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= Whitefish Point Bird Observatory =
The Whitefish Point Bird Observatory ( WPBO ) is located in Chippewa County , Michigan , USA , adjacent to the Whitefish Point Unit of the Seney National Wildlife Refuge . It operates as a non @-@ profit , affiliate education and research facility of the Michigan Audubon Society . The Society and the WPBO together have recorded over 300 species of birds at Whitefish Point . As one of a network of bird observatories in the Canadian Migration Monitoring Network , the WPBO documents the bird population of the Great Lakes region through bird banding , data collection , and research studies .
= = History = =
Birders from the Ontario Bird Banding Association and the Cranbrook Institute of Science established a spring hawk banding project in 1966 at Whitefish Point that was later expanded to survey migrating owls . This project lasted from 1966 – 1971 and was the forerunner of the WPBO .
Michigan Audubon formed a Whitefish Point Committee in 1976 to secure a license for access to the U.S. Coast Guard Whitefish Point Light Station except for the automated light and foghorn . The WPBO was established in 1978 as a non @-@ profit organization supported by membership fees , donations and gifts , voluntary service , and grants from private and government institutions .
WPBO began annual monitoring of spring migrations beginning in 1979 . By 1989 it expanded to include the monitoring of fall migrations and additional interpretative and research activities . In 1998 , Michigan Audubon received a federal land patent for 2 @.@ 69 acres ( 0 @.@ 0109 km2 ; 0 @.@ 00420 sq mi ) of the old light station property , which is now managed by the WPBO for research and educational activities .
Due to the researchers ' exposure to extreme weather , WPBO adopted the procedures of observatories in Britain that use small buildings along the rocky points of the coast where people can stay to monitor migrating birds and keep records and report observations at the stations during migration . The WPBO has collaborated with Michigan Audubon to record over 300 species of birds at Whitefish Point .
= = Features = =
The American Bird Conservancy designated Whitefish Point a Globally Important Bird Area . Whitefish Point 's land and water features create a natural corridor that funnels thousands of birds during spring and fall migrations , providing unique opportunities for research , education , and conservation programs . Golden eagles , peregrine falcons , merlins , boreal owls , great gray owls , red @-@ throated loons , red @-@ necked grebes , scoters , and jaegers ( also known as skuas ) are just some of the birds that can be seen during migration .
Thousands of birds use Whitefish Point as critical stopover habitat to replenish energy reserves before venturing across Lake Superior during spring and fall migrations . A WPBO study found the highest density of migrant landbirds within 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) of Whitefish Point , with higher densities along the shore than at inland locations .
The federally endangered piping plover returned annually at Whitefish Point for the first time in twenty three years when a pair of nesting plovers fledged three chicks at Whitefish Point in 2009 . By 2012 , three piping plover nests were confirmed at Whitefish Point . The sparsely vegetated , sand @-@ cobblestone beaches at Whitefish are ideal breeding grounds for the piping plover . The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service designated approximately 2 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 8 @,@ 200 ft ) of Whitefish Point shoreline as critical habitat for the bird , giving it protection under the Federal Endangered Species Act at Whitefish Point .
= = Research programs = =
= = = Staff and volunteers = = =
WPBO has a paid staff during migration that includes a field orinthologist , two owl banders , a waterbird counter , a hawk counter , and a gift shop manager.Experienced birders lead field trips to some of " Michigan 's best birding ' hot spots ' " .An annual fund raiser called the " Spring Fling " celebrates bird migration at Whitefish Point .
= = = Diurnal raptor census = = =
Professional staff document the migration of hawks , falcons and eagles that provides comparative data for long @-@ term monitoring of raptor populations . The daily Raptor Census is conducted from the " Hawk Dune " , which is about 200 metres ( 660 ft ) west of the Whitefish Point Lighthouse and about 20 metres ( 66 ft ) above Lake Superior 's water level .
Raptor banders licensed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( USFWS ) " lure the birds from the sky into nearly invisible nets . Each bird is immediately released after it is banded and the details are recorded on an official log sheet which includes the date , time , location , and the bird 's species , age and sex . " Researchers report that the increased capture of merlin falcons at Whitefish Point in 2004 was " an environmental indicator that the merlins had come back ( after the ban on the pesticide DDT ) . "
= = = Owls = = =
WPBO conducts the spring and fall banding of migrating owls using mist nests , as well as summer study of juvenile northern saw @-@ whet owl dispersal at Whitefish Point
The 20 @-@ year owl banding project has recently increased the number of owls banded by as much as eightfold by the addition of audio lures that are used to broadcast owl calls . Owls are captured in 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high by 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) wide specialty nets strung along clearings in the trees . Data are recorded with each banding and the owls are then released .
Researchers report that " nearly one @-@ third of the Boreal Owls banded in North America have been banded by WPBO .... The recent success of all three owl research seasons has begun to document that , on annual basis , Whitefish Point may very well play host to the largest and most diverse owl migration in North America . "
= = = Waterbirds = = =
Whitefish Point is an important spot for documenting and monitoring waterbird movements in the upper Great Lakes . The Audubon Society reports , " Between 18 @,@ 000 and 21 @,@ 000 red @-@ necked grebes pass by the point each fall , representing approximately 25 – 40 % of the estimated North American Population . " Other significant counts at Whitefish Point include the common loon , red @-@ breasted merganser , common tern , and Bonaparte 's gull .
The waterbird count is conducted during both spring and fall migrations from the beach near the tip of Whitefish Point . The daily eight @-@ hour count starts at sunrise with some the highest numbers occurring on inclement days , but Whitefish Point 's frequent fog makes it difficult to count during this weather condition .
= = = Shorebirds = = =
For the first time in twenty three years , piping plovers nested at Whitefish Point and successfully fledged offspring in 2009 . By 2012 , three nesting pairs were confirmed at Whitefish Point that successfully fledged eleven young . In 2010 , the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation awarded a $ 150 @,@ 000 grant to Lake Superior State University to intensely monitor nesting piping plovers at Vermilion , Whitefish Point , and other shoreline areas in the Eastern Upper Peninsula . The USFWS designated the shoreline from Whitefish Point to Grand Marais , Michigan as critical habitat for the piping plover . The Great Lakes population of piping plover are isolated and extremely vulnerable to extirpation from the Great Lakes region . On August 30 , 2012 , the USFWS added 19 @.@ 85 acres ( 8 @.@ 03 ha ) acres and more than 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) of Lake Superior shoreline as critical piping plover habitat to Whitefish Point Unit of the Seney National Wildlife Refuge .
= = = Songbirds = = =
The observatory conducts a census program to document migrant passerines at the Point , as well as songbird populations throughout the Upper Peninsula , with a special emphasis on rare species and neotropical migrants . The daily songbird census is combined with the hawk and waterbird counts " to produce a Daily Estimated Total for all species migrating through Whitefish Point . "
= = = Canadian Migration Monitoring Network = = =
Whitefish Point Bird Observatory is the only U.S.-based bird observatory in the Canadian Migration Monitoring Network . This North American network of observatories studies , tracks , processes , and shares enormous volumes of data about migrating birds from the Atlantic to the Pacific to show the " ' big picture ' of what birds populations are doing across the northern half of the North America . "
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= Oh ! How I Hate to Get Up in the Morning =
" Oh ! How I Hate to Get Up in the Morning " is a song written by Irving Berlin in 1918 that gives a comic perspective on military life . Berlin composed the song as an expression of protest against the indignities of Army routine shortly after being drafted into the United States Army in 1918 . The song soon made the rounds of camp and became popular with other soldiers , partly because hatred of reveille was universal .
The commanding officer of Camp Upton in eastern Long Island took an interest in Berlin 's talents and assigned him to write and produce a fundraising benefit to raise funds for a new visitors ' center at the base ; the show was entitled Yip , Yip , Yaphank after the Camp Upton locale in Yaphank , New York .
Although Berlin initially wrote " Oh ! How I Hate to Get Up in the Morning " without commercial intent , it eventually appeared in three different Broadway shows , including Ziegfeld Follies of 1918 , and the film This Is the Army . More than any other Irving Berlin song , it became the one most associated with Berlin as a performer .
= = Background = =
Irving Berlin was born in the Russian Empire in 1888 , either in Tolochin or Tyumen , and had moved with his family to New York City in 1893 . He acquired United States citizenship in early 1918 with the expectation that his medical history would exempt him from his final year of draft eligibility . So it came as an unpleasant surprise that within months Berlin was drafted and serving as a private at Camp Upton at a salary of $ 30 a month , far below his usual earnings . Although as a civilian he employed a private valet , as an Army private he was compelled to perform unskilled labor in support of camp operations . " There were a lot of things about army life I didn 't like " , said Berlin , " and the thing I didn 't like most of all was reveille . "
During World War I , Berlin was drafted into the United States Army 's 152nd Depot Brigade shortly after he became a naturalized United States citizen in 1918 . By the time he entered the service the war was in its final months and prospects for victory were steadily improving . He was assigned to a camp on eastern Long Island that was mainly an interim station for infantry troops headed overseas .
According to the New York Times ,
Commentators on Berlin 's life agree that he cannot read music , does not know the instruments of the orchestra and plays the piano in a solitary key . He has a piano which is equipped with a shifting device which enables him to play in that key while the piano transposes . His melodies are " dictated " to a music assistant .
= = Composition = =
The incident that inspired Berlin to write " Oh ! How I Hate to Get Up in the Morning " was an occasion when a colonel wanted a group of buglers to play George M. Cohan 's " Over There " . The buglers were unable to comply because it exceeded the range of their instruments , so the oblivious officer ordered them to practice Cohan 's song . He wrote it as " a thin little sergeant . "
Berlin 's civilian work schedule had been that of a hardworking night owl , generally writing material until two or three in the morning . His efforts to adjust to military life and become a good soldier included springing out of bed obediently each morning , which earned him the resentment of fellow soldiers because he concealed his hatred of reveille too well and appeared eager to wake up in the mornings .
So during an era when popular songs about war praised its heroism , Berlin instead gave voice to the subversive impulses shared by ordinary soldiers . The lyrics begin with a mundane recounting of a newly recruited soldier 's camp life and progress to hyperbole as he describes a series of increasingly absurd plans to escape from morning reveille .
" Someday I 'm going to murder the bugler ,
Someday they 're going to find him dead ;
I 'll amputate his reveille
and step upon it heavily ,
and spend the rest of my life in bed . "
Berlin would later describe the song as " a protest written from the heart out , absolutely without the slightest thought that it would ever earn a cent " . He wrote the song before any plans for a larger production were underway and it soon gained popularity around the camp .
= = Production = =
The camp 's commanding officer Major General J. Franklin Bell called Berlin into his office and asked the showman to raise funds for a new community house to lodge families of service members who visited the camp . The projected expense of the project was $ 35 @,@ 000 . At first , Berlin called in favors from civilian colleagues to visit and put on local performances to boost morale , but news of a Navy fundraising show on Broadway called Boom Boom inspired Berlin to request permission to write and stage a full Broadway production of their own .
The songwriter not only obtained permission for the show , but also received General Bell 's personal permission to return to Berlin 's normal creative working schedule and a special exemption from reveille . Civilian musician Harry Ruby joined Berlin in camp to transcribe and arrange the music and collaborate on the show .
= = Alternate Verse = =
During World War II , school children in New York City sang the verse as :
" Someday I 'm going to murder the bugler ,
Someday they 're going to find him dead ;
And then I 'll get that other pup ,
the guy that wakes the bugler up ,
and spend the rest of my life in bed . "
= = Parodies = =
Berlin 's song " inspired a dozen parodies . " An uncredited parody was recounted in the New York Times :
Oh , how I hate to go into the mess hall !
Oh , how I long for the foods at home !
For it isn 't hard to guess
Why they call the meals a mess-
You 've got to eat beans , you 've got to eat beans ,
You 've got to eat beans in the Army .
= = Performances = =
The song was performed in soldier revues including 1918 's Yip Yip Yaphank , and Ziegfeld Follies of 1918 , as well as in 113 Broadway performances of This Is the Army in 1942 . Jack Haley sang " Oh ! How I Hate to Get Up in the Morning " in the 1938 movie Alexander 's Ragtime Band and in 1938 Alice Faye and Ethel Merman also sang the song at the Roxy Theatre in New York City . It was sung at a 1941 war rally against the America First Committee by New York City Mayor Fiorello La Guardia in Philadelphia .
= = = Yip Yip Yaphank = = =
The song appeared in two shows of 1918 : Yip Yip Yaphank and Ziegfeld Follies of 1918 . Yip Yip Yaphank opened on August 19 and Berlin made his entrance late in the show , being dragged from a pup tent by two other soldiers as he pretended to be asleep on his feet to sing " Oh ! How I Hate to Get Up in the Morning " . The song was a centerpiece of the show ; both it and Berlin 's performance received favorable reviews . According to reviewers , Berlin 's voice was thin but his timing was perfect and he presented a hilarious stage persona . 24 years later , the New York Times declared Yip " an immediate hit . "
George M. Cohan may have conveyed the spirit of the aggressive patriotism in his rousing " Over There " , but it was Berlin who caught the more human emotions of the lowly soldier in such poignant pieces as " Oh , How I Hate to Get Up In the Morning " and " Kitchen Police " ...
The show was extended twice and exceeded its fundraising goal of $ 35 @,@ 000 . Estimates of the proceeds range from $ 83 @,@ 000 to over $ 158 @,@ 000 , but the planned visitor center was never built because the war ended shortly afterward and Berlin was never informed what happened to the money . Berlin received no financial benefit beyond his ordinary sergeant 's pay , but he was well compensated in publicity . He was recognized as a Broadway star wherever he went after he returned to civilian life . Along with the acclaim , however , he also " received a death threat and a kidnapping threat " , which he took seriously enough to purchase a bulletproof limousine and hire a bodyguard / chauffeur .
= = = This Is the Army = = =
Berlin also performed " Oh ! How I Hate to Get Up in the Morning " in the 1942 stage play This Is the Army , which ran for 113 performances on Broadway and was adapted as a Warner Brothers musical the following year . It was declared the " modern version of Yip , Yip , Yaphank , " and contained " all @-@ new music " except for two or three songs . Twenty @-@ five years after the original show , he was still dark haired and wiry , but his face was strained . More importantly , his voice — which had never been strong — was weakened from months of recent stage touring . The number was filmed in late afternoon when he expected his voice to be at its best , but an internal studio memo still reported , " Irving Berlin is no singer . " Berlin wrote about the filming in an April 10 , 1943 letter :
Today they finished shooting my portion of the picture and I am certainly glad it 's over with . All I do is sing " Hate to Get Up in the Morning " as I did in the show , but the camera is a severe judge and I am afraid even with the great amount of care and fuss they can 't improve what the Fates decreed to be a homely face . As for my voice , I made a recording . When the record was first played on the set , one of the electricians , who didn 't know whose voice it was , said , " If the guy who wrote that song could hear the record , he would turn over in his grave " --which gives you a fair idea . However I am hoping it won 't be too bad .
In May 1988 The Tonight Show Band honored Irving Berlin 's one hundredth birthday by playing " Oh ! How I Hate to Get Up in the Morning " as part of a medley in tribute to the songwriter at the close of a show .
In 2016 , June and earlier , the song was used in ads by McDonald 's restaurants for the breakfast menu .
= = External Links = =
View the sheet music cover and a song MP3 here .
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= Rory Storm =
Rory Storm ( 7 January 1938 – 28 September 1972 ) was an English musician and vocalist . Born Alan Ernest Caldwell in Liverpool , Storm was the singer and leader of Rory Storm and the Hurricanes , a Liverpudlian band who were contemporaries of the Beatles in the late 1950s and early 1960s . Ringo Starr was the drummer for the Hurricanes before joining the Beatles in August 1962 , replacing original drummer Pete Best .
The Hurricanes were one of the most popular acts on the Liverpool and Hamburg club scenes during their existence , although their attempt at a recording career was not successful . They released only two singles ( and one additional compilation track ) during their early 1960s heyday , and none of their material made the charts . Their second and final single was a version of the West Side Story song " America " , and was produced by the Beatles ' manager Brian Epstein .
When Storm 's father died , he returned from Amsterdam to Liverpool to be with his mother at Stormsville , at 54 Broad Green Road , Broadgreen , Liverpool . On 27 September 1972 , Storm developed a chest infection and could not sleep properly , so he took sleeping pills . The next day Storm and his mother were both found dead . A post mortem determined that Storm had not taken enough pills to kill himself , but it was suspected that , after finding her son 's body , his mother had .
= = Early years = =
Rory Storm was the stage name of Alan Caldwell , born 7 January 1938 , in Oakhill Park Estate , Stoneycroft , Liverpool to Violet ( née Disley ) and Ernest " Ernie " George W Caldwell . His father was a window cleaner by profession , and a part @-@ time porter at the Broadgreen Hospital , often singing songs to patients . Storm had one sister ; Iris Caldwell , who later dated George Harrison when she was 12 , and Paul McCartney , when she was 17 . Iris later married Shane Fenton , later known as Alvin Stardust . Apart from music , Storm was interested in sports , particularly athletics ; he ran for an amateur team in Liverpool called the Pembroke Harriers , and set the Pembroke Athletics and Cycle Club steeplechase record . Instead of being driven home after concerts in Liverpool , Storm preferred to run home .
Storm played football regularly and was a good skater and swimmer ( once swimming the 12 @.@ 5 @-@ mile length of Windermere ) . Liverpool F.C. used to train at Melwood and he went to watch them in training , later putting up a large photo of himself training with the team on his wall at home . He was the captain of Mersey Beat magazine 's football team , called the Mersey Beat XI . Storm was born with a stutter ( a speech impediment ) , which did not affect his singing . Because of Storm 's bad stammer , his friends never allowed him to tell a joke or to order a round of drinks , as it took too long . He became a cotton salesman ( as was Jim McCartney , Paul McCartney 's father ) before forming a skiffle group .
= = Music = =
Storm 's first name for a group was " Dracula & the Werewolves " , but he then settled on " Al Caldwell 's Texans " . Still known as Alan Caldwell , Storm opened the Morgue Skiffle Club in the cellar of a large Victorian house , " Balgownie " , at 25 Oakhill Park , Broadgreen , on 13 March 1958 . The cellar consisted of two rooms , painted black and connected by a long corridor , with skeletons painted on the walls and one blue light . Groups played on Tuesdays and Thursdays for up to 100 people ( above the age of 15 ) starting at 7 : 30 pm , including Storm 's group ( later called " The Raving Texans " ) and the Quarrymen ( who later became " the Beatles " ) . After complaints about the noise , the police closed down the club on 1 April 1958 , but Storm reopened it on 22 April 1958 . It was in the Morgue Skiffle Club that George Harrison auditioned for the Quarrymen , playing " Guitar Boogie Shuffle " by Bert Weedon , before being admitted as a member of the band . Harrison later asked Storm if he could join his group , but Storm 's mother refused to allow it , as she thought Harrison was too young .
Storm went to London , on 11 April 1958 , to participate in a cross @-@ country running competition . During his stay , he took part in a jam session at Chas McDevitt 's Skiffle Cellar , which resulted in an appearance on 30 April 1958 on Radio Luxembourg 's Skiffle club programme , playing " Midnight Special " . In 1959 , Storm 's group consisted of himself , Paul Murphy , and Johnny " Guitar " Byrne all performing on guitar and vocals , Reg Hale ( washboard ) and Jeff Truman ( tea @-@ chest bass ) . " Spud " Ward , a former member of the Swinging Blue Jeans , later played bass guitar . Storm met Ringo Starr at a talent contest called " 6 @.@ 5 Special " . Starr had previously played with the Eddie Clayton Skiffle Group and was then drumming with a group called " Darktown Skiffle " . Starr 's first concert with Storm was on 25 March 1959 , at the Mardi Gras in Mount Pleasant , Liverpool .
= = = Rory Storm and the Hurricanes = = =
Storm changed the name of his group to " Al Storm and the Hurricanes " , then " Jett Storm and the Hurricanes " , and finally to " Rory Storm and the Hurricanes " . The original line @-@ up was Storm , Byrne , Ty Brian , Lu Walters , and Ritchie Starkey ( drums ) . Storm and the Hurricanes entered a competition managed by Carrol Levis called " Search for Stars " at the Liverpool Empire Theatre on 11 October 1959 , reaching second place ahead of 150 acts . The line @-@ up of the Hurricanes finally solidified with Storm ( vocals ) , Byrne ( rhythm guitar ) , Ty ( Charles ) O ’ Brien ( lead guitar ) , Walters ( bass guitar / vocals ) and Ringo Starr . The group played at the Cavern Club with the Cy Laurie Jazz Band on Sunday 2 January 1960 , and a week later supported the Saints Jazz Band and Terry Lightfoot 's New Orleans Jazz Band . Playing rock ' n ' roll music was a problem at the Cavern Club , as it was not accepted by the customers or management . When Storm and the Hurricanes performed there on 17 January 1960 , with Micky Ashman 's Jazz Band and the Swinging Blue Jeans , their first song was " Cumberland Gap " ( a skiffle song ) by Lonnie Donegan . Then they played " Whole Lotta Shakin ' Goin On " by Jerry Lee Lewis . The jazz and skiffle audience were outraged , booed and threw copper coins at the group . The Cavern 's manager Ray McFall , fined them six shillings , but the coins collected from the stage floor were worth more than the fine .
Storm and the Hurricanes performed at the Liverpool Stadium on 3 May 1960 , on the same bill as Gene Vincent . Larry Parnes became interested in the Hurricanes , and invited them to audition at the Wyvern Club as a backing group for Billy Fury . Storm turned up at the audition , but only so he could have his picture taken with Fury . In July 1960 , the group secured a residency at Butlins holiday camp in Pwllheli ( playing in the Rock ' n ' Calypso Ballroom ) for £ 25 each per week . Starr was not sure about giving up his job as an apprentice at Henry Hunt 's , where he made climbing frames for schools , until Storm put forward the idea of " Starr @-@ time " ( a solo spot ) with Starr singing songs like " Boys " by the Shirelles . Starr finally agreed when Storm told him about how many women would be " available " . It was during this season that Starr ( who had been known as " Ritchie " until then ) changed his name to " Ringo " .
= = = Hamburg = = =
After playing for more than 16 hours per week , the group were contacted by Allan Williams , who wanted them to go to Hamburg . Derry and the Seniors were successful there , and Williams wanted an additional group . As Storm and the group were committed to Butlins , they turned Williams ' offer down ( as did Gerry and the Pacemakers ) so Williams sent the Beatles to Hamburg instead . After the summer season ended in early October 1960 , Storm and the Hurricanes were free to travel to Hamburg , replacing Derry and the Seniors at the Kaiserkeller . They arrived in Hamburg on 1 October 1960 , having negotiated to be paid more than the Seniors or the Beatles . They played five or six 90 @-@ minute sets every day alternating with The Beatles . Storm and The Hurricanes were later presented with a special certificate by Bruno Koschmider ( the owner of the Kaiserkeller ) for their performances .
The stage of the Kaiserkeller was made of planks of wood balanced on the top of beer crates , so the two groups made a bet to see to who would be the first to break it . After punishing the stage for days , a slight crack appeared , and when Storm jumped off the top of the upright piano , during a performance of " Blue Suede Shoes " , it finally broke . Byrne remembered that as Storm hit the stage , it cracked loudly and formed a V @-@ shape around Storm . He disappeared into it , and all the amplifiers and Starr 's cymbals slid into the hole . Koschmider was furious , and had to replace the live music with a juke box . Both groups went across the road to Harold 's cafe for breakfast , but were followed by Koschmider 's doormen with coshes , who beat the musicians as punishment .
During their eight @-@ week residency Williams arranged a recording session at the Akoustik Studio , which was a small booth on the fifth floor of 57 Kirchenalle ( the Klockmann @-@ House ) on Saturday 18 October 1960 . Williams asked Lennon , McCartney , and Harrison from the Beatles to play and sing harmonies for Walters ( of the Hurricanes ) on the recording . Pete Best ( the Beatles ' regular drummer at the time ) was in town buying drumsticks , so Starr played drums , which was the first time Lennon , McCartney , Harrison and Starr recorded together . They recorded three songs : " Fever " , " September Song " and " Summertime " .
= = = Liverpool = = =
Storm and the Hurricanes were the headlining group at the first " Beat Night " , in the Orrell Park Ballroom , in March 1961 . They were also invited for a season at the Butlins camp in Skegness in Lincolnshire . Sam Leach ( a Liverpool promoter ) arranged a series of dance nights at the Palais Ballroom in Aldershot , starting on 9 December 1961 . The first Saturday featured The Beatles , but as the local newspaper forgot to run the advertisement only 18 people turned up . The second Saturday was arranged for Rory Storm and the Hurricanes to perform , and as it was advertised this time , 210 people paid to get in . Leach 's idea was to attract London agents to watch the series of concerts , but when he realised they would never travel out of London he abandoned the idea .
Starr considered leaving Storm at that time to join Derry and the Seniors , but accepted a job with Tony Sheridan at the Top Ten Club on 30 December 1961 , as Sheridan 's offer of more money , a flat and a car was too good to refuse . Starr 's stay with Sheridan was short @-@ lived , as he found Sheridan 's habit of changing the set list without telling his backing group beforehand frustrating , so he rejoined the Hurricanes . On 5 February 1962 , Best fell ill and the Beatles had to play a lunchtime concert at the Cavern and an evening concert at the Kingsway club in Southport . As the Hurricanes had no concert that day Starr played with them live on stage for the first time ( although he had recorded with them in Hamburg ) .
During a Hurricanes ' residency at Butlins , Lennon and McCartney drove from Liverpool to Skegness , on 15 August 1962 , to ask Starr to join the Beatles . Shortly before , Starr had agreed to join Kingsize Taylor in Hamburg , as Taylor was offering £ 20 a week , but Lennon and McCartney offered £ 25 a week , which Starr accepted . Lennon and McCartney offered Storm to swap drummers ( with Best replacing Starr ) but Best rejected the idea . According to Epstein in his autobiography , Storm was , " One of the liveliest and most likeable young men on the scene ... was very annoyed when Ringo left and he complained to me . I apologised , and Rory , with immense good humour said , ' Okay . Forget it . The best of luck to the lot of you ' " . The Hurricanes then became known for having a succession of drummers , including Gibson Kemp , Brian Johnson , John Morrison , Keef Hartley ( August 1963 ) , Ian Broad and Trevor Morais , who all stayed with the group for a short period before leaving .
Despite Starr joining the Beatles , both groups would perform on the same bill during 1961 , and at many concerts thereafter . In 1962 , both groups performed together at St Patrick 's Night Rock Gala ( Knotty Ash Village Hall ) Queen 's Hall ( Widnes ) and with Little Richard at the Tower Ballroom . In 1963 , Storm and the Hurricanes were filmed as part of the " Beat City " documentary , which was broadcast by Associated @-@ Rediffusion Television .
= = Stage persona and lifestyle = =
When Storm became a professional singer , he changed his name to Rory Storm by deed poll , and changed the name of his family 's home in Broadgreen to Stormsville . Storm was known for the extravagant clothes he wore and the cars he drove , once buying a pink Vauxhall Cresta for £ 800 in cash . A young man was once caught by a porter at Bootle railway station writing " I love Rory " over the walls , and when questioned , it turned out to be Storm himself . The Hurricanes wore matching suits on stage , but Storm sometimes wore a pink suit and pink tie , and during concerts he would walk over to the piano and comb his blond hair with an oversized comb . Their stage wear changed from sunglasses and palm tree @-@ decorated shirts to red ( and blue ) suits . Storm also wore an Elvis @-@ style gold lamé suit . When they first appeared at Butlins holiday camp Storm wore a turquoise suit with a gold lamé shirt , while the group wore fluorescent suits .
Rod Pont ( also known as Steve Day in Steve Day and the Drifters ) remembered Storm arriving at the Orrell Park Ballroom for a concert with a boil on his face . When told about it , Storm pulled out a black velvet hood which had slits for his eyes and mouth , and played the whole concert with the hood on . At one concert at Bankfield House Youth club , Garston , Liverpool , in 1965 , the stage lighting failed between sets . Storm was upset until someone walked in with a torch , which Storm used to finish the concert . He occasionally used a pet monkey in some of the group 's performances , as it attracted more people . At a New Brighton swimming baths performance for 1 @,@ 600 people in 1963 , Storm climbed to the top diving board , undressed to a pair of swimming trunks , and then dived into the water at the end of a song . In January 1964 , during a performance at the Majestic Ballroom , Birkenhead , he climbed up one of the columns supporting the balcony , but slipped and fell 30 feet ( 9 m ) to the floor below , fracturing his leg . At another performance on the New Brighton Pier , Storm made his way onto the Pavilion roof , but fell through the glass skylight .
Storm and the Hurricanes received the most votes in the first Mersey Beat magazine poll , but many votes were disqualified as they had been posted from the same place at the same time , and were written in green ink ; although never proven , it was thought that Storm had posted the votes . This meant that the Beatles reached the top position , with the Hurricanes coming fourth , even though the Beatles had also been sending in extra votes themselves . Storm was often photographed for the magazine , such as being surrounded by nurses when he left hospital after breaking a leg during a performance , or playing for the Mersey Beat XI football team .
= = The Hurricanes ' set list = =
The group 's typical 40 @-@ minute set list during 1963 / 1964 :
" Brand New Cadillac " – Storm , vocals ( Vince Taylor & the Playboys ) ;
" Roll Over Beethoven " – Storm , vocals ( Chuck Berry ) ;
" I 'll Be Your Hero " – Storm , vocals ( Taylor & the Playboys ) ;
" Beautiful Dreamer " – Walters , vocals ( Stephen Foster song as rewritten by Gerry Goffin and Jack Keller and released by Tony Orlando in January 1963 ) ;
" Since You Broke My Heart " – Walters / Byrne , vocals ( The Everly Brothers ) ;
" America " – Storm , vocals ( Leonard Bernstein ) ;
" Danny " – Storm , vocals ( Marty Wilde ) ;
" Green Onions " ( instrumental ) ( Booker T & the MG 's ) ;
" Down The Line " – Storm , vocals ( Jerry Lee Lewis ) ; and
" Whole Lotta Shakin ' Goin On " – Storm , vocals ( Jerry Lee Lewis ) .
Other songs included in the set were :
" Fever " – Walters , vocals ( written by Eddie Cooley and John Davenport — a pseudonym for Otis Blackwell ) ;
" Let It Be Me " – Walters , vocals ( Gilbert Bécaud ) ;
" Summertime " – Walters , vocals ( George Gershwin ) ; and
" Dr Feelgood " – Storm , vocals .
The Hurricanes recorded songs for Oriole 's two This is Mersey Beat albums , but only released two singles : " Dr Feelgood " / " I Can Tell " , Oriole ( 45 @-@ CB 1858 12 / 63 ) and " America " / " Since You Broke My Heart " , Parlophone ( R 5197 11 / 64 ) which was produced by Epstein at IBC Studios in London . Epstein also sang backing vocals on " America " , and Starr added percussion and sang . Storm later asked Epstein to manage the group , but Epstein refused . The Hurricanes later recorded two songs at Abbey Road Studios in 1964 : " Ubangi Stomp " and " I 'll Be There " , although they were never released .
= = Later life and death = =
In 1967 , at the age of 26 , O 'Brien collapsed on stage during a performance , and later died due to complications after an appendicitis operation . Storm disbanded the Hurricanes and became a disc jockey , working at the Silver Blades Ice Rink in Liverpool , in Benidorm ( he was also a water @-@ skiing instructor there ) in Jersey and Amsterdam . When Storm 's father died , he returned from Amsterdam to Liverpool to be with his mother . He developed a chest infection and could not sleep properly , so he took sleeping pills . On 28 September 1972 , Storm and his mother were both found dead , at Stormsville . The post mortem revealed that Storm had alcohol and sleeping pills in his blood ( as had his mother ) but not enough to cause his death , which was ruled accidental . Although it could not be proven , it is thought that his mother had committed suicide after finding Storm 's body .
The funeral for Storm and his mother was at Oakvale Congregational Church , Broadgreen , on 19 October 1972 . Mourners sang Storm 's favourite song , " You 'll Never Walk Alone " . The two coffins were carried from the hearse to the cremation ( at Anfield Crematorium ) by former band members . Storm 's remains were scattered on section 23 at Anfield Crematorium 's Gardens of Remembrance . When Starr was asked why he did not attend , he said , " I wasn 't there when he was born either . " Although Starr had often offered to arrange for Storm to record whenever he wanted to , Storm was not interested in finding new or original material . His sister said : " He [ Storm ] was happy to be the King of Liverpool — he was never keen on touring , he didn 't want to give up running for the Pembroke Harriers ... and he 'd never miss a Liverpool football match ! "
Billy Fury , who Storm had met at the Wyvern Club auditions , later played the part of a fictional singer called Stormy Tempest ( based on Storm ) , in the film That 'll Be the Day ( 1973 ) , which also starred Starr . In 1987 , a musical was staged in Liverpool about Storm and the Hurricanes called A Need For Heroes .
Johnny Guitar Byrne died in Liverpool on 18 August 1999 .
= = Legacy = =
Ringo pays tribute to him in both his songs " Liverpool 8 " on his Liverpool 8 album and " Rory and the Hurricanes " on his Postcards from Paradise album .
= = Discography = =
= = = Singles = = =
1963 – Dr. Feel Good b / w I Can Tell , Oriole , CB 1858
1964 – America b / w Since You Broke My Heart , Parlophone , R 5197
= = = Albums = = =
1994 – The Complete Works , Oriole 270 ( unofficial release )
2012 – Live at the Jive Hive March 1960 , Rockstar Records , RSRCD 033
= = = Compilations = = =
1963 – This Is Merseybeat volume 1 , Oriole , PS 40047 ( tracks : Dr. Feel Good and Beautiful Dreamer )
1963 – This Is Merseybeat volume 2 , Oriole , PS 40048 ( tracks : I Can Tell )
1974 – Mersey Beat 1962 – 64 , United Artists , USD 305 ( tracks : I Can Tell , Skinnie Minnie , Dr. Feel Good and Let 's Stomp )
2004 – Unearthed Merseybeat Volume 2 , Viper CD @-@ 027 ( tracks : Lend Me Your Comb )
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= Brütal Legend =
Brütal Legend is an action @-@ adventure game with real @-@ time strategy game elements created by Double Fine Productions and published by Electronic Arts for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 . The game was released during October 2009 in North America , Europe , and Australia . Though Brütal Legend was originally to be published by Vivendi Games prior to its merger with Activision , Activision dropped the game from its portfolio after the merger . It was later picked up by Electronic Arts , though Activision and Double Fine brought counter @-@ lawsuits against each other over publishing issues . The issues were settled out of court . Later , Double Fine announced a port of the game for Microsoft Windows via Steam , which was released in February 2013 . Mac OS X and Linux versions of the game were made available as part of the Humble Bundle in May 2013 .
Tim Schafer , the game 's creative director , was inspired to create the game by his own past musical experiences . The game features the character of Eddie Riggs , voiced by and modeled after Jack Black , a roadie who is transported to a fantasy world inspired by the artwork of heavy metal album covers . Eddie becomes the world 's savior , leading the down @-@ trodden humans against a range of supernatural overlords using a battle axe , his Flying V guitar that can tap into the magical powers of the world , and a customizable hot rod .
The game , a hybrid of the action @-@ adventure and real @-@ time strategy genres , includes Stage Battles in both the single @-@ player and multiplayer mode , where the player must command troops to defeat their foes while defending their own stage . In addition to Black , the game features voices of heavy metal musicians including Lemmy Kilmister , Rob Halford , Ozzy Osbourne and Lita Ford and other celebrities such as Tim Curry , as well as more than one hundred metal songs selected by Schafer for inclusion in the game .
Brütal Legend was generally well received by game reviewers , praising Schafer 's vision and writing of the heavy metal @-@ inspired world , and the performances of the voice cast , particularly Black and Osbourne . Some felt that the hybrid gameplay of action and real @-@ time strategy games did not mix well , however , blaming console control limitations and missing features normally found in games of either genre .
= = Gameplay = =
Brütal Legend is a third person action / adventure game incorporating real time strategy elements . The game uses an open world that Tim Schafer has described as being approximately 40 square miles ( 100 km2 ) in area . The player controls the protagonist Eddie Riggs , a roadie who one day finds himself transported into a fantasy heavy metal world . Eddie acquires three tools that are used for combat and transportation : a broad axe called " The Separator " , his Flying V guitar " Clementine " from his own world which has the ability to cast magic spells in the heavy metal world , and a hot rod that Eddie builds called " The Druid Plow " , a.k.a. " The Deuce " . Spells , referred to as " Solo 's " , from Clementine are performed by playing a minigame akin to the note @-@ matching aspect of Guitar Hero or Rock Band over a brief guitar riff ; however , Eddie cannot use the metal generated by Clementine constantly , as prolonged usage of the guitar will cause it to overheat , and the player will have to wait for a cool @-@ off period before using the guitar 's power again . Eddie may also find more solo 's hidden throughout the world , ranging from support to offensive spells . The player can spend in @-@ game currency called " Fire Tributes " , earned from completing missions , at the Motor Forge to gain new abilities and upgrades for each tool . These tools can be used in combination with each other to take out Eddie 's foes ; for example , the player can use his guitar Clementine to create pyrotechnics to launch a foe into the air and follow up by attack it with the Separator axe . In a case of a specific boss fight , the player must use the Deuce hot rod to lure the boss to a spiked gate held up by counterweights , and then play the " Earthshaker " move on Clementine to destroy the weights and sever the creature 's head .
Within the open world , the player can use a map and the Deuce 's turn signals to guide them towards either story @-@ advancing missions or side missions . Side missions include hot @-@ rod races against a demon , defending Eddie 's allies from a pending attack , or helping a cannon operator spot his targets . There are about 23 main missions in the story with 30 side missions that the player can optionally take . The player can also explore the game 's world to find statues bound in leather or chains that can be freed to gain a health boost for Eddie or to reveal part of the game 's backstory , and can look through special telescopes at vistas or complete certain jumps to earn additional Fire Tributes . The player can also find monuments they can raise that unlock an additional heavy metal song from the game 's soundtrack that can be played on the Deuce 's radio , " The Mouth of Metal " ; the player can further customize its set list with songs they have been rewarded with or have collected .
Several main story missions of the game are Stage Battles based on real time strategy elements . The player , while still in control of Eddie , is required to defend a giant stage where new allies will spawn , holding out until a specific objective is completed . The player creates an army for attacks by building merchandise booths on " fan geysers " through Clementine 's magic . Once enough fans are collected , the player can summon different allies , each consuming a specific number of fans , or upgrade their stage to allow them to produce more powerful allies . A character known as Mangus acts as the " sound guy " to help in the construction of these units and stage upgrades , and also warns the player of enemy attacks . Once the player has gathered their army , they can then seek out and attack their opponents . Eddie is able to control the entire army to follow , attack , or defend a point , and can use specialized squads of specific units to perform certain tasks , such as having a group of headbangers use their headbanging to destroy statues . The player can also use Eddie directly in combat during this battles . Ultimately , Eddie transforms into a winged demon who can fly above the battlefields to issue orders or lay out attacks . Spells in Eddie 's arsenal can help control the performance of his armies , such as temporarily boosting their attack skills or creating a rally flag which troops will gather at , while others hinder the performance of the enemy faction by removing enemy buffs or preventing the creation of enemy units for a short time . Each of the different units , including special allies that Eddie meets in the game , has a special co @-@ op move they can perform with Eddie ; for example , Eddie 's first ally , Ophelia , can be tossed at foes by Eddie in the style of the Fastball Special . These co @-@ op moves are also available outside of Stage Battle missions .
The game has a multiplayer mode , described by Schafer as " your typical head @-@ to @-@ head , battle of the bands scenario . But with axes . " The multiplayer modes are team @-@ based and play in the same manner as the single @-@ player Stage Battles , with team sizes from one @-@ versus @-@ one to four @-@ versus @-@ four . Each team selects from one of three factions which affect what resources and troops they can summon , and are tasked with defending their stage from attack by the other team . The three factions available are Ironheade , mostly human @-@ based troops led by Eddie Riggs ; The Drowning Doom , with more Goth / Black Metal creatures led by Ophelia ; and The Tainted Coil , evil creatures controlled by Doviculus . Each player controls a single main avatar who has the same abilities as in the main game for combat and magic spells and can also fly about the map , but also is in control of troops that they may summon from the team 's shared resources — fans as generated by fan geysers across the map . Different types of troops are available , costing various amounts of fans to summon , with the potential to upgrade to improved units through different routes . The number and types of troops that can be summoned is limited by a cap to prevent either team from becoming too overpowered . All of the troops can be engaged by the player to initiate various " Double Team " moves as with the single player game . The game can also be played by a single player with computer @-@ controller opponents at one of five difficulty levels .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Characters = = =
Brütal Legend follows the story of Eddie Riggs ( voiced by Jack Black ) , who is " the world 's best roadie " for " the world 's worst ' heavy metal ' band " , Kabbage Boy . Much of the game takes place in an unnamed world inspired by heavy metal music , created by , according to the game 's mythology , Ormagöden , The Eternal Firebeast , Cremator of the Sky , and Destroyer of the Ancient World . In this alternate world , the human race is enslaved a race of demons , led by Doviculus , Emperor of the Tainted Coil , ( voiced by Tim Curry ) . Doviculus is assisted by his glam metal human minion , General Lionwhyte ( voiced by Rob Halford and based on David Bowie with the name being an allusion to glammetal band White Lion ) whose hair is so big " and luscious " that he uses it to fly , flapping it like a pair of broad wings . Leading the fight against Doviculus are a small band of human resistance fighters with whom Eddie joins forces : Lars Halford ( voiced by Zach Hanks ) , his sister Lita ( voiced by Kath Soucie ) , and Ophelia ( voiced by Jennifer Hale ) , whom Eddie takes a romantic interest in . Their group is later joined by the stage manager Mangus ( Alex Fernandez ) , the bass @-@ playing healer Kill Master ( voiced by , and patterned after Lemmy Kilmister ) , the motorcycle @-@ riding Fire Baron ( also voiced by Halford , as well as visually inspired by him too ) , and the Amazonian Rima ( voiced by Lita Ford and based on KISS characters ) . Also supporting Eddie is the Guardian of Metal ( voiced by Ozzy Osbourne , who also lent his appearance to the character ) that assists in upgrading his equipment .
= = = Plot = = =
During a gig for Kabbage Boy , Eddie is crushed by falling scenery while trying to save a member of the band ; his blood lands on his belt buckle , in reality an amulet for Ormagöden . The stage is transformed into Ormagöden , who kills the band and takes the unconscious Eddie to the heavy metal world . Awaking in the Temple of Ormagöden , Eddie meets with Ophelia while fighting Doviculus ' forces , developing a crush on her . They discover writings left by the Titans that Eddie is able to comprehend , and build a hot @-@ rod , the " Deuce " , that they use to escape the Temple and travel to Bladehenge , the base for the small human resistance force led by Lars and Lita . When they meet Eddie and learn he can understand the Titans ' messages , they see him as a prophetical " Chosen One " , though unsure if he will be the savior or destroyer of the world . Ophelia also becomes concerned when Eddie , in the heat of battle , transforms into a winged creature , an effect Eddie decides to use to his advantage at the time .
Eddie helps Lars , Lita , and Ophelia create an army , named " Ironheade " to fight against General Lionwhyte . They successfully raid Lionwhyte 's " Pleasure Tower " and defeat him . However , as they celebrate , Doviculus arrives , sending the group into hiding . Doviculus is aware of the presence of his spy " Succoria " by the smell of her blood as it was at the Temple ; Eddie and his allies come to believe Ophelia is Doviculus ' spy . Lars leaves his hiding spot to face Doviculus , but is quickly killed . As the Tainted Coil destroy the tower , Ironheade escapes into the nearby mountains ; Eddie is forced to leave with Lita leaving Ophelia behind despite their shared love . Heartbroken , Ophelia is drawn toward the Sea of Black Tears , cursed waters that grant humans supernatural abilities at the cost of humanity . After leaping into the black waters , the Sea creates a dark doppelganger of Ophelia , who raises an army of other Black Tear @-@ corrupted humans , the goth " Drowning Doom " . After three months , she leads an attack on Ironheade 's mountain camp . Though Ironheade defeats the assault , Eddie determines they must destroy the Sea to end her threat . As they travel through exotic lands and finding more allies out of the pyromanical Fire Barons and the amazonian Zaulia tribe , they come across evidence of Eddie 's father , the hero known as Riggnarok in this time . It tells that Riggnarok traveled to the future to attempt to learn the secrets of the Titans to bring back to the past in the humans ' ongoing fight against the demons , but never returned .
With their new allies , Ironheade manages to push the Drowning Doom back towards the Sea of Black Tears ; defeated , Ophelia denies Eddie 's belief that she is Doviculus ' spy , again claiming that Eddie 's the traitor . As they argue , Doviculus arrives and confirms that Succoria is not Ophelia , but Eddie 's mother . In the past , Succoria , an even more vicious demon empress , also sought the Titans ' secrets in the future . However , after discovering that humans eventually become the dominant species , Succoria fell into a deep despair . Riggnarok , who had followed Succoria through time to assassinate her , took pity on her in her misery , and the two fell in love and bore Eddie . Now in the past , Eddie 's demon nature has borne out , and has also inadvertently revealed the Titans ' secrets to Doviculus as well . Having no more use for Ophelia , Doviculus rips out her heart , taking her powers alongside his own and causing Ophelia to dissipate . While Ironheade battles Doviculus ' forces , Eddie engages Doviculus in a one @-@ on @-@ one confrontation , which ends with the demon emperor 's decapitation . As Eddie escapes the Sea , he recovers Ophelia 's heart from Doviculus , containing his mother 's necklace he gave her when they first met , and then proceeds to rescue the real Ophelia from the ocean floor . Ashore , they rekindle their love as Ironheade celebrates their victory over Doviculus and the Tainted Coil . Back at Bladehenge , a statue to Lars is erected , while Lita continues to lead the troops against the remaining demons . Eddie insists on maintaining his " roadie " presence , staying behind the scenes and making others look good . After he promises he is not leaving to his assembled friends , Eddie takes off to complete a few errands , with Ophelia watching as he drives off into the sunset , shedding a single black tear .
= = Development = =
Creator Tim Schafer has said that he has been a heavy metal music fan since high school , and roadies have long fascinated him . As Schafer said in 2007 , " The name was one of the very first things I thought of , over fifteen years ago . I was riding a bus , thinking about a game that would be the complete opposite of what we were working on , The Secret of Monkey Island [ a Lucasfilm Games title released in 1990 ] . And Brütal Legend leapt into my head . I 've been hanging on to that name ever since . " The title , which he describes as sounding " like the hardest core fantasy thing out there " , makes use of the metal umlaut . The idea behind the game first came to Schafer about fifteen years prior to its release , but its core concepts did not completely come together until after the completion of Psychonauts ( 2005 ) , when he presented his idea for the game to the team , they became excited at the concept and decided to make that their next title .
Part of the game 's inspiration came from the fantasy worlds that the lyrics and album covers of metal bands implied but rarely made it to music videos , thus allowing Brütal Legend to " fulfill the promise " of such lore . Schafer also credits a Megadeth roadie named Tony he once met as having given him the idea to make a game about a roadie , with the character of Eddie Riggs becoming a re @-@ imagined version of him . Schafer had previously explored the idea of a roadie sent back in time with the character of Hoagie from Day of the Tentacle , but Brütal Legend represented an opportunity to expand on it further . The 2003 movie School of Rock also reminded Schafer of his idea for Brütal Legend , and made him more excited to publish it . Double Fine 's philosophy on game development was also another reason for Brütal Legend 's creation , as Schafer has stated that his team attempts to make each game radically different from the company 's previous release , contrasting Brütal Legend to Psychonauts . Schafer stated that the commercial tie @-@ ins of Brütal Legend , such as " hot babes and Jack Black " , is due to this philosophy and not due to market pressures . Schafer was not concerned about the commercial success of Brütal Legend , as despite poor sales of Psychonauts , " as long as you make a cool game , publishers want to talk to you " . When Schafer was pitching the game before 2006 , he received feedback about changing the game 's style to hip hop or country . He credits Harmonix Music Systems for influencing the rhythm game market through the release of the widely successful Guitar Hero with a soundtrack that heavily emphasized metal music ; with the popularity of Guitar Hero , the metal approach in Brütal Legend was readily accepted .
Schafer has pointed out that there are music term inspired attacks , such as a " Face @-@ Melting " guitar solo , which literally will melt the foe 's faces off . The metal / motorcyclist lifestyles and Norse mythology also inspired the game 's open @-@ world environments , such as amps carved into the face of a mountain , a forest where tires replace leaves , giant axes and swords piercing the ground , spandex covered temples , and mining facilities where human slaves excavated car and motorcycle parts . However , Schafer noted that they attempted to make sure that non @-@ metal fans would be able to get the jokes as well .
= = = Art design = = =
The art style for the game was based on the work of Frank Frazetta and inspired by heavy metal and rock album covers . The team only considered the addition of elements to the artwork if they felt it would be something that could be seen on such covers . The setting includes hot rod @-@ like engines that grow from the earth like a " V8 Truffle Of Speed " , with design inspired by the designs of Ed " Big Daddy " Roth . The art team wanted to avoid creating " another brown @-@ gray game " , and strove to use the wide color palettes that are associated with heavy metal art . Cutscenes in the game use the game 's engine , though some pre @-@ recorded scenes from the engine have also been prepared with the help of Tasha Harris , a former Pixar employee who helped to animate character 's faces during cutscenes .
The game features over 80 unique characters in addition to the main protagonist , Eddie Riggs . Initial designs for Riggs was modeled after Lemmy Kilmister , and though the model was changed , the signature vest , tour pass and cigarette of the character remained part of the character design . As the character continued to develop , they began to add more aspects of Black 's character , an " enthusiastic fan " of music , from School of Rock . Ultimately , Riggs ' design came to become half Jack Black and half Glenn Danzig . The art team was able to use videos of Black 's performances to add additional features to the character , such as " all his crazy eyebrow stuff he does " . General Lionwhyte , who has " fabulous hair " , and his minions are based on the glam metal fad of the 1980s which displaced heavy metal to the disappointment of Schafer and other development team members , and became the opponents of the game . To help create a more mature game with concepts that could be used to pitch the game , the art team created several factions that represented different parts of the heavy metal experience . Each faction had their own " exaggerated , simplified shapes and strong silhouettes " as to help distinguish each faction while also reducing the development costs . Inspirations for such factions include Nordic imagery , goth metal , and the artwork of Hieronymus Bosch . Additional characters include headbangers , " gravediggers " , and " battle nuns " . As the game features over two hours of spoken dialog , the art team wants to make the characters ' faces and performances stand out , creating " clean , easy @-@ to @-@ read faces " . The team had to change from their initial cartoony textures into more detailed ones that stood out on high @-@ definition displays while exaggerating other features of the characters .
The user interface and menus were created by Joe Kowalski , who had previously worked on similar game elements for Guitar Hero , Guitar Hero II , and the Rock Band series . Much of the game 's interface elements used a medieval woodcut art style , and were designed to contrast well against the world 's graphics . The introductory menu is presented as an interactive movie created from live action clips of Jack Black manipulating a prop gatefold vinyl record album , using Adobe After Effects to provide the on @-@ screen text , controls handling , and stitching of separate scenes into a seamless movie .
= = = Characters and voice acting = = =
Brütal Legend includes over 35 @,@ 000 lines of spoken dialog , mostly written by Schafer . In addition to Black , Lemmy , Judas Priest 's Rob Halford , The Runaways ' Lita Ford , and Ozzy Osbourne provide character voices for these lines .
Schafer 's original vision for the game had not anticipated a celebrity cast . In particular , though Eddie came to resemble Black , the team had not planned on having Jack Black voice the character . After learning that Black was a fan of Schafer 's previous game , Psychonauts , they met with the actor / musician and recognized he was an avid gamer and metal fan and understood all the choices the team made in the game , and subsequently signed on for the voice work . Black also performed live @-@ action sequences as himself used for the in @-@ game menu screens and additional promotional material . Once Black had signed up for the project , Schafer found that other artists and people involved in the heavy metal scene became very interested in participating though a domino effect and word of mouth , allowing Schafer to sign them on as voice talent or as part of the game 's soundtrack .
Lemmy was brought on board to play The Kill Master after Schafer and his team had developed the character 's role in the story who assists Eddie by healing his allies through a giant bass harp on the back of a chopper . The original character , a man with a top hat and beard , was considered out of place by Schafer , leading him to consider famous bass guitar players and quickly recognizing the need to have Lemmy play that role . Halford plays two characters , General Lionwhyte and The Baron . Schafer had selected Lionwhyte to capture Halford 's ability to scream , and found his abilities in the studio beyond what they expected . They created The Baron character specifically for Halford , as while Lionwhyte was considered a " heavy metal Stewie [ from Family Guy ] " , that character was the complete opposite of Halford , while The Baron captures both Halford and Judas Priest 's attitude . Lita Ford voices Rima , queen of a group of " Amazon @-@ like jungle women " ; Schafer considered the similarities between the lack of clothing that Rima was designed with and Ford 's outfits from the 1980s , staying true to the development teams ' memories of her . Osbourne plays The Guardian of Metal who helps the player upgrade their equipment ; Schafer commented that both the character and Osbourne , while dark and brooding , are " really upbeat " and " optimistic " .
Though Ronnie James Dio of the band Dio had performed parts for the game , his role was replaced with voice work from Tim Curry . While the change was speculated to be due to tense issues between Osbourne and Dio , Schafer noted that as Dio 's intended character , " Doviculus , Emperor of the Tainted Coil " , grew , they found that Curry fit the role better for the part , citing Curry 's role of the Lord of Darkness in the film Legend as a key factor ; Schafer would also later state that Dio 's part was cut due to a combination of " really complicated reasons " and other circumstances outside their control . Curry considered the role " perfect " for him when Schafer described Doviculus to him as " big and tough , but also has this kinky side who , when hit with an ax , might scream in pain or squeal with delight " .
Similar to their experience with bringing Black onto the project , obtaining the voicework of the metal artists were also unexpected but beneficial . This led to some confusion during voice recording sessions ; both Lita Ford and Rob Halford had difficulties with lines involving a character named " Lita Halford " . Furthermore , both Black and Osbourne frequently injected profanity into their scripted lines during recording sessions . Instead of rerecording these , the development left these in the game , but included the option for a profanity content filter to be enabled by the player to " bleep " out these words and mask such word on screen using the Parents Music Resource Center " Parental Advisory " label , an icon that Schafer considered to be part of the history of heavy metal . A similar filter exists for gore in the game , preventing any dismemberment and disabling blood in the game . Schafer stated the filters were added to the game in consideration of older players that may not wish to see such aspects , or for parents who opt to play the game with younger children . During development , Schafer stated that while he could not confirm what other musicians and bands would be in the game , there would be more than already stated , and that these musicians were " especially conducive to character creation " due to the amount of theatrics used in their concert shows .
Kyle Gass , Black 's collaborator with Tenacious D , voices and lends his facial likeness to a neurotic cannon operator in the game . Comedians David Cross , Steve Agee , Brian Posehn , and Wil Wheaton have also provided voice work for the game ; Posehn had previously worked with Schafer on their high school newspaper . David Sobolov was also confirmed as a voice actor for other roles in the game ; Sobolov noted that he recorded his lines separate from Black 's despite his characters ' having direct interaction with Riggs . Richard Horvitz , who voiced protagonist Raz in Schafer 's previous game , Psychonauts , cameos as the lead guitarist of Kabbage Boy and as a car @-@ lift operator that assigns Eddie certain side missions . Further voice acting work has been provided by veteran video game actors such as Zach Hanks , Kath Soucie , Dino Andrade and Jennifer Hale .
= = = Development history = = =
According to Schafer , Brütal Legend had been in development since 2007 , prior to the completion of Psychonauts . Schafer noted that in Psychonauts , they attempted to bring together a lot of assets , including characters and environments , but were not able to successfully integrate them on their first attempt and had to start over on the development of some . In several cases for Psychonauts , changes made in gameplay required them to return and redesign levels to account for the new features . The company decided at the start to use the scrum development approach for Brütal Legend , which they found worked well with their company 's culture , allowing them to quickly arrive at playable targets at every milestone . For example , the team was able to bring about their terrain engine , renderer , and a playable Eddie Riggs within a month of development , and by the third month , the ability for Eddie to drive about the terrain , running over hordes of enemies .
Schafer stated that they began the development with the character of Eddie , and recognizing what he should be doing in the game — specifically , swinging around his axe , playing his guitar , and driving his hot rod . Once they found this combination of elements to work well in combat and general gameplay , they were able to expand out the rest of the game from there , as these elements provided a means of testing the game to make sure it remained enjoyable . The first major feature developed for the game was the multiplayer element , given that no previous game from Double Fine had included this feature , and was the highest risk element to the game . The multiplayer gameplay itself was inspired by older strategy games , in particular , 1989 's Herzog Zwei ; in this game , the player controlled a transforming aircraft mecha that would normally fly about the field to issue orders for constructing new units , airlifting units to other areas , and directing combat , but the player could opt to transform the craft into a giant robot and engage directly in combat . For Brütal Legend , Schafer kept the same concept of a split @-@ mode RTS , but wanted more focus on the ground combat ; instead of spending 90 % of the time controlling units as in Zwei , the player would only spend about 30 % in this fashion within Brütal Legend . This subsequently led to much of the action and combat @-@ driven gameplay outside of the stage battles . In a 2015 interview , Schafer said that much of the gameplay outside of stage battles were to provide tutorials for the Stage Battles , and to make the game more of an action @-@ adventure than an RTS to avoid the stigma that impacts sales of RTS games . This caused the production to expand considerably around the merger of Vivendi @-@ Activision , and Double Fine had difficulties convincing the new publishers to fund the expanded game .
The team used Unreal Engine 2 @.@ 5 to build and test prototypes of the real @-@ time strategy elements , allowing the designers and gameplay programmers to commence work while another team focused on creating a new game engine . Having completed the multiplayer stage battle portion of the game first , Double Fine found it easy to gradually introduce the player to its more advanced aspects during the single @-@ player campaign . The game @-@ world 's large size and varied content necessitated a game engine with streaming capabilities , allowing the game to seamlessly load and unload content as needed — this was also something the team had no prior experience with . Double Fine developed several in @-@ house tools to help streamline the content @-@ creation process for the game 's world : an automated testing bot , RoBert ( so named after one of the test engineers ) , was created to put daily builds of the game through continuous and rigorous testing , automatically reporting any errors to developers , while the Multi @-@ User @-@ Editor allowed the game 's artists to simultaneously work on the game @-@ world without fear of overwriting each other 's work . The team ran into content management issues late in the game 's development as more of the game 's assets neared completion . Within the span of a few months the combined asset size tripled , endangering the game 's ability to fit on a DVD and causing performance problems throughout the company 's development systems . With the help of the engineering team , they were eventually able to overcome the performance issues and re @-@ optimize the content for space .
With the popularity of the Guitar Hero and Rock Band franchises , many wondered if Brütal Legend would take advantage of these games ' guitar @-@ themed controllers . Schafer mentioned that while he had entertained the idea , he could not find an acceptable way for players to repeatedly switch between standard and guitar controllers , so he abandoned it . Players who preordered the game through GameStop were able to unlock a special promotional in @-@ game guitar designed in conjunction with Jack Black 's band Tenacious D , and includes voices provided by both Black and Kyle Gass .
While Brütal Legend 's fate was unclear , Schafer was not able to talk about the project to avoid causing problems with any potential business deals , until EA Partners picked up the game in December 2008 . However , even when the fate of the publication of the game was unsure , the team continued to work on its development . Schafer reflected that the time spent during development without a publisher was beneficial , allowing them to design the game without pressure from the publisher 's goals . EA CEO John Riccitiello , when asked about EA picking up Brütal Legend for distribution prior to December 2008 , commented that " Sometimes significant creative risks end up being some of the world ’ s best products " .
= = = Other platforms = = =
When rumors of a possible Wii port arose in March 2009 , Schafer stated that " We are making an Xbox 360 and a PS3 version of Brütal Legend . " However , according to Ben Fritz at Variety , another studio has been engaged by Electronic Arts to bring the game to the Wii , albeit at a later date than the other console versions , suggesting that it may follow the same model as Dead Space : Extraction , a Wii title scheduled to be released about a year after Dead Space 's first release . However , further industry rumors , which claimed that the Wii version was being done by Electronic Arts in @-@ house , have stated that the effort to port the game to the Wii has been canceled due to quality and technical concerns .
Initially after its release , Double Fine had not planned on a PC version of the game , as Schafer has stated that the game is primarily an action game and " meant to be on a console " . However , in February 2013 , Double Fine announced that a Windows version of the game will be released on February 26 , 2013 . The Windows port has been updated for higher resolutions of modern computers , and includes both DLC packs released for consoles . The multiplayer aspects of the PC version include a number of tweaks that Double Fine had tracked that they wanted to have made to the console version but could not do ; while the full list of changes are not expected to be present in the initial PC release , Schafer has stated that if sales of the PC version are successful , they will look at adding new units , factions , and gameplay modes that they had originally scoped out for the console version . Mac and Linux ports were released in May 2013 , premiering as part of the Humble Double Fine Bundle .
= = = Cancelled sequel = = =
Double Fine believed they were given the go @-@ ahead to develop a sequel to Brütal Legend after the game 's release , and had invested a great deal of development time towards this , but were later told by EA that it was cancelled . Schafer stated that the sequel would likely incorporate much of what they had to drop prior to the game 's release . This game world would have been three times larger than what Brütal Legend contained . The sequel would have likely included a fourth faction that was cut from the original game which would have been the last major group the player would have to fight through , including a major boss character , before the final battles with Doviculus . Schafer further noted that at the end of the original game , Doviculus ' head falls into the Sea of Black Tears , and implied that the same effect that the Sea had on Ophelia could happen to Doviculus . Schafer also had ideas for a plot using a character voiced by Ronnie James Dio , but will not likely be used due to Dio 's death .
The cancellation of the sequel nearly ruined Double Fine , as they had invested all current efforts toward the title . Instead of a sequel , Double Fine began work on four smaller projects , Costume Quest , Stacking , Iron Brigade ( formerly titled Trenched ) and Sesame Street : Once Upon a Monster , based on prototypes they had created from " Amnesia Fortnights " during the development period where they had lacked a publisher . In these two @-@ weeks sessions , the Double Fine team was split into four groups and each tasked with creating a small prototype game to share with the rest of the company ; all four mini @-@ games were well received internally . Upon hearing of the cancellation of the sequel , Schafer and his team began to promote these games around , and were able to obtain publishing deals for all four titles . The games will be able to take advantage of the custom game world engine and other assets they had created for Brütal Legend . The titles were considered financial successes , allowing Double Fine to recover and pursue further game development though steering away from major AAA releases .
As of 2013 , Schafer is still interested in a sequel to Brütal Legend , but would require appropriate funding and resources to make it happen as an independent developer . Since then , Double Fine launched a crowd @-@ funded drive for Psychonauts 2 in December 2015 ; Schafer said that if that game does well , there is a good chance that a sequel to Brütal Legend would be possible .
= = = Publishing issues = = =
Brütal Legend was originally to be published by Vivendi Games ' subsidiary Sierra Entertainment . In 2008 , Activision merged with Vivendi 's game division ( which included Blizzard Entertainment ) to become Activision Blizzard , gaining the rights to publication of Brütal Legend . Upon evaluation of their assets , Activision Blizzard chose to drop Brütal Legend along with several other games , leaving the project in limbo . Activision CEO Robert Kotick later claimed the reason for dropping the project was due to : the project running late ; missing milestones ; overspending the budget and not looking like a good game . Double Fine themselves were unaware that Activision had chosen to drop the game , having been informed through an Activision press release that omitted the game from their upcoming release schedule , according to studio producer Caroline Esmurdoc . Industry rumors suggested that Electronic Arts was interested in publishing the property , and it was confirmed in December 2008 that Electronic Arts would publish the game . During the period when Brütal Legend 's fate was unclear , Schafer was not able to talk about the project to avoid causing problems with any potential business deals .
In February 2009 , Activision Blizzard had asserted that the Electronic Arts deal was invalid , believing that they were still in negotiations with Double Fine to publish the game . It was believed that Activision was seeking monetary compensation in a similar manner as it received from Atari for Ghostbusters : The Video Game and The Chronicles of Riddick : Assault on Dark Athena , games that were dropped when Activision Blizzard re @-@ evaluated their assets . On June 4 , 2009 , Activision filed suit to prevent publishing of the game , claiming that they had invested $ 15 million in the title and still had a valid contract to release the game . Activision 's suit also contends that Double Fine had missed a deadline for the game last year , requesting more time and an additional $ 7 million in development fees . Activision 's considers both the loss of the money they spent on the game as well as potential sales and Brütal Legend @-@ related merchandise as part of the harm done in the lawsuit .
In July 2009 , Double Fine issued a countersuit against Activision , citing that the latter company had abandoned the project before , and was trying to harm Brütal Legend during its critical marketing phase , as well as trying to protect its Guitar Hero franchise . The countersuit stated that Activision had dropped the game after its merger with Vivendi and a failed attempt to convert the game into a Guitar Hero sequel . Schafer was infamously quoted as saying , in commenting on their actions , " Hey , if Activision liked it , then they should have put a ring on it . Oh great , now Beyonce is going to sue me too . "
In late July , the presiding judge , Los Angeles Superior Court Judge Craig Karlan , reported that a preliminary ruling that could have affected the game 's release would have been given on August 6 , 2009 , with Karlan tentatively ready to deny Activision 's motion to delay the game . However , prior to the ruling , the companies announced they had reached an out @-@ of @-@ court settlement on the lawsuits , though details were not available .
Though most of the developers involved in the game were shielded from the effects of the lawsuit , Double Fine 's Caroline Esmurdoc noted that it took a significant toll on Schafer and the other lead executives at the company . Activision 's lawsuit had been filed at the time the game had reached the alpha release state , and would need to be concluded prior to the game 's final release ; this required the executives to dedicate their time towards information gathering , interviewing , and other legal matters " during the crunchiest , most critical time of development " . As such , while they ultimately were able to settle the legal matter , Esmurdoc believed that the impact of the effort in settling the lawsuit impacted the quality of the final product . Schafer wrote more than 50 % of the game 's dialog in the few months following the completion of the lawsuit and prior to release , a " big crunch " for him .
= = = Downloadable content = = =
Schafer , prior to the game 's release , stated that Double Fine had " something awesome " planned for downloadable content to further support the game after release . Two downloadable packs have since been released . The first , " Tears of the Hextadon " , was released in early November 2009 , containing two new multiplayer maps and a new single @-@ player weapon . The pack was initially free on the PlayStation Network for the first two weeks of release . The second pack , " The Hammer of Infinite Fate " , was released in mid @-@ December 2009 , and in addition to new multiplayer maps , expands the single @-@ player experience by incorporating new weaponry for the Deuce , outfits for Eddie , a GPS system to track collectibles in the game 's world , and other additional content , including figureheads of Razputin , the lead character from Psychonauts , and Schafer himself .
