "
NME awarded the album an eight out of ten score . Reviewer Dele Fadele saw My Bloody Valentine as the " blueprint " for the shoegaze genre , and wrote : " with ' Loveless ' you could 've expected the Irish / English partnership to succumb to self @-@ parody or mimic The Scene That 's Delighted To Eat Quiche [ ... ] But no , ' Loveless ' fires a silver @-@ coated bullet into the future , daring all @-@ comers to try and recreate its mixture of moods , feelings , emotion , styles and , yes , innovations . " While Fadele expressed some disappointment that the group seemed to disassociate themselves from dance music and reggae basslines , he concluded " ' Loveless ' ups the ante , and , however decadent one might find the idea of elevating other human beings to deities , My Bloody Valentine , failings and all , deserve more than your respect . " Melody Maker writer Simon Reynolds praised the album , and wrote that Loveless " [ reaffirms ] how unique , how peerless MBV are . " He declared , " Along with Mercury Rev 's ' Yerself is Steam ' , ' Loveless ' is the outermost , innermost , uttermost rock record of 1991 . " Reynolds noted that his only criticism was that " while My Bloody Valentine have amplified and refined what they already were , they 've failed to mutate or leap into any kind of beyond . " Rolling Stone gave the album four out of five stars . In a review that also covered Chapterhouse and Creation labelmates Velvet Crush , reviewer Ira Robbins wrote , " Despite the record 's intense ability to disorient — this is real do @-@ not @-@ adjust @-@ your @-@ set stuff — the effect is strangely uplifting . Loveless oozes a sonic balm that first embraces and then softly pulverizes the frantic stress of life . " Spin gave Loveless a mixed review with writer Jim Greer noting that the album 's songs are " standard @-@ ish and dull " and concluded that he felt " The warped music is a cool idea and I recommend the album — but not on the basis of the singing or the songs " .
While Creation were pleased with the final album , and the initial music press reviews were positive , the label soon realised that although , in the words of plugger James Kyllo , " it was such a beautiful record , and it was wonderful to have it ... it just didn 't sound like a record that was going to recoup all the money that had been spent on it . " Alan McGee liked the record , but admitted , " It was quite clear that we couldn 't bear the idea of going through that again , because there was just nothing to say that [ Shields ] wouldn 't do exactly the same again . That 's enough . Lets step back " . Despite a severe shortage of money , Creation funded a short tour of the north of England late in 1991 . At the time the band were making the marketing of Loveless difficult — there would be no singles , and the band 's name was forbidden to appear on the record sleeve . McGee was by now exhausted and frustrated . He recalled , " I thought : I went to the wall for you . If this record bombs , I 've stolen my father 's money . And they were so ... not understanding of anybody else 's position . " McGee dropped My Bloody Valentine from Creation soon after the album 's release because he could not bear working with Shields again ; " It was either him or me " , he told The Guardian in 2004 . Loveless peaked at number 24 on the UK Albums Chart , and failed to chart in the United States , where it was distributed by Sire Records . In 2003 Rolling Stone estimated the sales figures for Loveless as 225 @,@ 000 copies sold .
= = = Accolades = = =
Loveless has ranked highly on a number of critics ' lists . The album ranked number fourteen in the 1991 Village Voice Pazz & Jop critics ' poll . In 1999 , Pitchfork Media named Loveless the best album of the 1990s . However , in their 2003 revision of the list , it moved to number two , swapping places with Radiohead 's OK Computer . In 2003 , the album was ranked number 219 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time . In 2004 The Observer ranked it at number 20 in its " 100 Greatest British Albums " list , declaring it " the last great extreme rock album " . In Spin 's entry for Loveless on its list of " 100 Greatest Albums 1985 – 2005 " ( where it was ranked at number 22 ) , Chuck Klosterman wrote , " Whenever anyone uses the phrase swirling guitars , this record is why . A testament to studio production and single @-@ minded perfectionism , Loveless has a layered , inverted thickness that makes harsh sounds soft and fragile moments vast . " In 2008 , Loveless topped The Irish Times ' " Top 40 Irish Albums of All Time " critics ' list , in 2013 , it placed third in the Irish Independent 's " Top 30 Irish Albums of All Time " list. and in 2014 , it placed ninth on the Alternative Nation site 's " Top 10 Underrated 90 's Alternative Rock Albums " list . In 1999 , Ned Raggett ranked the album at number 1 on his list of " The Top 136 Or So Albums Of The Nineties " . In 2013 , NME ranked the album at number 18 on their " 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " list . The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
= = Legacy = =
Despite being poised for a " popular breakthrough " following Loveless ' critical favour , My Bloody Valentine recorded only sporadically in the two decades following the album 's release — including the contribution of a cover of " We Have All the Time in the World " from the James Bond film On Her Majesty 's Secret Service to a charity compilation , and a cover of the Wire song " Map Ref . 41 Degrees N 93 Degrees W " for the tribute album Whore : Tribute to Wire . Unable to finalise a third album , Shields isolated himself and , in his own words , went " crazy " , drawing comparisons in the music press to the behavior of musicians such as Brian Wilson of The Beach Boys and Syd Barrett of Pink Floyd . The other band members went their own ways during the period of inactivity following Loveless : Butcher contributed vocals to Collapsed Lung 's 1996 single " Board Game " , and two tracks ( " Ballad Night " and " Casino Kisschase " ) from the band 's 1996 album Cooler , Googe had been sighted working as a cab driver in London and formed the supergroup Snowpony in 1996 , Ó Cíosóig joined Hope Sandoval & the Warm Inventions , while Shields collaborated with Yo La Tengo , Primal Scream and Dinosaur Jr .
Reportedly , two separate albums of new music were recorded by Shields in his home studio , but were abandoned . According to sources , one was possibly influenced by jungle music . Shields later confirmed that at least one full album of new material was abandoned . He said , " We did an album 's worth of half @-@ finished stuff , and it did just get dumped , but it was worth dumping . It was dead . It hadn 't got that spirit , that life in it . " He later explained , " I just stopped making records myself , and I suppose that must just seem weird to people . ' Why 'd you do that ? ' The answer is , it wasn 't as good [ as Loveless ] . And I always promised myself I 'd never do that , put out a worse record . " Shields later said to Magnet magazine , " We are 100 per cent going to make another My Bloody Valentine record unless we die or something , " and attributed the band 's sparse output to a lack of inspiration . A third My Bloody Valentine album , MBV , was finally released in 2013 , 22 years after Loveless .
Loveless 's influence has grown with time , and the album has influenced a wide variety of other artists . Music critic Jim DeRogatis wrote in Turn On Your Mind : Four Decades of Great Psychedelic Rock that " the forward @-@ looking sounds of this unique disc have positioned the band as one of the most influential and inspiring bands since the Velvet Underground . " Authors Paul Hegarty and Martin Halliwell wrote that the album " might be so progressive that nothing else will ever match it . " Instrumental band Japancakes covered the album in its entirety on Loveless ( 2007 ) , replacing vocals with steel guitar and distortion with a clean sound . The whole album was also covered exclusively by Japanese artists for the tribute album , Yellow Loveless ( 2013 ) .
Brian Eno has praised the album and said , regarding the song " Soon " , that " [ i ] t set a new standard for pop . It 's the vaguest music ever to have been a hit . " Robert Smith of The Cure discovered Loveless after a period of almost exclusively listening to " disco , or Irish bands like the Dubliners " as a means of avoiding his contemporaries , and said , " [ My Bloody Valentine ] was the first band I heard who quite clearly pissed all over us , and their album Loveless is certainly one of my all @-@ time three favourite records . It 's the sound of someone [ Shields ] who is so driven that they 're demented . And the fact that they spent so much time and money on it is so excellent . " Billy Corgan of The Smashing Pumpkins told Spin , " It 's rare in guitar @-@ based music that somebody does something new [ ... ] At the time , everybody was like , ' How the fuck are they doing this ? ' And , of course , it 's way simpler than anybody would imagine . " Trey Anastasio of jam band Phish believed that " Loveless [ was ] the best album recorded in the ' 90s " , and wanted his band to cover the album in its entirety for a Halloween show . Robert Pollard of indie rock band Guided by Voices acknowledged the album as a source of inspiration , noting , " Sometimes when I want to write lyrics , I 'll listen to Loveless . Because of the way the vocals are buried , you can almost listen to the songs as if they 're instrumental pieces . " Loveless has also been said by Jim DeRogatis to have been a considerable influence on British band Radiohead .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Kevin Shields , unless otherwise noted .
= = Personnel = =
All personnel credits adapted from Loveless 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Dwayne Johnson =
Dwayne Douglas Johnson ( born May 2 , 1972 ) , also known by his ring name The Rock , is an American and Canadian actor , producer and semi @-@ retired professional wrestler , signed with WWE . Johnson was a college football player for the University of Miami , winning a national championship on the 1991 Miami Hurricanes football team . He later played for the Calgary Stampeders in the Canadian Football League , and was cut two months into the 1995 season . This led him to become a professional wrestler like his grandfather , Peter Maivia , and his father , Rocky Johnson ( from whom he also inherited his Canadian citizenship ) .
Originally billed as " Rocky Maivia " , he gained mainstream fame in the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF / E ) from 1996 to 2004 as a major figure in the company 's Attitude Era , and was the first third @-@ generation wrestler in the company 's history . He returned to wrestling part @-@ time for WWE from 2011 to 2013 and continues to make sporadic non @-@ wrestling appearances for the company . As of July 2016 , he has had 17 championship reigns in WWE , including 10 as a world champion , winning the WWF / E Championship eight times and the WCW / World Championship twice . He won the Intercontinental Championship twice and the WWF Tag Team Championship five times . He is the sixth Triple Crown Champion in WWE history , and won the 2000 Royal Rumble .
The Rock is considered by many to be the biggest superstar in WWE history , as well as one of the top box office draws in wrestling history . WWE legend Hulk Hogan called The Rock " the biggest superstar in this business " , 15 @-@ time world champion John Cena described him as " the biggest superstar in the history of WWE " and " the most successful WWE superstar ever " . WCW icon Diamond Dallas Page described him as " the biggest star in our business , of all time " . Vince Russo , the head writer of WWE 's most popular era , The Attitude Era , stated : " I don 't think there 's ever going to be a star in the history of this business that is bigger than The Rock " . The Rock is also the first African @-@ American WWE champion in the history of the company .
Johnson 's autobiography The Rock Says ... , co @-@ written with Joe Layden , was published in 2000 . It debuted at No. 1 on The New York Times Best Seller list , spent 20 weeks on The New York Times bestseller list and sold 720 @,@ 000 copies in hardcover alone . Johnson 's first leading film role was in The Scorpion King in 2002 . For this role , he was paid US $ 5 @.@ 5 million , a world record for an actor in his first starring role . He has since appeared in various films , and become known for his ability to reinvigorate film franchises . Perhaps his greatest success in his acting career can be sourced to his role as Luke Hobbs in The Fast and the Furious franchise . He hosted and produced The Hero , a reality competition series ; and has since continued to produce TV series and films through his production company Seven Bucks Productions , each of which he also stars in . Forbes listed Dwayne Johnson # 25 in the Top 100 Most Powerful Celebrities in 2013 . Time named him one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2016 .
= = Early life = =
Johnson was born in Hayward , California , the son of Ata Johnson ( née Maivia ) and professional wrestler Rocky Johnson . His maternal grandfather , " High Chief " Peter Maivia , was also a wrestler . His maternal grandmother , Lia Maivia , was one of wrestling 's few female professional promoters , taking over Polynesian Pacific Pro Wrestling after her husband 's death in 1982 , until 1988 . His cousin , Savelina Fanene , is also a wrestler currently working for WWE . His father is a Black Nova Scotian , and his mother is of Samoan heritage . His father was part of the first black tag team to win the World Tag Team championship in the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . Through Maivia , he is considered a non @-@ blood relative of the Anoa 'i wrestling family .
Johnson briefly lived in the suburb of Grey Lynn in Auckland , New Zealand , with his mother 's family . He attended Richmond Road Primary School , before returning to the United States with his parents . Johnson spent 10th grade at President William McKinley High School in Honolulu , Hawaii . As he entered 11th grade , his father 's job required his relocation to Bethlehem , Pennsylvania . He began playing football at Freedom High School in the East Penn Conference . He was also a member of the school 's track and field and wrestling teams .
Johnson was a promising football prospect , and received offers from many Division I collegiate programs . He decided upon a full scholarship from the University of Miami to play defensive tackle . In 1991 , he was on the Miami Hurricanes ' national championship team . After an injury kept him sidelined , he was replaced by future National Football League ( NFL ) star Warren Sapp . While attending Miami , Johnson met his future wife , Dany Garcia , who graduated from the university in 1992 and later became a member of its Board of Trustees . She also founded a Miami @-@ based wealth management firm . In 2006 , the couple donated $ 2 million to build a living room at the University 's Newman Alumni Center .
Johnson graduated from Miami in 1995 , with a Bachelor of General Studies degree in criminology and physiology . He joined the Calgary Stampeders of the Canadian Football League in 1995 . He was on the practice roster as a backup linebacker but was cut two months into the season . On November 10 , 2007 , Johnson returned to the Miami Orange Bowl to participate in the festivities surrounding the University of Miami 's last home football game at the stadium .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Training ( 1995 – 1996 ) = = =
Like his father and grandfather , several of Johnson 's other ( non @-@ blood ) relatives are or were professional wrestlers , including his uncles , Afa and Sika Anoaʻi ( The Wild Samoans ) and his cousins , Rodney ( Yokozuna ) , Solofa ( Rikishi ) , Matt ( Rosey ) and Eddie ( Umaga ) . When Johnson declared his intent to become a wrestler , his father initially resisted , but then agreed to train him himself , warning that he would not go easy on him . Veteran wrestler Pat Patterson got Johnson several tryout matches with the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) in 1996 . Under his real name , he defeated The Brooklyn Brawler at a house show , and lost the other matches to Chris Candido and Owen Hart . After wrestling at Jerry Lawler 's United States Wrestling Association , as " Flex Kavana " , and winning the USWA World Tag Team Championship twice with Bart Sawyer in the summer of 1996 , Johnson signed a WWF contract . He received additional training from Tom Prichard , alongside Achim Albrecht and Mark Henry .
= = = World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment = = =
= = = = Rocky Maivia ( 1996 – 1997 ) = = = =
Johnson made his WWF debut as Rocky Maivia , a combination of his father and grandfather 's ring names , although his real name was acknowledged by the announcers . He was initially reluctant to take this ring name , but was persuaded by Vince McMahon and Jim Ross . He was given the nickname " The Blue Chipper " , and his lineage was played to on TV , where he was hyped as the WWF 's first third @-@ generation wrestler . Maivia , a clean @-@ cut face character , was pushed heavily from the start despite his wrestling inexperience . He debuted on Monday Night Raw as a member of " The Stalker " Barry Windham 's entourage on November 4 , 1996 , and had his first match at Survivor Series on November 17 , in an eight @-@ man elimination tag match ; he was the sole survivor . WWF fans generally rejected him because of his cheesy character . At In Your House 12 : It 's Time , Maivia defeated Salvatore Sincere in his first singles match at a pay @-@ per @-@ view event . On February 13 , 1997 , he won the Intercontinental Championship from Hunter Hearst Helmsley on Monday Night Raw . Maivia successfully defended the title at In Your House 13 : Final Four against Hunter Hearst Helmsley and at WrestleMania 13 against The Sultan . He defeated Bret Hart by disqualification in a title defense on March 31 episode of Raw . On April 20 , at In Your House 14 : Revenge of the ' Taker , he lost to Savio Vega by countout , retaining the title for the final time . Audiences became increasingly hostile toward Maivia , with chants of " Die , Rocky , die ! " and " Rocky sucks ! " being heard during his matches .
= = = = The Nation of Domination ( 1997 – 1998 ) = = = =
After losing the Intercontinental Championship to Owen Hart on April 28 , 1997 Raw Is War , and suffering a knee injury in a match against Mankind , Maivia returned as a heel . Along with Faarooq , D 'Lo Brown , and Kama , he formed a stable called the Nation of Domination . During this time , he refused to acknowledge the " Rocky Maivia " name , instead referring to himself in the third person as " The Rock " . He insulted the audience in his promos , as well as WWF television interviewers , once calling Kevin Kelly an " ugly hermaphrodite " .
At D @-@ Generation X : In Your House , Stone Cold Steve Austin defeated The Rock in under six minutes to retain the Intercontinental Championship . The next night , on Raw Is War , Austin was ordered by Mr. McMahon to defend the title in a rematch , but forfeited it to The Rock instead , handing him the belt before hitting him with the Stone Cold Stunner . The Rock feuded with Austin and Ken Shamrock through the end of 1997 and beginning of 1998 . In March 1998 , The Rock overthrew Faarooq as leader of the Nation of Domination , sparking a feud . He successfully defended the Intercontinental title against Faarooq at Over the Edge : In Your House on May 31 , 1998 .
He and The Nation then feuded with Triple H and D @-@ Generation X ( DX ) . The two stable leaders first had a two out of three falls match at Fully Loaded : In Your House for the Intercontinental title , which The Rock retained in controversial fashion . This led to a ladder match at SummerSlam , in which Triple H won the title . At Breakdown : In Your House , The Rock defeated Ken Shamrock and Mankind in a triple threat steel cage match to become the number one contender for the WWF Championship . He then feuded with fellow Nation member Mark Henry , effectively breaking up the stable .
= = = = The Corporation ( 1998 – 1999 ) = = = =
The Rock 's entertaining promos and ensuing popularity led to a face turn , in which he called himself " The People 's Champion " . This led to a feud with Mr. McMahon , who said he had " a problem with the people " and would thus target " The People 's Champion " . A double turn occurred at Survivor Series , when The Rock defeated McMahon 's associate , Mankind , in the finals of the " Deadly Game " tournament for the vacant WWF Championship in a fashion reminiscent of the Montreal Screwjob . The Rock allied with Vince and Shane McMahon as the crown jewel of their stable , The Corporation .
On December 13 , 1998 , at the pay @-@ per @-@ view named for him , Rock Bottom : In Your House , The Rock had a rematch with Mankind for the WWF Championship . Mankind appeared to win the match when The Rock passed out in the Mandible Claw submission move , but Mr. McMahon ruled that since The Rock did not tap out , he retained his title . The Rock continued to feud with Mankind over the WWF Championship , which was traded back and forth between them . First , in the main event of January 4 , 1999 Raw Is War , Mankind defeated The Rock after interference from Steve Austin . Then , in an " I Quit " match at Royal Rumble on January 24 , The Rock regained the title , when a recording of Mankind saying " I quit " from an earlier interview was played over the PA system . On Halftime Heat ( an episode of Sunday Night Heat aired in the same timeslot as the Super Bowl XXXIII halftime show ) on January 31 , Mankind pinned The Rock using a forklift truck in an empty arena match . The two faced off again , at St. Valentine 's Day Massacre : In Your House , in a last man standing match . The bout ended in a draw , meaning Mankind retained the title . Their feud ended on February 15 Raw Is War , when The Rock won his third WWF Championship in a ladder match after Big Show chokeslammed Mankind off the ladder .
The Rock lost the WWF Championship to Steve Austin at WrestleMania XV . He also lost the title rematch at Backlash : In Your House . Though he was a heel , his amusing verbal skills led many fans to cheer The Rock . He turned face again after Shane McMahon betrayed him , and began a feud with Triple H , The Undertaker , and The Corporate Ministry . He defeated Triple H at Over the Edge , then lost to the WWF Champion , The Undertaker , at King of the Ring . He lost a number one contender 's match to Triple H at Fully Loaded , after interference from Mr. Ass . This sparked a feud with Mr. Ass , culminating in a " Kiss My Ass " match at SummerSlam , which The Rock won .
= = = = The People 's Champion ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = = =
Toward the latter part of 1999 , The Rock had several singles and tag team championship opportunities . He teamed with former enemy Mankind as The Rock ' n ' Sock Connection , after he challenged WWF Tag Team Champions The Undertaker and Big Show , and Mankind offered his help . They won the title for the first of three times . The two performed numerous comedic skits together , including one on Raw Is War called " This Is Your Life " ( based on the TV show ) , in which Mankind produced people from The Rock 's past , such as his high school girlfriend and his high school football coach . The segment earned an 8 @.@ 4 Nielsen rating , one of the highest ratings ever for a Raw segment .
At Royal Rumble on January 23 , 2000 , The Rock entered the Royal Rumble match and was one of the final two remaining , along with Big Show ; Show seemingly intended to throw The Rock over the top rope in a running powerslam @-@ like position , but Rock countered the move on the ring apron , sending Big Show to the floor before re @-@ entering the ring as the winner . However , The Rock 's feet hit the floor first , although those watching the event on TV did not see that , until Big Show proved this with additional video footage , and claimed to be the rightful winner . Despite this proof , the original decision could not be reversed , so a number one contender 's match for the WWF Championship was held at No Way Out , which Big Show won after Shane McMahon interfered and hit The Rock in the head with a steel chair as he attempted to execute a People 's Elbow . The Rock defeated Big Show on March 13 episode of Raw Is War to regain the right to face the WWF Champion , Triple H , at WrestleMania 2000 in a fatal four @-@ way elimination match , also including Big Show and Mick Foley . Each wrestler had a McMahon in his corner ; Triple H had his wife , Stephanie , Foley had Linda , The Rock had Vince , and Big Show had Shane . Triple H retained the title after Vince betrayed The Rock by hitting him with a chair .
Over the next few months , The Rock feuded with Triple H over the WWF Championship . On April 30 , at Backlash , The Rock defeated Triple H for his fourth WWF Championship reign , after Steve Austin intervened on The Rock 's behalf . On 21 May , at Judgment Day , the two had an Iron Man match , with Shawn Michaels as the special guest referee . With the score tied at five falls each , and with seconds left on the time limit , The Rock was disqualified when The Undertaker attacked Triple H , giving Triple H the 6 – 5 win and the title . The next night on Raw is War , The Rock got his revenge , taking out the entire McMahon @-@ Helmsley Faction with The Undertaker 's help . He won the WWF Championship for a fifth time at King of the Ring on June 25 , by scoring the winning pin in a tag team match , teamed with Kane and The Undertaker against Vince McMahon , Shane McMahon , and Triple H. He successfully defended the championship against Chris Benoit at Fully Loaded , Kurt Angle and Triple H at SummerSlam , and Benoit , Kane , and The Undertaker at Unforgiven .
The Rock lost the WWF Championship to Angle at No Mercy in October . Around this time , he feuded with Rikishi , and defeated him at Survivor Series . He wrestled a six @-@ man Hell in a Cell match for the WWF Championship at Armageddon , which Kurt Angle won to retain the title . On December 18 on Raw , The Rock won the WWF Tag Team Championship with The Undertaker , defeating Edge and Christian , then losing it back to them the next night at a SmackDown ! taping . In 2001 , The Rock continued to feud with Angle over the WWF Championship , culminating at No Way Out in February , where he pinned Angle to win the WWF Championship for a sixth time .
He then feuded with the Royal Rumble winner , Steve Austin . The Rock lost the title to Austin at WrestleMania X @-@ Seven after Austin allied with Mr. McMahon , who interfered on his behalf . On the next night 's Raw Is War , during a steel cage title rematch , Triple H came to the ring with a sledgehammer and it seemed he would help The Rock , because of the rivalry between Austin and Triple H ( and an argument with McMahon earlier in the night ) , but he attacked him instead , allying with McMahon and Austin . Austin and Triple H formed a tag team called The Power Trip , while The Rock was indefinitely suspended . Johnson used this time off to act in the movie The Mummy Returns .
= = = = The Invasion ( 2001 – 2002 ) = = = =
The Rock returned to the WWF in late July 2001 , and had to decide whether to join the WWF or The Alliance ( a group of former WCW and ECW wrestlers ) during The Invasion , eventually siding with the WWF . At SummerSlam , The Rock defeated Booker T to win the WCW Championship . He lost the title to Chris Jericho at No Mercy . The next night on Raw , he teamed with Jericho to win the WWF Tag Team Championship from The Dudley Boyz .
The Rock defeated Jericho on November 5 episode of Raw for his second WCW Championship . As part of the WWF 's battle against The Alliance , The Rock wrestled in a " winner takes all " ten @-@ man elimination match at Survivor Series . In the end , it came down to a one @-@ on @-@ one with Steve Austin ( who had recently joined The Alliance ) . The Rock seemed to have the upper hand , until Jericho ( a member of Team WWF , who was eliminated a few minutes earlier ) , entered the ring and attacked The Rock . Austin tried to capitalize on this by pinning The Rock , but Kurt Angle , a Team Alliance member , revealed his true allegiance by hitting Austin in the head with a title belt . The Rock then pinned Austin , forcing The Alliance to disband .
The Rock closed out 2001 by losing the WCW Championship at Vengeance to Chris Jericho , who would unify the WWF and WCW titles later that night . The Rock unsuccessfully challenged Jericho for both titles , now the Undisputed WWF Championship , at Royal Rumble , ending their feud . The Rock defeated The Undertaker at No Way Out . Three weeks before WrestleMania , The Rock headlined WWE 's Asian tour to Japan , Singapore and Malaysia . The first show was in Yokahama Arena and had sold 18 @,@ 000 tickets in sixty minutes . Jericho , who was booked to face him for all three shows , said he brought out the best in him and described his reaction as " one of the loudest I 'd ever heard in my career . It was as if Elvis had joined The Beatles and all of them were wearing Godzilla costumes . " He then feuded with the New World Order , after challenging Hollywood Hulk Hogan to a match at WrestleMania X8 . The match was billed as icon versus icon , with both men representing the top tier of two generations of wrestling ; ultimately Rock pinned Hogan at WrestleMania X8 . After the nWo turned on Hogan for losing the match , The Rock allied with him and then took a short sabbatical from wrestling .
= = = = Hollywood gimmick ( 2002 – 2003 ) = = = =
When he returned , The Rock won his ( then ) record @-@ breaking seventh WWF Championship ( which had been renamed the Undisputed WWE Championship ) at Vengeance , defeating Kurt Angle and The Undertaker in a Triple Threat match . He successfully defended the title at Global Warning against Triple H and Brock Lesnar by pinning Triple H. After the match , Lesnar attacked The Rock , until Triple H saved him . At SummerSlam , after interference from Lesnar 's manager , Paul Heyman , and the use of a steel chair , Rock lost the WWE Championship to Lesnar along with the record for the youngest WWE Champion , which Rock had set in 1998 .
Following the loss against Lesnar , The Rock publicly declared that whether or not the crowd booed him he would always be the People 's Champion , criticizing the fans in the arena and again taking a sabbatical from wrestling in order to focus on his film career .
The Rock returned on January 30 , 2003 episode of SmackDown ! to publicly criticize Hulk Hogan and make it clear that because of the success of his Hollywood career , WWE was no longer a priority . This reestablished him as a heel . The Rock defeated Hogan again at No Way Out and drafted himself to the Raw brand where he had various feuds , including one with The Hurricane . He also performed " Rock concerts " , segments in which he played the guitar and mocked the show 's host city .
After failing to win number one contendership for the World Heavyweight Championship , The Rock turned his attention to Steve Austin who , to The Rock 's chagrin , had been chosen as " Superstar of the Decade " . This led to a match at WrestleMania XIX , which called back to their previous two WrestleMania encounters , both of which Austin had won . The Rock won after delivering three consecutive Rock Bottoms , ending their long @-@ running feud in what turned out to be Austin 's final match .
The next night , Raw was billed as " The Rock Appreciation Night " , in honour of his victory over Austin . That night , he was attacked by a debuting Goldberg . At Backlash , Goldberg defeated The Rock , who then left WWE to focus on his film career .
= = = = Final feuds and departure ( 2003 – 2004 ) = = = =
The Rock then occasionally returned to WWE in non @-@ wrestling roles , gradually turning face again by engaging in one night feuds against heels such as Chris Jericho and Christian . The Rock aided Mick Foley in his feud against Evolution , leading to a reunion of The Rock ' n ' Sock Connection . They faced Ric Flair , Randy Orton and Batista in a handicap match at WrestleMania XX , losing when Orton pinned Foley after the RKO . The Rock appeared in WWE sporadically following WrestleMania XX . He stood up for Eugene , made a cameo in his hometown of Miami and helped Mick Foley turn back La Résistance . In 2004 , he hosted a pie @-@ eating contest , as part of the WWE Diva Search and ended the segment by giving Jonathan Coachman a spinebuster and a People 's Elbow . After this , he stated in several interviews that he was no longer under contract to WWE . He stated that he would continue using the trademarked name " The Rock " , per a dual ownership deal between him and WWE .
= = = = Sporadic appearances ( 2004 − 2009 ) = = = =
On August 23 , 2004 episode of Raw , The Rock returned and took out Jonathan Coachman and La Résistance . In October 2005 , The Rock did a tell all interview with WWE.com , he talked his contract with WWE , movies and feelings on a dream match with Shawn Michaels . On March 12 , 2007 , The Rock appeared on a WWE show after nearly three years , via a pre @-@ taped promo shown during Raw . He correctly predicted that Bobby Lashley would defeat Umaga at WrestleMania 23 in Donald Trump and Vince McMahon 's " Battle of the Billionaires " match . On March 29 , 2008 , The Rock inducted his father , Rocky Johnson , and his grandfather , Peter Maivia , into the WWE Hall of Fame . During his induction speech , he roasted wrestlers John Cena , Santino Marella , Chris Jericho , Mick Foley , Shawn Michaels , and Stone Cold Steve Austin . In September 2009 , he appeared at a World Xtreme Wrestling ( WXW ) show to support the pro wrestling debut of Sarona Snuka , the daughter of his long @-@ time friend and mentor Jimmy Snuka . On October 2 , 2009 , the ten @-@ year anniversary of SmackDown , The Rock ( with his usual flattop hair shaved off ) cut a promo via pre @-@ recorded video .
= = = Return to WWE = = =
= = = = Feud with John Cena ( 2011 – 2012 ) = = = =
On February 14 , 2011 , episode of Raw , The Rock was revealed as the host of WrestleMania XXVII , appearing live on Raw for the first time in almost seven years . During a lengthy promo , he addressed the fans , Michael Cole , The Miz and John Cena , calling Cena a " big fat bowl of Fruity Pebbles " , inspiring a popular crowd chant and sign . The Rock claimed to love wrestling , having been born into the business , a claim Cena argued . After numerous appearances via satellite , The Rock appeared live on the Raw before WrestleMania XXVII to confront Cena , with whom he had been feuding through Twitter , making fun of Cena 's clothing and calling him a " homeless Power Ranger " and " Vanilla Ice " . After he and Cena exchanged insults , The Miz and Alex Riley appeared and attacked The Rock ; he fended off Miz and Riley , only for Cena to blindside him with an Attitude Adjustment .
On April 3 at WrestleMania XXVII , The Rock opened the show by cutting a promo . After appearing in numerous backstage segments , The Rock came to ringside to restart the main event between Cena and The Miz as a No Disqualification match , after it had ended in a draw . As revenge for the Attitude Adjustment Cena had given him on Raw , Rock hit Cena with the Rock Bottom , allowing The Miz to pin him and retain the WWE Championship . After the match , Rock attacked Miz and hit him with the People 's Elbow . The following night on Raw , Cena challenged The Rock to a match at WrestleMania XXVIII the next year , which Rock accepted . They then worked together to fend off an attack by The Corre , which at the time consisted of Wade Barrett , Heath Slater , Justin Gabriel , and Ezekiel Jackson . The Rock appeared live on Raw in his hometown of Miami on 2 May , to celebrate his 39th birthday .
On September 16 , WWE announced The Rock would wrestle in a traditional 5 @-@ on @-@ 5 Survivor Series tag team match , teaming with Cena at Survivor Series in November . However , on October 24 episode of Raw , Cena instead chose The Rock to be his partner in a standard tag team match against Awesome Truth ( The Miz and R @-@ Truth ) , which Rock which agreed to the following week via satellite . On November 14 , during the special Raw Gets Rocked , The Rock appeared live , delivering Rock Bottoms to Mick Foley , who had been hosting a " This Is Your Life " -style segment for Cena , and later both members of Awesome Truth . Despite their rilvary , The Rock and Cena defeated Awesome Truth on November 20 at Survivor Series , when The Rock pinned The Miz with the People 's Elbow . After the match , The Rock gave Cena a Rock Bottom .
Leading up to WrestleMania , The Rock and Cena had several verbal confrontations on Raw . On March 12 , 2012 , episode , The Rock hosted his first " Rock Concert " segment since 2004 , mocking Cena in his songs . He opined that , having beaten Hulk Hogan and Stone Cold Steve Austin at previous Wrestlemanias , beating Cena would make him the greatest wrestler of all time . On April 1 at WrestleMania XXVIII , The Rock faced Cena in the main event hyped for a year and billed with the tagline " Once in a Lifetime " . When an overconfident Cena attempted the People 's Elbow on The Rock , he countered with a Rock Bottom for the pin and the win . The following night on Raw , The Rock praised Cena for putting up a good fight , calling their match " an honor " . He then vowed to once again become WWE Champion .
= = = = WWE Champion ( 2012 – 2013 ) = = = =
On July 23 at Raw 1000 , The Rock announced he would face the WWE Champion at the Royal Rumble . During the show , he encountered WWE Champion CM Punk , Daniel Bryan , and John Cena , all of whom expressed a desire to face him . He later saved Cena from an assault by Big Show , only to be laid out by CM Punk .
On January 7 , 2013 Raw , The Rock returned to WWE to confront his Rumble opponent , then reigning champion CM Punk . He also made his first SmackDown appearance in ten years on January 11 episode , attacking Team Rhodes Scholars with a Rock Bottom to Damien Sandow and a People 's Elbow to Cody Rhodes . The Rock closed out the 20th anniversary episode of Raw on January 14 with one of his famous " Rock concerts " , leading to a brawl with CM Punk . The following week on Raw , The Rock was attacked by The Shield . Vince McMahon then asserted that if The Shield attacked The Rock in his title match with CM Punk , Punk would be stripped of the WWE Championship . On January 27 at the Royal Rumble , Punk defeated The Rock after The Shield interfered . McMahon was about to strip Punk of the championship , however , at The Rock 's request , he instead restarted the match . This culminated in The Rock defeating Punk to win his eighth WWE Championship , a win which marked The Rock 's first WWE Championship reign in over ten years , and ending Punk 's long reign as champion at 434 days . Punk received a title rematch with The Rock at Elimination Chamber , with the added stipulation that if The Rock was disqualified or counted out , he would lose the title , but Rock pinned Punk to retain the championship . The following night on Raw , The Rock unveiled the new WWE Championship during his championship celebration , with an entirely new center plate and his signature Brahma Bull logo on the side plates . The Rock then resumed his rivalry with John Cena , with Cena blaming his personal and professional troubles on his loss to The Rock the previous year . On April 7 at WrestleMania 29 , Rock lost the WWE Championship to Cena , ending his reign at 70 days . Despite being advertised for the Raw after WrestleMania , where it was stated by SmackDown General Manager Booker T that The Rock was still entitled a re @-@ match for the WWE Championship , The Rock did not appear because of a legitimate injury sustained during WrestleMania , in which his abdominal and adductor tendons tore from his pelvis . Johnson underwent surgery on April 23 to reattach the torn tendons .
In August 2013 , The Rock hinted at possible retirement , but ultimately did not rule out a return .
= = = = Part @-@ time appearances ( 2014 – present ) = = = =
In April 2014 , the Rock appeared in the opening segment of WrestleMania XXX along with Stone Cold Steve Austin and Hulk Hogan . On October 6 episode of Raw , the Rock made a surprise appearance to confront Rusev and Lana ; this resulted in the Rock clearing Rusev from the ring . Later that week , off @-@ air footage from the night of a staredown between the Rock and Triple H aired on the 15th anniversary show of Smackdown .
The Rock appeared at the 2015 Royal Rumble event during the main event match , where he helped Roman Reigns fend off Big Show and Kane , and was booed ( " for the first time in forever " ( 2003 ) as described by Dave Scherer of PWInsider.com ) for doing so . The Rock endorsed Reigns ' eventual victory , but the crowd still booed both him and Reigns . The Rock appeared at WrestleMania 31 alongside Ronda Rousey , getting into an in @-@ ring altercation with Triple H and Stephanie McMahon ( The Authority ) . Rock and Rousey prevailed after he attacked Triple H and she overpowered McMahon . On June 27 , 2015 , The Rock appeared at a live event in Boston where he confronted Bo Dallas , giving him a Rock Bottom in the process .
At WrestleMania 32 , The Rock announced that WWE had broken the all time WrestleMania attendance record before being interrupted by The Wyatt Family . The Rock defeated Wyatt Family member Erick Rowan in an impromptu match , giving him a Rock Bottom and pinning him in six seconds and setting the record for the fastest win in WrestleMania history . The Rock was then aided by the returning John Cena to fend off the remaining members of The Wyatt Family , Bray Wyatt and Braun Strowman .
= = Mainstream popularity in wrestling = =
The success of Johnson 's wrestling character allowed him to cross over into mainstream pop culture . He appeared on Wyclef Jean 's 2000 single " It Doesn 't Matter " and in its music video . He also recorded " Pie " with Slick Rick for WWF The Music , Vol . 5 . In 2000 , he hosted Saturday Night Live . Fellow wrestlers Triple H , The Big Show , and Mick Foley also appeared on the show . Johnson has stated the success of that episode is the reason he began receiving offers from Hollywood studios . Johnson had guest roles on Star Trek : Voyager , as an alien wrestler that uses The Rock 's famous moves , and on That ' 70s Show , as his father , Rocky Johnson .
In 1999 , The Rock was listed # 5 on Entertainment Weekly 's Top 12 Entertainers of the Year . In 2000 , on an Access Hollywood ’ s prime @-@ time special , The Rock was ranked number six in the Top 10 Celebrities Of 2000 . Rock was also listed in Forbes Celebrity 100 that year and People Magazine 's 25 Most Intriguing People .
The Rock made a surprise appearance at the official Xbox unveiling during Bill Gates ' keynote speech at the ongoing Computer Electronics Show in 2001 . Rock was also listed on E ! ' s 20 Top Entertainers and Entertainment Weekly 's 101 Most Influential People that year and the previous year ( 2000 ) .
In 2002 , Rock was listed on E ! ' s 25 Toughest Stars . In 2003 , Rock was listed in VH1 's 200 Greatest Pop Culture Icons and # 13 on People Magazine 's 50 Favorite TV Stars .
Johnson 's motion picture debut was a brief appearance as The Scorpion King in the opening sequence of The Mummy Returns . The character appears in the movie 's climax in CGI form . The movie 's financial success led to his first leading role , in the spin @-@ off The Scorpion King . He was listed in the 2007 Guinness World Records as the highest @-@ paid actor in his first starring role , receiving US $ 5 @.@ 5 million for this movie . The Mummy Returns , featuring The Rock , shattered a two @-@ year record by earning $ 28 @,@ 594 @,@ 667 , making it the highest @-@ grossing single day for any film in history .
The Rock has appeared on the cover of many magazines , including Rolling Stone , Entertainment Weekly , Newsweek , and TV Guide .
= = Legacy in wrestling = =
The Rock is widely considered as one of the all @-@ time greatest professional wrestlers as well as one of the top box office draws in wrestling history .
WWE legend Hulk Hogan called The Rock " the biggest superstar in this business " , 15 @-@ time world champion John Cena described him as " the biggest superstar in the history of WWE " and " the most successful WWE superstar ever " . WCW icon Diamond Dallas Page described him as " the biggest star in our business , of all time " . Vince Russo , the head writer of WWE 's most popular era The Attitude Era , stated : " I don 't think there 's ever going to be a star in the history of this business that is bigger than The Rock " .
Many WWE legends and superstars placed The Rock on their " Mount Rushmore of Wrestling " including Hulk Hogan , Ric Flair , Chris Jericho and John Cena .
In " Cable Visions : Television Beyond Broadcasting " , The Rock was described as " for a long time , the WWE 's biggest star and probably held the greatest international appeal " . R.D. Reynolds stated in his book " The WrestleCrap Book of Lists " that The Rock was " the biggest star for WWE from 1999 until 2004 . "
He main evented the most bought pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) worldwide in WWE history ( WrestleMania XXVIII ) , the most bought pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) domestically in WWE history ( WrestleMania XVII ) , the second highest attended event in the history of WWE ( WrestleMania 29 ) , the highest rated Raw in history , and was part of the highest rated segment in Raw history . In addition , The Rock main evented the nine highest rated Raws in history and 10 out of the 15 highest rated SmackDowns in history . His return in 2001 did a 7 @.@ 1 rating which was the highest rated segment of the entire year .
The Rock was also part of the highest rated match of 2000 . His steel cage match with Shane McMahon on 1 May did a 8 @.@ 3 rating on the regular time and a 9 @.@ 1 on the overrun making this match the most watched professional wrestling match in the United States of this millennium .
In 2011 , The Rock 's return generated a lot of buzz , an average of 4 @.@ 7 million people watched that episode of RAW , but 7 @.@ 4 million tuned in just during The Rock ’ s promo . His return also led the following episode of Raw on March 7 to be the highest rated episode of that year . In that same year , The Rock wrestled his first match in years at 2011 Survivor Series in Madison Square Garden . The event sold out in less than 90 minutes and was the highest attended Survivor Series in almost a decade ( since 2002 ) . The Rock was also part of the highest rated Raw segment in 2012 in a segment on Raw 1000 with WWE superstars CM Punk and Daniel Bryan which drew a 4 @.@ 3 rating and was also part of the highest rated overrun of that year ( 4 @.@ 4 ) the same night .
The Rock 's highly anticipated WWE title match at the 2013 Royal Rumble led the event to be the most bought non @-@ WrestleMania PPV in 7 years . The night after the 2013 Royal Rumble on January 28 which saw The Rock win the WWE Championship for the first time in over a decade was the highest rated Raw episode of that year . During that night , The Rock 's segment with CM Punk did a 4 @.@ 03 rating which was the highest rated segment since Raw 1000 . The Rock would also be part of the highest rated segment of 2013 in his segment with John Cena on Old School Raw which did a 4 @.@ 1 rating .
Rock headlined five WrestleManias ( XV , 2000 , X @-@ Seven , XXVIII , and WrestleMania 29 ) , and wrestled in five additional WrestleManias in non headlining matches . In 2011 , he became the first wrestler to ever host a WrestleMania ( WrestleMania XXVII ) .
Derived from one of his catchphrases " lay the smackdown " , WWE introduced its second flagship program SmackDown ! which would later become television 's second longest @-@ running weekly episodic program . The term " Smackdown " also has been included in Merriam @-@ Webster dictionaries since 2007 .
The Rock was the first wrestler to win the WWF / E Championship six times then seven times . Rock 's Intercontinental Championship 's reign in 1997 – 98 lasted 265 days and is the longest intercontinental title reign of the modern era ( the last 24 years ) . Rock is the only wrestler to introduce a different design of both the Intercontinental Championship ( shortly after WrestleMania XIV ) and the WWE Championship ( on February 18 , 2013 episode of Raw ) . He was the youngest Intercontinental Champion as well as the youngest WWF Champion of his time .
Rock was also the first wrestler to be part of a title match at five consecutive WrestleManias , having competed for the Intercontinental title at WrestleMania 13 and WrestleMania XIV , and for the WWF Championship at WrestleMania XV , WrestleMania 2000 , and WrestleMania X @-@ Seven .
He is one of three wrestlers ( along with Shawn Michaels and The Undertaker ) to main event WrestleMania in three different decades , doing so in the 90s ( WrestleMania XV ) , the 2000s ( WrestleMania 2000 and WrestleMania X @-@ Seven ) and the 2010s ( WrestleMania XXVIII and WrestleMania XXIX ) . He is also one of three wrestlers ( along with Hulk Hogan and Triple H ) to win the WWE title in three different decades doing so in the 90s , the 2000s and the 2010s .
The Rock also holds the record for most Raw shows main evented in one year ( 38 in 2000 ) , most Smackdown shows main evented in one year ( 36 in 2000 ) and tied with Stone Cold Steve Austin ( in 2001 ) for most PPV shows main evented in one year ( 12 in 2000 ) . Overall The Rock has headlined 35 PPV events in WWE ( including two Royal Rumble matches ) .
Rock was on the cover of the first three video games of the WWE games series including WWF SmackDown ! 2 : Know Your Role which ended up being the best @-@ selling combat sports game on a single format ( PlayStation 2 ) with 3 @.@ 2 million copies sold .
WWE listed The Rock as the funniest WWE superstar in history .
= = Acting career = =
In a the May 2004 issue , Vibe magazine stated " At six @-@ foot @-@ four , 245 pounds , Dwayne " the Rock " Johnson , 31 , may be the biggest star to hit the big screen since Arnold Schwarzenegger . " Johnson also continued to act on television , including in an episode of the Disney Channel show , Cory in the House , entitled " Never the Dwayne Shall Meet " . While Johnson was away from WWE , the company continued to sell " The Rock " merchandise , and he continued to be featured prominently in the opening montages of their television shows .
Johnson broke into the mainstream with roles in the blockbuster action films The Mummy Returns in 2001 and The Scorpion King in 2002 , the action comedy The Rundown in 2003 and the remake of Walking Tall in 2004 . He played a supporting role in 2005 's Be Cool and was the primary antagonist in Doom in 2006 . Roles in the Gridiron Gang and Reno 911 ! : Miami soon followed . Johnson played against type with The Rundown co @-@ star Sean William Scott in 2007 's Southland Tales . Johnson played the cocky famous football player , Joe Kingman , in The Game Plan , and Agent 23 in Get Smart . Johnson presented the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects at the 80th Academy Awards on February 24 , 2008 . He was nominated for the Favorite Movie Actor award at the 2008 Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Awards for his role in The Game Plan , but lost out to Johnny Depp in Pirates of the Caribbean : At World 's End .
Johnson hosted the 2009 Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Awards on March 28 . He appeared on the Wizards of Waverly Place episode , " Art Teacher " , as part of his stint with The Walt Disney Company . He has made several guest appearances on Saturday Night Live , reviving his character of " The Rock Obama " , a spoof of both President Barack Obama and The Hulk . Also in 2009 , Johnson played ex @-@ con cab driver Jack Bruno in Las Vegas in Race To Witch Mountain . He provided the voice of Capt. Charles " Chuck " Baker in Planet 51 . In 2010 , Johnson starred in the family comedy , Tooth Fairy . He made an uncredited cameo in the 2010 film , Why Did I Get Married Too ? as a psychiatrist who asks out the recently widowed Patricia Agnew ( Janet Jackson ) . He briefly appears in The Other Guys , as an action @-@ seeking detective . He returned to action films with the 2010 film Faster .
In 2011 , Johnson appeared in the fifth film of The Fast and the Furious film series , Fast Five , as Luke Hobbs , a Diplomatic Security Service agent assigned to hunt down the series ' protagonists . Johnson landed the role after series star Vin Diesel read comments and feedback from fans , one of whom wanted to see Diesel and Johnson in a movie together . Johnson , a fan of the franchise , had wanted to work with Universal again after they had given him his first film roles . Fast Five grossed over $ 86 million in its opening weekend , the biggest opening for a Fast & Furious film , the biggest opening for an April release , and the biggest opening for a Johnson movie .
In 2012 , Johnson starred in Journey 2 : The Mysterious Island . He starred in the 2013 true @-@ story film Snitch , which opened to mixed reviews ; however , Johnson 's performance was praised . He became known to reinvigorate film franchises after portraying Roadblock in G.I. Joe : Retaliation in 2013 , and reprised his role as Luke Hobbs , in Fast & Furious 6 , the same year . Johnson starred in true @-@ story films , Pain & Gain and Empire State in 2013 . In addition to these films , Johnson hosted and produced the reality competition / game show series The Hero , on TNT . He won the Favorite Male Buttkicker Award at the 2013 Nickelodeon Kid 's Choice Awards on March 23 , 2013 . In May 2013 , it was announced that he would executive produce and star in Ballers , a HBO comedy @-@ drama series about athletes living in Miami .
Johnson starred in Hercules ( 2014 ) , as the title character , and once again reprised his role of Luke Hobbs in Furious 7 ( 2015 ) . He hosted another reality series for TNT in 2014 , entitled Wake Up Call , which saw him " lending a helping hand to everyday people who were facing enormous challenges in their lives " alongside guest experts such as Rocco DiSpirito , Jillian Michaels , and Josh Shipp . He would also executive produce and star in the horror film Seal Team 666 , and is set to play Nick Schuyler in the drama film Not Without Hope .
On December 16 , 2013 , Forbes named Johnson the top @-@ grossing actor of 2013 , with his films bringing in $ 1 @.@ 3 billion worldwide for the year . Forbes credited the success of Fast & Furious 6 , which grossed $ 789 million globally , and Johnson 's frequent acting work as primary reasons for him topping the list . In March 2014 , Johnson confirmed that he would be working with DC Entertainment for an untitled film project . In September 2014 , it was announced that he would play Black Adam , the villain , in a film about Shazam as a part of the DC Extended Universe ; which he would also produce .
In 2016 , Johnson co @-@ starred with Kevin Hart in the action @-@ comedy Central Intelligence , and will have a voice role in the Disney animated film Moana , as the Hawaiian demigod Maui . After the continued success of The Fast and the Furious franchise , Fast 8 was announced with a release date of April 14 , 2017 . Johnson 's production company Seven Bucks Productions will produce various film projects in which he will star , namely : Baywatch ( 2017 ) , Rampage ( 2017 ) and the Jumanji remake . A sequel to the box @-@ office hit San Andreas was announced to be in the pre @-@ production stage with director of the first film , Brad Peyton , signed to return ( marking their fourth collaboration following Journey 2 , San Andreas , and Rampage respectively ) , along with the cast including Johnson . Johnson confirmed that he would star in the Jumanji remake via his Instagram social media page , something he has often done with previous project announcements . In an interview , Johnson also discussed the possibility of an earlier release date than was originally announced for the DC Extended Universe film , Shazam . Johnson signed on to return in two additional sequels to Warner Bros. Entertainment 's Journey film series , as well as a Jungle Cruise feature film being developed by Disney . In May 2016 Johnson confirmed his attachment to The Janson Directive as Paul Janson . The film will be produced by Universal Studios Pictures , with the intent to adapt more of Robert Ludlum 's work in the future in a larger project than just the announced first installment . Later that same month , it was announced that he would star in Legendary Entertainment 's Skyscraper movie which will be an action @-@ thriller film with Rawson Marshall Thurber signed on as director and writer of the film , as well as a rebooted version of the character Doc Savage in a film written and directed by Shane Black . Johnson had previously mentioned that he was signed on to film a remake of Big Trouble in Little China , and recently expressed that it is still currently in the development stages . In Juy of 2016 , Johnson announced another television series which he will be involved in named , Muscle Beach . Johnson will be involved behind the scenes of the series for the time being .
= = Personal life = =
Johnson married Dany Garcia on May 3 , 1997 . Their daughter , Simone Alexandra , was born August 14 , 2001 . On June 1 , 2007 , they announced they were splitting up amicably and intended to remain friends . Soon after the divorce , Johnson began dating Lauren Hashian , the daughter of Boston drummer Sib Hashian . They first met in 2006 while Johnson was filming The Game Plan , prompting rumors he left his marriage for Hashian . Their first child , a daughter named Jasmine , was born in December 2015 .
Johnson co @-@ wrote an autobiography with Joe Layden , titled The Rock Says .... It was published in 2000 , debuting at No. 1 on The New York Times Best Seller list and remaining on the list for several weeks .