= = Marketing = =
Brütal Legend was officially announced in October 2007 through a feature article in Game Informer ; gaming journalists had received a vinyl record from Activision that contained a backwards message alluding to the game 's story . The game 's release in October 2009 was promoted as " Rocktober " in official literature about the game from Electronic Arts . At the 2009 Download Festival in Donington Park in England , Electronic Arts arranged for 440 fans of Brütal Legend to help to break the Guinness World Record for the largest number of air guitar players , all simultaneously playing to " Ace of Spades " by Motörhead . A series of short online videos featuring Black ( and Schafer in two instances ) , entitled " Brutal Thoughts with Jack Black " , have been used to promote the game since May 2009 . At the 2009 Video Music Awards , Black appeared in cosplay as Eddie to promote the game .
A promotional concert for the game was held at the 2009 Comic @-@ Con International Convention in July 2009 , and featured the metal artists Gwar , 3 Inches of Blood , Unholy Pink , and Keith Morris . It has also been announced that Brutal Legend was the official sponsor of the 2009 Mastodon / Dethklok tour . Schafer appeared on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon on October 2 , 2009 to promote the game . Black appeared on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! on October 14 , 2009 , dressed as Eddie Riggs and staying in character during his interview .
A demo version of the game was made available on the Xbox 360 Marketplace and PlayStation Network Store ; it was available for a limited time on September 17 , 2009 for North American users who had pre @-@ ordered the product through GameStop . The demo became available to all Xbox Live Gold users on September 24 , 2009 , and to Xbox Live Silver users and all PlayStation 3 users the following week . The demo is based on the game 's beginning , showing Eddie 's arrival and his encounters up until the first boss character fight .
= = Soundtrack = =
Brütal Legend features 107 heavy metal tracks from 75 different bands , selected by Schafer and Music Director Emily Ridgway as listed below , each song being a " completely sincere choice " by Schafer and Ridgway , with the whole track list being " designed to be loved by Metal fans . " Schafer sought to include songs from most main subgenres of metal , including classic heavy metal , industrial metal , black metal , and doom metal , with each faction in the game favoring a specific type . Though Schafer and others on the Double Fine team had vast knowledge of specific types of metal , Ridgway turned to a used @-@ CD store owner named Allan from Aquarius Records who had " encyclopedic knowledge " of the entire genre , and who provided the team with sample CDs to help them discover some of the more obscure metal bands . Schafer had identified many of the more well @-@ known songs on the list , while Ridgway was able to locate mission @-@ appropriate , more obscure titles for inclusion ; for example , one mission , given by the Killmaster ( voiced by Lemmy Kilmister ) , involves rescuing female troops for Ironheade 's army ; Ridgway had been able to locate a cover of " Bomber " , originally recorded by Motörhead ( Kilmister 's band ) and performed by the all @-@ female metal band Girlschool , recorded in their 1981 split EP St. Valentine 's Day Massacre . Schafer also credits Black with some of the music selections for the game . Instead of relying on labels or bands to provide them with a list of possible songs to select from , the development team sought permission to use specific songs they wanted in the game . In some cases , obtaining appropriate licensing proved difficult , as for songs from bands that had long split up , Double Fine needed to contact each band member to gain permission . This proved to be valuable , as some original bands were excited about their music being used in the game ; in one case , Lita Ford was able to provide the game with a song with slight modifications to the lyrics from a version that she was about to release . One song is from the in @-@ game band " Kabbage Boy " for which Eddie is a roadie at the start of the game .
Schafer had tried to get music from groups like Metallica and AC / DC , but their licensing fees were too high . He further tried to work with Iron Maiden , but the group was hesitant to participate after recognizing that the character name " Eddie Riggs " suggested an attachment with the band 's mascot , named " Eddie " and designed by Derek Riggs ; the band 's marketing group pointed out that this could imply that Iron Maiden had endorsed the game .
In addition to licensed music , the game includes over 70 minutes of original score by Tim Schafer 's long term collaborator Peter McConnell . McConnell composed pieces for orchestra and Metal band to tie in with the licensed music in the game . Also , the in @-@ game soundtrack contains an instrumental drum track played by Slough Feg drummer Harry Cantwell , all other " real " drums ( 6 tracks ) were played by Y & T drummer Mike Vanderhule and recorded by Jory Prum . The solos triggered by the player during the game were composed and recorded by Judas Priest guitarists Glenn Tipton ( Eddie 's solos ) and K.K. Downing ( Ophelia 's and Doviculus ' solos ) . While Schafer would like to have a soundtrack album for the game , he stated that there were already difficulties in securing the licenses for songs within the game and was not sure if it would be possible to extend them to a soundtrack . Schafer helped to select three songs — " We Are The Road Crew " by Motörhead , " The Metal " by Tenacious D , and " More Than Meets The Eye " by Testament — to appear in a pack of Rock Band downloadable songs that was made available the same day as Brütal Legend 's release .
^ a The track is merged with the song " More Than Meets the Eye " .
= = Reception = =
Brütal Legend received positive response from gaming journalists , with reviewers praising the story and characters of the game , and driven vocal performances of the voice actors , particularly Black and Osbourne . Daemon Hatfield of IGN felt Black was " completely committed " to the role of Riggs , while Giant Bomb 's Ryan Davis found it relieving that Black reined in his typical " loud @-@ talking heavy @-@ metal goofball " act that he is known for and instead performed well , " bringing just the right amount of working @-@ man 's matter @-@ of @-@ fact @-@ ness to the role " . Osbourne 's role was considered " amazing ( and surprisingly coherent ) " by Gamespot 's Giancarlo Varanini and " played brilliantly " by Computer and Video Games ' Andrew Kelly . The full cast was commended for their roles ; the heavy metal musicians were effective at playing themselves in the game , while the other voice talent performed well and " [ did ] their part to balance out the star power " in the game . The strength of the characters was considered to be enhanced by the quality of writing of the story , and the use of facial animation . Eurogamer 's Christian Donlan considered the characters of Brütal Legend to be the strongest aspect to the game , distancing the title from other video games due to " rounded , personable leads who are distinctly superior to the usual throngs of cybermen and super @-@ vixens " , and a facet of Schafer 's signature work . Wired 's Chris Kohler further attested the strength of the game 's story to Schafer 's skill , considering that " After Brütal Legend , he should be considered one of the best storytellers in gaming , period . " 1UP.com 's Justin Haywald noted that the game lacks the ability to review cutscenes , forcing the player to restart the story if they wanted to see these again .
The heavy metal @-@ inspired world of Brütal Legend was also well received , and considered to show a clear reverence for the genre . Gerald Villoria of Gamespy considered the game to be " dedicated to an unabashed love of metal " and " heavy metal fan @-@ service to the highest degree " . Davis believed that the juxtaposition of all the elements that made up the heavy metal fantasy world were the game 's greatest strength , often being " both giddily ridiculous and fist @-@ pumpingly badass " at the same time . Critics found that while the graphics for the game may not be the most sophisticated for the current console generation , the detailed art aspects of the world were impressive ; Varanini considered that " no matter where you are in the world , there 's always some cool object to look at " , while Donlan considered the world to be a " constant unfolding delight " . The incorporation of heavy metal music into the game also benefited the game . Both Kelly and Villoria considered the soundtrack essential to the game , and praised the moments where specific songs , such as Dragonforce 's " Through the Fire and Flames " would be used as background music during specific game sequences . Kelly further praised the game for using the songs to define the action of the game instead of relegated to random background music . Villoria also considered the soundtrack to have " enormous breadth of sound and diversity " , introducing the player to heavy metal genres they may not have known even existed . G4TV 's Jake Gaskill considered listening to the soundtrack to be the equivalent of " taking a class in heavy metal appreciation . "
The actual gameplay was seen as Brütal Legend 's largest weakness . Many reviewers were critical of the incorporation of real @-@ time strategy ( RTS ) elements into the game , a fact that was not well advertised prior to the game 's release and does not become apparent to the player in the first hours of the game . Though Schafer had set out to make the console @-@ based game like an RTS from the start , they were warned by both Vivendi and Electronic Arts that " RTS " was " a naughty word in the console space " , and instead marketed it as an action game . Despite this , reviewers found that the game was still difficult to play on a console due to the selected controls that made it difficult to target objectives or troops , the lack of a mini @-@ map to track friends and foes , and the frantic pace of battle .
Critics did appreciate the slow introduction to the various aspects of the game as part of the single player game , but felt the game did not adequately introduce or explain all of the game 's RTS features , such as the ability to mount a final stand on one 's stage . Some also considered the single @-@ player campaign Stage Battles to be too easy , winnable by brute force , and that more advanced tactics would only become apparent as one played in multiplayer games , including learning the abilities and advantages of the other units of the factions other than Ironheade . The mix of gaming genres between the RTS and third @-@ person action was found particularly confusing ; Kohler commented that the handling of the individual genres was accomplished well , leading to " an astoundingly complex design instead of a simple one " that diminished the enjoyment of the game , while Davis considered that " perhaps there wasn 't enough confidence in any one piece to let it carry the whole game " . However , some felt that the various genres helped to create " a variety of gameplay opportunities " , and made for " rather elegant " Stage Battles . In retrospect , Schafer lamented that they did not include enough tutorials in the game to guide the player as to " naturally how to play the strategy part a bit better " , as they had come to accept over the years of development , and tried to use the Double Fine blog to explain some of these aspects . Though some critics argued that stripping out the RTS elements and leaving an action combat game wrapped in the metal @-@ themed world would have been a better game , Schafer countered that this would have not been true to the vision that he had from the start . Schafer would later jokingly refer to the RTS elements of Brütal Legend ; during the fundraising for Broken Age , Schafer teasingly threatened to add RTS elements to the point @-@ and @-@ click if the funding had reached certain levels .
Gameplay outside of the Stage Battles was also met with mixed impressions . Most considered the side missions highly repetitive , which included mission types that are generally disliked by gamers , such as escort missions . The lack of a mini @-@ map , replaced by either following a glowing light from the sky illuminating the player 's target or by navigating based on the Deuce 's turn signals , was criticized for making it difficult to explore the game 's world . The information about the world that players can access in the game 's pause menu was also found to be lacking , neither showing the collectible elements of the game on the main map , nor easily identifying the alliance of the various troops in the in @-@ game guidebook . Though Eddie gains the ability to fly during Stage Battles , the inability to use this or to make the character jump led to reviewers getting the character stuck on the landscape at times when exploring . Some reviewers found the number of progress checkpoints in the game to be lacking , requiring the player to repeat a long mission if they should die before reaching one . The single @-@ player game was also considered to be short , lasting as little as four hours if one only completed the main story missions .
According to the NPD Group , Brütal Legend sold approximately 215 @,@ 000 copies in the United States in October 2009 , with about 150 @,@ 000 copies being for the Xbox 360 platform , making it the 12th @-@ top @-@ selling game in that month . These numbers were not considered to be strong , and were attributed to the difficult marketing of the game , which emphasized Jack Black 's involvement and the heavy metal nature of the game , but did not assert what the gameplay would actually be like , with the possibility that the mention of the RTS elements of the game would have possibly driven more players away from the game . In an interview in February 2011 , Schafer claimed that the game had sold over 1 @.@ 4 million copies . According to data collected through Nielsen SoundScan , some songs contained within Brütal Legend 's soundtrack saw digital sales increases of up to 700 % following the game 's release , similar to the effects of Guitar Hero and Rock Band , though impact on overall sales of these songs was rather small .
Black was given the Best Voice award at the Spike Video Game Awards 2009 . Brütal Legend won the " Best Strategy / Simulation Game " and " Outstanding Achievement in Soundtrack " awards in the 13th @-@ annual Interactive Achievement Awards from the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences , and was nominated for " Outstanding Character Performance " ( for Eddie Riggs ) , " Outstanding Achievement in Original Story " , and " Outstanding Achievement in Game Direction " . The game was also nominated for the Game Developers Choice Awards for " Best Writing " and " Best Audio " .
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= Joe Cada =
Joseph " Joe " Cada ( born November 18 , 1987 ) is an American professional poker player from Shelby Charter Township , Michigan , best known as the winner of the Main Event at the 2009 World Series of Poker ( WSOP ) .
By winning the 6 @,@ 494 @-@ entrant Main Event at the age of 21 , Cada surpassed Peter Eastgate as the youngest champion ever . Cada had two previous WSOP in the money finishes , both in 2009 . Cada had been a regular online poker player for several years prior to winning the live WSOP event . He is primarily an online poker player , with more than $ 500 @,@ 000 in online tournament winnings at present . As of August 2014 , his total live tournament winnings exceed $ 10 @,@ 290 @,@ 000 . Cada became a representative of Team PokerStars in 2009 in the weeks prior to becoming World Champion . On June 18 , 2012 , he lost heads up in the 2 @,@ 811 @-@ entrant $ 1 @,@ 500 No Limit Texas hold ' em event at the 2012 World Series of Poker .
He is from a family of card enthusiasts although his parents disapproved of his chosen profession . His agent dubbed him " The Kid " and he has also taken on the role as a statesman of the profession in the media and political circles , where he is a proponent of legalization of gambling .
= = Career = =
= = = Summary = = =
Cada started playing online poker at about the age of 16 . He twice staked accounts , but lost all the money in the accounts that he shared with his brother Jerome . His first online account was with PartyPoker . Although he was not legally able to play in casinos prior to age 21 in the United States , he could in Canada at age 19 and play online . After a brief sabbatical from the game subsequent to losing his money , he began to play at a casino in Windsor , Ontario across the Canadian border from his Detroit @-@ area home . He earned enough to enter contests in the Bahamas and Costa Rica .
At the time of his WSOP success , he was playing approximately 2 @,@ 000 hands per day online at PokerStars under the User ID jcada99 . Cada had been a professional poker player for six years at the time of his world championship . Between the end of 2008 and the 2009 November Nine , Cada had earned $ 551 @,@ 788 online . Prior to the tournament , he had a $ 150 @,@ 000 downswing that necessitated him finding a financial backer for the WSOP . Professional poker financiers Eric Haber and Cliff Josephy paid his entry fee in exchange for half of his winnings .
Cada enjoys playing the " Sunday Major " tournaments at various online sites and says he honed his skill pursuing the knowledge and experience of better players at online training sites . He typically hosts many poker playing friends on Sundays to keep each other company while going through the grueling Sundays of playing the various majors . Usually , on Sundays , Cada hosts about fifteen friends to play online at his house . According to his CardPlayer magazine profile , Cada used several similar aliases to play with various online poker hosts : jcada99 and Joe Cada on the Full Tilt Poker website , jcada99 on PokerStars and JCADA99 on Absolute Poker .
= = World Series of Poker = =
= = = 2009 World Series of Poker = = =
At the 2009 World Series of Poker he had three in the money finishes ( all in No limit Texas hold ' em ) : 64th in the 1 @,@ 088 @-@ entrant June 5 – 7 Event 13 , $ 2 @,@ 500 No Limit Hold 'em , which earned him $ 6 @,@ 681 ; 17th in the 2 @,@ 095 @-@ entrant June 16 – 18 Event 35 , $ 1 @,@ 500 No Limit Hold 'em , which earned him $ 21 @,@ 533 ; and 1st in the 6 @,@ 494 @-@ entrant July 3 – 15 , November 7 and November 9 Event 57 $ 10 @,@ 000 World Championship No Limit Hold 'em , which earned him $ 8 @,@ 546 @,@ 435 .
Prior to his final table victory , Cada earned a $ 1 million contract with PokerStars that pays for all his hotels , travels , and some of his buy @-@ ins . His signing with Pokerstars resulted from an interview on ESPN with Phil Gordon where he expressed an interest in signing with that specific company . His agent had already procured him offers from UltimateBet and PokerHost as a result of his November Nine qualification . Cada was represented by agent Dan Frank .
In the main event , Cada was the tournament chip leader after day 1C , which was the third of the four opening day sessions , but he began the final table with the fifth largest chipstack . In the 122nd final table hand Cada 's stack was reduced to 2 @,@ 275 @,@ 000 — enough for only four big blinds and about 1 @.@ 2 % of the combined total stack at play — due to calling Jeff Shulman 's " all in " pre @-@ flop with A ♦ J ♣ against A ♣ K ♥ . No community cards hit either player , and Shulman was rewarded by his better high card . Cada later went all in twice pre @-@ flop with small pocket pairs and was dominated by higher pocket pairs on both occasions , once with 3 ♥ 3 ♣ vs. J ♦ J ♣ and the other with 2 ♠ 2 ♣ vs Q ♠ Q ♥ . Both times Cada flopped the winning three of a kind . By the time the field was reduced to two players he had 135 million chips to 58 million for Darvin Moon . During the final heads @-@ up duel , Cada surrendered the chip lead , but he eventually climbed back to 120 @.@ 1 million before the last hand of the heads @-@ up with Moon . He regained the chip lead on the 80th hand . His winning hand was 9 ♣ 9 ♦ , which he got all @-@ in pre @-@ flop against Moon 's Q ♦ J ♦ . The board ran 8 ♣ 2 ♣ 7 ♠ K ♥ 7 ♣ . This hand was the 88th hand of heads @-@ up play between Cada and Moon .
These three events account for his total cumulative career live event earnings of over $ 8 @.@ 5 million . With the November 2009 victory , which occurred just over a week before his 22nd birthday , Cada supplanted Peter Eastgate , who won at age 22 , as the youngest World Series of Poker Main Event champion . He was 340 days younger than Eastgate had been at the time of becoming world champion . In the week following the WSOP win , Cada made numerous publicity appearances as a poker ambassador . His media events included appearances on CNN , CBS News , CNBC , Late Show with David Letterman , numerous ESPN outlets including First Take , The Scott Van Pelt Show , ESPNU , ESPNews , ESPN Inside Deal and ESPN.com as well as a taping for SportsCenter that was never aired plus a visit to WWE Raw . During the publicity run , Dennis Phillips served as Cada 's advisor .
He has a total of seven cashes in the World Series of Poker , with three in the 2009 event , two in the 2011 event and two in the 2012 event . Aside from his main event win , his most notable WSOP finish was second in the 2811 @-@ entrant June 16 – 18 , 2012 $ 1 @,@ 500 No @-@ Limit Hold 'em Event # 31 , which earned him $ 412 @,@ 424 .
= = Personal = =
Anne Cada , Joe 's mother , is a blackjack card dealer at the MotorCity Casino . Cada has an older brother , Jerome . Cada 's father , Jerry , was affected by the late @-@ 2000s recession when his automobile industry job was eliminated in a layoff . During the 2009 World Series of Poker 's November Nine , dozens of Cada 's fans wore T @-@ shirts with Michigan Wolverines team colors ( maize and blue ) with the words , " PokerStars Michigan Joe Cada ' The Kid ' " emblazoned across the front and Michigan baseball caps with " The Kid " on the back . His agent came up with the nickname " The Kid " . In an interview in Time , Cada estimates he had about 100 friends in his cheering section .
In the Time interview , Cada expressed his thoughts on legislation related to the legality of gambling : " I support the right to play poker online . Poker isn 't gambling . It 's a hobby , an activity , a game . It 's not about luck — it 's about logic , decision @-@ making , math . We all should be able to play poker on the Web if we want to , and I believe that making it illegal strips us of our rights . This is an important issue , and hopefully we 'll see it resolved soon . " Outside of poker , Cada also plays indoor soccer . As of 2009 , he was considering purchasing a second home in Las Vegas , Nevada and possibly opening a bar .
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= Trinity ( nuclear test ) =
Trinity was the code name of the first detonation of a nuclear weapon , conducted by the United States Army on July 16 , 1945 , as part of the Manhattan Project . The test was conducted in the Jornada del Muerto desert about 35 miles ( 56 km ) southeast of Socorro , New Mexico , on what was then the USAAF Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range ( now part of White Sands Missile Range ) . The only structures originally in the vicinity were the McDonald Ranch House and its ancillary buildings , which scientists used as a laboratory for testing bomb components . A base camp was constructed , and there were 425 people present on the weekend of the test .
The code name " Trinity " was assigned by J. Robert Oppenheimer , the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory , inspired by the poetry of John Donne . The test was of an implosion @-@ design plutonium device , informally nicknamed " The Gadget " , of the same design as the Fat Man bomb later detonated over Nagasaki , Japan , on August 9 , 1945 . The complexity of the design required a major effort from the Los Alamos Laboratory , and concerns about whether it would work led to a decision to conduct the first nuclear test . The test was planned and directed by Kenneth Bainbridge .
Fears of a fizzle led to the construction of a steel containment vessel called Jumbo that could contain the plutonium , allowing it to be recovered , but Jumbo was not used . A rehearsal was held on May 7 , 1945 , in which 108 long tons ( 110 t ) of high explosive spiked with radioactive isotopes were detonated . The Gadget 's detonation released the explosive energy of about 22 kilotons of TNT ( 92 TJ ) . Observers included Vannevar Bush , James Chadwick , James Conant , Thomas Farrell , Enrico Fermi , Richard Feynman , Leslie Groves , Robert Oppenheimer , Geoffrey Taylor , and Richard Tolman .
The test site was declared a National Historic Landmark district in 1965 , and listed on the National Register of Historic Places the following year .
= = Background = =
The creation of nuclear weapons arose from scientific and political developments of the 1930s . The decade saw many new discoveries about the nature of atoms , including the existence of nuclear fission . The concurrent rise of fascist governments in Europe led to a fear of a German nuclear weapon project , especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries . When their calculations showed that nuclear weapons were theoretically feasible , the British and United States governments supported an all @-@ out effort to build them .
These efforts were transferred to the authority of the U.S. Army in June 1942 , and became the Manhattan Project . Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , was appointed its director in September 1942 . The weapons development portion of this project was located at the Los Alamos Laboratory in northern New Mexico , under the directorship of physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer . The University of Chicago , Columbia University and the Radiation Laboratory at the University of California , Berkeley conducted other development work .
Production of the fissile isotopes uranium @-@ 235 and plutonium @-@ 239 were enormous undertakings given the technology of the 1940s , and accounted for 80 % of the total costs of the project . Uranium enrichment was carried out at the Clinton Engineer Works near Oak Ridge , Tennessee . Theoretically , enriching uranium was feasible through pre @-@ existing techniques , but it proved difficult to scale to industrial levels and was extremely costly . Only 0 @.@ 71 percent of natural uranium was uranium @-@ 235 , and it was estimated that it would take 27 @,@ 000 years to produce a gram of uranium with mass spectrometers , but kilogram amounts were required .
Plutonium is a synthetic element with complicated physical , chemical and metallurgical properties . It is not found in nature in appreciable quantities . Until mid @-@ 1944 , the only plutonium that had been isolated had been produced in cyclotrons in microgram amounts , whereas weapons required kilograms . In April 1944 , physicist Emilio Segrè , the head of the Los Alamos Laboratory 's P @-@ 5 ( Radioactivity ) Group , received the first sample of reactor @-@ bred plutonium from the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge . He discovered that , in addition to the plutonium @-@ 239 isotope , it also contained significant amounts of plutonium @-@ 240 . The Manhattan Project produced plutonium in nuclear reactors at the Hanford Engineer Works near Hanford , Washington .
The longer the plutonium remained irradiated inside a reactor — necessary for high yields of the metal — the greater the content of the plutonium @-@ 240 isotope , which undergoes spontaneous fission at thousands of times the rate of plutonium @-@ 239 . The extra neutrons it released meant that there was an unacceptably high probability that plutonium in a gun @-@ type fission weapon would detonate too soon after a critical mass was formed , producing a " fizzle " — a nuclear explosion many times smaller than a full explosion . This meant that the Thin Man bomb design that the laboratory had developed would not work properly .
The Laboratory turned to an alternative , albeit more technically difficult , design , an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon . In September 1943 , mathematician John von Neumann had proposed a design in which a fissile core would be surrounded by two different high explosives that produced shock waves of different speeds . Alternating the faster- and slower @-@ burning explosives in a carefully calculated configuration would produce a compressive wave upon their simultaneous detonation . This so @-@ called " explosive lens " focused the shock waves inward with enough force to rapidly compress the plutonium core to several times its original density . This reduced the size of a critical mass , making it supercritical . It also activated a small neutron source at the center of the core , which assured that the chain reaction began in earnest at the right moment . Such a complicated process required research and experimentation in engineering and hydrodynamics before a practical design could be developed . The entire Los Alamos Laboratory was reorganized in August 1944 to focus on design of a workable implosion bomb .
= = Preparation = =
= = = Decision = = =
The idea of testing the implosion device was brought up in discussions at Los Alamos in January 1944 , and attracted enough support for Oppenheimer to approach Groves . Groves gave approval , but he had concerns . The Manhattan Project had spent a great deal of money and effort to produce the plutonium and he wanted to know if there would be a way to recover it . The Laboratory 's Governing Board then directed Norman Ramsey to investigate how this could be done . Ramsey reported back in February 1944 , proposing a small @-@ scale test in which the explosion was limited in size by reducing the number of generations of chain reactions , and that it take place inside a sealed containment vessel from which the plutonium could be recovered .
The means of generating such a controlled reaction were uncertain , and the data obtained would not be as useful as that from a full @-@ scale explosion . Oppenheimer argued that the " implosion gadget must be tested in a range where the energy release is comparable with that contemplated for final use . " In March 1944 , he obtained Groves 's tentative approval for testing a full @-@ scale explosion inside a containment vessel , although Groves was still worried about how he would explain the loss of a billion dollars worth of plutonium to a Senate Committee in the event of a failure .
= = = Code name = = =
The exact origin of the code name " Trinity " for the test is unknown , but it is often attributed to Oppenheimer as a reference to the poetry of John Donne , which in turn references the Christian notion of the Trinity ( three @-@ fold nature of God ) . In 1962 , Groves wrote to Oppenheimer about the origin of the name , asking if he had chosen it because it was a name common to rivers and peaks in the West and would not attract attention , and elicited this reply :
I did suggest it , but not on that ground ... Why I chose the name is not clear , but I know what thoughts were in my mind . There is a poem of John Donne , written just before his death , which I know and love . From it a quotation :
As West and East
In all flatt Maps — and I am one — are one ,
So death doth touch the Resurrection .
That still does not make a Trinity , but in another , better known devotional poem Donne opens ,
Batter my heart , three person 'd God .
= = = Organization = = =
In March 1944 , planning for the test was assigned to Kenneth Bainbridge , a professor of physics at Harvard University , working under explosives expert George Kistiakowsky . Bainbridge 's group was known as the E @-@ 9 ( Explosives Development ) Group . Stanley Kershaw , formerly from the National Safety Council , was made responsible for safety . Captain Samuel P. Davalos , the assistant post engineer at Los Alamos , was placed in charge of construction . First Lieutenant Harold C. Bush became commander of the Base Camp at Trinity . Scientists William Penney , Victor Weisskopf and Philip Moon were consultants . Eventually seven subgroups were formed :
TR @-@ 1 ( Services ) under John H. Williams
TR @-@ 2 ( Shock and Blast ) under John H. Manley
TR @-@ 3 ( Measurements ) under Robert R. Wilson
TR @-@ 4 ( Meteorology ) under J. M. Hubbard
TR @-@ 5 ( Spectrographic and Photographic ) under Julian E. Mack
TR @-@ 6 ( Airborne Measurements ) under Bernard Waldman
TR @-@ 7 ( Medical ) under Louis H. Hempelmann
The E @-@ 9 group was renamed the X @-@ 2 ( Development , Engineering and Tests ) Group in the August 1944 reorganization .
= = = Test site = = =
Safety and security required a remote , isolated and unpopulated area . The scientists also wanted a flat area to minimize secondary effects of the blast , and with little wind to spread radioactive fallout . Eight candidate sites were considered : the Tularosa Valley ; the Jornada del Muerto Valley ; the area southwest of Cuba , New Mexico , and north of Thoreau ; and the lava flats of the El Malpais National Monument , all in New Mexico ; the San Luis Valley near the Great Sand Dunes National Monument in Colorado ; the Desert Training Area and San Nicolas Island in Southern California ; and the sand bars of Padre Island , Texas .
The sites were surveyed by car and by air by Bainbridge , R. W. Henderson , Major W. A. Stevens and Major Peer de Silva . The site finally chosen , after consulting with Major General Uzal Ent , the commander of the Second Air Force on September 7 , 1944 , lay at the northern end of the Alamogordo Bombing Range , in Socorro County between the towns of Carrizozo and San Antonio , in the Jornada del Muerto ( 33 @.@ 6773 ° N 106 @.@ 4754 ° W / 33 @.@ 6773 ; -106.4754 ) .
The only structures in the vicinity were the McDonald Ranch House and its ancillary buildings , about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to the southeast . Like the rest of the Alamogordo Bombing Range , it had been acquired by the government in 1942 . The patented land had been condemned and grazing rights suspended . Scientists used this as a laboratory for testing bomb components . Bainbridge and Davalos drew up plans for a base camp with accommodation and facilities for 160 personnel , along with the technical infrastructure to support the test . A construction firm from Lubbock , Texas built the barracks , officers ' quarters , mess hall and other basic facilities . The requirements expanded and , by July 1945 , 250 people worked at the Trinity test site . On the weekend of the test , there were 425 present .
Lieutenant Bush 's twelve @-@ man military police unit arrived at the site from Los Alamos on December 30 , 1944 . This unit established initial security checkpoints and horse patrols . The distances around the site proved too great for the horses , so they resorted to using jeeps and trucks for transportation . The horses were used for playing polo . Maintenance of morale among men working long hours under harsh conditions along with dangerous reptiles and insects was a challenge . Bush strove to improve the food and accommodation , and to provide organized games and nightly movies .
Throughout 1945 , other personnel arrived at the Trinity Site to help prepare for the bomb test . They tried to use water out of the ranch wells , but found the water so alkaline they could not drink it . They were forced to use U.S. Navy saltwater soap and hauled drinking water in from the firehouse in Socorro . Gasoline and diesel were purchased from the Standard Oil plant there . Military and civilian construction personnel built warehouses , workshops , a magazine and commissary . The railroad siding at Pope , New Mexico , was upgraded by adding an unloading platform . Roads were built , and 200 miles ( 320 km ) of telephone wire was strung . Electricity was supplied by portable generators .
Due to its proximity to the bombing range , the base camp was accidentally bombed twice in May . When the lead plane on a practice night raid accidentally knocked out the generator or otherwise doused the lights illuminating their target , they went in search of the lights , and since they had not been informed of the presence of the Trinity base camp , and it was lit , bombed it instead . The accidental bombing damaged the stables and the carpentry shop , and a small fire resulted .
= = = Jumbo = = =
Responsibility for the design of a containment vessel for an unsuccessful explosion , known as " Jumbo " , was assigned to Robert W. Henderson and Roy W. Carlson of the Los Alamos Laboratory 's X @-@ 2A Section . The bomb would be placed into the heart of Jumbo , and if the bomb 's detonation was unsuccessful , the outer walls of Jumbo would not be breached , making it possible to recover the bomb 's plutonium . Hans Bethe , Victor Weisskopf , and Joseph O. Hirschfelder , made the initial calculations , followed by a more detailed analysis by Henderson and Carlson . They drew up specifications for a steel sphere 13 to 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 to 4 @.@ 6 m ) in diameter , weighing 150 long tons ( 150 t ) and capable of handling a pressure of 50 @,@ 000 pounds per square inch ( 340 @,@ 000 kPa ) . After consulting with the steel companies and the railroads , Carlson produced a scaled @-@ back cylindrical design that would be much easier to manufacture , but still difficult to transport . Carlson identified a company that normally made boilers for the Navy , Babcock & Wilcox , had made something similar and were willing to attempt its manufacture .
As delivered in May 1945 , Jumbo was 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in diameter and 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) long with walls 14 inches ( 360 mm ) thick , and weighed 214 long tons ( 217 t ) . A special train brought it from Barberton , Ohio , to the siding at Pope , where it was loaded on a large trailer and towed 25 miles ( 40 km ) across the desert by tractors . At the time , it was the heaviest item ever shipped by rail .
For many of the Los Alamos scientists , Jumbo was " the physical manifestation of the lowest point in the Laboratory 's hopes for the success of an implosion bomb . " By the time it arrived , the reactors at Hanford produced plutonium in quantity , and Oppenheimer was confident that there would be enough for a second test . The use of Jumbo would interfere with the gathering of data on the explosion , the primary objective of the test . An explosion of more than 500 tons of TNT ( 2 @,@ 100 GJ ) would vaporize the steel and make it hard to measure the thermal effects . Even 100 tons of TNT ( 420 GJ ) would send fragments flying , presenting a hazard to personnel and measuring equipment . It was therefore decided not to use it . Instead , it was hoisted up a steel tower 800 yards ( 730 m ) from the explosion , where it could be used for a subsequent test . In the end , Jumbo survived the explosion , although its tower did not .
The development team also considered other methods of recovering active material in the event of a dud explosion . One idea was to cover it with a cone of sand . Another was to suspend the bomb in a tank of water . As with Jumbo , it was decided not to proceed with these means of containment either . The CM @-@ 10 ( Chemistry and Metallurgy ) group at Los Alamos also studied how the active material could be chemically recovered after a contained or failed explosion .
= = = 100 @-@ ton test = = =
Because there would be only one chance to carry out the test correctly , Bainbridge decided that a rehearsal be carried out to allow the plans and procedures to be verified , and the instrumentation to be tested and calibrated . Oppenheimer was initially skeptical , but gave permission , and later agreed that it contributed to the success of the Trinity test .
A 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) high wooden platform was constructed 800 yards ( 730 m ) to the south @-@ east of Trinity ground zero ( 33 @.@ 67123 ° N 106 @.@ 47229 ° W / 33 @.@ 67123 ; -106.47229 ) and 108 long tons ( 110 t ) of TNT were stacked on top of it . Kistiakowsky assured Bainbridge that the explosives used were not susceptible to shock . This was proven correct when some boxes fell off the elevator lifting them up to the platform . Flexible tubing was threaded through the pile of boxes of explosives . A radioactive slug from Hanford with 1 @,@ 000 curies ( 37 TBq ) of beta ray activity and 400 curies ( 15 TBq ) of gamma ray activity was dissolved , and Hempelmann poured it into the tubing .
The test was scheduled for May 5 , but was postponed for two days to allow for more equipment to be installed . Requests for further postponements had to be refused because they would have impacted the schedule for the main test . The detonation time was set for 04 : 00 Mountain Daylight Time , also known as Mountain War time , on May 7 , but there was a 37 @-@ minute delay to allow the observation plane , a Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress from the 216th Army Air Forces Base Unit flown by Major Clyde " Stan " Shields , to get into position .
The fireball of the conventional explosion was visible from Alamogordo Army Air Field 60 miles ( 97 km ) away , but there was little shock at the base camp 10 miles ( 16 km ) away . Shields thought that the explosion looked " beautiful " , but it was hardly felt at 15 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) . Herbert L. Anderson practiced using a converted M4 Sherman tank lined with lead to approach the 5 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) deep and 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) wide blast crater and take a sample of dirt , although the radioactivity was low enough to allow several hours of unprotected exposure . An electrical signal of unknown origin caused the explosion to go off 0 @.@ 25 seconds early , ruining experiments that required split @-@ second timing . The piezoelectric gauges developed by Anderson 's team correctly indicated an explosion of 108 tons of TNT ( 450 GJ ) , but Luis Alvarez and Waldman 's airborne condenser gauges were far less accurate .
In addition to uncovering scientific and technological issues , the rehearsal test revealed practical concerns as well . Over 100 vehicles were used for the rehearsal test but it was realized more would be required for the main test , and they would need better roads and repair facilities . More radios were required , and more telephone lines , as the telephone system had become overloaded . Lines needed to be buried to prevent damage by vehicles . A teletype was installed to allow better communication with Los Alamos . A town hall was built to allow for large conferences and briefings , and the mess hall had to be upgraded . Because dust thrown up by vehicles interfered with some of the instrumentation , some 20 miles ( 32 km ) of road was sealed at a cost of $ 5 @,@ 000 a mile .
= = = The Gadget = = =
The term " Gadget " was a laboratory euphemism for a bomb , from which the laboratory 's weapon physics division , " G Division " , took its name in August 1944 . At that time it did not refer specifically to the Trinity Test device as it had yet to be developed , but once it was , it became the laboratory code name . The Trinity Gadget was officially a Y @-@ 1561 device , as was the Fat Man used a few weeks later in the bombing of Nagasaki . The two were very similar , with only minor differences , the most obvious being the absence of fuzing and the external ballistic casing . The bombs were still under development , and small changes continued to be made to the Fat Man design .
To keep the design as simple as possible , a near solid spherical core was chosen rather than a hollow one , although calculations showed that a hollow core would be more efficient in its use of plutonium . The hollow core design was initially pursued , but it was found difficult to produce the more stringent hollow pit implosion requirements that would be necessary . The core 's sub @-@ critical mass was instead manufactured into a geometry that closely resembled a near perfect solid sphere , which could then be compressed to prompt super @-@ criticality by a less technically demanding implosion , generated by the high explosive lens . This design became known as a " Christy Core " or " Christy pit " after physicist Robert F. Christy , who made the solid pit design a reality after it was initially proposed by Edward Teller . Along with the pit , the whole physics package was also informally nicknamed " Christy [ ' s ] Gadget " .
Of the several allotropes of plutonium , the metallurgists preferred the malleable δ phase . This was stabilized at room temperature by alloying it with gallium . Two equal hemispheres of plutonium @-@ gallium alloy were plated with silver , and designated by serial numbers HS @-@ 1 and HS @-@ 2 . The 6 @.@ 19 @-@ kilogram ( 13 @.@ 6 lb ) radioactive core generated 15 W of heat , which warmed it up to about 100 to 110 ° F ( 38 to 43 ° C ) , and the silver plating developed blisters that had to be filed down and covered with gold foil ; later cores were plated with nickel instead . The Trinity core consisted of just these two hemispheres . Later cores also included a ring with a triangular cross @-@ section to prevent jets forming in the gap between them .
A trial assembly of the Gadget without the active components or explosive lenses was carried out by the bomb assembly team headed by Norris Bradbury at Los Alamos on July 3 . It was driven to Trinity and back . A set of explosive lenses arrived on July 7 , followed by a second set on July 10 . Each was examined by Bradbury and Kistiakowsky , and the best ones were selected for use . The remainder were handed over to Edward Creutz , who conducted a test detonation at Pajarito Canyon near Los Alamos without nuclear material . This test brought bad news : magnetic measurements of the simultaneity of the implosion seemed to indicate that the Trinity test would fail . Bethe worked through the night to assess the results , and reported that they were consistent with a perfect explosion .
Assembly of the nuclear capsule began on July 13 at the McDonald Ranch House , where the master bedroom had been turned into a clean room . The polonium @-@ beryllium " Urchin " initiator was assembled , and Louis Slotin placed it inside the two hemispheres of the plutonium core . Cyril Smith then placed the core in the uranium tamper plug , or " slug . " Air gaps were filled with 0 @.@ 5 @-@ mil ( 0 @.@ 013 mm ) gold foil , and the two halves of the plug were held together with uranium washers and screws which fit smoothly into the domed ends of the plug . The completed capsule was then driven to the base of the tower .
At the tower a temporary eyebolt was screwed into the 105 @-@ pound ( 48 kg ) capsule , and a chain hoist was used to lower the capsule into the gadget . As the capsule entered the hole in the uranium tamper , it stuck . Robert Bacher realized that the heat from the plutonium core had caused the capsule to expand , while the explosives assembly with the tamper had cooled during the night in the desert . By leaving the capsule in contact with the tamper , the temperatures equalized and in a few minutes the capsule had slipped completely into the tamper . The eyebolt was then removed from the capsule and replaced with a threaded uranium plug , a boron disk was placed on top of the capsule , an aluminum plug was screwed into the hole in the pusher , and the two remaining high explosive lenses were installed . Finally , the upper Dural polar cap was bolted into place . Assembly was completed at about 16 : 45 on July 13 .
The Gadget was hoisted to the top of a 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) steel tower . The height would give a better indication of how the weapon would behave when dropped from a bomber , as detonation in the air would maximize the amount of energy applied directly to the target ( as the explosion expanded in a spherical shape ) and would generate less nuclear fallout . The tower stood on four legs that went 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) into the ground , with concrete footings . Atop it was an oak platform , and a shack made of corrugated iron that was open on the western side . The Gadget was hauled up with an electric winch . A truckload of mattresses was placed underneath in case the cable broke and the Gadget fell . The seven man arming party , consisting of Bainbridge , Kistiakowsky , Joseph McKibben and four soldiers including Lieutenant Bush , drove out to the tower to perform the final arming shortly after 22 : 00 on July 15 .
= = = Personnel = = =
In the final two weeks before the test , some 250 personnel from Los Alamos were at work at the Trinity site , and Lieutenant Bush 's command had ballooned to 125 men guarding and maintaining the base camp . Another 160 men under Major T.O. Palmer were stationed outside the area with vehicles to evacuate the civilian population in the surrounding region should that prove necessary . They had enough vehicles to move 450 people to safety , and had food and supplies to last them for two days . Arrangements were made for Alamogordo Army Air Field to provide accommodation . Groves had warned the Governor of New Mexico , John J. Dempsey , that martial law might have to be declared in the southwestern part of the state .
Shelters were established 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) due north , west and south of the tower , known as N @-@ 10 @,@ 000 , W @-@ 10 @,@ 000 and S @-@ 10 @,@ 000 . Each had its own shelter chief : Robert Wilson at N @-@ 10 @,@ 000 , John Manley at W @-@ 10 @,@ 000 and Frank Oppenheimer at S @-@ 10 @,@ 000 . Many other observers were around 20 miles ( 32 km ) away , and some others were scattered at different distances , some in more informal situations . Richard Feynman claimed to be the only person to see the explosion without the goggles provided , relying on a truck windshield to screen out harmful ultraviolet wavelengths .
Bainbridge asked Groves to keep his VIP list down to just ten . He chose himself , Oppenheimer , Richard Tolman , Vannevar Bush , James Conant , Brigadier General Thomas F. Farrell , Charles Lauritsen , Isidor Isaac Rabi , Sir Geoffrey Taylor and Sir James Chadwick . The VIPs viewed the test from Compania Hill , about 20 miles ( 32 km ) northwest of the tower . The observers set up a betting pool on the results of the test . Edward Teller was the most optimistic , predicting 45 kilotons of TNT ( 190 TJ ) . He wore gloves to protect his hands , and sunglasses underneath the welding goggles that the government had supplied everyone with . Teller was also one of the few scientists to actually watch the test ( with eye protection ) , instead of following orders to lie on the ground with his back turned . He also brought suntan lotion , which he shared with the others .
Others were less optimistic . Ramsey chose zero ( a complete dud ) , Robert Oppenheimer chose 300 tons of TNT ( 1 @,@ 300 GJ ) ) , Kistiakowsky 1 @,@ 400 tons of TNT ( 5 @,@ 900 GJ ) , and Bethe chose 8 @,@ 000 tons of TNT ( 33 @,@ 000 GJ ) . Rabi , the last to arrive , won the pool with a prediction of 18 @,@ 000 tons of TNT ( 75 @,@ 000 GJ ) . Bethe 's choice of 8 kt was exactly the value calculated by Segrè , with Bethe stating that he was swayed by Segrè 's authority over that of a more junior member of Segrè 's group who had calculated 20 kt . Enrico Fermi offered to take wagers among the top physicists and military present on whether the atmosphere would ignite , and if so whether it would destroy just the state , or incinerate the entire planet . This last result had been previously calculated by Bethe to be almost impossible , although for a while it had caused some of the scientists some anxiety . Bainbridge was furious with Fermi for scaring the guards who , unlike the physicists , did not have the advantage of their knowledge about the scientific possibilities . His own biggest fear was that nothing would happen , in which case he would have to head back to the tower to investigate .
Julian Mack and Berlyn Brixner were responsible for photography . The photography group employed some fifty different cameras , taking motion and still photographs . Special Fastax cameras taking 10 @,@ 000 frames per second would record the minute details of the explosion . Spectrograph cameras would record the wavelengths of light emitted by the explosion , and pinhole cameras would record gamma rays . A rotating drum spectrograph at the 10 @,@ 000 @-@ yard ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) station would obtain the spectrum over the first hundredth of a second . Another , slow recording one would track the fireball . Cameras were placed in bunkers only 800 yards ( 730 m ) from the tower , protected by steel and lead glass , and mounted on sleds so they could be towed out by the lead @-@ lined tank . Some observers brought their own cameras despite the security . Segré brought in Jack Aeby 's 35 mm Perfex 44 . It would take the only known well @-@ exposed color photograph of the detonation explosion .
= = Explosion = =
= = = Detonation = = =
The scientists wanted good visibility , low humidity , light winds at low altitude and westerly winds at high altitude for the test . The best weather was predicted between July 18 and 21 , but the Potsdam Conference was due to start on July 16 and President Harry S. Truman wanted the test to be conducted before the conference began . It was therefore scheduled for July 16 , the earliest date at which the bomb components would be available .
The detonation was initially planned for 04 : 00 MWT but was postponed because of rain and lightning from early that morning . It was feared that the danger from radiation and fallout would be increased by rain , and lightning had the scientists concerned about a premature detonation . A crucial favorable weather report came in at 04 : 45 , and the final twenty @-@ minute countdown began at 05 : 10 , read by Samuel Allison . By 05 : 30 the rain had gone . There were some communication problems . The shortwave radio frequency for communicating with the B @-@ 29s was shared with the Voice of America , and the FM radios shared a frequency with a railroad freight yard in San Antonio , Texas .
Two circling B @-@ 29s observed the test , with Shields again flying the lead plane . They carried members of Project Alberta , who would carry out airborne measurements during the atomic missions . These included Captain Deak Parsons , the Associate Director of the Los Alamos Laboratory and the head of Project Alberta ; Luis Alvarez , Harold Agnew , Bernard Waldman , Wolfgang Panofsky and William Penney . The overcast obscured their view of the test site .
At 05 : 29 : 21 MWT ( ± 2 seconds ) , the device exploded with an energy equivalent to around 20 kilotons of TNT ( 84 TJ ) . The desert sand , largely made of silica , melted and became a mildly radioactive light green glass , which was named trinitite . It left a crater in the desert 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) deep and 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) wide . At the time of detonation , the surrounding mountains were illuminated " brighter than daytime " for one to two seconds , and the heat was reported as " being as hot as an oven " at the base camp . The observed colors of the illumination changed from purple to green and eventually to white . The roar of the shock wave took 40 seconds to reach the observers . It was felt over 100 miles ( 160 km ) away , and the mushroom cloud reached 7 @.@ 5 miles ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) in height .
Ralph Carlisle Smith , watching from Compania Hill , wrote :
I was staring straight ahead with my open left eye covered by a welder 's glass and my right eye remaining open and uncovered . Suddenly , my right eye was blinded by a light which appeared instantaneously all about without any build up of intensity . My left eye could see the ball of fire start up like a tremendous bubble or nob @-@ like mushroom . I dropped the glass from my left eye almost immediately and watched the light climb upward . The light intensity fell rapidly hence did not blind my left eye but it was still amazingly bright . It turned yellow , then red , and then beautiful purple . At first it had a translucent character but shortly turned to a tinted or colored white smoke appearance . The ball of fire seemed to rise in something of toadstool effect . Later the column proceeded as a cylinder of white smoke ; it seemed to move ponderously . A hole was punched through the clouds but two fog rings appeared well above the white smoke column . There was a spontaneous cheer from the observers . Dr. von Neumann said " that was at least 5 @,@ 000 tons and probably a lot more . "
In his official report on the test , Farrell wrote :
The lighting effects beggared description . The whole country was lighted by a searing light with the intensity many times that of the midday sun . It was golden , purple , violet , gray , and blue . It lighted every peak , crevasse and ridge of the nearby mountain range with a clarity and beauty that cannot be described but must be seen to be imagined ...
William L. Laurence of The New York Times had been transferred temporarily to the Manhattan Project at Groves 's request in early 1945 . Groves had arranged for Laurence to view significant events , including Trinity and the atomic bombing of Japan . Laurence wrote press releases with the help of the Manhattan Project 's public relations staff . He later recalled that
A loud cry filled the air . The little groups that hitherto had stood rooted to the earth like desert plants broke into dance , the rhythm of primitive man dancing at one of his fire festivals at the coming of Spring .
After the initial euphoria of witnessing the explosion had passed , Bainbridge told Oppenheimer , " Now we are all sons of bitches . " Rabi noticed Oppenheimer 's reaction : " I 'll never forget his walk ; " Rabi recalled , " I 'll never forget the way he stepped out of the car ... his walk was like High Noon ... this kind of strut . He had done it . "
Oppenheimer later recalled that , while witnessing the explosion , he thought of a verse from the Hindu holy book , the Bhagavad Gita ( XI , 12 ) :
कालोऽस ् मि लोकक ् षयकृत ् प ् रवृद ् धो लोकान ् समाहर ् तुमिह प ् रवृत ् तः । ऋतेऽपि त ् वां न भविष ् यन ् ति सर ् वे येऽवस ् थिताः प ् रत ् यनीकेषु योधाः ॥ ११- ३२ ॥
If the radiance of a thousand suns were to burst at once into the sky , that would be like the splendor of the mighty one ...
Years later he would explain that another verse had also entered his head at that time :
We knew the world would not be the same . A few people laughed , a few people cried . Most people were silent . I remembered the line from the Hindu scripture , the Bhagavad Gita ; Vishnu is trying to persuade the Prince that he should do his duty and , to impress him , takes on his multi @-@ armed form and says , ' Now I am become Death , the destroyer of worlds . ' I suppose we all thought that , one way or another .
John R. Lugo was flying a U.S. Navy transport at 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) , 30 miles ( 48 km ) east of Albuquerque , en route to the west coast . " My first impression was , like , the sun was coming up in the south . What a ball of fire ! It was so bright it lit up the cockpit of the plane . " Lugo radioed Albuquerque . He got no explanation for the blast but was told , " Don 't fly south . "
= = = Energy measurements = = =
The T ( Theoretical ) Division at Los Alamos had predicted a yield of between 5 and 10 kilotons of TNT ( 21 and 42 TJ ) . Immediately after the blast , the two lead @-@ lined Sherman tanks made their way to the crater . Radiochemical analysis of soil samples that they collected indicated that the total yield ( or energy release ) had been around 18 @.@ 6 kilotons of TNT ( 78 TJ ) .
Fifty beryllium @-@ copper diaphragm microphones were also used to record the pressure of the blast wave . These were supplemented by mechanical pressure gauges . These indicated a blast energy of 9 @.@ 9 kilotons of TNT ( 41 TJ ) ± 0 @.@ 1 kilotons of TNT ( 0 @.@ 42 TJ ) , with only one of the mechanical pressure gauges working correctly that indicated 10 kilotons of TNT ( 42 TJ ) .
Fermi prepared his own experiment to measure the energy that was released as blast . He later recalled that :
About 40 seconds after the explosion the air blast reached me . I tried to estimate its strength by dropping from about six feet small pieces of paper before , during , and after the passage of the blast wave . Since , at the time , there was no wind I could observe very distinctly and actually measure the displacement of the pieces of paper that were in the process of falling while the blast was passing . The shift was about 2 1 / 2 meters , which , at the time , I estimated to correspond to the blast that would be produced by ten thousand tons of T.N.T.
There were also several gamma ray and neutron detectors , although few survived the blast , with all the gauges within 200 feet ( 61 m ) of ground zero being destroyed , however sufficient data were recovered to measure the gamma ray component of the ionizing radiation released .
The official estimate for the total yield of the Trinity gadget , which includes the energy of the blast component together with the contributions from the explosion 's light output and both forms of ionizing radiation , is 21 kilotons of TNT ( 88 TJ ) , of which about 15 kilotons of TNT ( 63 TJ ) was contributed by fission of the plutonium core , and about 6 kilotons of TNT ( 25 TJ ) was from fission of the natural uranium tamper . However , a re @-@ analysis of data published in 2016 put the yield at 22 @.@ 1 kilotons of TNT ( 92 TJ ) , with a margin of error estimated at 2 @.@ 7 kilotons of TNT ( 11 TJ ) .
As a result of the data gathered on the size of the blast , the detonation height for the bombing of Hiroshima was set at 1 @,@ 885 feet ( 575 m ) to take advantage of the mach stem blast reinforcing effect . The final Nagasaki burst height was 1 @,@ 650 feet ( 500 m ) so the Mach stem started sooner . The knowledge that implosion worked led Oppenheimer to recommend to Groves that the uranium @-@ 235 used in a Little Boy gun @-@ type weapon could be used more economically in a composite core with plutonium . It was too late to do this with the first Little Boy , but the composite cores would soon enter production .
= = = Civilian detection = = =
Civilians noticed the bright lights and huge explosion . Groves therefore had the Second Air Force issue a press release with a cover story that he had prepared weeks before :
Alamogordo , N.M. , July 16
The commanding officer of the Alamogordo Army Air Base made the following statement today : " Several inquiries have been received concerning a heavy explosion which occurred on the Alamogordo Air base reservation this morning . A remotely located ammunition magazine containing a considerable amount of high explosives and pyrotechnics exploded . There was no loss of life or injury to anyone , and the property damage outside of the explosives magazine was negligible . Weather conditions affecting the content of gas shells exploded by the blast may make it desirable for the Army to evacuate temporarily a few civilians from their homes . "
The press release was written by Laurence . He had prepared four releases , covering outcomes ranging from an account of a successful test ( the one which was used ) to catastrophic scenarios involving serious damage to surrounding communities , evacuation of nearby residents , and a placeholder for the names of those killed . As Laurence was a witness to the test he knew that the last release , if used , might be his own obituary . A newspaper article published the same day stated that " the blast was seen and felt throughout an area extending from El Paso to Silver City , Gallup , Socorro , and Albuquerque . " An Associated Press article quoted a blind woman 150 miles ( 240 km ) away who asked " What 's that brilliant light ? " These articles appeared in New Mexico , but East Coast newspapers ignored them .
Information about the Trinity test was made public shortly after the bombing of Hiroshima . The Smyth Report , released on August 12 , 1945 , gave some information on the blast , and the edition released by Princeton University Press a few weeks later incorporated the War Department 's press release on the test as Appendix 6 , and contained the famous pictures of a " bulbous " Trinity fireball . Groves , Oppenheimer and other dignitaries visited the test site in September 1945 , wearing white canvas overshoes to prevent fallout from sticking to the soles of their shoes .
= = = Official notifications = = =
The results of the test were conveyed to the Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson at the Potsdam Conference in Germany in a coded message from his assistant George L. Harrison :
Operated on this morning . Diagnosis not yet complete but results seem satisfactory and already exceed expectations . Local press release necessary as interest extends great distance . Dr. Groves pleased . He returns tomorrow . I will keep you posted .
The message arrived at the " Little White House " in the Potsdam suburb of Babelsberg and was at once taken to Truman and Secretary of State James F. Byrnes . Harrison sent a follow @-@ up message which arrived on the morning of July 18 :
Doctor has just returned most enthusiastic and confident that the little boy is as husky as his big brother . The light in his eyes discernible from here to High Hold and I could have heard his screams from here to my farm .
Because Stimson 's summer home at High Hold was on Long Island and Harrison 's farm near Upperville , Virginia , this indicated that the explosion could be seen 200 miles ( 320 km ) away and heard 50 miles ( 80 km ) away .
= = = Fallout = = =
Film badges used to measure exposure to radioactivity indicated that no observers at N @-@ 10 @,@ 000 had been exposed to more than 0 @.@ 1 roentgens , but the shelter was evacuated before the radioactive cloud could reach it . The explosion was more efficient than expected and the thermal updraft drew most of the cloud high enough that little fallout fell on the test site . The crater was far more radioactive than expected due to the formation of trinitite , and the crews of the two lead @-@ lined Sherman tanks were subjected to considerable exposure . Anderson 's dosimeter and film badge recorded 7 to 10 roentgens , and one of the tank drivers , who made three trips , recorded 13 to 15 roentgens .
The heaviest fallout contamination outside the restricted test area was 30 miles ( 48 km ) from the detonation point , on Chupadera Mesa . The fallout there was reported to have settled in a white mist onto some of the livestock in the area , resulting in local beta burns and a temporary loss of dorsal or back hair . Patches of hair grew back discolored white . The Army bought 75 cattle in all from ranchers ; the 17 most significantly marked were kept at Los Alamos , while the rest were shipped to Oak Ridge for long @-@ term observation .
Unlike the 100 or so atmospheric nuclear explosions later conducted at the Nevada Test Site , fallout doses to the local inhabitants have not been reconstructed for the Trinity event , due primarily to scarcity of data . In 2014 , a National Cancer Institute study commenced that will attempt to close this gap in the literature and complete a Trinity radiation dose reconstruction for the population of the state of New Mexico .
In August 1945 , shortly after the bombing of Hiroshima , the Kodak Company observed spotting and fogging on their film , which was at that time usually packaged in cardboard containers . Dr. J. H. Webb , a Kodak employee , studied the matter and concluded that the contamination must have come from a nuclear explosion somewhere in the United States . He discounted the possibility that the Hiroshima bomb was responsible due to the timing of the events . A hot spot of fallout contaminated the river water that the paper mill in Indiana used to manufacture the cardboard pulp from corn husks . Aware of the gravity of his discovery , Dr. Webb kept this secret until 1949 .
This incident along with the next continental US tests in 1951 set a precedent . In subsequent atmospheric nuclear tests at the Nevada test site , United States Atomic Energy Commission officials gave the photographic industry maps and forecasts of potential contamination , as well as expected fallout distributions , which enabled them to purchase uncontaminated materials and take other protective measures .
= = Site today = =
In September 1953 , about 650 people attended the first Trinity Site open house . Visitors to a Trinity Site open house are allowed to see the ground zero and McDonald Ranch House areas . More than seventy years after the test , residual radiation at the site is about ten times higher than normal background radiation in the area . The amount of radioactive exposure received during a one @-@ hour visit to the site is about half of the total radiation exposure which a U.S. adult receives on an average day from natural and medical sources .
On December 21 , 1965 , the 51 @,@ 500 @-@ acre ( 20 @,@ 800 ha ) Trinity Site was declared a National Historic Landmark district , and on October 15 , 1966 , was listed on the National Register of Historic Places . The landmark includes the base camp , where the scientists and support group lived ; ground zero , where the bomb was placed for the explosion ; and the McDonald ranch house , where the plutonium core to the bomb was assembled . One of the old instrumentation bunkers is visible beside the road just west of ground zero . An inner oblong fence was added in 1967 , and the corridor barbed wire fence that connects the outer fence to the inner one was completed in 1972 . Jumbo was moved to the parking lot in 1979 ; it is missing its ends from an attempt to destroy it in 1946 using eight 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bombs . The Trinity monument , a rough @-@ sided , lava @-@ rock obelisk about 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) high , marks the explosion 's hypocenter . It was erected in 1965 by Army personnel from the White Sands Missile Range using local rocks taken from the western boundary of the range . A simple metal plaque read : " Trinity Site Where the World 's First Nuclear Device Was Exploded on July 16 , 1945 . " A second memorial plaque on the obelisk was prepared by the Army and the National Park Service , and was unveiled on the 30th anniversary of the test in 1975 .
A special tour of the site was conducted on July 16 , 1995 , to mark the 50th anniversary of the Trinity test . About 5 @,@ 000 visitors arrived to commemorate the occasion , the largest crowd for any open house . Since then , the open houses have usually averaged two to three thousand visitors . The site is still a popular destination for those interested in atomic tourism , though it is only open to the public twice a year during the Trinity Site Open House on the first Saturdays of April and October . In 2014 , the White Sands Missile Range announced that due to budgetary constraints , the site would only be open once a year , on the first Saturday in April . In 2015 , this decision was reversed , and two events were scheduled , in April and October . The base commander , Brigadier General Timothy R. Coffin , explained that :
Trinity Site is a national historic testing landmark where the theories and engineering of some of the nation 's brightest minds were tested with the detonation of the first nuclear bomb , technologies which then helped end World War II . It is important for us to share Trinity with the public even though the site is located inside a very active military test range . We have travelers from as far away as Australia who travel to visit this historic landmark . Facilitating access twice per year allows more people the chance to visit this historic site .
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= Karmichael Hunt =
Karmichael Neil Matthew Hunt ( born 17 November 1986 ) is a New Zealand @-@ born Australian professional football player , currently playing Rugby Union for the Queensland Reds in the Southern Hemisphere Super Rugby competition .
Hunt was formerly best known as a rugby league player for the Brisbane Broncos in the National Rugby League ( NRL ) . He primarily played in the fullback position , but has also played in the Centres , on the wing , at five @-@ eighth and at halfback . He played in the NRL for Brisbane from 2004 to 2009 and was part of the Broncos ' competition @-@ winning team in 2006 . He has represented the Queensland Maroons in the State of Origin series and the Australian Kangaroos at international level .
Hunt made his NRL debut in the 2004 and played every game that season , winning the Dally M Rookie of the Year award . In a controversial move , Hunt chose to play for Australia instead of his native New Zealand , citing a lifelong dream of playing for Queensland in State of Origin . Hunt 's performance in the 2006 NRL season resulted in his selection for Queensland and Australia between 2006 – 2009 .
In June 2009 , Hunt expressed a desire to leave the NRL competition and it was speculated he would play rugby overseas . However , he announced in July 2009 that he had signed a lucrative three @-@ year playing and promotional contract with Australian Football League expansion team , Gold Coast whose inaugural season would be 2011 . In 2010 , while contracted to the Gold Coast , he played a season with Biarritz Olympique in the Top 14 French rugby union competition . Hunt was named in the Courier Mail 2011 Queensland Australian rules football Team of the Year . Overall , however , his 4 @-@ year stint in the AFL was subject to mixed reviews .
Hunt is the first sportsperson in Australia to have reached elite professional level in three different football codes , a feat which prompted fitness coach Dean Benton to regard him as the greatest all @-@ round footballer Australia has produced .
On 19 February 2015 , Hunt was arrested and charged with four counts for the supply of cocaine for personal use or to on @-@ supply cocaine to friends and colleagues between June and December 2014 .
= = Early life = =
Hunt was born on 17 November 1986 in Auckland , New Zealand , to Hans and Tera Hunt , from Samoa and the Cook Islands respectively . He began playing rugby league at the age of four for the Avondale Wolves before moving to Australia as an eleven @-@ year @-@ old in 1997 , the family moved to the suburb of Algester in Brisbane , Australia . Upon moving to Brisbane , Hunt played junior rugby league for the Souths club in Acacia Ridge . Hunt 's childhood hero was Michael Jordan and , prior to his rugby league success , he dreamt of playing basketball in the United States .
In 2000 , Hunt made his representative debut with the Under @-@ 14 South – East team of the Queensland Rugby League ( QRL ) , in the fullback position . In 2001 , he became part of the Under @-@ 15 Australian merit side , and , upon seeing him play rugby league , NRL club Brisbane Broncos scout Cyril Connell offered him a scholarship with the club . Hunt accepted the Broncos scholarship and , after strong performance at Souths Acacia Ridge and Sunnybank High School , received a scholarship to the Anglican Church Grammar School ( Churchie ) .
At Churchie , Hunt switched to rugby union and was a dominant figure in the school 's team , which played in the Queensland Great Public Schools ( GPS ) competition . As a fullback , he led his team to an undefeated season in 2003 , and he was one of the best players in the GPS competition . While playing rugby union at ACGS , Hunt also played for the Queensland Schoolboys rugby league team against New South Wales , in the position of lock . Along with Anton LaVin , he won the Bob Templeton Trophy for Queensland 's leading schoolboy player . During the rugby off @-@ season in 2003 , Hunt played six matches of Australian rules football code for the ACGS school side under captain Scott Harding . During which time he was identified by Australian Football League talent manager Mark Browning as an " AFL prospect " .
In 2003 , Hunt was selected for the Australian Schoolboys rugby league representative team to tour New Zealand , playing three matches under coach Rod Patison . Hunt scored a try in each game and was named best back of the series . Australian Schoolboys ' coaching staff predicted that Hunt was the most likely Australian schoolboy to make a debut in the NRL .
In 2004 , St. George Illawarra Dragons coach Nathan Brown spoke about Hunt and a discussion he had with recruitment officer Craig Young a year earlier , when Hunt was still under contract with the Broncos . " He 's a terrific player . Craig Young who scouts for us watched him play last year and said give him $ 80 @,@ 000 ( to lure him to Sydney ) . I said ' where would we play him ? ' And he ( Young ) said ' wing , fullback , centre , five eighth , lock – doesn 't matter because he 'll play first grade and play for Australia for the next 12 years ' . "
= = Rugby League career = =
= = = Brisbane Broncos ( 2004 – 2009 ) = = =
= = = = Debut season = = = =
Hunt 's 2001 scholarship came to fruition when he joined the Brisbane Broncos ' main squad at the end of the 2003 season . He participated in the team 's off @-@ season training in early 2004 , under the guidance of Broncos ' coach Wayne Bennett , and was selected to participate in the Broncos ' pre @-@ season trial games in February . Hunt had expected to play most of the 2004 season in the Queensland Cup , the second @-@ tier rugby league competition in Queensland . However , after Darren Lockyer 's shift to the five @-@ eighth position and Hunt playing both trial games on the wing and scoring a try in the first game against the Melbourne Storm , he was selected to make his National Rugby League ( NRL ) debut for the Broncos in the first round of the 2004 season against the New Zealand Warriors , making him the youngest ever Bronco at seventeen . Coach Bennett 's decision to name Hunt as the starting fullback was somewhat surprising , due to Hunt 's original selection , the week before the match , on the interchange bench . He replaced Motu Tony in the fullback position .
Hunt described Bennett and Broncos team @-@ mate Darren Lockyer as the greatest influences on his league career . With Lockyer 's move from fullback to five @-@ eighth , Hunt had large shoes to fill in the position . Hunt proved to be a success for the Broncos ; he played every game in 2004 , missing just four minutes in total , and was the team 's top try @-@ scorer . Bennett remarked of him that " Karmichael has an attitude just like Darren Lockyer where he can make a mistake and kiss it off and just get on with the game , It 's a wonderful quality to have and you 'd like every player to have it . A lot of guys dwell on mistakes and it stays with them too long . "
Hunt drew criticism for his style of returning the football ; upon receiving the ball , he would run straight at opposition players rather than attempting to evade them . As a result , he received several high tackles , causing the Broncos to ask the NRL to protect Hunt by punishing opposition players more severely . The referees ' board supported this position , and stated that fullbacks such as Hunt needed to be protected due to greater risk of injury .
The performance of the 2004 NRL rookies , including Hunt , had been much anticipated . After a few games , his peers and the media singled Hunt out as the next superstar of the game . To minimise the impact of excessive media pressure on Hunt 's performance , Bennett banned him from speaking to the media . Hunt scored four tries in the Round 17 clash with the South Sydney Rabbitohs , equalling the team record . His form earned him the Brisbane Broncos and Dally M Rookie of the Year awards .
= = = = 2005 = = = =
At the end of 2004 , Hunt signed a contract with the Broncos for an additional two years , with the intention of staying at the club for the rest of his career . On re @-@ signing , Hunt stated , " I look around and see guys like Webbie and Locky who have been here for their entire careers , and it 's something I would like to do . If I can , I want to be a one @-@ club player too . Playing footy is not just about 80 minutes out on the field every week . For me it is a career and I want to be happy where I am , satisfied that my game is progressing and that I am learning all the time to be a better player . "
Bennett advised Hunt to have fun and enjoy himself like any other teenager , so that it would not affect his second year in first @-@ grade rugby league . However , Hunt 's second season was not considered as successful as his first , despite his only missing one game , a situation that the media labelled " Karmichael 's second @-@ year syndrome " . Hunt was retained in the fullback position despite his perceived lack of form , which included fewer tries and fewer kick returns than in his debut season .