Johnson is a good friend of actor and former Governor of California , Arnold Schwarzenegger . He has two nephews who play football : Kaluka Maiava played at USC and was drafted by the Cleveland Browns in 2009 , and his brother , Kai Maiava , currently plays at UCLA .
Johnson attended the 2000 Democratic National Convention as part of WWE 's non @-@ partisan " Smackdown Your Vote " campaign , which aimed to influence young people to vote .
Because his mother , Ata Fitisemanu Maivia , is a descendant of Samoan chiefs , and in recognition of his service to the Samoan people , Malietoa Tanumafili II bestowed upon Johnson the noble title of Seiuli during his visit there in July 2004 . He received a partial Samoan pe 'a tattoo in 2003 .
In 2006 , Johnson founded the Dwayne Johnson Rock Foundation , a charity working with at @-@ risk and terminally ill children . On October 2 , 2007 , he and his ex @-@ wife donated $ 1 million to the University of Miami to support the renovation of its football facilities ; it was noted as the largest donation ever given to the university 's athletics department by former students . The University of Miami renamed the Hurricanes ' locker room in Johnson 's honor .
On May 21 , 2015 , Johnson set a Guinness World Record for most selfies in three minutes , taking 105 selfies with fans during the premiere of San Andreas in London .
On March 2016 , Johnson partnered with the new juggernaut in American fitness apparel Under Armour to release " Project Rock " . The first item in his partnership with Under Armour , a gym bag , was met with ferocious demand and was sold out in a couple of days . His second item , a black T @-@ shirt sporting the wrestler 's iconic " brahma bull " has sold out in record time for Under Armour after being worn at WrestleMania 32 . Johnson also released an alarm clock app as part of " Project Rock " that received over one million downloads in its first week of release .
= = Filmography = =
= = Discography = =
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves :
People 's Elbow / Corporate Elbow ( Running delayed high @-@ impact elbow drop , with theatrics ) – usually preceded by a spinebuster ; 1997 – present - innovated
Rock Bottom ( Falling side slam ) – 1997 – present
Running shoulderbreaker – 1996
Signature moves :
Float @-@ over DDT
Flowing snap DDT , sometimes followed by a kip @-@ up
Jumping clothesline
Running swinging neckbreaker
Running thrust lariat
Samoan drop
Sharpshooter
Snap overhead belly @-@ to @-@ belly suplex , sometimes to an oncoming opponent
Spinebuster , usually followed by a People 's Elbow
Managers :
Debra
Mr. McMahon
Shane McMahon
Nicknames :
" The People 's Champion "
" The Brahma Bull "
" The Corporate Champion "
" The Great One "
" The Most Electrifying Man in All of Entertainment "
" The Most Electrifying Man in Sports Entertainment "
" Rocky "
Entrance themes :
World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment / WWE
" Destiny " by Jim Johnston ( 1996 – 1997 )
" Power " by Jim Johnston ( 1997 – 1998 )
" You Smell It ? " by Jim Johnston ( 1998 )
" The Rock Says " by Jim Johnston ( 1998 )
" Do You Smell It ? " by Jim Johnston ( 1998 – 1999 )
" Know Your Role " by Jim Johnston ( 1999 – 2001 , 2004 , 2007 , 2008 , 2009 )
" If You Smell ... " by Jim Johnston ( 2001 – 2003 )
" Is Cookin ' " by Jim Johnston ( 2003 – 2004 )
" Electrifying " by Jim Johnston ( 2011 – present )
= = = Relatives in wrestling = = =
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Match of the Year ( 1999 ) vs. Mankind in an " I Quit " match at Royal Rumble
Match of the Year ( 2002 ) vs. Hulk Hogan at WrestleMania X8
Most Popular Wrestler of the Year ( 1999 , 2000 )
Wrestler of the Year ( 2000 )
Ranked # 2 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2000
Ranked # 76 of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the " PWI Years " in 2003
United States Wrestling Association
USWA World Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Bart Sawyer
World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment / WWE
WCW / World Championship ( 2 times )
WWF / E ( Undisputed ) Championship ( 8 times ) 1
Deadly Games WWF Championship Tournament ( 1998 )
WWF Intercontinental Championship ( 2 times )
WWF Tag Team Championship ( 5 times ) – with Mankind ( 3 ) , The Undertaker ( 1 ) , and Chris Jericho ( 1 )
Royal Rumble ( 2000 )
Sixth Triple Crown Champion
Slammy Awards ( 8 times )
New Sensation ( 1997 )
Game Changer of the Year ( 2011 ) – with John Cena
Guess Who 's Back or : Return of the Year ( 2011 )
LOL ! Moment of the Year ( 2012 , 2013 ) – insulting John Cena using the history of Boston , Massachusetts – Rock Concert on the 20th anniversary episode of Raw
Match of the Year ( 2013 ) – vs. John Cena for the WWE Championship at WrestleMania 29
Best Actor ( 2014 )
" Tell Me You Didn 't Just Say That " Insult of the Year ( 2014 ) – Insulting Rusev and Lana
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Best Box Office Draw ( 2000 , 2011 , 2012 )
Best Gimmick ( 1999 )
Best on Interviews ( 1999 , 2000 )
Most Charismatic ( 1999 , 2000 , 2001 , 2002 , 2011 , 2012 )
Most Improved ( 1998 )
Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame ( Class of 2007 )
1 The Rock 's seventh reign was as Undisputed WWE Champion .
= = Other awards and honors = =
1991 : NCAA National Championship – as a member of the Miami Hurricanes
2001 : Teen Choice Awards – Choice Movie Villain
2012 : CinemaCon Action Star of the Year
2013 : Kids Choice Awards – Favorite Male Butt Kicker
2016 : People 's Choice Award – Favorite Premium Cable TV Actor
2017 : Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame
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= Birth control movement in the United States =
The birth control movement in the United States was a social reform campaign from 1914 to around 1945 that aimed to increase the availability of contraception in the U.S. through education and legalization . The movement began in 1914 when a group of political radicals in New York City , led by Emma Goldman , Mary Dennett , and Margaret Sanger , became concerned about the hardships that childbirth and self @-@ induced abortions brought to low @-@ income women . Sanger , in particular , simultaneously sought to connect birth control to the organized eugenics movement , regularly appealing to the authority of eugenic scientists Karl Pearson , Charles Davenport , and others in her Birth Control Review from the early 1920s Such figures sought to prevent population segments they deemed genetically ' undesirable ' from reproducing . While seeking legitimacy for the birth control movement partly through the approval of organized eugenics , Sanger and other activists also worked on the political front . Since contraception was considered to be obscene at the time , the activists targeted the Comstock laws , which prohibited distribution of any " obscene , lewd , and / or lascivious " materials through the mail . Hoping to provoke a favorable legal decision , Sanger deliberately broke the law by distributing The Woman Rebel , a newsletter containing a discussion of contraception . In 1916 , Sanger opened the first birth control clinic in the United States , but the clinic was immediately shut down by police , and Sanger was sentenced to 30 days in jail .
A major turning point for the movement came during World War I , when many U.S. servicemen were diagnosed with venereal diseases . The government 's response included an anti @-@ venereal disease campaign that framed sexual intercourse and contraception as issues of public health and legitimate topics of scientific research . This was the first time a U.S. government institution had engaged in a sustained , public discussion of sexual matters ; as a consequence , contraception transformed from an issue of morals to an issue of public health .
Encouraged by the public 's changing attitudes towards birth control , Sanger opened a second birth control clinic in 1923 , but this time there were no arrests or controversy . Throughout the 1920s , public discussion of contraception became more commonplace , and the term " birth control " became firmly established in the nation 's vernacular . The widespread availability of contraception signaled a transition from the stricter sexual mores of the Victorian era to a more sexually permissive society .
Legal victories in the 1930s continued to weaken anti @-@ contraception laws . The court victories motivated the American Medical Association in 1937 to adopt contraception as a core component of medical school curricula , but the medical community was slow to accept this new responsibility , and women continued to rely on unsafe and ineffective contraceptive advice from ill @-@ informed sources . In 1942 , the Planned Parenthood Federation of America was formed , creating a nationwide network of birth control clinics . After World War II , the movement to legalize birth control came to a gradual conclusion , as birth control was fully embraced by the medical profession , and the remaining anti @-@ contraception laws were no longer enforced .
= = Contraception in the nineteenth century = =
= = = Birth control practices = = =
The practice of birth control was common throughout the U.S. prior to 1914 , when the movement to legalize contraception began . Longstanding techniques included the rhythm method , withdrawal , diaphragms , contraceptive sponges , condoms , prolonged breastfeeding , and spermicides . Use of contraceptives increased throughout the nineteenth century , contributing to a 50 percent drop in the fertility rate in the United States between 1800 and 1900 , particularly in urban regions . The only known survey conducted during the nineteenth century of American women 's contraceptive habits was performed by Clelia Mosher from 1892 to 1912 . The survey was based on a small sample of upper @-@ class women , and shows that most of the women used contraception ( primarily douching , but also withdrawal , rhythm , condoms and pessaries ) and that they viewed sex as a pleasurable act that could be undertaken without the goal of procreation .
Although contraceptives were relatively common in middle @-@ class and upper @-@ class society , the topic was rarely discussed in public . The first book published in the United States which ventured to discuss contraception was Moral Physiology ; or , A Brief and Plain Treatise on the Population Question , published by Robert Dale Owen in 1831 . The book suggested that family planning was a laudable effort , and that sexual gratification – without the goal of reproduction – was not immoral . Owen recommended withdrawal , but he also discussed sponges and condoms . That book was followed by Fruits of Philosophy : The Private Companion of Young Married People , written in 1832 by Charles Knowlton , which recommended douching . Knowlton was prosecuted in Massachusetts on obscenity charges , and served three months in prison .
Birth control practices were generally adopted earlier in Europe than in the United States . Knowlton 's book was reprinted in 1877 in England by Charles Bradlaugh and Annie Besant , with the goal of challenging Britain 's obscenity laws . They were arrested ( and later acquitted ) but the publicity of their trial contributed to the formation , in 1877 , of the Malthusian League – the world 's first birth control advocacy group – which sought to limit population growth to avoid Thomas Malthus 's dire predictions of exponential population growth leading to worldwide poverty and famine . By 1930 , similar societies had been established in nearly all European countries , and birth control began to find acceptance in most Western European countries , except Catholic Ireland , Spain , and France . As the birth control societies spread across Europe , so did birth control clinics . The first birth control clinic in the world was established in the Netherlands in 1882 , run by the Netherlands ' first female physician , Aletta Jacobs . The first birth control clinic in England was established in 1921 by Marie Stopes , in London .
= = = Contraception outlawed = = =
Contraception was legal in the United States throughout most of the 19th century , but in the 1870s a social purity movement grew in strength , aimed at outlawing vice in general , and prostitution and obscenity in particular . Composed primarily of Protestant moral reformers and middle @-@ class women , the Victorian @-@ era campaign also attacked contraception , which was viewed as an immoral practice that promoted prostitution and venereal disease . Anthony Comstock , a postal inspector and leader in the purity movement , successfully lobbied for the passage of the 1873 Comstock Act , a federal law prohibiting mailing of " any article or thing designed or intended for the prevention of conception or procuring of abortion " as well as any form of contraceptive information . Many states also passed similar state laws ( collectively known as the Comstock laws ) , sometimes extending the federal law by outlawing the use of contraceptives , as well as their distribution . Comstock was proud of the fact that he was personally responsible for thousands of arrests and the destruction of hundreds of tons of books and pamphlets .
Comstock and his allies also took aim at the libertarians and utopians who comprised the free love movement – an initiative to promote sexual freedom , equality for women , and abolition of marriage . The free love proponents were the only group to actively oppose the Comstock laws in the 19th century , setting the stage for the birth control movement .
The efforts of the free love movement were not successful and , at the beginning of the 20th century , federal and state governments began to enforce the Comstock laws more rigorously . In response , contraception went underground , but it was not extinguished . The number of publications on the topic dwindled , and advertisements , if they were found at all , used euphemisms such as " marital aids " or " hygienic devices " . Drug stores continued to sell condoms as " rubber goods " and cervical caps as " womb supporters " .
= = Beginning ( 1914 – 1916 ) = =
= = = Free speech movement = = =
At the turn of the century , an energetic movement arose , centered in Greenwich Village , that sought to overturn bans on free speech . Supported by radicals , feminists , anarchists , and atheists such as Ezra Heywood , Moses Harman , D. M. Bennett , and Emma Goldman , these activists regularly battled anti @-@ obscenity laws and , later , the government 's effort to suppress speech critical of involvement in World War I. Prior to 1914 , the free speech movement focused on politics , and rarely addressed contraception .
Goldman 's circle of radicals , socialists , and bohemians was joined in 1912 by a nurse , Margaret Sanger , whose mother had been through 18 pregnancies in 22 years , and died at age 50 of tuberculosis and cervical cancer . In 1913 , Sanger worked in New York 's Lower East Side , often with poor women who were suffering due to frequent childbirth and self @-@ induced abortions . After one particularly tragic medical case , Sanger wrote : " I threw my nursing bag in the corner and announced ... that I would never take another case until I had made it possible for working women in America to have the knowledge to control birth . " Sanger visited public libraries , searching for information on contraception , but nothing was available . She became outraged that working @-@ class women could not obtain contraception , yet upper @-@ class women who had access to private physicians could .
Under the influence of Goldman and the Free Speech League , Sanger became determined to challenge the Comstock laws that outlawed the dissemination of contraceptive information . With that goal in mind , in 1914 she launched The Woman Rebel , an eight @-@ page monthly newsletter which promoted contraception using the slogan " No Gods , No Masters " , and proclaimed that each woman should be " the absolute mistress of her own body . " Sanger coined the term birth control , which first appeared in the pages of Rebel , as a more candid alternative to euphemisms such as family limitation .
Sanger 's goal of challenging the law was fulfilled when she was indicted in August 1914 , but the prosecutors focused their attention on articles Sanger had written on assassination and marriage , rather than contraception . Afraid that she might be sent to prison without an opportunity to argue for birth control in court , she fled to England to escape arrest .
While Sanger was in Europe , her husband continued her work , which led to his arrest after he distributed a copy of a birth control pamphlet to an undercover postal worker . The arrest and his 30 @-@ day jail sentence prompted several mainstream publications , including Harper 's Weekly and the New @-@ York Tribune , to publish articles about the birth control controversy . Emma Goldman and Ben Reitman toured the country , speaking in support of the Sangers , and distributing copies of Sanger 's pamphlet Family Limitation . Sanger 's exile and her husband 's arrest propelled the birth control movement into the forefront of American news .
= = = Early birth control organizations = = =
In the spring of 1915 supporters of the Sangers – led by Mary Dennett – formed the National Birth Control League ( NBCL ) , which was the first American birth control organization . Throughout 1915 , smaller regional organizations were formed in San Francisco , Portland , Oregon , Seattle , and Los Angeles .
Sanger returned to the United States in October 1915 . She planned to open a birth control clinic modeled on the world 's first such clinic , which she had visited in Amsterdam . She first had to fight the charges outstanding against her . Noted attorney Clarence Darrow offered to defend Sanger free of charge but , bowing to public pressure , the government dropped the charges early in 1916 . No longer under the threat of jail , Sanger embarked on a successful cross @-@ country speaking tour , which catapulted her into the leadership of the U.S. birth control movement . Other leading figures , such as William J. Robinson and Mary Dennett , chose to work in the background , or turned their attention to other causes . Later in 1916 , Sanger traveled to Boston to lend her support to the Massachusetts Birth Control League and to jailed birth control activist Van Kleeck Allison .
= = = First birth control clinic = = =
During Sanger 's 1916 speaking tour , she promoted birth control clinics based on the Dutch model she had observed during her 1914 trip to Europe . Although she inspired many local communities to create birth control leagues , no clinics were established . Sanger therefore resolved to create a birth control clinic in New York that would provide free contraceptive services to women . New York state law prohibited the distribution of contraceptives or even contraceptive information , but Sanger hoped to exploit a provision in the law which permitted doctors to prescribe contraceptives for the prevention of disease . On October 16 , 1916 , she opened the Brownsville clinic in Brooklyn ; it was an immediate success , with over 100 women visiting on the first day . A few days after opening , an undercover policewoman purchased a cervical cap at the clinic , and Sanger was arrested . Refusing to walk , Sanger and a co @-@ worker were dragged out of the clinic by police officers . The clinic was shut down , and it was not until 1923 that another birth control clinic was opened in the United States .
Sanger 's trial began in January 1917 . She was supported by a large number of wealthy and influential women who came together to form the Committee of One Hundred , which was devoted to raising funds for Sanger and the NBCL . The committee also started publishing the monthly journal Birth Control Review , and established a network of connections to powerful politicians , activists , and press figures . Despite the strong support , Sanger was convicted ; the judge offered a lenient sentence if she promised not to break the law again , but Sanger replied " I cannot respect the law as it exists today . " She served a sentence of 30 days in jail .
Other activists were also pushing for progress . Emma Goldman was arrested in 1916 for circulating birth control information , and Abraham Jacobi unsuccessfully tried to persuade the New York medical community to push for a change in law to permit physicians to dispense contraceptive information .
= = Mainstream acceptance ( 1917 – 1923 ) = =
The publicity from Sanger 's trial generated immense enthusiasm for the cause , and by the end of 1917 there were over 30 birth control organizations in the United States . Sanger was always astute about public relations , and she seized on the publicity of the trial to advance her causes . After her trial , she emerged as the movement 's most visible leader . Other leaders , such as William J. Robinson , Mary Dennett , and Blanche Ames Ames , could not match Sanger 's charisma , charm and fervor .
The movement was evolving from radical , working @-@ class roots into a campaign backed by society women and liberal professionals . Sanger and her fellow advocates began to tone down their radical rhetoric and instead emphasized the socioeconomic benefits of birth control , a policy which led to increasing acceptance by mainstream Americans . Media coverage increased , and several silent motion pictures produced in the 1910s featured birth control as a theme ( including Birth Control , produced by Sanger and starring herself ) .
Opposition to birth control remained strong : state legislatures refused to legalize contraception or the distribution of contraceptive information ; religious leaders spoke out , attacking women who would choose " ease and fashion " over motherhood ; and eugenicists were worried that birth control would exacerbate the birth rate differential between " old stock " white Americans and " coloreds " or immigrants .
Sanger formed the New York Woman 's Publishing Company ( NYWPC ) in 1918 and , under its auspices , became the publisher for the Birth Control Review . British suffragette activist Kitty Marion , standing on New York street corners , sold the Review at 20 cents per copy , enduring death threats , heckling , spitting , physical abuse , and police harassment . Over the course of the following ten years , Marion was arrested nine times for her birth control advocacy .
= = = Legal victory = = =
Sanger appealed her 1917 conviction and won a mixed victory in 1918 in a unanimous decision by the New York Court of Appeals written by Judge Frederick E. Crane . The court 's opinion upheld her conviction , but indicated that the courts would be willing to permit contraception if prescribed by doctors . This decision was only applicable within New York , where it opened the door for birth control clinics , under physician supervision , to be established . Sanger herself did not immediately take advantage of the opportunity , wrongly expecting that the medical profession would lead the way ; instead she focused on writing and lecturing .
= = = World War I and condoms = = =
The birth control movement received an unexpected boost during World War I , as a result of a crisis the U.S. military experienced when many of its soldiers were diagnosed with syphilis or gonorrhea . The military undertook an extensive education campaign , focusing on abstinence , but also offering some contraceptive guidance . The military , under pressure from purity advocates , did not distribute condoms , or even endorse their use , making the U.S. the only military force in World War I that did not supply condoms to its troops . When U.S. soldiers were in Europe , they found rubber condoms readily available , and when they returned to America , they continued to use condoms as their preferred method of birth control .
The military 's anti @-@ venereal disease campaign marked a major turning point for the movement : it was the first time a government institution had engaged in a sustained , public discussion of sexual matters . The government 's public discourse changed sex from a secret topic into a legitimate topic of scientific research , and it transformed contraception from an issue of morals to an issue of public health .
= = = Legislative efforts = = =
During World War I , Mary Dennett focused her efforts on the peace movement , but she returned to the birth control movement in 1918 . She continued to lead the NBCL , and collaborated with Sanger 's NYWPC . In 1919 , Dennett published a widely distributed educational pamphlet , The Sex Side of Life , which treated sex as a natural and enjoyable act . However , in the same year , frustrated with the NBCL 's chronic lack of funding , Dennett broke away and formed the Voluntary Parenthood League ( VPL ) . Both Dennett and Sanger proposed legislative changes that would legalize birth control , but they took different approaches : Sanger endorsed contraception but only under a physician 's supervision ; Dennett pushed for unrestricted access to contraception . Sanger , a proponent of diaphragms , was concerned that unrestricted access would result in ill @-@ fitting diaphragms and would lead to medical quackery . Dennett was concerned that requiring women to get prescriptions from physicians would prevent poor women from receiving contraception , and she was concerned about a shortage of physicians trained in birth control . Both legislative initiatives failed , partly because some legislators felt that fear of pregnancy was the only thing that kept women chaste . In the early 1920s , Sanger 's leadership position in the movement solidified because she gave frequent public lectures , and because she took steps to exclude Dennett from meetings and events .
= = = American Birth Control League = = =
Although Sanger was busy publishing the Birth Control Review during the years 1919 – 1920 , she was not formally affiliated with either of the major birth control organizations ( NBCL or VPL ) during that time . In 1921 she became convinced that she needed to associate with a formal body to earn the support of professional societies and the scientific community . Rather than join an existing organization , she considered creating a new one . As a first step , she organized the First American Birth Control Conference , held in November 1921 in New York City . On the final night of the conference , as Sanger prepared to give a speech in the crowded Town Hall theater , police raided the meeting and arrested her for disorderly conduct . From the stage she shouted : " we have a right to hold [ this meeting ] under the Constitution ... let them club us if they want to . " She was soon released . The following day it was revealed that Patrick Joseph Hayes , the Archbishop of New York , had pressured the police to shut down the meeting . The Town Hall raid was a turning point for the movement : opposition from the government and medical community faded , and the Catholic Church emerged as its most vocal opponent . After the conference , Sanger and her supporters established the American Birth Control League ( ABCL ) .
= = = Second birth control clinic = = =
Four years after the New York Court of Appeals opened the doors for physicians to prescribe contraceptives , Sanger opened a second birth control clinic , which she staffed with physicians to make it legal under that court ruling ( the first clinic had employed nurses ) . This second clinic , the Clinical Research Bureau ( CRB ) , opened on January 2 , 1923 . To avoid police harassment the clinic 's existence was not publicized , its primary mission was stated to be conducting scientific research , and it only provided services to married women . The existence of the clinic was finally announced to the public in December 1923 , but this time there were no arrests or controversy . This convinced activists that , after ten years of struggle , birth control had finally become widely accepted in the United States . The CRB was the first legal birth control clinic in the United States , and quickly grew into the world 's leading contraceptive research center .
= = Progress and setbacks ( 1920s – 1940s ) = =
= = = Widespread acceptance = = =
Following the successful opening of the CRB in 1923 , public discussion of contraception became more commonplace , and the term " birth control " became firmly established in the nation 's vernacular . Of the hundreds of references to birth control in magazines and newspapers of the 1920s , more than two @-@ thirds were favorable . The availability of contraception signaled the end of the stricter morality of the Victorian era , and ushered in the emergence of a more sexually permissive society . Other factors that contributed to the new sexual norms included increased mobility brought by the automobile , anonymous urban lifestyles , and post @-@ war euphoria . Sociologists who surveyed women in Muncie , Indiana in 1925 found that all the upper class women approved of birth control , and more than 80 percent of the working class women approved . The birth rate in America declined 20 percent between 1920 and 1930 , primarily due to increased use of birth control .
= = = Opposition = = =
Although clinics became more common in the late 1920s , the movement still faced significant challenges : Large sectors of the medical community were still resistant to birth control ; birth control advocates were blacklisted by the radio industry ; and state and federal laws – though generally not enforced – still outlawed contraception .
The most significant opponent to birth control was the Catholic Church , which mobilized opposition in many venues during the 1920s . Catholics persuaded the Syracuse city council to ban Sanger from giving a speech in 1924 ; the National Catholic Welfare Conference lobbied against birth control ; the Knights of Columbus boycotted hotels that hosted birth control events ; the Catholic police commissioner of Albany prevented Sanger from speaking there ; the Catholic mayor of Boston , James Curley , blocked Sanger from speaking in public ; and several newsreel companies , succumbing to pressure from Catholics , refused to cover stories related to birth control . The ABCL turned some of the boycotted speaking events to their advantage by inviting the press , and the resultant news coverage often generated public sympathy for their cause . However , Catholic lobbying was particularly effective in the legislative arena , where their arguments – that contraception was unnatural , harmful , and indecent – impeded several initiatives , including an attempt in 1924 by Mary Dennett to overturn federal anti @-@ contraception laws .
Dozens of birth control clinics opened across the United States during the 1920s , but not without incident . In 1929 , New York police raided a clinic in New York and arrested two doctors and three nurses for distributing contraceptive information that was unrelated to the prevention of disease . The ABCL achieved a major victory in the trial , when the judge ruled that use of contraceptives to space births farther apart was a legitimate medical treatment that benefited the health of the mother . The trial , in which many prominent physicians served as witnesses for the defense , brought a large segment of the medical community onto the side of birth control advocates .
= = = Eugenics and race = = =
Before the advent of the birth control movement , eugenics had become very popular in Europe and the U.S. , and the subject was widely discussed in articles , movies , and lectures . Eugenicists had mixed feelings about birth control : they worried that it would exacerbate the birth rate differential between " superior " races and " inferior " races , but they also recognized its value as a tool to improving " racial fitness " . Leaders of the birth control movement never considered eugenics to be their primary goal , focusing instead on free speech and women 's rights , but around 1920 they started to make common cause with eugenicists , hoping to broaden the support base of the birth control movement . Eugenics buttressed the birth control movement 's aims by correlating excessive births with increased poverty , crime and disease . Sanger published two books in the early 1920s that endorsed eugenics : Woman and the New Race and The Pivot of Civilization . Sanger and other advocates endorsed negative eugenics ( discouraging procreation of " inferior " persons ) , but did not advocate euthanasia or positive eugenics ( encouraging procreation of " superior " persons ) . Many eugenicists refused to support the birth control movement because of Sanger 's insistence that a woman 's primary duty was to herself , not to the state .
Like many white Americans in the U.S. in the 1930s , some leaders of the birth control movement believed that lighter @-@ skinned races were superior to darker @-@ skinned races . They assumed that African Americans were intellectually backward , would be relatively incompetent in managing their own health , and would require special supervision from whites . The dominance of whites in the movement 's leadership and medical staff resulted in accusations of racism from blacks and suspicions that " race suicide " would be a consequence of large scale adoption of birth control . These suspicions were misinterpreted by some of the white birth control advocates as lack of interest in contraception .
In spite of these suspicions , many African @-@ American leaders supported efforts to supply birth control to the African @-@ American community . In 1929 , James H. Hubert , a black social worker and leader of New York 's Urban League , asked Sanger to open a clinic in Harlem . Sanger secured funding from the Julius Rosenwald Fund and opened the clinic , staffed with African @-@ American doctors , in 1930 . The clinic was guided by a 15 @-@ member advisory board consisting of African @-@ American doctors , nurses , clergy , journalists , and social workers . It was publicized in the African @-@ American press and African @-@ American churches , and received the approval of W. E. B. Du Bois , co @-@ founder of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) . In the early 1940s , the Birth Control Federation of America ( BCFA ) initiated a program called the Negro Project , managed by its Division of Negro Service ( DNS ) . As with the Harlem clinic , the primary aim of the DNS and its programs was to improve maternal and infant health . Based on her work at the Harlem clinic , Sanger suggested to the DNS that African Americans were more likely to take advice from a doctor of their own race , but other leaders prevailed and insisted that whites be employed in the outreach efforts . The discriminatory actions and statements by the movement 's leaders during the 1920s and 1930s have led to continuing allegations that the movement was racist .
= = = Expanding availability = = =
Two important legal decisions in the 1930s helped increase the accessibility of contraceptives . In 1930 , two condom manufacturers sued each other in the Youngs Rubber case , and the judge ruled that contraceptive manufacturing was a legitimate business enterprise . He went further , and declared that the federal law prohibiting the mailing of condoms was not legally sound . Sanger precipitated a second legal breakthrough when she ordered a diaphragm from Japan in 1932 , hoping to provoke a decisive battle in the courts . The diaphragm was confiscated by the U.S. government , and Sanger 's subsequent legal challenge led to the 1936 One Package legal ruling by Judge Augustus Hand . His decision overturned an important provision of the anti @-@ contraception laws that prohibited physicians from obtaining contraceptives . This court victory motivated the American Medical Association in 1937 to finally adopt contraception as a normal medical service and a core component of medical school curricula . However , the medical community was slow to accept this new responsibility , and women continued to rely on unsafe and ineffective contraceptive advice from ill @-@ informed sources until the 1960s .
By 1938 , over 400 contraceptive manufacturers were in business , over 600 brands of female contraceptives were available , and industry revenues exceeded $ 250 million per year . Condoms were sold in vending machines in some public restrooms , and men spent twice as much on condoms as on shaving . Although condoms had become commonplace in the 1930s , feminists in the movement felt that birth control should be the woman 's prerogative , and they continued to push for development of a contraceptive that was under the woman 's control , a campaign which ultimately led to the birth control pill decades later . To increase the availability of high @-@ quality contraceptives , birth control advocates established the Holland – Rantos company to manufacture contraceptives – primarily diaphragms , which were Sanger 's recommended method . By the 1930s , the diaphragm with spermicidal jelly had become the most commonly prescribed form of contraception ; in 1938 , female contraceptives accounted for 85 percent of annual contraceptive sales .
= = = Planned Parenthood = = =
The 1936 One Package court battle brought together two birth control organizations – the ABCL and the Birth Control Clinical Research Bureau ( formerly the CRB ) – who had joined forces to craft the successful defense effort . Leaders of both groups viewed this as an auspicious time to merge the two organizations , so , in 1937 , the Birth Control Council of America , under the leadership of Sanger , was formed to effect a consolidation . The effort eventually led to the merger of the two organizations in 1939 as the Birth Control Federation of America ( BCFA ) . Although Sanger continued in the role of president , she no longer wielded the same power as she had in the early years of the movement , and , in 1942 , more conservative forces within the organization changed the name to Planned Parenthood Federation of America , a name Sanger objected to because she considered it too euphemistic . After World War II , the leadership of Planned Parenthood de @-@ emphasized radical feminism and shifted focus to more moderate themes such as family planning and population policy .
The movement to legalize birth control came to a gradual conclusion around the time Planned Parenthood was formed . In 1942 , there were over 400 birth control organizations in America , contraception was fully embraced by the medical profession , and the anti @-@ contraception Comstock laws ( which still remained on the books ) were rarely enforced .
= = Legalization and aftermath = =
After World War II advocacy for reproductive rights transitioned into a new era which focused on abortion , public funding , and insurance coverage .
Birth control advocacy also took on a global aspect as organizations around the world began to collaborate . In 1946 , Sanger helped found the International Committee on Planned Parenthood , which evolved into the International Planned Parenthood Federation and soon became the world 's largest non @-@ governmental international family planning organization . In 1952 , John D. Rockefeller III founded the influential Population Council . Fear of global overpopulation became a major issue in the 1960s , generating concerns about pollution , food shortages , and quality of life , leading to well @-@ funded birth control campaigns around the world . The 1994 International Conference on Population and Development and the 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women addressed birth control and influenced human rights declarations which asserted women 's rights to control their own bodies .
In the United States , a flurry of legal actions in the 1960s and 1970s changed the landscape of reproductive rights : in 1965 , the Supreme Court ruled in Griswold v. Connecticut that it was unconstitutional for the government to prohibit married couples from using birth control . In 1967 activist Bill Baird was arrested for distributing a contraceptive foam and a condom to a student during a lecture on birth control and abortion at Boston University . Baird 's appeal of his conviction resulted in the United States Supreme Court case Eisenstadt v. Baird ( 1972 ) , which extended the Griswold holding to unmarried couples , and thereby legalized birth control for all Americans .
In 1970 , Congress finally removed references to contraception from federal anti @-@ obscenity laws ; and in 1973 , the Roe v. Wade decision legalized abortion during the first trimester of pregnancy .
During the same time period , the pharmaceutical industry was steadily developing new modes of contraception . In the early 1950s , philanthropist Katharine McCormick provided funding for biologist Gregory Pincus to develop the birth control pill , which was approved by the Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) in 1960 . The pill became very popular and had a major impact on society and culture . It contributed to a sharp increase in college attendance and graduation rates for women . New forms of intrauterine devices were introduced in the 1960s , increasing popularity of long acting reversible contraceptives .
In 1982 , European drug manufacturers developed mifepristone , which was initially utilized as a contraceptive , but is now generally prescribed with a prostoglandin to induce abortion in pregnancies up to the fourth month of gestation . To avoid consumer boycotts organized by anti @-@ abortion organizations , the manufacturer donated the U.S. manufacturing rights to Danco Laboratories , a company formed by pro @-@ choice advocates , with the sole purpose of distributing mifepristone in the U.S , and thus immune to the effects of boycotts .
In 1997 , the FDA approved a prescription emergency contraception pill ( known as the morning @-@ after pill ) , which became available over the counter in 2006 . In 2010 , ulipristal acetate , a more effective emergency contraceptive was approved for use up to five days after unprotected sexual intercourse . Fifty to sixty percent of abortion patients became pregnant in circumstances in which emergency contraceptives could have been used . These emergency contraceptives , including Plan B and EllaOne , proved to be another battleground in the war over reproductive rights . Opponents of emergency contraception consider it a form of abortion , because it may interfere with the ability of a fertilized embryo to implant in the uterus ; while proponents contend that it is not abortion , because the absence of implantation means that pregnancy never commenced .
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= The Negro Motorist Green Book =
The Negro Motorist Green Book ( at times styled The Negro Motorist Green @-@ Book or titled The Negro Travelers ' Green Book ) was an annual guidebook for African @-@ American roadtrippers , commonly referred to simply as the Green Book . It was originated and published by New York City mailman Victor H. Green in the United States from 1936 to 1966 , during the Jim Crow era , when open and often legally prescribed discrimination against non @-@ whites was widespread . Although pervasive racial discrimination and black poverty limited ownership of cars among African Americans , the emerging black middle class became car owners . In response , Green expanded the coverage in his book from the New York area to much of North America , also founding a travel agency .
Many blacks took to driving , in part to avoid segregation on public transportation . As the writer George Schuyler put it in 1930 , " all Negroes who can do so purchase an automobile as soon as possible in order to be free of discomfort , discrimination , segregation and insult . " Black Americans employed as athletes , entertainers , and salesmen also traveled frequently for work purposes . African @-@ American travelers faced a variety of dangers and inconveniences , such as white @-@ owned businesses refusing to serve them or repair their vehicles , being refused accommodation or food by white @-@ owned hotels , and threats of physical violence and forcible expulsion from whites @-@ only " sundown towns " . Green founded and published The Negro Motorist Green Book to tackle such problems , compiling resources " to give the Negro traveler information that will keep him from running into difficulties , embarrassments and to make his trip more enjoyable . "
From a New York @-@ focused first edition published in 1936 , Green expanded the work to cover much of North America , including most of the United States and parts of Canada , Mexico , the Caribbean , and Bermuda . The Green Book became " the bible of black travel during Jim Crow " , enabling black travelers to find lodgings , businesses , and gas stations that would serve them along the road . It was little known outside the African @-@ American community . Shortly after passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , which outlawed the types of racial discrimination that had made the Green Book necessary , publication ceased and it fell into obscurity . There has been a revived interest in it in the early 21st century in connection with studies of black travel during the Jim Crow era .
Los Angeles is now considering offering special protection to the sites that kept black travelers safe . Ken Bernstein , principal planner for the city 's Office of Historic Resources notes , " At the very least , these sites can be incorporated into our city 's online inventory system . They are part of the story of African Americans in Los Angeles , and the story of Los Angeles itself writ large . "
= = Traveling while black : the African @-@ American travel experience = =
Until long after the Civil Rights era ( 1955 – 1968 ) , black travelers in the United States faced major problems to which most whites were oblivious . White supremacists had long sought to restrict black mobility . As a result , simply undertaking an auto journey was fraught with difficulty for black people and was potentially a dangerous undertaking . They were subjected to racial profiling by police departments ( " Driving While Black " ) , faced being punished for being seen as " uppity " or " too prosperous " if they were driving a car ( an act that many whites regarded as a white prerogative ) , and risked harassment or worse on and off the highway . A bitter commentary published in a 1947 issue of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People 's magazine , The Crisis , highlighted the uphill struggle blacks faced in undertaking recreational travel :
Would a Negro like to pursue a little happiness at a theater , a beach , pool , hotel , restaurant , on a train , plane , or ship , a golf course , summer or winter resort ? Would he like to stop overnight at a tourist camp while he motors about his native land ' Seeing America First ' ? Well , just let him try !
Such restrictions had their origins dating back to colonial times , and were found throughout the United States . After the end of legal slavery in the North and then later in the South after the Civil War , most freedmen continued to live at little more than a subsistence level , but a minority of African Americans gained a measure of prosperity . They could plan leisure travel for the first time . Affluent blacks arranged large group excursions for as many as 2 @,@ 000 people at a time , for instance , traveling by rail from New Orleans to resorts along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico . In the pre @-@ Jim Crow era this necessarily meant mingling with whites in hotels , transportation and leisure facilities . They were aided in this by the Civil Rights Act of 1875 , which had made it illegal to discriminate against African Americans in public accommodations and public transportation .
They encountered a white backlash , particularly in the South , where by 1877 white Democrats controlled every state government . The Act was declared unconstitutional by the United States Supreme Court in 1883 , resulting in states and cities passing numerous segregation laws . White governments in the South required even interstate railroads to enforce their segregation laws , despite national legislation requiring equal treatment of passengers . The US Supreme Court ruled in Plessy v. Ferguson ( 1896 ) that " separate but equal " accommodations were constitutional but in practice , facilities for blacks were far from equal , generally being of lesser quality and underfunded . Blacks faced restrictions and exclusion throughout the United States . Generally if blacks were not barred entirely from facilities , they could use them only at different times from whites or in different places , such as segregated ( and usually inferior ) areas .
In 1917 , the black writer W. E. B. Du Bois observed that the impact of " ever @-@ recurring race discrimination " had made it so difficult to travel to any number of destinations , from popular resorts to major cities , that it was now " a puzzling query as to what to do with vacations " . It was a problem that came to affect an increasing number of black people in the first decades of the 20th century . Tens of thousands of southern African Americans migrated from farms in the south to factories and domestic service in the north . No longer confined to living at a subsistence level , many gained enough disposable income and time to engage in leisure travel . The development of affordable mass @-@ produced automobiles liberated black Americans from having to rely on the " Jim Crow cars " – smoky , battered and uncomfortable railroad carriages which were the separate but decidedly unequal alternatives to more salubrious whites @-@ only carriages . As one black magazine writer commented in 1933 , in an automobile " it 's mighty good to be the skipper for a change , and pilot our craft whither and where we will . We feel like Vikings . What if our craft is blunt of nose and limited of power and our sea is macademized ; it 's good for the spirit to just give the old railroad Jim Crow the laugh . "
Middle @-@ class blacks throughout the United States " were not at all sure how to behave or how whites would behave toward them " , as Bart Landry puts it . In Cincinnati , Ohio , the African @-@ American newspaper editor Wendell Dabney wrote of the situation in the 1920s that " hotels , restaurants , eating and drinking places , almost universally are closed to all people in whom the least tincture of colored blood can be detected . " Areas without significant black populations outside the South often refused to accommodate them : not one hotel or other accommodation was open to blacks in Salt Lake City , Utah , in the 1920s . Black travelers were stranded if they had to stop there overnight . Only six percent of the more than 100 motels that lined U.S. Route 66 in Albuquerque , New Mexico , admitted black customers . Across the whole state of New Hampshire , only three motels in 1956 served African Americans .
George Schuyler reported in 1943 , " Many colored families have motored all across the United States without being able to secure overnight accommodations at a single tourist camp or hotel . " He suggested that black Americans would find it easier to travel abroad than in their own country . In Chicago in 1945 , St. Clair Drake and Horace A. Cayton reported that " the city 's hotel managers , by general agreement , do not sanction the use of hotel facilities by Negroes , particularly sleeping accommodations . " One incident reported by Drake and Cayton illustrated the discriminatory treatment meted out even to blacks within racially mixed groups :
Two colored schoolteachers and several white friends attended a luncheon at an exclusive coffee shop . The Negro women were allowed to sit down , but the waitress ignored them and served the white women . One of the colored women protested and was told that she could eat in the kitchen .
= = = Coping with discrimination on the road = = =
While automobiles made it much easier for black Americans to be independently mobile , the difficulties they faced in traveling were such that , as Lester B. Granger of the National Urban League puts it , " so far as travel is concerned , Negroes are America 's last pioneers . " Black travelers often had to carry buckets or portable toilets in the trunks of their cars because they were usually barred from bathrooms and rest areas in service stations and roadside stops . Travel essentials such as gasoline were difficult to purchase because of discrimination at gas stations . To avoid such problems on long trips , African Americans often packed meals and carried containers of gasoline in their cars . Writing of the road trips that he made as a boy in the 1950s , Courtland Milloy of the Washington Post recalled that his mother spent the evening before the trip frying chicken and boiling eggs so that his family would have something to eat along the way the next day .
One black motorist observed in the early 1940s that while black travelers felt free in the mornings , by the early afternoon a " small cloud " had appeared . By the late afternoon , " it casts a shadow of apprehension on our hearts and sours us a little . ' Where , ' it asks us , ' will you stay tonight ? ' " . They often had to spend hours in the evening trying to find somewhere to stay , sometimes resorting to sleeping in haylofts or in their own cars if they could not find anywhere . One alternative , if it was available , was to arrange in advance to sleep at the homes of black friends in towns or cities along their route . However , this meant detours and an abandonment of the spontaneity that for many was a key attraction of motoring .
The civil rights leader John Lewis has recalled how his family prepared for a trip in 1951 :
There would be no restaurant for us to stop at until we were well out of the South , so we took our restaurant right in the car with us .... Stopping for gas and to use the bathroom took careful planning . Uncle Otis had made this trip before , and he knew which places along the way offered ' colored ' bathrooms and which were better just to pass on by . Our map was marked and our route was planned that way , by the distances between service stations where it would be safe for us to stop . "
Finding accommodation was one of the greatest challenges faced by black travelers . Not only did many hotels , motels , and boarding houses refuse to serve black customers , but thousands of towns across the United States declared themselves " sundown towns , " which all non @-@ whites had to leave by sunset . Huge numbers of towns across the country were effectively off @-@ limits to African Americans . By the end of the 1960s , there were at least 10 @,@ 000 sundown towns across the U.S. – including large suburbs such as Glendale , California ( population 60 @,@ 000 at the time ) ; Levittown , New York ( 80 @,@ 000 ) ; and Warren , Michigan ( 180 @,@ 000 ) . Over half the incorporated communities in Illinois were sundown towns . The unofficial slogan of Anna , Illinois , which had violently expelled its African @-@ American population in 1909 , was " Ain 't No Niggers Allowed " . Even in towns which did not exclude overnight stays by blacks , accommodations were often very limited . African Americans migrating to California to find work in the early 1940s often found themselves camping by the roadside overnight for lack of any hotel accommodation along the way . They were acutely aware of the discriminatory treatment that they received . Courtland Milloy 's mother , who took him and his brother on road trips when they were children , recalled that " after riding all day , I 'd say to myself , ' Wouldn 't it be nice if we could spend the night in one of those hotels ? ' or , ' Wouldn 't it be great if we could stop for a real meal and a cup of coffee ? ' We 'd see the little white children jumping into motel swimming pools , and you all would be in the back seat of a hot car , sweating and fighting . "
African @-@ American travelers faced real physical risks because of the widely differing rules of segregation that existed from place to place , and the possibility of extrajudicial violence against them . Activities that were accepted in one place could provoke violence a few miles down the road . Transgressing formal or unwritten racial codes , even inadvertently , could put travelers in considerable danger . Even driving etiquette was affected by racism ; in the Mississippi Delta region , local custom prohibited blacks from overtaking whites , to prevent their raising dust from the unpaved roads to cover white @-@ owned cars . A pattern emerged of whites purposefully damaging black @-@ owned cars to put their owners " in their place " . Stopping anywhere that was not known to be safe , even to allow children in a car to relieve themselves , presented a risk ; Milloy noted that his parents would urge him and his brother to control their need to use a bathroom until they could find a safe place to stop , as " those backroads were simply too dangerous for parents to stop to let their little black children pee " .
Racist local laws , discriminatory social codes , segregated commercial facilities , racial profiling by police , and sundown towns made road journeys a minefield of constant uncertainty and risk . Road trip narratives by blacks reflected their unease and the dangers they faced , presenting a more complex outlook from those written by whites extolling the joys of the road . Milloy recalls the menacing environment that he encountered during his childhood , in which he learned of " so many black travelers ... just not making it to their destinations . "
Even foreign black dignitaries were not immune to the discrimination that African @-@ American travelers routinely encountered . In one high @-@ profile incident , Komla Agbeli Gbedemah , the finance minister of newly independent Ghana , was refused service at a Howard Johnson 's restaurant at Dover , Delaware , while traveling to Washington , D.C. , even after identifying himself by his state position to the restaurant staff . The snub caused an international incident , to which an embarrassed President Dwight D. Eisenhower responded by inviting Gbedemah to breakfast at the White House . Repeated and sometimes violent incidents of discrimination directed against black African diplomats , particularly on U.S. Route 40 between New York and Washington , D.C. , led to the administration of President John F. Kennedy setting up a Special Protocol Service Section within the State Department to assist black diplomats traveling and living within the United States . The State Department considered issuing copies of The Negro Motorist Green Book to black diplomats , but eventually decided against steering them to black @-@ friendly public accommodations as it wanted them " to have all of the privileges of whiteness . "
John A. Williams wrote in his 1965 book , This Is My Country Too , that he did not believe " white travelers have any idea of how much nerve and courage it requires for a Negro to drive coast to coast in America . " He achieved it with " nerve , courage , and a great deal of luck , " supplemented by " a rifle and shotgun , a road atlas , and Travelguide , a listing of places in America where Negroes can stay without being embarrassed , insulted , or worse . " He noted that black drivers needed to be particularly cautious in the South , where they were advised to wear a chauffeur 's cap or have one visible on the front seat and pretend they were delivering a car for a white person . Along the way , he had to endure a stream of " insults of clerks , bellboys , attendants , cops , and strangers in passing cars . " There was a constant need to keep his mind on the danger he faced ; as he was well aware , " [ black ] people have a way of disappearing on the road . "
= = Navigating Jim Crow : the role of the Green Book = =
Segregation meant that facilities for African @-@ American motorists were limited , but entrepreneurs of both races realized that lucrative opportunities existed in marketing goods and services exclusively to black patrons . The challenge for travelers was to find such oases in the middle of a desert of discrimination . To address this problem , African @-@ American writers produced a number of guides to provide advice on traveling . These included directories of which hotels , camps , road houses , and restaurants would serve African Americans . Jewish travelers , who had long experienced discrimination at many vacation spots , created guides for their own community though they were at least able to visibly blend in more easily with the general population . African Americans followed suit with publications such as Hackley and Harrison 's Hotel and Apartment Guide for Colored Travelers , published in 1930 to cover " Board , Rooms , Garage Accommodations , etc. in 300 Cities in the United States and Canada " .
The Negro Motorist Green Book was one of the best known examples of the African @-@ American travel guide . It was conceived in 1932 and first published in 1936 by Victor H. Green , a World War I veteran from New York City who worked as a postal carrier and later as a travel agent . He said his aim was " to give the Negro traveler information that will keep him from running into difficulties , embarrassments and to make his trip more enjoyable . " According to an editorial written by Novera C. Dashiell in the Spring 1956 edition of the Green Book , " the idea crystallized when not only [ Green ] but several friends and acquaintances complained of the difficulties encountered ; oftentimes painful embarrassments suffered which ruined a vacation or business trip . "
Green asked his readers to provide information " on the Negro motoring conditions , scenic wonders in your travels , places visited of interest and short stories on one 's motoring experience . " He offered a reward of one dollar for each accepted account , which he increased to five dollars by 1941 . He also obtained information from colleagues in the US Postal Service , who would " ask around on their routes " to find suitable public accommodations . At that time , like it is now , the Postal Service was one of the largest employers of African Americans in the US , and its employees were ideally situated to inform Green of which places were safe and hospitable to African @-@ American travelers .
The Green Book 's motto , displayed on the front cover , was for black travelers to " carry your Green Book with you – You may need it " . The 1949 edition included a quote from Mark Twain : " Travel is fatal to prejudice " , inverting Twain 's original meaning ; as Cotton Seiler puts it , " here it was the visited , rather than the visitors , who would find themselves enriched by the encounter . " Green commented in 1940 that the Green Book had given black Americans " something authentic to travel by and to make traveling better for the Negro . " Its principal goal was to provide accurate information on black @-@ friendly accommodations to answer the constant question that faced black drivers : " Where will you spend the night ? " As well as essential information on lodgings , service stations and garages , it provided details of leisure facilities open to African Americans , including beauty salons , restaurants , nightclubs and country clubs . The listings focused on four main categories – hotels , motels , tourist homes ( private residences , usually owned by African Americans , which provided accommodation to travelers ) , and restaurants . They were arranged by state and subdivided by city , giving the name and address of each business . For an extra payment , the listed businesses could have their listing displayed in bold type or to have a star next to it to denote that they were " recommended " .
Many such establishments were run by and for African Americans and in some cases were named after prominent figures in African @-@ American history . In North Carolina , such black @-@ owned businesses included the Carver , Lincoln , and Booker T. Washington hotels , the Friendly City beauty parlor , the Black Beauty Tea Room , the New Progressive tailor shop , the Big Buster tavern , and the Blue Duck Inn . Each edition also included feature articles on travel and destinations , and included a listing of black resorts such as Idlewild , Michigan ; Oak Bluffs , Massachusetts ; and Belmar , New Jersey . The state of New Mexico was particularly recommended as a place where most motels would welcome " guests on the basis of ‘ cash rather than color " .
= = = Influence = = =
The Green Book attracted sponsorship from a number of businesses , including the African @-@ American newspapers Call and Post of Cleveland , Ohio , and the Louisville Leader of Louisville , Kentucky . Standard Oil ( later Esso ) was also a sponsor , owing to the efforts of James " Billboard " Jackson , a pioneering African @-@ American Esso sales representative . Esso 's " race group " , part of its marketing division , promoted the Green Book as enabling Esso 's black customers to " go further with less anxiety " . By contrast , Shell gas stations were known to refuse serving black customers . The 1949 edition included an Esso endorsement message that told readers : " As representatives of the Esso Standard Oil Co . , we are pleased to recommend the Green Book for your travel convenience . Keep one on hand each year and when you are planning your trips , let Esso Touring Service supply you with maps and complete routings , and for real ' Happy Motoring ' – use Esso Products and Esso Service wherever you find the Esso sign . " Photographs of some African @-@ American entrepreneurs who owned Esso gas stations appeared in the pages of the Green Book .