Hunt scored a try in each of the first two games of the season . In Round 6 , he was knocked unconscious by a high tackle from a St George Illawarra Dragons player , Shaun Timmins . The following week , still suffering from the effects of concussion , he missed his first NRL game since his debut . Hunt returned a week later and scored a try in each of the next three games . However , he only scored three more tries in the remaining sixteen weeks of the season . Hunt was a part of the junior Australian representative team at the end of the 2005 season , but was not considered for the game against Papua New Guinea for personal reasons .
= = = = 2006 = = = =
Prior to the 2006 National Rugby League season , Wayne Bennett , backed by former Broncos halfback Allan Langer , groomed Hunt as a key play @-@ maker , able to steer the play from the halfback position , with the intention of taking pressure off Darren Lockyer and then @-@ halfback , Brett Seymour . In a trial match against the North Queensland Cowboys , Hunt played in the halfback position but he returned to fullback for the opening NRL game . Hunt scored two tries against the Canberra Raiders in Round 8 of the competition , following this performance with another two tries against Manly in Round 10 .
Hunt sustained a foot injury in the Broncos Round 15 match and was sidelined for eight weeks . While out injured , early in the morning on 30 July 2006 , Hunt was at the scene of a fight outside a Brisbane night club in Brisbane 's CBD . The media , notably Channel 7 and Channel 10 , alleged Hunt was the instigator of the incident , claiming he squirted water on a woman . The Broncos denied he had any involvement in the incident although a woman gave his name to police . Hunt also denied involvement , insisting he was merely a bystander .
When Hunt 's contract ended at the end of 2006 , concern mounted as to whether the Broncos would be able to retain him . The Broncos could only offer Hunt about $ 200 @,@ 000 a season , while other teams were able to offer him $ 300 @,@ 000 . The South Sydney Rabbitohs reportedly offered Hunt up to $ 500 @,@ 000 a season , but despite these offers , on 29 June , he signed with the Broncos for a further three years . Brisbane Broncos chief executive Bruno Cullen announced that contract negotiations were " straightforward " and there was never any doubt that Hunt wanted to stay at the Broncos .
During Hunt 's injury , Bennett moved Broncos team mate Justin Hodges to fullback and Hodges was impressive in the position . When Hunt returned to the Broncos side in Round 25 against the Parramatta Eels , he was forced to play on the wing due to Hodges ' good form . Hunt and Hodges continued to switch the fullback position for the remainder of the season . Hunt missed the first week of the finals due to a hamstring problem but was able to return a week later .
The Broncos went on to reach the 2006 NRL Grand Final against the Melbourne Storm , with Hunt playing on the wing and Hodges at fullback , and Brisbane winning 15 – 8 . After that Hunt was selected to represent Australia in the 2006 Rugby League Tri @-@ Nations tournament , playing at fullback in the Kangaroos victory over New Zealand in the final .
= = = = 2007 = = = =
As NRL premiers , in the 2007 pre @-@ season the Broncos travelled to England for the 2007 World Club Challenge . Hunt played at fullback in Brisbane 's loss to St Helens .
Bennett pulled his first selection surprise of 2007 , experimenting with Hunt at halfback for the opening game of the season . At the time Bennett maintained that this would be a long term switch , but due to the Broncos ' poor form , Hunt returned to fullback for Round 3 . Hunt was selected to play for the Australian national team at fullback in the 2007 ANZAC Test match against New Zealand , scoring a try in the Kangaroos ' 30 @-@ 6 victory .
In Round 11 , the Broncos had their biggest victory yet , winning 71 – 6 over Newcastle . In that game Hunt set up three tries and scored one himself . The Brisbane newspaper The Sunday Mail described Hunt as not performing consistently throughout the 2007 season for the Broncos . However , Hunt played an exceptionally good game in Round 15 against the Wests Tigers , scoring three tries , assisting in a try and gaining 281 metres in the Broncos ' win .
Hunt 's skill on the field and positive influence on other team members led to his emergence , early in 2007 , as a future candidate for the Broncos captaincy . Broncos chief executive Bruno Cullen stated that such a move would have his and the Broncos management 's full support . Current captain Lockyer also gave his support to Hunt being the next captain , saying that he has the respect of fellow players and the necessary leadership qualities .
After Round 18 of the competition , during a training session on 20 July 2007 , Hunt injured his hamstring and was originally scheduled to miss six weeks . However , his recovery took longer than expected , and he was eventually ruled out for the rest of the season . Despite playing only thirteen games for the Broncos in 2007 , he received the Broncos award for Best Back .
= = = = 2008 = = = =
Over the 2008 pre @-@ season Hunt recovered from his hamstring injury and played in his first match since being injured in a 23 February 2008 trial match against Canberra . After playing another trial in the position of five eighth , Hunt returned to first grade in Round 1 of the 2008 NRL competition playing fullback in the Broncos 48 – 12 win over Penrith . In Round 2 Hunt shoulder charged Sydney Roosters five eighth Braith Anasta in the head and was subsequently placed on report . The NRL judiciary committee charged Hunt with a Grade @-@ Three Careless High tackle and if pleading guilty would miss one week of premiership competition . Pleading not guilty to the charge , Hunt was cleared to play by the judiciary with no penalty being given but missed one week anyway due to a knee injury .
In July 2008 , speculation began on what Hunt would do past the expiration of his contract at the end of the 2009 season . With some high @-@ profile defections of star league players to cashed @-@ up rugby union clubs from France , Hunt is expected to be the target of offers from overseas and within Australia . Australian rugby union club Queensland Reds stated their intentions to attempt to lure Hunt to the rugby union code , with the reasoning being his successful young career in rugby union . From within the NRL competition , Sydney based clubs Sydney Roosters and St. George Illawarra Dragons stated their intentions to make a bid for Hunt for his services in the 2010 season , claiming they could double Hunt 's three @-@ year deal from 2006 , reported to be around $ 200 @,@ 000 . The Broncos however , were still expected to be a factor in his decision with the possibility of the captaincy a possible lure to remain with the Broncos .
In the final round of the 2008 NRL competition , Hunt became the youngest player in premiership 's history to reach 100 first @-@ grade games . He set up three tries and scored one himself in the man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ match performance against the Newcastle Knights in the game which secured the Broncos place in the competition finals . This performance came a day after his coach Wayne Bennett stated that Hunt was the " bravest " player he had coached because of the strong runs he made when returning the ball from fullback .
On 15 September 2008 , a 24 @-@ year @-@ old woman lodged a formal complaint about a sexual assault that allegedly occurred two days earlier . The people alleged to be at the centre of the incident were Hunt and Brisbane Broncos team mates Darius Boyd and Sam Thaiday . The players cooperated with police and the three were cleared of the allegations in November by police . Hunt later said he was ashamed and felt he let down his family , fans and the Broncos . However , in May 2009 , the woman stated she had a few drinks with Hunt , went into a toilet cubicle , and " after a few kisses , things went drastically wrong " and that in a " blink of an eye " Boyd and Thaiday were also in the cubicle .
= = = = 2009 = = = =
In March 2009 it was revealed the Broncos had withdrawn their contract extension offer to Hunt believed to be worth $ 1 million over three years . Hunt later revealed contract talks held with then Broncos CEO Bruno Cullen and Broncos coach Ivan Henjak in March 2009 were what turned him away from re @-@ signing with the club . On 11 June 2009 , tests confirmed Hunt tested positive to the swine flu influenza , and despite this , played in a 12 June 2009 game against the Bulldogs , despite health advice stating people with the influenza should remain isolated . Hunt 's final game for the Broncos was the loss to Melbourne in the 2009 Grand Final qualifier .
= = = Statistics = = =
= = Representative rugby league career = =
= = = Allegiance and debut = = =
In his debut season in 2004 , Hunt was approached to play at international level for New Zealand in the ANZAC Test match . Although he was born in New Zealand , he had played all of his rugby league in Queensland , Australia . He was therefore eligible to play for either New Zealand or Australia , and he could have also played for the Cook Islands or Samoa due to his parents ' heritage . However , Hunt pledged his allegiance to Queensland , and therefore Australia , but was not selected for either country that season . Hunt became a possibility for the Australian squad for the 2004 Tri @-@ Nations , but Bennett , who was the Australian coach , decided not to select him due to his inexperience . In 2006 , media speculation suggested that Hunt intended to change his allegiance and play for the New Zealand team , but Hunt put the speculation to rest by confirming that he would play for Australia .
Though Hunt was considered for the 2004 State of Origin series among other fullbacks , he was ignored for the entire series in favour of Penrith Panthers fullback Rhys Wesser . Hunt 's good form in 2006 paid off when he was selected to play for the Australian team against New Zealand on 5 May as a replacement for the injured Anthony Minichiello . This decision proved controversial , due to his being preferred over the in @-@ form Matt Bowen . That game was Hunt 's representative and international debut , and though he performed well , he only played for 50 minutes , making one error and 83 metres in kick returns . However , he was unable to complete the game due to concussion sustained by a blow from Frank Pritchard . He was taken unconscious from the field and played no further part in the match .
After his Test debut , Hunt was expected to be the Queensland fullback in the first match of the three game State of Origin series . However , Queensland selectors decided to stay with incumbent Origin fullback Matt Bowen . The selectors reconsidered after Queensland lost the first game , selecting Hunt for the second match . In his State of Origin debut , Hunt ran with the ball seventeen times , making 196 metres . He missed the third Origin game because of a foot injury , sustained in the Broncos ' Round 15 match , and was replaced by Clinton Schifcofske .
= = = 2006 Tri @-@ Nations to 2008 = = =
Hunt was one of eight Broncos players selected for the Australian team for the end of year Tri @-@ Nations series . With the absence of injured rival Anthony Minichiello , Hunt retained his fullback position for the first Tri @-@ Nations match , scoring two tries in a man of the match performance . He played in the remainder of the Tri @-@ Nations series , which Australia won , Hunt scoring a total of three tries . The Tri @-@ Nations win ended a good year for Hunt , who made his debut for Australia and Queensland before being a part of the premiership @-@ winning Broncos team .
Hunt retained his fullback position for Australia in the 2007 ANZAC Test . Hunt ran the ball 18 times , the most of any player , and scored one try in a man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ match performance as Australia won 30 – 6 . Hunt was named fullback for all three games of the 2007 State of Origin series , despite the club form of rival fullbacks Billy Slater and Matt Bowen . In the second game , Hunt played a full match despite aggravating his foot injury as Queensland won the match and the series . He also played in the third Origin game despite suffering a calf injury during training . Hunt was not considered for selection in the end of year Test for Australia against New Zealand due to a hamstring injury sustained earlier in the season .
A minor knee injury which only left Hunt out for two weeks was enough to deny him the opportunity to regain the fullback position for Australia in the Centenary Test against New Zealand in May 2008 . Hunt 's place in the Queensland team for the 2008 State of Origin series was assured by Queensland coach Mal Meninga but there was speculation that Hunt could play five @-@ eighth in place of injured team @-@ mate Darren Lockyer . While not the best five @-@ eighth possibility for the Queensland representative team , his selection there would make way for the Australian fullback Billy Slater . Hunt , having never played a senior rugby league game at five @-@ eighth , was controversially selected at the position for Queensland instead of the in @-@ form Scott Prince .
In a losing Queensland team , Hunt played neither well nor badly , being outstanding in defence but subdued in attack . As a result , Hunt 's position at five @-@ eighth was in question for the second game , but coach Mal Meninga stated that Hunt would remain in the team . Hunt was named on the interchange bench for the second game , making way for Queensland custodian and captain Lockyer in the five @-@ eighth role . However , Meninga made a late change before the game , starting Hunt at fullback and moving Slater to the interchange bench . Hunt played in the match , which Queensland won 30 – 0 , for only 51 minutes , being put on the interchange bench for 29 minutes in the middle part of the game . He retained his starting position for game three , which Queensland won to take the series .
= = = 2008 Rugby League World Cup and beyond = = =
In August 2008 , Hunt was named in the preliminary 46 @-@ man squad for Australia in the 2008 Rugby League World Cup . However he did not make the final 24 @-@ man squad because of 2008 grand final fullbacks Billy Slater and Brett Stewart who were selected ahead of Hunt . However Hunt was later called into the 24 @-@ man squad after Stewart was ruled out with injury . Hunt wasn 't picked for the first match , with Slater picked ahead of him , however in the match , interchange player Kurt Gidley sustained an injury which subsequently led to Hunt being picked on the interchange bench for the second match . In the third regulation match , with a semi @-@ final berth assured , coach Ricky Stuart choose to rest many of his regular players , including Slater , for the match . Hunt would play fullback for this match , and was moved back to the interchange bench for the semi @-@ final and the final of the World Cup which Australia lost .
In April 2009 , he was named in the preliminary 25 man squad to represent Queensland in the opening State of Origin match for 2009 and was subsequently picked on the interchange bench for the opening State of Origin match on 3 June . Hunt came on in the 25th minute of the game to replace the injured Justin Hodges and played in his centre position for the remainder of the match which Queensland won . The consequences of this game would be felt as part of the 2009 swine flu pandemic in Australia . Hunt 's Queensland teammate Ben Hannant tested positive to the Swine influenza and the Brisbane Broncos subsequently put all of their Origin players in quarantine .
= = Change of sports = =
On 29 July 2009 , Hunt signed a deal to switch codes and play Australian rules football for the newly formed Gold Coast Football Club which had joined the Australian Football League ( AFL ) in the 2011 season . The deal , reputed to be worth over $ 3 million , was subsidised by the AFL and included a substantial component of AFL development and promotional responsibility . The move generated significant controversy in both the NRL and the AFL and received international media coverage .
On 17 October 2009 , it was revealed that Hunt had agreed to play for the French professional rugby union team Biarritz Olympique based in Biarritz , Aquitaine . Hunt played in the Top 14 French club competition and the European Heineken Cup . The six @-@ month deal was arranged by his manager , David Riolo , after the previous deal fell through . He returned to Australia in May 2010 to begin his contract with the Gold Coast Suns .
At the commencement of his AFL contract in 2010 , Hunt became one of only three AFL players to have earned over a million a year , the others being Jonathan Brown and Chris Judd . He is the first player to appear in the senior grade of both the NRL and the AFL ( or their historical equivalents ) .
Before his AFL career had begun , Hunt featured in television commercials for Swisse Vitamins introduced as an Gold Coast AFL player .
The AFL 's experiment was largely derided by AFL personalities throughout Hunt 's early Australian rules career . Wayne Carey is quoted to have said that " I just think he 's really going to struggle . I 'm just not sure a rugby player - as good as he is - can do it . " Tony Shaw was quoted in 2011 to have said " he just cannot play the game naturally and it won 't work . Just say to him , ' Take your money , you 've been fantastic for us ' , maybe see the year out , but I wouldn 't be playing him very often any more . " Paul Roos is quoted to have said that " a player of Karmichael Hunt 's current ability would probably be worth only $ 100 @,@ 000 in the AFL " . Jason Akermanis is quoted to have said in reference to both Hunt and Israel Folau – who converted from rugby league to Australian rules football the year after Hunt – that " if they can 't run and they can 't handball - and we 're only talking basics like kick , run , chase , handball and get body @-@ to @-@ body collisions - and can 't get up to speed its going to be such a waste of time and money . "
= = Rugby Union career = =
= = = Biarritz Olympique ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = =
Despite never playing Rugby Union professionally Hunt made his Rugby Union debut for the French Barbarians in Brussels , Belgium on 14 November 2009 . He would be selected at the outside center position in the Barbarians ' 39 @-@ 26 victory . Hunt made his debut for Biarritz on 21 November 2009 against Clermont . While competing in the Top 14 for Biarritz the team also competed in the 2009 – 10 Heineken Cup . After topping their group Biarritz would record victories over Welsh team Ospreys and Irish team Munster to reach the 2010 Heineken Cup Final . Hunt would score the only try in the final held at Stade de France in front of 78 @,@ 962 fans . This would be his last game for Biarritz on 22 May 2010 in the team 's 21 @-@ 19 loss .
= = = Queensland Reds ( 2015 – present ) = = =
In August 2014 , Hunt joined the Queensland Reds on a three @-@ year contract ( starting from 2015 ) , with the Reds paying between $ 600 @,@ 000 and $ 700 @,@ 000 to secure his signature . Hunt 's signing coincided with the signing of Wallaby James O 'Connor from French Top 14 side Toulon .
On 16 January 2015 , Hunt , along with teammate Rob Simmons , were appointed vice @-@ captains of the Queensland Reds .
= = = International = = =
In 2016 , Hunt was named in the Wallabies preliminary 39 @-@ man squad for the 2016 series against England .
= = Australian rules football career = =
= = = Gold Coast Football Club ( 2010 – 2014 ) = = =
= = = = Victorian Football League ( 2010 ) = = = =
On 12 June 2010 , Hunt played his first Australian rules football match for Victorian Football League team the Gold Coast in their heavy loss against the Coburg Tigers at the Highgate Recreation Reserve in Craigieburn , Victoria . Playing at full @-@ forward Hunt had three shots at goal in the first quarter , two from free kicks . Hunt kicked two goals in quick succession after he was awarded a free kick for a late push from an opponent after his running goal in the goalsquare . After this he was quiet with few possessions and left the field with cramp in the third quarter .
In his second match against Frankston Football Club on 26 June 2010 , Hunt was tried as a defender , playing fullback on a taller , heavier opponent . He drew some criticism for not getting any kicks and for an inability to read the play , however running a total around 8 kilometres ( 5 mi ) during the game on and off the bench Hunt managed just a handful of possessions and tackles in his side 's convincing win .
Hunt 's coaching staff have speculated him to make an experimental shift into the midfield ( as centreman or ruck rover ) , however he was again selected at fullback for the match against the Box Hill Hawks . In the match Hunt had just three kicks , three handpasses and two marks before straining his groin in the final minutes and missed following games through injury .
In Cairns , Hunt had a breakthrough game against the Bendigo Bombers showing dramatic improvement . He followed the good form being named in the Gold Coast 's best and clearly the best backman against the Sandringham Football Club , again playing in defence showing good run and carry skills with 15 disposals .
= = = = Australian Football League ( 2011 – 2014 ) = = = =
Hunt 's Australian Football League pre @-@ season competition debut was at Blacktown Olympic Park on 19 February 2011 in front of a crowd of 10 @,@ 000 . Playing at fullback , he was named among the side 's best in the three point win against the Sydney Swans while playing on dual Brownlow Medallist Adam Goodes . In each of his two first pre @-@ season matches , the second against the Greater Western Sydney Giants , his performance statistics were consistent at six possessions and a tackle .
His first official AFL game was in the Suns ' debut match in round two of the 2011 season against Carlton . He kicked his first AFL goal on 28 May 2011 against Geelong at Metricon Stadium . In the same match , however , he earned a one @-@ week suspension for head @-@ high contact to Geelong 's Nathan Vardy .
Hunt 's promising first season was rewarded by being named on the half @-@ back flank in the Courier Mail 2011 Queensland Team of the Year . He followed this up by winning Gold Coast 's inaugural Most Improved Player Award at the club 's best and fairest awards on 9 September 2011 .
On 5 March 2012 , Hunt re @-@ signed with the Gold Coast until 2014 , continuing his AFL ambassador role , expressing ambitions to become a midfielder . He was elevated to the Gold Coast 's leadership group .
He began his second season solidly , ranking among the 3 best Gold Coast players in terms of clearances in round 3 against Essendon . Hunt had 16 disposals during the match , and received press notice for a " crunching tackle " of Angus Monfries .
In round 4 Hunt had a 20 @-@ possession display against Brisbane . In the following match against North Melbourne , he had 16 disposals , prompting North Melbourne coach Brad Scott to comment that " Anyone who has criticised Karmichael Hunt over the journey should be eating their words and should be apologizing to him because , on that performance , he 's a bona fide AFL midfielder . " Hunt continued to contribute to his side with a 22 @-@ disposal display against Fremantle in round 6 that included a goal . Going into round 7 , Greater Western Sydney coach Kevin Sheedy commented that the in form Hunt , rather than star player Ablett was the key threat in the match and would assign defensive taggers to him . Despite another consistent 16 disposal game , Hunt struggled to break the tag and some media commentators suggested that he had been outperformed by fellow league to Aussie Rules convert Israel Folau .
At Cazaly 's Stadium in Cairns in front of 10 @,@ 961 against Richmond in round 16 , Hunt broke the club 's losing drought with an after siren goal in a two @-@ goal performance which again put him in the club 's best . Following the conclusion of his second season Hunt was again named in the Courier Mail Queensland Team of the Year for 2012 , this time being named at half forward flank .
Hunt 's final two years in the AFL were plagued with injury , with Hunt playing just 9 games in 2013 , and just 1 game in 2014 . In August 2014 , Hunt announced that he would be leaving the AFL to return to rugby . A short time later , he signed with Australian Super Rugby team Queensland Reds .
Hunt 's 4 @-@ year stint in the AFL received mixed reviews , with praise particularly coming from his club , while it was criticised as " an ill @-@ advised , ill @-@ fated experiment " by former AFL player and coach Leigh Matthews .
= = = Statistics = = =
2010 season not counted in overall statistics as it was in the VFL .
= = Honours = =
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= Castle Crashers =
Castle Crashers is a 2D beat ' em up video game developed by The Behemoth . It features music created by members of Newgrounds . The Xbox 360 version was released on August 27 , 2008 via Xbox Live Arcade as part of the Xbox Live Summer of Arcade . The PlayStation 3 version was released in North America on August 31 , 2010 and November 3 , 2010 in Europe via the PlayStation Network . A Microsoft Windows version , exclusive to Steam , was announced on August 16 , 2012 . The game is set in a fictional medieval universe in which a dark wizard steals a mystical gem and captures four princesses . Four knights are charged by the king to rescue the princesses , recover the jewel , and bring the wizard to justice . On June 15 , 2015 , The Behemoth announced a remastered version of the game for Xbox One .
Castle Crashers was well received by critics on all platforms on which it was released . The Xbox 360 version holds a score of 82 @.@ 73 % at GameRankings and 82 / 100 at Metacritic , while the PlayStation 3 version averages 88 @.@ 67 % and 85 / 100 at the same sites . The PC version holds a score of 7 @.@ 9 on Metacritic , indicating generally favorable reviews . The game was a commercial success , and the Xbox 360 version has sold over 2 @.@ 6 million copies alone as of year @-@ end 2011 . The PlayStation 3 version has also done well , moving over 181 @,@ 000 units as of December 2010 .
= = Gameplay = =
Castle Crashers is a side @-@ scrolling beat @-@ em @-@ up that incorporates a small number of role @-@ playing video game elements . After selecting a character , the player then selects a starting stage through an overworld map . After completing a stage , the player has the choice to revisit it or to move to another stage . The map also displays shops where the player character can buy items and weaponry using coins gained from defeated foes . Arena stages can be unlocked where the player character can take on challenges to unlock additional characters .
Castle Crashers supports cooperative gameplay for up to four players , either locally or online . The game progression in terms of what stages are unlocked is defined by the player who is furthest along , although some levels require all players to have unlocked them before proceeding to them ; however , each player character will gain experience points and acquire wealth , weapons , and animal orbs independently as they progress with the rest of the party . In each stage , the player can use melee and combination attacks . Each character has a unique magical ability in order to defeat foes and a health meter that , if drained from enemy attacks , will cause the character to fall in battle . In single player mode , this ends the stage ; however , in cooperative multiplayer other players may attempt to revive the downed character .
Characters gain experience points by damaging foes which allow the character to level up . Each level gained allows the player to allocate points towards the character 's four basic combat attributes . Certain level advances also grant new combination attacks . Progress is tracked for each of the playable characters separately . The character 's magic level is also tracked by a meter and regenerates over time . Numerous weapons can be found in the game , each that have various effects to the character 's attributes when equipped . The player can find animal companions for their character that may assist in battle , improve the character 's attributes , or provide another special ability such as increased treasure earned from defeated foes . Each version of the game features two minigames . In Arena , the first minigame , player characters attempt to survive through several waves of enemies , or fight each other . This minigame is available on all versions . The Xbox 360 , Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows versions feature All You Can Quaff , a button @-@ mashing contest between all characters to attempt to eat as much food as possible . The PlayStation 3 version features a Volleyball minigame for up to four players and four AI characters .
= = Plot = =
Castle Crashers is set in a fictional medieval universe . It begins with four knights attending a party in a king 's castle . During the party a dark wizard arrives , stealing a floating mystical gem and capturing four princesses . The king sends the knights to retrieve the gem , rescue his daughters , and bring the wizard to justice . The knights encounter several enemies along the way , including other knights , multiple encounters with a cyclops , a giant " cat @-@ fish " , and alien invaders .
As the knights progress they succeed in rescuing the princesses , and ultimately the journey culminates in a final showdown with the wizard . The knights emerge victorious from the confrontation , having defeated the dark wizard , rescuing all of the king 's daughters , and recovering the mystical gem . The knights then ride the reclaimed gem through several empty battlefields on their trip back to the castle . At the castle the king brings one of his daughters for one of the knights to kiss , her face veiled .
= = Development and marketing = =
Castle Crashers was first revealed on July 14 , 2005 at the San Diego Comic @-@ Con International ; however , the game did not receive its title until 2006 Comic @-@ Con , when it was announced for Xbox Live Arcade . Though the original Comic @-@ Con 2005 demo was shown running on a Nintendo GameCube , no mention has been made of a release on a Nintendo @-@ based platform . It was released for the Xbox 360 on August 27 , 2008 . On July 23 , 2009 The Behemoth announced that Castle Crashers would be coming to the PlayStation Network . The game was released on the PlayStation 3 in North America on August 31 , 2010 , and in Europe on November 3 , 2010 . A Microsoft Windows version exclusive to Steam was announced on August 16 , 2012 .
The game 's art style was developed by The Behemoth 's Lead Artist Dan Paladin . As the team created new locales and characters , placeholder art was used as a template for look , size and scale of the final art . Paladin drew multiple partial renditions of a game asset , then selected one for finalization . Although Paladin was the primary source for much of the art , programmer Tom Fulp assisted with the game 's art , creating some of the minion creatures for boss characters . Paladin cited River City Ransom as his primary inspiration for the game 's art style , noting the character 's expressions when damaged as a particular point of influence . Fulp added that several beat ' em ups from the 1980s and 90s influenced the game , such as Guardian Heroes , Final Fight and Double Dragon . Much of the music for the game was created by Newgrounds users , with The Behemoth contracting over twenty individuals for their tracks . Paladin himself scored two of the tracks in the game . The soundtrack was made available for free on September 1 , 2008 via the Newgrounds website .
= = = Downloadable content = = =
The Xbox 360 version of the game features four downloadable content packs . On January 14 , 2009 , the King Pack downloadable content was released and added two characters , another animal orb and three weapons . On August 26 , 2009 a second downloadable content pack known as the Necromantic Pack was released and further added two characters , one animal orb and two weapons , as well as a picture pack for Xbox Live profiles . Both packs are included as part of the full game on the PlayStation 3 version of Castle Crashers . Additionally , the title character from The Behemoth 's previous title , Alien Hominid , is available to play on the Xbox 360 for those who have purchased Alien Hominid HD . As The Behemoth had no way of telling whether an individual had purchased the PlayStation 2 version of Alien Hominid , the character was included in the PS3 version free of charge . Writing on their blog , the developers explained " we are going to attempt what is the most fair and make the logical assumption that by this point everyone has PS2 Alien Hominid , right ? " The Behemoth announced A Pink Knight Pack , which features a Pink Knight , an unlockable character in the Xbox Live Arcade version of Super Meat Boy , and five new weapons on February 2 , 2011 . It was released for the PlayStation 3 on February 8 , 2011 , with a release on the Xbox 360 on August 27 , 2011 along with the Blacksmith Pack which adds one additional character and five new weapons . All proceeds from the content will be donated to the Breast Cancer Research Foundation . If Xbox 360 players own both Castle Crashers and Behemoth 's follow @-@ up title , BattleBlock Theater , players can unlock Hatty Hattington , a new orb and three new weapons , as well as Castle Crashers content in BattleBlock Theater .
= = Release = =
= = = Reception = = =
Castle Crashers was well received on each platform . GameRankings reports an 82 @.@ 73 % aggregate score on the Xbox 360 , while the PlayStation 3 averaging an 86 @.@ 67 % . Metacritic reports similar scores , with 82 / 100 on the Xbox 360 and 85 / 100 for the PlayStation 3 . It has been a commercial success , with the Xbox 360 version selling over two million copies on the Xbox 360 alone as of year @-@ end 2010 . 2011 's totals were over 2 @.@ 6 million on Xbox Live Arcade alone . The PlayStation 3 version has also done well , moving over 181 @,@ 000 in 2010 . IGN editor Cam Shea ranked it third on his top 10 list of Xbox Live Arcade games . He praised it for being both a call @-@ back to a much @-@ loved genre and a great piece of game design . Additionally in a September 2010 ranking , IGN listed Castle Crashers fifth in their top twenty @-@ five Xbox Live Arcade titles of all time . It was voted 2008 Best Game of the Year at the Xbox Live Arcade Awards . Castle Crashers was also Xbox Live Arcade 's best @-@ selling title of 2008 . Gaming Target 's staff named the game as one of their " 40 Games We 'll Still Be Playing From 2008 . "
Reviewers universally praised the unique art style of Castle Crashers . GameSpot 's Don Francis noted that the " crisp art design really makes the game shine . " 1UP.com 's Andrew Hayward noted that the game 's hand @-@ drawn characters , effects , and scenery make the game " shine . " Dan Whitehead of Eurogamer stated the game 's art was more detailed and polished than The Behemoth 's previous title , Alien Hominid . The game 's humor was generally lauded by reviewers . Writing for Gaming Target , Troy Matsumiya stated the game was " bigger and funnier " than Alien Hominid . Francis and IGN 's Hilary Goldstein also praised the game 's humor . The gameplay also received high marks from reviewers . GameTrailers ' staff stated that the game has " a deceptive simplicity that sucks you right in . " Goldstein praised the simplistic gameplay , and said the game was a modern throwback to classic beat ' em ups . He additionally noted the high replay value , and cited the game 's four player multiplayer and number of unlockables as reasons to continually play the game .
Several reviewers expressed early frustration in regards to multiplayer connection issues , however these issues were resolved in a later title update to the game . Francis stated that the connection issues " handicap the multiplayer experience . " " Despite trying all day and night on launch day , we were only able to get a couple of two @-@ player games going for a couple of levels before the connections were lost " stated Whitehead . Hayward also reported slight connectivity issues in the PlayStation 3 version . The PlayStation 3 version of the game also received criticism from GameSpot 's Carolyn Petit for its additional Volleyball game mode , who described it simply as " lousy . "
= = = Technical issues = = =
Some users experienced problems finding available online games , as well as their Xbox 360 sometimes freezing when attempting to join an Xbox Live game , or while already in a game . " There are certain network settings , " said Paladin , " where , if you 're in a very specific network environment , it won 't work with another person 's connection and that 's what 's happening . But that 's something we 're already addressing by working with Microsoft to get a patch out as fast as possible . " In addition to multiplayer problems , the game could also occasionally suffer from corrupted save files , causing players to lose character progress . In an interview with Joystiq , Tom Fulp and Dan Paladin of the Behemoth stated that they were working with Microsoft to get a patch released as soon as possible in order to fix the issues . A patch for the game was released on December 24 , 2008 fixing glitches and exploits as well as resolving networking issues that were experienced at the game 's launch . Similar networking problems have also been reported for the PlayStation 3 version of the game . The PlayStation 3 version of the game only allows one profile to be signed in per console , with additional players being unable to use their own progress rather than of the profile in use .
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= Break It Off =
" Break It Off " is a song by Barbadian singer Rihanna from her second studio album A Girl like Me ( 2006 ) , and features guest vocals from Sean Paul . It was written by Donovan Bennett , Paul , K. Ford and Rihanna , while production was handled by Don Corleon . The song was released on November 13 , 2006 , as the album 's fourth and final single . " Break It Off " is a futuristic pop @-@ dancehall song , which is layered over an electro @-@ reggae beat .
Critical reception of the song was positive , with reviewers praising the collaboration between Rihanna and Paul and as a return to the former 's roots . " Break It Off " made chart appearances on the singles charts of the United States and Belgium . It peaked at number nine on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and number six on the Mainstream Top 40 chart . In the Flanders region of Belgium , it peaked at number 10 . Rihanna performed the song at Radio One Big Weekend in 2007 and it was included on the set list of her Good Girl Gone Bad Tour ( 2007 – 09 ) , and was subsequently included on the accompanying DVD release , entitled Good Girl Gone Bad Live .
= = Background and release = =
" Break It Off " was recorded at 2 Hard Studios in Kingston , Jamaica . It was written by Donovan Bennett , Sean Paul Henriques ( better known as Sean Paul ) , K. Ford and Rihanna , who is credited as Robyn Fenty . Production of the song was handled by Don Corleon . It was engineered by Jeremy Harding and Bennett , who also mixed the song . All instrumentation was provided by Bennett . Paul explained how he and Rihanna met in a 2011 interview with Rap @-@ Up . During her visit to Jamaica , Rihanna was taken on a tour around the island by Paul , where he took her to some of the beaches and experienced the nightlife . He continued to explain that they spent a few days together and that he took her to the Bob Marley Museum , which was something she had " always wanted to do . " Reminiscing on " Break It Off " and Rihanna , Paul stated that working with the singer and creating the song was " his most memorable collaboration . "
" Break It Off " was released as the fourth and final single from Rihanna 's second studio album , A Girl like Me ( 2006 ) . It was released to US Contemporary hit radio station playlists on November 13 , 2006 , by Def Jam Recordings . It was also made available to download digitally via iTunes in various countries around the world on February 27 , 2007 , including Australia , Austria , Belgium and Spain .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Break It Off " is a futuristic " pop @-@ dancehall " song , which is layered over an electro @-@ reggae beat . It received a comparison by Ruth Jamieson for The Guardian to Rihanna 's debut single " Pon de Replay " from her first studio album , Music of the Sun . According to Dan Charnas for The Washington Post , " Break It Off " showcases Rihanna 's Caribbean roots . " We Ride " is written in the key of D major and is set in common time with a moderate dance groove with 130 beats per minute ( BPM ) . Rihanna 's vocal range in the song spans one octave from the lower note of A3 to the higher note of A4 . The song includes piano keys and guitar strings as part of its instrumental composition .
= = Critical reception = =
" Break It Off " garnered a positive response from music critics . David Jeffries for AllMusic was complimentary of " Break It Off " , writing that it is " totally juiced " and that she provides good competition for Paul . Kelefa Sanneh for The New York Times praised the song , and described it as Rihanna 's " triumphant return to her old formula . " Quentin B. Huff for PopMatters lauded Sean Paul for his contribution to the song while praising Rihanna 's hook , writing that " [ Rihanna 's ] hook is so infectious that hers is the voice you ultimately remember . That 's another dancehall @-@ flavored song and another winner . " Bill Lamb for About.com called " Break It Off " , along with " Kisses Don 't Lie " , " candidates for widespread pop radio airplay " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Break It Off " debuted at number 40 on the US Pop Songs chart in the issue dated November 18 , 2006 . The following week , it ascended to number 35 , and again to number 32 in its third week on the chart . " Break It Off " climbed into the top 30 at number 28 in its fourth week on December 9 , 2006 , and to number 25 in its fifth week . On December 23 , 2006 , the song climbed again to number 21 , and reached its 2006 peak of number 16 on December 30 , 2006 . In the first chart issue of Billboard in January 2007 , " Break It Off " charted at number 14 . It broke into the top 10 on February 3 , 2007 , and ascended to number seven the following week . " Break It Off " peaked at number six on February 24 , 2007 . The song remained on the Pop Songs chart for a total of 22 weeks . On December 9 , 2006 , " Break It Off " debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 95 . The song climbed to number 52 on March 3 , 2007 , and surged 42 chart positions to number 10 the following week . In its fourteenth week on the chart , the song peaked at number nine , and was awarded with the Digital Gainer honor . On March 24 , 2007 , the song debuted and peaked at number 10 in the Flanders region of Belgium .
= = Live performances = =
Rihanna performed the song as part of a set list at Radio One Big Weekend in 2007 . The set consisted of " Pon de Replay " , " Break It Off " , " SOS " , " Breakin ' Dishes " , " Unfaithful " , " Shut Up and Drive " and " Umbrella " . " Break It Off " was also included on the set list of Rihanna 's Good Girl Gone Bad Tour ( 2007 – 09 ) , and was later included on the DVD release , entitled Good Girl Gone Bad Live .
= = Formats and track listing = =
Digital download
" Break It Off " – 3 : 33
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at 2 Hard Studios , Kingston , Jamaica .
Personnel
Songwriting – Donovan Bennett , Sean Paul Henriques , K. Ford , Robyn Fenty
Production – Don Corleon
Engineer – Jeremy Harding and Donovan Bennett
Mixing – Donovan Bennett
Instruments – Donovan Bennett
Credits adapted from the liner notes of A Girl Like Me , Def Jam Recordings , SRP Records .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Radio adds and release history = =
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= Ethanol fuel in Brazil =
Brazil is the world 's second largest producer of ethanol fuel . Brazil and the United States led the industrial production of ethanol fuel in 2014 , together accounting for 83 @.@ 4 percent of the world 's production . In 2014 Brazil produced 23 @.@ 4 billion liters ( 6 @.@ 19 billion U.S. liquid gallons ) , representing 25 @.@ 2 percent of the world 's total ethanol used as fuel .
Brazil is considered to have the world 's first sustainable biofuels economy and the biofuel industry leader , a policy model for other countries ; and its sugarcane ethanol " the most successful alternative fuel to date . " However , some authors consider that the successful Brazilian ethanol model is sustainable only in Brazil due to its advanced agri @-@ industrial technology and its enormous amount of arable land available ; while according to other authors it is a solution only for some countries in the tropical zone of Latin America , the Caribbean , and Africa .
Brazil ’ s 40 @-@ year @-@ old ethanol fuel program is based on the most efficient agricultural technology for sugarcane cultivation in the world , uses modern equipment and cheap sugar cane as feedstock , the residual cane @-@ waste ( bagasse ) is used to produce heat and power , which results in a very competitive price and also in a high energy balance ( output energy / input energy ) , which varies from 8 @.@ 3 for average conditions to 10 @.@ 2 for best practice production . In 2010 , the U.S. EPA designated Brazilian sugarcane ethanol as an advanced biofuel due to its 61 % reduction of total life cycle greenhouse gas emissions , including direct indirect land use change emissions .
There are no longer any light vehicles in Brazil running on pure gasoline . Since 1976 the government made it mandatory to blend anhydrous ethanol with gasoline , fluctuating between 10 % to 22 % . and requiring just a minor adjustment on regular gasoline engines . In 1993 the mandatory blend was fixed by law at 22 % anhydrous ethanol ( E22 ) by volume in the entire country , but with leeway to the Executive to set different percentages of ethanol within pre @-@ established boundaries . In 2003 these limits were set at a minimum of 20 % and a maximum of 25 % . Since July 1 , 2007 the mandatory blend is 25 % of anhydrous ethanol and 75 % gasoline or E25 blend . The lower limit was reduced to 18 % in April 2011 due to recurring ethanol supply shortages and high prices that take place between harvest seasons . By mid March 2015 the government raised temporarily the ethanol blend in regular gasoline from 25 % to 27 % .
The Brazilian car manufacturing industry developed flexible @-@ fuel vehicles that can run on any proportion of gasoline ( E20 @-@ E25 blend ) and hydrous ethanol ( E100 ) . Introduced in the market in 2003 , flex vehicles became a commercial success , dominating the passenger vehicle market with a 94 % market share of all new cars and light vehicles sold in 2013 . By mid @-@ 2010 there were 70 flex models available in the market , and as of December 2013 , a total of 15 car manufacturers produce flex @-@ fuel engines , dominating all light vehicle segments except sports cars , off @-@ road vehicles and minivans . The cumulative production of flex @-@ fuel cars and light commercial vehicles reached the milestone of 10 million vehicles in March 2010 , and the 20 million @-@ unit milestone was reached in June 2013 . As of June 2015 , flex @-@ fuel light @-@ duty vehicle cumulative sales totaled 25 @.@ 5 million units , and production of flex motorcycles totaled 4 million in March 2015 .
The success of " flex " vehicles , together with the mandatory E25 blend throughout the country , allowed ethanol fuel consumption in the country to achieve a 50 % market share of the gasoline @-@ powered fleet in February 2008 . In terms of energy equivalent , sugarcane ethanol represented 17 @.@ 6 % of the country 's total energy consumption by the transport sector in 2008 .
= = History = =
Sugarcane has been cultivated in Brazil since 1532 as sugar was one of the first commodities exported to Europe by the Portuguese settlers . The first use of sugarcane ethanol as a fuel in Brazil dates back to the late twenties and early thirties of the twentieth century , with the introduction of the automobile in the country . Ethanol fuel production peaked during World War II and , as German submarine attacks threatened oil supplies , the mandatory blend became as high as 50 % in 1943 . After the end of the war cheap oil caused gasoline to prevail , and ethanol blends were only used sporadically , mostly to take advantage of sugar surpluses , until the seventies , when the first oil crisis resulted in gasoline shortages and awareness of the dangers of oil dependence . As a response to this crisis , the Brazilian government began promoting bioethanol as a fuel . The National Alcohol Program -Pró @-@ Álcool- ( Portuguese : ' Programa Nacional do Álcool ' ) , launched in 1975 , was a nationwide program financed by the government to phase out automobile fuels derived from fossil fuels , such as gasoline , in favor of ethanol produced from sugar cane .
The first phase of the program concentrated on production of anhydrous ethanol for blending with gasoline . The Brazilian government made mandatory the blending of ethanol fuel with gasoline , fluctuating from 1976 until 1992 between 10 % to 22 % . Due to this mandatory minimum gasoline blend , pure gasoline ( E0 ) is no longer sold in the country . A federal law was passed in October 1993 establishing a mandatory blend of 22 % anhydrous ethanol ( E22 ) in the entire country . This law also authorized the Executive to set different percentages of ethanol within pre @-@ established boundaries ; and since 2003 these limits were fixed at a maximum of 25 % ( E25 ) and a minimum of 20 % ( E20 ) by volume . Since then , the government has set the percentage of the ethanol blend according to the results of the sugarcane harvest and the levels of ethanol production from sugarcane , resulting in blend variations even within the same year .
Since July 2007 the mandatory blend is 25 % of anhydrous ethanol and 75 % gasoline or E25 blend . However , in 2010 , and as a result of supply concerns and high ethanol fuel prices , the government mandated a temporary 90 @-@ day blend reduction from E25 to E20 beginning February 1 , 2010 . By mid March 2015 the government raised temporarily the ethanol blend in regular gasoline from 25 % to 27 % . The blend on premium gasoline was kept at 25 % upon request by ANFAVEA , the Brazilian association of automakers , because of concerns about the effects on the higher blend on cars that were built for E25 , as opposed to flex @-@ fuel cars . The government approved the higher blend as an economic incentive for ethanol producers , due to an existing overstock of over 1 billion liters ( 264 million US gallons ) of ethanol . The implementation of E27 is expected to allow the consumption of the overstock before the end of 2015 .
After testing in government fleets with several prototypes developed by the local carmakers , and compelled by the second oil crisis , the Fiat 147 , the first modern commercial neat ethanol car ( E100 only ) was launched to the market in July 1979 . The Brazilian government provided three important initial drivers for the ethanol industry : guaranteed purchases by the state @-@ owned oil company Petrobras , low @-@ interest loans for agro @-@ industrial ethanol firms , and fixed gasoline and ethanol prices where hydrous ethanol sold for 59 % of the government @-@ set gasoline price at the pump . Subsidising ethanol production in this manner and setting an artificially low price established ethanol as an alternative to gasoline .
After reaching more than 4 million cars and light trucks running on pure ethanol by the late 1980s , representing one third of the country 's motor vehicle fleet , ethanol production and sales of ethanol @-@ only cars tumbled due to several factors . First , gasoline prices fell sharply as a result of the 1980s oil glut , but mainly because of a shortage of ethanol fuel supply in the local market left thousands of vehicles in line at gas stations or out of fuel in their garages by mid @-@ 1989 . As supply could not keep pace with the increasing demand required by the now significant ethanol @-@ only fleet , the Brazilian government began importing ethanol in 1991 . Since 1979 until December 2010 neat ethanol vehicles totaled 5 @.@ 7 million units . The number of neat ethanol vehicles still in use was estimated between 2 and 3 million vehicles by 2003 , and estimated at 1 @.@ 22 million as of December 2011 .
Confidence on ethanol @-@ powered vehicles was restored only with the introduction in the Brazilian market of flexible @-@ fuel vehicles . In March 2003 Volkswagen launched in the Brazilian market the Gol 1 @.@ 6 Total Flex , the first commercial flexible fuel vehicle capable of running on any blend of gasoline and ethanol . By 2010 manufacturers that build flexible fuel vehicles include Chevrolet , Fiat , Ford , Peugeot , Renault , Volkswagen , Honda , Mitsubishi , Toyota , Citroën , Nissan , and Kia Motors . In 2013 , Ford launched the first flex fuel car with direct injection : the Focus 2 @.@ 0 Duratec Direct Flex .
Flexible fuel cars were 22 % of the car sales in 2004 , 73 % in 2005 , 87 @.@ 6 % in July 2008 , and reached a record 94 % in August 2009 . The cumulative production of flex @-@ fuel cars and light commercial vehicles reached the milestone of 10 million vehicles in March 2010 , and 15 million in January 2012 . Registrations of flex @-@ fuel cars and light trucks represented 87 @.@ 0 % of all passenger and light duty vehicles sold in the country in 2012 . Production passed the 20 million @-@ unit mark in June 2013 . By the end of 2014 , flex @-@ fuel cars represented 54 % of the Brazilian registered stock of light @-@ duty vehicles , while gasoline only vehicles represented 34 @.@ 3 % . As of June 2015 , flex @-@ fuel light @-@ duty vehicle cumulative sales totaled 25 @.@ 5 million units .
The rapid adoption and commercial success of " flex " vehicles , as they are popularly known , together with the mandatory blend of alcohol with gasoline as E25 fuel , have increased ethanol consumption up to the point that by February 2008 a landmark in ethanol consumption was achieved when ethanol retail sales surpassed the 50 % market share of the gasoline @-@ powered fleet . This level of ethanol fuel consumption had not been reached since the end of the 1980s , at the peak of the Pró @-@ Álcool Program .
Under the auspices of the BioEthanol for Sustainable Transport ( BEST ) project , the first ethanol @-@ powered ( ED95 ) bus began operations in São Paulo city on December 2007 as a one @-@ year trial project . A second ED95 trial bus began operating in São Paulo city in November 2009 . Based on the satisfactory results obtained during the 3 @-@ year trial operation of the two buses , in November 2010 the municipal government of São Paulo city signed an agreement with UNICA , Cosan , Scania and Viação Metropolitana " , the local bus operator , to introduced a fleet of 50 ethanol @-@ powered ED95 buses by May 2011 . The local government objective is for the city 's entire bus fleet , which is made of 15 @,@ 000 diesel @-@ powered buses , to use only renewable fuels by 2018 . The first ethanol @-@ powered buses were delivered in May 2011 , and the 50 ethanol @-@ powered ED95 buses are scheduled to begin regular service in São Paulo in June 2011 .
Another innovation of the Brazilian flexible @-@ fuel technology was the development of flex @-@ fuel motorcycles . The first flex motorcycle was launched by Honda in March 2009 . Produced by its Brazilian subsidiary Moto Honda da Amazônia , the CG 150 Titan Mix is sold for around US $ 2 @,@ 700 . In order to avoid cold start problems , the fuel tank must have at least 20 % of gasoline at temperatures below 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) . In September 2009 , Honda launched a second flexible @-@ fuel motorcycle , the on @-@ off road NXR 150 Bros Mix . By December 2010 both Honda flexible @-@ fuel motorcycles had reached cumulative sales of 515 @,@ 726 units , representing an 18 @.@ 1 % market share of the Brazilian new motorcycle sales in 2010 . Two other flex @-@ fuel motorcycles manufactured by Honda were launched in October 2010 and January 2011 , the GC 150 FAN and the Honda BIZ 125 Flex . During 2011 a total of 956 @,@ 117 flex @-@ fuel motorcycles were produced , raising its market share to 56 @.@ 7 % . Production reached the 2 million mark in August 2012 . Flexible @-@ fuel motorcycle production passed the 3 million @-@ unit milestone in October 2013 , and the 4 million mark in March 2015 .
= = Production = =
= = = Economic and production indicators = = =
Ethanol production in Brazil uses sugarcane as feedstock and relies on first @-@ generation technologies based on the use of the sucrose content of sugarcane . Ethanol yield has grown 3 @.@ 77 % per year since 1975 and productivity gains have been based on improvements in the agricultural and industrial phases of the production process . Further improvements on best practices are expected to allow in the short to mid @-@ term an average ethanol productivity of 9 @,@ 000 liters per hectare .
There were 378 ethanol plants operating in Brazil by July 2008 , 126 dedicated to ethanol production and 252 producing both sugar and ethanol . There are 15 additional plants dedicated exclusively to sugar production . These plants have an installed capacity of crushing 538 million metric tons of sugarcane per year , and there are 25 plants under construction expected to be on line by 2009 that will add an additional capacity of crushing 50 million tons of sugarcane per year . The typical plant costs approximately US $ 150 million and requires a nearby sugarcane plantation of 30 @,@ 000 hectares .
Ethanol production is concentrated in the Central and Southeast regions of the country , led by São Paulo state , with around 60 % of the country 's total ethanol production , followed by Paraná ( 8 % ) , Minas Gerais ( 8 % ) and Goiás ( 5 % ) . These two regions have been responsible for 90 % of Brazil 's ethanol production since 2005 and the harvest season goes from April to November . The Northeast Region is responsible for the remaining 10 % of ethanol production , led by Alagoas with 2 % of total production . The harvest season in the North @-@ Northeast region goes from September to March , and the average productivity in this region is lower than the South @-@ Central region . Due to the difference in the two main harvest seasons , Brazilian statistics for sugar and ethanol production are commonly reported on a harvest two @-@ year basis rather than on a calendar year .
For the 2008 / 09 harvest it is expected that about 44 % of the sugarcane will be used for sugar , 1 % for alcoholic beverages , and 55 % for ethanol production . An estimate of between 24 @.@ 9 billion litres ( 6 @.@ 58 billion U.S. liquid gallons ) to 27 @.@ 1 billion litres ( 7 @.@ 16 billion gallons ) of ethanol are expected to be produced in 2008 / 09 harvest year , with most of the production being destined for the internal market , and only 4 @.@ 2 billion liters ( 1 @.@ 1 billion gallons ) for exports , with an estimated 2 @.@ 5 billion liters ( 660 million gallons ) destined for the US market . Sugarcane cultivated area grew from 7 million to 7 @.@ 8 million hectares of land from 2007 to 2008 , mainly using abandoned pasture lands . In 2008 Brazil has 276 million hectares of arable land , 72 % use for pasture , 16 @.@ 9 % for grain crops , and 2 @.@ 8 % for sugarcane , meaning that ethanol is just requiring approximately 1 @.@ 5 % of all arable land available in the country .
As sugar and ethanol share the same feedstock and their industrial processing is fully integrated , formal employment statistics are usually presented together . In 2000 there were 642 @,@ 848 workers employed by these industries , and as ethanol production expanded , by 2005 there were 982 @,@ 604 workers employed in the sugarcane cultivation and industrialization , including 414 @,@ 668 workers in the sugarcane fields , 439 @,@ 573 workers in the sugar mills , and 128 @,@ 363 workers in the ethanol distilleries . While employment in the ethanol distilleries grew 88 @.@ 4 % from 2000 to 2005 , employment in the sugar fields just grew 16 @.@ 2 % as a direct result of expansion of mechanical harvest instead manual harvesting , which avoids burning the sugarcane fields before manual cutting and also increases productivity . The states with the most employment in 2005 were São Paulo ( 39 @.@ 2 % ) , Pernambuco ( 15 % ) , Alagoas ( 14 @.@ 1 % ) , Paraná ( 7 % ) , and Minas Gerais ( 5 @.@ 6 % ) .
= = = = 2009 – 2014 crisis = = = =
Since 2009 the Brazilian ethanol industry has experienced a crisis due to multiple causes . They include the economic crisis of 2008 ; poor sugarcane harvests due to unfavorable weather ; high sugar prices in the world market that made more attractive to produce sugar rather than ethanol ; a freeze imposed by the Brazilian government on the petrol and diesel prices . Brazilian ethanol fuel production in 2011 was 21 @.@ 1 billion liters ( 5 @.@ 6 billion U.S. liquid gallons ) , down from 26 @.@ 2 billion liters ( 6 @.@ 9 billion gallons ) in 2010 , while in 2012 the production of ethanol was 26 % lower than in 2008 . By 2012 a total of 41 ethanol plants out of about 400 have closed and the sugar @-@ cane crop yields dropped from 115 tonnes per hectare in 2008 to 69 tonnes per hectare in 2012 .
A supply shortage took place for several months during 2010 and 2011 , and prices climbed to the point that ethanol fuel was no longer attractive for owners of flex @-@ fuel vehicles ; the government reduced the minimum ethanol blend in gasoline to reduce demand and keep ethanol fuel prices from rising further ; and for the first time since the 1990s , ( corn ) ethanol fuel was imported from the United States . The imports totaled around 1 @.@ 5 billion litres in 2011 – 2012 . The ethanol share in the transport fuel market decreased from 55 % in 2008 to 35 % in 2012 . As a result of higher ethanol prices combined with government subsidies to keep gasoline price lower than the international market value , by November 2013 only 23 % flex @-@ fuel car owners were using ethanol regularly , down from 66 % in 2009 .
During 2014 Brazil produced 23 @.@ 4 billion liters ( 6 @.@ 19 billion U.S. liquid gallons ) of ethanol fuel , however , during that year Brazil imported ethanol from the United States , ranking as the second largest U.S. export market in 2014 after Canada , and representing about 13 % of total American exports .
= = = Agricultural technology = = =
A key aspect for the development of the ethanol industry in Brazil was the investment in agricultural research and development by both the public and private sector . The work of EMBRAPA , the state @-@ owned company in charge for applied research on agriculture , together with research developed by state institutes and universities , especially in the State of São Paulo , have allowed Brazil to become a major innovator in the fields of biotechnology and agronomic practices , resulting in the most efficient agricultural technology for sugarcane cultivation in the world . Efforts have been concentrated in increasing the efficiency of inputs and processes to optimize output per hectare of feedstock , and the result has been a threefold increase of sugarcane yields in 29 years , as Brazilian average ethanol yields went from 2 @,@ 024 liters per ha in 1975 to 5 @,@ 917 liters per ha in 2004 ; allowing the efficiency of ethanol production to grow at a rate of 3 @.@ 77 % per year . Brazilian biotechnologies include the development of sugarcane varieties that have a larger sugar or energy content , one of the main drivers for high yields of ethanol per unit of planted area . The increase of the index total recoverable sugar ( TRS ) from sugarcane has been very significant , 1 @.@ 5 % per year in the period 1977 to 2004 , resulting in an increase from 95 to 140 kg / ha . Innovations in the industrial process have allowed an increase in sugar extraction in the period 1977 to 2003 . The average annual improvement was 0 @.@ 3 % ; some mills have already reached extraction efficiencies of 98 % .
Biotechnology research and genetic improvement have led to the development of strains that are more resistant to disease , bacteria , and pests , and also have the capacity to respond to different environments , thus allowing the expansion of sugarcane cultivation to areas previously considered inadequate for such cultures . By 2008 more than 500 sugarcane varieties are cultivated in Brazil , and 51 of them were released just during the last ten years . Four research programs , two private and two public , are devoted to further genetic improvement . Since the mid nineties , Brazilian biotechnology laboratories have developed transgenic varieties , still non commerciallized . Identification of 40 @,@ 000 cane genes was completed in 2003 and there are a couple dozen research groups working on the functional genome , still on the experimental phase , but commercial results are expected within five years .
Also , there is ongoing research regarding sugarcane biological nitrogen fixation , with the most promising plant varieties showing yields three times the national average in soils of very low fertility , thus avoiding nitrogenous fertilization . There is also research for the development of second @-@ generation or cellulosic ethanol . In São Paulo state an increase of 12 % in sugar cane yield and 6 @.@ 4 % in sugar content is expected over the next decade . This advance combined with an expected 6 @.@ 2 % improvement in fermentation efficiency and 2 % in sugar extraction , may increase ethanol yields by 29 % , raising average ethanol productivity to 9 @,@ 000 liters / ha . Approximately US $ 50 million has recently been allocated for research and projects focused on advancing the obtention of ethanol from sugarcane in São Paulo state .
= = = Production process = = =
Sucrose extracted from sugarcane accounts for little more than 30 % of the chemical energy stored in the harvested parts of the mature plant ; 35 % is in the leaves and stem tips , which are left in the fields during harvest , and 35 % are in the fibrous material ( bagasse ) left over from pressing . Most of the industrial processing of sugarcane in Brazil is done through a very integrated production chain , allowing sugar production , industrial ethanol processing , and electricity generation from byproducts . The typical steps for large @-@ scale production of sugar and ethanol include milling , electricity generation , fermentation , distillation of ethanol , and dehydration .
= = = = Milling and refining = = = =
Once harvested , sugarcane is usually transported to the plant by semi @-@ trailer trucks . After quality control , sugarcane is washed , chopped , and shredded by revolving knives ; the feedstock is fed to and extracted by a set of mill combinations to collect a juice , called garapa in Brazil , that contain 10 – 15 % sucrose , and bagasse , the fiber residue . The main objective of the milling process is to extract the largest possible amount of sucrose from the cane , and a secondary but important objective is the production of bagasse with a low moisture content as boiler fuel , as bagasse is burned for electricity generation ( see below ) , allowing the plant to be self @-@ sufficient in energy and to generate electricity for the local power grid . The cane juice or garapa is then filtered and treated by chemicals and pasteurized . Before evaporation , the juice is filtered once again , producing vinasse , a fluid rich in organic compounds . The syrup resulting from evaporation is then precipitated by crystallization producing a mixture of clear crystals surrounded by molasses . A centrifuge is used to separate the sugar from molasses , and the crystals are washed by addition of steam , after which the crystals are dried by an airflow . Upon cooling , sugar crystallizes out of the syrup . From this point , the sugar refining process continues to produce different grades of sugar , and the molasses continue a separate process to produce ethanol .
= = = = Fermentation , distillation and dehydration = = = =
The resulting molasses are treated to become a sterilized molasse free of impurities , ready to be fermented . In the fermentation process sugars are transformed into ethanol by addition of yeast . Fermentation time varies from four to twelve hours resulting in an alcohol content of 7 @-@ 10 % by total volume ( ° GL ) , called fermented wine . The yeast is recovered from this wine through a centrifuge . Making use of the different boiling points the alcohol in the fermented wine is separated from the main resting solid components . The remaining product is hydrated ethanol with a concentration of 96 ° GL , the highest concentration of ethanol that can be achieved via azeotropic distillation , and by national specification can contain up to 4 @.@ 9 % of water by volume . This hydrous ethanol is the fuel used by ethanol @-@ only and flex vehicles in the country . Further dehydration is normally done by addition of chemicals , up to the specified 99 @.@ 7 ° GL in order to produce anhydrous ethanol , which is used for blending with pure gasoline to obtain the country 's E25 mandatory blend . The additional processing required to convert hydrated into anhydrous ethanol increases the cost of the fuel , as in 2007 the average producer price difference between the two was around 14 % for São Paulo State . This production price difference , though small , contributes to the competitiveness of the hydrated ethanol ( E100 ) used in Brazil , not only with regard to local gasoline prices but also as compared to other countries such as the United States and Sweden , that only use anhydrous ethanol for their flex fuel fleet .
= = = = Electricity generation from bagasse = = = =
Since the early days , bagasse was burnt in the plant to provide the energy required for the industrial part of the process . Today , the Brazilian best practice uses high @-@ pressure boilers that increases energy recovery , allowing most sugar @-@ ethanol plants to be energetically self @-@ sufficient and even sell surplus electricity to utilities . By 2000 , the total amount of sugarcane bagasse produced per year was 50 million tons / dry basis out of more than 300 million tons of harvested sugarcane . Several authors estimated a potential power generation from the use of sugarcane bagasse ranging from 1 @,@ 000 to 9 @,@ 000 MW , depending on the technology used and the use of harvest trash . One utility in São Paulo is buying more than 1 % of its electricity from sugar mills , with a production capacity of 600 MW for self @-@ use and 100 MW for sale . According to analysis from Frost & Sullivan , Brazil 's sugarcane bagasse used for power generation has reached 3 @.@ 0 GW in 2007 , and it is expected to reach 12 @.@ 2 GW in 2014 . The analysis also found that sugarcane bagasse cogeneration accounts for 3 % of the total Brazilian energy matrix . The energy is especially valuable to utilities because it is produced mainly in the dry season when hydroelectric dams are running low .
According to a study commissioned by the Dutch government in 2006 to evaluate the sustainability of Brazilian bioethanol " ... there are also substantial gains possible in the efficiency of electricity use and generation : The electricity used for distillery operations has been estimated at 12 @.@ 9 kWh / tonne cane , with a best available technology rate of 9 @.@ 6 kWh / tonne cane . For electricity generation the efficiency could be increased from 18 kWh / tonne cane presently , to 29 @.@ 1 kWh / tonne cane maximum . The production of surplus electricity could in theory be increased from 5 @.@ 3 kWh / tonne cane to 19 kWh / tonne cane . "
= = = = Electric generation from ethanol = = = =
Brazil has several experimental programs for the production of electricity using sugar cane ethanol as fuel . A joint venture of General Electric and Petrobras is operating one commercial pilot plant in Juiz de Fora , Minas Gerais .
= = = = Overall energy use = = = =
Energy @-@ use associated with the production of sugarcane ethanol derives from three primary sources : the agricultural sector , the industrial sector , and the distribution sector . In the agricultural sector , 35 @.@ 98 GJ of energy are used to plant , maintain , and harvest one hectare ( 10 @,@ 000 m2 ) of sugarcane for usable biofuel . This includes energy from numerous inputs , including nitrogen , phosphate , potassium oxide , lime , seed , herbicides , insecticides , labor and diesel fuel . The industrial sector , which includes the milling and refining sugarcane and the production of ethanol fuel , uses 3 @.@ 63 GJ of energy and generates 155 @.@ 57 GJ of energy per hectare of sugarcane plantation . Scientists estimate that the potential power generated from the cogeneration of bagasse could range from 1 @,@ 000 to 9 @,@ 000 MW , depending on harvest and technology factors . In Brazil , this is about 3 % of the total energy needed . The burning of bagasse can generate 18 kilowatt @-@ hours , or 64 @.@ 7 MJ per Mg of sugarcane . Distillery facilities require about 45 MJ to operate , leaving a surplus energy supply of 19 @.@ 3 MJ , or 5 @.@ 4 kWh . In terms of distribution , researchers calculates sugarcane ethanol ’ s transport energy requirement to be .44 GJ per cubic @-@ meter , thus one hectare of land would require 2 @.@ 82 GJ of energy for successful transport and distribution . After taking all three sectors into account , the EROEI ( Energy Return over Energy Invested ) for sugarcane ethanol is about 8 .
There are several improvements to the industrial processes , such as adopting a hydrolysis process to produce ethanol instead of surplus electricity , or the use of advanced boiler and turbine technology to increase the electricity yield , or a higher use of excess bagasse and harvest trash currently left behind in the fields , that together with various other efficiency improvements in sugarcane farming and the distribution chain have the potential to allow further efficiency increases , translating into higher yields , lower production costs , and also further improvements in the energy balance and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions .
= = = Exports = = =
Brazil is the world 's largest exporter of ethanol . In 2007 it exported 933 @.@ 4 million gallons ( 3 @,@ 532 @.@ 7 million liters ) , representing almost 20 % of its production , and accounting for almost 50 % of the global exports . Since 2004 Brazilian exporters have as their main customers the United States , Netherlands , Japan , Sweden , Jamaica , El Salvador , Costa Rica , Trinidad & Tobago , Nigeria , Mexico , India , and South Korea .
The countries in the Caribbean Basin import relative high quantities of Brazilian ethanol , but not much is destined for domestic consumption . These countries reprocess the product , usually converting Brazilian hydrated ethanol into anhydrous ethanol , and then re @-@ export it to the United States , gaining value @-@ added and avoiding the 2 @.@ 5 % duty and the US $ 0 @.@ 54 per gallon tariff , thanks to the trade agreements and benefits granted by Caribbean Basin Initiative ( CBI ) . This process is limited by a quota , set at 7 % of U.S. ethanol consumption . Although direct U.S. exports fell in 2007 , imports from four CBI countries almost doubled , increasing from 15 @.@ 5 % in 2006 to 25 @.@ 8 % in 2007 , reflecting increasing re @-@ exports to the U.S. , thus partially compensating the loss of Brazilian direct exports to the U.S. This situation has caused some concerns in the United States , as it and Brazil are trying to build a partnership to increase ethanol production in Latin American and the Caribbean . As the U.S. is encouraging " new ethanol production in other countries , production that could directly compete with U.S.-produced ethanol " .
The U.S. , potentially the largest market for Brazilian ethanol imports , currently imposes a tariff on Brazilian ethanol of US $ 0 @.@ 54 per gallon in order to encourage domestic ethanol production and protect the budding ethanol industry in the United States . Historically , this tariff was intended to offset the 45 cent per gallon blender 's federal tax credit that is applied to ethanol no matter its country of origin . Exports of Brazilian ethanol to the U.S. reached a total of US $ 1 billion in 2006 , an increase of 1 @,@ 020 % over 2005 ( US $ 98 millions ) , but fell significantly in 2007 due to sharp increases in American ethanol production from corn . As shown in the table , the United States remains the largest single importer of Brazilian ethanol exports , though collectively the European Union and the CBI countries now import a similar amount .
A 2010 study by Iowa State University 's Center for Agricultural and Rural Development found that removing the U.S. import tariff would result in less than 5 % of the United States ’ ethanol being imported from Brazil . Also a 2010 study by the Congressional Budget Office ( CBO ) found that the costs to American taxpayers of using a biofuel to reduce gasoline consumption by one gallon are $ 1 @.@ 78 for corn ethanol and $ 3 @.@ 00 for cellulosic ethanol . In a similar way , and without considering potential indirect land use effects , the costs to taxpayers of reducing greenhouse gas emissions through tax credits are about $ 750 per metric ton of CO2 @-@ equivalent for ethanol and around $ 275 per metric ton for cellulosic ethanol .
After being renewed several times , the tax credit is set to expire on December 31 , 2011 , and both the US $ 0 @.@ 54 per gallon tariff and US $ 0 @.@ 45 per gallon blender ’ s credit have been the subject of contentious debate in Washington , D.C. with ethanol interest groups and politicians staking positions on both sides of the issue . On June 16 , 2011 , the U.S. Congress approved an amendment to the economic development bill to repeal both the tax credit and the tariff on ethanol , and though this bill has an uncertain future , it is considered a signal that the tax credits will not be renew when they expire at the end of 2011 . The eventual elimination of the import tariff is not expect to have significant effects in the short term . That is because the Brazilian ethanol industry has been having trouble meeting its own domestic demand for ethanol during 2010 and 2011 , and actually Brazil imported some corn ethanol from the U.S. The shortage in supply is due in part to high sugar prices , which make it more profitable for Brazilian producers to sell it as sugar than convert it to ethanol fuel . Also , as a result of the credit crunch caused by the financial crisis of 2007 – 2010 , the expansion of the Brazilian ethanol industry has not being able keep up pace with the accelerated growth of the flex fuel fleet .