Although Green usually refrained from editorializing in the Green Book , he let his readers ' letters speak for the influence of his guide . William Smith of Hackensack , New Jersey , described it as a " credit to the Negro Race " in a letter published in the 1938 edition . He commented :
It is a book badly needed among our Race since the advent of the motor age . Realizing the only way we knew where and how to reach our pleasure resorts was in a way of speaking , by word of mouth , until the publication of The Negro Motorist Green Book ... We earnestly believe that [ it ] will mean as much if not more to us as the A.A.A. means to the white race . "
Earl Hutchinson Sr. , the father of journalist Earl Ofari Hutchinson , wrote of a 1955 move from Chicago to California that " you literally didn 't leave home without [ the Green Book ] . " Ernest Green , one of the Little Rock Nine , used the Green Book to navigate the 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) from Arkansas to Virginia in the 1950s and comments that " it was one of the survival tools of segregated life " . According to the civil rights leader Julian Bond , recalling his parents ' use of the Green Book , " it was a guidebook that told you not where the best places were to eat , but where there was any place . " Bond comments :
You think about the things that most travelers take for granted , or most people today take for granted . If I go to New York City and want a hair cut , it 's pretty easy for me to find a place where that can happen , but it wasn 't easy then . White barbers would not cut black peoples ' hair . White beauty parlors would not take black women as customers — hotels and so on , down the line . You needed the Green Book to tell you where you can go without having doors slammed in your face .
While the Green Book was intended to make life easier for those living under Jim Crow , its publisher looked forward to a time when such guidebooks would no longer be necessary . As Green wrote , " there will be a day sometime in the near future when this guide will not have to be published . That is when we as a race will have equal opportunities and privileges in the United States . It will be a great day for us to suspend this publication for then we can go as we please , and without embarrassment . "
= = = Publishing history = = =
The Green Book was published locally in New York , but its popularity was such that from 1937 it was distributed nationally with input from Charles McDowell , a collaborator on Negro Affairs for the United States Travel Bureau , a government agency . With new editions published annually from 1936 to 1940 , the Green Book 's publication was suspended during World War II and resumed in 1946 . Its scope expanded greatly during its years of publication ; from covering only the New York City metropolitan area in the first edition , it eventually covered facilities in most of the United States and parts of Canada ( primarily Montreal ) , Mexico and Bermuda . Coverage was good in the eastern US and weak in Plains states such as North Dakota , where there were few black residents . It eventually sold around 15 @,@ 000 copies per year , distributed by mail order , by black @-@ owned businesses , and through Esso service stations , some of which – unusual for the oil industry at the time – were franchised to African Americans .
It originally sold for 25 cents , increasing to $ 1 @.@ 25 by 1957 . With the book 's growing success , Green retired from the post office and hired a small publishing staff that operated from 200 West 135th Street in Harlem . He also established a vacation reservation service in 1947 to take advantage of the post @-@ war boom in automobile travel . From 10 pages in its first edition , by 1949 he had expanded the Green Book to more than 80 pages , including advertisements .
The 1951 Green Book recommended that black @-@ owned businesses raise their standards , as travelers were " no longer content to pay top prices for inferior accommodations and services " . The quality of black @-@ owned lodgings was coming under scrutiny , as many prosperous blacks found them to be second @-@ rate compared to the white @-@ owned lodgings from which they were excluded . In 1952 , Green renamed the publication The Negro Travelers ' Green Book , in recognition of its coverage of international destinations requiring travel by plane and ship . Although segregation was still in force , by state laws in the South and often by practice elsewhere , the wide circulation of the Green Book had attracted growing interest from white businesses that wanted to tap into the potential sales of the black market . The 1955 edition noted :
" A few years after its publication ... white business has also recognized its [ The Green Book ’ s ] value and it is now in use by the Esso Standard Oil Co . , The American Automobile Assn. and its affiliate automobile clubs throughout the country , other automobile clubs , air lines , travel bureaus , travelers aid , libraries and thousands of subscribers . "
By the start of the 1960s , the Green Book ′ s market was beginning to erode ; civil rights activism was having effects , even before the passage of legislation later in the decade to prohibit racial segregation in public facilities . An increasing number of middle @-@ class African Americans were beginning to question whether guides such as the Green Book were accommodating Jim Crow by steering black travelers to segregated businesses , rather than encouraging them to push for equal access . Black @-@ owned motels in remote locations off state highways lost customers to a new generation of integrated interstate motels located near freeway exits . The 1963 Green Book acknowledged that the activism of the civil rights movement had " widened the areas of public accommodations accessible to all , " but it defended the continued listing of black @-@ friendly businesses because " a family planning for a vacation hopes for one that is free of tensions and problems . "
The 1966 edition was the last to be published after the Civil Rights Act of 1964 made the guide effectively obsolete , by outlawing racial discrimination in public accommodations . The last edition of the Green Book included significant changes that reflected the post @-@ Civil Rights Act outlook . The title was changed to Traveler 's Green Book : International Edition – no longer just for the Negro , or the motorist – as its publishers sought to widen its appeal . Although the content continued to proclaim its mission of highlighting leisure options for black travelers , the cover featured an affluent white blonde water @-@ skiing – a sign of how , as Michael Ra @-@ Shon Hall puts it , " the Green Book ‘ whitened ’ its surface and internationalized its scope , while still remaining true to its founding mission to ensure the security of African @-@ American travelers both in the US and abroad . "
= = Representation in other media = =
In the 2000s , academics , artists , curators , and writers exploring the history of African @-@ American travel in the United States during the Jim Crow era revived interest in the Green Book . The result has been a number of projects , books and other works referring to the Green Book . The book itself has acquired a high value as a collectors ' item ; a " partly perished " copy of the 1941 edition sold at auction in March 2015 for $ 22 @,@ 500 . Some examples are listed below .
= = = Digital projects = = =
The New York Public Library 's Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture has published digitized copies of 21 issues of the Green Book , dating from 1937 to 1964 . To accompany the digitizations , the NYPL Labs have developed an interactive visualization of the books ' data to enable web users to plot their own road trips and see heat maps of listings .
= = = Exhibitions = = =
In 2003 , the Smithsonian Institution 's National Museum of American History included the Green Book in an exhibition , America on the Move .
In 2007 , the book was featured in a traveling exhibition called Places of Refuge : The Dresser Trunk Project , organized by William Daryl Williams , the director of the School of Architecture and Interior Design at the University of Cincinnati . The exhibition drew on the Green Book to highlight artifacts and locations associated with travel by blacks during segregation , using dresser trunks to reflect venues such as hotels , restaurants , nightclubs and a Negro league baseball park .
In late 2014 , the Gilmore Car Museum in Hickory Corners , MI installed a permanent exhibit on the Green Book that features a 1956 copy of the book that guests can review as well as video interviews of those that utilized it .
In 2016 , a 1941 copy of the book will be displayed at the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture , when the museum opens .
= = = Films = = =
Calvin Alexander Ramsey and Becky Wible Searles interviewed people who traveled with the Green Book as well as Victor Green 's relatives as part of producing a documentary , The Green Book Chronicles ( 2016 ) .
100 Miles to Lordsburg ( 2017 ) , is a short film about a black couple crossing New Mexico in 1961 with aid of the Green Book . >
= = = Literature = = =
African @-@ American playwright Calvin Alexander Ramsey published a children 's book , Ruth and the Green Book ( 2010 ) , about a Chicago family 's journey to Alabama in 1952 , in which they use the Green Book as a guide .
Ramsey also wrote a play , called The Green Book : A Play in Two Acts , which debuted in Atlanta in August 2011 after a staged reading at the Lincoln Theatre in Washington , DC in 2010 . It centers on a tourist home in Jefferson City , Missouri . A black military officer , his wife , and a Jewish survivor of the Holocaust spend the night in the home just before the civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois is scheduled to deliver a speech in town . The Jewish traveler comes to the home after being shocked to find that the hotel where he planned to stay has a " No Negroes Allowed " notice posted in its lobby – an allusion to the problems of discrimination that Jews and blacks both faced at the time . The play was highly successful , gaining an extension of several weeks beyond its planned closing date .
= = = Photography projects = = =
Architecture at sites listed in the Green Book is being documented by photographer Candacy Taylor in collaboration with the National Park Service 's Route 66 Corridor Preservation Program . She is also planning to publish other materials and apps featuring such sites .
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= Greeks =
The Greeks or Hellenes ( Greek : Έλληνες [ ˈelines ] ) are an ethnic group native to Greece , Cyprus , Albania , Turkey , Southern Italy , and other regions . They also form a significant diaspora , with Greek communities established around the world .
Greek colonies and communities have been historically established on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea , but the Greek people have always been centered on the Aegean and Ionian seas , where the Greek language has been spoken since the Bronze Age . Until the early 20th century , Greeks were distributed between the Greek peninsula , the western coast of Asia Minor , the Black Sea coast , Cappadocia in central Anatolia , Egypt , the Balkans , Cyprus , and Constantinople . Many of these regions coincided to a large extent with the borders of the Byzantine Empire of the late 11th century and the Eastern Mediterranean areas of ancient Greek colonization . The cultural centers of the Greeks have included Athens , Thessalonica , Alexandria , Smyrna , and Constantinople at various periods .
Most ethnic Greeks live nowadays within the borders of the modern Greek state and Cyprus . The Greek genocide and population exchange between Greece and Turkey nearly ended the three millennia @-@ old Greek presence in Asia Minor . Other longstanding Greek populations can be found from southern Italy to the Caucasus and southern Russia and Ukraine and in the Greek diaspora communities in a number of other countries . Today , most Greeks are officially registered as members of the Greek Orthodox Church .
Greeks have greatly influenced and contributed to culture , arts , exploration , literature , philosophy , politics , architecture , music , mathematics , science and technology , business , cuisine , and sports , both historically and contemporarily .
= = History = =
The Greeks speak the Greek language , which forms its own unique branch within the Indo @-@ European family of languages , the Hellenic . They are part of a group of pre @-@ modern ethnicities , described by Anthony D. Smith as an " archetypal diaspora people " .
= = = Origins = = =
The evolution of Proto @-@ Greek should be considered within the context of an early Paleo @-@ Balkan sprachbund that makes it difficult to delineate exact boundaries between individual languages . The characteristically Greek representation of word @-@ initial laryngeals by prothetic vowels is shared , for one , by the Armenian language , which also seems to share some other phonological and morphological peculiarities of Greek ; this has led some linguists to propose a hypothetically closer relationship between Greek and Armenian , although evidence remains scant .
Proto @-@ Greek speakers are mostly placed in the Early Helladic period ( 3rd millennium BC ) , i.e. towards the end of the European Neolithic . Russell Gray and Quentin Atkinson in a 2003 paper using computational methods on Swadesh lists have arrived at a somewhat earlier estimate , around 5000 BC for Greco @-@ Armenian split and the emergence of Greek as a separate linguistic lineage around 4000 BC .
= = = Mycenaean = = =
In circa 1600 BC , the Mycenaean Greeks borrowed from the Minoan civilization its syllabic writing system ( i.e. Linear A ) and developed their own syllabic script known as Linear B , providing the first and oldest written evidence of Greek . The Mycenaeans quickly penetrated the Aegean Sea and , by the 15th century BC , had reached Rhodes , Crete , Cyprus and the shores of Asia Minor .
Around 1200 BC , the Dorians , another Greek @-@ speaking people , followed from Epirus . Traditionally , historians have believed that the Dorian invasion caused the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization , but it is likely the main attack was made by seafaring raiders ( Sea Peoples ) who sailed into the eastern Mediterranean around 1180 BC . The Dorian invasion was followed by a poorly attested period of migrations , appropriately called the Greek Dark Ages , but by 800 BC the landscape of Archaic and Classical Greece was discernible .
The Greeks of classical antiquity idealized their Mycenaean ancestors and the Mycenaean period as a glorious era of heroes , closeness of the gods and material wealth . The Homeric Epics ( i.e. Iliad and Odyssey ) were especially and generally accepted as part of the Greek past and it was not until the 19th century that scholars began to question Homer 's historicity . As part of the Mycenaean heritage that survived , the names of the gods and goddesses of Mycenaean Greece ( e.g. Zeus , Poseidon and Hades ) became major figures of the Olympian Pantheon of later antiquity .
= = = Classical = = =
The ethnogenesis of the Greek nation is linked to the development of Pan @-@ Hellenism in the 8th century BC . According to some scholars , the foundational event was the Olympic Games in 776 BC , when the idea of a common Hellenism among the Greek tribes was first translated into a shared cultural experience and Hellenism was primarily a matter of common culture . The works of Homer ( i.e. Iliad and Odyssey ) and Hesiod ( i.e. Theogony ) were written in the 8th century BC , becoming the basis of the national religion , ethos , history and mythology . The Oracle of Apollo at Delphi was established in this period .
The classical period of Greek civilization covers a time spanning from the early 5th century BC to the death of Alexander the Great , in 323 BC ( some authors prefer to split this period into " Classical " , from the end of the Persian wars to the end of the Peloponnesian War , and " Fourth Century " , up to the death of Alexander ) . It is so named because it set the standards by which Greek civilization would be judged in later eras . The Classical period is also described as the " Golden Age " of Greek civilization , and its art , philosophy , architecture and literature would be instrumental in the formation and development of Western culture .
While the Greeks of the classical era understood themselves to belong to a common Hellenic genos , their first loyalty was to their city and they saw nothing incongruous about warring , often brutally , with other Greek city @-@ states . The Peloponnesian War , the large scale civil war between the two most powerful Greek city @-@ states Athens and Sparta and their allies , left both greatly weakened .
Most of the feuding Greek city @-@ states were , in some scholars ' opinions , united under the banner of Philip 's and Alexander the Great 's Pan @-@ Hellenic ideals , though others might generally opt , rather , for an explanation of " Macedonian conquest for the sake of conquest " or at least conquest for the sake of riches , glory and power and view the " ideal " as useful propaganda directed towards the city @-@ states .
In any case , Alexander 's toppling of the Achaemenid Empire , after his victories at the battles of the Granicus , Issus and Gaugamela , and his advance as far as modern @-@ day Pakistan and Tajikistan , provided an important outlet for Greek culture , via the creation of colonies and trade routes along the way . While the Alexandrian empire did not survive its creator 's death intact , the cultural implications of the spread of Hellenism across much of the Middle East and Asia were to prove long lived as Greek became the lingua franca , a position it retained even in Roman times . Many Greeks settled in Hellenistic cities like Alexandria , Antioch and Seleucia . Two thousand years later , there are still communities in Pakistan and Afghanistan , like the Kalash , who claim to be descended from Greek settlers .
= = = Hellenistic = = =
The Hellenistic civilization was the next period of Greek civilization , the beginnings of which are usually placed at Alexander 's death . This Hellenistic age , so called because it saw the partial Hellenization of many non @-@ Greek cultures , lasted until the conquest of Egypt by Rome in 30 BC .
This age saw the Greeks move towards larger cities and a reduction in the importance of the city @-@ state . These larger cities were parts of the still larger Kingdoms of the Diadochi . Greeks , however , remained aware of their past , chiefly through the study of the works of Homer and the classical authors . An important factor in maintaining Greek identity was contact with barbarian ( non @-@ Greek ) peoples , which was deepened in the new cosmopolitan environment of the multi @-@ ethnic Hellenistic kingdoms . This led to a strong desire among Greeks to organize the transmission of the Hellenic paideia to the next generation . Greek science , technology and mathematics are generally considered to have reached their peak during the Hellenistic period .
In the Indo @-@ Greek and Greco @-@ Bactrian kingdoms , Greco @-@ Buddhism was spreading and Greek missionaries would play an important role in propagating it to China . Further east , the Greeks of Alexandria Eschate became known to the Chinese people as the Dayuan .
= = = Roman Empire = = =
Following the time of the conquest of the last of the independent Greek city @-@ states and Hellenistic ( post @-@ Alexandrine ) kingdoms , almost all of the world 's Greek speakers lived as citizens or subjects of the Roman Empire . Despite their military superiority , the Romans admired and became heavily influenced by the achievements of Greek culture , hence Horace 's famous statement : Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit ( " Greece , although captured , took its wild conqueror captive " ) .
In the religious sphere , this was a period of profound change . The spiritual revolution that took place , saw a waning of the old Greek religion , whose decline beginning in the 3rd century BC continued with the introduction of new religious movements from the East . The cults of deities like Isis and Mithra were introduced into the Greek world . Greek @-@ speaking communities of the Hellenized East were instrumental in the spread of early Christianity in the 2nd and 3rd centuries , and Christianity 's early leaders and writers ( notably Saint Paul ) were generally Greek @-@ speaking , though none were from Greece . However , Greece itself had a tendency to cling to paganism and was not one of the influential centers of early Christianity : in fact , some ancient Greek religious practices remained in vogue until the end of the 4th century , with some areas such as the southeastern Peloponnese remaining pagan until well into the 10th century AD .
= = = Byzantine Empire = = =
Of the new eastern religions introduced into the Greek world , the most successful was Christianity . From the early centuries of the Common Era , the Greeks self @-@ identified as Romaioi ( " Romans " ) , as well as Graikoi ( " Greeks " ) ; by that time , the name Hellenes denoted pagans but was revived as an ethnonym in the 11th century . While ethnic distinctions still existed in the Roman Empire , they became secondary to religious considerations and the renewed empire used Christianity as a tool to support its cohesion and promoted a robust Roman national identity . Concurrently , the secular , urban civilization of Late Antiquity survived in the Eastern Mediterranean along with the Greco @-@ Roman educational system ; the Greeks ' essential values were drawn from both Christianity and the Homeric tradition of their classical ancestors .
The Eastern Roman Empire ( today conventionally named the Byzantine Empire , a name not used during its own time ) became increasingly influenced by Greek culture after the 7th century when Emperor Heraclius ( r . 610 @-@ 641 AD ) decided to make Greek the empire 's official language . Certainly from then on , but likely earlier , the Greek and Roman cultures were virtually fused into a single Greco @-@ Roman world . Although the Latin West recognized the Eastern Empire 's claim to the Roman legacy for several centuries , after Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne , king of the Franks , as the " Roman Emperor " on 25 December 800 , an act which eventually led to the formation of the Holy Roman Empire , the Latin West started to favour the Franks and began to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire largely as the Empire of the Greeks ( Imperium Graecorum ) .
These Byzantine Greeks were largely responsible for the preservation of the literature of the classical era . Byzantine grammarians were those principally responsible for carrying , in person and in writing , ancient Greek grammatical and literary studies to the West during the 15th century , giving the Italian Renaissance a major boost . The Aristotelian philosophical tradition was nearly unbroken in the Greek world for almost two thousand years , until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 .
To the Slavic world , Roman @-@ era Greeks contributed by the dissemination of literacy and Christianity . The most notable example of the later was the work of the two Byzantine Greek brothers , the monks Saints Cyril and Methodius from the port city of Thessalonica , in Greek Macedonia , who are credited today with formalizing the first Slavic alphabet .
A distinct Greek political identity re @-@ emerged in the 11th century in educated circles and became more forceful after the fall of Constantinople to the Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade in 1204 , so that when the empire was revived in 1261 , it became in many ways a Greek national state . That new notion of nationhood engendered a deep interest in the classical past culminating in the ideas of the Neoplatonist philosopher Gemistus Pletho , who abandoned Christianity . However , it was the combination of Orthodox Christianity with a specifically Greek identity that shaped the Greeks ' notion of themselves in the empire 's twilight years . The interest in the Classical Greek heritage was complemented by a renewed emphasis on Greek Orthodox identity , which was reinforced in the late Medieval and Ottoman Greeks ' links with their fellow Orthodox Christians in the Russian Empire . These were further strengthened following the fall of the Empire of Trebizond in 1461 , after which and until the second Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1828 @-@ 29 hundreds of thousands of Pontic Greeks fled or migrated from the Pontic Alps and Armenian Highlands to southern Russia and the Russian South Caucasus ( see also Greeks in Russia , Greeks in Armenia , Greeks in Georgia , and Caucasian Greeks ) .
= = = Ottoman Empire = = =
Following the Fall of Constantinople on 29 May 1453 , many Greeks sought better employment and education opportunities by leaving for the West , particularly Italy , Central Europe , Germany and Russia . Greeks are greatly credited for the European cultural revolution , later called , the Renaissance . In Greek @-@ inhabited territory itself , Greeks came to play a leading role in the Ottoman Empire , due in part to the fact that the central hub of the empire , politically , culturally , and socially , was based on Western Thrace and Greek Macedonia , both in Northern Greece , and of course was centred on the mainly Greek @-@ populated , former Byzantine capital , Constantinople . As a direct consequence of this situation , Greek @-@ speakers came to play a hugely important role in the Ottoman trading and diplomatic establishment , as well as in the church . Added to this , in the first half of the Ottoman period men of Greek origin made up a significant proportion of the Ottoman army , navy , and state bureaucracy , having been levied as adolescents ( along with especially Albanians and Serbs ) into Ottoman service through the devshirme . Many Ottomans of Greek ( or Albanian or Serb ) origin were therefore to be found within the Ottoman forces which governed the provinces , from Ottoman Egypt , to Ottomans occupied Yemen and Algeria , frequently as provincial governors .
For those that remained under the Ottoman Empire 's millet system , religion was the defining characteristic of national groups ( milletler ) , so the exonym " Greeks " ( Rumlar from the name Rhomaioi ) was applied by the Ottomans to all members of the Orthodox Church , regardless of their language or ethnic origin . The Greek speakers were the only ethnic group to actually call themselves Romioi , ( as opposed to being so named by others ) and , at least those educated , considered their ethnicity ( genos ) to be Hellenic . There were , however , many Greeks who escaped the second @-@ class status of Christians inherent in the Ottoman millet system , according to which Muslims were explicitly awarded senior status and preferential treatment . These Greeks either emigrated , particularly to their fellow Greek Orthodox protector , the Russian Empire , or simply converted to Islam , often only very superficially and whilst remaining crypto @-@ Christian . The most notable examples of large @-@ scale conversion to Turkish Islam among those today defined as Greek Muslims - excluding those who had to convert as a matter of course on being recruited through the devshirme - were to be found in Crete ( Cretan Turks ) , Greek Macedonia ( for example among the Vallahades of western Macedonia ) , and among Pontic Greeks in the Pontic Alps and Armenian Highlands . Several Ottoman sultans and princes were also of part Greek origin , with mothers who were either Greek concubines or princesses from Byzantine noble families , one famous example being sultan Selim the Grim ( r . 1517 – 1520 ) , whose mother Gülbahar Hatun was a Pontic Greek .
The roots of Greek success in the Ottoman Empire can be traced to the Greek tradition of education and commerce exemplified in the Phanariotes . It was the wealth of the extensive merchant class that provided the material basis for the intellectual revival that was the prominent feature of Greek life in the half century and more leading to the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence in 1821 . Not coincidentally , on the eve of 1821 , the three most important centres of Greek learning were situated in Chios , Smyrna and Aivali , all three major centres of Greek commerce . Greek success was also favoured by Greek domination of the Christian Orthodox church .
= = = Modern = = =
The relationship between ethnic Greek identity and Greek Orthodox religion continued after the creation of the modern Greek nation @-@ state in 1830 . According to the second article of the first Greek constitution of 1822 , a Greek was defined as any native Christian resident of the Kingdom of Greece , a clause removed by 1840 . A century later , when the Treaty of Lausanne was signed between Greece and Turkey in 1923 , the two countries agreed to use religion as the determinant for ethnic identity for the purposes of population exchange , although most of the Greeks displaced ( over a million of the total 1 @.@ 5 million ) had already been driven out by the time the agreement was signed . The Greek genocide , in particular the harsh removal of Pontian Greeks from the southern shore area of the Black Sea , contemporaneous with and following the failed Greek Asia Minor Campaign , was part of this process of Turkification of the Ottoman Empire and the placement of its economy and trade , then largely in Greek hands under ethnic Turkish control .
While most Greeks today are descended from Greek @-@ speaking Romioi / Graikoi , there are sizeable groups of ethnic Greeks who trace their descent to Aromanian @-@ speaking Vlachs , Albanian @-@ speaking Arvanites , Slavophones , Armenians , Georgians , and Turkish @-@ speaking Karamanlides . Today , Greeks are to be found all around the world .
= = Identity = =
The terms used to define Greekness have varied throughout history but were never limited or completely identified with membership to a Greek state . By Western standards , the term Greeks has traditionally referred to any native speakers of the Greek language , whether Mycenaean , Byzantine or modern Greek . Byzantine Greeks self @-@ identified as Romaioi ( " Romans " ) , Graikoi ( " Greeks " ) and Christianoi ( " Christians " ) since they were the political heirs of imperial Rome , the descendants of their classical Greek forebears and followers of the Apostles ; during the mid @-@ to @-@ late Byzantine period ( 11th – 13th century ) , a growing number of Byzantine Greek intellectuals deemed themselves Hellenes although for most Greek @-@ speakers , " Hellene " still meant pagan . On the eve of the Fall of Constantinople the Last Emperor urged his soldiers to remember that they were the descendants of Greeks and Romans .
Before the establishment of the modern Greek nation @-@ state , the link between ancient and modern Greeks was emphasized by the scholars of Greek Enlightenment especially by Rigas Feraios . In his " Political Constitution " , he addresses to the nation as " the people descendant of the Greeks " . The modern Greek state was created in 1829 , when the Greeks liberated a part of their historic homelands , Peloponnese , from the Ottoman Empire . The large Greek diaspora and merchant class were instrumental in transmitting the ideas of western romantic nationalism and philhellenism , which together with the conception of Hellenism , formulated during the last centuries of the Byzantine Empire , formed the basis of the Diafotismos and the current conception of Hellenism .
The Greeks today are a nation in the meaning of an ethnos , defined by possessing Greek culture and having a Greek mother tongue , not by citizenship , race , and religion or by being subjects of any particular state . In ancient and medieval times and to a lesser extent today the Greek term was genos , which also indicates a common ancestry .
= = = Names = = =
Throughout the centuries , Greeks and Greek @-@ speakers have developed and used different names to refer to themselves collectively . The term Achaeans ( Ἀχαιοί ) constitutes one of the collective names for the Greeks in Homer 's Iliad and Odyssey ( the Homeric " long @-@ haired Achaeans " would have been a part of the Mycenaean civilization that dominated Greece from circa 1600 BC until 1100 BC ) . The other common names are Danaans ( Δαναοί ) and Argives ( Ἀργεῖοι ) while Panhellenes ( Πανέλληνες ) and Hellenes ( Ἕλληνες ) both appear only once in the Iliad ; all of the aforementioned terms were used synonymously to denote a common Greek civilizational identity . In the historical period , Herodotus identified the Achaeans of the northern Peloponnese as descendants of the earlier , Homeric Achaeans .
Homer refers to the " Hellenes " ( / ˈhɛliːnz / ) as a relatively small tribe settled in Thessalic Phthia , with its warriors under the command of Achilleus . The Parian Chronicle says that Phthia was the homeland of the Hellenes and that this name was given to those previously called Greeks ( Γραικοί ) . In Greek mythology , Hellen , the patriarch of the Hellenes who ruled around Phthia , was the son of Pyrrha and Deucalion , the only survivors after the Great Deluge . The Greek philosopher Aristotle names ancient Hellas as an area in Epirus between Dodona and the Achelous river , the location of the Great Deluge of Deucalion , a land occupied by the Selloi and the " Greeks " who later came to be known as " Hellenes " . In the Homeric tradition , the Selloi were the priests of Dodonian Zeus .
In the Hesiodic Catalogue of Women , Graecus is presented as the son of Zeus and Pandora II , sister of Hellen the patriarch of the Hellenes . According to the Parian Chronicle , when Deucalion became king of Phthia , the Graikoi ( Γραικοί ) were named Hellenes . Aristotle notes in his Meteorologica that the Hellenes were related to the Graikoi .
= = = Ancient and Modern = = =
The most obvious link between modern and ancient Greeks is their language , which has a documented tradition from at least the 14th century BC to the present day , albeit with a break during the Greek Dark Ages ( lasting from the 11th to the 8th century BC ) . Scholars compare its continuity of tradition to Chinese alone . Since its inception , Hellenism was primarily a matter of common culture and the national continuity of the Greek world is a lot more certain than its demographic . Yet , Hellenism also embodied an ancestral dimension through aspects of Athenian literature that developed and influenced ideas of descent based on autochthony . During the later years of the Eastern Roman Empire , areas such as Ionia and Constantinople experienced a Hellenic revival in language , philosophy , and literature and on classical models of thought and scholarship . This revival provided a powerful impetus to the sense of cultural affinity with ancient Greece and its classical heritage . Throughout their history , the Greeks have retained their language and alphabet , certain values and cultural traditions , customs , a sense of religious and cultural difference and exclusion ( the word barbarian was used by 12th @-@ century historian Anna Komnene to describe non @-@ Greek speakers ) , a sense of Greek identity and common sense of ethnicity despite the undeniable socio @-@ political changes of the past two millennia . In recent anthropological studies , both ancient and modern Greek osteological samples were analyzed demonstrating a bio @-@ genetic affinity and continuity shared between both groups .
= = = Demographics = = =
Today , Greeks are the majority ethnic group in the Hellenic Republic , where they constitute 93 % of the country 's population , and the Republic of Cyprus where they make up 78 % of the island 's population ( excluding Turkish settlers in the occupied part of the country ) . Greek populations have not traditionally exhibited high rates of growth ; a large percentage of Greek population growth since Greece 's foundation in 1832 was attributed to annexation of new territories , as well as the influx of 1 @.@ 5 million Greek refugees after the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey . About 80 % of the population of Greece is urban , with 28 % concentrated in the city of Athens .
Greeks from Cyprus have a similar history of emigration , usually to the English @-@ speaking world because of the island 's colonization by the British Empire . Waves of emigration followed the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974 , while the population decreased between mid @-@ 1974 and 1977 as a result of emigration , war losses , and a temporary decline in fertility . After the ethnic cleansing of a third of the Greek population of the island in 1974 , there was also an increase in the number of Greek Cypriots leaving , especially for the Middle East , which contributed to a decrease in population that tapered off in the 1990s . Today more than two @-@ thirds of the Greek population in Cyprus is urban .
There is a sizeable Greek minority of approximately 200 @,@ 000 people in Albania . The Greek minority of Turkey , which numbered upwards of 200 @,@ 000 people after the 1923 exchange , has now dwindled to a few thousand , after the 1955 Constantinople Pogrom and other state sponsored violence and discrimination . This effectively ended , though not entirely , the three @-@ thousand @-@ year @-@ old presence of Hellenism in Asia Minor . There are smaller Greek minorities in the rest of the Balkan countries , the Levant and the Black Sea states , remnants of the Old Greek Diaspora ( pre @-@ 19th century ) .
= = = Diaspora = = =
The total number of Greeks living outside Greece and Cyprus today is a contentious issue . Where Census figures are available , they show around 3 million Greeks outside Greece and Cyprus . Estimates provided by the SAE - World Council of Hellenes Abroad put the figure at around 7 million worldwide . According to George Prevelakis of Sorbonne University , the number is closer to just below 5 million . Integration , intermarriage , and loss of the Greek language influence the self @-@ identification of the Omogeneia . Important centres of the New Greek Diaspora today are London , New York , Melbourne and Toronto . In 2010 , the Hellenic Parliament introduced a law that enables Diaspora Greeks in Greece to vote in the elections of the Greek state . This law was later repealed in early 2014 .
= = = = Ancient = = = =
In ancient times , the trading and colonizing activities of the Greek tribes and city states spread the Greek culture , religion and language around the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins , especially in Sicily and southern Italy ( also known as Magna Grecia ) , Spain , the south of France and the Black sea coasts . Under Alexander the Great 's empire and successor states , Greek and Hellenizing ruling classes were established in the Middle East , India and in Egypt . The Hellenistic period is characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization that established Greek cities and kingdoms in Asia and Africa . Under the Roman Empire , easier movement of people spread Greeks across the Empire and in the eastern territories , Greek became the lingua franca rather than Latin . The modern @-@ day Griko community of southern Italy , numbering about 60 @,@ 000 , may represent a living remnant of the ancient Greek populations of Italy .
= = = = Modern = = = =
During and after the Greek War of Independence , Greeks of the diaspora were important in establishing the fledgling state , raising funds and awareness abroad . Greek merchant families already had contacts in other countries and during the disturbances many set up home around the Mediterranean ( notably Marseilles in France , Livorno in Italy , Alexandria in Egypt ) , Russia ( Odessa and Saint Petersburg ) , and Britain ( London and Liverpool ) from where they traded , typically in textiles and grain . Businesses frequently comprised the extended family , and with them they brought schools teaching Greek and the Greek Orthodox Church .
As markets changed and they became more established , some families grew their operations to become shippers , financed through the local Greek community , notably with the aid of the Ralli or Vagliano Brothers . With economic success , the Diaspora expanded further across the Levant , North Africa , India and the USA .
In the 20th century , many Greeks left their traditional homelands for economic reasons resulting in large migrations from Greece and Cyprus to the United States , Great Britain , Australia , Canada , Germany , and South Africa , especially after the Second World War ( 1939 – 1945 ) , the Greek Civil War ( 1946 – 1949 ) , and the Turkish Invasion of Cyprus in 1974 .
While official figures remain scarce , polls and anecdotal evidence point to renewed Greek emigration as a result of the Greek financial crisis . According to data published by the Federal Statistical Office of Germany in 2011 , 23 @,@ 800 Greeks emigrated to Germany , a significant increase over the previous year . By comparison , about 9 @,@ 000 Greeks emigrated to Germany in 2009 and 12 @,@ 000 in 2010 .
= = Culture = =
Greek culture has evolved over thousands of years , with its beginning in the Mycenaean civilization , continuing through the classical era , the Hellenistic period , the Roman and Byzantine periods and was profoundly affected by Christianity , which it in turn influenced and shaped . Ottoman Greeks had to endure through several centuries of adversity that culminated in genocide in the 20th century . The Diafotismos is credited with revitalizing Greek culture and giving birth to the synthesis of ancient and medieval elements that characterize it today .
= = = Language = = =
Most Greeks speak the Greek language , an Indo @-@ European language that forms a branch itself , with its closest relations being Armenian ( see Graeco @-@ Armenian ) and the Indo @-@ Iranian languages ( see Graeco @-@ Aryan ) . It has one of the longest documented histories of any language and Greek literature has a continuous history of over 2 @,@ 500 years . Several notable literary works , including the Homeric epics , Euclid 's Elements and the New Testament , were originally written in Greek .
Greek demonstrates several linguistic features that are shared with other Balkan languages , such as Albanian , Bulgarian and Eastern Romance languages ( see Balkan sprachbund ) , and has absorbed many foreign words , primarily of Western European and Turkish origin . Because of the movements of Philhellenism and the Diafotismos in the 19th century , which emphasized the modern Greeks ' ancient heritage , these foreign influences were excluded from official use via the creation of Katharevousa , a somewhat artificial form of Greek purged of all foreign influence and words , as the official language of the Greek state . In 1976 , however , the Hellenic Parliament voted to make the spoken Dimotiki the official language , making Katharevousa obsolete .
Modern Greek has , in addition to Standard Modern Greek or Dimotiki , a wide variety of dialects of varying levels of mutual intelligibility , including Cypriot , Pontic , Cappadocian , Griko and Tsakonian ( the only surviving representative of ancient Doric Greek ) . Yevanic is the language of the Romaniotes , and survives in small communities in Greece , New York and Israel . In addition to Greek , many Greeks in Greece and the Diaspora are bilingual in other languages or dialects such as English , Arvanitika / Albanian , Aromanian , Macedonian Slavic , Russian and Turkish .
= = = Religion = = =
Most Greeks are Christians , belonging to the Greek Orthodox Church . During the first centuries after Jesus Christ , the New Testament was originally written in Koine Greek , which remains the liturgical language of the Greek Orthodox Church , and most of the early Christians and Church Fathers were Greek @-@ speaking . There are small groups of ethnic Greeks adhering to other Christian denominations like Greek Catholics , Greek Evangelicals , Pentecostals , and groups adhering to other religions including Romaniot and Sephardic Jews and Greek Muslims . About 2 @,@ 000 Greeks are members of Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism congregations .
Greek @-@ speaking Muslims live mainly outside Greece in the contemporary era . There are both Christian and Muslim Greek @-@ speaking communities in Lebanon and Syria , while in the Pontus region of Turkey there is a large community of indeterminate size who were spared from the population exchange because of their religious affiliation .
= = = Arts = = =
Greek art has a long and varied history . Greeks have contributed to the visual , literary and performing arts . In the West , classical Greek art was influential in shaping the Roman and later the modern Western artistic heritage . Following the Renaissance in Europe , the humanist aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists . Well into the 19th century , the classical tradition derived from Greece played an important role in the art of the Western world . In the East , Alexander the Great 's conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek , Central Asian and Indian cultures , resulting in Greco @-@ Buddhist art , whose influence reached as far as Japan .
Byzantine Greek art , which grew from classical art and adapted the pagan motifs in the service of Christianity , provided a stimulus to the art of many nations . Its influences can be traced from Venice in the West to Kazakhstan in the East . In turn , Greek art was influenced by eastern civilizations ( i.e. Egypt , Persia , etc . ) during various periods of its history .
Notable modern Greek artists include Renaissance painter Dominikos Theotokopoulos ( El Greco ) , Panagiotis Doxaras , Nikolaos Gyzis , Nikiphoros Lytras , Yannis Tsarouchis , Nikos Engonopoulos , Constantine Andreou , Jannis Kounellis , sculptors such as Leonidas Drosis , Georgios Bonanos , Yannoulis Chalepas and Joannis Avramidis , conductor Dimitri Mitropoulos , soprano Maria Callas , composers such as Mikis Theodorakis , Nikos Skalkottas , Iannis Xenakis , Manos Hatzidakis , Eleni Karaindrou , Yanni and Vangelis , one of the best @-@ selling singers worldwide Nana Mouskouri and poets such as Kostis Palamas , Dionysios Solomos , Angelos Sikelianos and Yannis Ritsos . Alexandrian Constantine P. Cavafy and Nobel laureates Giorgos Seferis and Odysseas Elytis are among the most important poets of the 20th century . Novel is also represented by Alexandros Papadiamantis and Nikos Kazantzakis .
Notable Greek actors include Marika Kotopouli , Melina Mercouri , Ellie Lambeti , Academy Award winner Katina Paxinou , Dimitris Horn , Manos Katrakis and Irene Papas . Alekos Sakellarios , Michael Cacoyannis and Theo Angelopoulos are among the most important directors .
= = = Science = = =
The Greeks of the Classical era made several notable contributions to science and helped lay the foundations of several western scientific traditions , like philosophy , historiography and mathematics . The scholarly tradition of the Greek academies was maintained during Roman times with several academic institutions in Constantinople , Antioch , Alexandria and other centres of Greek learning while Eastern Roman ( or Byzantine ) science was essentially a continuation of classical science . Greeks have a long tradition of valuing and investing in paideia ( education ) . Paideia was one of the highest societal values in the Greek and Hellenistic world while the first European institution described as a university was founded in 5th century Constantinople and operated in various incarnations until the city 's fall to the Ottomans in 1453 . The University of Constantinople was Christian Europe 's first secular institution of higher learning since no theological subjects were taught , and considering the original meaning of the world university as a corporation of students , the world ’ s first university as well .
As of 2007 , Greece had the eighth highest percentage of tertiary enrollment in the world ( with the percentages for female students being higher than for male ) while Greeks of the Diaspora are equally active in the field of education . Hundreds of thousands of Greek students attend western universities every year while the faculty lists of leading Western universities contain a striking number of Greek names . Notable modern Greek scientists of modern times include Dimitrios Galanos , Georgios Papanikolaou ( inventor of the Pap test ) , Nicholas Negroponte , Constantin Carathéodory , Manolis Andronikos , Michael Dertouzos , John Argyris , Panagiotis Kondylis , John Iliopoulos ( 2007 Dirac Prize for his contributions on the physics of the charm quark , a major contribution to the birth of the Standard Model , the modern theory of Elementary Particles ) , Joseph Sifakis ( 2007 Turing Award , the " Nobel Prize " of Computer Science ) , Christos Papadimitriou ( 2002 Knuth Prize , 2012 Gödel Prize ) , Mihalis Yannakakis ( 2005 Knuth Prize ) and Dimitri Nanopoulos .
= = = Symbols = = =
The most widely used symbol is the flag of Greece , which features nine equal horizontal stripes of blue alternating with white representing the nine syllables of the Greek national motto Eleftheria i Thanatos ( Freedom or Death ) , which was the motto of the Greek War of Independence . The blue square in the upper hoist @-@ side corner bears a white cross , which represents Greek Orthodoxy . The Greek flag is widely used by the Greek Cypriots , although Cyprus has officially adopted a neutral flag to ease ethnic tensions with the Turkish Cypriot minority – see flag of Cyprus ) .
The pre @-@ 1978 ( and first ) flag of Greece , which features a Greek cross ( crux immissa quadrata ) on a blue background , is widely used as an alternative to the official flag , and they are often flown together . The national emblem of Greece features a blue escutcheon with a white cross surrounded by two laurel branches . A common design involves the current flag of Greece and the pre @-@ 1978 flag of Greece with crossed flagpoles and the national emblem placed in front .
Another highly recognizable and popular Greek symbol is the double @-@ headed eagle , the imperial emblem of the last dynasty of the Roman Empire and a common symbol in Asia Minor and , later , Eastern Europe . It is not part of the modern Greek flag or coat @-@ of @-@ arms , although it is officially the insignia of the Greek Army and the flag of the Church of Greece . It had been incorporated in the Greek coat of arms between 1925 and 1926 .
= = = Surnames = = =
Greek surnames were widely in use by the 9th century supplanting the ancient tradition of using the father ’ s name , however Greek surnames are most commonly patronymics . Commonly , Greek male surnames end in -s , which is the common ending for Greek masculine proper nouns in the nominative case . Exceptionally , some end in -ou , indicating the genitive case of this proper noun for patronymic reasons . Although surnames in mainland Greece are static today , dynamic and changing patronymic usage survives in middle names where the genitive of father 's first name is commonly the middle name ( this usage having been passed on to the Russians ) . In Cyprus , by contrast , surnames follow the ancient tradition of being given according to the father ’ s name . Finally , in addition to Greek @-@ derived surnames many have Latin , Turkish and Italian origin .
With respect to personal names , the two main influences are Christianity and classical Hellenism ; ancient Greek nomenclatures were never forgotten but have become more widely bestowed from the 18th century onwards .
= = = Sea = = =
The traditional Greek homelands have been the Greek peninsula and the Aegean Sea , Southern Italy ( Magna Graecia ) , the Black Sea , the Ionian coasts of Asia Minor and the islands of Cyprus and Sicily . In Plato 's Phaidon , Socrates remarks , " we ( Greeks ) live around a sea like frogs around a pond " when describing to his friends the Greek cities of the Aegean . This image is attested by the map of the Old Greek Diaspora , which corresponded to the Greek world until the creation of the Greek state in 1832 . The sea and trade were natural outlets for Greeks since the Greek peninsula is rocky and does not offer good prospects for agriculture .
Notable Greek seafarers include people such as Pytheas of Marseilles , Scylax of Caryanda who sailed to Iberia and beyond , Nearchus , the 6th century merchant and later monk Cosmas Indicopleustes ( Cosmas who Sailed to India ) and the explorer of the Northwestern Passage , Apostolos Valerianos also known as Juan de Fuca . In later times , the Byzantine Greeks plied the sea @-@ lanes of the Mediterranean and controlled trade until an embargo imposed by the Byzantine emperor on trade with the Caliphate opened the door for the later Italian pre @-@ eminence in trade .
The Greek shipping tradition recovered during Ottoman rule when a substantial merchant middle class developed , which played an important part in the Greek War of Independence . Today , Greek shipping continues to prosper to the extent that Greece has the largest merchant fleet in the world , while many more ships under Greek ownership fly flags of convenience . The most notable shipping magnate of the 20th century was Aristotle Onassis , others being Yiannis Latsis , George Livanos , and Stavros Niarchos .
= = Physical appearance = =
A study from 2013 for prediction of hair and eye colour from DNA of the Greek people showed that the self @-@ reported phenotype frequencies according to hair and eye colour categories was as follows : 119 individuals - hair colour , 11 was blond , 45 dark blond / light brown , 49 dark brown , 3 brown red / auburn and 11 had black hair ; eye colour , 13 with blue , 15 with intermediate ( green , heterochromia ) and 91 had brown eye colour .
Another study from 2012 included 150 dental school students from the University of Athens , and the results of the study showed that light hair colour ( blonde / light ash brown ) was predominant in 10 @.@ 7 % of the students . 36 % had medium hair colour ( light brown / medium darkest brown ) , 32 % had darkest brown and 21 % black ( 15 @.@ 3 off black , 6 % midnight black ) . In conclusion , the hair colour of young Greeks are mostly brown , ranging from light to dark brown with significant minorities having black and blonde hair . The same study also showed that the eye colour of the students was 14 @.@ 6 % blue / green , 28 % medium ( light brown ) and 57 @.@ 4 % dark brown .
= = Timeline = =
The history of the Greek people is closely associated with the history of Greece , Cyprus , Constantinople , Asia Minor and the Black Sea . During the Ottoman rule of Greece , a number of Greek enclaves around the Mediterranean were cut off from the core , notably in Southern Italy , the Caucasus , Syria and Egypt . By the early 20th century , over half of the overall Greek @-@ speaking population was settled in Asia Minor ( now Turkey ) , while later that century a huge wave of migration to the United States , Australia , Canada and elsewhere created the modern Greek diaspora .
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= William de Corbeil =
William de Corbeil or William of Corbeil ( c . 1070 – 1136 ) was a medieval Archbishop of Canterbury . Very little is known of William 's early life or his family , except that he was born at Corbeil in the outskirts of Paris and that he had two brothers . Educated as a theologian , he taught briefly before serving the bishops of Durham and London as a clerk and subsequently becoming a canon , a priest who lived a communal life . William was elected to the see of Canterbury as a compromise candidate in 1123 , the first canon to become an English archbishop . He succeeded Ralph d 'Escures , who had employed him as a chaplain .
Throughout his archbishopric , William was embroiled in a dispute with Thurstan , the Archbishop of York , over the primacy of Canterbury . As a temporary solution , the pope appointed William the papal legate for England , giving him powers superior to those of York . William concerned himself with the morals of the clergy , and presided over three legatine councils , which among other things condemned the purchase of benefices or priesthoods , and admonished the clergy to live a celibate life . He was also known as a builder ; among his constructions is the keep of Rochester Castle . Towards the end of his life William was instrumental in the selection of Count Stephen of Boulogne as King of England , despite his oath to the dying King Henry I that he would support the succession of his daughter , the Empress Matilda . Although some chroniclers considered him a perjurer and a traitor for crowning Stephen , none doubted his piety .
= = Early life = =
William de Corbeil was probably born at Corbeil on the Seine , possibly in about 1070 . He was educated at Laon , where he studied under Anselm of Laon , the noted scholastic and teacher of theology . William taught for a time at Laon , but nothing else is known of his early life . All that is known of his parents or ancestry is that he had two brothers , Ranulf and Helgot ; his brothers appear as witnesses on William 's charters .
William joined the service of Ranulf Flambard , Bishop of Durham , as a clerk , and was present at the translation of the body of Saint Cuthbert in 1104 . His name appears high in a list of those who were present at the event , implying that he may have held an important position in Flambard 's household , but appended to his name is " subsequently archbishop " , suggesting that his inclusion could have been a later interpolation . He was a teacher to Flambard 's children , probably in about 1107 to 1109 , but at some unknown date William appears to have transferred to the household of the Archbishop of Canterbury . Between 1107 and 1112 he went to Laon and attended lectures given by Anselm of Laon . By 1116 he was a clerk for Ralph d 'Escures , Archbishop of Canterbury , with whom he travelled to Rome in 1117 when Ralph was in dispute with Thurstan , the Archbishop of York , over the primacy of Canterbury .
In 1118 , William entered the Augustinian order at Holy Trinity Priory in Aldgate , a house of canons rather than monks . Subsequently he became prior of the Augustinian priory at St Osyth in Essex , appointed by Richard de Beaumis , Bishop of London , in 1121 .
= = Election as archbishop = =
After the death of Ralph d 'Escures in October 1122 , King Henry I decided to allow a free election , with the new primate to be chosen by the leading men of the realm , both ecclesiastical and secular . The monks of the cathedral chapter and the bishops of the kingdom disagreed on who should be appointed . The bishops insisted that it should not be a clerk ( a non @-@ monastic member of the clergy ) , but Canterbury 's monastic cathedral chapter preferred a monk , and insisted that they alone had the right to elect the archbishop . However , only two bishops in England or Normandy were monks ( Ernulf , Bishop of Rochester , and Serlo , Bishop of Séez ) , and no monks other than Anselm of Canterbury , Ernulf , and Ralph d 'Escures , had been elected to an English or Norman see since 1091 ; recent precedent therefore favoured a clerk . King Henry sided with the bishops , and told the monks that they could elect their choice from a short list selected by the bishops . Perhaps unsurprisingly , the list contained no monks .
On 2 February or 4 February 1123 , William was chosen from among four candidates to the see of Canterbury ; the names of the three unsuccessful candidates are unknown . He appears to have been a compromise candidate , as he was at least a canon , if not the monk that the chapter had sought . William was the first Augustinian canon to become an archbishop in England , a striking break with the tradition that had favoured monks in the see of Canterbury . Although most contemporaries would not have considered there to be much of a distinction between monks and canons , William 's election still occasioned some trepidation among the monks of the Canterbury chapter , who were " alarmed at the appointment , since he was a clerk " .
= = Primacy dispute = =
William , like every other Canterbury archbishop since Lanfranc , maintained that Canterbury held primacy — in essence , overlordship — over all other dioceses in Great Britain , including the archbishopric of York . Thurstan had claimed independence , and refused to consecrate William when the latter demanded recognition of Canterbury 's primacy ; the ceremony was performed instead by William 's own suffragan bishops on 18 February 1123 . Previous popes had generally favoured York 's side of the dispute , and the successive popes Paschal II , Gelasius II , and Calixtus II had issued rulings in the late 1110s and early 1120s siding with York . Calixtus had also consecrated Thurstan when both King Henry and William 's predecessor had attempted to prevent Thurstan 's consecration unless Thurstan submitted to Canterbury .
After travelling to Rome to receive his pallium , the symbol of his authority as an archbishop , William discovered that Thurstan had arrived before him , and had presented a case against William 's election to Pope Callixtus II . There were four objections to William 's election : first that he was elected in the king 's court ; second that the chapter of Canterbury had been coerced and was unwilling ; third that his consecration was unlawful because it was not performed by Thurstan ; and fourth that a monk should be elected to the see of Canterbury , which had been founded by Augustine of Canterbury , a monk . However , King Henry I and the Emperor Henry V , Henry I 's son @-@ in @-@ law , persuaded the pope to overlook the irregularities of the election , with the proviso that William swore to obey " all things that the Pope imposed upon him . " At the conclusion of the visit the pope denied the primacy of Canterbury over York , dismissing the Canterbury cathedral chapter 's supposed papal documents as forgeries . The outcome was in accordance with most earlier papal rulings on the primacy issue , which involved not taking sides and thus reinforcing papal supremacy . William returned to England , and was enthroned at Canterbury on 22 July 1123 .
The archbishop 's next opponent was the papal legate of the new Pope Honorius II , Cardinal John of Crema , who arrived in England in 1125 . A compromise between York and Canterbury was negotiated , which involved Canterbury allowing York the supervision of the dioceses of Bangor , Chester , and St Aspah in return for Thurstan 's verbal submission and the written submission of his successors . The pope , however , rejected the agreement , likely because he wished to preserve his own primacy , and substituted his own . The papal solution was that Honorius would appoint William papal legate in England and Scotland , which was done in 1126 , giving William the position over York , but it was dependent on the will of the pope , and would lapse on the pope 's death . The arrangement merely postponed the problem however , as neither Thurstan nor William renounced their claims . That Christmas , at a royal court , Thurstan unsuccessfully attempted to claim the right to ceremonially crown the king as well as have his episcopal cross carried before him in Canterbury 's province . As a result of his lengthy dispute with Thurstan , William travelled to Rome more frequently than any bishop before him except for Wilfrid in the 7th century .