As U.S. EPA 's 2010 final ruling for the Renewable Fuel Standard designated Brazilian sugarcane ethanol as an advanced biofuel , Brazilian ethanol producers hope this classification will contribute to lift import tariffs both in the U.S. and the rest of the world . Also they expect to increase exports to the U.S. , as the blending mandate requires an increasing quota of advanced biofuels , which is not likely to be fulfilled with cellulosic ethanol , and then it would force blenders to import more Brazilian sugarcane @-@ based ethanol , despite the existing 54 ¢ per gallon tariff on ethanol imported directly from Brazil , or duty @-@ free from the CBI countries that convert Brazilian hydrated ethanol into anhydrous ethanol .
= = Prices and effect on oil consumption = =
Most automobiles in Brazil run either on hydrous alcohol ( E100 ) or on gasohol ( E25 blend ) , as the mixture of 25 % anhydrous ethanol with gasoline is mandatory in the entire country . Since 2003 , dual @-@ fuel ethanol flex vehicles that run on any proportion of hydrous ethanol and gasoline have been gaining popularity . These have electronic sensors that detect the type of fuel and adjust the engine combustion to match , so users can choose the cheapest available fuel . Sales of flex fuel vehicles reached 9 @.@ 3 million by December 2009 , representing 39 % of the passenger vehicle fleet . By mid @-@ 2010 there were 70 flex models available in the market and production by December 2010 reached more than 12 @.@ 5 million flex vehicles including more than 500 thousand flex fuel motorcycles .
Due to the lower energy content of ethanol fuel , full flex @-@ fuel vehicles get fewer miles per gallon . Ethanol price has to be between 25 @-@ 30 % cheaper per gallon to reach the break even point . As a rule of thumb , Brazilian consumers are frequently advised by the media to use more alcohol than gasoline in their mix only when ethanol prices are 30 % lower or more than gasoline , as ethanol price fluctuates heavily depending on the harvest yields and seasonal fluctuation of sugarcane harvest .
Since 2005 , ethanol prices have been very competitive without subsidies , even with gasoline prices kept constant in local currency since mid @-@ 2005 , at a time when oil was just approaching US $ 60 a barrel . However , Brazilian gasoline taxes are high , around 54 percent , while ethanol fuel taxes are lower and vary between 12 % to 30 % , depending of the state . As of October 2008 the average price of E25 gasoline was $ 4 @.@ 39 per gallon while the average price for ethanol was US $ 2 @.@ 69 per gallon . This differential in taxation favors ethanol fuel consumption , and by the end of July 2008 , when oil prices were close to its latest peak and the Brazilian real exchange rate to the US dollar was close to its most recent minimum , the average gasoline retail price at the pump in Brazil reached US $ 6 @.@ 00 per gallon . The price ratio between gasoline and ethanol fuel has been well above 30 percent during this period for most states , except during low sugar cane supply between harvests and for states located far away from the ethanol production centers . According to Brazilian producers , ethanol can remain competitive if the price of oil does not fall below US $ 30 a barrel .
By 2008 consumption of ethanol fuel by the Brazilian fleet of light vehicles , as pure ethanol and in gasohol , is replacing gasoline at the rate of about 27 @,@ 000 cubic meters per day , and by February 2008 the combined consumption of anhydrous and hydrated ethanol fuel surpassed 50 percent of the fuel that would be needed to run the light vehicle fleet on pure gasoline alone . Monthly consumption of anhydrous ethanol for the mandatory E25 blend , together with hydrous ethanol used by flex vehicles , reached 1 @.@ 432 billion liters , while pure gasoline consumption was 1 @.@ 411 billion liters . Despite this volumetric parity , when expressed in terms of energy equivalent ( toe ) , sugarcane ethanol represented 17 @.@ 6 percent of the country 's total energy consumption by the transport sector in 2008 , while gasoline represented 23 @.@ 3 percent and diesel 49 @.@ 2 percent .
For the first time since 2003 sales of hydrous ethanol fell in 2010 , with a decrease of 8 @.@ 5 percent as compared to 2009 . Total consumption of both hydrous and anhydrous ethanol fell by 2 @.@ 9 percent while gasoline consumption increased by 17 @.@ 5 percent . Despite the reduction in ethanol consumption , total ethanol sales reached 22 @.@ 2 billion liters while pure gasoline consumption was 22 @.@ 7 billion liters , keeping the market share for each fuel close to 50 percent . The decrease in hydrous ethanol consumption was due mainly to high sugar prices in the international markets , which reached a 30 @-@ year high in 2010 . This peak in sugar prices caused sugarcane processing plants to produce more sugar than ethanol , and as supply contracted , E100 prices increased to the point that several times during 2010 the price of hydrous ethanol was less than 30 percent cheaper than gasoline . Another factor that contributed to this shift was the increase sales of imported gasoline only vehicles that took place during 2010 .
= = Comparison with the United States = =
Brazil 's sugar cane @-@ based industry is more efficient than the U.S. corn @-@ based industry . Sugar cane ethanol has an energy balance seven times greater than ethanol produced from corn . Brazilian distillers are able to produce ethanol for 22 cents per liter , compared with the 30 cents per liter for corn @-@ based ethanol . U.S. corn @-@ derived ethanol costs 30 % more because the corn starch must first be converted to sugar before being distilled into alcohol . Despite this cost differential in production , the U.S. did not import more Brazilian ethanol because of U.S. trade barriers corresponding to a tariff of 54 @-@ cent per gallon , first imposed in 1980 , but kept to offset the 45 @-@ cent per gallon blender 's federal tax credit that is applied to ethanol no matter its country of origin . In 2011 the U.S. Congress decided not to extend the tariff and the tax credit , and as a result both ended on December 31 , 2011 . During these three decades the ethanol industry was awarded an estimated US $ 45 billion in subsidies and US $ 6 billion just in 2011 .
Sugarcane cultivation requires a tropical or subtropical climate , with a minimum of 600 mm ( 24 in ) of annual rainfall . Sugarcane is one of the most efficient photosynthesizers in the plant kingdom , able to convert up to 2 % of incident solar energy into biomass . Sugarcane production in the United States occurs in Florida , Louisiana , Hawaii , and Texas . The first three plants to produce sugarcane @-@ based ethanol are expected to go online in Louisiana by mid @-@ 2009 . Sugar mill plants in Lacassine , St. James and Bunkie were converted to sugar cane @-@ based ethanol production using Colombian technology in order to make possible a profitable ethanol production . These three plants will produce 100 million gallons ( 378 @.@ 5 million liters ) of ethanol within five years . By 2009 two other sugarcane ethanol production projects are being developed in Kauai , Hawaii and Imperial Valley , California .
= = Ethanol diplomacy = =
In March 2007 , " ethanol diplomacy " was the focus of President George W. Bush 's Latin American tour , in which he and Brazil 's president , Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , were seeking to promote the production and use of sugar cane – based ethanol throughout Latin America and the Caribbean . The two countries also agreed to share technology and set international standards for biofuels . The Brazilian sugar cane technology transfer will permit various Central American countries , such as Honduras , Nicaragua , Costa Rica and Panama , several Caribbean countries , and various Andean Countries tariff @-@ free trade with the U.S. thanks to existing concessionary trade agreements .
Even though the U.S. has imposed a US $ 0 @.@ 54 tariff on every gallon of imported ethanol since 1980 , the Caribbean nations and Central American countries are exempt from such duties based on the benefits granted by the Caribbean Basin Initiative ( CBI ) . CBI provisions allow tariff @-@ free access to the US market from ethanol produced from foreign feedstock ( outside CBI countries ) up to 7 % of the previous year US consumption . Also additional quotas are allowed if the beneficiary countries produce at least 30 % of the ethanol from local feedstocks up to an additional 35 million gallons ( 132 @.@ 5 million liters ) . Thus , several countries have been importing hydrated ethanol from Brazil , processing it at local distilleries to dehydrate it , and then re @-@ exporting it as anhydrous ethanol . American farmers have complained about this loophole to legally bypass the tariff . The 2005 Dominican Republic – Central America Free Trade Agreement ( CAFTA ) maintained the benefits granted by the CBI , and CAFTA provisions established country @-@ specific shares for Costa Rica and El Salvador within the overall quota . An initial annual allowance was established for each country , with gradually increasing annual levels of access to the US market . The expectation is that using Brazilian technology for refining sugar cane – based ethanol , such countries could become net exporters to the United States in the short @-@ term . In August 2007 , Brazil 's President toured Mexico and several countries in Central America and the Caribbean to promote Brazilian ethanol technology .
The Memorandum of Understanding ( MOU ) that the American and Brazilian presidents signed in March 2007 may bring Brazil and the United States closer on energy policy , but it is not clear whether there has been substantive progress implementing the three pillars found in that agreement .
Brazil has also extended its technical expertise to several African countries , including Ghana , Mozambique , Angola , and Kenya . This effort is led by EMBRAPA , the state @-@ owned company in charge for applied research on agriculture , and responsible for most of the achievements in increasing sugarcane productivity during the last thirty years . Another 15 African countries have shown interest in receiving Brazilian technical aid to improve sugarcane productivity and to produce ethanol efficiently . Brazil also has bilateral cooperation agreements with several other countries in Europe and Asia .
As President Lula wrote for The Economist regarding Brazil 's global agenda :
" Brazil ’ s ethanol and biodiesel programmes are a benchmark for alternative and renewable fuel sources . Partnerships are being established with developing countries seeking to follow Brazil ’ s achievements — a 675m @-@ tonne reduction of greenhouse @-@ gas emissions , a million new jobs and a drastic reduction in dependence on imported fossil fuels coming from a dangerously small number of producer countries . All of this has been accomplished without compromising food security , which , on the contrary , has benefited from rising agricultural output ... We are setting up offices in developing countries interested in benefiting from Brazilian know @-@ how in this field . "
= = Environmental and social impacts = =
= = = Environmental effects = = =
= = = = Benefits = = = =
Ethanol produced from sugarcane provides energy that is renewable and less carbon intensive than oil . Bioethanol reduces air pollution thanks to its cleaner emissions , and also contributes to mitigate global warming by reducing greenhouse gas emissions .
= = = = = Energy balance = = = = =
One of the main concerns about bioethanol production is the energy balance , the total amount of energy input into the process compared to the energy released by burning the resulting ethanol fuel . This balance considers the full cycle of producing the fuel , as cultivation , transportation and production require energy , including the use of oil and fertilizers . A comprehensive life cycle assessment commissioned by the State of São Paulo found that Brazilian sugarcane @-@ based ethanol has a favorable energy balance , varying from 8 @.@ 3 for average conditions to 10 @.@ 2 for best practice production . This means that for average conditions one unit of fossil @-@ fuel energy is required to create 8 @.@ 3 energy units from the resulting ethanol . These findings have been confirmed by other studies .
= = = = = Greenhouse gas emissions = = = = =
Another benefit of bioethanol is the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions as compared to gasoline , because as much carbon dioxide is taken up by the growing plants as is produced when the bioethanol is burnt , with a zero theoretical net contribution . Several studies have shown that sugarcane @-@ based ethanol reduces greenhouse gases by 86 to 90 % if there is no significant land use change , and ethanol from sugarcane is regarded the most efficient biofuel currently under commercial production in terms of GHG emission reduction .
However , two studies published in 2008 are critical of previous assessments of greenhouse gas emissions reduction , as the authors considered that previous studies did not take into account the effect of land use changes . Recent assessments carried out in 2009 by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) and the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) included the impact of indirect land use changes ( ILUC ) as part of the lifecycle analysis of crop @-@ based biofuels . Brazilian sugarcane ethanol meets both the ruled California Low @-@ Carbon Fuel Standard ( LCFS ) and the proposed federal Renewable Fuel Standard ( RFS2 ) , despite the additional carbon emissions associated with ILUC . On February 3 , 2010 , EPA issued its final ruling regarding the RFS2 for 2010 and beyond , and determined that Brazilian ethanol produced from sugarcane complies with the applicable 50 % GHG reduction threshold for the advanced fuel category . EPA ’ s modelling shows that sugarcane ethanol from Brazil reduces greenhouse gas emissions as compared to gasoline by 61 % , using a 30 @-@ year payback for indirect land use change ( ILUC ) emissions . By September 2010 five Brazilian sugarcane ethanol mills have been approved by the EPA to export their ethanol in the U.S. under the advanced biofuel category .
A report commissioned by the United Nations , based on a detailed review of published research up to mid @-@ 2009 as well as the input of independent experts worldwide , found that ethanol from sugar cane as produced in Brazil " in some circumstances does better than just " zero emission . " If grown and processed correctly , it has negative emission , pulling CO2 out of the atmosphere , rather than adding it . " In contrast , the report found that U.S. use of maize for biofuel is less efficient , as sugarcane can lead to emissions reductions of between 70 % and well over 100 % when substituted for gasoline . A 2010 study commissioned by the European Commission found that emission reduction effects of first @-@ generation biofuels are positive , even after discounting indirect land use change effects , particularly the " more emission @-@ efficient " sugarcane ethanol from Brazil , which would have to be imported to assure the environmental viability of the EU 's biofuels mandate .
Another 2010 study published by the World Bank found that " Brazil 's transport sector has a lower carbon intensity compared to that of most other countries because of its widespread use of ethanol as a fuel for vehicles . " The study also concluded that despite the already low emission intensity , urban transportation is responsible for 51 % of CO2 emissions within the Brazilian transport sector in 2008 , and mainly originate in the growing use of private cars , traffic congestion and inefficient public transportation systems . Nevertheless , the study concluded that the increased use of flexible @-@ fuel vehicles and the switch from gasoline to sugarcane ethanol are expected to stabilize GHG emissions from the light vehicle fleet over the next 25 years despite an expected increase in the number of kilometers traveled . Furthermore , the study found that if bioethanol 's market share of the gasoline @-@ powered vehicle market reaches 80 % in 2030 , this switch from gasoline " could deliver more than one @-@ third of total emissions reduction targeted for the transport sector over the period " ( 2008 – 2030 ) . The study also concluded that by increasing Brazilian ethanol exports to attend the increasing international demand for low @-@ carbon fuels , its trade partners will benefit from reduced CHG emissions . However , for this opportunity to be realized , trade barriers and subsidies in many countries will have to be reduced or eliminated .
A 2009 study published in Energy Policy found that the use of ethanol fuel in Brazil has allowed to avoid over 600 million tons of CO2 emissions since 1975 , when the Pró @-@ Álcool Program began . The study also concluded that the neutralization of the carbon released due to land @-@ use change was achieved in 1992 . In another estimate , UNICA , the main Brazilian ethanol industry organization , estimated that just the use of ethanol fuel in flex @-@ fuel vehicles in Brazil has avoided 83 @.@ 5 million tons of CO2 emissions between March 2003 and January 2010 .
= = = = = Air pollution = = = = =
The widespread use of ethanol brought several environmental benefits to urban centers regarding air pollution . Lead additives to gasoline were reduced through the 1980s as the amount of ethanol blended in the fuel was increased , and these additives were completely eliminated by 1991 . The addition of ethanol blends instead of lead to gasoline lowered the total carbon monoxide ( CO ) , hydrocarbons , sulfur emissions , and particulate matter significantly . The use of ethanol @-@ only vehicles has also reduced CO emissions drastically . Before the Pró @-@ Álcool Program started , when gasoline was the only fuel in use , CO emissions were higher than 50 g / km driven ; they had been reduced to less than 5 @.@ 8 g / km in 1995 . Several studies have also shown that São Paulo has benefit with significantly less air pollution thanks to ethanol 's cleaner emissions . Furthermore , Brazilian flex @-@ fuel engines are being designed with higher compression ratios , taking advantage of the higher ethanol blends and maximizing the benefits of the higher oxygen content of ethanol , resulting in lower emissions and improving fuel efficiency .
Even though all automotive fossil fuels emit aldehydes , one of the drawbacks of the use of hydrated ethanol in ethanol @-@ only engines is the increase in aldehyde emissions as compared with gasoline or gasohol . However , the present ambient concentrations of aldehyde , in São Paulo city are below the reference levels recommended as adequate to human health found in the literature . Other concern is that because formaldehyde and acetaldehyde emissions are significantly higher , and although both aldehydes occur naturally and are frequently found in the open environment , additional emissions may be important because of their role in smog formation . However , more research is required to establish the extent and direct consequences , if any , on health .
= = = = Issues = = = =
= = = = = Water use and fertilizers = = = = =
Ethanol production has also raised concerns regarding water overuse and pollution , soil erosion and possible contamination by excessive use of fertilizers . A study commissioned by the Dutch government in 2006 to evaluate the sustainability of Brazilian bioethanol concluded that there is sufficient water to supply all foreseeable long @-@ term water requirements for sugarcane and ethanol production . Also , and as a result of legislation and technological progress , the amount of water collected for ethanol production has decreased considerably during the previous years . The overuse of water resources seems a limited problem in general in São Paulo , particularly because of the relatively high rainfall , yet , some local problems may occur . Regarding water pollution due to sugarcane production , Embrapa classifies the industry as level 1 , which means " no impact " on water quality .
This evaluation also found that consumption of agrochemicals for sugar cane production is lower than in citric , corn , coffee and soybean cropping . Disease and pest control , including the use of agrochemicals , is a crucial element in all cane production . The study found that development of resistant sugar cane varieties is a crucial aspect of disease and pest control and is one of the primary objectives of Brazil ’ s cane genetic improvement programs . Disease control is one of the main reasons for the replacement of a commercial variety of sugar cane .
= = = = = Field burning = = = = =
Advancements in fertilizers and natural pesticides have all but eliminated the need to burn fields . Sugarcane fields are traditionally burned just before harvest to avoid harm to the workers , by removing the sharp leaves and killing snakes and other harmful animals , and also to fertilize the fields with ash . There has been less burning due to pressure from the public and health authorities , and as a result of the recent development of effective harvesting machines . In the mid 90s , it was very common to experience quite dense ash rains in cities within the sugarcane 's fields during harvest seasons . A 2001 state law banned burning in sugarcane fields in São Paulo state by 2021 , and machines will gradually replace human labor as the means of harvesting cane , except where the abrupt terrain does not allow for mechanical harvesting . However , 150 out of 170 of São Paulo 's sugar cane processing plants signed in 2007 a voluntary agreement with the state government to comply by 2014 . Independent growers signed in 2008 the voluntary agreement to comply , and the deadline was extended to 2017 for sugar cane fields located in more abrupt terrain . By the 2009 / 10 harvest season more than 50 % of the cane was collected in São Paulo with harvesting machines . Mechanization will reduce pollution from burning fields and has higher productivity than people , but also will create unemployment for these seasonal workers , many of them coming from the poorest regions of Brazil . Due to mechanization the number of temporary workers in the sugarcane plantations has already declined as each harvester machine replaces about 100 cane cutters a day and creates 30 jobs including operators and maintenance teams .
= = = = = Effects of land use change = = = = =
Two studies published in 2008 questioned the benefits estimated in previous assessments regarding the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from sugarcane @-@ based ethanol , as the authors consider that previous studies did not take into account the direct and indirect effect of land use changes . The authors found a " biofuel carbon debt " is created when Brazil and other developing countries convert land in undisturbed ecosystems , such as rainforests , savannas , or grasslands , to biofuel production , and to crop production when agricultural land is diverted to biofuel production . This land use change releases more CO2 than the annual greenhouse gas ( GHG ) reductions that these biofuels would provide by displacing fossil fuels . Among others , the study analyzed the case of Brazilian Cerrado being converted for sugarcane ethanol production . The biofuel carbon debt on converted Cerrado is estimated to be repaid in 17 years , the least amount of time of the scenarios that were analyzed , as for example , ethanol from US corn was estimated to have a 93 @-@ year payback time . The study conclusion is that the net effect of biofuel production via clearing of carbon @-@ rich habitats is to increase CO2 emissions for decades or centuries relative to fossil fuel use .
Regarding this concern , previous studies conducted in Brazil have shown there are 355 million ha of arable land in Brazil , of which only 72 million ha are in use . Sugarcane is only taking 2 % of arable land available , of which ethanol production represented 55 % in 2008 . Embrapa estimates that there is enough agricultural land available to increase at least 30 times the existing sugarcane plantation without endangering sensitive ecosystems or taking land destined for food crops . Most future growth is expected to take place on abandoned pasture lands , as it has been the historical trend in São Paulo state . Also , productivity is expected to improve even further based on current biotechnology research , genetic improvement , and better agronomic practices , thus contributing to reduce land demand for future sugarcane cultures . This trend is demonstrated by the increases in agricultural production that took place in São Paulo state between 1990 and 2004 , where coffee , orange , sugarcane and other food crops were grown in an almost constant area .
Also regarding the potential negative impacts of land use changes on carbon emissions , a study commissioned by the Dutch government concluded that " it is very difficult to determine the indirect effects of further land use for sugar cane production ( i.e. sugar cane replacing another crop like soy or citrus crops , which in turn causes additional soy plantations replacing pastures , which in turn may cause deforestation ) , and also not logical to attribute all these soil carbon losses to sugar cane . " Other authors have also questioned these indirect effects , as cattle pastures are displaced to the cheaper land near the Amazon . Studies rebutting this concern claim that land devoted to free grazing cattle is shrinking , as density of cattle on pasture land increased from 1 @.@ 28 heads of cattle / ha to 1 @.@ 41 from 2001 to 2005 , and further improvements are expected in cattle feeding practices .
A paper published in February 2010 by a team led by Lapola from the University of Kassel found that the planned expansion of biofuel plantations ( sugarcane and soybean ) in Brazil up to 2020 will have a small direct land @-@ use impact on carbon emissions , but indirect land @-@ use changes could offset the carbon savings from biofuels due to the expansion of the rangeland frontier into the Amazonian forests , particularly due to displacement of cattle ranching . " Sugarcane ethanol and soybean biodiesel each contribute to nearly half of the projected indirect deforestation of 121 @,@ 970 km2 by 2020 , creating a carbon debt that would take about 250 years to be repaid using these biofuels instead of fossil fuels . " The analysis also showed that intensification of cattle ranching , combined with efforts to promote high @-@ yielding oil crops are required to achieve effective carbon savings from biofuels in Brazil , " while still fulfilling all food and bioenergy demands . "
The main Brazilian ethanol industry organization ( UNICA ) commented that this study and other calculations of land @-@ use impacts are missing a key factor , the fact that in Brazil " cattle production and pasture has been intensifying already and is projected to do so in the future . "
= = = = = Deforestation = = = = =
Other criticism have focused on the potential for clearing rain forests and other environmentally valuable land for sugarcane production , such as the Amazonia , the Pantanal or the Cerrado . Embrapa and UNICA have rebutted this concern explaining that 99 @.@ 7 % of sugarcane plantations are located at least 2 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 200 mi ) from the Amazonia , and expansion during the last 25 years took place in the Center @-@ South region , also far away from the Amazonia , the Pantanal or the Atlantic forest . In São Paulo state growth took place in abandoned pasture lands .
The impact assessment regarding future changes in land use , forest protection and risks on biodiversity conducted as part of the study commissioned by the Dutch government concluded that " the direct impact of cane production on biodiversity is limited , because cane production replaces mainly pastures and / or food crop and sugar cane production takes place far from the major biomes in Brazil ( Amazon Rain Forest , Cerrado , Atlantic Forest , Caatinga , Campos Sulinos and Pantanal ) . " However , " ... the indirect impacts from an increase of the area under sugar cane production are likely more severe . The most important indirect impact would be an expansion of the area agricultural land at the expense of cerrados . The cerrados are an important biodiversity reserve . These indirect impacts are difficult to quantify and there is a lack of practically applicable criteria and indicators . "
In order to guarantee a sustainable development of ethanol production , in September 2009 the government issued by decree a countrywide agroecological land use zoning to restrict sugarcane growth in or near environmentally sensitive areas such as the Pantanal wetlands , the Amazon Rainforest and the Upper Paraguay River Basin . The installation of new ethanol production plants will not be permitted on these locations , and only existing plants and new ones with environmental licensed already approved before September 17 , 2009 , will be allowed to remain operating in these sensitive areas . According to the new criteria , 92 @.@ 5 % of the Brazilian territory is not suitable for sugarcane plantation . The government considers that the suitable areas are more than enough to meet the future demand for ethanol and sugar in the domestic and international markets foreseen for the next decades .
= = = Social implications = = =
Sugarcane has had an important social contribution to some of the poorest people in Brazil by providing income usually above the minimum wage , and a formal job with fringe benefits . Formal employment in Brazil accounts an average 45 % across all sectors , while the sugarcane sector has a share of 72 @.@ 9 % formal jobs in 2007 , up from 53 @.@ 6 % in 1992 , and in the more developed sugarcane ethanol industry in São Paulo state formal employment reached 93 @.@ 8 % in 2005 . Average wages in sugar cane and ethanol production are above the official minimum wage , but minimum wages may be insufficient to avoid poverty . The North @-@ Northeast regions stands out for having much lower levels of education among workers and lower monthly income . The average number workers with 3 or less school years in Brazil is 58 @.@ 8 % , while in the Southeast this percentage is 46 @.@ 2 % , in the Northeast region is 76 @,@ 4 % . Therefore , earnings in the Center @-@ South are not surprisingly higher than those in the North @-@ Northeast for comparable levels of education . In 2005 sugarcane harvesting workers in the Center @-@ South region received an average wage 58 @.@ 7 % higher than the average wage in the North @-@ Northeast region . The main social problems are related to cane cutters which do most of the low @-@ paid work related to ethanol production .
The total number of permanent employees in the sector fell by one @-@ third between 1992 and 2003 , in part due to the increasing reliance on mechanical harvesting , especially in the richest and more mature sugarcane producers of São Paulo state . During the same period , the share of temporary or seasonal workers has fluctuated , first declining and then increasing in recent years to about one @-@ half of the total jobs in the sector , but in absolute terms the number of temporary workers has declined also . The sugarcane sector in the poorer Northeast region is more labor @-@ intensive as production in this region represents only 18 @.@ 6 % of the country 's total production but employs 44 @.@ 3 % of worker force in the sugarcane sector .
The manual harvesting of sugarcane has been associated with hardship and poor working conditions . In this regard , the study commissioned by the Dutch government confirmed that the main problem is indeed related to manual cane harvesting . A key problem in working conditions is the high work load . As a result of mechanization the workload per worker has increased from 4 to 6 ton per day in the eighties to 8 to 10 ton per day in the nineties , up to 12 to 15 ton per day in 2007 . If the quota is not fulfilled , workers can be fired . Producers say this problem will disappear with greater mechanization in the next decade . Also , as mechanization of the harvesting is increasing and only feasible in flat terrain , more workers are being used in areas where conditions are not suitable for mechanized harvesting equipment , such as rough areas where the crops are planted irregularly , making working conditions harder and more hazardous .
Also unhealthy working conditions and even cases of slavery and deaths from overwork ( cane cutting ) have been reported , but these are likely worst @-@ case examples . Even though sufficiently strict labor laws are present in Brazil , enforcement is weak . Displacement and seasonal labor also implies physical and cultural disruption of multifunctional family farms and traditional communities .
Regarding social responsibility the ethanol production sector maintains more than 600 schools , 200 nursery centers and 300 day care units , as legislation requires that 1 % of the net sugar cane price and 2 % of the net ethanol price must be devoted to medical , dental , pharmaceutical , sanitary , and educational services for sugar cane workers . In practice more than 90 % of the mills provide health and dental care , transportation and collective life insurance , and over 80 % provide meals and pharmaceutical care . However , for the temporary low wage workers in cane cutting these services may not be available .
= = = Effect on food prices = = =
Some environmentalists , such as George Monbiot , have expressed fears that the marketplace will convert crops to fuel for the rich , while the poor starve and biofuels cause environmental problems . Environmental groups have raised concerns about this trade @-@ off for several years . The food vs fuel debate reached a global scale in 2008 as a result of the international community 's concerns regarding the steep increase in food prices . On April 2008 , Jean Ziegler , back then United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food , called biofuels a " crime against humanity " , a claim he had previously made in October 2007 , when he called for a 5 @-@ year ban for the conversion of land for the production of biofuels . Also on April 2008 , the World Bank 's President , Robert Zoellick , stated that " While many worry about filling their gas tanks , many others around the world are struggling to fill their stomachs . And it 's getting more and more difficult every day . "
Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva gave a strong rebuttal , calling these claims " fallacies resulting from commercial interests , " and putting the blame instead on U.S. and European agricultural subsidies , and a problem restricted to U.S. ethanol produced from maize . The Brazilian President has also claimed on several occasions that his country 's sugar cane – based ethanol industry has not contributed to the food price crises .
A report released by Oxfam in June 2008 criticized biofuel policies of rich countries as neither a solution to the climate crisis nor the oil crisis , while contributing to the food price crisis . The report concluded that from all biofuels available in the market , Brazilian sugarcane ethanol is " far from perfect " but it is the most favorable biofuel in the world in term of cost and greenhouse gas balance . The report discusses some existing problems and potential risks , and asks the Brazilian government for caution to avoid jeopardizing its environmental and social sustainability . The report also says that : " Rich countries spent up to $ 15 billion last year supporting biofuels while blocking cheaper Brazilian ethanol , which is far less damaging for global food security . "
A World Bank research report published on July 2008 found that from June 2002 to June 2008 " biofuels and the related consequences of low grain stocks , large land use shifts , speculative activity and export bans " accounted for 70 @-@ 75 % of total price rises . The study found that higher oil prices and a weak dollar explain 25 @-@ 30 % of total price rise . The study said that " ... large increases in biofuels production in the United States and Europe are the main reason behind the steep rise in global food prices " and also stated that " Brazil 's sugar @-@ based ethanol did not push food prices appreciably higher . " The report argues that increased production of biofuels in these developed regions were supported by subsidies and tariffs on imports , and considers that without such policies , price increases worldwide would have been smaller . This research paper also concluded that Brazil 's sugar cane – based ethanol has not raised sugar prices significantly , and recommends removing tariffs on ethanol imports by both the U.S. and EU , to allow more efficient producers such as Brazil and other developing countries , including many African countries , to produce ethanol profitably for export to meet the mandates in the EU and U.S.
An economic assessment report also published in July 2008 by the OECD agrees with the World Bank report regarding the negative effects of subsidies and trade restrictions , but found that the impact of biofuels on food prices are much smaller . The OECD study is also critical of the limited reduction of GHG emissions achieved from biofuels produced in Europe and North America , concluding that the current biofuel support policies would reduce greenhouse gas emissions from transport fuel by no more than 0 @.@ 8 % by 2015 , while Brazilian ethanol from sugar cane reduces greenhouse gas emissions by at least 80 % compared to fossil fuels . The assessment calls on governments for more open markets in biofuels and feedstocks in order to improve efficiency and lower costs .
A study by the Brazilian research unit of the Fundação Getúlio Vargas regarding the effects of biofuels on grain prices. concluded that the major driver behind the 2007 – 2008 rise in food prices was speculative activity on futures markets under conditions of increased demand in a market with low grain stocks . The study also concluded that expansion of biofuel production was not a relevant factor and also that there is no correlation between Brazilian sugarcane cultivated area and average grain prices , as on the contrary , the spread of sugarcane was accompanied by rapid growth of grain crops in the country .
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= Nick Robinson =
Nicholas Anthony " Nick " Robinson ( born 5 October 1963 ) is a British journalist , former political editor for the BBC and a presenter on BBC 's Today BBC Radio 4 . Robinson was interested in politics from a young age , and went on to study a Philosophy , Politics , and Economics degree at Oxford University , where he was also President of the Oxford University Conservative Association . Starting out in broadcasting at Piccadilly Radio , after a year as President of the Conservative Party youth group , he worked his way up as a producer eventually becoming deputy editor of Panorama , before becoming a political correspondent in 1996 .
He became the BBC 's chief political correspondent in 1999 . Between 2002 and 2005 he worked for ITV News as political editor , but then returned to the BBC assuming the same role .
Noted for his confrontational and provocative approach , Robinson has on several occasions caused a stir with his style of questioning , particularly of national leaders such as George W. Bush . He has presented a variety of programmes , including Westminster Live , Weekend Breakfast and Late Night Live on BBC Radio 5 Live , and Newsnight .
= = Early life = =
Robinson was born in Macclesfield , Cheshire , in 1963 , to a translator mother and a sales director father . His mother was born in Shanghai , where her German Jewish parents fled during the 1930s . His father was of English background . His parents first met at Geneva University in Switzerland and married three months later .
Robinson was interested in political journalism from the age of eight . He was educated at Cheadle Hulme School and University College , Oxford , where he read Philosophy , Politics , and Economics .
In 1982 , while travelling in Europe , he survived a car crash in Lille , France , in which the car , a two @-@ door Beetle , exploded and his friends James Nelson and Will Redhead ( son of Brian Redhead , a journalist and co @-@ presenter of Today on BBC Radio 4 ) were killed . Robinson was " severely burned " , spent five weeks in hospital and had to defer his university place . Brian Redhead became Robinson 's mentor , and later encouraged his career in political journalism , giving him a copy of Tony Benn 's Arguments for Socialism for his birthday . However , Robinson 's early political affiliations were to the right .
= = Political activism = =
Robinson was a founder member of Macclesfield Young Conservatives and rose through the ranks , becoming Cheshire Young Conservative Chairman ( 1982 – 84 ) and became a key activist in the moderate controlled North West Area organisation . National YC Chairman , Phil Pedley co @-@ opted Robinson onto the Young Conservative National Advisory Committee in 1983 and appointed him National Campaign Director of Youth for Multilateral Disarmament . Robinson was elected National Vice Chairman in 1985 – 87 and succeeded fellow moderate , Richard Fuller , when he was elected Chairman of the National Young Conservatives on the moderate ticket against strong right @-@ wing opposition ( 1987 – 88 ) .
At university he was President of the Oxford University Conservative Association in 1985 .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career : 1986 – 1996 = = =
Robinson 's first position in broadcasting was at Piccadilly Radio in Manchester , which he took up while recovering from his injuries . He joined the BBC in 1986 as a production trainee , and later worked extensively as a television and radio producer for a variety of shows including Newsround and Crimewatch . He then became an assistant producer for On the Record , and in 1993 was promoted to Deputy Editor of Panorama , a position he held for three years . In 1995 , while Robinson was at Panorama he wrote an internal BBC memorandum questioning how an interview with Prime Minister John Major could be defended in the run @-@ up to the Scottish local elections . When leaked it gained attention from the Labour Party , who perceived it as the legitimised denial of equal time in the run up to local elections .
= = = Political correspondent : 1996 – 2002 = = =
In 1996 he became a political correspondent , presenting Weekend Breakfast and Late Night Live on BBC Radio 5 Live , and in 1997 he covered the general election for BBC Radio . In October 1999 he became BBC News 24 's chief political correspondent , and also presented Westminster Live . In the run @-@ up to the 2001 general election , Robinson started keeping a daily diary of the campaign . Entitled The Campaign Today , it later became Newslog , and continued to be updated until Robinson left the BBC . When he returned in 2005 he began a new blog with the same name .
= = = ITN political editor : 2002 – 2005 = = =
In 2002 , Robinson left the BBC for Independent Television News ( ITN ) as ITV News ' political editor . Tom Bradby , who later succeeded him , described the appointment as " bold , imaginative and instantly successful " . Robinson stayed with ITN for three years , and caused a major stir early in the 2005 election campaign at the unveiling of a Labour Party poster . The poster claimed the Conservative Party would initiate cuts of £ 35 billion to public services if elected ; Robinson challenged Prime Minister Tony Blair , claiming the poster was misleading , which forced Blair to admit the £ 35 billion figure was " disingenuous " .
Later on in the election campaign , Labour announced that Tony Blair would be making " the most important speech of the campaign " on immigration , with a specially invited audience . Robinson asked Blair why there were only white people in the audience , and Blair pointed out a single Asian man to disprove Robinson . Later , Robinson stated : " We know that the big two parties carefully select audiences to give a particular appearance . Is it a great controversy to point this out ? That 's informing the audience . " On election night , Robinson joined presenters Jonathan Dimbleby and Alastair Stewart to reveal the results with political analysis .
= = = Return to the BBC : 2005 – present = = =
Robinson left ITN and was appointed as the BBC political editor in preference to fellow journalist Martha Kearney in August 2005 , replacing Andrew Marr .
Robinson continued his provocative approach to journalism , and on more than one occasion had run @-@ ins with powerful politicians . During Tony Blair 's visit to Israel in 2006 to discuss the Lebanon War , journalists were asked not to bring up the ongoing rift with Gordon Brown . Bradby , then the ITV political editor , asked a question on the subject but was told it was " disrespectful " . Robinson then followed on the same topic , asking a difficult question on the feud between the Chancellor and Prime Minister . He was criticised for distracting from the main issue of the conference , but he argued that " I 'm paid to ask questions ... particularly at a time when there are incredibly serious allegations ... I react very badly to organised attempts to stop journalists asking questions . " Robinson later criticised Blair 's announcement of his intention to stand down . He explained how he considered the setup " stage management " , and how no journalists were allowed to ask questions .
In December 2006 George W. Bush showed dissatisfaction when he was asked if he was in denial about the situation in Iraq ( since the most Bush had said about the situation was that the increase in attacks was " unsettling " ) . Bush replied " It 's bad in Iraq . Does that help ? " . He had another run @-@ in with Bush at a press conference at Camp David , when Bush asked him " you still hanging around ? " . He then suggested to Robinson , with reference to the heat , that " next time you should cover your bald head " . As Bush walked away Robinson replied " I didn 't know you cared " , to which Bush responded " I don 't " . Robinson described his quip as a " fatal error " on his blog . In a final encounter in 2008 , Bush joked with Robinson about still not wearing his hat .
Robinson continues to keep a political blog on the BBC website . On 5 May 2006 he said that when hearing of Charles Clarke 's sacking in the 2006 Cabinet reshuffle , he was " naked in bed . " He later apologised , saying he was " merely trying to add authenticity . That 's the naked truth . " Another post , dated 25 February 2008 , criticised MPs defending Michael Martin against allegations of expenses misuse , which caused controversy in parliament .
As political editor , Robinson worked across the BBC 's politics @-@ related programmes , such as The Daily Politics , Newsnight and Today on BBC Radio 4 . He has been a key member of BBC election night coverage .
He has also appeared as a guest in other television programmes , including Children in Need , Have I Got News for You , and Top Gear .
Robinson has made several documentaries . In May 2011 he presented The Street That Cut Everything , where residents of a street in Preston , Lancashire had their council services withdrawn for six weeks as an experiment . In 2014 he presented The Truth About Immigration for BBC Two .
For radio , he made The Prime Ministers – a 16 @-@ part biographical series for BBC Radio Four . Ahead of the 2015 general election , he made a three part documentary called Can Democracy Work .
It was announced on 9 July 2015 that Robinson would become a presenter on the early morning BBC Radio 4 programme Today from Autumn 2015 , taking over from James Naughtie .
In October 2015 he interviewed Sir Alex Ferguson .
= = Criticism = =
Robinson has been criticised for allegedly reporting with a pro @-@ Conservative bias . Alastair Campbell brought up his history of Conservative affiliations during an interview . Bias was claimed particularly in the 2010 United Kingdom general election coverage ; a Facebook group entitled " Nick Robinson should not be the BBC 's political editor " was set up in August 2010 . In a 2005 interview with David Rowan , the UK editor of Wired News , he insisted " that his involvement [ with the Conservatives ] ceased twenty years ago " .
On 20 October 2010 , following a live BBC News at Six report outside Parliament for the 2010 Spending Review , Robinson silently took the anti @-@ war , anti @-@ cuts placard that had been waved directly behind him throughout , broke it in two and stamped on it . Afterwards , another protester , who had climbed the steps of the gantry where the BBC were broadcasting to film the protest on a mobile phone , said : " You should be ashamed of yourself , mate . Shame on you ! " Robinson replied " I 'm not remotely ashamed of myself . Why should I be ashamed of myself ? " . He wrote in his blog afterwards : " I lost my temper and I regret that . However , as I explained afterwards to the protesters who disrupted my broadcast , there are many opportunities to debate whether the troops should be out of Afghanistan without the need to stick a sign on a long pole and wave it in front of a camera . " Some days later , Robinson read out a jokily ambiguous " letter of apology " on Have I Got News For You ? , broadcast on 4 November 2010 .
On 22 May 2013 edition of the BBC News at Six Robinson relayed the news that the fatal stabbing of an off @-@ duty British soldier in London that afternoon was being treated by the government as a terrorist incident , but attracted criticism after quoting a source describing the perpetrators as being " of Muslim appearance " . The BBC received 43 complaints about Robinson 's use of the term , and he issued an apology on his BBC blog the following day .
On 11 September 2014 , as part of the coverage of the Scottish independence referendum , Nick Robinson had a dispute with Scottish National Party leader Alex Salmond . The previous day Robinson had reported that Lloyds Bank and RBS would be moving their registered offices from Scotland to London in the event of a " Yes " vote . In the exchange Robinson asked Salmond two questions : the first about the economic impact of RBS moving its headquarters , the second more general about why to trust a politician when CEO 's of certain companies advised against independence . Salmond gave answers to the two questions , stating in answer the first that there was not a huge significance economically about where the registered head office of a company was and to the second he claimed that the media were recycling news from many months ago , he then claimed that an investigation into the BBC 's actions would be sought given that rules regarding the release of market @-@ sensitive data had been broken . After the 4 minute 30 second answer , Robinson continued , now off @-@ mic , to ask further questions and so was accused of heckling by Salmond . Salmond gave another 2 minute answer to the off @-@ mic questions . The entire exchange lasted for 7 minutes 40 seconds . A report was shown on all BBC evening news programmes later that day , edited to show only the second part of Robinson 's original two @-@ part question before cutting to his narration in which he claimed Salmond had not answered his question but had instead chosen to lay accusations against the BBC even though the accusations represented a very small portion of the overall exchange . The BBC received complaints from viewers for the implication that Salmond had not answered a question put to him , and there was protest in Glasgow , in which thousands of licence payers called for him to be sacked . The BBC responded : " The BBC considers that the questions were valid and the overall report balanced and impartial , in line with our editorial guidelines .
In November 2014 , Robinson was covering the count for the Rochester and Strood by @-@ election . He was seen smiling whilst posing for a photograph with Britain First candidate and deputy leader Jayda Fransen . The far right @-@ wing party promotes preserving " ancestral ethnic and cultural heritage " within the UK whilst being opposed to Scottish independence , non @-@ Christian religious interests and [ social ] Liberalism . Due to the fact that Robinson had been accused of bias on these issues before , he was now accused , by some , on Twitter , of being sympathetic to the party 's values and friendly with the leadership . Responding , he denied direct affiliated with the party leadership .
= = Personal life = =
Robinson met his wife Pippa , a relationship counsellor , at university and they married in 1991 . He has three children : Harry , Will and Alice . He lives in North London , close to Arsenal 's Emirates Stadium . He is a lifelong Manchester United fan , and enjoys sailing and the theatre . Robinson is a fan of the rock band Queen ; his ringtone of one of their songs interrupted a discussion during Daily Politics in 2014 .
In early 2015 Robinson underwent surgery to remove a bronchial carcinoid tumour ; returning to work at the BBC on 13 April 2015 as part of their coverage of the 2015 General Election and beyond . The operation was reported to have been a “ complete success ” .
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= Marina Mohnen =
Marina Mohnen ( born 31 October 1978 ) is a 4 @.@ 5 point wheelchair basketball player , who plays for RSC Köln in Germany , and previously played for S. Stefano Sport in Italy . She also played with the German national team that won the European title in 2005 , 2007 , 2009 and 2011 and was runner @-@ up in 2013 . It was also runner @-@ up at the IWBF World Championship in Birmingham in 2010 . She won a silver medal at the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , and a gold medal at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London . The team was voted 2008 Team of the Year in disabled sports , and President Horst Köhler presented it with Germany 's highest sports award , the Silbernes Lorbeerblatt ( Silver Laurel Leaf ) . President Joachim Gauck awarded the team a second Silver Leaf after it won the gold medal at the 2012 Summer Paralympics .
= = Biography = =
Marina Mohnen was born in Bitburg on 31 October 1978 . Mohnen majored in economics and works for the Bundesakademie für öffentliche Verwaltung ( Federal Academy of Public Administration ) , a sports funding body , in Brühl . " Wenn das Nationalteam ruft , " she says , " werde ich freigestellt . " ( " When the national team calls , I am available . " )
Mohnen began playing basketball when she was eleven , but in 1999 she suffered a severe anterior cruciate ligament injury . She took up wheelchair basketball as a 4 @.@ 5 point player , initially playing for her home town team in Bitburg , but she subsequently moved to Koblenz , then to Bonn , and then to Cologne , where she now lives again after a stint in Italy . As part of RSC Köln from 2004 to 2009 , she played an important role in the rise of the team . She then moved to the Italian club S. Stefano Sport in Santo Stefano , playing in Italy from 2009 to 2011 , after which she returned to RBC Köln .
Mohnen joined the German national team in 2005 . They went on to win European Championships in 2005 , 2007 , 2009 and 2011 . They were bronze medallists at the World Championships in Amsterdam in 2006 , and silver medallists at the World Championships in Birmingham in 2010 .
In September 2008 , Mohnen participated in the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , her first , but the German team was beaten in the gold medal game by the United States , and took home Paralympic silver medals . After the Paralympics , the team 's performance was considered impressive enough for it to be named the national " Team of the Year " , and it received the Silver Laurel Leaf , Germany 's highest sporting honour , from German President Horst Koehler . Mohnen beat Olympic gold medallists Britta Heidemann , Marion Rodewald and Oksana Chusovitina , and long @-@ distance runner Sabrina Mockenhaupt , to take the title of Cologne 's Sportswoman of the Year for 2008 .
Mohnen was part of the team that won the European Championship for the sixth time in a row in Nazareth in 2011 , thereby qualifying for the 2012 Summer Paralympic Games in London . As part of the team 's preparation , they toured the United States and Australia . Mohnen was captain of the team in London . In the gold medal match in London , the team faced the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , who had defeated them 48 – 46 in Sydney just a few months earlier , in front of a capacity crowd of over 12 @,@ 000 at the North Greenwich Arena , that included Mohnen 's mother Kati and sister Sonja . The German team had been undefeated up to that point , but had started slowly in its games against the United States and China , winning both games by six @-@ point margins , and seemed to play their best basketball only in the final minutes of a game . They defeated the Australians 44 – 58 to win the gold medal , the first that Germany had won in women 's wheelchair basketball since 1984 , a 28 @-@ year period . Mohnen contributed eleven points .
They were awarded the Silver Laurel Leaf by President Joachim Gauck in November 2012 , and were named Team of the Year for 2012 . Bitburg honoured Mohnen by entering her name into the Golden Book of the City .
In July 2013 the team lost the European Championship to the Netherlands before a home crowd of 2 @,@ 300 in Frankfurt by a point , 56 @-@ 57 .
= = Achievements = =
2005 : Gold at European Championships ( Villeneuve d 'Ascq , France )
2006 : Bronze at World Championships ( Amsterdam , Netherlands )
2007 : Gold at European Championships ( Wetzlar , Germany )
2008 : Silver at Paralympics ( Beijing , China )
2009 : Gold at European Championships ( Stoke Mandeville , England )
2010 : Silver at World Championships ( Birmingham , Great Britain )
2011 : Gold at European Championships ( Nazareth , Israel )
2012 : Gold at Paralympic Games ( London , England )
2013 : Silver at European Championships ( Frankfurt , Germany )
2014 : Silver at the World Championships ( Toronto , Canada )
2015 : Gold at the European Championships ( Worcester , England )
= = Awards = =
2008 : Team of the Year
2008 : Silver Laurel Leaf
2008 : Cologne 's Sportswoman of the Year
2012 : Team of the Year
2012 : Silver Laurel Leaf
2012 : Golden Book of the City of Bitburg .
2015 : Gold at the European Championships ( Worcester , England )
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= Business routes of U.S. Route 10 in Michigan =
There are three business routes of US Highway 10 in the state of Michigan . They serve as connections from the main highway into Reed City , Clare and Midland . Additionally , there were another two business routes that connected US Highway 10 ( US 10 ) to the downtowns of Flint and Pontiac . All of these business routes are , or were , former sections of US 10 that were marked Business US Highway 10 ( Bus . US 10 ) after the main highway was realigned to bypass the downtowns of the cities .
The Reed City Bus . US 10 was created by 1960 to follow Chestnut and Church streets into the community 's central business district and through adjacent residential areas . In 1975 when US 10 was rerouted to follow the freeways around Clare , the former routing through downtown on McEwan and Fifth streets was redesignated as a business loop ; it was also signed to provide connections between US 10 and what is now US 127 because of an incomplete interchange between those two freeways . The Midland business loop dates back to 1961 and follows Eastman Avenue and two sets of one @-@ way streets before completing its routing as a freeway . The two business loops created for Flint and Pontiac were designated in 1941 and 1961 , respectively . They followed streets that were once part of US 10 , but after additional changes to US 10 's routing in Michigan , they were renumbered as business loops of other highways in 1962 and 1986 , respectively . Near Flint , part of US 10 was replaced by M @-@ 54 when the US Highway was moved to a freeway , and near Pontiac it was replaced by US 24 after US 10 was truncated in the state .
= = Reed City = =
Business US Highway 10 ( Bus . US 10 ) is a business loop running for about 2 @.@ 1 miles ( 3 @.@ 4 km ) in Reed City . Running eastbound , the business loop starts at the corner of US 10 and Chestnut Street and runs southward along the latter into downtown . Chestnut Street is old US 131 and passes through some residential neighborhoods . It also crosses the Hersey River and the Pere Marquette State Trail while running parallel to the White Pine Trail along its western half . At the intersection with Church Street near Reed City High School , Bus . US 10 turns eastward . The business loop continues easterly out of downtown and angles northeasterly before crossing the Hersey River and the Pere Marquette State Trail again . Immediately to the northeast of the river crossing , Bus . US 10 intersects its parent highway and terminates . The entire route of the highway follows two @-@ lane streets through town . According to the Michigan Department of Transportation , the agency which maintains the roadway , between 1 @,@ 949 and 5 @,@ 499 vehicles per day used the business loop on average daily in 2013 .
In 1919 when the state highway system was first numbered , the east – west highway running through Reed City was numbered M @-@ 20 , and it was renumbered to US 10 seven years later when the United States Numbered Highway System was created . The business loop was created after US 10 was moved to bypass downtown Reed City in the late 1950s . This realignment was completed , and the business loop commissioned , by 1960 . Until 1986 , the western half of the loop along Chestnut Street ran concurrently with US 131 until that highway was moved to its current freeway routing .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Reed City , Osceola County .
= = Clare = =
Business US Highway 10 ( Bus . US 10 ) is a business loop in Clare that is just over 5 @.@ 0 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) long . From its western end , it branches off its parent highway , US 10 and runs southward into the city of Clare . Because US 10 runs concurrently with US 127 on the northern and eastern sides of Clare , Bus . US 10 is also concurrent with Bus . US 127 on its western leg . Bus . US 10 / Bus . US 127 follows McEwan Street southward over the South Branch of the Tobacco River and through a residential area on the north side of the city . Several blocks further south , the highway enters the downtown district and turns onto 5th Streets , separating from Bus . US 127 .
Fifth Street continues eastward and then southeasterly out of downtown and through residential areas . At Clarabella Road , the business loop crosses from Clare County into Isabella County before passing under the US 127 freeway without an interchange . Bus . US 10 runs parallel to the Pere Marquette Rail @-@ Trail on Saginaw Road in a rural section of Isabella County before terminating at an interchange that connects it to eastbound US 10 in Wise Township . Through the city , the business loop has four lanes for traffic , but the rural segment in Isabella County has two . According to the Michigan Department of Transportation , the agency which maintains the roadway , between 4 @,@ 035 and 6 @,@ 540 vehicles per day used the business loop on average daily in 2013 .
In 1919 when the state highway system was first numbered , the east – west highway running through Clare was numbered M @-@ 20 , and it was renumbered to US 10 seven years later when the United States Numbered Highway System was created . In late 1961 , the US 10 freeway east of the city to Midland was finished , but the route through downtown remained part of US 10 . A freeway bypass north of Clare and Farwell opened in 1975 , and US 10 was rerouted along the then @-@ US 27 freeway to connect from the new bypass to the existing freeway east of the city , bypassing both cities . The section of US 10 in downtown Clare was designated Bus . US 10 at this time , running along then @-@ Bus . US 27 to connect to US 27 / US 10 north of downtown . The section of former US 10 between Farwell and Clare became an extended M @-@ 115 in 1989 . In 2002 , US 27 in Michigan was renumbered to US 127 , and the business loops were renumbered accordingly .
Major intersections
= = Midland = =
Business US Highway 10 ( Bus . US 10 ) is a business loop running for 7 @.@ 2 miles ( 11 @.@ 6 km ) in Midland in Midland County . The highway starts at exit 122 on US 10 north of downtown near the Midland Mall . The business loop runs southward along the four lanes of Eastman Avenue through residential neighborhoods and past the Midland Country Club and the Midland Center for the Arts . Further south , the business loop splits to follow the one @-@ way pairing of Buttles Street ( eastbound ) and Indian Street ( westbound ) ; these two streets run northwest @-@ to @-@ southeast parallel to the Tittabawassee River . At Jerome Street , M @-@ 20 merges onto the business loop . The two highways run concurrently from this point eastward . On the eastern edge of downtown , Bus . US 10 / M @-@ 20 passes Dow Diamond , home of the Great Lakes Loons , a minor @-@ league baseball team , and then the highway turns northeasterly . East of Jefferson Avenue , Bus . US 10 / M @-@ 20 turns east – west along the one @-@ way pairing of Lyon Road ( eastbound ) and Patrick Road ( westbound ) .
East of Washington Street and Saginaw Road , the highway transitions from one @-@ way streets to a freeway ; the transition between the eastbound freeway and Patrick Road passes through a roundabout in the Saginaw Road interchange . As the freeway continues eastward , there is a partial interchange for Waldo Road , and then the highway crosses into the section of Midland that is located in Bay County . Immediately east of the county line , Bus . US 10 and M @-@ 20 jointly terminate at a directional interchange with US 10 ; traffic on the eastbound business loop defaults onto eastbound US 10 , and traffic on the westbound business loop originates on westbound US 10 . According to the Michigan Department of Transportation , the agency which maintains the roadway , between 7 @,@ 317 and 23 @,@ 733 vehicles per day used the business loop on average daily in 2013 . The section of Bus . US 10 that runs concurrently with M @-@ 20 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
In 1919 when the state highway system was first numbered , the east – west highways connecting at Midland were numbered M @-@ 20 and M @-@ 24 . M @-@ 20 to the northwest of the city along with M @-@ 24 to the southeast ( along what is today M @-@ 47 ) were renumbered to US 10 seven years later when the United States Numbered Highway System was created . Afterward , M @-@ 24 west of Midland became part of M @-@ 20 . By the middle of the 1930s , US 10 was shifted to bypass downtown Midland , and the former route on the west side of town was numbered US 10A . At the end of the 1950s , M @-@ 20 east of Midland to Bay City was converted to a freeway , By the middle of 1961 , the freeway bypass of Midland was completed , and the business loop was designated along the former US 10A and part of M @-@ 20 ; at the same time , US 10 was rerouted to replace M @-@ 20 east of Midland to Bay City
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Midland . All exits are unnumbered .
= = Flint = =
Business US Highway 10 ( Bus . US 10 ) was a business loop in the Flint area . It ran for about 14 @.@ 8 miles ( 23 @.@ 8 km ) along Saginaw Road , which was also called Saginaw Street in the city of Flint . The highway connected to its parent in Mount Morris Township and ran southerly along Saginaw Road through Mount Morris . From there the business loop paralleled what is now I @-@ 475 into the city of Flint on Saginaw Street . In downtown , the loop crossed the Flint River . There were intersections with both directions of M @-@ 21 ; eastbound M @-@ 21 was routed on 5th Street while westbound traffic followed Court Street one block north . South of downtown , Bus . US 10 turned southeasterly to run through suburban Burton before terminating at an intersection with US 10 ( Dort Highway ) near Grand Blanc in Grand Blanc Township . Saginaw Road was a multi @-@ lane undivided street for its length at the time it was Bus . US 10
Originally , Saginaw Road in the Flint area was a part of the Saginaw Trail , a Native American foot path in the area . When the state signed its highway system in 1919 , Saginaw Road was part of M @-@ 10 . Later it was used as a section of US 10 in 1926 . By 1930 , the main highway was moved eastward to follow Dort Highway , and the route through the city was designated M @-@ 10 . It was renumbered to Bus . US 10 in 1941 . Later , in 1962 , US 10 was moved again to follow the recently completed I @-@ 75 freeway ; the former route of US 10 was redesignated M @-@ 54 and its business loop was renumbered to match .
Major intersections
The entire highway was in Genesee County .
= = Pontiac = =
Business US Highway 10 ( Bus . US 10 ) was an approximately 6 @.@ 9 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 11 @.@ 1 km ) business loop running in Pontiac . It was redesignated in 1986 as a business route of US 24 after US 10 was truncated to Bay City . The roadways it used were at four lanes where they carried two @-@ way traffic , and two or three lanes where they carried one @-@ way traffic through the area .
Bus . US 10 started northwest of downtown at the intersection of Telegraph Road and Dixie Highway in Waterford Township before crossing into the City of Pontiac . From there , the highway followed Dixie Highway southeasterly bordered by residential neighborhoods to the north and rail yards to the south of the four @-@ lane street . From the intersection with Woodcalm Street southward , the eastbound direction branched off to follow Cass Avenue two blocks to the south of Oakland Avenue . At the northern end of downtown , Bus . US 10 merged onto a loop formed by Wide Track Drive around the downtown core southward to Woodward Avenue . The loop is shaped like an upside @-@ down tear drop that is about four blocks wide at the northern end tapering to a single intersection at the south . Wide Track Drive also carried the two directions of Business Loop Interstate 75 ( BL I @-@ 75 ) around downtown Pontiac between Woodward Avenue and Perry Street . The two directions of BL I @-@ 75 / Bus . US 10 intersected M @-@ 59 on opposite sides of the central business district at Huron Street . The business loop continued southward along Wide Track Drive to the intersection that marked the northern end of Woodward Avenue . From there , BL I @-@ 75 / Bus . US 10 followed Woodward south past the hospital and out of the City of Pontiac . South of the city limits , the roadway was bordered by residential subdivisions . At Square Lake Road , Bus US 10 turned westward , BL I @-@ 75 turned eastward and M @-@ 1 continued south on Woodward Avenue . Bus . US 10 followed Square Lake Road for about 1 @.@ 3 miles ( 2 @.@ 1 km ) before terminating at an intersection with US 10 ( Telegraph Road ) .
In 1919 when the state highway system was first numbered , the north – south highway through Pontiac was numbered M @-@ 10 , and it was renumbered to US 10 seven years later when the United States Numbered Highway System was created . A number of highway designation and routing changes in the Pontiac were made when US 10 was shifted out of downtown to replace M @-@ 58 along Telegraph Road west of downtown by the middle of 1961 . Before the change , US 10 followed Dixie Highway and Oakland Avenue southeast into Pontiac to Perry Street and then Perry to Woodward while M @-@ 58 was routed along Telegraph and Square Lake Roads . After the change , US 10 turned south from Dixie Highway onto Telegraph and then east onto Square Lake to connect back to Woodward . The old route through downtown was assigned the Bus . US 10 moniker and M @-@ 58 was decommissioned as a highway designation . Nine years later , US 10 was moved off Woodward Avenue between Pontiac and Detroit to follow the Lodge Freeway and Telegraph Road . Bus . US 10 was extended westward along Square Lake Road from the intersection of Woodward Avenue to the junction with Telegraph Road so that it would continue to connect with its parent highway on the southern end . In 1985 , the Michigan Department of Transportation received permission from the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials to truncate US 10 to Bay City , and when the change was made the following year , US 24 replaced US 10 on Telegraph Road north of Square Lake Road , and Bus . US 10 through downtown was redesignated Bus . US 24 .
Major intersections
The entire highway was in Oakland County .
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= The Kinks =
The Kinks were an English rock band formed in Muswell Hill , North London , in 1963 by brothers Dave and Ray Davies . They are regarded as one of the most important and influential rock groups of the era . The band emerged in 1964 during the height of British rhythm and blues and Merseybeat , and were briefly part of the British Invasion of the US until their touring ban in 1965 . Their third single , the Ray Davies penned " You Really Got Me " , became an international hit , topping the charts in the United Kingdom and reaching the Top 10 in the United States . Between the mid @-@ 1960s and early 1970s , the group released a string of hit singles ; studio albums drew good reviews but sold less than compilations of their singles . They gained a reputation for reflecting English culture and lifestyle , fuelled by Ray Davies ' observational writing style . Albums such as Something Else ( 1967 ) , The Kinks Are the Village Green Preservation Society ( 1968 ) , Arthur ( 1969 ) , Lola Versus Powerman ( 1970 ) , along with their accompanying singles , are considered among the most influential recordings of the period .
After a fallow period in the mid Seventies , the band experienced a revival during the late 1970s and early 1980s with albums Sleepwalker , Misfits , Low Budget , Give the People What They Want and State of Confusion . In addition , groups such as Van Halen , the Jam , the Knack , the Pretenders and the Fall covered their songs , helping to boost the Kinks ' record sales . In the 1990s , Britpop acts such as Blur and Oasis cited the band as a major influence . The Kinks broke up in 1996 , a result of the commercial failures of their last few albums and creative tension between the Davies brothers .
Their music was influenced by a wide range of genres , including rhythm and blues , British music hall , folk and country . Ray Davies ( lead vocals , rhythm guitar ) and Dave Davies ( lead guitar , vocals ) remained members throughout the group 's 32 @-@ year run . Longest @-@ serving member Mick Avory ( drums and percussion ) was replaced by Bob Henrit , formerly of Argent , in 1984 . Original bassist Pete Quaife was replaced by John Dalton in 1969 , and Dalton was in turn replaced by Jim Rodford in 1978 . Session keyboardist Nicky Hopkins accompanied the band in the studio for many of their recordings in the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1960s . In 1969 keyboardist John Gosling joined the band , making them an official five @-@ piece , while Ian Gibbons replaced him in 1979 , playing in the band until its eventual demise .
The group had five Top 10 singles on the US Billboard chart . Nine of their albums charted in the Top 40 . In the UK , the group had seventeen Top 20 singles and five Top 10 albums . Four of their albums have been certified gold by the RIAA . Among numerous honours , they received the Ivor Novello Award for " Outstanding Service to British Music " . In 1990 , the original four members of the Kinks were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , as well as the UK Music Hall of Fame in November 2005 .
= = History = =
= = = Formation ( 1962 – 63 ) = = =
The Davies brothers were born in suburban North London on Huntingdon Road , East Finchley , the youngest and only boys among their family 's eight children . Their parents , Frederick and Annie Davies , moved the family to 6 Denmark Terrace , Fortis Green , in the neighbouring suburb of Muswell Hill . At home they were immersed in a world of varied musical styles , from the music hall of their parents ' generation to the jazz and early rock and roll that their older sisters enjoyed .
Thomas Kitts writes , " The influence of these parties on the Kinks ... is remarkable . Whether consciously or unconsciously , [ onstage ] it seemed as if Ray was trying to recreate the Saturday night parties of his family 's home — complete with chaos , beer and singalongs . " Both Ray and his brother Dave , younger by almost three years , learned to play guitar , and they played skiffle and rock and roll together .
The brothers attended William Grimshaw Secondary Modern School ( later merged with Tollington Grammar School to become Fortismere School ) , where they formed a band , the Ray Davies Quartet , with Ray 's friend and classmate Pete Quaife and Quaife 's friend John Start . Their debut at a school dance was well received , which encouraged the group to play at local pubs and bars . The band went through a series of lead vocalists , including Rod Stewart , another student at William Grimshaw , who performed with the group at least once in early 1962 . He then formed his own group , Rod Stewart and the Moonrakers , which became a local rival to the Ray Davies Quartet .
In late 1962 , Ray Davies left home to study at Hornsey College of Art . He pursued interests in subjects such as film , sketching , theatre and music such as jazz and blues . He gained experience as a guitarist with the Soho @-@ based Dave Hunt Band , a professional group of musicians who played jazz and R & B , before abandoning college and returning to Muswell Hill , where the brothers and Quaife re @-@ formed their old group , performing under several names , including the Pete Quaife Band , the Bo @-@ Weevils , and the Ramrods , before ( temporarily ) settling on the Ravens .
The fledgling group hired two managers , Grenville Collins and Robert Wace , and in late 1963 former pop singer Larry Page became their third manager . American record producer Shel Talmy began working with the band , and the Beatles ' promoter , Arthur Howes , was retained to schedule the Ravens ' live shows . The group unsuccessfully auditioned for various record labels until early 1964 , when Talmy secured them a contract with Pye Records . During this period they had acquired a new drummer , Mickey Willet ; however , Willet left the band shortly before they signed to Pye . The Ravens invited Mick Avory to replace him after seeing an advertisement Avory had placed in Melody Maker . Avory had a background in jazz drumming and had played one gig with the fledgling Rolling Stones .
Around this period , the Ravens decided on a new , permanent name : the Kinks . Numerous explanations of the name 's genesis have been offered . In Jon Savage 's analysis , they " needed a gimmick , some edge to get them attention . Here it was : ' Kinkiness ' — something newsy , naughty but just on the borderline of acceptability . In adopting the ' Kinks ' as their name at that time , they were participating in a time @-@ honoured pop ritual — fame through outrage . " Manager Robert Wace related his side of the story : " I had a friend ... He thought the group was rather fun . If my memory is correct , he came up with the name just as an idea , as a good way of getting publicity ... When we went to [ the band members ] with the name , they were ... absolutely horrified . They said , ' We 're not going to be called kinky ! ' " Ray Davies ' account conflicts with Wace 's — he recalled that the name was coined by Larry Page , and referenced their " kinky " fashion sense . Davies quoted him as saying , " The way you look , and the clothes you wear , you ought to be called the Kinks . " " I 've never really liked the name , " Ray stated .
= = = " You Really Got Me " and American touring ban ( 1964 – 65 ) = = =
The band 's first single was a cover of the Little Richard song " Long Tall Sally " . Bobby Graham , a friend of the band , was recruited to play drums on the recording . He would continue to occasionally substitute for Avory in the studio and play on several of the Kinks ' early singles , including the early hits " You Really Got Me " , " All Day and All of the Night " and " So Tired of Waiting " . " Long Tall Sally " was released in February 1964 , but despite the publicity efforts of the band 's managers , the single was almost completely ignored . When their second single , " You Still Want Me " , failed to chart , Pye Records threatened to annul the group 's contract unless their third single was successful .