= = Archiepiscopal activities = =
Legatine councils in 1125 , 1127 and 1129 were held in Westminster , the last two called by Archbishop William . The council of 1125 met under the direction of John of Crema and prohibited simony , purchase of the sacraments , and the inheritance of clerical benefices . John of Crema had been sent to England not only to seek a compromise in the Canterbury – York dispute , but to publicize the decrees of the First Council of the Lateran held in 1123 , which neither William nor Thurstan had attended . Included in canons were the rejection of hereditary claims to a benefice or prebend , which was a source of consternation to the clergy . Also prohibited was the presence of any women in clergy 's households unless they were relatives . In 1127 the council condemned the purchase of benefices , priesthoods , or places in monastic houses . It also enacted canons declaring that clergy who refused to give up their wives or concubines would be deprived of their benefices , and that any such women who did not leave the parish where they had been could be expelled and even forced into slavery . Lastly , in 1129 the clergy were once more admonished to live a celibate life and to put aside their wives . This council was presided over by King Henry , who then undermined the force of the prohibition of concubines by permitting the clergy to pay a fine to the royal treasury to keep their women . William 's allowance of this royal fine was condemned by the chronicler Henry of Huntingdon . The festival of the Conception was also allowed at one of these councils .
As well as the councils , William was active in his diocese , and was interested in reforming the churches in his diocese . A conflict with Alexander of Lincoln over a church in Alexander 's diocese led to further condemnation by Henry of Huntingon and prompted Henry to write that " no one can sing [ William 's ] praises because there 's nothing to sing about . " William seems to have been somewhat eclipsed in ecclesiastical administration and appointments by Roger of Salisbury , Bishop of Salisbury , and King Henry 's primary advisor . William reformed the nunnery of Minster @-@ in @-@ Sheppey however , and he installed a college of regular canons at the church of St. Gregory 's , in Canterbury . He also secured a profession of obedience from the newly installed abbot of St Augustine 's Abbey in Canterbury . His legateship from Honorius lapsed when the pope died in February 1130 , but it was renewed by Honorius ' successor Pope Innocent II in 1132 .
During William 's last years he attempted to reform St Martin 's , Dover . The king had granted the church to the archbishop and the diocese of Canterbury in 1130 , and William had a new church building constructed near Dover . The archbishop had planned to install canons regular into the church , and on William 's deathbed dispatched a party of canons from Merton Priory to take over St Martin 's . However , the party of canons , who had been accompanied by two bishops and some other clergy , were prevented from entering by a monk of Canterbury Cathedral , who claimed that St Martin 's belonged to the monks of the cathedral chapter . The canons from Merton did not press the issue in the face of the Canterbury chapter 's appeal to Rome , and after William 's death , the cathedral chapter sent 12 monks to St Martin 's instead .
The construction of the keep of Rochester Castle — at 115 feet ( 35 m ) , the tallest Norman @-@ built keep in England — was initiated at William 's orders . Built for King Henry , it is still intact , although it no longer has a roof or floors . The work at Rochester was built within the stone curtain walls that Gundulf of Rochester had erected in the late 11th century . The keep was designed not only for defence but also to provide comfortable living quarters , which were probably intended for use by the archbishops when they visited Rochester . In 1127 , the custody of Rochester Castle was granted to William and his successors as archbishop by King Henry , including the right to fortify the place as the archbishops wished , and the right to garrison the castle with their own men . In the view of the historian Judith Green , the grant of the castle was partly to secure the loyalty of the archbishop to the king , and partly to help secure the defences of the coast . William also completed the construction of Canterbury Cathedral , which was dedicated in May 1130 .
= = Final years = =
The archbishop swore to Henry I that he would support Henry 's daughter Matilda 's claim to the English throne , but after Henry 's death he instead crowned Stephen , on 22 December 1135 . He was persuaded to do so by Henry of Blois , Bishop of Winchester and Stephen 's brother , and Roger of Salisbury , Bishop of Salisbury . The bishops argued that Henry had no right to impose the oath , and that the dying king had released the barons and the bishops from the oath in any event . The royal steward , Hugh Bigod , swore that he had been present at the king 's deathbed and had heard the king say that he released the oath .
William did not long outlive Henry , dying at Canterbury on 21 November 1136 . He was buried in the north transept of Canterbury Cathedral . Contemporaries were grudging in their praise , and William 's reputation suffered after the accession of Matilda 's son , Henry II , to the English throne . William of Malmesbury said that William was a courteous and sober man , with little of the flamboyant lifestyle of the more " modern " bishops . The author of the Gesta Stephani claimed that William was avaricious and hoarded money . None of the chroniclers , however , doubted his piety , even when they named him a perjurer and a traitor for his coronation of Stephen .
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= Successful ( song ) =
" Successful " is a song by Canadian recording artist Drake . American R & B singer Trey Songz is featured as well as Drake 's mentor and labelmate Lil Wayne . It was produced by Noah " 40 " Shebib . The song was written by the trio and its producer , Noah " 40 " Shebib . The song served as the second single from Drake 's mixtape , So Far Gone , and was included on Trey Songz 's third studio album , Ready , sans Wayne and the addition of a new verse by Songz . Accompanied by a dark tone , the songs lyrics contain quips of self @-@ determination .
" Successful " received critical acclaim from critics , some of which referred to the song as a standout track on Ready . While reaching seventeen on the Billboard Hot 100 , the song peaked at two and three , respectively on the Rap Songs and Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs charts . The accompanying music video features Drake and Songz venturing off into Toronto nightlife , interspersed with contemplative scenes . The song received several accolades , including being ranked seventeen on Rolling Stone 's " 25 Best Songs of 2009 " list , and ranking ten on Spin 's " The 20 Best Songs of 2009 " roll . Complex named it the 82nd best song of the decade . Two years after its initial release , the track was certified Gold by the ( RIAA ) for sales exceeding 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States alone .
= = Background = =
The song was first released as Drake 's follow @-@ up track to " Best I Ever Had " for his So Far Gone mixtape , with Songz and Lil Wayne received featuring credits . After the success of the two singles , Drake decided to release a retail version of the mixtape in the form of an extended play , including the song . On Songz 's third album , Ready , he included the track , however Drake 's verse was moved to the middle and Lil Wayne 's rap was taken out in order to include a new verse by Songz .
The song was originally set to be on Drake 's debut album , Thank Me Later , but after Drake forwent the song , he insisted that Songz include it on Ready . Songz stated in an interview what fan reception to the track mostly had been that he should put a verse in on " Successful " , but Songz told BallerStatus ,
" I was like , ' That 's my homie 's song . ' Then initially , Drake came up to me with the idea like ' Nah dog . That 's your song . I 'm not putting it on my album . So it 's going to be a waste . So it 's going to be a big record with no one to go retrieve it . ' So we put the verse on there just to give me a little more presence on the record for it to be on my album . "
In an interview with MTV News , Drake explained how the song came about , stating , " It has this pocket , and there was no melody yet . I remember [ producer Noah ' 40 ' Shebib ] kind of making the joint , and then he hit this sound , which is the chords that are in there . It was so eerie . Like it was haunting , almost . I was like , ' Yo , that 's it . You need to use that . ' He started playing this patch , and just every note that he played fell into place . I had this beat sitting here that I love so much , and I didn 't know what to do with it ... "
= = Writing = =
Drake then contacted Songz , who had been working with Drake back since 2007 on mixtapes . Songz said that Drake originally called him on advice of segueing his singing into rapping on interludes , then the terms of what records he would be featured on the mixtape , as he sent him the " Successful " track . After Drake still could not settle on the direction for the track , Songz came up with the his hook . He explained to MTV News , " The first thing that came to mind was ' I want the money , money and the cars / Cars and the clothes / The ho 's / I suppose I just wanna be , I just wanna be successful . ' When I 'm saying all that , conceptually for me , the deepest part of the record was when I say , ' I suppose . ' I supposed that 's what success is about . That 's what [ we 're ] led to believe . " After hearing the hook , Drake called it " powerful " , commenting ,
" And it 's like , it 's almost like it made me feel like it may not be right what I want , you know ? All these things , it 's like it made me feel young . It kind of made me feel ignorant to the game . But it was an exciting record even though the tempo is slow . That 's what I want ... The ' I suppose ' moment in there is like , it 's almost like you 're doubting yourself for a second . But at the end of the day , I just want to be successful . So that 's what the record meant to me . "
= = Composition = =
Drake has described the song as " eerie " and " dark " , and as " simplistic " having a " reverb @-@ driven harmony . " Shaheem Reid of MTV News said this about the song : " Trey Songz 's hook expresses the dreams of a young black male coming from nothing to something , and Drake 's raps put the hip @-@ hop nation on notice , while conveying his own desperation and hope and revealing family struggles . Let 's not forget Lil Wayne 's magnificent at bat as cleanup hitter ... " An " endearing and revealing " moment happens in the record when Drake refers to an incident when his mother contemplated leaving home during family troubles .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
David Jeffries of Allmusic noted the song as a standout track from Ready . Andrew Rennie of Now Magazine called a " cautionary anthem " and the song the top track on the album . Rennie also said that " Successful " and " Black Roses " , showcase Songz 's developed , more mature side . Sean Fennessey of The Village Voice said , " The calm , yearning song is a bona fide hit , and also the best example of where r & b lives today . " DJBooth said that there was " no reason to doubt that this track will become a mainstream smash . " Shaheem Reid of MTV News said , " It 's not a record that will kill the clubs , but when you just want to listen to superb lyricism and enthralling harmony , it 's a must have . " Rolling Stone ranked the song seventeen on their list of " Best 25 Songs of 2009 " list , and Spin ranked it the tenth best song of 2009 on their " The 20 Best Songs of 2009 " list .
= = = Chart performance = = =
On the week labeled August 1 , 2009 , the song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number eighty @-@ eight . Weeks later , the song peaked at number seventeen , where it spent one week . The song spent eighteen weeks on the chart dropping off on the week ending November 28 , 2009 . Additionally the song reached three on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart and two on the Rap Songs chart .
= = Music video = =
The music video for the Ready version of the song , filmed in Drake 's hometown of Toronto , Ontario , was directed by Jake White . An on set video and stills were released on August 12 , 2009 , followed by a preview of the clip on August 27 , 2009 . The full video was released on August 31 , 2009 . The video was nominated for MuchVIBE Hiphop Video of the Year and Cinematographer of the Year the 2010 MuchMusic Video Awards , winning both awards . It ranked at number eight on BET : Notarized Top 100 Videos of 2009 countdown .
While accompanying Songz on 106 & Park when promoting , Ready , Drake explained the video , stating :
" The concept of the video is the fact that ' successful , ' it applies to so many people that me and Trey just want to get the point across that we see ourselves and we see success in other individuals so really , it 's a video about potential . It 's a video about understanding that no matter what you do , there 's a way to be successful doing it . It 's one of those motivational videos . It actually ends with a quote from Barack Obama which is one of my favorite quotes I 've ever read , so we decided to put it in the video . It 's vivid . "
The video begins with Drake going up an elevator while Songz sings shirtless on the edge of a bed with a woman laying on the other side looking on . Drake then ends up on a balcony singing in front of the Toronto skyline . Both are shown in scenes contemplating intermixed with Songz joining Drake on the balcony . Subsequently scenes are shown of Drake and Songz riding through Toronto nightlife , along with the contemplative scenes , such as a young boy playing basketball in which Songz has an illusion that it is him , and little girl blowing a dandelion . The video ends with the skyline and a quote stating ,
" Making your mark on the world is hard . If it were easy , everybody would do it . But it 's not . It takes patience , it takes commitment , and it comes with plenty of failure along the way . The real test is not whether you avoid this failure , because you won 't . It 's whether you let it harden or shame you into inaction , or whether you learn from it ; whether you choose to persevere . "
- Barack Obama
= = Live performances = =
Songz and Drake performed the song on 106 & Park on September 2 , 2009 , as a part of a medley of " I Need a Girl " and " LOL Smiley Face . "
= = Remixes = =
The song was remixed and renamed " Stressful " by Joell Ortiz & Novel for their critically acclaimed mixtape Defying the Predictable .
T @-@ Pain made a remix called " More Careful " as an apology to Jay @-@ Z. There was an unreleased version with a phone call instead of Trey Songz 's intro and a new Drake verse .
= = Track listing = =
7 : 27 ( alternate mixtape version )
6 : 15 ( mixtape version )
5 : 51 ( EP version )
4 : 26 ( Ready / video version )
3 : 25 ( Radio edit )
2 : 02 ( good version )
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting – Noah " 40 " Shebib , Tremaine Neverson , Aubrey Graham , Dwayne Carter
Production , recording and mixing – Noah " 40 " Shebib
* A ^ Exclusively for the original single and So Far Gone mixtape and extended play versions .
Source
= = Charts = =
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= Z @-@ 4 Plan =
The Z @-@ 4 Plan was a proposed basis for negotiations to end the Croatian War of Independence with a political settlement . It was drafted by Peter W. Galbraith , Leonid Kerestedjiants and Geert @-@ Hinrich Ahrens on behalf of a mini @-@ Contact Group comprising United Nations envoys and diplomats from the United States , Russia and the European Union . The co @-@ chairs of the International Conference on the Former Yugoslavia , David Owen and Thorvald Stoltenberg , were closely involved in the political process surrounding the plan . The document was prepared in the final months of 1994 and early 1995 before being presented to Croatian President Franjo Tuđman and the leaders of the Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) on 30 January 1995 . Although Tuđman was displeased with the proposal , the RSK authorities — influenced by Serbian President Slobodan Milošević — refused to receive the document , let alone discuss it . Milošević was concerned that the plan might be used to force the settlement of a crisis in Serbia 's Kosovo province .
Three more attempts to revive the plan were made after Operation Flash in early May , when Croatia captured a portion of western Slavonia previously controlled by the RSK . The first initiative , begun later that month , failed because the RSK demanded that the Croatian forces pull back from western Slavonia ( which Croatia declined to do ) . The second attempt failed simply because neither party wanted to negotiate . The final round of negotiations where the Z @-@ 4 Plan was proposed by international diplomats occurred in early August , when a major Croatian attack against the RSK seemed imminent . Despite last @-@ ditch efforts by Galbraith to persuade Milošević and the RSK leadership to accept the plan , disagreement among the RSK leaders allowed Croatia to claim that the RSK had no intention of negotiating . The Croatian delegation , which had little interest in the negotiations and wanted to lay the diplomatic groundwork for the imminent military operation , presented its own demands to the RSK ( which were also rejected ) . On 4 August Croatia launched Operation Storm , defeated the RSK and effectively ended the political process which led to the creation of the Z @-@ 4 Plan .
Elements of the plan made their way into two proposals on resolving the Kosovo crisis : in 1999 ( during the Kosovo War ) and in 2005 as a part of the Kosovo status process . Neither was accepted by the parties to that conflict .
= = Background = =
In August 1990 an insurgency known as the Log Revolution took place in Croatia , centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around the city of Knin , parts of the Lika , Kordun , and Banovina regions , and settlements in eastern Croatia with significant Serb populations . These areas were subsequently named the Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) and , after the RSK declared its intention to unite with Serbia , the Government of Croatia declared the RSK a breakaway state . By March 1991 the conflict escalated , resulting in the Croatian War of Independence . In June 1991 , Croatia declared its independence as Yugoslavia disintegrated . A three @-@ month moratorium on Croatia and the RSK 's declarations followed , after which their decisions were implemented on 8 October .
Since the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) increasingly supported the RSK and the Croatian Police were unable to cope with the situation , the Croatian National Guard ( ZNG ) was formed in May 1991 . The ZNG was renamed the Croatian Army ( HV ) in November . The establishment of the Croatian military was hampered by a September UN arms embargo . The final months of 1991 saw JNA advances and the fiercest fighting of the war , culminating in the Siege of Dubrovnik and the Battle of Vukovar . In November a ceasefire was negotiated pending a political settlement ( which became known as the Vance plan ) , and it was implemented in early January 1992 . The ceasefire collapsed in January 1993 when the HV launched Operation Maslenica , and small @-@ scale clashes continued for more than a year . On 16 March 1994 , Russian envoy Vitaly Churkin brokered negotiations between Croatia and the RSK which produced a new ceasefire on 30 March . Further negotiations produced agreements on reopening a section of the Zagreb – Belgrade motorway ( crossing the RSK @-@ held part of western Slavonia , the Adria oil pipeline and several water @-@ supply lines ) by the end of 1994 .
= = Development = =
= = = Creation = = =
The Z @-@ 4 Plan was drafted by United States ambassador to Croatia Peter W. Galbraith , Russian ambassador to Croatia Leonid Kerestedjiants and German diplomat Geert @-@ Hinrich Ahrens , representing the European Union ( EU ) in a " mini @-@ Contact Group " . The Z in the plan 's name stood for Zagreb ( Croatia 's capital ) , and 4 represented the involvement of the United States , Russia , the EU and the UN . The plan was the product of a process begun on 23 March 1994 , with Galbraith considering himself its principal author . It was a well @-@ developed legal document intended as the basis for negotiations and , according to Ahrens , designed to commit Croatia to an internationally agreed settlement and prevent it from turning to a military resolution of the war ( while being generous to the Croatian Serbs ) . According to Ahrens , the plan was actually too generous to the Serbs ; in essence , it created the legal foundation for a permanent Serb state in Croatia .
The heart of the plan was the Constitutional Agreement on Krajina ( Part One ) . Part One defined Krajina as an autonomous region of Croatia , with borders based on the results of the 1991 Croatian census ( which identified eleven municipalities with an absolute Serb majority ) . Those areas would enjoy a high level of autonomy , with most authority transferred from the central government in Zagreb to Krajina . The region would have its own president , cabinet , legislation , courts , police force , emblem , flag and currency , and the right to levy taxes and make international agreements . Part One also provided for demilitarising the autonomous area . Part Two of the plan , the Agreements Concerning Slavonia , Southern Baranja , Western Sirmium and Other Areas , related to areas where the Croatian Serbs did not form the majority in 1991 ( including eastern and western Slavonia ) and contained transitional provisions . Part Three of the plan spelled out safeguards on human rights , fundamental freedoms , prosecution of war crimes , a human @-@ rights court with international judges , and provisions allowing dual Croatian and Yugoslav citizenship for Croatian Serbs . The plan envisaged that western Slavonia would be the first to be restored to Croatian control , followed by eastern Slavonia ( where a transitional UN administration would be set up before the handover ) .
= = = Proposed changes = = =
The first draft of the Z @-@ 4 Plan was prepared in September 1994 , and further developed and amended on several occasions during the following four months . Over this period , International Conference on the Former Yugoslavia ( ICFY ) co @-@ chairs David Owen and Thorvald Stoltenberg requested amendments to the plan and opposed its presentation to Croatian or RSK authorities . The first set of changes requested was to include a provision that Croatia cede territory around the city of Županja ( on the north bank of the Sava River ) to the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia , allowing better communication between Belgrade and the Bosnian Serb territory around Banja Luka . The request , submitted on 8 September , was turned down by the plan authors . That day , Owen requested that the plan allow Krajina to form a confederation with either Serbia or FR Yugoslavia . Owen and Stoltenberg sought to create a network of confederations between the former Yugoslav republics , but the authors of the Z @-@ 4 Plan deemed that impossible . German foreign minister Klaus Kinkel , on behalf of the German EU presidency , cautioned Owen that Krajina Serbs formed only 5 percent of Croatia 's population and a confederation between Kosovo and Albania would be more natural . On 6 October Russia declared its opposition to the confederation , but Owen regained the country 's support for the idea four days later ( shortly before it was abandoned ) .
The third group of requested amendments pertained to eastern Slavonia . Owen and Stoltenberg requested its status to be left unresolved , instead of gradually reverting to Croatian control over a five @-@ year period and applying the postwar ethnic composition of the area as a formula for the ethnic mix of the local police and establishing a joint Croatian @-@ Yugoslav company to extract crude oil in Đeletovci . The proposal was turned down , but it led to local autonomy for Serb villages in the area and reduced the transitional period to two years . The fourth group of proposed amendments , tabled by Owen , included a proposal for continued Serb armed presence in Krajina and additional authority for Krajina concerning mineral resources and international treaties . After the proposals , the text of the plan became the subject of lengthy discussions between the contact group countries , the EU and the ICFY co @-@ chairs . The co @-@ chairs began drafting their version of the plan ; Stoltenberg stalled the plan through Norwegian diplomat ( and ICFY ambassador ) Kai Eide , creating a conflict between Eide and Galbraith .
= = = First news of the plan = = =
On 1 October , Galbraith informed Croatian President Franjo Tuđman of the plan without providing any details . Similarly , Ahrens and Eide informed RSK president Milan Martić . Although early Z @-@ 4 Plan negotiations were planned without actually disclosing the plan to Croatia and the RSK , elements of the plan were leaked to Belgrade and Zagreb newspapers in mid @-@ October . According to Florence Hartmann , in October representatives of Tuđman and those of Serbian president Slobodan Milošević met in Graz , Austria to discuss the proposed reintegration of the RSK into Croatia and their opposition to the Z @-@ 4 Plan . Tuđman disliked the plan because it envisaged a Serb state in Croatia , while Milošević saw it as a dangerous precedent that could be applied to majority non @-@ Serb or ethnically @-@ mixed regions of rump Yugoslavia , such as Kosovo , Vojvodina and the Sandžak .
Galbraith , Eide and Kerestedjiants agreed to deliver the plan to Croatia and the RSK on 21 October , opposed by Owen and Stoltenberg . Owen also asked Vitaly Churkin to instruct his envoy to oppose the delivery . As instructed by Moscow , Kerestedjiants pulled out of the move and Galbraith accused Owen of sabotaging the Z @-@ 4 Plan .
= = = Final version = = =
The 53 @-@ page final version of the Z @-@ 4 Plan was prepared on 18 January 1995 . Entitled " Draft Agreement on the Krajina , Slavonia , Southern Baranja and Western Sirmium " , it consisted of three documents and two provisional maps . The maps were considered provisional because of concerns that the inclusion of Benkovac in Krajina would be contested by Croatia ; a portion of the municipality had been predominantly inhabited by Croats , and it was on the Adriatic coast . Another territorial issue was the municipality of Slunj ; it was not included in Krajina , and the omission effectively cut Krajina in two . A possible solution to the problem was to split the municipality in two and award the areas east of Slunj to Krajina . In anticipation of this , planning began for a road bypassing Slunj . Despite the unresolved issues , delivery of the plan to Croatia and the RSK was scheduled for January . On 12 January , shortly before the plan 's final version was drafted , Tuđman announced in a letter to the UN that Croatia would not grant an extension of the UN peacekeeping mandate beyond 31 March and United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) troops deployed to the RSK would have to leave .
= = Presentation = =
On 30 January the Z @-@ 4 Plan was presented to Tuđman by the French ambassador to Croatia , accompanied by Galbraith , Kerestedjiants , Ahrens and Italian ambassador Alfredo Matacotta ( replacing Eide ) . Tuđman did not hide his displeasure with the plan , receiving the draft with the knowledge that Milošević 's opposition to the plan ( because of his concerns for Kosovo ) would not allow it to be implemented . Tuđman accepted the plan ( which Croatia considered unacceptable ) as a base for negotiations with the RSK , hoping that they would dismiss it .
The five diplomats then travelled to Knin to present the Z @-@ 4 Plan to the RSK leadership . There they met with Martić , RSK prime minister Borislav Mikelić and foreign minister Milan Babić . Martić refused to receive the draft before the UN Security Council issued a written statement extending the UNPROFOR mandate to protect the RSK . Kerestedjiants and Ahrens suggested that Martić should acknowledge receipt of the plan and then say that the RSK would not negotiate before the UNPROFOR issue was resolved , but he refused . The diplomats then attempted to meet Milošević in Belgrade about the matter , but Milošević refused to see them and the group returned to Zagreb the next day . Ahrens described the events of 30 January as " a fiasco " .
= = = Reactions = = =
Ahrens noted that Croatia and the RSK were satisfied with the outcome . Owen and Stoltenberg expressed their understanding of the RSK 's and Milošević 's rejection of the plan , provoking a sharp reaction from Galbraith . The RSK parliament convened on 8 February with the Z @-@ 4 Plan as the sole item on the agenda . In their speeches there , Martić , Mikelić and Babić described the plan as provocative to the RSK and saw Milošević 's support in refusing the plan as greatly encouraging . A number of other influential Serbian politicians rejected the plan in addition to Milošević , including Borisav Jović — a close ally of Milošević , who considered the RSK strong enough militarily to resist Croatia — and Vojislav Šešelj , who considered the plan totally unacceptable . The opposition politicians in Serbia were split . Zoran Đinđić said that since the RSK refused the plan Serbia should not accept it either , while Vuk Drašković favoured the plan as an historic opportunity . Drašković 's views ultimately prevailed in the Serbian media , but not before late August . The only official reaction from Croatia was from its chief negotiator , Hrvoje Šarinić . Šarinić said that Croatia endorsed the restoration of Croatian rule , the return of refugees and local self @-@ government for Croatian Serbs , but dismissed plan solutions incompatible with the Constitution of Croatia . In Croatia , the plan and its authors ( especially Galbraith ) were strongly criticised in what Ahrens described as a " vicious campaign " .