" You Really Got Me " , a Ray Davies song , influenced by American blues and the Kingsmen 's version of " Louie Louie " , was recorded on 15 June 1964 at Pye studios with a slower and more produced feel than the final single . Ray Davies wanted to rerecord the song with a lean , raw sound , but Pye refused to fund another session ; Davies took an adamant stand , so the producer , Shel Talmy , broke the stalemate by under @-@ writing the session himself . The band used an independent studio , IBC , and went in on 15 July , getting it done in two takes . The single was released on August 1964 , and , supported by a performance on the television show Ready Steady Go ! and extensive pirate radio coverage , it entered the UK charts on August 15 , reaching number one on September 19 . Hastily imported by the American label Reprise Records , it also made the Top 10 in the United States . The loud , distorted guitar riff and solo on " You Really Got Me " was played by Dave Davies and achieved by a slice Dave Davies made in the speaker cone of his Elpico amplifier ( referred to by the band as the " little green amp " ) — helped with the song 's signature , gritty guitar sound . " You Really Got Me " has been described as " a blueprint song in the hard rock and heavy metal arsenal " , and as an influence on the approach of some American garage rock bands . After its release , the group recorded most of the tracks for their debut LP , simply titled Kinks . Consisting largely of covers and revamped traditional songs , it was released on 2 October 1964 , reaching number four on the UK chart . The group 's fourth single , " All Day and All of the Night " , another Ray Davies hard rock tune , was released three weeks later , reaching number two in the United Kingdom , and number seven in the United States . The next singles , " Set Me Free " and " Tired of Waiting for You " , were also commercially successful , the latter topping the UK singles chart .
The group made their first tour of Australia , New Zealand beginning in January 1965 as part of a package bill that included Manfred Mann and The Honeycombs . An intensive performing schedule saw them headline other package tours throughout the year with acts such as The Yardbirds and Mickey Finn . Tensions began to emerge within the band , expressed in incidents such as the on @-@ stage fight between Avory and Dave Davies at The Capitol Theatre , Cardiff , Wales on 19 May . After finishing the first song , " You Really Got Me " , Davies insulted Avory and kicked over his drum set . Avory responded by hitting Davies with his hi @-@ hat stand , rendering him unconscious , before fleeing from the scene , fearing that he had killed his bandmate . Davies was taken to Cardiff Royal Infirmary , where he received 16 stitches to his head . To placate the police , Avory later claimed that it was part of a new act in which the band members would hurl their instruments at each other .
Following a mid @-@ year tour of the United States , the American Federation of Musicians refused permits for the group to appear in concerts there for the next four years , effectively cutting off the Kinks from the main market for rock music at the height of the British Invasion . Although neither the Kinks nor the union gave a specific reason for the ban , at the time it was widely attributed to their rowdy on @-@ stage behaviour .
A stopover in Bombay , India , during the band 's Australian and Asian tour had led Davies to write the song " See My Friends " , released as a single in July 1965 . This was an early example of crossover music , and one of the first pop songs of the period to display the direct influence of traditional music from the Indian subcontinent . Davies had written " See My Friends " with a raga feel after hearing the early morning chants of local fishermen . Music historian Jonathan Bellman argues that the song was " extremely influential " on Davies ' musical peers : " And while much has been made of the Beatles ' ' Norwegian Wood ' because it was the first pop record to use a sitar , it was recorded well after the Kinks ' clearly Indian ' See My Friends ' was released . " Pete Townshend of the Who was particularly affected by the song : " ' See My Friends ' was the next time I pricked up my ears and thought , ' God , he 's done it again . He 's invented something new . ' It was a European sound rather than an Eastern sound but with a strong , legitimate Eastern influence which had its roots in European folk music . " In a widely quoted statement by Barry Fantoni , 1960s celebrity and friend of the Kinks , the Beatles and the Who , he recalled that it was also an influence on The Beatles : " I remember it vividly and still think it 's a remarkable pop song . I was with the Beatles the evening that they actually sat around listening to it on a gramophone , saying ' You know this guitar thing sounds like a sitar . We must get one of those . ' " The song 's radical departure from popular music conventions proved unpopular with the band 's American following — it hit number 11 in the UK , but stalled at number 111 in the US .
Recording began promptly on the group 's next project , Kinda Kinks , starting the day after their return from the Asian tour . The LP — 10 of whose 12 songs were originals — was completed and released within two weeks . According to Ray Davies , the band was not completely satisfied with the final cuts , but pressure from the record company meant that no time was available to correct flaws in the mix . Davies later expressed his dissatisfaction with the production , saying , " a bit more care should have been taken with it . I think [ producer ] Shel Talmy went too far in trying to keep in the rough edges . Some of the double tracking on that is appalling . It had better songs on it than the first album , but it wasn 't executed in the right way . It was just far too rushed . "
A significant stylistic shift became evident in late 1965 , with the appearance of singles like " A Well Respected Man " and " Dedicated Follower of Fashion " , as well as the band 's third album , The Kink Kontroversy , on which session musician Nicky Hopkins made his first appearance with the group on keyboards . These recordings exemplified the development of Davies ' songwriting style , from hard @-@ driving rock numbers toward songs rich in social commentary , observation and idiosyncratic character study , all with a uniquely English flavour .
= = = The Golden Age ( 1966 – 72 ) = = =
The satirical single " Sunny Afternoon " was the biggest UK hit of summer 1966 , topping the charts and displacing the Beatles ' " Paperback Writer " . Before the release of The Kink Kontroversy , Ray Davies suffered a nervous and physical breakdown , caused by the pressures of touring , writing and ongoing legal squabbles . During his months of recuperation , he wrote several new songs and pondered the band 's direction . Quaife was involved in an automobile accident , and after his recovery decided to step back from the band for much of 1966 . Bassist John Dalton filled in until Quaife returned to the group at the end of the year .
" Sunny Afternoon " was a dry run for the band 's next album Face to Face , which displayed Davies ' growing ability to craft gentle yet cutting narrative songs about everyday life and people . Hopkins returned for the sessions to play various keyboard instruments , including piano and harpsichord . He played on the band 's next two studio albums as well , and featured on a number of their live BBC recordings before joining The Jeff Beck Group in 1968 . Face to Face was released in the UK in October 1966 , where it was well received and peaked at number eight . It was released in the US in December and was tapped as a potential " chart winner " by Billboard magazine . Despite this it managed only a meager chart peak of 135 — a sign of the band 's flagging popularity in the American market .
The Kinks ' next single was a social commentary piece , entitled " Dead End Street " . It was released in November 1966 and became another UK Top 10 hit , although it reached only number 73 in the United States . Melody Maker reviewer Bob Dawbarn praised Ray Davies ' ability to create a song with " some fabulous lyrics and a marvelous melody ... combined with a great production , " and music scholar Johnny Rogan described it as " a kitchen sink drama without the drama — a static vision of working class stoicism " . One of the group 's first promotional music videos was produced for the song . It was filmed on Little Green Street , a small 18th @-@ century lane in north London , located off Highgate Road in Kentish Town .
The Kinks ' next single , " Waterloo Sunset " , was released in May 1967 . The lyrics describe two lovers passing over a bridge , with a melancholic observer reflecting on the couple , the Thames and Waterloo Station . The song was rumoured to have been inspired by the romance between two British celebrities of the time , actors Terence Stamp and Julie Christie . Ray Davies denied this in his autobiography , and claimed in a 2008 interview , " It was a fantasy about my sister going off with her boyfriend to a new world and they were going to emigrate and go to another country . " Despite its complex arrangement , the sessions for " Waterloo Sunset " lasted a mere ten hours ; Dave Davies later commented on the recording : " We spent a lot of time trying to get a different guitar sound , to get a more unique feel for the record . In the end we used a tape @-@ delay echo , but it sounded new because nobody had done it since the 1950s . I remember Steve Marriott of the Small Faces came up and asked me how we 'd got that sound . We were almost trendy for a while . " The single was one of the Kinks ' biggest UK successes ( hitting number two on Melody Maker 's chart ) , and went on to become one of their most popular and best @-@ known songs . Pop music journalist Robert Christgau called it " the most beautiful song in the English language " , and Allmusic senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine cited it as " possibly the most beautiful song of the rock and roll era . "
The songs on the 1967 album , Something Else By The Kinks , developed the musical progressions of Face to Face , adding English music hall influences to the band 's sound . Dave Davies scored a major UK chart success with the album 's " Death of a Clown " . While it was co @-@ written by Ray Davies and recorded by the Kinks , it was also released as a Dave Davies solo single . Overall , however , the album 's commercial performance was disappointing , prompting the Kinks to rush out a new single , " Autumn Almanac " , in early October . Backed with " Mister Pleasant " , the single became another Top 5 success for the group . Andy Miller points out that , despite its success , the single marks a turning point in the band 's career — it would be their last entry into the UK Top Ten for three years : " In retrospect , ' Autumn Almanac ' marked the first hint of trouble for the Kinks . This glorious single , one of the greatest achievements of British 60s pop , was widely criticised at the time for being too similar to previous Davies efforts . " Nick Jones of Melody Maker asked , " Is it time that Ray stopped writing about grey suburbanites going about their fairly unemotional daily business ? ... Ray works to a formula , not a feeling , and it 's becoming rather boring . " Disc jockey Mike Ahern called the song " a load of old rubbish " . Dave 's second solo single , " Susannah 's Still Alive " , was released in the UK on 24 November . It sold a modest 59 @,@ 000 copies , but failed to reach the Top 10 . Miller states that " by the end of the year , the Kinks were rapidly sliding out of fashion . "
Beginning early in 1968 , the group largely retired from touring , instead focusing on work in the studio . As the band was not available to promote their material , subsequent releases met with little success . The Kinks ' next single , " Wonderboy " , released in the spring of 1968 , stalled at number 36 and became the band 's first single not to make the UK Top Twenty since their early covers . Despite this , it became a favourite of John Lennon of The Beatles . According to Ray Davies , " Someone had seen John Lennon in a club and he kept on asking the disc jockey to play ' Wonder Boy ' [ sic ] over and over again " . However , the band 's own opinion of the track was low — Pete Quaife later stated , " [ I ] hated it ... it was horrible . " In the face of the band 's declining popularity , Davies continued to pursue his deeply personal song @-@ writing style while rebelling against the heavy demands placed on him to keep producing commercial hits , and the group continued to devote time to the studio , centring on a slowly developing project of Ray 's called Village Green . In an attempt to revive the group 's commercial standing , the Kinks ' management booked them on a month @-@ long package tour for April , drawing the group away from the studio . The venues were largely cabarets and clubs ; headlining was Peter Frampton 's group The Herd . " In general , the teenyboppers were not there to see the boring old Kinks , who occasionally had to endure chants of " We Want The Herd ! " during their brief appearances , " commented Andy Miller . The tour proved taxing and stressful — Pete Quaife recalled , " It was a chore , very dull , boring and straightforward . ... We only did twenty minutes , but it used to drive me absolutely frantic , standing on stage and playing three notes over and over again . " At the end of June , the Kinks released the single " Days " , which provided a minor , but only momentary , comeback for the group . " I remember playing it when I was at Fortis Green the first time I had a tape of it , " Ray said . " I played it to Brian , who used to be our roadie , and his wife and two daughters . They were crying at the end of it . Really wonderful — like going to Waterloo and seeing the sunset . ... It 's like saying goodbye to somebody , then afterwards feeling the fear that you actually are alone . " " Days " reached number 12 in the United Kingdom and was a Top 20 hit in several other countries , but it did not chart in the United States .
Village Green eventually morphed into their next album , The Kinks Are the Village Green Preservation Society , released in late 1968 in the UK . A collection of thematic vignettes of English town and hamlet life , it was assembled from songs written and recorded over the previous two years . It was greeted with almost unanimously positive reviews from both UK and US rock critics , yet failed to sell strongly . One factor in the album 's initial commercial failure was the lack of a popular single . It did not include the moderately successful " Days " ; " Starstruck " was released in North America and continental Europe , but was unsuccessful . Though a commercial disappointment , Village Green ( the project 's original name was adopted as shorthand for the long album title ) was embraced by the new underground rock press when it came out in January 1969 in the United States , where the Kinks began to acquire a reputation as a cult band . In The Village Voice , a newly hired Robert Christgau called it " the best album of the year so far " . The underground Boston paper Fusion published a review stating , " the Kinks continue , despite the odds , the bad press and their demonstrated lot , to come across . ... Their persistence is dignified , their virtues are stoic . The Kinks are forever , only for now in modern dress . " The record did not escape criticism , however . In the student paper California Tech , one writer commented that it was " schmaltz rock ... without imagination , poorly arranged and a poor copy of The Beatles " . Although it sold only an estimated 100 @,@ 000 copies worldwide on its initial release , it has since become the Kinks ' best @-@ selling original record . The album remains popular ; in 2004 , it was re @-@ released in a 3 @-@ CD " Deluxe " edition and one of its tracks , " Picture Book " , was featured in a popular Hewlett @-@ Packard television commercial , helping to boost the album 's popularity considerably .
In early 1969 , Quaife told the band he was leaving . The other members did not take his statement seriously , until an article appeared in New Musical Express on 4 April featuring Quaife 's new band , Maple Oak , which he had formed without telling the rest of the Kinks . Ray Davies pleaded with him to return for the sessions for their upcoming album , but Quaife refused . Davies immediately called up John Dalton , who had filled in for Quaife in the past , as a replacement . Dalton remained with the group until 1977 , when the album Sleepwalker was released .
Ray Davies travelled to Los Angeles , California , in April 1969 to help negotiate an end to the American Federation of Musicians ' ban on the group , opening up an opportunity for them to return to touring in America . The group 's management quickly made plans for a North American tour , to help restore their standing in the US pop music scene . Before their return to the United States , the Kinks recorded another album , Arthur ( Or the Decline and Fall of the British Empire ) . As with the previous two albums , Arthur was grounded in characteristically English lyrical and musical hooks . A modest commercial success , it was well received by American music critics . Conceived as the score for a proposed but unrealised television drama , much of the album revolved around themes from the Davies brothers ' childhood ; their sister Rosie , who had migrated to Australia in the early 1960s with her husband , Arthur Anning , the album 's namesake ; and life growing up during the Second World War . The Kinks embarked on their tour of the US in October 1969 . The tour was generally unsuccessful , as the group struggled to find cooperative promoters and interested audiences ; many of the scheduled concert dates were cancelled . The band did , however , manage to play a few major venues such as the Fillmore East and Whisky a Go Go .
The band added keyboardist John Gosling to their line @-@ up in early 1970 ; before this Nicky Hopkins , along with Ray , had done most of the session work on keyboards . In May 1970 Gosling debuted with the Kinks on " Lola " , an account of a confused romantic encounter with a transvestite , that became both a UK and US Top 10 hit , helping return the Kinks to the public eye . The lyrics originally contained the word " Coca @-@ Cola " , and as a result the BBC refused to broadcast the song , considering it to be in violation of their policy against product placement . Part of the song was hastily re @-@ recorded by Ray Davies , with the offending line changed to the generic " cherry cola " , although in concert , the Kinks still used " Coca @-@ Cola " . Recordings of both versions of " Lola " exist . The accompanying album Lola Versus Powerman and the Moneygoround , Part One was released in November 1970 . It was a critical and commercial success , charting in the Top 40 in America , making it their most successful album since the mid @-@ 1960s . After the success of " Lola " , the band went on to release Percy in 1971 , a soundtrack album to a film of the same name about a penis transplant . The album , which consisted largely of instrumentals , did not receive positive reviews . The band 's US label , Reprise , declined to release it in America , precipitating a major dispute that contributed to the band 's departure from the label . Directly after the release of the album , the band 's contracts with Pye and Reprise expired .
Before the end of 1971 , the Kinks signed a five @-@ album deal with RCA Records and received a million @-@ dollar advance , which helped fund the construction of their own recording studio , Konk . Their debut for RCA , Muswell Hillbillies , was replete with the influence of music hall and traditional American musical styles , including country and bluegrass . It is often hailed as their last great record , though it was not as successful as its predecessors . It was named after Muswell Hill , where the Davies brothers were brought up , and contained songs focusing on working @-@ class life and , again , the Davies ' childhood . Muswell Hillbillies , despite positive reviews and high expectations , peaked at number 48 on the Record World chart and number 100 on the Billboard chart . It was followed in 1972 by a double album , Everybody 's in Show @-@ Biz , which consisted of both studio tracks and live numbers recorded during a two @-@ night stand at Carnegie Hall . The record featured the ballad " Celluloid Heroes " and the Caribbean @-@ themed " Supersonic Rocket Ship " , their last UK Top 20 hit for more than a decade . " Celluloid Heroes " is a bittersweet rumination on dead and fading Hollywood stars ( Mickey Rooney was still alive ) , in which the narrator declares that he wishes his life were like a movie , " because celluloid heroes never feel any pain ... and celluloid heroes never really die . " The album was moderately successful in the United States , peaking at number 47 in Record World and number 70 in Billboard . It marks the transition between the band 's early 1970s rock material and the theatrical incarnation in which they immersed themselves for the next four years .
= = = Theatrical incarnation ( 1973 – 76 ) = = =
In 1973 , Ray Davies dived headlong into the theatrical style , beginning with the rock opera Preservation , a sprawling chronicle of social revolution , and a more ambitious outgrowth of the earlier Village Green Preservation Society ethos . In conjunction with the Preservation project , the Kinks ' line @-@ up was expanded to include a horn section and female backup singers , essentially reconfiguring the group as a theatrical troupe .
Ray Davies ' marital problems during this period began to affect the band adversely , particularly after his wife , Rasa , took their children and left him in June 1973 . Davies became depressed ; during a July gig at White City Stadium he told the audience he was " fucking sick of the whole thing " , and was retiring . He subsequently collapsed after a drug overdose and was taken to hospital .
With Ray Davies in a seemingly critical condition , plans were discussed for Dave to continue as frontman in a worst @-@ case scenario . Ray recovered from his illness as well as his depression , but throughout the remainder of the Kinks ' theatrical incarnation the band 's output remained uneven , and their already fading popularity declined even more . John Dalton later commented that when Davies " decided to work again ... I don 't think he was totally better , and he 's been a different person ever since . "
Preservation Act 1 ( 1973 ) and Preservation Act 2 ( 1974 ) received generally poor reviews . The story on the albums involved an anti @-@ hero called Mr Flash , and his rival and enemy Mr Black ( played by Dave Davies during live shows ) , an ultra @-@ purist and corporatist.Preservation Act 2 was the first album recorded at Konk Studio ; from this point forward , virtually every Kinks studio recording was produced by Ray Davies at Konk . The band embarked on an ambitious US tour throughout late 1974 , adapting the Preservation story for stage . Musicologist Eric Weisbard : " [ Ray ] Davies expanded the Kinks into a road troupe of perhaps a dozen costumed actors , singers and horn players . ... Smoother and tighter than on record , Preservation live proved funnier as well . "
Davies began another project for Granada Television , a musical called Starmaker . After a broadcast with Ray Davies in the starring role and the Kinks as both back @-@ up band and ancillary characters , the project eventually morphed into the concept album The Kinks Present a Soap Opera , released in May 1975 , in which Ray Davies fantasised about what would happen if a rock star traded places with a " normal Norman " and took a 9 – 5 job . In August 1975 , the Kinks recorded their final theatrical work , Schoolboys in Disgrace , a backstory biography of Preservation 's Mr Flash . The record was a modest success , peaking at number 45 on the Billboard charts . The song " Father Christmas " has remained a popular track . Driven by session drummer Henry Spinetti 's drumming and Dave Davies ' heavy guitar the song " Father Christmas " has become a classic seasonal favorite on mainstream radio . Following the termination of their contract with RCA , the Kinks signed with Arista Records in 1976 . With the encouragement of Arista 's management they stripped back down to a five @-@ man core group and were reborn as an arena rock band .
= = = Return to commercial success ( 1977 – 85 ) = = =
John Dalton left the band before finishing the sessions for the debut Arista album . Andy Pyle was brought in to complete the sessions and to play on the subsequent tour . Sleepwalker , released in 1977 , marked a return to success for the group as it peaked at number 21 on the Billboard chart . After its release and the recording of the follow @-@ up , Misfits , Andy Pyle and keyboardist John Gosling left the group to work together on a separate project . Dalton returned to complete the tour and ex – Pretty Things keyboardist Gordon John Edwards joined the band . In May 1978 , Misfits , the Kinks ' second Arista album , was released . It included the US Top 40 hit " A Rock ' n ' Roll Fantasy " , which helped make the record another success for the band . Dalton left the band permanently at the end of their UK tour , and Gordon John Edwards followed . Ex @-@ Argent bassist Jim Rodford joined the band before the recording of Low Budget , on which Ray Davies played the keyboard sections . Keyboardist Ian Gibbons was recruited for the subsequent tour , and became a permanent member of the group . Despite the personnel changes , the popularity of the band 's records and live shows continued to grow .
Beginning in the late 1970s , bands such as the Jam ( " David Watts " ) , the Pretenders ( " Stop Your Sobbing " , " I Go to Sleep " ) and the Knack ( " The Hard Way " ) recorded covers of Kinks songs , which helped bring attention to the group 's new releases . In 1978 , Van Halen covered " You Really Got Me " for their debut single , a Top 40 US hit , helping boost the band 's commercial resurgence ( the band later covered " Where Have All the Good Times Gone " , another early Kinks song ) . The hard rock sound of Low Budget , released in 1979 , helped make it the Kinks ' second gold album and highest charting original album in America , where it peaked at number 11 . In 1980 , the group 's third live album , One for the Road , was produced , along with a video of the same title , bringing the group 's concert @-@ drawing power to a peak that would last into 1983 . Dave Davies also took advantage of the group 's improved commercial standing to fulfill his decade @-@ long ambitions to release albums of his solo work . The first was the eponymous Dave Davies in 1980 . It was also known by its catalogue number " AFL1 @-@ 3603 " because of its cover art , which depicted Dave Davies as a leather @-@ jacketed piece of price @-@ scanning barcode . He produced another , less successful , solo album in 1981 , Glamour .
The next Kinks album , Give the People What They Want , was released in late 1981 and reached number 15 in the US . The record attained gold status and featured the UK hit single " Better Things " as well as " Destroyer " , a major Mainstream Rock hit for the group . To promote the album , the Kinks spent the end of 1981 and most of 1982 touring relentlessly , and played multiple sell @-@ out concerts throughout Australia , Japan , England and America . The tour culminated with a performance at the US Festival in San Bernardino , California , for a crowd of 205 @,@ 000 . In spring 1983 , the song " Come Dancing " became their biggest American hit since " Tired of Waiting for You " , peaking at number six . It also became the group 's first Top 20 hit in the UK since 1972 , peaking at number 12 in the charts . The accompanying album , State of Confusion , was another commercial success , reaching number 12 in the US , but , like all of the group 's albums since 1967 , it failed to chart in the UK . Another single released from the record , " Don 't Forget to Dance " , became a US top 30 hit and minor UK chart entry .
The Kinks ' second wave of popularity remained at a peak with State of Confusion , but that success began to fade , a trend that also affected their British rock contemporaries The Rolling Stones and The Who at the time . During the second half of 1983 , Ray Davies started work on an ambitious solo film project , Return to Waterloo , about a London commuter who daydreams that he is a serial murderer . The film gave actor Tim Roth a significant early role . Davies ' commitment to writing , directing and scoring the new work caused tension in his relationship with his brother . Another problem was the stormy end of the relationship between Ray Davies and Chrissie Hynde . The old feud between Dave Davies and drummer Mick Avory also re @-@ ignited . Davies eventually refused to work with Avory , and called for him to be replaced by Bob Henrit , former drummer of Argent ( of which Jim Rodford had also been a member ) . Avory left the band , and Henrit was brought in to take his place . Ray Davies , who was still on amiable terms with Avory , invited him to manage Konk Studios . Avory accepted , and continued to serve as a producer and occasional contributor on later Kinks albums .
Between the completion of Return to Waterloo and Avory 's departure , the band had begun work on Word of Mouth , their final Arista album , released in November 1984 . As a result it features Avory on three tracks , with Henrit and a drum machine on the rest . Many of the songs also appeared as solo recordings on Ray Davies ' Return to Waterloo soundtrack album . Word of Mouth 's lead track , " Do It Again " , was released as a single in April 1985 . It reached number 41 in the US , the band 's last entry into the Billboard Hot 100 . Coinciding with the album 's release , the first three books on the Kinks were published : The Kinks : The Official Biography , by Jon Savage ; The Kinks Kronikles , by rock critic John Mendelsohn , who had overseen the 1972 The Kink Kronikles compilation album ; and The Kinks — The Sound And The Fury ( The Kinks — A Mental Institution in the US ) , by Johnny Rogan .
= = = Decline in popularity and split ( 1986 – 96 ) = = =
In early 1986 , the group signed with MCA Records in the United States and London Records in the UK . Their first album for the new labels , Think Visual , released later that year , was a moderate success , peaking at number 81 on the Billboard albums chart . Songs like the ballad " Lost and Found " and " Working at the Factory " concerned blue @-@ collar life on an assembly line , while the title track was an attack on the very MTV video culture from which the band had profited earlier in the decade . The Kinks followed Think Visual in 1987 with another live album , The Road , which was a mediocre commercial and critical performer . In 1989 , the Kinks released UK Jive , a commercial failure , making only a momentary entry into the album charts at number 122 . MCA Records ultimately dropped them , leaving the Kinks without a label deal for the first time in over a quarter of a century . Longtime keyboardist Ian Gibbons left the group and was replaced by Mark Haley .
In 1990 , their first year of eligibility , the Kinks were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame . Mick Avory and Pete Quaife were present for the award . The induction , however , did not revive the Kinks ' stalled career . A compilation from the MCA Records period was produced in 1991 , titled Lost & Found ( 1986 @-@ 1989 ) . It was primarily released to fulfill contractual obligations , and marked the official end of the group 's relationship with MCA . The band then signed with Columbia Records and released the five @-@ song EP Did Ya in 1991 which , despite being coupled with a new studio re @-@ recording of the band 's 1968 British hit " Days " , failed to chart .
The Kinks reverted to a four @-@ piece band for the recording of their first Columbia album , Phobia , in 1993 . Following Mark Haley 's departure after the band 's sellout performance at the Royal Albert Hall , London , Gibbons rejoined the Kinks for a US tour . Phobia managed only one week in the US Billboard chart at number 166 ; as had by then become usual for the band , it made no impression in the UK . One single , " Only a Dream " , narrowly failed to reach the British chart . " Scattered " , the album 's final candidate for release as a single , was announced , followed by TV and radio promotion , but the record was unavailable in stores — several months later a small number appeared on the collector market . The group was dropped by Columbia in 1994 . In the same year , the band released the first version of the album To the Bone on their own Konk label in the UK . This live acoustic album was partly recorded on the highly successful UK tours of 1993 and 1994 and partly in the Konk studio , before a small , invited audience . Two years later the band released a new , improved , live double CD set in the USA , which retained the same name and contained two new studio tracks , " Animal " and " To The Bone " . The CD set also featured new treatments of many old Kinks hits . The record drew respectable press but failed to chart in either the US or the UK .
The band 's profile rose considerably in the mid @-@ 1990s , primarily as a result of the " Britpop " boom . Several of the most prominent bands of the decade cited the Kinks as a major influence . Blur frontman Damon Albarn and Oasis chief songwriter Noel Gallagher both described the Kinks as having a major impact on their songwriting as well as their overall development as musical artists . Gallagher declared the Kinks the fifth best band of all time . Despite such accolades , the group 's commercial viability continued to decline . They gradually became less active , leading Ray and Dave Davies to pursue their own interests . Each released an autobiography ; Ray 's X @-@ Ray was published in early 1995 , and Dave responded with his memoir Kink , published a year later . The Kinks gave their last public performance in mid @-@ 1996 , and the group assembled for what would turn out to be their last time together at a party for Dave 's 50th birthday . Kinks chronicler and historian Doug Hinman stated , " The symbolism of the event was impossible to overlook . The party was held at the site of the brothers ' very first musical endeavour , the Clissold Arms pub , across the street from their childhood home on Fortis Green in North London . "
= = = Solo work and reunion ( 1997 – present ) = = =
The band members subsequently focused on solo projects , and Ray and Dave released their own studio albums . Talk of a Kinks reunion circulated ( including an aborted studio reunion of the original band members in 1999 ) , but neither Ray nor Dave Davies showed much interest in playing together again . Meanwhile , former members John Gosling , John Dalton and Mick Avory had regrouped in 1994 and started performing on the oldies circuit along with guitar @-@ player / singer Dave Clarke as The Kast Off Kinks . Gosling and Dalton retired in 2008 and were replaced in the band by former Kinks members Jim Rodford and Ian Gibbons . Ray Davies , Pete Quaife and Bob Henrit have occasionally made guest appearances with the group at Kinks fan club conventions .
Ray Davies came out with the solo album Storyteller , a companion piece to X @-@ Ray , in 1998 . Originally written two years earlier as a cabaret @-@ style show , it celebrated his old band and his estranged brother . Seeing the programming possibilities in his music / dialogue / reminiscence format , the American music television network VH1 launched a series of similar projects featuring established rock artists titled VH1 Storytellers . Dave Davies spoke favourably of a Kinks reunion in early 2003 , and as the 40th anniversary of the group 's breakthrough neared , both of the Davies brothers expressed interest in working together again . However , hopes for a reunion were dashed when in June 2004 Dave suffered a stroke while exiting an elevator , temporarily impairing his ability to speak and play guitar . Following Dave 's recovery , the Kinks were inducted into the UK Music Hall of Fame in November 2005 , with all four of the original band members in attendance . The award was presented by The Who 's guitarist and songwriter Pete Townshend , a longtime Kinks fan and friend of Ray Davies . The induction helped fuel sales for the group ; in August 2007 , a re @-@ entry of The Ultimate Collection , a compilation of material spanning the band 's career , reached number 32 on the UK Top 100 album chart and number one on the UK Indie album chart .
In December 2007 , Record Collector published an interview with Ray Davies in which he said , " I spoke to Quaife about a month ago and he dearly wants to make another record with me . I think Dave 's getting better and Mick 's still playing . It would be great to get back together just to see what musical ideas we had , and what would happen . " The Daily Mail subsequently interpreted his comments as a declaration that a reunion of the band 's original line @-@ up was imminent . Dave Davies swiftly rejected the idea of a reunion . He told a reporter that " it would be like a bad remake of Night of the Living Dead " and added , " Ray has been doing Karaoke Kinks shows since 1996 . "
In a September 2008 interview with BBC Radio 4 , Ray Davies said of a possible reunion , " There is a desire to do it " , but that he wouldn 't participate if it were a nostalgia act : " The thing that would make me decide ' yes ' or ' no ' would be whether or not we could do new songs " . He added that the main barrier to the band getting back together was his brother 's condition following his stroke . Two months later , he told the BBC that the band was beginning to write new material for a possible reunion , but failed to detail which members were involved . In an interview aired that December on the Biography Channel , Quaife rejected any possibility that he would take part in a reunion . That same month , Ray Davies spoke again about the possibility of performing with his brother : " I suggested he do some low @-@ key shows to see how well he can play . If we 're going to play together again , we can 't hit the road straight away with a big @-@ time announcement . ... But , if Dave feels good about it and there 's good new material that we can write , it 'll happen . "
In June 2009 , Ray Davies told The Independent that while a full @-@ fledged reunion was unlikely , " I will continue to play with ex @-@ band members like Mick Avory from time to time . With Dave , a lot of it is psychological . I ’ ll guide him in , and coerce and nurture him , and when the time is right I suppose I ’ ll even shout at him again . " When asked about a possible reunion in an interview that year , Avory stated , " A reunion would not be possible with the originals , for a start due to ill health . But it would be possible with the Kast Off Kinks plus Ray . In any event Ray would record new material . We have some old tracks from the 80s as well . " In March 2010 , Avory reported that the band were planning on releasing an album of unreleased and new material . He stated that they had " eight tracks " ready for the album , but that the Davies brothers had to settle their differences before the project could progress . It remains unclear who has been involved in the recordings besides Avory and Ray Davies .
Quaife , who had been receiving kidney dialysis for more than ten years , died on 23 June 2010 , aged 66 . Two days after the bassist 's death , Dave Davies posted a statement on his message board expressing deep sorrow over the passing of his former band mate and stating that Quaife " was never really given the credit he deserved for his contribution and involvement [ sic ] [ with The Kinks ] " . Ray Davies dedicated his 27 June performance at the Glastonbury Festival to Quaife and performed several Quaife @-@ era Kinks songs in tribute to him . Davies told the crowd , " I wouldn 't be here today if it wasn 't for him . "
In separate interviews early in 2011 both Davies brothers spoke positively about a potential reunion . Dave Davies explained , " There 's nothing in the pipeline yet , but ... we 'll see . It 's possible . " Each has said that any reunion would be dependent on the other . According to Ray Davies , the brothers were to meet in April to discuss future plans . In October that year , Dave Davies quashed rumours of a reunion , stating in an interview that although he loves his brother , " I just can ’ t stand to be with him . About an hour with Ray ’ s my limit , so it would be a very short reunion . " In November of that year Ray Davies reported that he had recently recorded with Avory " just to sort of try to do what we call demos ... we might do it in fits and starts and bring Dave in at a later date . I 'll never say never with my brother , because he 's totally unpredictable . " In a 2013 Skype interview Dave Davies expressed interest in doing reunions shows .
On 13 December 2013 , it was officially confirmed that a musical named Sunny Afternoon , based on the early life of Ray Davies and the formation of the Kinks , would receive its world premiere at the Hampstead Theatre in April 2014 . The musical 's name came from the band 's 1966 hit single " Sunny Afternoon " and features songs from the band 's back catalogue .
On 18 December 2015 , Ray Davies joined Dave Davies onstage at the Islington Assembly Hall in London to perform ' You Really Got Me ' . Among other musicians they were backed up by Dennis Diken of the Smithereens on drums ( he had played drums for a Kinks show in Boston in the early 80s ) and Debi Doss , one of the backing vocalists from Preservation Hall and Schoolboys in Disgrace .
= = Live performances = =
The first live performance of the Ray Davies Quartet , the band that would become the Kinks , was at a dance for their school , William Grimshaw , in 1962 . The band performed under several names between 1962 and 1963 — " The Pete Quaife Band " , " The Bo @-@ Weevils " , " The Ramrods " , and " The Ravens " — before settling on " The Kinks " in early 1964 .
The Kinks made their first tour of Australia and New Zealand in January 1965 as part of a " package " bill that included Manfred Mann and The Honeycombs . They performed and toured relentlessly , headlining package tours throughout 1965 with performers such as The Yardbirds and Mickey Finn . Tensions began to emerge within the band , expressed in incidents such as the on @-@ stage fight between drummer Mick Avory and Dave Davies at The Capitol Theatre , Cardiff , Wales on 19 May . After finishing the first song , " You Really Got Me " , Davies insulted Avory and kicked over his drum set . Avory responded by hitting Davies with his hi @-@ hat stand , rendering him unconscious , before fleeing from the scene , fearing that he had killed his bandmate . Davies was taken to Cardiff Royal Infirmary , where he received 16 stitches to his head . To placate police , Avory later claimed that it was part of a new act in which the band members would hurl their instruments at each other . Following their summer 1965 American tour , the American Federation of Musicians refused permits for the group to appear in concerts in the United States for the next four years , possibly due to their rowdy on @-@ stage behaviour .
In April 1969 Davies helped negotiate an end to the American Federation of Musician ban on the group , which allowed plans for a North American tour . Davies went into a state of depression , culminating in his onstage announcement that he was " sick of it all " at a gig in White City Stadium . A review of the concert published in Melody Maker stated : " Davies swore on stage . He stood at The White City and swore that he was ' F ...... [ sic ] sick of the whole thing ' ... He was ' Sick up to here with it ' ... and those that heard shook their heads . Mick just ventured a disbelieving smile , and drummer [ sic ] on through ' Waterloo Sunset . ' " Davies proceeded to try to announce that the Kinks were breaking up , but this attempt was foiled by the group 's publicity management , who pulled the plug on the microphone system .
= = Legacy = =
The Kinks are regarded as one of the most important and influential rock acts of the 1960s and early 1970s . Stephen Thomas Erlewine called the Kinks " one of the most influential bands of the British Invasion " . They were ranked 65th on Rolling Stone magazine 's " 100 Greatest Artists of All Time " list .
Artists influenced by the Kinks include punk rock groups such as the Ramones , The Clash , and The Jam , new wave and heavy metal acts like Van Halen and Britpop groups such as Oasis , Blur and Pulp . Craig Nicholls , singer and guitarist of The Vines has also named the Kinks as a key influence on his own songwriting , stating in one interview , " They ’ re such great songwriters , so underrated , and they did so much great stuff later on . I ’ m obsessed with the Kinks . " Pete Townshend , guitarist with the Kinks ' contemporaries the Who , was particularly influenced by the group 's sound : " the Kinks were ... quintessentially English . I always think that Ray Davies should one day be poet laureate . He invented a new kind of poetry and a new kind of language for pop writing that influenced me from the very , very , very beginning . " Jon Savage wrote that the Kinks were an influence on late @-@ 1960s American psychedelic groups , " like the Doors , Love and Jefferson Airplane " .
Musicologist Joe Harrington has described the Kinks ' influence on the development of hard rock and heavy metal : " ' You Really Got Me ' , ' All Day and All of the Night ' and ' I Need You ' were predecessors of the whole three @-@ chord genre ... the Kinks did a lot to help turn rock ' n ' roll ( Jerry Lee Lewis ) into rock ( Led Zeppelin , Black Sabbath , the Stooges ) . "
= = Charts , sales certifications and recognition = =
The Kinks had five Top 10 singles on the US Billboard chart . Nine of their albums charted in the Top 40 . In the UK , the group had seventeen Top 20 singles along with five Top 10 albums . The RIAA has certified four of the Kinks ' albums as gold records . Greatest Hits ! , released in 1965 , was certified gold for sales of $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 on 28 November 1968 — six days after the release of The Kinks Are The Village Green Preservation Society , which failed to chart worldwide . The group would not receive another gold record award until 1979 's Low Budget . The 1980 live album One For The Road was certified gold on 8 December 1980 . Give The People What They Want , released in 1981 , received its certification on 25 January 1982 , for sales of 500 @,@ 000 copies . ASCAP , the performing @-@ rights group , presented the Kinks with an award for " One of the Most Played Songs Of 1983 " for the hit single " Come Dancing " .
The group received the Ivor Novello Award for " Outstanding Service to British Music " , and in 1990 the original four members of the Kinks were inducted into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame . The Kinks were inducted into the UK Music Hall of Fame in November 2005 .
= = Musical style = =
The Kinks started out playing the then popular R & B and blues styles , then , under the influence of The Kingsmen 's " Louie Louie " recording , developed louder rock and hard rock sounds — due to their pioneering contribution to the field , they have often been labelled as " the original punks " . Dave Davies became bored with the traditional " clean " guitar style of the period ; in search of a louder , more biting sound , he famously split the speaker cone of his Elpico amplifier ( nicknamed " the little green amp " ) : " I started to get really frustrated [ with the amp 's sound ] , and I said , ' I know ! I 'll fix you ! ' I got a single @-@ sided Gillette razorblade and cut ... [ from the centre to the edge of the ] cone ... so it was all shredded but still on there , still intact . I played and I thought it was amazing . " The jagged sound of the amplifier was replicated in the studio ; the Elpico was plugged into a larger Vox AC30 , and the resulting effect became a mainstay in the Kinks ' early recordings — most notably on " You Really Got Me " and " All Day and All of the Night " .
From 1966 onwards , the Kinks came to be known for their adherence to traditions of English music and culture , during a period when many other British groups dismissed their heritage in favour of American blues , R & B and pop styles . Ray Davies recalled that at a distinct moment in 1965 he decided to break away from the American scene , and write more introspective and intelligent songs . " I decided I was going to use words more , and say things . I wrote ' Well Respected Man ' . That was the first real word @-@ oriented song I wrote . ... [ I also ] abandoned any attempt to Americanise my accent . " The Kinks ' allegiance to English styles was strengthened by the ban placed on them by the American Federation of Musicians . The ban cut them off from the American record buying public , the world 's largest musical market , forcing them to focus on Britain and mainland Europe . The Kinks expanded on their English sound throughout the remainder of the 1960s , fusing music hall and folk , and creating some of the most influential and important music of the period .
Beginning with Everybody 's In Show @-@ biz ( 1972 ) , Ray Davies began exploring theatrical concepts on the group 's albums ; these themes became manifest on the 1973 album Preservation Act 1 and continued through Schoolboys In Disgrace ( 1976 ) . The Kinks found little success with these conceptual works , and reverted to a traditional rock format throughout the remainder of the 1970s . Sleepwalker ( 1977 ) , which heralded their return to commercial success , featured a mainstream , relatively slick production style that would become their norm . The band returned to hard rock for Low Budget ( 1979 ) , and continued to record within the genre throughout the remainder of their career .
= = Documentation , unreleased material and out @-@ takes = =
The recording histories of contemporary acts were well @-@ documented but little survived from studio archives of the Kinks ' 1960s recording history . Ray Davies kept a diary , but he had , by 2004 , not published it . Unlike larger record companies like EMI , Pye Records , kept few of the Kinks ' session tapes , wiping or recording over most acetates and out @-@ takes — by the mid @-@ 1980s . From 1971 – and the move to RCA – both documentation and tapes were preserved because , at their own Konk Studios , the Kinks kept creative licence – but " until and unless there is some access to the vaults of Konk Studios , this aspect of the Kinks ' recording legacy will remain far from definitive " , Doug Hinman wrote in 2004 . Later compilation releases , such as Picture Book , increasingly included previously @-@ unreleased material and commentary .
= = Members = =
Ray Davies – lead vocals , rhythm guitar , harmonica , keyboards ( 1964 – 1996 )
Dave Davies – lead guitar , backing and lead vocals ( 1964 – 1996 )
Mick Avory – drums , percussion ( 1964 – 1984 )
Bob Henrit – drums , percussion ( 1984 – 1996 )
Pete Quaife – bass , backing vocals ( 1964 – 1969 ) ( died 2010 )
John Dalton – bass , backing vocals ( June – 1966 , 1969 – 1976 , 1978 )
Andy Pyle – bass , backing vocals ( 1976 – 1978 )
Jim Rodford – bass , backing vocals ( 1978 – 1996 )
John Gosling – keyboards , piano , 1970 – 1978 )
Gordon John Edwards – keyboards , piano ( 1978 ) ( died 2002 )
Ian Gibbons – keyboards , piano ( 1979 – 1989 , 1993 – 1996 )
Mark Haley – keyboards , piano ( 1989 – 1993 )
= = Timeline = =
= = Discography = =
The Kinks were active for more than 30 years between 1964 and 1996 , releasing 28 regular albums in the UK ( 24 studio , four live ) , and 30 in the USA ( 24 studio , four live , two compilation ) . The early 1960s US albums were slightly different to the British albums partly due to the method that publishing royalties were calculated in the two countries , partly due to difference in popularity of the extended play format ( the UK market liked it , the US market didn 't , so US albums had the EP releases bundled onto them ) , and partly due to the US albums including the hit singles , and the UK albums not ; after The Kink Kontroversy in 1965 the albums were the same . There have been somewhere between 100 and 200 compilation albums released worldwide . Their hit singles include three UK number @-@ one singles , starting in 1964 with " You Really Got Me " ; plus 18 Top 40 singles in the 1960s alone and further Top 40 hits in the 1970s and 1980s .
Studio albums
Live albums
Live at Kelvin Hall ( 1967 )
One for the Road ( 1980 )
Live : The Road ( 1988 )
To the Bone ( 1994 )
UK / US Top ten singles
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= Loop Parkway =
The Loop Parkway ( also known as the Loop ) is a 2 @.@ 65 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 26 km ) parkway in Nassau County , New York , in the United States . It serves the barrier islands south of Long Island itself , beginning on Long Beach Barrier Island at an intersection with Lido Boulevard in Point Lookout . From here , it heads generally east – west across Alder and Meadow islands to an interchange with the Meadowbrook State Parkway on Jones Island , a part of Jones Beach State Park located just north of Jones Beach Island . The islands served by the Loop Parkway are separated by narrow channels of water , all of which connect to Jones Inlet . The parkway is maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) and inventoried by the department as New York State Route 908C ( NY 908C ) , an unsigned reference route .
The highway was built in 1934 as the Long Beach Loop Causeway , funded with money from the Reconstruction Finance Corporation . It was completed six months ahead of schedule and officially opened on October 27 , 1934 , by Robert Moses , then a candidate for Governor of New York , and New York City Mayor Fiorello LaGuardia . The plans to fund the highway included the implementation of tolls , which went into effect on January 2 , 1935 . These tollbooths , once considered the murder site of Sonny Corleone in Mario Puzo 's The Godfather , were closed in 1978 as part of Governor Hugh Carey 's efforts to establish that year 's state budget .
= = Route description = =
The Loop Parkway begins at an at @-@ grade intersection with Lido Boulevard on the eastern end of Long Beach Barrier Island in the neighborhood of Point Lookout . It proceeds north as a four @-@ lane divided highway , crossing over Reynolds Channel to reach Alder Island , one of several islands comprising Jones Beach State Park . Here , the road slowly bends eastward as it runs across the marshy island . Two U @-@ turn ramps are built into the median near the western end of the island , serving as the only intersections or interchanges of any kind on Alder Island . The Loop Parkway heads east from Alder Island , traversing Long Creek on a drawbridge leading to Meadow Island . The road quickly continues northeast across the island with no connections via interchanges or intersections .
At the eastern edge of the island , the highway reaches Swift Creek , another channel separating Meadow Island from Jones Island . The parkway crosses the waterway and immediately enters a trumpet interchange with the Meadowbrook State Parkway . The right @-@ of @-@ way of the Loop Parkway connects to and from the northbound direction of the Meadowbrook Parkway while two other ramps provide access to the southbound Meadowbrook Parkway . The Loop Parkway handled an average of 30 @,@ 520 vehicles per day in 2011 according to estimates made by NYSDOT . Traffic along the highway has steadily increased since 2003 , when the department recorded a daily average of 24 @,@ 740 vehicles .
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
The Loop Parkway , originally envisioned as the Long Beach Loop Causeway , was conceived as part the original design for the Long Island Parkway System , developed by Robert Moses and the Long Island State Park Commission ( LISPC ) in 1924 . Moses wanted a parkway system to alleviate congestion on " unattractive " local roads . The system was designed to connect several parks that were under construction at the time , including Jones Beach State Park , Bethpage State Park and Sunken Meadow State Park . In 1927 , the parkway system was linked to parkways within New York City 's boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens , and in 1929 , Jones Beach State Park and the Ocean Parkway opened , providing access to the mainland via the Jones Beach Causeway ( now part of the Wantagh State Parkway ) .
In May 1933 , construction began on the Meadowbrook State Parkway and the Long Beach Loop Causeway . It was financed by the Reconstruction Finance Corporation in Washington D.C. , which loaned $ 5 @,@ 050 @,@ 000 ( 1933 USD ) to the LISPC for the new parkways . It was proposed that the loan would be repaid in 25 years . The two highways would be connected by way of a trumpet interchange on Jones Island , with a total of 10 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 7 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 m3 ) of hydraulic fill was used to build both parkways , and a new channel for boats heading to South Oyster Bay was constructed as part of the projects . The roadway of the 2 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) Loop Causeway would be made of macadam pavement and be 44 feet ( 13 m ) wide and help connect mainland Long Island to Jones Beach and Long Beach .
Both roadways were expected to be completed by January 1 , 1935 . They were ultimately completed in October 1934 , six months ahead of schedule . The Long Beach Loop Causeway was opened to extreme fanfare on October 27 , 1934 , as was the Meadowbrook State Parkway with parades celebrating the event were held in Freeport and Rockville Centre , and they were attended by Robert Moses , at the time a candidate for Governor of New York , and Fiorello LaGuardia , the Mayor of New York City .
= = = Tolls = = =
When the Jones Beach State Park Authority was given the loan by the Reconstruction Finance Corporation in March 1933 , a toll was planned for both the Meadowbrook Causeway and the Long Beach Loop Causeway to help repay the loan . Tollbooths were constructed , and a 25 @-@ cent toll ( 1935 USD ) went into effect on both roadways on January 2 , 1935 . On that day , the supervisor with the LISPC reported that 300 people used the highway .
In 1975 , the Jones Beach Parkway Authority raised the toll on the Southern State Parkway from to 25 cents , while the Loop Parkway retained its 25 cent toll . The change faced immediate criticism from the New York State Legislature , and the Democratic members tried to rescind the toll hike . The power Robert Moses still had in a deal with the State of New York made sure that only his authority could choose when to raise and rollback tolls . However , the deals never prohibited the state from buying out the bonds the authority had themselves and thus take over the roads maintained by the Jones Beach Parkway Authority . Governor Hugh Carey had yet to craft the $ 12 billion state budget for 1978 , and he proposed a deal to forgo the $ 24 million ( 1978 USD ) debt that the agency had accumulated and eliminate the toll on the Loop Parkway by taking over the roads .
After the governor and his department decided that the state could do without the $ 3 @.@ 8 million ( 1978 USD ) that the toll would produce each year , a bill permitting the state to take over the Loop Parkway was passed on March 31 , 1978 . The removal of the tolls helped Governor Carey gain enough support to pass that year 's state budget . The decision to eliminate the Loop Parkway tolls was influenced by Long Beach Supervisor Hannah Komanoff , who also unsuccessfully fought to have the tollbooth on the Atlantic Beach Bridge removed in 1979 .
In Mario Puzo 's 1969 novel , The Godfather , Sonny Corleone was in the process of running to go settle a years @-@ long dispute with Carlo Rizzi when he drove his Buick across Jones Beach from the Wantagh State Parkway ( mentioned as the Jones Beach Causeway ) towards the " causeway that would take him over the water from Long Beach " . However , when Corleone approached the toll on the Jones Beach Causeway , the toll @-@ taker fumbled his money and soon two men approached him with guns along with a fake toll @-@ taker from another booth . All three men shot Corleone and flew back via car to the Meadowbrook Parkway and into Long Beach via the Loop Parkway . A common misconception is that the murder occurred on either the Loop or the Meadowbrook parkways ; however , the book specifies that the event occurred at the tollbooth on the Wantagh State Parkway .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Nassau County . All exits are unnumbered .
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= St Margaret 's Church , Ifield =
St Margaret 's Church is an Anglican church in the Ifield neighbourhood of Crawley , a town and borough in West Sussex , England . It is the ancient parish church of the village of Ifield ; the medieval settlement was expanded to form one of the New Town of Crawley 's 13 neighbourhoods , and the church 's modern parish now serves several other neighbourhoods as well .
The present building incorporates the chancel from a 13th @-@ century church which may have replaced a wooden building of two or three centuries earlier . Additions in the 14th century included stone effigies representing a knight and his wife , considered to be excellent examples of such sculptures . More structural changes took place at regular intervals , and a major Victorian restoration by architect Somers Clarke included an extension to the nave and a new tower . English Heritage has listed the church at Grade I because of its architectural and historical importance .
The churchyard has many old tombs and monuments , including writer Mark Lemon 's grave and an elaborately decorated table tomb , which is listed separately by English Heritage at Grade II . Further memorials adorn the interior walls . Internal fixtures include a 12th @-@ century font with unusual decorative carvings .
= = History = =
The ancient parish of Ifield covered about 4 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 600 ha ) of rural land in the north of Sussex , up to the border with Surrey . It was attached to the priory at nearby Rusper by the mid @-@ 13th century . The church was built in the centre of the small settlement of Ifield , which was recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086 . The present stone building is believed to stand on the site of an older wooden church — possibly dating from the 10th or 11th century . The earliest record of a vicar being present at the Church was in 1247 but is simply listed as ' ? ' on the Church 's list although ' Simon ' took over in 1288 and there has been 53 vicars since then .
By the 13th century , the church had a stone @-@ built nave and chancel ; the latter survives in the present building , as does a 12th @-@ century font which was probably taken from the building in place at that time . A chancel arch was inserted between the nave and chancel in about 1300 . The dedication to Saint Margaret is later : it was first recorded in 1489 .
Aisles were added to the nave in the 14th century , first on the north side and then on the south , doubling the seating capacity . More windows were also installed in the nave . A century later , a timber porch was built on the north side , the chancel arch was widened and a rood screen was installed , a standard feature of churches in the medieval era , as were wall decorations and paintings . Ecclesiastical feeling moved in favour of austere , whitewashed walls , screens and pillars by the 17th century , and Parliament decreed these changes in the 1640s . The vicar of Ifield , Reverend Robert Goddin , was a strict Protestant who was strongly opposed to Catholic @-@ style worship , ceremony and church decoration , and he enforced the new style rigorously . The rood screen and all internal decoration were removed at this time .
The next major work took place in 1760 , when a gallery was built for the choir and the pews were replaced with large box @-@ pews taken from St Margaret 's Church , Westminster ( the parish church of the Palace of Westminster in London ) . More restoration took place in 1785 . In 1847 , the roof was improved and a vestry was built , incorporating wood from one of Crawley 's famous old trees , the " County Oak " , which had been cut down at that time . ( The tree marked the ancient county boundary between Sussex and Surrey . ) A barrel organ was installed in 1850 . Between 1883 and 1884 , architect and archaeologist Somers Clarke and fellow architect J. T. Micklethwaite built a tall , substantial tower at the west end to replace an earlier small tower over the porch ( which had itself replaced the much older bell turret ) ; lengthened the nave ; and removed a gallery at the west end of the church .
The exterior walls are of rough @-@ hewn stone , but this has been hidden under modern layers of cement . The church is approached from the east through a lychgate at the end of Ifield Street , the ancient village street .
= = Architecture = =
St Margaret 's Church has a chancel , wide nave with a narrow clerestory above and narrow three @-@ bay aisles on the north and south sides , a tall tower ( topped with a spire ) at the west end and a porch on the north side . The nave , chancel and chancel @-@ arch all date from the 13th century . The aisles and their arcades are largely unaltered from their 14th @-@ century origins : between them they feature various mouldings and designs typical of that period , including chamfered arches , octagonal columns and squinch corners . Many of the windows also date from that century , while others are a century later ; trefoil @-@ headed designs predominate , but there are some larger square @-@ headed Perpendicular Gothic windows as well . Several other windows contain stained glass . The roof of the nave is tall and steeply pitched , with substantial king posts and tie @-@ beams . It is also of medieval origin .
Architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner considered the tower to be " perplexing " , but described its windows and double internal arch as " odd and very effective details " . Unusually , it is rendered with roughcast in the same way as the body of the church , producing a " heavy " effect . It has three tall lancet windows on the lower stage , and a much smaller lancet above . The three lancets depict the Resurrection , Crucifixion and Ascension of Jesus Christ respectively .
Many of the internal fittings date from the 19th @-@ century renovations . The baptismal font is by far the oldest feature of the church , dating from the late 12th century . Made of local marble , it has an intricately carved stem flanked by four columns topped with delicate leaf @-@ like capitals and roll mouldings , ornamentation uncommon on a Norman @-@ era font . Its form is otherwise typical : a deep square bowl supported by a wide central column and four narrower shafts .
= = Memorials and churchyard = =
At the east end of the nave are two large 14th @-@ century stone effigies , survivors of the 17th @-@ century upheaval and all subsequent changes to the church , and now considered to be " high quality " examples of their kind . They are life @-@ size representations of a knight in a full suit of armour and a woman , both lying on their backs in prayer . Most sources identify them as John de Ifelde ( Sir John of Ifield ) and his wife , Lady Margaret . There is some disagreement over their date of death and the date the effigies were carved , although 1340 is most often cited . The figures may have been carved in London rather than locally . Their heads rest on angels and their feet on lions . Pevsner had great praise for the effigies , noting that they were " far above the usual standard " and had an " inimitable sideways sway " . Such carved effigies are rare in Sussex — it is more common to find empty plinths or recesses where they once stood — and there are only three other recorded examples in the county .
Mark Lemon , the founding editor of the satirical magazine Punch , lived in the parish in the mid @-@ 19th century . He owned Vine Cottage on Crawley High Street , which formed the boundary between Ifield parish and the Crawley parish of St John the Baptist . He often worshipped at St John the Baptist 's , which was much closer , but was buried at St Margaret 's in 1870 .
A large table tomb at the west end of the churchyard is listed separately by English Heritage as a Grade II @-@ listed structure . Dating from about 1800 , it contains the remains of George and Mary Hutchinson . The structure is of pale ( but heavily weathered ) stone , including a two @-@ step plinth , with various inscriptions on the sides , topped with a carved urn decorated with putti . The Grade II listing was given on 23 February 1983 .
There are several other large tombs from the 18th century in the churchyard — some of which are good examples of the use of artificial Coade stone , popular at the time — and several brass and stone memorial tablets inside the church from the 16th century onwards . George Hutchinson has a prominent wall memorial in the chancel in addition to his tomb outside ; local sculptor Richard Joanes designed it , and there are Coade stone embellishments . Other carved tablets , such as those to Reverend Lewin and Nicholas Spencer , are by obscure London @-@ based mid @-@ 19th @-@ century sculptor T. Marsh .
= = Parish and church today = =
St Margaret 's was listed at Grade I by English Heritage on 23 February 1983 . It is one of the three Grade I buildings , and 100 listed buildings of all grades , in the Borough of Crawley . Buildings classified as Grade I are considered to be of " exceptional interest " and national importance .
The present @-@ day parish of Ifield covers the west of Crawley and its rural hinterland . The A23 and A2220 roads , between County Oak and the A264 , form the eastern and southern boundaries . Beyond the edge of the Ifield West estate , the boundary extends to Faygate and the farms and rural roads around that hamlet . The northern border is close to the county boundary with Surrey and the southern edge of Gatwick Airport .
St Margaret 's serves as the parish church of Ifield parish , which has four churches — one in each of the neighbourhoods it covers — and a church plant venue at Ifield West ( part of the Ifield neighbourhood ) . A team rector , responsible for the running of all four churches and their pastoral care , is based at St Margaret 's . Bewbush is served by St Mary Magdalene 's Church in the far southwest of the parish . St Alban 's Church , a brick building with a tall bell tower , is in nearby Gossops Green , and Langley Green is served by St Leonard 's Church . All of these churches were built after the Second World War , when the new town was designed .
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= Mercury dime =
The Mercury dime is a ten @-@ cent coin struck by the United States Mint from 1916 to 1945 . Designed by Adolph Weinman and also referred to as the Winged Liberty Head dime , it gained its common name as the obverse depiction of a young Liberty , identifiable by her winged Phrygian cap , was confused with the Roman god Mercury . Weinman is believed to have used Elsie Stevens , the wife of lawyer and poet Wallace Stevens , as a model . The coin 's reverse depicts a fasces , symbolizing unity and strength , and an olive branch , signifying peace .
By 1916 , the dime , quarter , and half dollar designed by Mint Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber had been struck for 25 years , and could be replaced by the Treasury , of which the Mint is a part , without Congressional authorization . Mint officials were under the misapprehension that the designs had to be changed , and held a competition among three sculptors , in which Barber , who had been in his position for 36 years , also took part . Weinman 's designs for the dime and half dollar were selected .
Although the new coin 's design was admired for its beauty , the Mint made modifications to it upon learning that vending machine manufacturers were having difficulties making the new dime work in their devices . The coin continued to be minted until 1945 , when the Treasury ordered that a new design , featuring recently deceased president Franklin Roosevelt , take its place . The Mercury dime was restruck in gold for its centenary in 2016 .
= = Inception = =
On September 26 , 1890 , the United States Congress passed an act providing :
The Director of the Mint shall have power , with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury , to cause new designs ... to be prepared and adopted ... But no change in the design or die of any coin shall be made oftener than once in twenty @-@ five years from and including the year of the first adoption of the design ... But the Director of the Mint shall nevertheless have power , with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury , to engage temporarily the services of one or more artists , distinguished in their respective departments of art , who shall be paid for such service from the contingent appropriation for the mint at Philadelphia .
The Barber coinage had been introduced in 1892 ; similar dimes , quarter dollars , and half dollars , all designed by Mint Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber . The introduction had followed a design competition to replace the Seated Liberty coinage , which had been struck since the 1830s . The Mint had offered only a small prize to the winner , and all invited artists refused to submit entries . The competition was open to the public , and the judging committee found no entry suitable . Mint Director Edward Leech responded to the failed competition by directing Barber to prepare new designs for the dime , quarter , and half dollar . The Barber coinage , after its release , attracted considerable public dissatisfaction .
Beginning in 1905 , successive presidential administrations had attempted to bring modern , beautiful designs to United States coins . Following the redesign of the double eagle , eagle , half eagle and quarter eagle in 1907 and 1908 , as well as the cent and nickel redesigns of 1909 and 1913 respectively , advocates of replacing the Barber coins began to push for the change when the coins ' minimum term expired in 1916 . As early as 1914 , Victor David Brenner , designer of the Lincoln cent , submitted unsolicited designs for the silver coins . He was told in response that Secretary of the Treasury William G. McAdoo was completely occupied with other matters .
On January 2 , 1915 , an interview with Philadelphia Mint Superintendent Adam M. Joyce appeared in the Michigan Manufacturer and Financial Record :
So far as I know ... there is no thought of issuing new coins of the 50 @-@ cent , 25 @-@ cent , and 10 @-@ cent values . If , however , a change is made we all hope that more serviceable and satisfactory coins are produced than the recent Saint @-@ Gaudens double eagle and eagle and the Pratt half and quarter eagle . The buffalo nickel and the Lincoln penny are also faulty from a practical standpoint . All resulted from the desire by the government to mint coins to the satisfaction of artists and not practical coiners .
In January 1915 , Assistant Secretary of the Treasury William P. Malburn sent McAdoo a memorandum about the silver subsidiary coinage , noting that " the present silver half dollar , quarter , and dime were changed in 1892 , and a new design may , therefore , be adopted in 1916 . This can be done any time in the year . " In reply , McAdoo wrote " [ l ] et the mint submit designs before we try anyone else . " on the memorandum .
In April 1915 , Robert W. Woolley took office as Mint Director . On April 14 , he asked Superintendent Joyce to request Chief Engraver Barber , then in his 36th year in office , to prepare new designs . The same day , Malburn requested the opinion of the Treasury Department 's Solicitor concerning the Mint view that it could strike new designs for the three denominations in 1916 . On April 17 , the Solicitor 's Office responded that the Mint could change the designs . At the time , the Mint was intensely busy producing the Panama @-@ Pacific commemorative coin issue , and immediate action was not taken . In October , Barber was summoned to Washington to discuss coin designs with Woolley , though it is uncertain whether or not he had already prepared sketches for the new coinage .
On December 3 , Woolley met with the Commission of Fine Arts . Woolley asked the Commission to view sketches produced by the Mint 's engraving department . Barber was present to explain the coinage process to the Commission members . Woolley suggested to the members that if they did not like the Mint 's work , they should select sculptors to submit designs for the new pieces . It was Woolley 's intent to have distinct designs for the dime , quarter and half dollar — previously , the three pieces had been near @-@ identical . The director informed the Commission that as the existing coinage had been in use for 25 years , it would have to be changed — something which numismatic historian David Lange calls a " misinterpretation of the coinage laws " .
The Commission disliked the sketches from the Mint ( submitted by Barber ) and selected sculptors Adolph Weinman , Hermon MacNeil and Albin Polasek to submit proposals for the new coins . The sculptors could submit multiple sketches . Although the Mint could decide to use a design on a denomination not intended by its sculptor , the designs were not fully interchangeable — by statute , an eagle had to appear on the reverse of the quarter and half dollar , but could not appear on the dime . Woolley hoped that each sculptor would be successful with one piece .
The three sculptors submitted design sketches in mid @-@ February , and on February 23 met with Woolley in New York so the artists could make presentations of the work to him and answer his questions . After discussions between Woolley and McAdoo , Weinman was notified on February 28 that five of his sketches had been selected — for the dime and half dollar , and the reverse of the quarter . The same day , Woolley wrote to MacNeil to tell him he would sculpt the quarter 's obverse , and to Polasek to inform him of his lack of success . Members of the Commission persuaded Woolley that so much should not be entrusted to a single artist , and MacNeil was allowed to design both sides of the quarter , subject to his making modifications to his submission .
On March 3 , the new coins were publicly announced , with the Treasury noting , " [ d ] esigns of these coins must be changed by law every 25 years and the present 25 year period ends with 1916 . " The press release indicated that the Treasury hoped production of the new coins would begin in about two months , once the designs were finalized . The same day , Woolley wrote to Mint Engraver Barber , telling him that his sketches were rejected , and that models from Weinman and MacNeil would arrive at the Philadelphia Mint no later than May 1 . According to numismatic historian Walter Breen , Barber became " sullen and totally uncooperative " . Lange notes that " numerous delays were encountered as the artists fine @-@ tuned their models while simultaneously avoiding obstacles thrown in their path by Barber . While his observations regarding many aspects of practical coinage were quite accurate , they clearly could have been presented in a more constructive manner . " In his book on Mercury dimes , Lange notes that Barber , by then aged 75 , had been " compelled over the past ten years to participate in the systematic undoing of a lifetime 's achievements " ; he had to participate in the process which resulted in coins designed by others replacing ones designed by him .
With the new pieces , all American coins would have had a recent change of design ( the Morgan dollar was not then being struck . ) According to a column in The Art World magazine later in 1916 @,@
Since that day [ the 19th century ] much artistic progress has taken place in our coinage . Sculptors of reputation have been employed with admirable results ... And now we are to have a new half dollar and a new dime by Weinman and a new quarter by McNeill [ sic ] . Altogether , in the retrospect , it seems an incredible achievement .
= = Design = =
Weinman never disclosed the name of the model for the obverse , and no person ever claimed to have been her . The winged Liberty is widely believed , however , to have been based on a 1913 bust Weinman sculpted of Elsie Stevens , wife of Wallace Stevens . A lawyer and insurance executive , Wallace Stevens later became famous as a poet ; Wallace and Elsie Stevens rented an apartment from Weinman from 1909 to 1916 . In a draft of his unpublished autobiography , Woolley wrote that Weinman refused to name the model , but told him it was the wife of a lawyer who lived above his Manhattan apartment . ( Woolley , in a later version , omitted the location , saying only that Weinman said it was the wife of a lawyer friend . ) Woolley recorded that he was told that the model wore the top of an old pair of stockings to simulate the cap . In 1966 , Holly Stevens , Wallace and Elsie 's daughter , noted in her edition of her father 's letters that Elsie had been the model for Weinman 's dime and half dollar . Liberty 's features also bear a resemblance to the face of Victory in Weinman 's 1909 statuary group erected in Baltimore , the Union Soldiers and Sailors ' Monument .
Weinman 's dime depicts Liberty with a wreath of tight curls , and wearing a traditional pileus , or Liberty cap . His depiction of the pileus as a winged cap has provoked comparisons with Roman Republic denarii , which art historian Cornelius Vermeule considered superficial . Weinman wrote that he considered the winged cap to symbolize " liberty of thought " . Vermeule suggests that one reason for the use of wings was that Weinman , in common with many in the tradition of Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens , under whom Weinman had studied , liked the effect of feathers done in relief . The reverse depicts a fasces , the object carried by lictors , who accompanied Roman magistrates ; on the coin it represents war and justice . It is contrasted with a large olive branch symbolizing peace . According to Breen , " Weinman 's symbolic message in this design ... was clearly an updated ' Don 't tread on me ' " . The fasces is bound both horizontally and diagonally by a leather strap , with the loose ends at the bottom . The lettering is in Roman style , and is made as discreet as possible . Weinman 's monogram , AW , appears on the obverse , midway between the date and the letter Y in " LIBERTY " . The mintmark is located on the reverse , to the right of the first E in " ONE DIME " .
Woolley described the design in his 1916 report to the Secretary of the Treasury :
The design of the dime , owing to the smallness of the coin , has been held quite simple . The obverse shows a head of Liberty with winged cap . The head is simple and firm in form , the profile forceful . The reverse shows a design of the bundle of rods , with battle @-@ ax , known as " Fasces " , and symbolical of unity , wherein lies the nation 's strength . Surrounding the fasces is a full @-@ foliaged branch of olive , symbolical of peace .
= = Preparation = =
After Weinman 's success in the competition , he visited the Mint to discuss conversion of his models to finished dies . The first time , he found Barber absent , but had a productive talk with long @-@ time Assistant Engraver George T. Morgan . Other visits followed , and on March 29 , Woolley wrote to Superintendent Joyce , " confidentially , the sculptors designing the new coins felt that on their last trip Mr. Morgan was much more cordial and cooperative than Mr. Barber was . I realize I am dealing with artistic temperaments at both ends . " A severe case of tonsillitis delayed Weinman 's work , and caused him to request an extension of the May 1 deadline . On May 29 , Woolley wrote Weinman that the designs , both for the dime and half dollar , were accepted by the Mint .
As no Barber pieces of any of the three denominations had been struck in 1916 , the pent @-@ up demand was high . On June 24 , Woolley wrote to Joyce :
The dime is all right . Please see that working dies for the three mints are made as rapidly as possible , in order that the coinage of the new dimes may be begun quickly . The demand for these coins is exceedingly great . Everyone to whom the coins have been shown here thinks they are beautiful . I beg to enjoin you not to pay out any of the new dimes until you have received special instructions from this office .
Two days later , work on dies was stopped when it was decided that the lettering was insufficiently distinct . The delay , however , did not prevent the Mint from authorizing payment to Weinman for his designs . On July 15 , Woolley resigned as Mint director to work as publicity chairman of the Wilson reelection campaign . As the new director , Friedrich Johannes Hugo von Engelken , did not take office until September 1 , 1916 , Fred H. Chaffin became acting director . With none of the new designs ready for production , and small change in great demand , the Mint had no alternative other than to strike Barber dimes and quarters by the million .
After the lettering problems were addressed , Acting Director Chafflin halted production of Barber dimes on August 29 , and ordered production of the Mercury dime to begin the following day at the Philadelphia Mint . Barber had prepared dies for the Denver and San Francisco mints , but they were still in transit . Small quantities of the new dime had been sent to vending machine and pay phone manufacturers ; on September 6 , two companies reported problems with the coins . AT & T complained that the new dimes were too thick and would not work in their phones . American Sales Machines ( owned by Clarence W. Hobbs , whose complaints had delayed the Buffalo nickel ) requested design changes so that its counterfeit detector could work . Von Engelken ordered production of the dimes halted . In reality , the dime was not too thick , but the rim of the coin struck too high , a defect known as a " fin " . This had been an ongoing problem as Weinman 's design was produced , but was thought to have been corrected . No dimes had yet been struck at the two western mints . Minting of Barber dimes resumed . After an article quoting Joyce appeared in the press , Von Engelken instructed his staff not to speak to reporters .
The problems with the dime were a potential embarrassment with a presidential campaign underway . McAdoo enquired how much time would be required for another design to be struck ; he was informed it would take months . Instead , Weinman prepared modified designs , separating the letters of " LIBERTY " slightly from the rim , and lowering the relief . McAdoo approved the revised design on September 28 . These changes assuaged the concerns of both firms . Von Engelken authorized Joyce to produce coinage dies on October 6 , and the new coins were put into production . The earlier strikes , including those reclaimed from the testing companies , were melted , though one specimen is currently known to exist .
= = Release and production ; name controversy = =
The Mercury dime was released into circulation on October 30 , 1916 , the same day that production of the Barber dime ceased . Several newspapers complained that Weinman 's monogram was too prominent on the obverse ; according to The New York Times , the Treasury was considering removal . On November 4 , Weinman enquired of Joyce whether any removal was contemplated ; he received in reply compliments on his design and Joyce 's statement that the Mint was not responsible for what appeared in print . Weinman wrote again , hoping to make changes to the dime , but was told that only an act of Congress could change the design .
Of the three circulating coins first struck in 1916 , the Mercury dime was particularly praised . On the first day of circulation , quantities sold were limited at banks . One Minneapolis newspaper dubbed it the " battle ax " or " golf " dime , reflecting a lack of knowledge concerning the fasces . A letter to the editor in the January 1917 The Numismatist appears to be the first numismatic reference to the coin by the nickname " Mercury " . Lange traced the history of this misnomer ,
This misattribution appeared almost immediately in the popular press , as writers imagined that the obviously female Liberty was actually a representation of Mercury , messenger to the Roman gods of mythology and quite certainly a male . It is popularly known as the Mercury Dime even today , despite noble but ill @-@ fated attempts by some publications to reverse this error .
Chief Engraver Barber died on February 18 , 1917 , having served 37 years in office . His successor was the 72 @-@ year @-@ old Morgan , who had served under Barber for his entire tenure .
The dime was struck in substantial numbers until 1930 , with the notable exception of the 1916 @-@ D issue and from 1921 to 1923 , when an economic downturn caused the need for coins to diminish . No dimes were struck for 1922 , the first time since 1826 that this had occurred . With the onset of the Great Depression , mintages dropped again in 1930 and 1931 ; coinage of dimes was suspended entirely in 1932 and 1933 . The low @-@ mintage dates are not rare today as many were hoarded , and 1930- and 1931 @-@ dated dimes proved readily available from the banks once the economy improved . With the economy beginning to pick up again , coinage resumed in 1934 , and the dime was struck in large numbers each year through the end of the series .
The death of President Franklin Roosevelt in April 1945 brought immediate calls for a coin to be issued with his image . As Roosevelt had been closely associated with the March of Dimes , and as the dime 's design could be replaced without the need for congressional action as it had been struck for more than 25 years , the Treasury chose that denomination to honor Roosevelt . Mint Chief Engraver John R. Sinnock , Morgan 's successor , executed the design featuring Roosevelt , which replaced the Mercury dime in 1946 , making 1945 the last year in which it was produced . According to Mint Director Nellie Tayloe Ross , a total of 2 @,@ 677 @,@ 232 @,@ 488 Mercury dimes were struck .
= = Collecting = =
The 1916 @-@ D Mercury dime , struck at the Denver Mint , is the key date of the series , with a mintage of 264 @,@ 000 pieces . The low mintage is because in November 1916 , von Engelken informed the three mint superintendents of a large order for quarters , and instructed that Denver strike only quarters until it was filled . Striking of dimes at Denver did not resume until well into 1917 , making the 1917 @-@ D relatively rare as well .
Few varieties are known in the Mercury dime series . The 1942 / 41 is generally termed an overdate ; it is actually a doubled @-@ die error — the obverse die from which the coins were struck took one impression from a 1942 @-@ dated hub and one from a 1941 @-@ dated hub ( until the 1990s , dies required two strikes from a hub for the design to be fully impressed ) . Sinnock stated that the pieces were most likely struck in late 1941 , when preparation of the 1942 dies was under way . Also produced at that time , though less apparent to the naked eye , was the 1942 / 1 @-@ D. Another popular variety is the 1945 @-@ S " Micro S " , with a smaller @-@ than @-@ normal mintmark . This variety was caused by the Mint 's wartime use of a puncheon ( used to impress mintmarks on dies and hubs ) which had been made for use with early 20th century Philippine coinage struck at San Francisco , which had only a small space for the mintmark . Beginning in 1928 , coin albums were issued by private publishers , mostly in folder form , which were widely used to collect the pieces . This led to a great increase in interest in collecting current coinage by date and mintmark .
Many Mercury dimes were not fully struck , meaning that design detail was lost even before the coins entered circulation . Exceptionally well @-@ struck dimes display " full bands " , that is , the horizontal bands on the fasces show full detail . In circulation , the reverse tended to more readily display wear due to a lower rim in relation to the relief of the design . Most well @-@ circulated dimes show more wear to the reverse .
Although no 1923 or 1930 dimes were struck at Denver , specimens appearing to be 1923 @-@ D or 1930 @-@ D dimes may be encountered . These counterfeits are struck in good silver , allowing the coiner to profit on the difference between the cost of production and the face value . They did not appear until after World War II , are invariably found in worn condition , and are believed to have been struck in the Soviet Union , a country known to have counterfeited US coins during World War II .
= = 2016 centennial gold version = =
The Mint released a centennial version , in gold , of the Mercury dime on April 21 , 2016 , sold through the Mint 's official website . Demand was so high , that orders were no longer able to placed within 45 minutes of the coin becoming available . On April 26 , the Mint reported that it has sold 122 @,@ 510 units , just 2 @,@ 490 pieces away from the item 's maximum allowable mintage .
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= Gwyneth Herbert =
Gwyneth Herbert ( born 26 August 1981 ) is a British singer @-@ songwriter , composer , multi @-@ instrumentalist and record producer . Initially known for her interpretation of jazz and swing standards , she is now established as a writer of original compositions , including musical theatre . Her songs have been described as " impressively crafted and engrossing vignette [ s ] of life 's more difficult moments " .
Three of her six albums have received four @-@ starred reviews in the British national press . Another album , Between Me and the Wardrobe , received a five @-@ starred review in The Observer .
= = Early life and education = =
Born in Wimbledon , London , Herbert was brought up in Surrey and Hampshire in the south of England . She began playing the piano at the age of three and was writing basic songs at the age of five . She also learned the French horn , achieving Grade 8 by the age of 15 . Throughout her teenage years she played music with local orchestras and bands such as the Surrey County Youth Orchestra and also briefly formed a short @-@ lived punk band called Wasted Minds . At 14 she recorded a demo tape of her own songs at Trinity Studios , Woking ; however , despite music industry interest , she chose to continue with her studies .
Herbert went to Glebelands School in Cranleigh , Surrey and , for her sixth form studies , to Alton College in Hampshire , where her musical tastes moved more towards jazz music . While she was studying at St Chad 's College , University of Durham , she met up with fellow student Will Rutter and together they began to write and perform in the cafés and bars of North East England as a jazz duo called Black Coffee .
= = Professional career = =
= = = First Songs = = =
After leaving university , Herbert and Rutter moved to London , where they soon met a former member of Boney M , who had been asked to judge a forthcoming Polish television music competition . She and Rutter were invited to enter , and Black Coffee won the competition . Returning to London , Black Coffee continued to perform in local bars , before being introduced to Ian Shaw , a noted jazz vocalist . This led eventually to the production of a debut CD , First Songs , initially credited to " Gwyn and Will " , of both original songs and jazz standards , which was launched at London 's Pizza Express Jazz Club in September 2003 . The Herbert / Rutter song " Sweet Insomnia " featured guest vocals from Jamie Cullum . Described by BBC Music 's reviewer as " a lovingly crafted debut " , the album received a significant amount of radio airplay on Jazz FM and BBC Radio 2 , and was promoted by Michael Parkinson .
= = = Bittersweet and Blue = = =
Soon after , Herbert was signed to the Universal Classics and Jazz label and released , in September 2004 , her first major label album , Bittersweet and Blue . This comprised mainly standards , but also included three original tracks by Herbert and Rutter . Herbert 's version of Neil Young 's " Only Love Can Break Your Heart " , taken from this album , was featured on the soundtrack of romantic comedy Leap Year , directed by Anand Tucker and starring Amy Adams and Matthew Goode . John Fordham , in a four @-@ starred review of the album for The Guardian , praised Herbert 's " precociously powerful chemistry of taste and meticulous care for every sound – from a whisper to an exhortation " .
= = = Between Me and the Wardrobe = = =
Herbert left Universal Classics and Jazz to pursue a less commercial and more personal musical direction and then self @-@ financed a project in which she collaborated with Polar Bear 's Seb Rochford in a production role . Between Me and the Wardrobe , an album of self @-@ penned songs , was recorded in three days and was never intended for general release . The album was initially made available , in 2006 , on Herbert 's own Monkeywood label before being picked up by Blue Note Records , making Herbert their first UK signing in 30 years . In a five @-@ starred review , Stuart Nicholson of The Observer said that on this album she " lets the lyrics do the work for her . They are well thought out , moving between artfully constructed soft @-@ focus simplicities to poignant yearning " .
= = = Ten Lives and All the Ghosts = = =
In early 2008 , Herbert was commissioned by a collaborative project between Peter Gabriel and Bowers & Wilkins to record an acoustic album at Gabriel 's Real World Studios . The result of these sessions – Ten Lives – was released as a digital download in July 2008 , available only from the Bowers & Wilkins website as part of their Music Club .
Remixed versions of these songs were to form the basis of Herbert 's album All the Ghosts , which was released by Naim Edge in July 2009 in Europe to critical acclaim , including four @-@ starred reviews from The Daily Telegraph and The Guardian ; the album was released in the United States in June 2010 . This album also featured two further recordings – including a cover version of David Bowie 's " Rock ' n ' Roll Suicide " – by Robert Harder , who had previously collaborated with Herbert as recording engineer of Between Me and the Wardrobe . It was remastered for vinyl by Steve Rooke at Abbey Road Studios , London and reissued in LP format in 2010 .
= = = Clangers & Mash = = =
In October 2009 , Herbert returned to Harder Sound Studio to record the song " Perfect Fit " which she gave away as a free download , available exclusively from Naim Edge . It was also released as a single on 7 March 2011 . The track was also one of nine tracks on her EP Clangers & Mash , released on 1 November 2010 , which included remixes , by Seb Rochford of Polar Bear , of some of her previously published songs .
In a four @-@ starred review for The Guardian , John Fordham described it as a " fascinating set of variations on the familiar for Herbert regulars , or an appealing introduction for jazz @-@ averse newcomers " , saying that although her songs had been radically transformed , " Herbert 's unfussy soulfulness and personal vision always glow through " .
= = = The Sea Cabinet = = =
In January 2010 , Herbert was commissioned by Snape Maltings as artist in residence to write , record and perform a new body of work based on stories of the sea . This was performed in October 2010 at Snape Maltings . An album of this music , The Sea Cabinet , was released in May 2013 and launched in a series of concerts from 23 to 26 May at Wilton 's Music Hall in London 's East End . In a review of the album launch , The Guardian 's jazz critic John Fordham said that " Herbert 's imaginative narrative , and her casually commanding voice – whether softly nuanced as confiding speech or at full soaring @-@ contralto stretch – were the central characters in an entertaining and often moving show that opens a new chapter in her creative story " . Michal Boncza , in a review for the Morning Star of musical performances in 2013 , described it as a " stand @-@ out " , admiring " a voice that can effortlessly render any emotion with commanding ease . Every song is an impressively crafted and engrossing vignette of life 's more difficult moments and they grab the attention time and again " .
The Financial Times ' four @-@ starred review called it " a concept album about the debt British history owes to the sea " . In a four @-@ star review The Independent described it as a " cabinet of curiosities " with " a cabaret approach to storytelling , in rollicking sea shanties and waltzes " , and " inventive " instrumentation " featuring wheezing accordions , warbling woodwind , tinkling music boxes and rolling bells " . Alexander Varty , for Vancouver 's The Georgia Straight said that the album " blends Weimar cabaret and English music @-@ hall stylings , with disquieting touches of avant @-@ garde jazz " .
Commenting on her live performance in July 2013 at the Love Supreme Jazz Festival in Glynde Place , East Sussex , Nick Hasted of The Independent said : " Gwyneth Herbert sings the shanties on her The Sea Cabinet album with happy , cabaret sensuality , detailing a relationship ’ s shipwrecked , sunken past in ' I Still Hear The Bells ' " .
= = = The A – Z of Mrs P = = =
In 2010 , Herbert won the Stiles and Drewe Song of the Year Award with her composition " Lovely London Town " , from a musical she wrote with playwright Diane Samuels . The musical , The A – Z of Mrs P , tells the story of Phyllis Pearsall 's creation of the London A to Z street atlas . It was performed in workshop with actress Sophie Thompson in May 2011 and opened at Southwark Playhouse on 21 February 2014 starring Peep Show actress Isy Suttie . The show 's original cast recording , which includes a bonus track sung by Herbert , was released in March 2014 .
= = = Springtime for Henry ( and Barbara ) = = =
At Site Gallery , the contemporary art space in Sheffield , Gwyneth Herbert and the artist Mel Brimfield explored an imagined relationship between the sculptors Henry Moore and Barbara Hepworth in Barbara and Henry – The Musical , which ran from 18 November to 13 December 2014 .
This developed into the spoof musical Springtime for Henry ( and Barbara ) , which was performed at Wilton 's Music Hall in London 's East End on 26 and 27 January 2016 . It starred Frances Ruffelle as Hepworth and Andrew C. Wadsworth as Moore .
= = = Other musicals and compositions = = =
In April 2012 , Gwyneth Herbert 's one @-@ act musical Before the Law , co @-@ written with Christine Denniston and adapted from Peter Barnes ' A Hand Witch of the Second Stage , received a Special Commendation at the inaugural Sidney Brown Memorial Award ( now called the S & S Award ) for the best new unproduced musical of the year , which is run by Mercury Musical Developments ( MMD ) , the organisation that supports new musical theatre writing . It is the companion piece to After Lydia , a one @-@ act musical based on Terence Rattigan ’ s play of the same name , which was commissioned by Sounds of England and was also a collaboration with Christine Denniston . After Lydia was given a 45 @-@ minute reading at Ronnie Scott 's Jazz Club in London on Monday 14 March 2011 , starring Rebecca Caine , Andrew C. Wadsworth , Simon Green and Daniel Fraser , with Stefan Bednarczyk as musical director . Directed by Maria Friedman , it also had a staged reading at the Watermill Theatre , Newbury , Berkshire in August 2012 .
Herbert composed music for Le Tabou , a full two @-@ act musical theatre piece , written by Kath Burlinson and performed by Youth Music Theatre at the Barbican Theatre , Plymouth in August 2013 .
Herbert was the composer and sound designer for a play by Diane Samuels , Poppy + George , which was performed at Watford Palace Theatre in February 2016 .
She is also collaborating with Diane Samuels on writing a new musical about contraception , The Rhythm Method , which is in development at Watford Palace Theatre .
= = = Other work = = =
= = = = Performances = = = =
In March 2010 , Herbert performed a newly commissioned score for Marion Davies ’ 1928 silent comedy classic The Patsy , at BFI Southbank 's Birds Eye View Film Festival .
In 2012 , Herbert joined forces with members of the Buck Clayton Legacy Band to explore , in a series of concerts and talks , the jazz repertoire of Peggy Lee . In July 2012 , she performed , with BBC Radio 3 DJ Max Reinhardt and Paris @-@ based singer China Moses , in a revue by Alex Webb which told the story of Café Society , New York ’ s first non @-@ segregated nightclub . The show had a London Jazz Festival premiere at the Southbank Centre and a successful run at Kilburn 's Tricycle Theatre .
In 2014 , she collaborated with artist Mel Brimfield in presenting The Palace That Joan Built , a celebration of the centenary of Joan Littlewood 's birth , as part of the London Underground 's Art on the Underground programme . This included a live performance at Stratford Underground station .
In 2015 , as part of the London Sinfonietta ’ s Notes to the New Government concert , which expressed composers ' hopes for the future of society following Britain 's general election , she performed a new song , " Tick Tock " , described by The Guardian as " gloriously done , inveigh [ ing ] against educational conformity " .
In January 2016 she and Frances Ruffelle performed a cabaret piece when Charles , Prince of Wales and Camilla , Duchess of Cornwall visited Wilton 's Music Hall .
= = = = Broadcasts = = = =
Gwyneth Herbert talked to Claire Martin about her album Bittersweet and Blue on BBC Radio 3 's Jazz Line @-@ Up on 12 February 2005 and was interviewed about her career on BBC Radio 4 's Woman 's Hour on 28 November 2007 . On 13 December 2013 , with Frances Ruffelle , Isy Suttie and Neil Marcus , she talked with Tom Service on his BBC Radio 3 programme Music Matters about the development of musical theatre and The A – Z of Mrs P.
On 1 February 2008 , in a broadcast for BBC Radio 3 's Jazz Library , she joined the programme 's presenter Alyn Shipton to discuss the recordings of Ella Fitzgerald . On 23 March 2008 she joined Alyn Shipton to select the best albums from singer Anita O 'Day 's discography . On 23 October 2011 , in another broadcast for Jazz Library , subsequently made available as a podcast , she joined Shipton to identify the best work of the saxophonist and singer Louis Jordan . On 22 March 2014 she picked , with Shipton , the essential recordings of Dinah Washington .
In 2010 , 2011 and 2013 she and Thomas Guthrie sang in The Playlist , a series of BBC Radio 4 broadcasts recreating the previously unknown musical lives of famous figures from the past , discovering and recording their favourite songs – including songs they themselves had composed .
= = = = Recordings = = = =
Gwyneth Herbert has appeared on other artists ' albums . She is featured on the track " A Day In The Life Of A Fool " on Konishi Yasuharu 's 2011 album One and Ten Very Sad Songs – Konishi Yasuharu Is Pizzicato One ( Universal Music ) . She provided " vocal theremin " on the track " C.H.A.O.S. ( The Third version ) " on Bourgeois & Maurice 's 2013 album The Third . She also produced this track and three others on the album , co @-@ producing a fifth track with Ben Humphreys . She was a vocalist on Dave Price 's original soundtrack digital album for The Roof , which was performed by London 's Fuel Theatre during 2014 .
On Janette Mason 's 2014 album D ’ Ranged she took lead vocals on two tracks – the Alison Moyet song " This House " and Paul Weller 's " You Do Something To Me " . London Jazz News described the treatment of Paul Weller ’ s song , with Herbert accompanied only by Mason ’ s piano , as " a haunting and affecting performance " .
= = Production = =
Herbert is also a record producer . She produced Frances Ruffelle 's album , I Say Yeh @-@ Yeh , released on 9 October 2015 .
= = Performance = =
Gwyneth Herbert has been described as a " sophisticated jazz @-@ ballad artist " with a " precociously powerful chemistry of taste and meticulous care for every sound – from a whisper to an exhortation " and " a voice that can effortlessly render any emotion with commanding ease " .
She performs solo , as a duo with her husband Ned Cartwright and with a band comprising Al Cherry ( guitars ) , Ned Cartwright ( piano , saxophone and melodica ) , Sam Burgess ( bass ) and Dave Price ( percussion and fiddle ) .
= = Personal life = =
After several years in Hackney , London , Gwyneth Herbert now lives in St Leonards @-@ on @-@ Sea , Hastings , East Sussex . In 2016 she married musician Ned Cartwright , who also plays in her band .
= = Discography = =
= = = Gwyneth Herbert & Will Rutter = = =
= = = Gwyneth Herbert = = =
= = = Various artists = = =
= = = The A – Z of Mrs P Original London Cast = = =
= = = Janette Mason = = =
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= Maryland Route 346 =
Maryland Route 346 ( MD 346 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . The state highway runs 23 @.@ 72 miles ( 38 @.@ 17 km ) from U.S. Route 50 Business ( US 50 Business ) in Salisbury east to US 50 in Berlin . MD 346 is the old alignment of US 50 between Salisbury and Berlin , connecting those cities with Parsonsburg , Pittsville , and Willards in eastern Wicomico County and Whaleyville in northern Worcester County . Much of what is now MD 346 was built as the original state road between Salisbury and Ocean City in the mid @-@ 1910s . The highway was designated US 213 in 1927 and changed to US 50 in 1949 . MD 346 was first applied to Church Street in Salisbury in the 1940s ; this designation was removed in 1954 . MD 346 was reassigned in the mid @-@ 1960s to the old alignments of US 50 left behind after US 50 's bypass of Berlin opened in the late 1950s and the US 50 divided highway was completed between Salisbury and Berlin in the mid @-@ 1960s .
= = Route description = =
MD 346 begins at an intersection with US 50 Business ( Salisbury Parkway ) in Salisbury . Main Street continues west into downtown Salisbury on the other side of US 50 Business . MD 346 heads northeast as Main Street , a two @-@ lane road maintained by the city of Salisbury . The state highway veers east at Church Street . At the city limit of Salisbury , state maintenance begins and the name of the highway changes to Old Ocean City Road . MD 346 passes under the Salisbury Bypass ( US 13 and US 50 ) without access and continues east through a mix of farmland and scattered residences . MD 346 passes through the unincorporated community of Parsonsburg and along the edge of the town of Pittsville , where the highway intersects MD 353 ( Gumboro Road ) and Sixty Foot Road . The state highway next passes through Willards , where the highway meets the northern end of MD 354 ( Powellville Road ) . After crossing Burnt Mill Branch , MD 346 crosses the Pocomoke River and enters Worcester County .
MD 346 continues east as Old Ocean City Boulevard , passing along the southern edge of Whaleyville , where the highway intersects MD 610 ( Whaleyville Road ) . The state highway curves southeast and crosses over MD 90 ( Ocean City Expressway ) with no access , then turns south through the hamlet of St. Martin before intersecting US 50 ( Ocean Gateway ) . MD 346 turns southeast , paralleling US 50 for a while before turning south toward the center of Berlin . Upon entering the town limits of Berlin , the state highway curves east to intersect MD 818 ( Main Street ) . MD 346 has a grade crossing of the Maryland and Delaware Railroad 's Snow Hill Line track , then intersects MD 377 ( Williams Street ) immediately before an intersection with US 113 ( Worcester Highway ) . The state highway veers northeast to its eastern terminus at a tangent intersection with US 50 .
= = History = =
The original highway between Salisbury and Ocean City , which followed much of which is now MD 346 , was marked for improvement as a state road by the Maryland State Roads Commission in 1909 . This highway was paved from Salisbury to Berlin in 1914 and from Berlin toward Ocean City in 1915 . The road followed present @-@ day MD 346 with two exceptions : the highway exited Salisbury on Church Street ; and in Berlin , the state road followed Main Street south to the downtown area , then northeast toward Ocean City on Williams Street before rejoining MD 346 's course . Main Street in Salisbury was extended east from the downtown area to its present intersection with Church Street in 1925 and 1926 . In Berlin , the cut @-@ off between Main Street and Williams Street was completed by 1927 . US 213 was assigned to the Salisbury – Ocean City road in 1927 . The U.S. Highway originally followed Church Street out of downtown Salisbury , while Main Street was also a state highway . In 1940 , the two highways swapped streets , with US 213 following Main Street and the other highway using Church Street from US 13 ( now US 13 Business ) to the intersection of Main Street and Church Street on the east side of Salisbury . That other highway was marked MD 346 by 1946 at the latest . MD 346 was removed from Church Street in Salisbury in 1954 . US 50 replaced US 213 from Wye Mills to Ocean City in 1949 . US 50 's bypass of Berlin was completed in 1958 . Salisbury Parkway ( now US 50 Business ) from MD 349 to Main Street was completed by 1964 and US 50 's four @-@ lane divided highway between MD 346 's western terminus and the US 50 – MD 346 intersection west of Berlin opened in 1965 . MD 346 was assigned to the old alignment of US 50 from Salisbury to west of Berlin in 1966 and through Berlin in 1967 .
= = Junction list = =
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= Death of Osama bin Laden =
Osama bin Laden , the founder and head of the Islamist group Al @-@ Qaeda , was killed in Pakistan on May 2 , 2011 , shortly after 1 : 00 am PKT ( 20 : 00 UTC , May 1 ) by United States Navy SEALs of the U.S. Naval Special Warfare Development Group ( also known as DEVGRU or SEAL Team Six ) . The operation , code @-@ named Operation Neptune Spear , was carried out in a Central Intelligence Agency @-@ led operation . In addition to DEVGRU , participating units included the United States Army Special Operations Command 's 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment ( Airborne ) and CIA operatives . The raid on bin Laden 's compound in Abbottabad , Pakistan , was launched from Afghanistan . U.S. military officials said that after the raid , U.S. forces took bin Laden 's body to Afghanistan for identification , then buried him at sea within 24 hours of his death in accordance with Islamic tradition . According to a Pakistani official , the United States had direct evidence that Inter @-@ Services Intelligence ( ISI ) chief , Lt. Gen. Ahmad Shuja Pasha , knew of bin Laden 's presence in Abbottabad .
Al @-@ Qaeda confirmed the death on May 6 with posts made on militant websites , vowing to avenge the killing . Other Pakistani militant groups , including the Tehrik @-@ i @-@ Taliban Pakistan , also vowed retaliation against the U.S. and against Pakistan for not preventing the operation . The raid was supported by over 90 % of the American public , was welcomed by the United Nations , NATO , the European Union , and a large number of governments , but was condemned by others , including two @-@ thirds of the Pakistani public . Legal and ethical aspects of the killing , such as his not being taken alive despite being unarmed , were questioned by others , including Amnesty International . Also controversial was the decision not to release any photographic or DNA evidence of bin Laden 's death to the public . The Pakistani Abbottabad Commission Report was leaked to Al Jazeera on July 8 , 2013 .
= = Locating bin Laden = =
Accounts of how Bin Laden was located by U.S. intelligence differ . The White House and CIA director John Brennan stated that the process began with a fragment of information unearthed in 2002 , resulting in years of investigation . This account states that by September 2010 , these leads followed a courier to the Abbottabad urban compound , where the U.S. began intensive multiplatform surveillance . According to journalist Seymour Hersh and NBC News , however , the U.S. was tipped off about Bin Laden 's location when a Pakistani intelligence officer offered details of where the Pakistani Intelligence Service held him in detention in exchange for a bounty .
= = = ISI walk @-@ in places Bin Laden in Abbottabad = = =
In August 2010 , a former Pakistani intelligence officer approached the U.S. embassy station chief in Islamabad and offered to provide Bin Laden 's location , in return for the $ 25 million reward , according to a retired senior U.S. intelligence official . This story was corroborated by two U.S. intelligence officials speaking to NBC News , and had been previously reported by intelligence analyst Raelynn Hillhouse . The Pakistani official informed U.S. intelligence that Bin Laden had been located by Pakistani ISI in 2006 , and held under house arrest near Pakistani intelligence and military centers ever since . The official passed polygraph tests , after which the U.S. began local and satellite surveillance of Bin Laden 's Abbottabad residence .
According to the retired senior U.S. intelligence official speaking to Hersh , Bin Laden was ill at this point , financially supported by some within Saudi Arabia , and kept by the ISI to better manage their complex relationship with Pakistani and Afghan Islamist groups . According to the official , retired CIA officials emphasized the importance of Bin Laden 's courier to the press , because they were nervous over torture scrutiny and possible prosecution .
In May 2015 the German newspaper Bild am Sonntag reported that the German Federal Intelligence Service ( Germany ) ( BND ) were aware that Bin Laden was in Pakistan with the knowledge of Pakistani intelligence services . The BND informed the CIA that Bin Laden was in Pakistan , and Bild am Sonntag states that the CIA then found his " precise location " through a courier . Der Spiegel questioned the veracity of the report , produced in the midst of a scandal over BND and NSA collaboration .
= = = Identity of his courier = = =
According to the earlier official version of his identification from a U.S. official , identification of al @-@ Qaeda couriers was an early priority for interrogators at CIA black sites and the Guantanamo Bay detention camp , because bin Laden was believed to communicate through such couriers while concealing his whereabouts from al @-@ Qaeda foot soldiers and top commanders . Bin Laden was known not to use phones after 1998 , when the U.S. had launched missile strikes against his bases in Afghanistan in August by tracking an associate 's satellite phone .
The U.S. official had stated that by 2002 , interrogators had heard uncorroborated claims about an al @-@ Qaeda courier with the kunya Abu Ahmed al @-@ Kuwaiti ( sometimes referred to as Sheikh Abu Ahmed from Kuwait ) . One of those claims came from Mohammed al @-@ Qahtani , a detainee interrogated for 48 days more or less continuously between November 23 , 2002 , and January 11 , 2003 . At some point during this period , al @-@ Qahtani told interrogators about a man known as Abu Ahmed al @-@ Kuwaiti who was part of the inner circle of al @-@ Qaeda . Later in 2003 , Khalid Sheikh Mohammed , the alleged operational chief of al @-@ Qaeda , stated that he was acquainted with al @-@ Kuwaiti , but that the man was not active in al @-@ Qaeda , according to a U.S. official .
According to a U.S. official , in 2004 a prisoner named Hassan Ghul revealed that bin Laden relied on a trusted courier known as al @-@ Kuwaiti . Ghul stated that al @-@ Kuwaiti was close to bin Laden as well as Khalid Sheik Mohammed and Mohammed 's successor Abu Faraj al @-@ Libbi . Ghul revealed that al @-@ Kuwaiti had not been seen in some time , which led U.S. officials to suspect he was traveling with bin Laden . When confronted with Ghul 's account , Mohammed maintained his original story . Abu Faraj al @-@ Libbi was captured in 2005 and transferred to Guantánamo in September 2006 . He told CIA interrogators that bin Laden 's courier was a man named Maulawi Abd al @-@ Khaliq Jan and denied knowing al @-@ Kuwaiti . Because both Mohammed and al @-@ Libbi had minimized al @-@ Kuwaiti 's importance , officials speculated that he was part of bin Laden 's inner circle .
In 2007 , officials learned al @-@ Kuwaiti 's real name , though they said they would disclose neither the name nor how they learned it . Pakistani officials in 2011 stated the courier 's name was Ibrahim Saeed Ahmed , from Pakistan 's Swat Valley . He and his brother Abrar and their families were living at bin Laden 's compound , the officials said .
Since the name Maulawi Abd al @-@ Khaliq Jan appears in the JTF @-@ GTMO detainee assessment for Abu Faraj al @-@ Libbi released by WikiLeaks on April 24 , 2011 , there was speculation that the U.S. assault on the Abbottabad compound was expedited as a precaution . The CIA never found anyone named Maulawi Jan and concluded that the name was an invention of al @-@ Libbi .
A 2010 wiretap of another suspect picked up a conversation with al @-@ Kuwaiti . CIA paramilitary operatives located al @-@ Kuwaiti in August 2010 and followed him back to the Abbottabad compound , which led them to speculate it was bin Laden 's location .
The courier and a relative ( who was either a brother or a cousin ) were killed in the May 2 , 2011 , raid . Afterward , some locals identified the men as Pashtuns named Arshad and Tareq Khan . Arshad Khan was carrying an old , noncomputerized Pakistani identification card , which identified him as from Khat Kuruna , a village near Charsadda in northwestern Pakistan . Pakistani officials have found no record of an Arshad Khan in that area and suspect the men were living under false identities .
= = = Bin Laden 's compound = = =
The CIA used surveillance photos and intelligence reports to determine the identities of the inhabitants of the Abbottabad compound to which the courier was traveling . In September 2010 , the CIA concluded that the compound was custom @-@ built to hide someone of significance , very likely bin Laden . Officials surmised that he was living there with his youngest wife and family .
Built in 2004 , the three @-@ story compound was located at the end of a narrow dirt road . Google Earth maps made from satellite photographs show that the compound was not present in 2001 but had been built by the time that new images were taken in 2005 . It is located 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) northeast of the city center of Abbottabad . Abbottabad is about 100 miles ( 160 km ) from the Afghanistan border on the far eastern side of Pakistan ( about 20 miles ( 32 km ) from India ) . The compound is 0 @.@ 8 miles ( 1 @.@ 3 km ) southwest of the Pakistan Military Academy . Located on a plot of land eight times larger than those of nearby houses , the compound was surrounded by a 12 @-@ to @-@ 18 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 5 m ) concrete wall topped with barbed wire . It had two security gates , and the third @-@ floor balcony had a seven @-@ foot @-@ high ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) privacy wall , tall enough to hide the 6 ft 4 in ( 193 cm ) bin Laden .
The compound had no Internet or landline telephone service . Its residents burned their refuse , unlike their neighbors , who set their garbage out for collection . Local residents called the building the Waziristan Haveli , because they believed the owner was from Waziristan . Following the American raid and killing of bin Laden , the Pakistani government demolished the compound in February 2012 .
= = = Intelligence gathering = = =
The CIA led the effort to surveil and gather intelligence on the compound ; other critical roles in the operation were played by other United States agencies , including the National Security Agency , National Geospatial @-@ Intelligence Agency ( NGA ) , Office of the Director of National Intelligence ( ODNI ) , and U.S. Defense Department . According to The Washington Post , " The [ intelligence @-@ gathering ] effort was so extensive and costly that the CIA went to Congress in December [ 2010 ] to secure authority to reallocate tens of millions of dollars within assorted agency budgets to fund it " , U.S. officials said .
The CIA rented a home in Abbottabad from which a team staked out and observed the compound over a number of months . The CIA team used informants and other techniques – including a widely criticised fake vaccination program – to gather intelligence on the compound . The safe house was abandoned immediately after bin Laden 's death . The U.S. National Geospatial @-@ Intelligence Agency helped the Joint Special Operations Command create mission simulators for the pilots , and analyzed data from an RQ @-@ 170 drone before , during and after the raid on the compound . The NGA created three @-@ dimensional renderings of the house , created schedules describing residential traffic patterns , and assessed the number , height and gender of the residents of the compound . Also involved in the intelligence gathering measures were an arm of the National Security Agency known as the Tailored Access Operations group which , among other things , is specialized in surreptitiously installing spyware and tracking devices on targeted computers and mobile @-@ phone networks . Because of the work of the Tailored Access Operations group , the NSA could collect intelligence from mobile phones that were used by al @-@ Qaeda operatives and other " persons of interest " in the hunt for bin Laden .
The design of bin Laden 's compound may have ultimately contributed to his discovery . A former CIA official involved in the manhunt told The Washington Post , " The place was three stories high , and you could watch it from a variety of angles . "
The CIA used a process called " red teaming " on the collected intelligence to independently review the circumstantial evidence and available facts of their case that bin Laden was living at the Abbottabad compound . An administration official stated , " We conducted red @-@ team exercises and other forms of alternative analysis to check our work . No other candidate fit the bill as well as bin Laden did . " This duplicate analysis was necessary because
Despite what officials described as an extraordinarily concentrated collection effort leading up to the operation , no U.S. spy agency was ever able to capture a photograph of bin Laden at the compound before the raid or a recording of the voice of the mysterious male figure whose family occupied the structure 's top two floors .
= = Operation Neptune Spear = =
The official mission code name was Operation Neptune Spear . Neptune 's spear is the trident , which appears on the U.S. Navy 's Special Warfare insignia , with the three prongs of the trident representing the operational capacity of SEALs on sea , air and land .
= = = Objective = = =
The Associated Press reported at the time two U.S. officials as stating the operation was " a kill @-@ or @-@ capture mission , since the U.S. doesn 't kill unarmed people trying to surrender " , but that " it was clear from the beginning that whoever was behind those walls had no intention of surrendering " . White House counterterrorism advisor John O. Brennan said after the raid : " If we had the opportunity to take bin Laden alive , if he didn 't present any threat , the individuals involved were able and prepared to do that . " CIA Director Leon Panetta said on PBS NewsHour : " The authority here was to kill bin Laden . ... Obviously under the rules of engagement , if he in fact had thrown up his hands , surrendered and didn 't appear to be representing any kind of threat , then they were to capture him . But , they had full authority to kill him . "
A U.S. national security official , who was not named , told Reuters that " ' this was a kill operation ' , making clear there was no desire to try to capture bin Laden alive in Pakistan " . Another source referencing a kill ( rather than capture ) order stated , " Officials described the reaction of the special operators when they were told a number of weeks ago that they had been chosen to train for the mission . ' They were told , " We think we found Osama bin Laden , and your job is to kill him , " ' an official recalled . The SEALs started to cheer . "
= = = Planning and final decision = = =
The CIA briefed Vice Admiral William H. McRaven , the commander of the Joint Special Operations Command ( JSOC ) , about the compound in January 2011 . McRaven said a commando raid would be fairly straightforward but he was concerned about the Pakistani response . He assigned a captain from the U.S. Naval Special Warfare Development Group ( DEVGRU ) to work with a CIA team at their campus in Langley , Virginia . The captain , named " Brian " , set up an office in the printing plant in the CIA 's Langley compound and , with six other JSOC officers , began to plan the raid . Administration attorneys did an analysis on the legal issues and options before the raid .
In addition to a helicopter raid , planners considered attacking the compound with B @-@ 2 Spirit stealth bombers . They considered a joint operation with Pakistani forces . Obama , however , decided that the Pakistani government and military could not be trusted to maintain operational security for the operation against bin Laden . " There was a real lack of confidence that the Pakistanis could keep this secret for more than a nanosecond , " a senior adviser to the President told The New Yorker .
Obama met with the National Security Council on March 14 to review the options . The President was concerned that the mission would be exposed and wanted to proceed quickly . For that reason he ruled out involving the Pakistanis . Defense Secretary Robert Gates and other military officials expressed doubts as to whether bin Laden was in the compound , and whether a commando raid was worth the risk . At the end of the meeting , the president seemed to be leaning toward a bombing mission . Two U.S. Air Force officers were tasked with exploring that option further .
The CIA was unable to rule out the existence of an underground bunker below the compound . Presuming that one existed , 32 2 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 910 kg ) bombs fitted with JDAM guidance systems would be required to destroy it . With that amount of ordnance , at least one other house was in the blast radius . Estimates were that up to a dozen civilians would be killed in addition to those in the compound . Furthermore , it was unlikely there would be enough evidence remaining to prove that bin Laden was dead . Presented with this information at the next Security Council meeting on March 29 , Obama put the bombing plan on hold . Instead he directed Admiral McRaven to develop the plan for a helicopter raid . The U.S. intelligence community also studied an option of hitting bin Laden with a drone @-@ fired small tactical munition as he paced in his compound 's vegetable garden .
McRaven assembled a team drawing from the most experienced and senior operators from Red Squadron , one of four that make up DEVGRU . Red Squadron was coming home from Afghanistan and could be redirected without attracting attention . The team had language skills and experience with cross @-@ border operations into Pakistan . Without being told the exact nature of their mission , the team performed rehearsals of the raid in two locations in the U.S. — around April 10 at Harvey Point Defense Testing Activity facility in North Carolina where a 1 : 1 version of bin Laden 's compound was built , and April 18 in Nevada . The location in Nevada was at 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) elevation — chosen to test the effects the altitude would have on the raiders ' helicopters . The Nevada mock @-@ up used chain @-@ link fences to simulate the compound walls , which left the U.S. participants unaware of the potential effects of the high compound walls on the helicopters ' lift capabilities .
Planners believed the SEALs could get to Abbottabad and back without being challenged by the Pakistani military . The helicopters to be used in the raid had been designed to be quiet and to have low radar visibility . Since the U.S. had helped equip and train the Pakistanis , their defensive capabilities were known . The U.S. had supplied F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcons to Pakistan on the condition they were kept at a Pakistani military base under 24 @-@ hour U.S. surveillance .
If bin Laden surrendered , he would be held near Bagram Air Base . If the SEALs were discovered by the Pakistanis in the middle of the raid , Joint Chiefs Chairman Admiral Mike Mullen would call Pakistan 's army chief General Ashfaq Parvez Kayani and try to negotiate their release .
When the National Security Council ( NSC ) met again on April 19 , Obama gave provisional approval for the helicopter raid . But as he worried that the plan for dealing with the Pakistanis was too uncertain , Obama asked Admiral McRaven to equip the team to fight its way out if necessary .
McRaven and the SEALs left for Afghanistan to practice at a one @-@ acre , full @-@ scale replica of the compound built on a restricted area of Bagram known as Camp Alpha . The team departed the U.S. from Naval Air Station Oceana on April 26 in a C @-@ 17 aircraft , refueled on the ground at Ramstein Air Base in Germany , landed at Bagram Air Base , then moved to Jalalabad on April 27 .
On April 28 , Admiral Mullen explained the final plan to the NSC . To bolster the " fight your way out " scenario , Chinook helicopters with additional troops would be positioned nearby . Most of the advisers in the meeting supported going forward with the raid . Only Vice President Biden completely opposed it . Gates advocated using the drone missile option , but changed his support the next day to the helicopter raid plan . Obama said he wanted to speak directly to Admiral McRaven before he gave the order to proceed . The president asked if McRaven had learned anything since arriving in Afghanistan that caused him to lose confidence in the mission . McRaven told him the team was ready and that the next few nights would have little moonlight over Abbottabad , good conditions for a raid .
On April 29 at 8 : 20 a.m. EDT , Obama conferred with his advisers and gave the final go @-@ ahead . The raid would take place the following day . That evening the president was informed that the operation would be delayed one day due to cloudy weather .
On April 30 , Obama called McRaven one more time to wish the SEALs well and to thank them for their service . That evening , the President attended the annual White House Correspondent 's Association dinner , which was hosted by comedian and television actor Seth Meyers . At one point , Meyers joked : " People think bin Laden is hiding in the Hindu Kush , but did you know that every day from 4 to 5 he hosts a show on C @-@ SPAN ? " Obama laughed , despite his knowledge of the operation to come .
On May 1 at 1 : 22 p.m. , Panetta , acting on the president 's orders , directed McRaven to move forward with the operation . Shortly after 3 p.m. , the president joined national security officials in the Situation Room to monitor the raid . They watched night @-@ vision images taken from a Sentinel drone while Panetta , appearing in a corner of the screen from CIA headquarters , narrated what was happening . Video links with Panetta at CIA headquarters and McRaven in Afghanistan were set up in the Situation Room . In an adjoining office was the live drone feed presented on a laptop computer operated by Brigadier General Marshall Webb , assistant commander of JSOC . Secretary of State Hillary Clinton was one of those in the Situation Room , and described it like this : " Contrary to some news reports and what you see in the movies , we had no means to see what was happening inside the building itself . All we could do was wait for an update from the team on the ground . I looked at the President . He was calm . Rarely have I been prouder to serve by his side as I was that day . " Two other command centers monitored the raid from the Pentagon and the American embassy in Islamabad .
= = = Execution of the operation = = =
= = = = Approach and entry = = = =
The raid was carried out by approximately two dozen heliborne U.S. Navy SEALs from the Red Squadron of the Joint Special Operations Command 's U.S. Naval Special Warfare Development Group ( DEVGRU ) . For legal reasons ( namely that the U.S. was not at war with Pakistan ) , the military personnel assigned to the mission were temporarily transferred to the control of the civilian Central Intelligence Agency . The DEVGRU SEALs operated in two teams and were reportedly equipped with Heckler & Koch HK416 military assault rifles , Mark 48 machine guns used for fire support , FN SCAR @-@ H STD Mk 17 battle rifles and Heckler & Koch MP7A1 personal defense weapons ( with attached Knight 's Armament QDSS @-@ NT4 suppressors ) , Insight Technology AN / AVS @-@ 6 and GPNVG @-@ 18 ( Ground Panoramic Night Vision Goggles ) L @-@ 3 night @-@ vision goggles , body armor and sidearms such as SIG Sauer P226R Navy MK25 and H & K Mark 23 Mod 0 .
According to The New York Times , a total of " 79 commandos and a dog " were involved in the raid . The military working dog was a Belgian Malinois named Cairo . According to one report , the dog was tasked with tracking " anyone who tried to escape and to alert SEALs to any approaching Pakistani security forces " . The dog was to be used to help deter any Pakistani ground response to the raid and to help look for any hidden rooms or hidden doors in the compound . Additional personnel on the mission included a language interpreter , the dog handler , helicopter pilots , " tactical signals , intelligence collectors , and navigators using highly classified hyperspectral imagers " .
The SEALs flew into Pakistan from a staging base in the city of Jalalabad in eastern Afghanistan after originating at Bagram Air Base in northeastern Afghanistan . The 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment ( SOAR ) , a U.S. Army Special Operations Command unit known as the " Night Stalkers " , provided the two modified Black Hawk helicopters that were used for the raid itself , as well as the much larger Chinook heavy @-@ lift helicopters that were employed as backups .
The Black Hawks appear to have been never @-@ before @-@ publicly @-@ seen " stealth " versions of the helicopter that fly more quietly while being harder to detect on radar than conventional models ; due to the weight of the extra stealth equipment on the Black Hawks , cargo was " calculated to the ounce , with the weather factored in . "
The Chinooks kept on standby were on the ground " in a deserted area roughly two @-@ thirds of the way " from Jalalabad to Abbottabad , with two additional SEAL teams consisting of approximately 24 DEVGRU operators for a " quick reaction force " ( QRF ) . The Chinooks were equipped with 7.62mm GAU @-@ 17 / A miniguns and GAU @-@ 21 / B .50 @-@ caliber machine guns and extra fuel for the Black Hawks . Their mission was to interdict any Pakistani military attempts to interfere with the raid . Other Chinooks , holding 25 more SEALs from DEVGRU , were stationed just across the border in Afghanistan in case reinforcements were needed during the raid .
The 160th SOAR helicopters were supported by multiple other aircraft , including fixed @-@ wing fighter jets and drones . According to CNN , " the Air Force had a full team of combat search @-@ and @-@ rescue helicopters available " .
The raid was scheduled for a time with little moonlight so the helicopters could enter Pakistan " low to the ground and undetected " . The helicopters used hilly terrain and nap @-@ of @-@ the @-@ earth techniques to reach the compound without appearing on radar and alerting the Pakistani military . The flight from Jalalabad to Abbottabad took about 90 minutes .
According to the mission plan , the first helicopter would hover over the compound 's yard while its full team of SEALs fast @-@ roped to the ground . At the same time , the second helicopter would fly to the northeast corner of the compound and deploy the interpreter , the dog and handler , and four SEALs to secure the perimeter . The team in the courtyard was to enter the house from the ground floor .
As they hovered above the target , however , the first helicopter experienced a hazardous airflow condition known as a vortex ring state . This was aggravated by higher than expected air temperature ( " a so @-@ called ' hot and high ' environment " ) and the high compound walls , which stopped the rotor downwash from diffusing . The helicopter 's tail grazed one of the compound 's walls , damaging its tail rotor , and the helicopter rolled onto its side . The pilot quickly buried the aircraft 's nose to keep it from tipping over . None of the SEALs , crew and pilots on the helicopter were seriously injured in the soft crash landing , which ended with it pitched at a 45 @-@ degree angle resting against the wall . The other helicopter landed outside the compound and the SEALs scaled the walls to get inside . The SEALs advanced into the house , breaching walls and doors with explosives .
= = = = Killing of bin Laden = = = =
The SEALs encountered the residents in the compound 's guest house , in the main building on the first floor where two adult males lived , and on the second and third floors where bin Laden lived with his family . The second and third floors were the last section of the compound to be cleared . There were reportedly " small knots of children ... on every level , including the balcony of bin Laden 's room " .
Osama bin Laden was killed in the raid , and initial versions said three other men and a woman were killed as well : bin Laden 's adult son Khalid , bin Laden 's courier ( Abu Ahmed al @-@ Kuwaiti ) , al @-@ Kuwaiti 's brother Abrar , and Abrar 's wife Bushra .
An intelligence official told Seymour Hersh in 2015 that no fire @-@ fight took place . In the earlier versions , Al @-@ Kuwaiti is said to have opened fire on the first team of SEALs with an AK @-@ 47 from behind the guesthouse door , lightly injuring a SEAL with bullet fragments . A short firefight took place between al @-@ Kuwaiti and the SEALs , in which al @-@ Kuwaiti was killed . His wife Mariam was allegedly shot and wounded in the right shoulder . The courier 's male relative Abrar was then said to have been shot and killed by the SEALs ' second team on the first floor of the main house as shots had already been fired and the SEALs thought that he was armed ( this was later confirmed to be true in the official report ) . A woman near him , later identified as Abrar 's wife Bushra , was , in this version , also shot and killed . Bin Laden 's young adult son is said to have encountered the SEALs on the staircase of the main house , and to have been shot and killed by the second team . An unnamed U.S. senior defense official stated that only one of the five people killed , Abu Ahmed al @-@ Kuwaiti , was armed . The interior of the house was pitch dark , because CIA operatives had cut the power to the neighborhood . However , the SEALs wore night vision goggles .
The SEALs encountered bin Laden on the third floor of the main building . Bin Laden was " wearing the local loose @-@ fitting tunic and pants known as a kurta paijama " , which were later found to have € 500 and two phone numbers sewn into the fabric .
Bin Laden peered through his bedroom door at the Americans advancing up the stairs , and then retreated into the room as the lead SEAL fired a shot at him , which either missed or hit him in the side . Robert O ’ Neill , who later publicly identified himself as the SEAL who shot bin Laden , rolled through the door and confronted bin Laden inside the bedroom . Seymour Hersh reports that , according to his sources , Bin Laden was found cowering and shot dead .
O 'Neill states that bin Laden was standing behind a woman with his hands on her shoulders , pushing her forward . O 'Neill immediately shot bin Laden twice in the forehead , then once more as bin Laden crumpled to the floor . Matt Bissonnette , who entered the room at about the same time , also claims to have fired shots into bin Laden 's fallen body . Simultaneously , in these versions , one of bin Laden 's wives , Amal Ahmed Abdul Fatah is said to have screamed at the SEALs in Arabic and motioned as if she were about to charge . The lead SEAL shot her in the leg , then grabbed both women and shoved them aside . The weapon used to kill bin Laden was a HK416 allegedly using 5.56mm NATO 77 @-@ grain OTM ( open @-@ tip match ) rounds made by Black Hills Ammunition . The SEAL team leader radioed , " For God and country — Geronimo , Geronimo , Geronimo " , and then , after being prompted by McRaven for confirmation , " Geronimo E.K.I.A. " ( enemy killed in action ) . Watching the operation in the White House Situation Room , Obama said , " We got him . "
There were , in these reports , said to be two weapons near bin Laden in his room , including an AKS @-@ 74U carbine and a Russian @-@ made Makarov pistol , but according to his wife Amal , he was shot before he could reach his AKS @-@ 74U . According to the Associated Press , the guns were on a shelf next to the door and the SEALs did not see them until they were photographing the body .
As the SEALs encountered women and children during the raid , they restrained them with plastic handcuffs or zip ties . After the raid was over , U.S. forces moved the surviving residents outside " for Pakistani forces to discover " . The injured Amal Ahmed Abdul Fatah continued to harangue the raiders in Arabic . Bin Laden 's 12 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Safia was allegedly struck in her foot or ankle by a piece of flying debris .
While bin Laden 's body was taken by U.S. forces , the bodies of the four others killed in the raid were left behind at the compound and later taken into Pakistani custody .
= = = = Wrap @-@ up = = = =
The raid was intended to take 40 minutes . All told , the time between the team 's entry in and exit from the compound was 38 minutes . According to the Associated Press , the assault was completed in the first 15 minutes .
Time in the compound was spent killing defenders , " moving carefully through the compound , room to room , floor to floor " securing the women and children , clearing " weapons stashes and barricades " including a false door , and searching the compound for information . U.S. personnel recovered three AK @-@ 47s and two pistols , ten computer hard drives , documents , DVDs , almost a hundred thumb drives , a dozen cell phones , and " electronic equipment " for later analysis . The SEALs also discovered a large amount of opium stored in the house .
Since the helicopter that had made the emergency landing was damaged and unable to fly the team out , it was destroyed to safeguard its classified equipment , including an apparent stealth capability . The pilot smashed " the instrument panel , the radio , and the other classified fixtures inside the cockpit " , and the SEALs " [ packed ] the helicopter with explosives and [ blew ] it up " . Since the SEAL team was reduced to one operational helicopter , one of the two Chinooks held in reserve was dispatched to carry part of the team and bin Laden 's body out of Pakistan .
While the official Department of Defense narrative did not mention the airbases used in the operation , later accounts indicated that the helicopters returned to Bagram Airfield . The body of Osama bin Laden was flown from Bagram to the aircraft carrier USS Carl Vinson in a V @-@ 22 Osprey tiltrotor aircraft escorted by two U.S. Navy F / A @-@ 18 fighter jets .
According to U.S. officials , bin Laden was buried at sea because no country would accept his remains . Before disposing of the body , the U.S. called the Saudi government , who approved of burying the body in the ocean . Muslim religious rites were performed aboard Carl Vinson in the North Arabian Sea within 24 hours of bin Laden 's death . Preparations began at 10 : 10 am local time and at @-@ sea burial was completed at 11 am . The body was washed , wrapped in a white sheet and placed in a weighted plastic bag . An officer read prepared religious remarks which were translated into Arabic by a native speaker . Afterward , bin Laden 's body was placed onto a flat board . The board was tilted upward on one side and the body slid off into the sea .
In Worthy Fights : A Memoir of Leadership in War and Peace , Leon Panetta wrote that bin Laden 's body was draped in a white shroud , given final prayers in Arabic and placed inside a black bag loaded with heavy metals of 300 pounds ( 140 kg ) of iron chains inside apparently to ensure that it would sink and never float . The body bag was placed on a white table at the rail of the ship , and the table was tipped to let the body bag slide into the sea , but the body bag did not slide and took the table with it . The table bobbed on the surface while the weighted body sank into the depths .
= = = = Pakistan – U.S. communication = = = =
According to Obama administration officials , U.S. officials did not share information about the raid with the government of Pakistan until it was over . Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Michael Mullen called Pakistan 's army chief Ashfaq Parvez Kayani at about 3 am local time to inform him of the Abbottabad Operation .
According to the Pakistani foreign ministry , the operation was conducted entirely by the U.S. forces . Pakistan Inter @-@ Services Intelligence ( ISI ) officials said they were present at what they called a joint operation ; President Asif Ali Zardari flatly denied this . Pakistan 's foreign secretary Salman Bashir later confirmed that Pakistani military had scrambled F @-@ 16s after they became aware of the attack but that they reached the compound after American helicopters had left .
= = = = Identification of the body = = = =
U.S. forces used multiple methods to positively identify the body of Osama bin Laden :
Measurement of the body : Both the corpse and bin Laden were 6 ft 4 in ( 193 cm ) ; SEALs on the scene did not have a tape measure to measure the corpse , so a SEAL of known height lay down next to the body and the height was approximated by comparison . This later caused Obama to quip , " We donated a $ 60 million helicopter to this operation . Could we not afford to buy a tape measure ? "
Facial recognition software : A photograph transmitted by the SEALs to CIA headquarters in Langley , Virginia , for facial recognition analysis yielded a 90 to 95 percent likely match .
In @-@ person identification : One or two women from the compound , including one of bin Laden 's wives , identified bin Laden 's body . A wife of bin Laden called him by name during the raid , inadvertently assisting in his identification by U.S. armed forces on the ground .
DNA testing : The Associated Press and The New York Times reported that bin Laden 's body could be identified by DNA testing using tissue and blood samples taken from his sister who had died of brain cancer . ABC News stated , " Two samples were taken from bin Laden : one of these DNA samples was analyzed , and information was sent electronically back to Washington , D.C. , from Bagram . Someone else from Afghanistan is physically bringing back a sample . " A military medic took bone marrow and swabs from the body to use for the DNA testing . According to a senior US Defense Department official :
DNA ( deoxyribonucleic acid ) analysis conducted separately by Department of Defense and CIA labs has positively identified Osama bin Laden . DNA samples collected from his body were compared to a comprehensive DNA profile derived from bin Laden 's large extended family . Based on that analysis , the DNA is unquestionably his . The probability of a mistaken identity on the basis of this analysis is approximately one in 11 @.@ 8 quadrillion .
Inference : Per the same Defense official , from the initial review of the materials removed from the Abbottabad compound the Department " assessed that much of this information , including personal correspondence between Osama bin Laden and others , as well as some of the video footage ... would only have been in his possession . "
= = = Local accounts = = =
Beginning at 12 : 58 a.m. local time , Abbottabad resident Sohaib Athar sent a series of tweets describing the noise of helicopters hovering overhead — " a rare occurrence " — and several window @-@ rattling blasts . By 1 : 44 a.m. all was quiet until a plane flew over the city at 3 : 39 a.m. Neighbors took to their roofs and watched as American special forces stormed the compound . One neighbor said , " I saw soldiers emerging from the helicopters and advancing towards the house . Some of them instructed us in chaste Pashto to turn off the lights and stay inside . " Another man said he heard shooting and screams , then an explosion as a grounded helicopter was destroyed . The blast broke his bedroom window and left charred debris over a nearby field . A local security officer said he entered the compound shortly after the Americans left , before it was sealed off by the army . " There were four dead bodies , three male and one female and one female was injured " , he said . " There was a lot of blood on the floor and one could easily see the marks like a dead body had been dragged out of the compound . " Numerous witnesses reported that power , and possibly cellphone service , went out around the time of the raid and apparently included the military academy . Accounts differed as to the exact time of the blackout . One journalist concluded after interviewing several residents that it was a routine rolling blackout .
ISI reported after questioning survivors of the raid that there were 17 to 18 people in the compound at the time of the attack and that the Americans took away one person still alive , possibly a bin Laden son . The ISI said that survivors included a wife , a daughter and eight to nine other children , not apparently bin Laden 's . An unnamed Pakistani security official was quoted as saying one of bin Laden 's daughters told Pakistani investigators that bin Laden had been captured alive , then in front of family members was shot dead by American forces and dragged to a helicopter .
= = = Compound residents = = =
U.S. officials said there were 22 people in the compound . Five were killed , including Osama bin Laden . Pakistani officials gave conflicting reports suggesting between 12 and 17 survivors . The Sunday Times subsequently published excerpts from a pocket guide , presumably dropped by the SEALs during the raid , containing pictures and descriptions of likely compound residents . The guide listed several adult children of bin Laden and their families who were not ultimately found in the compound . Because of a lack of verifiable information , some of what follows is thinly sourced .
5 adults dead : Osama bin Laden , 54 ; Khalid , his son by Siham ( identified as Hamza in early accounts ) , 23 ; Arshad Khan , a.k.a. Abu Ahmed al @-@ Kuwaiti , the courier , described as the " flabby " one by The Sunday Times , 33 ; Abu Ahmed al @-@ Kuwaiti 's brother Abrar , 30 ; and Bushra , Abrar 's wife , age unknown .
4 surviving women : Khairiah , bin Laden 's third , Saudi wife a.k.a. Um Hamza , 62 ; Siham , bin Laden 's fourth , Saudi wife a.k.a. Um Khalid , 54 ; Amal , bin Laden 's fifth , Yemeni wife , a.k.a. Amal Ahmed Abdul Fatah , 29 ( injured ) ; and Mariam , Arshad Khan 's Pakistani wife .
5 minor children of Osama and Amal : Safia , a daughter , 12 ; a son , 5 ; another son , age unknown ; and infant twin daughters .
4 bin Laden grandchildren from an unidentified daughter who had been killed in an airstrike in Waziristan . Two may be the boys , around 10 , who spoke to Pakistani investigators .
4 children of Arshad Khan : Two sons , Abdur Rahman and Khalid , 6 or 7 ; a daughter , age unknown ; and another child , age unknown .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Leaks of the news = = =
At around 9 : 45 p.m. EDT , the White House announced that the president would be addressing the nation later in the evening . At 10 : 24 p.m. , the first public leaks were made simultaneously and separately by Navy Reserve intel officer Keith Urbahn and actor and professional wrestler Dwayne Johnson on Twitter . Anonymous government officials confirmed details to the media , and by 11 p.m. numerous major news sources were reporting that bin Laden was dead ; the number of leaks were characterized as " voluminous " by David E. Sanger .
= = = U.S. presidential address = = =
At 11 : 35 p.m. , Obama appeared on major television networks :
Good evening . Tonight , I can report to the American people and to the world that the United States has conducted an operation that killed Osama bin Laden , the leader of al @-@ Qaeda , and a terrorist who was responsible for the murder of thousands of innocent men , women , and children ... ( cont 'd )
President Obama remembered the victims of the September 11 attacks . He praised the nearly ten @-@ year @-@ old war against al @-@ Qaeda , which he said had disrupted terrorist plots , strengthened homeland defenses , removed the Taliban government , and captured or killed scores of al @-@ Qaeda operatives . Obama said that when he took office he made finding bin Laden the top priority of the war . Bin Laden 's death was the most significant blow to al @-@ Qaeda so far but the war would continue . He reaffirmed that the U.S. was not at war against Islam . He defended his decision to conduct an operation within Pakistan . He said Americans understood the cost of war but would not stand by while their security was threatened . " To those families who have lost loved ones to al @-@ Qaeda 's terror , " he said , " justice has been done . " This remark book @-@ ended President Bush 's statement to a joint session of Congress following the September 11 attacks that " justice will be done . "
= = = Reactions = = =
Before the official announcement , large crowds spontaneously gathered outside the White House , Ground Zero , The Pentagon and in New York 's Times Square to celebrate . In Dearborn , Michigan , where there is a large Muslim and Arab population , a small crowd gathered outside the City Hall in celebration , many of them being of Middle Eastern descent . From the beginning to the end of Obama 's speech , 5 @,@ 000 tweets per second were sent on microblogging platform Twitter . As news of bin Laden 's death filtered through the crowd at a nationally televised Major League Baseball game in Philadelphia between rivals Philadelphia Phillies and the New York Mets , " U @-@ S @-@ A ! " cheers began . In Tampa , Florida , at the conclusion of a professional wrestling event which was occurring at the time , WWE Champion John Cena announced to the audience that bin Laden had been " caught and compromised to a permanent end " , prompting chants while he exited the arena to the march The Stars and Stripes Forever .
The deputy leader of Egypt 's Muslim Brotherhood said that , with bin Laden dead , Western forces should now pull out of Iraq and Afghanistan ; authorities in Iran made similar comments . Palestinian Authority leaders had contrasting reactions . Mahmoud Abbas welcomed bin Laden 's death , while Ismail Haniyeh , the head of the Hamas administration in the Gaza Strip , condemned what he saw as the assassination of an " Arab holy warrior " .
The 14th Dalai Lama was quoted by the Los Angeles Times as saying , " Forgiveness doesn 't mean forget what happened . ... If something is serious and it is necessary to take counter @-@ measures , you have to take counter @-@ measures . " This was widely reported as an endorsement of bin Laden 's killing and was criticized in Buddhist circles , but another journalist cited a video of the discussion to argue that the comment was taken out of context and the Dalai Lama only supports killing in self @-@ defense .
A CBS / The New York Times poll taken after bin Laden 's death showed that 16 % of Americans feel safer as the result of his death while 60 % of Americans of those polled believe killing bin Laden would likely increase the threat of terrorism against the U.S. in the short term .
In India , Minister for Home Affairs P. Chidambaram said that bin Laden hiding " deep inside " Pakistan was a matter of grave concern for India and showed that " many of the perpetrators of the Mumbai terror attacks , including the controllers and the handlers of the terrorists who actually carried out the attack , continue to be sheltered in Pakistan " . He also called on Pakistan to arrest them , amidst calls for similar strikes being conducted by India against Hafiz Saeed and Dawood Ibrahim .
= = = Freedom of Information Act requests and denials = = =
Though the Abbottabad raid has been described in great detail by U.S. officials , no physical evidence constituting " proof of death " has been offered to the public , neither to journalists nor to independent third parties who have requested this information through the Freedom of Information Act . Numerous organizations filed FOIA requests seeking at least a partial release of photographs , videos , and / or DNA test results , including The Associated Press , Reuters , CBS News , Judicial Watch , Politico , Fox News , Citizens United , and NPR . On April 26 , 2012 , Judge James E. Boasberg held that the Department of Defense was not required to release any evidence to the public .