= = Attempts of reintroduction = =
= = = May and June 1995 = = =
There were several more attempts to advocate the Z @-@ 4 Plan as the basis of a political settlement of the Croatian War of Independence . After Croatia captured western Slavonia from the RSK in Operation Flash in early May , Owen and Stoltenberg invited Croatian and RSK officials to Geneva in an effort to revive the plan . The initiative was endorsed by the UN Security Council and the G7 , which was preparing its summit in Halifax at the time . The meeting was attended by Owen , Stoltenberg , Galbraith , Kerestedjiants , Eide and Ahrens as the international diplomats ; the RSK was represented by Martić , Mikelić and Babić , and the Croatian delegation was led by Šarinić . Šarinić accepted the invitation , claiming that the venue was a Croatian concession because Croatian authorities considered the issue an internal matter which should normally be dealt with in Croatia . On the other hand , the RSK delegation insisted on Croatian withdrawal from the territory captured earlier that month before negotiations could proceed . Since no such withdrawal was requested by the UN Security Council , Croatia rejected the demand and the initiative collapsed .
A second attempt to revive the plan arose from talks between Kinkel and French foreign minister Hervé de Charette on 28 June . They proposed establishing zones of separation to enforce a ceasefire , monitoring the RSK 's external borders , specific guarantees for the safety of Croatian Serbs and implementating confidence @-@ building measures by economic cooperation between Croatia and the RSK . The initiative , however , did not gain ground when the RSK refused to negotiate .
= = = August 1995 = = =
Another effort involving the plan came about after Milošević asked the United States to stop an imminent Croatian attack against the RSK on 30 July . Although in his request he indicated that negotiations should be held based on the Z @-@ 4 Plan , he refused to meet Galbraith ( who wanted Milošević to pressure the RSK into accepting it ) on 2 August . Instead , Galbraith met Babić in Belgrade in an effort to persuade him to accept the plan . He told Babić that the RSK could not expect international sympathy because of its involvement in the Siege of Bihać , and they would have to accept Croatian terms to avoid war . As an alternative , Galbraith advised Babić to accept negotiations based on the Z @-@ 4 Plan . Babić complied , and Stoltenberg invited Croatian and RSK delegations to talks on 3 August . Genthod , near Geneva , was selected as the location to avoid media attention . The RSK delegation was headed by Major General Mile Novaković of the Army of the Republic of Serb Krajina and the Croatian delegation was headed by Tuđman 's advisor , Ivić Pašalić .
At the meeting the RSK insisted on the withdrawal of the HV from western Slavonia and the gradual implementation of a ceasefire , followed by economic cooperation before a political settlement was discussed . The Croatian delegation did not intend to negotiate , but to prepare diplomatically for a military resolution of the war . Stoltenberg proposed a seven @-@ point compromise , including negotiations based on the Z @-@ 4 Plan , beginning on 10 August . The proposal was initially accepted by Babić , who then expressed reservations about the Z @-@ 4 Plan as a political settlement when he was asked to publicly declare support for the Stoltenberg proposal ( so the Novaković delegation would follow his lead ) . Pašalić then asked Novaković to accept Croatia 's seven demands , including immediate replacement of the RSK with a Croatian civilian government . Novaković refused Pašalić 's proposal , indicating that he accepted the Stoltenberg proposal instead , and Pašalić declared that the RSK had declined a Croatian offer to negotiate . Croatia did not consider Babić powerful enough to secure support for an initiative from Martić , and thus unable to commit the RSK to an agreement . This view was supported by Babić himself , who told Galbraith during their 2 August meeting in Belgrade that Martić would only obey Milošević . On 4 August Croatia launched Operation Storm against the RSK and , according to Galbraith , effectively terminated the Z @-@ 4 Plan and its associated political process .
One final attempt , organised by Babić , was made to revive the Z @-@ 4 Plan on 16 August . This initiative called for negotiating each point of the plan and extending the autonomous areas to eastern Slavonia . However , Ahrens and Stoltenberg considered any talks between Croatia and the exiled , discredited leaders of the RSK impossible . When they consulted Šarinić about the initiative , he dismissed any possibility of negotiation .
= = = September 1995 and beyond = = =
Following Croatian military success against the RSK during Operation Storm in August , and in Bosnia and Herzegovina against the Republika Srpska during Operation Mistral 2 in September , US President Bill Clinton announced a new peace initiative for Bosnia and Herzegovina . This initiative , which aimed to restore eastern Slavonia to Croatia , was based on Croatian sovereignty and the Z @-@ 4 Plan . Gailbraith sought to reconcile the plan with new circumstances in the field ; an example was limited self @-@ government for Croatian Serbs in eastern Slavonian municipalities where they comprised a majority of the 1991 population ; after Croatia objected , the proposal was replaced with provisions from the Constitution of Croatia . By early October the process led to the Erdut Agreement , establishing a framework for restoring eastern Slavonia to Croatian rule . When the agreement was first implemented in 1996 , there were concerns in Croatia that the process might result in " covert " implementation of the Z @-@ 4 Plan in eastern Slavonia and political autonomy for the region .
The Z @-@ 4 Plan was again resurrected in 1999 as a template for the Rambouillet Agreement , a proposed peace treaty negotiated between FR Yugoslavia and ethnic Albanians living in Kosovo . In 2005 , after the Kosovo War , Serbia and Montenegro attempted to resolve the Kosovo status process by tabling a peace plan offering broad autonomy for Kosovo . According to Drašković , then foreign minister of Serbia and Montenegro , the plan was a " mirror image of the Z @-@ 4 Plan " . That year an " RSK government @-@ in @-@ exile " was set up in Belgrade , demanding the revival of the Z @-@ 4 Plan in Croatia ( a move condemned by Drašković and Serbian President Boris Tadić ) . The same idea was put forward in 2010 by a Serb refugee organisation led by Savo Štrbac .
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= Nathan Horton =
Nathan Russell Horton ( born May 29 , 1985 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey player who is currently under contract with the Toronto Maple Leafs in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He won the Stanley Cup in 2011 with the Boston Bruins . During his career , Horton has also played for the Columbus Blue Jackets and the Florida Panthers .
Horton has not played in an NHL game since April 2014 , due to a back injury . Though he is not officially retired , the surgery required to fix Horton 's back would end his career .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Minor Hockey = = =
Horton grew up in Dunnville , Ontario playing much of his minor hockey with the Welland Tigers of the OMHA South Central AAA League until his Minor Peewee year before making the move to play in the Greater Toronto Hockey League with the Toronto Red Wings . Going into his Peewee season he left the Red Wings to go play for the Thorold Blackhawks Jr.B. club of the OHA 's Golden Horseshoe League at the age of 13 . For much of his career with Welland , Horton played up on the " ' 84 " Tigers team with future NHL 'ers Daniel Girardi , Daniel Paille ( a future Bruins teammate ) and Andre Deveaux .
= = = Junior career = = =
Horton first entered junior hockey as a player for the Thorold Blackhawks . In one season with Thorold he scored 16 goals and registered 31 assists in 41 games . Prior to the 2001 OHL Draft , a 16 – year old Horton stated that if he was drafted first overall by the Mississauga Ice Dogs , he would not report to the team . He was instead selected second overall in the draft by the Oshawa Generals . As a rookie in the OHL , Horton totaled 31 goals and 36 assists in 64 games for the Generals . During two seasons with Oshawa , Horton would score 64 goals and recorded 71 assists .
To begin the 2002 – 03 season , Horton missed 13 games out of 22 but still ended up scoring 9 goals with 18 points during that span . Horton was named to the Canadian national junior team 's selection camp in December but was one of the first cuts . He ended his final season in Oshawa with 33 goals and 35 assists in 54 games .
= = = 2003 NHL Entry Draft = = =
In January 2002 , Horton , along with Patrick O 'Sullivan and Kevin Klein , was regarded as a top prospect from the OHL for the 2003 NHL Entry Draft . Eleven months later in December , Horton was called , " an almost sure @-@ fire top five pick " by USA Today . Midway through the 2002 – 03 season , Horton was regarded as a top @-@ five North American prospect by the NHL Central Scouting Bureau . Scouts likened Horton , who considered him a " power forward " , to John LeClair who was considered to be one of the best power forwards in the NHL . However , Horton stated that he saw himself to be more like Jeremy Roenick or Peter Forsberg , both of whom were faster than LeClair .
The Florida Panthers originally held the first overall pick , but traded it and the 73rd pick ( Daniel Carcillo ) to the Pittsburgh Penguins for the third pick ( Horton ) , the 55th pick ( Stefan Meyer ) , and Mikael Samuelsson . Goaltender Marc @-@ André Fleury ( Pittsburgh ) and centre Eric Staal ( Carolina ) were selected before him .
= = = Florida Panthers = = =
Horton signed with the Panthers on October 6 , 2003 . After his signing , Panthers coach Mike Keenan compared Horton to future New York Rangers Hall of Famer Mark Messier .
Against the Minnesota Wild on October 24 , Horton recorded his first career point with an assist on an Ivan Novoseltsev goal . Horton recorded his first career goal on November 1 against the San Jose Sharks . In the next game for the Panthers against the Los Angeles Kings , Horton scored his second goal in as many games . On January 9 , 2004 , Horton became the first rookie in NHL history to record a goal on a penalty shot , scoring against Philadelphia Flyers goalie Jeff Hackett . Three seasons later , on October 22 , 2006 , Penguins rookie Jordan Staal matched the feat and surpassed Horton as the youngest player to score ; Staal was 183 days younger than Horton was when he scored . Four days after his penalty shot goal , Horton suffered a torn rotator cuff and labrum which would potentially end his season . At the time , he was third on the Panthers with 10 goals . Following an examination by surgeon Tony Miniaci , Horton was told that he could rehabilitate naturally and did not require surgery on his shoulder . He returned to the Panthers in early March and scored in one of his first games back against the Tampa Bay Lightning . However , his shoulder troubles continued and it was determined that surgery was required . Horton ended his rookie campaign with 14 goals and 8 assists in 55 games .
The 2004 – 05 NHL season ended up being locked out which forced Horton and other players to sign with other teams . Horton eventually signed with the Panthers ' AHL affiliate , the San Antonio Rampage after a controversy ensued as to whether junior hockey eligible players such as Horton were obligated to return to their junior teams . Despite not signing with the Rampage until October 29 , Horton still participated in their training camp . Seven minutes into his second AHL game , Horton scored his first goal of the season . He recorded his first career AHL assist on a Gregory Campbell goal . On December 3 , 2004 , against the Houston Aeros , Horton scored both of the Rampage 's goals to help the team win in overtime .
For the second straight season , the Panthers did not allow Horton to play for the Canadian national junior team . He and Houston Aeros defenceman Brent Burns were the only two players not allowed to play for the team . Days before the announcement that Horton would not play for Team Canada , he suffered another shoulder injury which allegedly played into the Panthers ' decision . Horton suffered the shoulder injury in a fight in December and missed 14 games . He was informed he would again have to undergo surgery . In 21 games for San Antonio , Horton scored 5 goals and recorded 4 assists .
Entering the 2005 – 06 season , Horton stated in response to a question about his shoulders , " I feel better . I feel stronger , bigger . " In the season opener against the Atlanta Thrashers , Horton scored the first goal for the Panthers . Through the first games of the season , Horton was tied for the team lead in goals . On November 8 , 2005 , Horton was placed on injured reserve because of a knee injury . He was activated on December 1 and scored in his first game back against the Washington Capitals to help the Panthers win 3 – 2 . Horton added 2 goals against the Chicago Blackhawks in the Panthers ' next game to bring his season total to 10 in 17 games . Against the Nashville Predators on December 13 , Horton recorded his first career hat trick and stated after the game that , " It 's a pretty nice feeling . I felt like there was no one on me . I just tried to get it to the net and it went in every time . " Despite missing 10 games to injury , Horton was tied with teammate Olli Jokinen for the team lead in goals with 16 after 38 games . Against Washington on January 9 , Horton and Joe Nieuwendyk scored a goal in the shootout to help the Panthers win 4 – 3 . Two days after his shootout goal , Horton was promoted to the Panthers ' first line . Despite his promotion to the first line , Horton 's name was mentioned in a potential trade with the Vancouver Canucks ; however , nothing materialized . In a 6 – 2 win over the Ottawa Senators , Horton scored 2 goals including one on a rebound , after which he said , " It just popped right out to me . It was a long time coming for goals for me . I got lucky tonight and hopefully they keep going in . " In March , Horton began playing in penalty kill situations for the first time in his career . Also against the Lightning , Horton scored the Panthers ' only goal with his 27th goal of the season . Horton completed the season playing 71 games , scoring 28 goals and adding 19 assists .
Following the 2005 – 06 season , Horton 's rookie contract expired . He was re @-@ signed by Florida on July 12 , 2006 , to a one @-@ year , $ 1 @.@ 1 million contract . Against the Boston Bruins , Horton scored his first goal of the season to help the Panthers win 8 – 3 . He scored his third goal of the season on October 18 in a 5 – 2 loss against the Washington Capitals , who the Panthers had not lost to in regulation since the 2004 – 05 season . After Horton was called for a second @-@ period penalty against Atlanta , coach Jacques Martin demoted Horton to the fourth line in an attempt to send a message to Horton . Before long , however , Horton was again promoted to the first line , with Finnish players Olli Jokinen and Ville Peltonen . They gave Horton the name " Nathan Hortonen " in an attempt to make his name Finnish . Against the Montreal Canadiens on November 16 , Horton assisted on all goals that Jokinen recorded . Against Tampa Bay on February 17 , Horton scored the game @-@ winning goal for Florida , 29 seconds into overtime .
For the second straight season , Horton 's name was brought up in trade offers ; however Canadian sports writer , Bruce Garrioch called it " doubtful " that Horton would be traded despite Horton being unhappy playing in Florida . Against Tampa Bay on March 28 , Horton scored two goals , which brought his season total for goals against the Lightning up to 8 . In the Panthers ' next game against the Lightning , Horton had 1 goal which made it 9 goals and 3 assists for him against Tampa Bay in the 2006 – 07 season . The goal also gave Horton his career @-@ high 31st goal on the season . He ended the season with 31 goals and 31 assists in 82 games .
Horton re @-@ signed with the Panthers on June 21 , 2007 , to a six @-@ year , US $ 24 million contract. despite previous rumours he would not . Through seven games for the Panthers to open the 2007 – 08 NHL season , Horton recorded 3 goals and 3 assists , during which he had a four @-@ game point streak . Horton scored the only goal for the Panthers in a 2 – 1 loss against the Carolina Hurricanes on November 18 . Against the Washington Capitals on November 28 , Horton along with teammates Olli Jokinen , Kamil Kreps and Stephen Weiss scored shootout goals to help Florida win the game . For the first time since March 2007 , Horton scored 2 goals in a game to help the Panthers win over the Atlanta Thrashers on December 28 . Horton and linemate David Booth combined for three goals against the New York Islanders , of which Horton scored two . In the Panthers ' 5 – 3 win over the Ottawa Senators on January 22 , 2008 , Horton recorded 4 assists , which was a career – high . Horton scored against Vancouver Canucks goalie and former Panther Roberto Luongo in a shootout to help the Panthers win 4 – 3 , giving them their first win over Vancouver since 1999 . Horton scored a goal against the Washington Capitals to help Florida win 4 – 2 in the game after Richard Zednik suffered a neck injury in which he had his external carotid artery cut by a skate . Twenty @-@ two seconds into overtime against the Boston Bruins on March 5 , Horton scored to give the Panthers a 1 – 0 victory . Four days later on March 9 , Horton scored again in overtime with 23 seconds left , causing the Miami Herald to nickname him the " King of Overtime " . On April 5 , Horton scored his 100th career goal .
Prior to the start of the 2008 – 09 NHL season , Panthers head coach Peter DeBoer , who first saw Horton play at seven years old , said about his hopes for Horton , " If I 'm looking for guys to do more , he wouldn 't be at the top of the list . If he can give us 30 @-@ plus , I 'd be happy with Nathan . There 's a group of guys underneath him that I think can make a lot bigger jumps than I need out of Nathan Horton goal @-@ wise . " Horton was also moved from his position of right wing to centre before the season . After playing a few games at centre , Horton said , " It 's not as easy as wing . You can play wing and all you have to concentrate on is getting the puck and shooting it . At center , you have more responsibilities . " Against the Nashville Predators on November 1 , Horton played in his 300th career game , but failed to record a point . On November 26 , Horton suffered a deep cut in his leg after it was stepped on by a skate . At the time of the injury , Horton had 6 goals and 7 assists . In early December , the Ottawa Sun reported that the Panthers might have been looking to trade Horton after he was reportedly unhappy playing for the team . Horton returned to the lineup on December 17 after missing eight games . After the game , Horton commented , " I 'm excited to play . It 's kind of a different Panthers team than the past . It 's really changed in a matter of a month . Things are going good now , and everybody 's really buying into what Pete has been telling us all year . " On January 17 , Horton recorded 3 assists to help the Panthers defeat Tampa Bay , 4 – 3 . For the second time during the season , Horton 's name came up in trade rumours , this time with the Chicago Blackhawks . In early March , days after the trade deadline , Horton suffered a finger injury that forced him to have surgery . He returned to the lineup on March 23 , recording an assist in a Panthers loss to the Carolina Hurricanes . Horton ended the season with 22 goals and 23 assists in 67 games .
= = = Boston Bruins = = =
Horton was traded to the Boston Bruins on June 22 , 2010 along with Gregory Campbell for Dennis Wideman , the Bruins first round pick ( 15th overall ) in the 2010 NHL Entry Draft , and third round pick in the 2011 NHL Entry Draft . He got off to a great start in his first season in Boston , with seven goals and six assists , including a six game point streak , in the first 12 games of the season . He finished second on the team in goals and fourth in assists .
During the first round of the 2011 NHL playoffs , Horton scored a game @-@ winning overtime goal for the Bruins in both games five and seven to help the Bruins win the series over the Montreal Canadiens . A third period goal by Horton against the Tampa Bay Lightning , the only goal of game 7 , later sent the Bruins to the Stanley Cup Finals .
In game three of the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals , Horton suffered a devastating late hit by Vancouver Canucks defenseman Aaron Rome . Rome received a five @-@ minute major for interference and a game misconduct . Horton was unresponsive as he was carried out on a stretcher and put into an ambulance . He was moving all his extremities in the ambulance . He was later diagnosed with a severe concussion and missed the remainder of the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals . This was arguably the turning point in the series , as the Bruins would go on to win 4 of the next 5 games , and score 21 of the next 25 goals after the hit . Rome was suspended for 4 games . Although Horton missed the remainder of the finals , he was able to hoist the Stanley Cup in Vancouver on June 15 after the Bruins won game 7 .
On January 22 , 2012 , Horton sustained another concussion , this time from Philadelphia Flyers forward Tom Sestito . Horton would not return for the remainder of the season or for the playoffs . Nathan Horton did not play for another team during the 2012 @-@ 2013 NHL lockout , and made his 2013 season debut for the Bruins on January 19 , 2013 , opening night against the New York Rangers .
On the day of the 2013 NHL Entry Draft , Horton 's representatives confirmed that he had informed Bruins general manager Peter Chiarelli that he would not be re @-@ signing with Boston .
= = = Columbus Blue Jackets = = =
On July 5 , 2013 , Horton signed a seven @-@ year free agent contract worth $ 37 @.@ 1 million with the Columbus Blue Jackets . Offseason shoulder surgery however would sideline Horton until January 2 , 2014 when he finally made his Blue Jackets debut and scored the game @-@ winning goal in a 2 @-@ 0 victory over the Phoenix Coyotes .
In October 2014 , Horton was diagnosed with a degenerative back injury of the lumbar region that ended his 2014 – 15 season and threatens to end his career .
= = = Toronto Maple Leafs = = =
On February 26 , 2015 , with Horton on the long @-@ term injured list and with no sign of return , he was traded due to financial considerations by the Blue Jackets to the Toronto Maple Leafs in exchange for David Clarkson .
= = Personal life = =
Horton married Canadian model Tammy Plante , the great @-@ niece of NHL goaltending great Jacques Plante , on July 7 , 2007 . They have two sons , Dylan and Zachary .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
All statistics are from NHL.com.
= = Awards = =
= = = OHL = = =
= = = NHL = = =
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= M @-@ 39 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 39 is a 16 miles ( 26 km ) long state trunkline highway in Metro Detroit area of the US state of Michigan that runs from Lincoln Park , on the south end , to Southfield on the north . The official southern terminus of M @-@ 39 is at the corner of Southfield Road and Lafayette Boulevard in Lincoln Park , one block southeast of the junction of Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 , Fisher Freeway ) and two blocks northwest of M @-@ 85 ( Fort Street ) . From there the highway heads northward . The first 2 @.@ 3 miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) of the highway follows Southfield Road , a divided highway in the Downriver area . It then transitions into the Southfield Freeway , which is a 13 @.@ 7 miles ( 22 @.@ 0 km ) long freeway that runs from Allen Park north through Dearborn , and then the west side of Detroit , to Southfield . The northern terminus is at M @-@ 10 ( Lodge Freeway ) in Southfield .
The current M @-@ 39 is the third highway to bear the designation . The first dated back to the origins of the state highway system in 1919 and ran between Grand Rapids and Lansing . This highway was replaced in segments through the 1920s and 1930s by realignments or extensions of other highways in the area . The second was part of Schaefer Highway in the Detroit area from 1939 until the end of the 1950s . The current highway was commissioned when the M @-@ 39 designation was moved to Southfield Road from Schaefer Highway . During the 1960s , it was converted into a freeway in stages . Afterwards , it was extended to end at M @-@ 85 ( Fort Street ) before a change in the 1980s gave the trunkline its present termini .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 39 begins at Lafayette Boulevard a block east of its junction with I @-@ 75 in Lincoln Park . From there the road is a six @-@ lane boulevard through residential areas as it runs west @-@ northwesterly to pass under I @-@ 75 . In Allen Park , the highway continues through residential and commercial areas . Southfield Road crosses lines of the Norfolk Southern Railway and Conrail Shared Assets Operations near the location where the highway turns to the northeast and transitions into a six @-@ lane limited @-@ access freeway . Immediately after this transition , the Southfield Freeway , as M @-@ 39 is now called , has an interchange with I @-@ 94 . There is a second , adjacent interchange that connects to Van Born Road , and the freeway winds its way northeasterly through Dearborn . The freeway is bordered by service drives that carry one @-@ way traffic and bear the Southfield Road name on either side . M @-@ 39 meets Outer Drive near the campus of the University of Michigan – Dearborn . The adjoining properties are residential to the west and commercial to the east . Near Greenfield Village , the freeway curves to the northwest around the Ford Proving Grounds before turning to the north , a direction it will maintain until the end of its run . The freeway crosses the River Rouge and meets US Highway 12 ( Michigan Avenue ) next to the Fairlane Town Center and Ford Motor Company 's world headquarters in Dearborn .
North of the interchange for M @-@ 153 , ( Ford Road ) , M @-@ 39 crosses into Detroit . From there the road continues through the densely populated areas of the west side of the city . Next to the Chicago Road overpass , the freeway runs under a CSX Transportation rail line . The trunkline continues traveling to the north through a series of interchanges . The first is a partial interchange for Plymouth Road ; northbound traffic exiting here is directed to use the service drive northbound to access Schoolcraft Road , and traffic can enter M @-@ 39 southbound . Next is the stack interchange with I @-@ 96 ( Jeffries Freeway ) with access to both the local and express lanes of that freeway . The last of the series is another partial interchange with Schoolcraft Road . As a counterpart to the Plymouth Road interchange , this one provides access from southbound M @-@ 39 to the cross street with a signed connection along the southbound service drive to Plymouth Road and an entry point for northbound traffic . Continuing north , M @-@ 39 comes to an interchange with M @-@ 5 ( Grand River Avenue ) which also connects to Fenkell Avenue , the 5 Mile Road equivalent on Detroit 's mile road system .
There are three more interchanges along M @-@ 39 in Detroit as the freeway continues through the residential upper west side . Near the Wayne Community College District , the freeway meets McNichols Road ( 6 Mile ) . There is another interchange approximately one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north at 7 Mile Road as well . The road then crosses the border between Wayne and Oakland counties to enter Southfield at the interchange with M @-@ 102 ( 8 Mile Road ) . The Southfield Freeway , and M @-@ 39 , terminates at an interchange with M @-@ 10 ( John C. Lodge Freeway ) near 9 Mile Road . Southfield Road continues northward from the end of the freeway under local maintenance .
M @-@ 39 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 39 were the 159 @,@ 400 vehicles daily between Schoolcraft Road and Grand River Avenue in Detroit ; the lowest counts were the 20 @,@ 400 vehicles per day between the I @-@ 94 and Van Born Road interchanges . All of M @-@ 39 , and Southfield Road on either end that is not under state maintenance , has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
= = = Previous designations = = =
Two previous highways bore the M @-@ 39 designation . When the state highway system was first signed in 1919 , the number was assigned to a highway that ran between Grand Rapids and Lansing . The westernmost end in Kent County near Alto was replaced by a realigned M @-@ 16 . Within the next few years , the western end was scaled back further to the Woodbury area when M @-@ 50 was extended , with the remainder replaced by an extended M @-@ 43 around 1938 .
The next trunkline to be designated M @-@ 39 was Schaefer Highway in 1939 , running north – south from US 25 ( Dix Avenue ) in Melvindale to US 16 ( Grand River Avenue ) in western Detroit . Since M @-@ 39 was moved to Southfield Road in the end of the 1950s , Schaefer Highway has been a locally maintained road .
= = = Current designation = = =
M @-@ 39 was reassigned to Southfield Road , connecting I @-@ 94 with Northwestern Highway in 1958 @-@ 59 . By 1961 , the freeway was marked as under construction on maps . The first section opened in December 1961 was 2 @.@ 7 miles ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) from Ford Road north to Chicago Road . The remainder of the freeway between I @-@ 94 and the Lodge Freeway and 9 Mile Road was opened by the middle of 1964 at a total cost of $ 40 million . The highway designation was extended southeasterly along Southfield Road to the new I @-@ 75 freeway and a terminus at M @-@ 85 ( Fort Street ) in 1966 . In 1987 , the M @-@ 39 designation was truncated slightly so that the trunkline no longer officially connects to M @-@ 85 .
= = Exit list = =
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