According to a draft report by the Pentagon 's inspector general , Admiral William McRaven , the top special operations commander , ordered the Department of Defense to purge from its computer systems all files on the bin Laden raid after first sending them to the CIA . Any mention of this decision was expunged from the final version of the inspector general 's report . According to the Pentagon , this was done to protect the identities of the Navy SEALs involved in the raid . The legal justification for the records transfer is that the SEALs were effectively working for the CIA at the time of the raid , which ostensibly means that any records of the raid belong to the CIA . " Documents related to the raid were handled in a manner consistent with the fact that the operation was conducted under the direction of the CIA director " , CIA agency spokesman Preston Golson said in an emailed statement . " Records of a CIA operation such as the ( bin Laden ) raid , which were created during the conduct of the operation by persons acting under the authority of the CIA Director , are CIA records . " Golson said it is " absolutely false " that records were moved to the CIA to avoid the legal requirements of the Freedom of Information Act . The National Security Archive has criticized this maneuver , saying that the records have now gone into a " FOIA black hole " :
What the transfer really did was ensure that the files would be placed in the CIA 's operational records , a records system that — due to the 1986 CIA Operational Files exemption — is not subject to the FOIA and is a black hole for anyone trying to access the files within . The move prevents the public from accessing the official record about the raid , and bypasses several important federal records keeping procedures in the process .
The United States Defense Department can prevent the release of its own military files citing risks to national security , but that can be contested in court , and a judge can compel the Pentagon to turn over non @-@ sensitive portions of records . The CIA however has special authority to prevent the release of " operational files " in ways that cannot be challenged in federal court . Richard Lardner , reporting for the Associated Press , wrote that the maneuver " could represent a new strategy for the U.S. government to shield even its most sensitive activities from public scrutiny . "
Judicial Watch followed its FOIA request with a FOIA lawsuit on June 8 , 2011 , and by January 31 , 2014 , obtained some of the documents Admiral William McRaven had tried to withhold . The most important of these is an email written by McRaven on Friday 13 , 2011 , in which he instructs his team to destroy all UBL documents ( see image at right ) .
The inspector general 's draft report also described how former Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta disclosed classified information to the makers of Zero Dark Thirty , including the unit that conducted the raid and the ground commander 's name .
= = = Legality = = =
= = = = Under U.S. law = = = =
Following the attacks of September 11 , 2001 , the U.S. Congress passed the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists , which authorized the President to use " necessary and appropriate force against those nations , organizations , or persons " he determines were involved in the attacks . The Obama administration justified its use of force by relying on that resolution , as well as international law set forth in treaties and customary laws of war .
John Bellinger III , who served as the U.S. State Department 's senior lawyer during President George W. Bush 's second term , said the strike was a legitimate military action and did not run counter to the U.S. ' self @-@ imposed prohibition on assassinations :
The killing is not prohibited by the long @-@ standing assassination prohibition in executive order 12333 [ signed in 1981 ] , because the action was a military action in the ongoing U.S. armed conflict with al @-@ Qaeda , and it is not prohibited to kill specific leaders of an opposing force . The assassination prohibition does not apply to killings in self @-@ defense .
Similarly , Harold Hongju Koh , Legal Adviser of the U.S. State Department , said in 2010 that " under domestic law , the use of lawful weapons systems — consistent with the applicable laws of war — for precision targeting of specific high @-@ level belligerent leaders when acting in self @-@ defense or during an armed conflict is not unlawful , and hence does not constitute ' assassination ' . "
David Scheffer , director of the Northwestern University School of Law Center for International Human Rights , said the fact that bin Laden had previously been indicted in 1998 in the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York for conspiracy to attack U.S. defense installations was a complicating factor . " Normally when an individual is under indictment the purpose is to capture that person in order to bring him to court to try him ... The object is not to literally summarily execute him if he 's under indictment . " Scheffer and another expert stated that it was important to determine whether the mission was to capture bin Laden or to kill him . If the Navy SEALs were instructed to kill bin Laden without trying first to capture him , it " may have violated American ideals if not international law . "
= = = = Under international law = = = =
In an address to the Pakistani parliament , Pakistan 's Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gillani said , " Our people are rightly incensed on the issue of violation of sovereignty as typified by the covert U.S. air and ground assault on the Osama hideout in Abbottabad . ... The Security Council , while exhorting UN member states to join their efforts against terrorism , has repeatedly emphasized that this be done in accordance with international law , human rights and humanitarian law . " Former Pakistani President Gen. Pervez Musharraf denied a report in The Guardian that his government made a secret agreement permitting U.S. forces to conduct unilateral raids in search of the top three al @-@ Qaeda leaders .
In testimony before the U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee , Attorney General Eric Holder said , " The operation against bin Laden was justified as an act of national self @-@ defense . It 's lawful to target an enemy commander in the field . " He called the killing of bin Laden " a tremendous step forward in attaining justice for the nearly 3 @,@ 000 innocent Americans who were murdered on September 11 , 2001 . " Commenting on the legality under international law , University of Michigan Law Professor Steven Ratner said , " A lot of it depends on whether you believe Osama bin Laden is a combatant in a war or a suspect in a mass murder . " In the latter case , " you would only be able to kill a suspect if they represented an immediate threat " .
Holder testified that bin Laden made no attempt to surrender , and " even if he had there would be a good basis on the part of those very brave Navy SEAL team members to do what they did in order to protect themselves and the other people who were in that building . " According to Anthony Dworkin , an international law expert at the European Council on Foreign Relations , if bin Laden was hors de combat ( as his daughter is said to have alleged ) that would have been a violation of Protocol I of the Geneva Conventions .
The UN Security Council released a statement applauding the news of bin Laden 's death , and UN Secretary @-@ General Ban Ki @-@ moon said he was " very much relieved " . Two United Nations Special Rapporteurs issued a joint statement seeking more information regarding the circumstances in which bin Laden was killed and cautioning that " actions taken by States in combating terrorism , especially in high profile cases , set precedents for the way in which the right to life will be treated in future instances . "
= = = Handling of the body = = =
Under Islamic tradition , burial at sea is considered inappropriate when other , preferred forms of burial are available , and several prominent Islamic clerics criticized the decision . Mohamed Ahmed el @-@ Tayeb , the head of Al @-@ Azhar University , Egypt 's seat of Sunni Muslim learning , said the disposal of the body at sea was an affront to religious and human values . Scholars like el @-@ Tayeb hold that sea burials can only be allowed in special cases where the death occurred aboard a ship , and that the regular practice should have occurred in this case — the body buried in the ground with the head pointing to Islam 's holy city of Mecca .
A stated advantage of a burial at sea is that the site is not readily identified or accessed , thus preventing it from becoming a focus of attention or " terrorist shrine " . The Guardian questioned whether bin Laden 's grave would have become a shrine , as this is strongly discouraged in Wahhabism . Addressing the same concern , Egyptian Islamic analyst and lawyer Montasser el @-@ Zayat said that if the Americans wished to avoid making a shrine to bin Laden , an unmarked grave on land would have accomplished the same goal .
The Guardian also quoted a U.S. official explaining the anticipated difficulty of finding a country that would accept the burial of bin Laden in its soil . A professor of Islamic Law at the University of Jordan stated burying at sea was permitted if there was nobody to receive the body and provide a Muslim burial , and that " it 's neither true nor correct to claim that there was nobody in the Muslim world ready to receive bin Laden 's body " . On a similar note , Mohammed al @-@ Qubaisi , Dubai 's grand mufti , stated : " They can say they buried him at sea , but they cannot say they did it according to Islam . If the family does not want him , it 's really simple in Islam : you dig up a grave anywhere , even on a remote island , you say the prayers and that 's it . Sea burials are permissible for Muslims in extraordinary circumstances . This is not one of them . " Khalid Latif , an imam who serves as a chaplain and the director of the Islamic Center of New York University , argued that the sea burial was respectful .
Leor Halevi , a professor at Vanderbilt University and the author of Muhammad 's Grave : Death Rites and the Making of Islamic Society , explained that Islamic law does not prescribe ordinary funerals for those killed in battle , and pointed to controversy within the Muslim world over whether bin Laden was , as a " mass murderer of Muslims " , entitled to the same respect as mainstream Muslims . At the same time , he suggested that the burial could have been handled with more cultural sensitivity .
Omar bin Laden , son of Osama bin Laden , published a complaint on May 10 , 2011 , that the burial at sea deprived the family of a proper burial .
= = = Bin Laden 's will = = =
After bin Laden 's death , it was reported he had left a will written a short time after the September 11 attacks in which he urged his children not to join al @-@ Qaeda and not to continue the Jihad .
= = = Release of photographs = = =
CNN cited a senior U.S. official as saying three sets of photographs of bin Laden 's body exist : Photos taken at an aircraft hangar in Afghanistan , described as the most recognizable and gruesome ; photos taken from the burial at sea on the USS Carl Vinson before a shroud was placed around his body ; and photos from the raid itself , which include shots of the interior of the compound as well as three of the others who died in the raid .
A source told ABC News that the photos taken by the military servicemen on the scene depict the physical damage done by a high @-@ caliber bullet . CBS Evening News reported that the photo shows that the bullet which hit above bin Laden 's left eye blew out his left eyeball and blew away a large portion of his frontal skull , exposing his brain . CNN stated that the pictures from the Afghanistan hangar depict " a massive open head wound across both eyes . It 's very bloody and gory . " U.S Senator Jim Inhofe , who viewed the photos , stated that the photos taken of the body on the Carl Vinson , which showed bin Laden 's face after much of the blood and material had been washed away , should be released to the public .
A debate on whether the military photos should or should not be released to the public has taken place . Those supporting the release argued that the photos should be considered public records , that the photos are necessary to complete the journalistic record , and that the photos would prove bin Laden 's death and therefore prevent conspiracy theories that bin Laden is still alive . Those in opposition to a release of the photos expressed concern that the photos would inflame anti @-@ American sentiment in the Middle East .
Obama ultimately decided not to release the photos . In an interview that aired on May 4 on 60 Minutes , Obama stated that " We don 't trot out this stuff as trophies . We don 't need to spike the football . " Obama said that he was concerned with ensuring that " very graphic photos of somebody who was shot in the head are not floating around as an incitement to additional violence , or as a propaganda tool . That 's not who we are . " Among Republican members of Congress , Senator Lindsey Graham criticized the decision and stated that he wanted to see the photos released , while Senator John McCain and Representative Mike Rogers , the chair of the House Intelligence Committee , supported the decision not to release the photos .
On May 11 , selected members of Congress ( the congressional leadership and those who serve on the House and Senate intelligence , homeland security , judiciary , foreign relations , and armed forces committees ) were shown 15 bin Laden photos . In an interview with Eliot Spitzer , Senator Jim Inhofe said that three of the photos were of bin Laden alive for identification reference . Three other photos were of the burial @-@ at @-@ sea ceremony .
The group Judicial Watch filed a Freedom of Information Act request to obtain access to the photos in May 2011 , soon after the raid . On May 9 , the Department of Defense declined to process Judicial Watch 's FOIA request , prompting Judicial Watch to file a federal lawsuit . In 2012 , Judge James E. Boasberg of the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia issued a ruling denying release of the photographs . In May 2013 , a three @-@ judge panel of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit consisting of Chief Judge Merrick Garland , Senior Judge Harry T. Edwards , and Judge Judith Rogers affirmed the ruling , holding that 52 post @-@ mortem images were properly classified as " top secret " and exempt from disclosure . Judicial Watch filed a petition for a writ of certiorari in August 2013 , seeking U.S. Supreme Court review , but in January 2014 the Supreme Court declined to hear the case .
The Associated Press filed a FOIA request for photographs and videos taken during the Abbottabad raid less than one day after bin Laden was killed . The AP also requested " contingency plans for bin Laden 's capture , reports on the performance of equipment during the mission and copies of DNA tests " confirming bin Laden 's identity . The Defense Department rejected the AP 's request for expedited processing , a legal provision to shorten the amount of time to process FOIA requests . The Defense Department rejected the request , and the AP administratively appealed .
= = = Alternative accounts = = =
= = = = Seal Target Geronimo = = = =
A book published in November 2011 , Seal Target Geronimo , by Chuck Pfarrer , a former SEAL , contradicted the account as given by U.S. government sources . According to Pfarrer , neither helicopter crashed at the beginning of the raid . Instead , the SEALs jumped onto the roof from the hovering Razor 1 helicopter and entered a third @-@ floor hallway from the roof terrace . Osama 's third wife , Khairah , was in the hallway , headed towards the SEALs . She was blinded by a strobe light and pushed to the floor as the SEALs went past her . Osama bin Laden stuck his head out of a bedroom door , saw the SEALs , and slammed the door closed . At the same time , Osama 's son Khalid bin Laden ran up the stairs to the third floor and was killed with two shots .
Two SEALs broke through the bedroom door . Bin Laden 's wife Amal was on the edge of the bed shouting in Arabic at the SEALs , and Osama bin Laden dived across the bed , shoving Amal at the same time , for an AKS @-@ 74U kept by the headboard . The SEALs fired four shots at bin Laden ; the first missed , the second grazed Amal in the calf also missing bin Laden , and the final two hit bin Laden in the chest and head , killing him instantly . In Pfarrer 's account , the total time elapsed from jumping on the roof to Osama bin Laden 's death was between 30 and 90 seconds .
Around the same time , snipers in the hovering Razor 2 helicopter shot and killed Abu Ahmed al @-@ Kuwaiti when he came to the door of the guest house firing an AK @-@ 47 . One SEAL sniper fired two shots at al @-@ Kuwaiti and the other fired two three @-@ round bursts . Two of the snipers ' bullets went through al @-@ Kuwaiti and killed his wife who was standing behind him . The Razor 2 team cleared the guest house and then breached their way into the main house with explosives . As the Razor 2 team entered the main house , al @-@ Qaeda courier Arshad Khan pointed his AK @-@ 47 gun and was killed with two shots . The SEAL team fired a total of 16 shots , killing Osama bin Laden , Khalid bin Laden , Abu Ahmed al @-@ Kuwaiti and al @-@ Kuwaiti 's wife , Arshad Khan , and wounding Osama bin Laden 's wife Amal al @-@ Sadah .
Twenty minutes into the operation , Razor 1 took off from the roof of the main house to reposition to a landing spot outside the compound . As Razor 1 was crossing over the courtyard , both " green unit " flight deck control systems went off line . The helicopter settled slowly , bounced off the ground , and then broke apart as it hit the ground a second time . Both failed green units were removed for later examination .
Media accounts had reported that the plan had been to fast rope to the inner courtyard and to clear the main house from the ground floor up . The helicopter crashed in the outer courtyard with the SEAL team still on board . The SEAL team exited and needed to breach two walls and then into the house . As a result , Osama bin Laden was killed several minutes into the operation . Pfarrer 's account differs in that he wrote that a SEAL team was inserted onto the roof of the main house , that Osama bin Laden was killed seconds into the operation , and that the main house was cleared from the top down .
The Pentagon disputed Pfarrer 's account of the raid , calling it " incorrect " . The U.S. Special Operations Command also disputed Pfarrer 's account , saying , " It 's just not true . It 's not how it happened . "
= = = = No Easy Day = = = =
Matt Bissonnette , a SEAL who participated in the raid , wrote an account of the mission in the book No Easy Day ( 2012 ) , which significantly contradicts Pfarrer 's account . Bissonnette wrote that the helicopter approach and landing matched the official version . According to Bissonnette , when bin Laden peered out at the Americans advancing on his third @-@ floor room , the SEAL who fired upon him hit him on the right side of the head . Bin Laden stumbled into his bedroom , where the SEALs found him crumpled and twitching on the floor in a pool of body matter , with two women crying over his body . The other SEALs allegedly grabbed the women , moved them away , and shot bin Laden repeatedly in the chest until he was dead . According to Bissonnette , the weapons in the room — an AK @-@ 47 rifle and a Makarov pistol — were unloaded .
Unlike the official account , Bissonnette 's version alleges that bin Laden 's wife Mariam was uninjured in the raid . In addition , Bissonnette states that the report of bin Laden 's daughter Safia having splintered wood striking her foot is false , as he explains that it was rather his wife Amal who was injured by such fragments .
The author also asserted that one SEAL sat on bin Laden 's chest in a cramped helicopter as his body was flown back to Afghanistan .
Bissonnette stated that a search of bin Laden 's room after his death uncovered a bottle of Just for Men hair dye .
In February 2013 , Esquire conducted an interview with an anonymous individual called " the shooter " who stated that bin Laden placed one of his wives between himself and the commandos , pushing her towards them . " Shooter " then claimed bin Laden stood up and had a gun " within reach " and it was only then that he fired two shots into bin Laden 's forehead , killing him . However , another member of SEAL Team Six said the story as presented in Esquire was false and " complete BS " . Then , in November 2014 , former SEAL Robert O 'Neill disclosed his identity as the shooter in a series of interviews with the Washington Post .
= = = = Hillhouse and Hersh reports = = = =
In 2011 American intelligence analyst Raelynn Hillhouse wrote that according to U.S. intelligence sources , the U.S. had been tipped @-@ off to bin Laden 's location by an unnamed Pakistani intelligence insider collecting the $ 25 million reward . According to the sources , Pakistan purposely stood @-@ down its armed forces to allow the U.S. raid , and the original plan was to kill – not capture – bin Laden . Hillhouse 's sources stated that the Pakistanis had been keeping Bin Laden under house arrest near their military headquarters in Abbottabad with money provided by the Saudis . According to The Telegraph , Hillhouse 's account might explain why U.S. forces encountered no resistance on their way to an in Abbottabad , and why some residents in Abbottabad were warned to stay in their houses the day before the raid .
Hillhouse later also stated that bin Laden 's body had been thrown @-@ out of a helicopter over the Hindu Kush . Hillhouse 's account was picked @-@ up and published in The Daily Telegraph , the National Post , The Vancouver Sun , The Calgary Herald , the Windsor Star , The Daily Mail and the New Zealand Herald .
In May 2015 , journalist Seymour Hersh said that the Pakistani Inter @-@ Services Intelligence ( ISI ) had kept bin Laden under house arrest at Abbottabad since 2006 , and he said that Pakistani Army chief Pervez Kayani and ISI director Ahmad Shuja Pasha aided the U.S. mission to kill , not capture bin Laden . According to Hersh , Pakistani officials were always aware of bin Laden 's location and were guarding the compound with their own soldiers . Pakistan decided to give up bin Laden 's location to the U.S. because American aid was declining . Pakistani officials were aware of the raid , and assisted the U.S. in carrying it out . According to Hersh , bin Laden was basically an invalid .
Hersh 's U.S. and Pakistani intelligence sources stated that the U.S. had learned of bin Laden 's location through a Pakistani walk @-@ in seeking the $ 25 million reward , and not through tracking a courier . NBC News and Agence France @-@ Presse subsequently reported that their sources indicated a walk @-@ in was an extremely valuable asset , though the sources disputed that the walk @-@ in knew the location of bin Laden . Pakistan @-@ based journalist Amir Mir in the News International reported the walk @-@ in 's identity to be Usman Khalid , though that allegation was denied by Khalid 's family . The White House denied Hersh 's report .
Though similar in claims , both Hillhouse and Hersch 's accounts of the bin Laden death appeared to be based on different sources which The Intercept concluded might corroborate the claims if their identities were known . After the Hersch story broke , NBC News also independently reported that a Pakistani intelligence officer was the source of the original bin Laden location report , and not the courier .
= = = Conspiracy theories = = =
The reports of bin Laden 's death on May 2 , 2011 , are not universally accepted despite unreleased DNA testing confirming his identity , bin Laden 's twelve @-@ year @-@ old daughter witnessing his death , and a May 6 , 2011 , al @-@ Qaeda statement confirming his death . The swift burial of bin Laden 's body at sea , the speed of the DNA results , and the decision not to release pictures of the dead body have led to the rise of conspiracy theories that bin Laden had not died in the raid . Some Internet blogs suggested that the U.S. government feigned the raid , and some Internet forums hosted debates over the alleged hoax .
= = Role of Pakistan = =
Pakistan came under intense international scrutiny after the raid . The Pakistani government denied that it had sheltered bin Laden , and said it had shared information with the CIA and other intelligence agencies about the compound since 2009 . The United States had direct evidence that the ISI chief , Lt. Gen. Ahmed Shuja Pasha , knew of bin Laden ’ s presence in Abbottabad , Pakistan . After the raid , there was an unconfirmed report that Pakistan allowed Chinese military officials to examine the wreckage of the crashed helicopter .
= = = Connections with Abbottabad = = =
Abbottabad attracted refugees from fighting in the tribal areas and Swat Valley , as well as Afghanistan . " People don 't really care now to ask who 's there " , said Gohar Ayub Khan , a former foreign minister and resident of the city . " That 's one of the reasons why , possibly , he came in there . "
The city was home to at least one al @-@ Qaeda leader before bin Laden . Operational chief Abu Faraj al @-@ Libi reportedly moved his family to Abbottabad in mid @-@ 2003 . Pakistan Inter @-@ Services Intelligence ( ISI ) raided the house in December 2003 but did not find him . However , this account was exposed as an outright lie by American officials who said that satellite photos show that in 2004 the site was an empty field . A courier told interrogators that al @-@ Libi used three houses in Abbottabad . Pakistani officials say they informed their American counterparts at the time that the city could be a hiding place for al @-@ Qaeda leaders . In 2009 officials began providing the U.S. with intelligence about bin Laden 's compound without knowing who lived there .
On January 25 , 2011 , ISI arrested Umar Patek , an Indonesian wanted in connection with the 2002 Bali nightclub bombings , while he was staying with a family in Abbottabad . Tahir Shehzad , a clerk at the post office , was arrested on suspicion of facilitating travel for al @-@ Qaeda militants .
= = = Allegations against Pakistan = = =
Numerous allegations were made that the government of Pakistan had shielded bin Laden . Critics cited the proximity of bin Laden 's heavily fortified compound to the Pakistan Military Academy , that the U.S. chose to not notify Pakistani authorities before the operation , and the double standards of Pakistan regarding the perpetrators of the 2008 Mumbai attacks . U.S. government files , leaked by Wikileaks , disclosed that American diplomats had been told that Pakistani security services were tipping off bin Laden every time U.S. forces approached . Pakistan 's Inter @-@ Services Intelligence ( ISI ) , also helped smuggle al @-@ Qaeda militants into Afghanistan to fight NATO troops . According to the leaked files , in December 2009 , the government of Tajikistan had also told U.S. officials that many in Pakistan were aware of bin Laden 's whereabouts .
CIA chief Leon Panetta said the CIA had ruled out involving Pakistan in the operation , because it feared that " any effort to work with the Pakistanis could jeopardize the mission . They might alert the targets . " Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton stated that " cooperation with Pakistan helped lead us to bin Laden and the compound in which he was hiding " . Obama echoed her sentiments . John O. Brennan , Obama 's chief counterterrorism advisor , said that it was inconceivable that bin Laden did not have support from within Pakistan . He said : " People have been referring to this as hiding in plain sight . We are looking at how he was able to hide out there for so long . "
The Indian Minister for Home Affairs , P. Chidambaram , said that bin Laden hiding " deep inside " Pakistan was a matter of grave concern for India , and showed that " many of the perpetrators of the Mumbai terror attacks , including the controllers and the handlers of the terrorists who actually carried out the attack , continue to be sheltered in Pakistan " . He called on Pakistan to arrest them .
Pakistani @-@ born British MP Khalid Mahmood stated that he was " flabbergasted and shocked " after he learned that bin Laden was living in a city with thousands of Pakistani troops , reviving questions about alleged links between al @-@ Qaeda and elements in Pakistan 's security forces .
On August 7 , 2011 , Raelynn Hillhouse , an American spy novelist and security analyst , posted " The Spy Who Billed Me " on her national security blog , suggesting that Pakistan 's ISI had sheltered bin Laden in return for a $ 25 million bounty ; however , ISI and government officials have denied her allegations .
Former Pakistani Army Chief , General Ziauddin Butt has said that , according to his knowledge , Osama bin Laden was kept in an Intelligence Bureau safe house in Abbottabad by the then Director @-@ General of the Intelligence Bureau of Pakistan ( 2004 – 2008 ) , Brigadier Ijaz Shah . This had occurred with the " full knowledge " of former army chief General Pervez Musharraf and possibly that of current Chief of Army Staff ( COAS ) General Ashfaq Parvez Kayani . Emails from the private American security firm , Stratfor , published by WikiLeaks on February 27 , 2012 , indicate that up to 12 officials in Pakistan 's ISI knew of Osama bin Laden 's Abbottabad safe house . Stratfor had been given access to the papers collected by American forces from bin Laden 's Abbottabad house . The emails reveal that these Pakistani officers included " Mid to senior level ISI and Pak Mil with one retired Pak Mil General " . In 2014 , British journalist Carlotta Gall revealed that she had been told by an undisclosed ISI source that the ISI " ran a special desk assigned to handle bin Laden " . The desk was " led by an officer who made his own decisions and did not report to a superior " , … " but the top military bosses knew about it , I was told " .
= = = Pakistani response = = =
According to a Pakistani intelligence official , raw phone @-@ tap data had been transferred to the U.S. without being analyzed by Pakistan . While the U.S. " was concentrating on this " information since September 2010 , information regarding bin Laden and the compound 's inhabitants had " slipped from " Pakistan 's " radar " over the months . Bin Laden left " an invisible footprint " and he had not been contacting other militant networks . It was noted that much focus had been placed on a courier entering and leaving the compound . The transfer of intelligence to the U.S. was a regular occurrence according to the official , who also stated regarding the raid that " I think they came in undetected and went out the same day " , and Pakistan did not believe that U.S. personnel were present in the area before the special operation occurred .
According to the Pakistani high commissioner to the United Kingdom , Wajid Shamsul Hasan , Pakistan had prior knowledge that an operation would happen . Pakistan was " in the know of certain things " and " what happened , happened with our consent . Americans got to know him — where he was first — and that 's why they struck it and struck it precisely . " Husain Haqqani , Pakistani ambassador to the U.S. , had said that Pakistan would have pursued bin Laden had the intelligence of his location existed with them and Pakistan was " very glad that our American partners did . They had superior intelligence , superior technology , and we are grateful to them . "
Another Pakistani official stated that Pakistan " assisted only in terms of authorization of the helicopter flights in our airspace " and the operation was conducted by the United States . He also said that " in any event , we did not want anything to do with such an operation in case something went wrong . "
In June the ISI arrested the owner of a safe house rented to the CIA to observe Osama bin Laden 's compound and five CIA informants .
= = Code name = =
Several officials who were present in the Situation Room , including the president , told reporters that the code name for bin Laden was " Geronimo " . They had watched Leon Panetta , speaking from CIA headquarters , while he narrated the action in Abbottabad . Panetta said , " We have a visual on Geronimo " , and later , " Geronimo EKIA " — enemy killed in action . The words of the commander on the ground were , " For God and country , Geronimo , Geronimo , Geronimo . " Officials subsequently explained that each step of the mission was labelled alphabetically in an " Execution Checklist " , which is used to ensure all participants in a large operation are kept synchronized with a minimum of radio traffic . " Geronimo " indicated the raiders had reached step " G " , the capture or killing of bin Laden . Osama bin Laden was identified as " Jackpot " , the general code name for the target of an operation . ABC News reported that otherwise his regular code name was " Cakebread " . The New Yorker reported that bin Laden 's codename was " Crankshaft " .
Many Native Americans were offended that Geronimo , the renowned 19th @-@ century Apache leader , was irrevocably linked with bin Laden . The chairman of the Fort Sill Apache Tribe , the successor to Geronimo 's tribe , wrote a letter to Obama asking him to " right this wrong . " The president of the Navajo Nation requested that the U.S. government change the code name retroactively . Officials from the National Congress of American Indians said the focus should be on honoring the disproportionately high number of Native Americans who serve in the military , and they had been assured that " Geronimo " was not a code name for bin Laden . The U.S. Senate Committee on Indian Affairs heard testimony on the issue from tribal leaders , while the Defense Department had no comment except to say that no disrespect was intended .
= = Derivation of intelligence = =
After the death of bin Laden , some officials from the Bush administration , such as former Bush Office of Legal Counsel attorney John Yoo and former attorney general Michael Mukasey , wrote op @-@ eds stating that the enhanced interrogation techniques they authorized ( since legally clarified as torture ) yielded the intelligence that later led to locating bin Laden 's hideout . Mukasey said that the waterboarding of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed caused him to reveal the nickname of bin Laden 's courier .
U.S. officials and legislators , including Republican John McCain and Democrat Dianne Feinstein , chairwoman of the U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence , countered that those statements were " false " . They noted that a report by CIA Director Leon Panetta stated that the first mention of the courier 's nickname did not come from Mohammed , but rather from another government 's interrogation of a suspect whom they said they " believe was not tortured . "
McCain called on Mukasey to retract his statements .
I have sought further information from the staff of the Senate Intelligence Committee , and they confirm for me that , in fact , the best intelligence gained from a CIA detainee — information describing Abu Ahmed al @-@ Kuwaiti 's real role in Al @-@ Qaeda and his true relationship to Osama bin Laden — was obtained through standard , non @-@ coercive means , not through any ' enhanced interrogation technique ' .
Panetta had written a letter to McCain on the issue , saying : " Some of the detainees who provided useful information about the facilitator / courier 's role had been subjected to enhanced interrogation techniques . Whether those techniques were the ' only timely and effective way ' to obtain such information is a matter of debate and cannot be established definitively . " Although some information may have been obtained from detainees who were subjected to torture , Panetta wrote to McCain that :
We first learned about the facilitator / courier 's nom de guerre from a detainee not in CIA custody in 2002 . It is also important to note that some detainees who were subjected to enhanced interrogation techniques attempted to provide false or misleading information about the facilitator / courier . These attempts to falsify the facilitator / courier 's role were alerting . In the end , no detainee in CIA custody revealed the facilitator / courier 's full true name or specific whereabouts . This information was discovered through other intelligence means .
In addition , other U.S. officials state that shortly after the September 11 , 2001 , terrorist attacks , detainees in CIA secret prisons told interrogators about the courier 's pseudonym " al @-@ Kuwaiti " and that when Khalid Sheikh Mohammed was later captured , he only " confirmed " the courier 's pseudonym . After Abu Faraj al @-@ Libbi was captured , he provided false or misleading information : he denied that he knew al @-@ Kuwaiti and he made up another name instead . Also , a group of interrogators asserted that the courier 's nickname was not divulged " during torture , but rather several months later , when [ detainees ] were questioned by interrogators who did not use abusive techniques . "
= = Intelligence post mortem = =
Evidence seized from the compound is said to include ten cell phones , five to ten computers , twelve hard drives , at least 100 computer disks ( including thumb drives and DVDs ) , handwritten notes , documents , weapons and " an assortment of personal items " . It was described by a senior Pentagon intelligence official as " the single largest collection of senior terrorist materials ever . " Very few of these have been made public .
Intelligence analysts also studied call detail records from two phone numbers that were found to be sewn into bin Laden 's clothing . They helped over the course of several months to apprehend several al @-@ Qaeda members in several countries and to kill several of bin Laden 's closest associates by CIA drone attacks in Pakistan .
The material gathered at the compound is being stored at the FBI Laboratory in Quantico , Virginia , where forensic experts will analyze fingerprints , DNA and other trace evidence left on the material . Copies of the material are being provided to other agencies ; officials want to preserve a chain of custody in case any of the information is needed as evidence in a future trial .
A special CIA team has been given the responsibility of combing through the digital material and documents removed from the bin Laden compound . The CIA team is working in collaboration with other U.S. government agencies " to triage , catalog and analyze this intelligence . "
Bin Laden 's youngest wife told Pakistani investigators that the family lived in the feudal village of Chak Shah Muhammad , in the nearby district of Haripur , for two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years prior to moving to Abbottabad in late 2005 .
The material seized from the compound contained al @-@ Qaeda 's strategy for Afghanistan after America 's withdrawal from the country in 2014 as well as thousands of electronic memos and missives that captured conversations between bin Laden and his deputies around the world . It showed that bin Laden stayed in touch with al @-@ Qaeda 's established affiliates and sought new alliances with groups such as Boko Haram from Nigeria . According to the material , he sought to reassert control over factions of loosely affiliated jihadists from Yemen to Somalia , as well as independent actors whom he believed had sullied al @-@ Qaeda 's reputation and muddied its central message . Bin Laden was worried at times about his personal security and was annoyed that his organization had not utilized the Arab Spring to improve its image . He acted , according to the Washington Post , on the one hand as " chief executive fully engaged in the group 's myriad crises , grappling with financial problems , recruitment , rebellious field managers and sudden staff vacancies resulting from the unrelenting U.S. drone campaign " , and on the other hand as " a hands @-@ on manager who participated in the terrorist group 's operational planning and strategic thinking while also giving orders and advice to field operatives scattered worldwide . " The material also described Osama bin Laden 's relation with Ayman al @-@ Zawahiri and Atiyah Abd al @-@ Rahman .
Seventeen documents seized during the Abbottabad raid , consisting of electronic letters or draft letters dating from September 2006 to April 2011 , were released by the Combating Terrorism Center at West Point one year and one day after bin Laden 's death. and made available at the Washington Post homepage . The documents covered subjects such as the news media in America , affiliate organization , targets , America , security , and the Arab Spring . In the documents , bin Laden stated that al @-@ Qaeda 's strength was limited and therefore suggested that the best way to attack the U.S. , which he compared to a tree , " is to concentrate on sawing the trunk " . He refused the promotion of Anwar al @-@ Awlaki when this was requested by Nasir al @-@ Wuhayshi , leader of al @-@ Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula . " We here become reassured of the people when they go to the line and get examined there " , bin Laden said . He told al @-@ Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula to expand operations in the U.S. in the wake of the 2009 Christmas Day bomb plot by writing " We need to extend and develop our operations in America and not keep it limited to blowing up airplanes . "
The seized material shed light on al @-@ Qaeda 's relationship with Iran , which detained jihadis and their relatives in the wake of the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan , including members of bin Laden 's family . Al @-@ Qaeda 's relationship with Iran was , according to the Combating Terrorism Center , an " unpleasant byproduct of necessity , fueled by mutual distrust and antagonism . " An explicit reference to any institutional support from Pakistan for al @-@ Qaeda wasn 't mentioned in the documents ; instead , bin Laden instructed his family members how to avoid detection so that members of Pakistani intelligence couldn 't track them to find him . According to the seized material , former commander of the international forces in Afghanistan David Petraeus and US President Barack Obama should be assassinated during any of their visits to Pakistan and Afghanistan , if there was an opportunity to do so . Bin Laden opined that U.S. Vice President Joe Biden should not be a target because " Biden is totally unprepared for that post [ of president ] , which will lead the US into a crisis . " Bin Laden was also against one @-@ person suicide attacks and was of the opinion that at least two persons should undertake these attacks instead . He planned to reform in a way so that al @-@ Qaeda 's central leadership would have a greater say in the naming of the al @-@ Qaeda branch leaders and their deputies . He expressed his opinion that killing Muslims has weakened his organization and not helped al @-@ Qaeda , writing that it " cost the mujahedeen no small amount of sympathy among Muslims . The enemy has exploited the mistakes of the mujahedeen to mar their image among the masses . "
The United States Department of Justice released a further eleven documents in March , 2015 . The documents were part of the trial against Abid Naseer , who was convicted of plotting to bomb a Manchester shopping mall in 2009 . They included letters to and from Osama bin Laden in the year before his death , and showed the extent of the damage the CIA drone program had done to Al @-@ Qaeda .
In addition to information and data recovered of intelligence value , the documents and computer items also contained personal files , including family correspondence and a large stash of pornography . US officials have refused to characterize the type of pornography found other than to say that it was " modern " in nature .
= = Helicopter stealth technology revelations = =
The tail section of the secret helicopter survived demolition and lay just outside the compound wall . Pakistani security forces put up a cloth barrier at first light to hide the wreckage . Later , a tractor hauled it away hidden under a tarp . Journalists obtained photographs that revealed the previously undisclosed stealth technology . Aviation Week said the helicopter appeared to be a significantly modified MH @-@ 60 Black Hawk . Serial numbers found at the scene were consistent with an MH @-@ 60 built in 2009 . Its performance during the operation confirmed that a stealth helicopter could evade detection in a militarily sensitive , densely populated area . Photos showed that the Black Hawk 's tail had stealth @-@ configured shapes on the boom and the fairings , swept stabilizers and a " hubcap " over the noise @-@ reducing five- or six @-@ blade tail rotor . It appeared to have a silver @-@ loaded infrared suppression finish similar to some V @-@ 22 Ospreys .
The U.S. requested return of the wreckage and the Chinese government also expressed interest , according to Pakistani officials . Pakistan had custody of the wreckage for over two weeks before its return was secured by U.S. Senator John Kerry . Experts disagreed as to how much information could have been gleaned from the tail fragment . Stealth technology was already operational on several fixed @-@ wing aircraft and the cancelled RAH @-@ 66 Comanche helicopter ; however , the modified Black Hawk was the first confirmed operational " stealth helicopter " . Likely , the most valuable information could come from radar @-@ absorbing paint used on the tail section . Local children were seen picking up pieces of the wreckage and selling them as souvenirs . In August 2011 , Fox News reported that Pakistan had allowed People 's Republic of China scientists to examine the helicopter 's tail section and were especially interested in its radar @-@ absorbing paint . Pakistan and the PRC denied these claims .
= = Previous attempts to capture or kill bin Laden = =
February 1994 : A team of Libyans attacked bin Laden 's home in Sudan . The CIA investigated and reported that they had been hired by Saudi Arabia , but Saudi Arabia accused them of lying to make bin Laden more amenable to Sudanese interests .
August 20 , 1998 : In Operation Infinite Reach , the U.S. Navy launched 66 cruise missiles at a suspected al @-@ Qaeda training camp outside Khost , Afghanistan , where bin Laden was expected to be . Reports said that 30 people may have been killed .
2000 : Foreign operatives working on behalf of the CIA fired a rocket @-@ propelled grenade at a convoy of vehicles in which bin Laden was traveling through the mountains of Afghanistan , hitting one of the vehicles but not the one in which bin Laden was riding .
December 2001 : During the opening stages of the war in Afghanistan launched following the September 11 attacks , the U.S. and its allies believed that bin Laden was hiding in the rugged mountains at Tora Bora . Despite overrunning the Taliban and al @-@ Qaeda positions , they failed to capture or kill him .
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= Society Hill ( Body of Proof ) =
" Society Hill " is the sixth episode of the first season of the American medical drama Body of Proof . It was originally broadcast in the United States on ABC on April 26 , 2011 . The episode was directed by Kate Woods and written by Matthew V. Lewis .
In the episode , Megan ( Dana Delany ) investigates the murder of Daphne Zimmer ( Mam Smith ) , who is found dead in her swimming pool , which leads her to a society party after an invite from her mother Joan Hunt ( Joanna Cassidy ) ; and Detective Bud Morris ( John Carroll Lynch ) returns , interrogating Daphne 's employees , all who had several reasons to kill her .
The episode received mixed to positive reviews , and was watched by 11 @.@ 80 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings , on the Tuesday night it aired in the United States . Christine Orlando from TV Fanatic praised guest star Neal Bledsoe and regular cast member Windell Middlebrooks , who plays Curtis Brumfield . Orlando also praised the storyline , adding that it was an " interesting twist " , one which she " didn 't see coming " .
= = Plot = =
Magazine editor Daphne Zimmer ( Mam Smith ) , who edits for the Society Fair magazine , is found dead in her swimming pool . Daphne is a friend of Megan 's ( Dana Delany ) mother , Joan Hunt ( Joanna Cassidy ) . At the crime scene , Megan finds evidence to suggest that there was a struggle near the pool , as well as bruising on the Daphne 's stomach , which indicates that she died several days ago instead of that morning as was originally believed . At Daphne 's workplace , Megan , Detective Bud Morris ( John Carroll Lynch ) , and Peter Dunlop ( Nicholas Bishop ) tell the employees of Daphne 's death . Bud questions Daphne ’ s employees , Stephen Burnett ( Neal Bledsoe ) and Lauren Matthews ( Nadia Dajani ) , finding out that one of Daphne 's enemies is Colin Lloyd ( Robert Walsh ) , a wealthy man whose career Daphne ruined . Megan examines Daphne ’ s body , noticing that Daphne has kidney damage . Whilst Dr. Curtis Brumfield ( Windell Middlebrooks ) is working on maggots found on Daphne ’ s body , Dr. Ethan Gross ( Geoffrey Arend ) determines that hair , which was found at the crime scene , is human , and there are traces of arsenic and lead .
Megan decides that the only way to confront Colin is to accept her mother 's invitation , which she had previously declined , as Colin is attending and after questioning him , she rules him out as a suspect . Curtis confirms that the maggots that he was testing take around two days to mature , so Curtis confirms that Daphne was dead for two days before the body was found . There are also traces of aspirin in them , so either Daphne was taking aspirin or it was being given to her without her knowledge . With the assistance of Dr. Kate Murphy ( Jeri Ryan ) , Ethan determines that the hair is Victorian . Stephen admits to giving her aspirin , though did not realize she was getting sicker because of it , whilst Megan figures out that Daphne was electrocuted . After investigating , the police find out it was Lauren who killed Daphne , killing her after feeling angry about having to compete with interns for a journalism award . She threw Daphne in the pool in a rage when she confronted her , then throwing a space heater in the pool which electrocuted Daphne and killed her , not realizing she had dropped some of her ancestor 's hair in the pool , which she kept in a locket . Stephen is released from holding after Lauren is arrested .
= = Production = =
" Society Hill " was written by Matthew V. Lewis and directed by Kate Woods , most known for directing Looking for Alibrandi and television series such as Phoenix and its spinoff Janus . Daniel Licht who has worked on the series since its inception , returned to compose the music for the episode . Actress Nadia Dajani ( best known for her role in Ned & Stacey ) guest starred in the episode as Lauren Matthews . Joanna Cassidy ( best known for her role in Six Feet Under ) made her first appearance as Joan Hunt , Megan 's mother . Cassidy was reportedly originally meant to first appear in the third episode of the first season , " Helping Hand " . Series creator Christopher Murphey said of Cassidy 's role as Joan , " I get this weird chill when I write scenes for the two of them , it 's a wonderful dynamic , I think Megan and her mother have a wonderful back story that we will be basically mining over the first few episode 's . You 're going to be finding out a lot about Megan " . However , even though Cassidy is a recurring cast member , she is credited as being a guest star . Regular cast member Sonja Sohn who plays Detective Samantha Baker , did not appear in this episode and recurring cast members Jeffrey Nordling and Mary Mouser were credited but also did not appear . Some scenes were set in Chestnut Hill , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , such as the murder .
" Society Hill " , along with the eight episode 's from Body of Proof 's first season , were released on a two @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on September 20 , 2011 . The sets included brief audio commentaries from various crew and cast members for several episode 's , a preview of season 2 and a 10 @-@ minute " featurette " on the making of the show , with commentaries from the medical consultants who helped with the script , as well as a " Contaminated Evidence " blooper reel .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast on April 26 , 2011 , " Society Hill " was seen by 11 @.@ 8 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings . Among viewers between ages 18 and 49 , it received a 2 @.@ 2 rating / 9 share ; a share represents the percentage of households using a television at the time the program is airing . This episode achieved higher viewers than the previous episode , " Dead Man Walking " , as well as a significant amount more than the subsequent episode " All in the Family " . Body of Proof came seventh in the ratings on Tuesday night , it was outperformed by the ABC 's Dancing with the Stars . " Society Hill " was watched by 1 @.@ 69 million viewers upon its airing on Channel 5 in the United Kingdom .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Society Hill " received mixed reviews . Christine Orlando from TV Fanatic questioned whether in real life , medical examiners " do this much investigation on case " , but then further saying , " I always assumed that detectives did the field work but if that were the case on Body of Proof then I suppose we wouldn 't have much of a show " . She praised Neal Bledsoe 's portrayal of Stephen Burkett , saying that he did a " wonderful job of playing a chronic hair puller " . She also praised the character of Curtis , stating that he was " adorable " . Of the storyline she said , " The actual murder by electrocution was an interesting twist and one I didn 't see coming . I was happy to see Bud jump in and read the murderer her rights before she said anything further . That certainly seemed like something a detective should do " . She finished in saying that she " enjoyed " the song played at the end of the episode , ' Maybe ' by Ingrid Michaelson " was both cheery and melancholy enough to fit the moment " . Michelle Carlbert from TV Equals praised the scene in which Megan pulls Colin 's hair , calling it one of her " favourite bits " , another being when it showed Ethan , Peter , Curtis and Bud going out on a " Boy ’ s Night " stating it was " awesome " and that she " love ( s ) it when they show the team bonding like that " . She also commented on Megan and Peter 's clothes , stating that " Megan looked great in her dress " and Peter in a tux was " whoa " .
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= Mauritius blue pigeon =
The Mauritius blue pigeon ( Alectroenas nitidissima ) is an extinct species of blue pigeon formerly endemic to the Mascarene island of Mauritius in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar . It has two extinct relatives from the Mascarenes and three extant ones from other islands . It is the type species of the genus of blue pigeons , Alectroenas .
It had white hackles around the head , neck and breast and blue plumage on the body , and it was red on the tail and the bare parts of the head . These colours were thought similar to those of the Dutch flag , a resemblance reflected in some of the bird 's names . The males had red foreheads , and the juveniles may have been partially green . It was 30 cm ( 12 in ) long and larger and more robust than any other blue pigeon species . It could raise its hackles into a ruff , which it used for display . Its call sounded like " barf barf " and it also made a cooing noise . It fed on fruits , nuts , and molluscs , and was once widespread in the forests of Mauritius .
The bird was first mentioned in the 17th century and was described several times thereafter , but very few accounts describe the behaviour of living specimens . Several stuffed and at least one live specimen reached Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries . Only three stuffed specimens exist today , and only one bird was ever depicted when alive . The species is thought to have become extinct in the 1830s due to deforestation and predation .
= = Taxonomy = =
The first record of the Mauritius blue pigeon is two sketches in the 1601 – 1603 journal of the Dutch ship Gelderland . The birds appear to have been freshly killed or stunned . The drawings were made by the Dutch artist Joris Joostensz Laerle on Mauritius , but were not published until 1969 . François Cauche in 1651 briefly mentions " white , black and red turtle doves " , encountered in 1638 , which is thought to be the first unequivocal mention of the bird . The next account is that of Jean @-@ François Charpentier de Cossigny in the mid @-@ 18th century .
The French naturalist Pierre Sonnerat brought the bird to the attention of ornithologists in 1782 , calling it Pigeon Hollandais ( Dutch pigeon ) , a French vernacular name that derives from its white , dark blue and red colouration , which reminded Sonnerat of the Dutch flag . He had collected two specimens during a voyage in 1774 . These syntype specimens were deposited in the Muséum national d 'Histoire naturelle in Paris . By 1893 , only one of them , specimen MNHN n ° C.G. 2000 @-@ 727 , still existed , and had been damaged by sulphuric acid in an attempt at fumigation . Since Sonnerat named and described them in French , the scientific naming of the bird was left to the Tyrolean naturalist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli , who did not observe a specimen himself , but latinised Sonnerat 's description in 1786 . He named the bird Columba nitidissima , which means " most brilliant pigeon " . When German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin redescribed the bird with the species name franciae ( " of France " ) in 1789 , he referred to the now @-@ familiar tricolour which had just been flown for the first time . Pierre Joseph Bonnaterre used the name batavica ( " the Dutch one " ) in his description in 1790 .
Another skin arrived at the Paris museum in 1800 , collected by Colonel M. Mathieu for Louis Dufresne . It was sold in 1819 among other items , was sent to Edinburgh , and is now in the National Museum of Scotland as specimen MU No. 624 . It was not identified as a Mauritius blue pigeon until Alfred Newton saw it in 1879 . The last specimen recorded was shot in Savanne in 1826 and given to Julien Desjardins , founder of the Mauritius Natural History Museum in Port Louis , where it is still located , though in poor condition . Only these three taxidermic specimens still exist . In 1840 George Robert Gray named a new genus , Alectroenas , for the Mauritius blue pigeon ; alektruon in Greek means domestic cock , and oinas means dove . Alectroenas nitidissima is the type species of the genus , which includes all blue pigeons . The binomial name was emended from A. nitidissimus to A. nitidissima in 2014 .
Subfossil remains of the Mauritius blue pigeon were collected in the Mare aux Songes swamp by Théodore Sauzier in 1889 . More were collected by Etienne Thirioux around 1900 . They are thought to have been found near Le Pouce mountain and Plaine des Roches .
= = = Evolution = = =
Alectroenas blue pigeons are closely interrelated and occur widely throughout islands in the western Indian Ocean . They are allopatric and can therefore be regarded as a superspecies . There are three extant species : the Madagascar blue pigeon ( A. madagascariensis ) , the Comoro blue pigeon ( A. sganzini ) , and the Seychelles blue pigeon ( A. pulcherrima ) . The three Mascarene islands were each home to a species , all of which are extinct : the Mauritius blue pigeon , the Rodrigues blue pigeon ( A. payandeei ) , and the Réunion blue pigeon ( A. sp . ) . Compared with other pigeons , the blue pigeons are medium to large , stocky , and have longer wings and tails . All the species have distinct mobile hackles on the head and neck . The tibiotarsus is comparatively long and the tarsometatarsus short . The blue pigeons may have colonised the Mascarenes , the Seychelles or a now submerged hotspot island by " island hopping " . They may have evolved into a distinct genus there before reaching Madagascar . Their closest genetic relative is the cloven @-@ feathered dove of New Caledonia ( Drepanoptila holosericea ) , from which they separated 8 – 9 million years ago . Their ancestral group appears to be the fruit doves ( Ptilinopus ) of Southeast Asia and Oceania .
= = Description = =
The feathers on the head , neck and breast of the Mauritius blue pigeon were silvery white , long , stiffened and pointed , especially around the neck . A patch of bright red , naked skin surrounded the eyes , and extended across the cheeks to the beak , which was greenish with a dark tip . The plumage of the body was indigo , and the back , scapular feathers and wings were metallic blue . The base of the outer rectrices was partially blackish blue . The tail feathers and tail coverts were maroon . The legs were dark slate @-@ grey . The iris was reddish orange and had an inner yellow ring . The bird was 30 cm ( 12 in ) in length , the wings were 208 mm ( 8 @.@ 2 in ) , the tail was 132 mm ( 5 @.@ 2 in ) , the culmen was 25 mm ( 1 in ) , and the tarsals were 28 mm ( 1 @.@ 10 in ) . It was the largest and most robust member of its genus , and the hackles were longer and covered a larger area than in other blue pigeons .
Unlike the three surviving skins of Mauritius blue pigeons , one of two illustrations ( the other is in black @-@ and @-@ white ) of a live individual kept in the Netherlands around 1790 shows a red forehead . Both sexes of the Seychelles blue pigeon also have red foreheads , and Julian Hume has suggested that the image depicts a male , which was described as " infinitely more handsome " than the female by Cossigny in the mid @-@ 18th century . Hume therefore interprets the three surviving skins as belonging to female specimens . A Mauritian woman recalling observations of Mauritius blue pigeons around 1815 mentioned green as one of its colours . Juvenile Seychelles and Comoro blue pigeons have green feathers , so this may also have been the case for juvenile Mauritian pigeons .
Some depictions and descriptions have shown the legs of Mauritius blue pigeons as red , like those of the Madagascar blue pigeon . The legs of the Paris specimen were painted red when the original colour faded , presumably on the basis of such accounts . The legs of the two other surviving specimens have not been painted and have faded to a yellowish brown . This feature is not mentioned in contemporary accounts , and such depictions are thought to be erroneous . Some modern restorations of the bird have also depicted it with facial crenulations , like those of the Seychelles blue pigeon . This feature was unknown from contemporary accounts , until the 1660s report of Johannes Pretorius about his stay on Mauritius was published in 2015 , where he mentioned the bird 's " warty face " .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
Few descriptions of the behaviour of Mauritius blue pigeons are known ; unpublished notes by Desjardins are now lost . An individual was brought to the Netherlands around 1790 , where it survived in the menagerie of William V , Prince of Orange for three months before dying of oedema . The only two known life drawings of the species ( by G. Haasbroek ) depict this individual . The illustrations show a displaying male raising its hackles into a ruff . This is a characteristic behaviour of other blue pigeons , too , and they can also vibrate their hackles . The following description of the display behaviour and calls of this individual was written on the back on the coloured drawing by Arnout Vosmaer , director of the menagerie :
These [ pigeons are ] dark @-@ blue with lead coloured head @-@ feathers , which they can turn upwards just as a collar , were sent to me from the Cape , but originated from an Isle Mauritius . Presented to the court by the Baron I. N. E. van Lynden 1790 , and were called Pavillons Hollandais . One only I have received alive but died later after a few months from dropsy . In the evening 11 till 12 o 'clock and many times during the night it made nice sounds 10 to 12 times quickly after another like Baf Baf [ pronounced Barf Barf ] , and during the day a kind of cooing sound .
The Mauritius blue pigeon probably lived in pairs or small groups in humid , mountainous evergreen forests , like their extant relatives . Subfossil remains have been found in mid @-@ west , mid @-@ east and south @-@ east Mauritius , indicating that the bird was once widespread . By 1812 , Jacques Gérard Milbert stated that solitary individuals were found in river valleys . They probably became rarer during French rule in Mauritius ( 1715 – 1810 ) , as lowland areas of the island were almost completely deforested during this time .
Many other endemic species of Mauritius became extinct after the arrival of man , so the ecosystem of the island is severely damaged and hard to reconstruct . Before humans arrived , forests covered Mauritius entirely , but very little remains today because of deforestation . The surviving endemic fauna is still seriously threatened . The Mauritius blue pigeon lived alongside other recently extinct Mauritian birds such as the dodo , the red rail , the Mascarene grey parakeet , the broad @-@ billed parrot , the Mauritius owl , the Mascarene coot , the Mauritian shelduck , the Mauritian duck and the Mauritius night heron . Extinct Mauritian reptiles include the saddle @-@ backed Mauritius giant tortoise , the domed Mauritius giant tortoise , the Mauritian giant skink and the Round Island burrowing boa . The small Mauritian flying fox and the snail Tropidophora carinata lived on Mauritius and Réunion but became extinct in both islands . Some plants , such as Casearia tinifolia and the palm orchid , have also become extinct .
= = = Diet = = =
Fruits and nuts were probably the mainstay of the Mauritius blue pigeon 's diet , and like other blue pigeons , it may have occupied the upper canopy , and migrated seasonally to where food was available . Cossigny dissected a specimen in the mid @-@ 18th century and later sent it and its stomach contents to René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur with a letter describing his findings . The gizzard and crop contained four " nuts " , which Cossigny was told were the seeds of either Calophyllum tacamahaca or Labourdonnaisia calophylloides . The Comoro and Seychelles blue pigeons also feed on C. tacamahaca , and the strong gizzard of the former helps in the digestion of the seeds . In 1812 Jacques Gérard Milbert provided the only description of the behaviour of the bird in the wild :
The second is the pigeon with a mane ; the inhabitants of the Ile de France [ Mauritius ] call it pigeon hollandais ; the head , neck and chest are adorned with long pointed white feathers which it can raise at will ; the rest of the body , and the wings , are a fine deep violet ; the end of the tail is a purplish red . It is one of the finest species of its kind ... The second of these birds lives solitary in river valleys , where I have often seen it without being able to secure one . It eats fruit and fresh water molluscs .
The claim that the bird fed on river molluscs was criticised by Alphonse Milne @-@ Edwards and Emile Oustalet in 1893 , with the later agreement of James Greenway in 1967 , as blue pigeons are principally arboreal . It has since been pointed out that other mainly frugivorous pigeons , such as species of Ptilinopus and Gallicolumba , do occasionally eat molluscs and other invertebrates . The two species of Nesoenas have also been reported as eating freshwater snails , and one was seen hunting tadpoles . Milbert may in any case have been referring to arboreal snails , as extant blue pigeons rarely land on the ground . A diet of snails would have provided the birds with calcium for egg production . Pretorius attempted to keep juvenile and adult Mauritius blue pigeons in captivity , but all his specimens died . This is probably because the species was almost exclusively frugivorous , like extant blue pigeons .
= = Extinction = =
The Mauritius blue pigeon coexisted with humans for 200 years . Its decline can be correlated with deforestation , which is also the main threat to extant blue pigeons . Little lowland forest was left on the island by 1859 . Frugivorous birds often need a large area for foraging and move between forest types to feed on different types of food , which grow irregularly . Other blue pigeons perch on bare branches , making them vulnerable to hunters .
Cossigny noted that the bird had become rare by 1755 , but were common 23 years before , and attributed the decline to deforestation and hunting by escaped slaves . On the other hand , Pierre Joseph Bonnaterre stated they were still common in 1790 . The Mauritius blue pigeon was not seasonally poisonous like the pink pigeon , which still survives on Mauritius today , but it was reputed to be . In spite of this , it was hunted for food , and some early accounts praised the flavour the bird . Extant blue pigeons are also considered good food , and are heavily hunted as a result , and it appears another population of them was hunted to extinction from the Farquhar and Providence islands . The Mauritius blue pigeon was easy to catch due to island tameness .
The last confirmed specimen was shot in the Savanne district in 1826 , but the 1832 report by Desjardins suggests that some could still be found in remote forests in the centre of the island . Edward Newton ( convinced that the pigeon still survived ) interviewed two inhabitants of Mauritius about the Mauritius blue pigeon in 1863 , and these accounts suggest that the bird survived until at least 1837 . The first interviewee claimed he had killed two specimens when Colonel James Simpson stayed on the island , which was 1826 – 37 . The second was a woman who had last seen a bird around this time , and recalled hunts of it in approximately 1815 , in a swampy area near Black River Gorges , south western Mauritius :
When she was a girl and used to go into the forest with her father de Chazal , she has seen quantities of Pigeon Hollandais and Merles [ Hypsipetes olivaceus ] , both species were so tame they might be knocked down with sticks , & her father used to kill more that way than by shooting them , as she was a nervous child . Her father always warned her before he fired , but she would entreat him to knock the bird down with his stick & not to shoot it – she said the last Pigeon Hollandais she saw was about 27 years ago just after she married poor old Moon , it was brought out of the forest by a marron . She said it was larger than a tame pigeon & was all the colours of the rainbow , particularly about the head , red , green & blue .
It can be concluded that the Mauritius blue pigeon became extinct in the 1830s . Apart from habitat destruction and hunting , introduced predators , mainly crab @-@ eating macaques , were probably also responsible .
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= Women in Classical Athens =
The study of the lives of women in Classical Athens has been a significant part of classical scholarship since the 1970s . Our knowledge of Athenian women 's lives comes from a variety of ancient sources . Much of it is literary evidence from various genres , such as tragedy , comedy , and oratory . Other pieces of evidence are archaeological , for instance epigraphy and pottery . What links all of this evidence is that it was produced by , and largely for , men : there is therefore no direct ancient testimony by Classical Athenian women on their own lives .
Classical Athenian girls were not formally educated ; rather , their mothers would have taught them the skills they would need to run a household . They married young , often to much older men . When they married , Athenian women had two main roles : to bear children , and to run the household . In elite families , there was an ideology of seclusion , and wealthy women would not have been permitted to socialise with unrelated men . However , in most families this ideology would have been impractical : women were needed to carry out tasks such as going to the market and drawing water , which required taking time outside the house where interactions with men were possible .
Legally , women 's rights were limited . They were barred from political participation , and Athenian women were not permitted to represent themselves in law , though it seems that metic women ( a metic was a resident alien ; free , but without the rights and privileges of an Athenian citizen ) could . They were also forbidden from conducting any economic transactions worth more than a nominal amount . However , it seems that this restriction was not always obeyed . Especially in poorer families , women would have worked to earn money , and would also have been responsible for household tasks such as cooking and washing clothes . Athenian women had limited capacity to own property , though they could have significant dowries , and could inherit .
The area of civic life in which Athenian women were most free to participate was the religious and ritual sphere . Along with important festivals reserved solely for women , they participated in many mixed @-@ sex ritual activities . Of particular importance in Athens was the cult of Athena Polias , whose priestess held considerable influence . Women played an important role in the Panatheneia , the annual festival in honour of Athena . Along with the city @-@ level religious rituals , women also played an important role in domestic religious ritual .
= = Historiography = =
= = = Approaches = = =
Before the 20th century , and in some cases as late as the 1940s , historians largely took ancient literary sources at face value as evidence for the lives of women in the ancient world . In the middle of the 20th century this began to change . Early innovations in the study of women in ancient history began in France , as the Annales School began to take a greater interest in underrepresented groups . Robert Flacelière was an influential early author on women in Greece . Feminist philosophy also examined in women in the classical world : Simone de Beauvoir 's The Second Sex was an influential early work in this field .
Influenced by second @-@ wave feminism , the study of women in antiquity became widespread in the English @-@ speaking world in the 1970s . The amount of scholarship on women in the ancient world has increased dramatically since then . The first major publication in the field was a 1973 special issue of the journal Arethusa , which aimed to look at women in the ancient world from a feminist perspective . In 1975 , the first edition of Sarah Pomeroy 's Goddesses , Whores , Wives , and Slaves was published . This has been described as " the inauguration of women 's studies within classics " . Lin Foxhall called Pomeroy 's book " revolutionary " and " a major step forward " from previous English @-@ language scholarship on ancient women . According to Shelley Haley , Pomeroy 's work " legitimized the study of Greek and Roman women in ancient times " .
However , classics has been characterised as a " notoriously conservative " field , and initially women 's history was slow to be adopted : from 1970 to 1985 , only a few articles on ancient women were published in major journals . In 1976 , a single review covered " the entire field of recent scholarship on women in all of classical antiquity " . However , by 1980 , writing about women in classical Athens was called " positively trendy " , and in 1989 women 's studies was described as " one of the most exciting growth points " in classics .
Along with feminist theory , the work of Michel Foucault , influenced by structuralism and post @-@ structuralism , has had a significant impact on the study of gender in classical antiquity . Foucault has been praised for looking at gender through the lens of social systems . According to Lin Foxhall , his approach has " had more impact on the scholarship of gender than anything since second @-@ wave feminism " and is " virtually canonical in some quarters " . However , Foucault 's work has been criticised for its " shallow discussion of women as historical subjects " .
Scholarly interest in the lives of women in the ancient world has continued to increase . By 2000 , a review of books focused on women in ancient Greece published over a three @-@ year period could cover eighteen works without being exhaustive . The range of subjects covered by women 's historians also increased substantially ; in 1980 the question of women 's status was the most important topic to historians of Athenian women , but by 2000 scholars were also working on " gender , the body , sexuality , masculinity and other topics " .
Until the 1980s , scholars of women in classical Athens were primarily interested in the status of women and how they were viewed by men . Early feminist scholarship aimed to assert that women were significant in ancient history and to demonstrate how they had been oppressed . Early scholars held that Athenian women had an " ignoble " place , but in 1925 this position was challenged by Arnold Wycombe Gomme . According to Gomme , women had high social status despite their limited legal rights ; his view has reinforced that position ever since . Pomeroy attributes the variety of viewpoints to the types of evidence prioritised by scholars , with those arguing for the high status of Athenian women predominantly citing tragedy and those arguing against it emphasising oratory .
With increased interest in women 's history by classical scholars , a number of related disciplines have also become more significant . Classicists have become more interested in the family since the Second World War , with W. K. Lacey 's 1968 The Family in Classical Greece particularly influential . The history of childhood emerged as a sub @-@ discipline of history during the 1960s , and other disciplines such as the study of ancient medicine have been influenced by feminist approaches to the classics .
= = Childhood = =
Infant mortality was common in classical Athens , with perhaps 25 percent of children dying at or soon after birth . In addition to the natural risks of childbirth , the ancient Athenians practiced infanticide ; according to Sarah Pomeroy , girls were more likely to be killed than boys . Donald Engels has argued that a high rate of female infanticide was " demographically impossible " , although scholars have since largely dismissed this argument . Although scholars have tried to determine the rate of female infanticide , Cynthia Patterson rejects this approach as asking the wrong questions ; Patterson suggests that scholars should instead consider the social importance and impact of the practice .
Janet Burnett Grossman writes that girls appear to be commemorated about as frequently as boys on surviving Attic gravestones , although previous scholars suggested that boys were commemorated up to twice as often . If they survived , Athenian children were named in a ceremony ( the dekate ) ten days after birth . Other Athenian ceremonies celebrating childbirth ( at five , seven , and forty days after birth ) were also observed . Later rites of passage were apparently more common and elaborate for boys than for girls .
Classical Athenian girls probably reached menarche at about age fourteen , when they would have married . Girls who died before marriage were mourned for their failure to reach maturity . Memorial vases for dead girls in classical Athens often portrayed them dressed as brides , and were sometimes shaped like loutrophoroi ( vases which held water used to bathe before the wedding day ) .
Athenian girls were not formally educated ; instead , their mothers taught them the domestic skills necessary for running a household . Formal education for boys consisted of rhetoric , necessary for effective political participation , and physical education in preparation for military service . These skills were not considered necessary for women , who were barred from learning them . Classical art indicates that girls and boys played with toys such as spinning tops , hoops , and seesaws , and played games such as piggyback . The gravestone of Plangon , an Athenian girl aged about five which is in the Glyptothek museum in Munich , shows her holding a doll ; a set of knucklebones hangs on a wall in the background .
More is known about the role of Athenian children in religion than about any other aspect of their lives , and they seem to have played a prominent role in religious ceremonies . Girls made offerings to Artemis on the eve of their marriage , during pregnancy , and at childbirth . Although girls and boys appear on the wine jugs connected with the early @-@ spring festival of the Anthesteria , depictions of boys are far more common .
= = Family life = =
= = = Marriage = = =
The primary role of free women in classical Athens was to marry and bear children . The emphasis on marriage as a way to perpetuate the family through childbearing had changed from archaic Athens , when ( at least amongst the powerful ) marriages were as much about making beneficial connections as they were about perpetuating the family . Athenian women typically first married much older men around age fourteen . Before this they were looked after by their closest male relative , who was responsible for choosing their husband ; the bride had little say in the choice . Since a classical Athenian marriage was concerned with the production of children who could inherit their parents ' property , women often married relatives . This was especially the case of women with no brothers ( epikleroi ) , whose nearest male relative was given the first option of marrying her .
Athenian women married with a dowry , which was intended to provide their livelihood . Depending on the family , a dowry might have been as much as 25 percent of the family 's wealth . Daughters of even the poorest families apparently had dowries worth ten minae . Rich families could provide much larger dowries ; Demosthenes ' sister , for instance , had a dowry of two talents ( 120 minae ) . Dowries usually consisted of movable goods and cash , although land was occasionally included .
Only in exceptional circumstances would there have been no dowry , since the lack of one could have been interpreted as proof that no legitimate marriage occurred . A dowry may have been occasionally overlooked if a bride 's family connections were very favorable ; Callias reportedly married Elpinice , a daughter of the noble Philaidae , to join that family and was sufficiently wealthy that her lack of a dowry did not concern him .
Married women were responsible for the day @-@ to @-@ day running of the household . At marriage , they assumed responsibility for the prosperity of their husband 's household and the health of its members . Their primary responsibilities were bearing , raising and caring for children , weaving cloth and making clothes . They would also have been responsible for caring for ill household members , supervising slaves , and ensuring that the household had sufficient food .
In classical Athenian marriages , husband or wife could legally initiate a divorce . The woman 's closest male relative ( who would be her kyrios if she were not married ) could also do so , apparently even against the couple 's wishes . After divorce , the husband was required to return the dowry or pay 18 percent interest annually so the woman 's livelihood would continue and she could remarry . If there were children at the time of the divorce , they remained in their father 's house and he remained responsible for their upbringing . If a woman committed adultery , her husband was legally required to divorce her . A married epikleros would be divorced so she could marry her nearest relative .
= = = Seclusion = = =
In classical Athens , women ideally remained apart from men . This ideology of separation was so strong that a party to a lawsuit ( Lysias ' Against Simon ) could claim that his sister and nieces were ashamed to be in the presence of their male relatives as evidence that they were respectable . Women tended to live in more remote rooms of the house , farther from windows and doors . Some historians have accepted this ideology as an accurate description of how Athenian women lived their lives ; W. B. Tyrrell , for example , said : " The outer door of the house is the boundary for the free women " . However , even in antiquity it was recognised that an ideology of separation could not be practiced by many Athenians . In Politics , Aristotle asked : " How is it possible to prevent the wives of the poor from going out of doors ? "
The ideal that respectable women should remain out of the public eye was so entrenched in classical Athens that simply naming a citizen woman could be a source of shame . Priestesses were the only group of women to be exempt from this rule . Thucydides wrote in his History of the Peloponnesian War , " Great honour is hers whose reputation among males is least , whether for praise or blame " . Women were identified in terms of their male relatives , which could create confusion if two sisters were referred to as the son ( or brother ) of the same man . In law @-@ court speeches , where a woman 's position is often a key point ( especially in inheritance cases ) , orators seem to have deliberately avoided naming them . Although Demosthenes speaks about his mother and sister in five extant speeches relating to his inheritance , neither is ever named ; in his body of extant work , 27 women ( compared to 509 men ) are named . The use of a woman 's name – as in the case of Neaera and Phano in Apollodoros ' speech Against Neaera – has been interpreted as implying that she is not respectable . John Gould has written that women named in classical Athenian oratory can be divided into three groups : women of low status , the speaker 's opponents , and the deceased .
In practice , only wealthy families would have been able to implement this ideology . Women 's responsibilities would have forced them to leave the house frequently – to fetch water from the well or wash clothing , for example . Although wealthy families may have had slaves to enable free women to remain in the house , but most would not have had enough slaves to prevent free women from leaving at all . According to Gould , even Athenian women forced to work outside the home for economic reasons would have had a conceptual ( if not physical ) boundary preventing them from interacting with unrelated men . In contrast , Kostas Vlassopoulos has posited that some areas of Athens ( such as the agora ) were " free spaces " where women and men could interact .
Even the most respectable citizen women emerged on ritual occasions ( primarily festivals , sacrifices , and funerals ) , where they would have interacted with men . The Thesmophoria , an important festival to Demeter which was restricted to women , was organised and conducted by Athenian citizen women . Athenian women also ventured outdoors socially . David Cohen writes , " One of the most important activities of women included visiting or helping friends or relatives " , and even wealthy women who could afford to spend their entire lives indoors probably interacted socially with other women outside in addition to the religious and ritual occasions when they were seen in public . According to D. M. Schaps ( citing Cohen ) , the ideology of separation in classical Athens would have encouraged women to remain indoors but necessary outside activities would have overridden it .
= = Legal rights = =
The juridical status of women in Athens is beautifully indicated by the single entry under " women " in the index to Harrison 's Law of Athens i : it reads simply " women , disabilities " .
Residents of Athens were divided into three classes : Athenians , metics , and slaves . Each of these classes had different rights and obligations : for instance , Athenians could not be made slaves , while metics could . Nicole Loraux writes that Athenian women were not considered citizens . This is not universally accepted , however . Eva Cantarella disagrees , arguing that both of the Greek words used to denote citizenship , aste and politis , were used to refer to Athenian women . Josine Blok argues that military and political service were not prerequesites of citizenship ; instead , she says , it was participation in the cultic life of the polis which made a person a citizen . Thus , according to Blok Athenian men and women were both considered citizens . Similarly , Cynthia Patterson says that while the English word " citizen " connotes sharing in political and judicial rights , the equivalent Classical Athenian concepts were more about " being a member of the Athenian family " . She thus argues that the English words " citizen " and " citizenship " are best avoided when discussing Classical Athenian concepts .
In most cases , Athenian women had the same rights and responsibilities as Athenian men . However , Athenian women did have some significant disabilities at law compared to their male counterparts . Like slaves and metics , they were denied political freedom , being were excluded from the law courts and the Assembly . The rights of metic women were closer to those of metic men . Metic women only paid 6 drachmas per year poll tax , compared to the 12 paid by their male counterparts , and did not perform military service , but other than this their legal rights and responsibilities were the same as those of male metics .
In Athenian law courts , juries were all male . Athenian women could not appear as litigants ; they were represented by their kyrios or , if he was on the other side of the dispute , by any man who wished to . According to Simon Goldhill , " The Athenian court seems to have been remarkably unwilling to allow any female presence in the civic space of the law court itself " . Metic women , however , apparently could appear in court cases on their own behalf , and could initiate legal action .
In the political sphere , men made up the Assembly and held political office . Although Athenian women were formally prevented from participating in the democratic process , Kostas Vlassopoulos writes that they would have been exposed to political debate in the agora . Additionally , some Athenian women do seem to have involved themselves in public affairs , despite their formal disbarment from the political arena . Plutarch , in his Life of Pericles , tells two stories about Elpinice 's public actions . Once , he says , she criticised Pericles for making war against other Greek cities ; on another occasion she pleaded with him not to prosecute her brother Cimon on charges of treason .
Until the Periclean law of citizenship in 451 – 50 , any child with an Athenian father was considered an Athenian citizen . Blok suggests that in this period it was also legally possible for a child to be considered an Athenian citizen through an Athenian mother , even with a non @-@ citizen father , though she concedes that this would have been exceptional . However , other historians disagree – K. R. Walters , for instance , explicitly dismisses the possibility , arguing that without a citizen father a child had no way of gaining entry into a deme or phratry . Blok suggests that the child might have instead been enrolled in the deme and phratry of the maternal grandfather . After the passage of Pericles ' citizenship law , the importance of Athenian women seems to have increased , although they gained no legal rights .
= = Religion = =
Religion was the one area of public life in which women could participate freely ; according to Christopher Carey , it was the " only area of Greek life in which a woman could approach anything like the influence of a man " . Women 's religious activities , including responsibility for mourning at funerals and involvement in female and mixed @-@ sex cult activity , were an indispensable part of Athenian society . Both Athenian and non @-@ Athenian women participated in public religious activities . The state @-@ controlled Eleusinian mysteries , for instance , were open to all Greek speaking people , men and women , free and unfree alike .
= = = Cult of Athena = = =
The cult of Athena Polias ( the city 's eponymous goddess ) was central to Athenian society , reinforcing morality and maintaining societal structure . Women played a key role in the cult ; the priestesshood of Athena was a position of great importance , and the priestess could use her influence to support political positions . According to Herodotus , before the Battle of Salamis the priestess of Athena encouraged the evacuation of Athens by telling the Athenians that the snake sacred to Athena ( which lived on the Acropolis ) had already left .
The most important festival to Athena in Athens was the Lesser Panathenaea , held annually , which was open to both sexes . Men and women were apparently not segregated during the procession leading the animals sacrificed to the altar , the festival 's most religiously @-@ significant part . Metics , both men and women , also had role in the Panathenaic procession , though it was subordinate to the role of the Athenians . In the procession , young noble girls ( kanephoroi ) carried sacred baskets . The girls were required to be virgins ; to prevent a candidate from being selected was , according to Pomeroy , to question her good name . The sister of Harmodius was reportedly rejected as a kanephoros by the sons of Peisistratos , precipitating his assassination of Hipparchus .
Each year , the women of Athens weaved a new peplos for a wooden statue of Athena . Every four years , for the Great Panathenaea , the peplos was for a much larger statue of Athena and could be used as a sail . The task was begun by two girls chosen from those between the ages of seven and eleven , and was finished by other women .
= = = Women 's festivals = = =
The most important women 's festival was the Thesmophoria , a fertility rite for Demeter which was observed by married noblewomen . During the festival women stayed for three days on Demeter 's hilltop sanctuary , conducting rites and celebrating . Although the specific rituals of the Thesmophoria are unknown , pigs were sacrificed and buried ; the remains of those sacrificed the previous year were offered to the goddess .
Most women 's festivals were dedicated to Demeter , but some festivals ( including the Brauronia and the Arrhephoria ) honoured other goddesses . Both these festivals were rites of passage in which girls became adult women . In the Brauronia , virgin girls were consecrated to Artemis of Brauron before marriage ; in the Arrhephoria , girls ( Arrhephoroi ) who had spent the previous year serving Athena left the Acropolis by a passage near the precinct of Aphrodite carrying baskets filled with items unknown to them .
= = = Theatre = = =
The Athenian festival of the Great Dionysia included five days of dramatic performances in the Theatre of Dionysus , and the Lenaia had a dramatic competition as part of its festival . Whether women were permitted to attend the theatre during these festivals has been the subject of lengthy debate by classicists , largely revolving around whether the theatre was considered a religious or a civic event .
Jeffrey Henderson writes that women were present in the theatre , citing Plato 's Laws and Gorgias as saying that drama was addressed to men , women and children . Henderson also mentions later stories about Athenian theatre , such as the tale that Aeschylus ' Eumenides had frightened women in the audience into miscarrying . Other evidence of the presence of women at the theatre in Athens includes the absence of surviving prohibitions against their attendance and the importance of women in Athenian rituals , especially those associated with Dionysus .
According to Simon Goldhill , the evidence is fundamentally inconclusive . Goldhill writes that the theatre can be seen as a social and political event analogous with the Assembly and the courtroom , and women may have been excluded . David Kawalko Roselli writes that although Goldhill 's perspective is valuable , he does not sufficiently consider the theatre 's ritual purpose . If women did attend the theatre , they may have sat separately from the men .
= = = Private religion = = =
Along with the major community @-@ based religious rituals , women played an important role in domestic religion . Women took part in a number of private rituals to prepare for and celebrate marriage . They also played a major role in funeral and mourning rituals .
Before marriage , girls made dedications to Artemis , often of childhood toys and locks of hair . Along with Artemis , girls made pre @-@ marital sacrifices to Gaia and Uranus , the Erinyes and Moirai , and to their ancestors . It was customary for the bride to bathe before her wedding ; jars called loutrophoroi were used to draw the water , and many of these were afterwards dedicated to nymphs . For instance , at a shrine to a nymph on the south slope of the Acropolis in Athens , many fragments of loutrophoroi have been discovered with the word Nymphe inscribed on them .
By the classical period , laws designated which women could mourn at a funeral ; mourners had to be cousins of , or more closely related to , the deceased . Women influenced funeral arrangements , with the speaker in Isaeus On the Estate of Ciron explaining that he acceded to his grandmother 's wishes for how his grandfather would be buried . This responsibility continued after the funeral , and women regularly visited the graves of family members to present offerings . A tomb was customarily visited three , nine , thirty days , and a year after the funeral . Images on Attic lekythoi show women bringing offerings to a grave .
= = Economic activity = =
The economic power of Athenian women was legally constrained . Historians have traditionally considered that ancient Greek women , particularly in Classical Athens , lacked economic influence . Athenian women were forbidden from entering a contract worth more than a medimnos of barley , enough to feed an average family for six days . In at least one instance , however , an Athenian woman dealt with a significantly larger sum and Deborah Lyons writes that the existence of such a law has " recently come under question " . Despite this , there is no evidence that Athenian women owned land or slaves ( the two most valuable forms of property ) .
Although Athenian women were not legally permitted to dispose of large sums of money , they frequently had large dowries which supported them throughout their lives . Income from a dowry could be significant . The larger a woman 's dowry relative to her husband 's wealth , the more influence she was likely to have in the household since she retained the dowry if the couple divorced . Athenian women could also acquire property by inheritance if they were the closest surviving relative , but could not contractually acquire or dispose of property .
Respectable Athenian women remained separate from unrelated men and Athenian citizens considered it degrading for citizen @-@ women to work , but women ( free and unfree ) are attested as working in a number of capacities . Women engaged in occupations which were an extension of household jobs , such as textile work and washing , and those unrelated to household tasks : cobblers , gilders , net @-@ weavers , potters , and grooms .
Some Athenian citizen women were merchants , and Athenian law forbade criticism of anyone ( male or female ) for selling in the marketplace . Women would also have gone to the market to purchase goods ; although wealthy women owned slaves they could send on errands , poorer women went to the market themselves .
= = = Prostitution = = =
In classical Athens , female prostitution was legal , albeit disreputable , and prostitution was taxed . Prostitutes in Athens were either " pornai " or hetairai ( " companions " , a euphemism for higher @-@ class prostitution ) . Although many were slaves or metics ( and state @-@ run brothels staffed by slaves were said to have been part of Solon 's reforms ) , Athenian @-@ born women also worked in the sex trade in Athens . Pornai apparently charged one to six obols for each sexual act ; hetairai were more likely to receive gifts and favours from their clients , enabling to them to maintain a fiction that they were not being paid for sex .
Prostitutes were often hired by the hosts of symposia as entertainment for guests , as seen in red @-@ figure vase paintings . Prostitutes were also drawn on drinking cups as pinups for male entertainment . Dancing girls and musicians entertaining at symposia might have been sexually assaulted ; in Aristophanes ' comedy Thesmophoriazusae , a dancing girl is treated as a prostitute and Euripides charges a guard one drachma to have sex with her .
Hetairai could be the most independent , wealthy , and influential women in Athens , and could form long @-@ term relationships with rich and powerful men . The most successful hetairai were free to choose their clients , and sometimes became concubines of their former clients .
Athenian prostitutes probably committed infanticide more frequently than married citizen women ; Sarah Pomeroy suggests that they would have preferred daughters – who could become prostitutes – to sons . Some prostitutes also bought slaves , and trained abandoned children to work in the profession .
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= California State Route 37 =
State Route 37 ( SR 37 ) is a state highway in the northern part of California that runs 21 miles ( 34 km ) along the northern shore of San Pablo Bay . It is built from U.S. Route 101 in Novato and runs through the southern tips of Sonoma and Napa counties to Interstate 80 in Vallejo . It serves as a vital connection between the four counties of the North Bay Area , north of San Francisco ; Sonoma Raceway and Six Flags Discovery Kingdom are accessible from Route 37 .
Route 37 has been proposed to be built to freeway standards since the early 1950s . However , the proposal was met with many economic and environmental obstacles , making the task all but impossible for much of the route . Problems included a levee break in Vallejo which turned part of the land around the highway into a marsh that is home to endangered salt marsh harvest mice , and a section of highway known as " Blood Alley " for its high rate of fatal accidents .
= = Route description = =
Intended to run from State Route 251 , a highway that has not been constructed , SR 37 begins in Novato with a junction at U.S. Route 101 and heads northeast as a freeway for about a quarter mile before becoming a four @-@ lane expressway . The route passes over the Petaluma River into Sonoma County before meeting the southern terminus of State Route 121 at a signal @-@ controlled intersection near Sears Point and the Sonoma Raceway .
The route continues as a divided two @-@ lane expressway in a more easterly , then southeasterly , direction as it crosses Tolay Creek and proceeds through the Napa Sonoma Marsh at the northern edge of San Pablo Bay . Before the construction of the barrier in 1995 , this portion of SR 37 was three lanes with the middle lane alternately serving as a passing lane for each direction . This stretch of highway was given the nickname of " Blood Alley " for its high @-@ rate of fatal accidents . With the middle lane removed , accidents dropped dramatically .
SR 37 becomes a four @-@ lane freeway on Mare Island , approaching northern Vallejo . After it crosses over the Napa River Bridge , it continues as a freeway , overlapping the old highway alignment and passing north of the old road known as Marine World Parkway ( due to its proximity to the Six Flags Discovery Kingdom , previously known as Marine World ) . SR 37 travels in a northeasterly direction along the White Slough before turning east as it crosses over State Route 29 and heads to its eastern terminus at I @-@ 80 as the James Capoot Memorial Highway ( honoring a Vallejo police officer who was killed in the line of duty ) . In the early 1990s , the stretch between Fairgrounds Drive , which serves as the entrance to Discovery Kingdom , and Mini Drive was upgraded to a freeway . In 2004 and 2005 , following over fifty years of complications , the remaining non @-@ freeway section in Vallejo was upgraded as well .
Route 37 is also known as William " Randy " Bolt Memorial Highway from Route 29 to Skaggs Road ( honoring a California Department of Justice agent who was killed in the line of duty in an accident along SR 37 ) , and Sears Point Toll Road , which was originally a toll road that ran from Route 121 to Vallejo . This route is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System and is eligible for the State Scenic Highway System . However , it is not designated as a scenic highway by Caltrans .
= = History = =
The stretch of road east of Sears Point was once part of the historical El Camino Real . As a result of the State Highways Acts of the early 20th century , the Black Point Cut @-@ off was built over it and opened to traffic in 1917 . This highway followed the current alignment east of Sears Point , before diverting northeast along present @-@ day Route 121 . It was first designated Legislative Route 8 ( LRN 8 ) , later being signed as State Route 37 .
Prior to being under State control , the section between Sears Point and Vallejo was known as the Sears Point Toll Road , a toll road managed by Golden Gate Ferry that was built over an ancient Native American trail . When it was purchased by the State in 1938 , tolls were removed ; it then became signed as State Route 48 until 1964 .
Route 37 was redefined in the 1964 state highway renumbering as a route starting at SR 251 , then SR 17 , near Nicasio and ending at I @-@ 80 near Lake Chabot . The whole of SR 37 has been proposed to be built to freeway standards since the early 1950s . However , the proposal was met with many economic and environmental obstacles , making the task all but impossible for much of the route .
= = = Sears Point Toll Road = = =
As late as 1926 , Golden Gate Ferries , owners of the Sears Point Toll Road Co . , began plans to build the Sears Point Toll Road , with a contract awarded to Oakland @-@ based Hutchinson Company in October 1927 . The paved toll road was to be built on top of an ancient Native American trail along the San Pablo Bay shore between the Sacramento Highway and the Black Point cut @-@ off ( LRN 8 ) near Sears Point . It was expected to cost $ 775,000USD , with a toll not exceeding $ 0 @.@ 35 . Toll road officials explained the purpose of the road ; to stimulate motor vehicle usage by reducing the commute times and expenses of motorists traveling from the East Bay and Sacramento areas by offering a more direct route toward Marin , Sonoma and the Redwood Highway . The road opened for traffic in 1928 .
On November 29 , 1932 , the California State Highway Commission received a recommendation to purchase the road and was able to invest $ 418,000USD by 1936 . However , the U.S. Navy owned rights to the right @-@ of @-@ way of part of the route , and opposed the purchase . This resulted in congressional actions to establish a clear title deed for the route . House Representative Richard J. Welch was one of the earliest government officials to pressure the State of California to acquire the toll road in order to convert it into a toll @-@ free highway . He argued that having only one toll road to travel in order to reach the Golden Gate Bridge would benefit commuters ; he also cited the ten and seventh @-@ tenths @-@ mile difference in distance between the toll road and a route through Napa . A Navy Department deed permitting the State to purchase the road was granted by the Attorney General on October 26 , 1938 . The highway then became signed as State Route 48 until the 1964 renumbering .
= = = Highway upgrading in Vallejo = = =
By 1955 , talks began about upgrading the highway . After a proposition to turn much of the route into a toll road failed , it was decided a four @-@ lane freeway would be the best decision . However , opposition from residents in surrounding neighborhoods as well as a federal oil embargo only allowed widening of the approach between Fairgrounds Drive and I @-@ 80 . In 1977 , a levee broke and flooded a portion of the developed land , turning it into protected wetlands that is home to endangered species . Because of its new status , environmental studies were needed in order to continue the project .
Soon after , the project was split into different phases to handle problems with particular areas . It was first divided between the newly created marshlands and the section between Sonoma Blvd . ( SR 29 ) and I @-@ 80 . With Marine World being relocated , the city was able to the widen the latter section and build an overpass across Fairgrounds Drive in 1992 .
= = = " Blood Alley " = = =
While the Vallejo section of SR 37 was being updated , another problem with the route would hinder its progress . The section between Sears Point and Mare Island was plagued with fatal accidents , earning its nickname of " Blood Alley " . Between 1966 and 1970 , 27 people lost their lives to it . In a preliminary effort to reduce the fatalities , officials established both a daylight test section , requiring all cars to keep their headlights on during the day , and passing lanes . However , these efforts were ineffective .
In 1993 , local resident Jim Poulos campaigned to have a barrier erected after the death of his 18 @-@ year @-@ old son , Frankie , on " Blood Alley " . At this time , the situation with this stretch only worsened as the death toll between 1990 and 1996 rose to thirty @-@ one . At first , Caltrans thought the barrier would make matters worse since it would be difficult for emergency vehicles to attend to accidents ; environmental issues were also cited . Caltrans was waiting for the ability to create a causeway to span the area instead . Poulos continued his campaign despite opposition , and was granted the barrier in 1995 . The barrier was not built without controversy , as it also eliminated the passing lanes . However , since the barriers were built , there were no longer any crossover accidents as of 2005 .
While the median was built , a few problems needed to be resolved in order for the road to work both safely and in an environmentally friendly way . Emergency personnel needed to quickly access accidents and provide them easy transport to nearby hospitals . To alleviate this problem , Caltrans implemented electric gate technology , which would allow emergency vehicles to cut through certain parts of the median . The other problem was to both protect the plant life and the salt marsh harvest mice residing around the highway . As a result , crews placed timbers and sheeting to protect foliage , and added holes into the median barrier to allow the mice to cross the highway .
= = = White Slough and Sonoma Boulevard interchange = = =
To protect White Slough while still allowing the widening of SR 37 , the White Slough Protection and Development Act was passed in 1990 . It allowed up to 13 acres of wetlands to be filled but required at least four times as much wetland restoration elsewhere in the Bay Area .
After environmental studies on the White Slough , Caltrans widened and elevated that section of the road and converted it to a freeway . To accommodate bicycles and pedestrians , a cycleway was built along the eastbound side of the freeway . Finally , Caltrans completed the overpass which crossed SR 29 , Broadway , and Mini Drive ( bypassing Marine World Parkway , three traffic signaled intersections , and a railroad grade crossing ) . The project was completed in the summer of 2005 , and fully open to traffic on August 20 .
= = Future = =
Since 2011 , the Road Ecology Center at the University of California , Davis has partnered with Caltrans and other regional and local entities to collaboratively plan future scenarios for SR 37 . Since 2014 , this has focused on structural and locational adaptations to the highway in response to potential sea level rise impacts . This is one of the first highways in the country to face vertical or geographic re @-@ location due to likely sea level rise impacts . The most popular option with stakeholders is to place the highway on a causeway , allowing it to escape flooding from sea level rise and reduce impacts to the marshes . This would not eliminate traffic noise impacts to birds , mammals and human communities adjacent to and near ( < 1 km ) the highway . Other options considered have included placing the highway 3 – 4 meters higher on a levee , building a tunnel for the highway under the North Bay , and realigning the highway with existing highways to both eliminate impacts to the marshes and avoid sea level rise impacts .
= = Major intersections = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The numbers reset at county lines ; the start and end postmiles in each county are given in the county column .
= = Popular culture = =
The route is used as the title for Train 's 2012 album California 37 . The album cover includes a picture of the spade California 37 sign , but is not actually a picture of the highway .
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= Eddie Buczynski =
Edmund " Eddie " Buczynski ( January 28 , 1947 – March 16 , 1989 ) was a prominent American Wiccan and archaeologist who founded two separate traditions of Wicca : Welsh Traditionalist Witchcraft and The Minoan Brotherhood .
Born to a working @-@ class family in New York City , Buczynski initially planned to become a Roman Catholic priest , before abandoning this idea and embracing his homosexuality by moving to Greenwich Village and associating with the city 's gay scene . Befriending the Wiccan Leo Martello , he was introduced to Herman Slater , with whom he began a relationship . Together they opened an occult supply store , The Warlock Shop . Initially initiated into the New Haven coven of Gwen Thompson , a part of the New England Covens of Traditionalist Witches ( NECTW ) , he rose to the position of acting high priest before leaving to found his own tradition , Welsh Traditional Witchcraft , in 1972 . Although the tradition proved a success and soon spread , Buczynski himself moved on to Gardnerian Wicca , which he was initiated into in 1973 .
In 1974 he was ordained into the Church of the Eternal Source , a Kemetic Pagan group , but moved on again in 1977 , when he founded the Minoan Brotherhood as a Wiccan tradition for gay and bisexual men . Turning to academia , from 1980 to 1985 he studied for a bachelor 's degree in Classical archaeology at Hunter College , which he followed up with a master 's degree in the subject at Bryn Mawr College from 1985 to 1988 . Buczynski was diagnosed with HIV / AIDS in 1988 , and died from a related Toxoplasma gondii infection the following year , converting to Roman Catholicism briefly beforehand . In 2012 , the practicing Pagan Michael G. Lloyd published a biography of Buczynski entitled Bull of Heaven .
= = Biography = =
= = = Childhood : 1947 – 1964 = = =
Eddie Buczynski was born on January 28 , 1947 in Brooklyn , New York City to working class – lower middle class parents . His father Edmund , after whom he was named , was the youngest son of Polish parents and had been raised in a Brooklyn tenement with his four brothers and two sisters . Enlisting in the Naval Armed Guard in 1943 , he fought in the Second World War aboard two Liberty ships , the SS John Howard and the SS José Marti . Edmund Junior 's mother , Marie Mauro , was the granddaughter of southern Italian migrants , and had grown up in a Brooklyn apartment . She first began communicating with her future husband in 1944 as pen pals , before meeting him when he returned home on leave . They proceeded to marry against their parents ' wishes on April 27 , 1946 , following the culmination of the war . Settling down in their hometown , their first child was born nine months later . Following the outbreak of the Korean War , in which the U.S. sent troops to combat North Korea , Edmund senior was called back to active duty with the Navy Reserves before being permanently discharged in October 1951 . Returning to New York City , he moved his wife and child from Brooklyn to the middle @-@ class neighborhood of Ozone Park , Queens .
In 1952 , Buczynski began elementary education at the Old School Elementary in Queens , where he gained consistently good grades and particularly enjoyed music , reading , drawing and painting . In August 1954 , his mother gave birth to his first brother , Frank , whom he would remain fond of despite the seven @-@ year age gap . Although his family were nominally Catholic , Buczynski took an early interest in the pre @-@ Christian religions of Ancient Egypt and Classical Greece , which he read about in books . He began devising and performing his own rituals to the deities of these religions , sparking his lifelong interest in Contemporary Paganism . His interest in Pagan religion only increased following his father 's sudden death from a heart attack , aged 31 , in August 1958 . His mother would go on to remarry , this time to a man named Edward Nascato , in 1961 .
Eddie eventually decided that he wanted to become a Roman Catholic priest , largely following in the footsteps of his uncle , Father Michael . Receiving his Catholic confirmation in early 1961 , in September of that year he began his studies at the Monsignor McClancy Memorial High School in East Elmhurst , a Catholic institution . Bullied for being effeminate and homosexual , Eddie disliked the school , and was ultimately expelled for being overly critical of their religious instruction . In September 1962 he enrolled at John Adams High School , but was again bullied ; becoming increasingly rebellious , he took up smoking cigarettes and marijuana and undertook several failed suicide attempts . Family life became increasingly strained following the birth of a half @-@ brother , Tommy , in September 1962 , and in March 1964 he dropped out of high school and decided to leave home .
= = = Herman Slater and embracing Wicca : 1964 – 1972 = = =
From Ozone Park , he moved to Manhattan , where a counter @-@ cultural community had built up around the Greenwich Village and the Lower East Side that contained an array of gay people , hippies , occultists and others adopting bohemian lifestyles . Without money , he resorted to working as a rent boy , and made use of both marijuana and LSD . Although he briefly returned to Catholicism , in 1971 he read a copy of Witchcraft Today ( 1954 ) , a book authored by Englishman Gerald Gardner , the founder of Gardnerian Wicca , and it reignited his interest in Pagan religion . In the autumn , he tracked down Leo Martello ( 1931 – 2000 ) , a prominent gay rights activist and Pagan Witch who practiced his own Italian @-@ focused form of the Craft known as the Strega tradition . Although he felt that Buczynski was too inexperienced in magic to begin practicing Strega Craft , Martello befriended and shared his contacts with the young man , and took him with him on a visit to Herman Slater ( 1935 – 1992 ) , a fellow New Yorker who was of Jewish heritage . Like Buczynski and Martello , Slater was gay , and a romantic relationship soon developed between Buczynski – who was attracted to bears – and the older man . Buczynski moved in with Slater to an apartment in the Brooklyn Heights in June 1972 .
That year , the couple decided to open up an occult store , named The Warlock Shop , at 300 Henry Street in Brooklyn Heights , New York City ; alongside this venture , they also founded a company , Earth Religion Supplies , Inc , which would later go into publishing . Officially opening on June 21 , 1972 , the back room of the shop would also be used for weekly lectures and would be rented to various occult groups who wanted to assemble there .
Still eager to be initiated into a Pagan Witchcraft , or Wiccan , tradition , Buczsynki began contacting various covens requesting initiation , including the Gardnerian Wiccan coven run in Louisville , Kentucky by Fran and Gerry Fisher and the Algard Wiccan coven that had been founded by Mary Nesnick ; the former refused due to the long @-@ distance between them and the young man , while the latter declined due to Buczynski 's homosexuality . He then approached Gwen Thompson ( 1928 – 1986 ) , matriarch of the New England Covens of Traditionalist Witches ( NECTW ) , asking for initiation , although declined to inform her of his sexual orientation . Thompson took a liking to the young man , and welcomed him into her coven , where he proceeded to adopt the craft name of " Hermes " . They developed a strong friendship , much to Slater 's dismay , and Buczynski soon rose to a second degree position , adopting an adapted craft name of " Hermes Dionysos " and becoming High Priest of Thompson 's coven . Thompson ultimately became attracted to the young man , and repeatedly asked him to have sex with her , to which he refused . Their friendship broke down , and he was expelled from her North Haven coven .
= = = Welsh Traditionalist Witchcraft : 1972 – 1973 = = =
Having left Thompson 's tradition , Buczynski decided to form his own form of Wicca , which he claimed had actually dated back to the Palaeolithic and transmitted to him by a figure whose anonymity he had to protect . Referring to this new tradition as Welsh Traditionalist Witchcraft or the Traditionalist Gwyddoniaid , it was heavily influenced by the Welsh mythology contained in texts like The Mabinogion and the Arthurian legends which fascinated him , despite his lack of Welsh heritage . It took as its basis the structure of the Gardnerian tradition , with its Book of Shadows being largely based upon that which he had obtained through his work with Thompson , accompanied by sections taken from the recently published Lady Sheba 's The Book of Shadows . Officially founded in October 1972 , later that year an outer court was founded through which to teach interested persons who were not yet initiated . Notably , he welcomed LGBT people and non @-@ caucasians into his tradition at a time when they were denied entry to most other Wiccan covens . Although taking an open attitude to spiritual seekers , Buczynski prevented the occult investigator , Hans Holzer , from entering the outer coven when the latter requested admission to undertake research for his book The Witchcraft Report ; like many in the Pagan and occult community , Buczynski was wary of Holzer 's intentions and the sensationalist claims he purported in his publications .
A number of teenagers who were interested in Wicca had begun hanging around at the Warlock Shop , and they too were initiated into the Traditionalist Gwyddoniaid , after gaining parental permission . Proceeding through the outer court of Buczynski 's coven , they eventually hived off to form their own coven , the Children of Branwen , in December 1972 , with prominent members including Robert Carey , Denny Sargent , and Karen and Eddie Chiecho . Buczynski initially attended some of the group 's meetings , in order to instruct these students in the Craft , but soon found his time preoccupied with his own primary coven , leaving the coven under the control of high priestess Kay Smith . She would subsequently go on to found a Welsh Traditionalist coven for adults , leaving the position of high priestess to Melda Tamarack .
Through their work at The Warlock Shop , Buczynski and Slater came to meet and befriend Judith and Thomas Kneital ( also known by their craft names of Theos and Phoenix ) , who had recently taken control of the Long Island coven of Gardnerians in New York after the former high priest and high priestess , Raymond Buckland and his wife Rosemary , had decided to divorce . In early 1973 , the shop hit financial difficulty , and the Kneitals personally lent several thousand dollars to Slater and Buczynski in order to help them out , which Buczynski promptly paid back . Their business quickly recovered , and they employed a young man from New Orleans named Robert Carey to work in the shop ; he was a close personal friend of Candy Darling , and used to visit The Factory , where he was known as " Chanel 13 " . The increasing relationship between Slater and Buczynski and the Kneitals led to socialising between their two covens ; despite their differing class backgrounds ( the Gardnerian Commack coven being largely middle class and the Welsh Traditionalist Brooklyn Heights coven being largely working class and counter @-@ cultural ) , they got on well . In February 1973 , Buczynski requested initiation into the Gardnerican Craft from the Kneitals , but they refused , being cautious of what uses he would put the Gardnerian liturgy to .
Still friends with Martello , Buczynski initiated him up till the third degree of the Welsh Traditionalist tradition , in return receiving third degree initiation into the Strega tradition . At the same time , he was facing problems within his own tradition as one couple running their own Welsh outer coven , Claudia and Gerard Nero , had decided to abandon Buczynski 's tradition and receive initiation into Gardnerianism from the Kneitals ; they had ultimately decided to do so after becoming increasingly sceptical of his historical claims to Palaeolithic roots . They took their initiates , including Margot Adler , with them , much to Buczynski and Slater 's annoyance , leading to a breakdown of the friendship that they had had with the Kneitals . His tradition nevertheless continued to grow and spread , and in January 1973 , the tradition joined the Council of Earth Religions ( COER ) , a pan @-@ Pagan umbrella organisation founded the previous year to work for the common defence of the movement . His primary inner coven grew to a size that it had to divide into two at Midsummer 1973 . His high priestess , Kay Smith , decided to take lead of one of them , while Eddie remained in the other , being joined by a new ritual consort named Judith . By August , there were two outer court covens of the Welsh tradition in New York City , and one each in Philadelphia and in Hopewell , Virginia .
= = = Gardnerian Wicca : 1973 – 1974 = = =
After the Kneitals had rejected his request for initiation into Gardnerian Wicca , Buczynski met with another Gardnerian high priestess , Patricia Siero , who instead agreed to initiate both him and Slater . Siero herself had been initiated by Fran Fisher , high priestess of a coven located in Louisville , Kentucky , in June 1973 , who in turn had claimed initiation from Rosemary Buckland . The weekend after returning from Kentucky , Siero initiated Buczynski and Slater through all three degrees of the Gardnerian tradition , entitling them to operate as high priests of their own covens . Buczynski decided to do so , founding his own Gardnerian coven with an older German woman named Renate Springer as high priestess that operated in the Brooklyn Heights area . Nevertheless , the Kneitals refused to accept Buczynski 's Gardnerian credentials , asserting that Rosemary Buckland had never actually initiated Fran Fischer up to the third degree . As a result of the Kneitals ' claims , the Gardnerian community in the Northeastern United States widely refused to accept the Brooklyn Heights coven as legitimate , and Siero decided to take up the Kneitals ' offer for re @-@ initiation ; as a result , she disowned the initiations of Buczynski and Slater which she had carried out . Springer was uneasy at the situation , and decided to depose Buczynski from his position as high priest , replacing him with one of her initiates , Gilbert Littlebear .
Despite the internal " Witch Wars " that Buczynski had become involved in , he continued to propagate information on Wicca and Paganism in the media , giving talks for a group known as the Friends of the Craft , which had been co @-@ founded by Slater , and helping to organize the " OCCULT " exhibit which was held at the Museum of American Folk Art . Activity also continued at The Warlock Shop , and in December he and Slater published the first issue of a Pagan newsletter called Earth Religion News , which would run for several years . They would subsequently publish a short book about Wicca that Buczynski had authored , entitled the Witchcraft Fact Book . Both he and Slater also befriended Raymond Buckland , the prominent English Wiccan who was credited with introducing the Gardnerian tradition to the United States ; at the time Buckland had ceased to operate in that tradition , and was in the process of developing Seax @-@ Wica , a tradition inspired by the medieval religion of Anglo @-@ Saxon paganism , which both Buczynski and Slater approved of despite opposition from the Kneitals .
His interest in Gardnerianism was however maintained , and in December 1973 he founded a second Gardnerian coven , and invited Jane Cicciotto , then working as the Warlock Shop 's book keeper , to take up the mantle as its high priestess . Meeting at Jane 's apartment in Brooklyn , which she shared with her husband Burt , Buczynski continued to maintain his own legitimacy within the tradition despite Siero 's denunciation of his original initiation . Making various alterations to the established liturgy in the Book of Shadows and increasing coven democracy , he recognized that these changes meant that the coven was more Neo @-@ Gardnerian than orthodox Gardnerian , and as such he decided to proclaim that the coven adhered to no specific tradition , instead referring to it simply as " The Wica . " Trouble hit the coven when Burt Cicciotto , a recovering heroin addict , proceeded to steal $ 3000 for the Warlock Shop , and disappeared . Embarrassed , Jane stood down as The Wica 's high priestess , with leadership of the group falling to another married couple , Ria and David Farnham , who moved the covenstead to their home in the Bronx ; involving a lengthy commute for most of the coven members , Buczynski and Slater ceased their active involvement with the group , which had dissolved by June 1974 .
= = = Church of the Eternal Source and the Huntington Coven : 1974 – 1975 = = =
In 1974 , Buczynski got in contact with Harold Moss , the founder of the Church of the Eternal Source ( CEW ) , a Kemetic Pagan group which he had created in 1970 . Fascinated by the religion of Ancient Egypt which the CES wanted to revive , Buczynski joined the order , being ordained as a priest on July 19 . Adopting the ritual name of " Un @-@ Nefer " , he devoted himself to the worship of the goddess Isis , organizing a temple based in New York and beginning the publication of a newsletter , which he titled Esbat . His relationship with Moss , and with the CES ' secretary Ron Myron , was however strained . Although Moss was himself a homosexual , he disagreed with Buczynski 's effeminate nature , while Myron had taken a dislike to Buczynski as soon as the latter had been ordained , in particular believing that he didn 't spend enough time responding to enquiries .
Problems had also arisen in Buczynski 's relationship with Slater . Living and working together at the same premises , they had begun to argue regularly , and had both been taking part in sexual activity with other men , particularly in the gay bathhouses which could then be found in New York . By the summer of 1974 they had broken up , and although they briefly remained roommates , Buczynski soon collected together his belongings and moved back in with his mother and step @-@ father in Ozone Park , where he converted the basement into a bedroom for himself . No longer working at The Warlock Shop , he found himself broke and isolated from the city 's occult community , ultimately ceasing active coven work by September 1974 . Eventually , he obtained a part @-@ time job at the BookMasters bookstore at 1482 Broadway in Times Square , and it was while commuting home on the subway one night that he met Bennie Geraci ( 1950 – ) , a native of New Orleans who had moved to the city . Buczynski and Geraci soon entered into a relationship , with the former moving into the latter 's small rented flat in Rego Park , Queens , which was shared with four other men . In January 1975 , he lost his job due to the economic recession , but was able to secure a job as an office boy at J. Aron and Company , a commodities trading corporation based in Wall Street .
Buczynski 's continuing disagreements with senior members of the CES led him to resign from the priesthood on August 1 , 1975 . The New York Temple that he had led subsequently folded . Returning his interest to Wicca , he befriended a Gardnerian high priestess named Sheila Saperton , who had been initiated into the Craft years before by Raymond Buckland . Saperton had become increasingly interested in Buckland 's newly developed tradition of Seax @-@ Wica , and founded a Seax coven from her home in Huntington Station on Long Island . Although never initiated into Seax @-@ Wica , Buczynksi associated with the group , and attended many of their rites . Eventually however , the group tired of the practices of Seax @-@ Wica , and instead transformed into a Gardnerian coven , with Buczynski becoming high priest . Claiming that a mysterious witch known only as Jana , who had been involved in the New Forest coven back in Hampshire , England , had been communicating with him and providing him with a legitimate lineage , he began making further changes to the coven structure . Both Buczynski biographer Michael Lloyd and researcher Philip Heselton have expressed doubt that Jana was ever a real figure operating in England , instead suggesting that she was perhaps an invention of Buczynski 's to legitimize his practice of Gardnerian Wica .
Buczynski welcomed a number of friends and flatmates , including Geraci , into the Huntington coven , and later stated his desire to personally initiate Geraci up to the third degree ; Saperton disagreed , citing the traditional Gardnerian prohibition on anyone initiating a member of the same sex . Buczynski thought that her attitude was homophobic , and subsequently abandoned both her and Gardnerian Wica . Meanwhile , he and Geraci moved out of their crowded apartment into a new flat in Middle Village . Despite same @-@ sex marriage not being legally recognised at the time , they undertook a private wedding ceremony to marry one another , although were non @-@ monogamous , and would go together to gay bath houses to partake in sexual activity with other patrons , resulting in Buczynski 's contraction of several sexually transmitted infections .
= = = The Minoan Brotherhood : 1975 – 1979 = = =
Buczynski had become increasingly dissatisfied with Gardnerian Wicca and other forms of contemporary Paganism which he felt treated homosexual and bisexual individuals as inferior to their heterosexual counterparts . He was perturbed that while many covens and other groups did allow gay and bi men and women to join , they were required to work in a ritual framework that was explicitly heterosexual . He argued that this was inconsistent with the fact that a number of pre @-@ Christian societies in Europe and the Middle East had cults containing an exclusively homosexual priesthood . He was particularly interested in such cults that were found in the Minoan civilization of Bronze Age Crete , and began to voraciously read books on the subject . He would later place many of these texts on the required reading list for new initiates , including among them academic works of history and archaeology like Arthur Evans ' The Palace of Minos , Martin P. Nilsson 's A History of Greek Religion and George E. Mylonas ' Eleusis and the Eleusinian Mysteries , books on mythology such as Robert Graves ' The White Goddess , fictional novels like Mary Renault 's The Bull from the Sea and Thomas Burnett Swann 's How Are the Mighty Fallen , and such works on occultism as Gerald Gardner 's Witchcraft Today .
Explicitly founded as a " Mystery / initiatory cult which erotically celebrates Life through male love " , Buczynski 's Minoan tradition took the rituals of Gardnerian Wicca as its basis , but adapted them , with a new liturgy being written by him and placed within a ritual text known as the Book of the Mysteries . He adopted the eight annual Gardnerian Sabbat festivals , but associated them with ancient Mediterranean religious festivals . Insisting that even though his coven would contain only men , it should still embrace gender polarity , he set up the Cretan Snake Goddess Rhea as the tradition 's primary deity . Accompanying her , the tradition was also founded to venerate her son , the Cretan Bull God , thereby being duotheistic in nature , like most other Wiccan traditions .
The Minoan Brotherhood was officially inaugurated on January 1 , 1977 . Naming this first group the Knossos Grove coven , it initially began at his and Geraci 's shared flat , where they were joined by their friend Joseph Cupolo . Setting up a lineage recording system to take into account which new initiates were being brought into the Brotherhood , the first man to be welcomed in was Kim Schuller , who was soon followed by Bruce @-@ Michael Gelbert . Not long after , Cupolo moved to New Orleans , where he founded a second coven , known as Phaistos Grove . In 1977 , Buczynski began attending the Sheridan Square Gym , and it was here that he met Gene Muto the following year . A stage director and part @-@ time bartender , Muto entered into a sexual relationship with Buczynski , which Geraci accepted as per the rules of their open relationship . However , when Buczynski announced that he had fallen in love with Muto , it marked the end of his relationship with Geraci , who decided to move back to New Orleans in February 1979 . Muto proceeded to move in with Buczynski at his apartment on West 13th Street , but did not share his boyfriend 's magico @-@ religious beliefs , instead being a far left atheist . He felt that Buczynski was wasting his life on Witchcraft , and encouraged him to aim for an academic education ; Buczynski proceeded to attain a graduate equivalency diploma ( GED ) . The Knossos Grove had meanwhile begun to deteriorate , rarely meeting from late @-@ 1978 through early 1979 . He did however bring in Tony Fiara in late 1979 , who would go on to play a significant role in the Minoan tradition , which was then being eclipsed in size by the Radical Faerie movement . That year , Buczynski decided to stop using his flat as a covenstead , which he moved to the Earth Star Temple , the back room of The Magickal Childe , Herman Slater 's new shop .
= = = Entering academia : 1980 – 1988 = = =
In 1980 , Buczynski and Muto went on a package holiday to Greece , further inspiring the former 's interests in the region 's ancient cultures . Deciding to explore this topic further , he enrolled to study for an undergraduate degree in Classics and Ancient History at Hunter College , a part of the City University of New York ( CUNY ) located in Manhattan 's Upper East Side , beginning there in September 1980 . At the university , he became friends with one of his mentors , the classical archaeologist Clairève Grandjouan , and was saddened by her death before he had completed the course . He devoted himself to his studies , which he greatly enjoyed , and was sufficiently successful to be placed on the Thomas Hunter Honors Program . In June 1982 , he returned to Greece in order to take part in his first archaeological excavations , which were run by the American School of Classical Studies at Athens ( ASCSA ) . Returning to New York City , he began to take all of the modules that he could which were devoted to field archaeology , considering a potential career in the profession . In the winter break between 1982 and 1983 , he once more returned to the Mediterranean , touring Greece and Italy with Muto . He would subsequently be laid off from his job , but gained work in the Hunter College Classics Office . His increased interest in academic archaeology came at the expense of his involvement in the occult , and in the Spring of 1981 he stepped down from his leadership of the Knossos Grove coven , handing control over to Tony Fiara . As his studies at Hunter College came to an end , he decided to continue his education to a postgraduate level , and successfully obtained a scholarship from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation .
The university which he decided upon was Bryn Mawr College in Bryn Mawr , Pennsylvania , a socially liberal , gay @-@ friendly institution originally founded on Quaker principles . There , he enrolled in the Department of Classical and Near Eastern Archaeology , and began work on attaining his master 's degree . To study there , he had to move away from Muto and New York City , settling in Thornbrook Manor apartments , Montgomery Avenue , with his cats Maybelle and Grimalkin , renting a flat that was larger than that in which he and Muto lived in New York . At Bryn Mawr , he worked hard , and remained a popular student among both staff and pupils ; his dissertation was devoted to the role of marine objects within Minoan cult . Where possible , Muto and he met up , going on holiday together to Egypt and Israel in the winter of 1985 . In August 1986 , Muto then obtained a job in Atlanta , Georgia , and so the couple decided to cease renting the New York apartment . Deciding to found a coven of Minoan practitioners at Bryn Mawr , he put out adverts for interested persons , but received only one response , from a young man named Kevin Moscrip , whom he initiated in the spring of 1986 . However , he decided to put a stop to Moscrip 's training prematurely when he began to become increasingly concerned by the HIV / AIDS epidemic that was then sweeping through the Minoan tradition and the country 's wider gay community . In the winter of 1986 , he and Muto traveled to Colombia where they visited the Cartagena , but the following March Buczynski took ill , and although some of his friends suspected that he might be exhibiting symptoms of AIDS , he refused to get tested . That summer , he and Muto went for a vacation in Cape Cod , before he submitted his dissertation in September 1987 .
In November , Buczynski was taken seriously ill with pneumonia , requiring hospitalization . It was there that the doctors diagnosed him with the AIDS virus , having acquired HIV at some point during the 1970s . After returning to his flat , his mother and step @-@ father came to visit and help care for him . He spent Christmas that year on Crete with Muto , before his studies at Bryn Mawr came to an end in 1988 ; he was awarded his degree at a ceremony on 15 May , after which Muto whisked him off for a holiday in Cancún , Mexico .
= = = Final months : 1989 = = =
Although he had wanted to study for a doctorate and proceed with a career in archaeology , Buczynski was dying . He became ill with the Toxoplasma gondii parasite , which was able to invade his body due to its extremely weakened status . He suffered partial paralysis on his right side as well as brain lesions , leaving him irritable and withdrawn , and required hospitalization . Upon release , it was decided that he would move to Atlanta to be with Muto in January 1989 . By this stage , he was unable to attend to basic tasks on his own , including eating and dressing himself , and required almost constant care , from both Muto and from carers based at St. Joseph Hospital . He began to talk with the Roman Catholic priest based at the hospital , eventually deciding to return to the faith of his birth , and undertaking his confession of reconciliation in February . In March , his condition deteriorated , and he was admitted to the hospital , falling into a coma and dying on the morning on Thursday , March 16 .
= = Personal life = =
Buczynski could be hot tempered , with Lloyd describing him as " street @-@ smart , intelligent , opinionated , flamboyant , charismatic , driven , and ... often governed by mercurial emotions . He could be fiery , and he had a vicious temper when someone angered him , which admittedly was not easy to accomplish . "
= = Legacy = =
Following Buczynski 's death , Lady Rhea asserted that anyone initiated through one of his traditions could refer to themselves as an " Edwardian " Wiccan in his honor . Buczynski would come to be declared one of the Saints of Antinous by a Pagan group based in Hollywood , California , known as the Temple of Antinous .
In 2012 , Michael Lloyd published a biography of Buczynski through Asphodel Press . Entitled Bull of Heaven : The Mythic Life of Eddie Buczynski and the Rise of the New York Pagan , it contained a foreword by Margot Adler . The book 's launch party was held at Sala One @-@ Nine , a tapas restaurant at 35 West 19th Street in Manhattan , which existed on the site of Slater 's Magickal Childe store . The event was reported on by a journalist from The New York Times , Corey Kilgannon , who noted that there was a " strapping man " dressed in a headdress and loincloth working at the door , with around 80 attendees inside , most of whom were Pagans . Among them included Bennie Geraci , Carol Bulzone , Kaye Flagg and Margot Adler , a number of whom gave speeches before a memorial service to Buczynski was held , in a ritual that Kilgannon thought resembled something from Stanley Kubrick 's film Eyes Wide Shut .
Bull of Heaven was positively reviewed by Pagan studies scholar Ethan Doyle White in The Pomegranate academic journal , who asserted that the book was " eloquently and engagingly written " , and was important for documenting the life not only of Buczynski , but also of other important figures in the New York Pagan scene , like Herman Slater and Leo Martello . He praised Lloyd 's research as " thorough and far @-@ reaching " , although was critical of the poor quality of the images . Noting that the book 's scope would invite comparison with Chas S. Clifton 's Her Hidden Children and Adler 's Drawing Down the Moon , he labelled it a " must read " for those interested in the history of American Paganism and gay liberation , summing it up as " the finest independent Pagan studies scholarship to have been produced in the United States to date . " Elsewhere , he characterised the book as " first @-@ rate " .
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= 1 November 1944 reconnaissance sortie over Japan =
On 1 November 1944 a United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) F @-@ 13 Superfortress conducted the first flight by an Allied aircraft over the Tokyo region of Japan since the Doolittle Raid in April 1942 . This photo reconnaissance sortie was highly successful , with the aircraft 's crew taking thousands of photographs which were later used to plan many air raids on Japan during the final months of World War II . Attempts by Japanese air units and anti @-@ aircraft gun batteries to destroy the F @-@ 13 failed , as the available fighter aircraft and guns could not reach the high altitude it operated at .
= = Background = =
In late 1944 the United States Twentieth Air Force 's XXI Bomber Command prepared to conduct strategic bombing raids on the Japanese home islands from bases in the Mariana Islands . These attacks were to replace the largely unsuccessful Operation Matterhorn raids which had been conducted by XX Bomber Command aircraft based in India and staging through bases in China since June 1944 . While XX Bomber Command conducted photo reconnaissance sorties over Japan as part of this effort , the aircraft flying from China lacked the range to reach Japan 's main industrial centers . Without photographic intelligence XXI Bomber Command was unable to develop detailed plans for raids against its intended targets .
On 10 October 1944 the Committee of Operations Analysts , which provided advice to USAAF commanders on suitable strategic bombardment targets , recommended that photo reconnaissance flights be conducted over Japan 's main industrial areas as soon as possible to provide intelligence which could be used to direct raids from the Mariana Islands . These operations were to be conducted by the 3d Photographic Reconnaissance Squadron ( 3d PRS ) , which was the only photo reconnaissance unit in the XXI Bomber Command .
The 3d PRS had been formed on 10 June 1941 . After conducting flights over the Americas , it was deployed to the China @-@ Burma @-@ India Theater . The unit flew mapping missions over the region from 10 December 1943 until it was disbanded and re @-@ formed in the United States during April 1944 to be equipped with the new F @-@ 13 photo reconnaissance variant of the Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress heavy bomber . Due to delays to the development of the F @-@ 13 , the 3d PRS was unable to commence training on the type until 24 August , and began to receive its first operational F @-@ 13s on 4 October . 3d PRS F @-@ 13s began to depart for Saipan in the Mariana Islands on 19 October , where they would be supported by the unit 's ground echelon which had arrived on 18 September .
= = Photo reconnaissance sortie = =
The first two 3d PRS F @-@ 13s arrived at Saipan on 30 October after a 33 @-@ hour flight from Mather Field in California via Oahu and Kwajalein . While the commander of the XXI Bomber Command , Brigadier General Haywood S. Hansell , encouraged the exhausted airmen to rest , they insisted on conducting a flight over Japan as soon as possible .
At 5 @.@ 55 am on 1 November an F @-@ 13 whose crew was led by Captain Ralph D. Steakley took off from Saipan bound for Japan . Weather conditions over Tokyo were perfect for photo reconnaissance , with the skies free of clouds . Flying at 32 @,@ 000 feet ( 9 @,@ 800 m ) , Steakley 's aircraft repeatedly passed over a complex of aircraft and engine plants to the west of Tokyo , before moving on to photograph a similar facility near the city of Nagoya . Overall , the American airmen took 7 @,@ 000 photos during the mission . Steakley was surprised to encounter strong head winds , and reported that his ground speed while passing over Tokyo was only about 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) . The strong winds over this region were not known to the USAAF at the time , and greatly complicated XXI Bomber Command 's later air raids .
The Imperial Japanese Army Air Service 's 47th Sentai had responsibility for providing fighter aircraft to guard the Tokyo area on 1 November . The unit 's Nakajima Ki @-@ 44 fighters began to take off from Narimasu airfield to intercept the F @-@ 13 at 1 pm . These aircraft were not designed to be used at high altitudes , and the Japanese airmen were unable to get closer than about 3 @,@ 300 feet ( 1 @,@ 000 m ) of Steakley 's aircraft . Two formations of fighters fired machine guns at the F @-@ 13 , but did not hit it . Several batteries of Japanese anti @-@ aircraft guns also unsuccessfully fired on the American aircraft . The F @-@ 13 was the first American aircraft to fly over Tokyo since the Doolittle Raid in April 1942 , and was sighted by many Japanese civilians .
= = Aftermath = =
The F @-@ 13 returned to Saipan after a flight of 14 hours duration . Either later that day or the next day the crew named the aircraft " Tokyo Rose " in reference to the propaganda broadcaster . Steakley received the Distinguished Flying Cross for the flight , and the other members of the crew were also later issued with awards .
The photographs taken during the sortie were an important source of intelligence for the Twentieth Air Force and other American units , especially as 1 November proved to be the only day of the air campaign against Japan in which weather conditions over the home islands were entirely clear of cloud . Hansell later stated that the sortie had been " probably the greatest ... single contribution ... in the air war with Japan " .
The 3d PRS conducted a further 16 sorties over Japan before XXI Bomber Command 's first raid against Tokyo on 24 November , but several of these missions were frustrated by bad weather . One F @-@ 13 was lost during a mission to Nagoya on 21 November , but the squadron had nine aircraft at Saipan by the end of the month . The 3d PRS continued to fly reconnaissance sorties over Japan until the end of the war .
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= Habsburg @-@ class battleship =
The Habsburg class was a group of pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built by Austria @-@ Hungary at the turn of the 20th century . They were the first sea @-@ going battleship built by Austria @-@ Hungary since the center @-@ battery ship Tegetthoff in 1876 . The class was composed of three ships : Habsburg , Árpád , and Babenberg . They were armed with three 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns in two turrets and were capable of slightly better than 19 @.@ 5 knots ( 36 @.@ 1 km / h ; 22 @.@ 4 mph ) at full speed . Habsburg and Árpád were modernized in 1910 – 11 .
Habsburg was launched on 9 September 1900 , Árpád just over a year later on 11 September 1901 , and Babenberg on 4 October 1902 . The ships saw limited service during World War I in the IV Division of the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet . Babenberg and Árpád bombarded the Italian port of Ancona in 1915 , but the three battleships were largely inactive for the remainder of their service . They were decommissioned in 1916 to free up the majority of their crews for service in the submarine and air forces . All three ships were ultimately ceded to Great Britain following the end of the war ; they were sold to Italian ship @-@ breakers and scrapped in 1921 .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The ships of the Habsburg class were 113 @.@ 11 m ( 371 ft ) long at the waterline and 114 @.@ 55 m ( 375 ft 10 in ) long overall . They had a beam of 19 @.@ 8 m ( 65 ft ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 5 m ( 24 ft 6 in ) . Freeboard was approximately 5 @.@ 80 m ( 19 @.@ 0 ft ) forward and about 5 @.@ 50 m ( 18 @.@ 0 ft ) aft . They displaced 8 @,@ 364 metric tons ( 8 @,@ 232 long tons ) . The ships had a crew of 638 officers and enlisted men . The ships had a flush main deck that was planked with wood , while the upper decks were covered with linoleum or corticine .
The hulls for each ship were constructed from transverse and longitudinal steel frames , over which the outer hull plates were riveted . The hull incorporated a double bottom that ran for 63 % of its length . A series of watertight bulkheads extended from the keel to the gun deck ; there were a total of 174 watertight compartments in each ship . The ships had a metacentric height of between .82 m ( 2 @.@ 7 ft ) and 1 @.@ 02 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) . Bilge keels were mounted on either side of the hull to reduce rolling .
Their machinery system consisted of 2 @-@ shaft 4 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion engines . They were supplied with steam by 16 Belleville boilers . Habsburg 's powerplant was rated at 15 @,@ 063 indicated horsepower ( 11 @,@ 232 kW ) , which produced a top speed of 19 @.@ 62 knots ( 36 @.@ 34 km / h ; 22 @.@ 58 mph ) . Árpád 's system was slightly less efficient , at 14 @,@ 307 ihp ( 10 @,@ 669 kW ) , though it achieved a comparable speed of 19 @.@ 65 knots ( 36 @.@ 39 km / h ; 22 @.@ 61 mph ) on trials . Babenberg had the most powerful engines of the three , which ran at 16 @,@ 000 ihp ( 12 @,@ 000 kW ) and provided a top speed of 19 @.@ 85 knots ( 36 @.@ 76 km / h ; 22 @.@ 84 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The ships ' primary armament was three 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) L / 40 guns , with two mounted in a twin turret forward and one mounted in a single turret aft of the main superstructure . The guns were manufactured by Krupp in Germany , and were the C 97 type .
Secondary armament included twelve 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 40 guns in casemates . They were mounted in an unusual arrangement : there were two decks of three guns each on either side amidships . These guns could fire armor @-@ piercing shells at a rate of 4 – 5 per minute . The guns could depress to − 7 degrees and elevate to 20 degrees , for a maximum range of 13 @,@ 700 metres ( 15 @,@ 000 yd ) . They were manually elevated and trained .
The ships carried a wide array of smaller weapons , for defense against torpedo boats . These included ten 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) L / 45 guns , six 4 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) L / 44 quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns , and two 4 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) L / 33 QF guns . All of these guns were emplaced in single mounts , either on the upper decks and superstructure , or in casemates at the bow and stern . With the exception of the main battery 24 cm weapons , all of the guns carried on the ships were manufactured by Škoda Works in Pilsen . The ships also carried two Whitehead 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) submerged torpedo tubes .
= = = Armor = = =
Habsburg and her sisters were protected by face @-@ hardened chrome @-@ nickel steel . The main armored belt was 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) in the central portion of each ship , where the ammunition magazines , machinery spaces , and other critical areas were located . The belt tapered slightly to 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) on either end of the central section . Past the barbettes , the hull was protected by about 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of armor plate , up to the bow and stern . The entire belt , including the thinner portions forward and aft of the main battery barbettes , extended for 1 @.@ 30 m ( 4 @.@ 3 ft ) below the waterline and 1 @.@ 06 m ( 3 @.@ 5 ft ) above . The belt was widened at the bow to cover the ram . Side protection was supplemented by 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick armor above the main belt ; this section of armor extended up to meet the gun deck . The armored deck was 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick .
The main battery turrets were protected by armor plate that was 210 mm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) thick on the sides and faces of the gun mounts . The armored barbettes that held the turrets , working chambers , and shell rooms were protected with 183 mm ( 7 @.@ 2 in ) of armor . The casemates for the 15 cm guns were 137 mm ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) on the outboard side and 88 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) on the less vulnerable inboard side . The forward conning tower was armored with sides that were 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick and contained a 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick communications tube ; the aft conning tower was less well @-@ protected . Its sides were 100 mm thick , and its communication tube was only 50 mm thick .
= = Construction = =
Habsburg was laid down at the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino shipyard in Trieste on 13 March 1899 . She was launched on 9 September 1900 , after which fitting @-@ out work was conducted . The ship was finally finished by December 1902 ; she was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet on the 31st of that month . Árpád followed Habsburg three months later ; she was laid down at the STT shipyard on 10 June 1899 and launched on 11 September 1901 . She was commissioned into the fleet on 15 June 1903 . Babenberg , the last ship of the three , was laid down at the STT dockyard on 19 January 1901 . She was launched on 4 October 1902 and completed on 15 April 1904 , when she joined her sisters in the fleet .
= = Service history = =
= = = Peace @-@ time = = =
Habsburg and Árpád took part in their first fleet maneuvers in mid 1903 . By the following summer , Babenberg was ready for active service , and she too participated in fleet drills . During the 1904 training exercises , the three Habsburgs engaged the three Monarch @-@ class battleships in simulated combat ; the maneuver marked the first time two homogeneous squadrons consisting of modern battleships operated in the Austro @-@ Hungarian navy . The three Habsburg @-@ class ships formed the I Division while the Monarchs formed the II Division . The ships were also active in the Mediterranean . Habsburg conducted a training cruise with the three Monarch @-@ class battleships in January 1903 . She was joined by Árpád the following year . With the commissioning of the Erzherzog Karl @-@ class battleships in 1906 – 1907 , the three Habsburg @-@ class ships were transferred to the II Division , and the three Monarchs went to the III Division .
= = = World War I = = =
At the outbreak of World War I in late July 1914 , Habsburg was serving as the flagship of the III Battleship Division of the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet , under the command of Captain Miklós Horthy , alongside her two sisters . They were later transferred to the IV Division after the new Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships came into service . At around the same time , she was mobilized along with her sister ships Árpád and Babenberg and the remainder of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy to support the flight of SMS Goeben and Breslau . The two German ships were stationed in the Mediterranean and were attempting to break out of the strait of Messina , which was surrounded by British troops and vessels and make their way to Turkey . After the Germans successfully broke out of Messina , the navy was recalled . The fleet had by that time advanced as far south as Brindisi in south eastern Italy . After Italy entered the war on the side of France and England , the Austro @-@ Hungarian navy bombarded several Italian installations ; Babenberg took part in the attack on Ancona in 1915 . They were later decommissioned and served as harbor defense ships for the latter portion of the conflict . Their crews were then transferred to man new U @-@ boats and aircraft . By 1918 , Árpád was converted into a training ship . Following the end of the war , the ships were awarded to Great Britain as war prizes , but were instead sold and broken up for scrapping in Italy in 1921 .
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= DakshinaChitra =
DakshinaChitra ( " a picture of the south " ) is a living @-@ history museum in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu , dedicated to South Indian heritage and culture . It is located 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) to the south of Chennai . Opened to the public on 14 December 1996 , the museum was founded and is being managed by the Madras Craft Foundation ( MCF ) . The MCF was established in 1984 . Deborah Thiagarajan , an Indian art historian of American origin , governs the museum .
The museum is built on 10 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 ha ) of land taken on a 33 @-@ year lease from the Government of Tamil Nadu . Developed as a heritage village , DakshinaChitra has an array of displays depicting the life pattern of Indians in the states of South India . The exhibits portray the living beliefs of art , folk performing @-@ arts , craft and architecture of India , in particular of South Indian traditions .
= = History = =
DakshinaChitra , meaning " a picture of the south " , is a heritage village where the lifestyle of South Indians is displayed based on their states . It was founded by the Madras Craft Foundation ( MCF ) , an NGO started in 1984 , by Deborah Thiagarajan . Thiagarajan came to Madras ( now Chennai ) in 1970 , and visited several rural villages in Tamil Nadu and Kerala . She founded MCF in 1984 with the intent of preserving the regional culture and heritage . In July 1991 , the MCF received 10 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 ha ) of land for the project from the Government of Tamil Nadu on a 33 @-@ year lease . In establishing the museum , cooperation was maintained between government organizations , industry and specialists in the sphere of conservation . Contributors to the museum 's creation included long @-@ term corporate donors and a network of organizations , such as Prakriti Foundation , Amethyst , National Folklore Support Centre , the Crafts Council of India , Ford Foundation and the Office of the Development Commissioner for Handicrafts .
= = Design = =
The museum ’ s plan concept was developed by architect , Laurie Baker , without charging any fee , because of his interest in rural architectural design . Baker 's approach included the use of local materials and the adaptation of artisanal production methods suited to the environment . Benny Kuriakose was the architect at site . Kuriakose , retained the main “ spatial types and syntax ” , but altered the layout plan . The southern part of the museum was devoted to restoring and recreating native structures and putting them together in a sequence in the order of the states of Andhra Pradesh , Karnataka , and Tamil Nadu ; a separate area was initially earmarked for the tribal people of these states but this was not put into effect .
= = Architecture = =
The museum has 18 heritage houses representing the living styles of people from the states of South India such as Tamil Nadu , Andhra Pradesh , North Karnataka , Kerala and Telangana . These houses , which were actual houses that were allowed to be demolished by the original owners , were recreated by a team of architecture students , carpenters and workers . The original houses in their " vernacular style " were purchased by MCF and purchase costs varied from Rs . 50 @,@ 000 for ordinary mud houses to Rs . 1 @.@ 5 million for the Chettinad merchants ' mansions with crafted doors and woodwork . ) They were then dismantled systematically under the guidance of stapathis ( temple architects ) . The dismantled elements were transported to the museum site and recreated at the allotted space in their exact original form . Apart from recreating the homes , the roads and all other features that existed in the old village sites were recreated .. Some critics have complained that the characterization of pre @-@ industrial village life is inaccurate , focusing too much on the Nattukkottai Chettiar , and that the site is " stamped " with " American consumerism " .
= = Collections = =
The artefacts in the museum reflect the daily life in the Southern States . As of 2014 , there were 4 @,@ 220 artefacts on display ; 3 @,@ 200 are art @-@ related , and 70 pertain to contemporary subjects . Approximately 950 objects are clothing , featuring typical South Indian attire of men and women in cotton and silk fabrics .
The museum contains a collection of books and journals pertaining to arts , crafts , performance , anthropology and folklore of South India . There are also 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 pictures . The entire display is in the English language , and highlights the cultural aspects of Brahminical people and the craft traditions of heritage homes of South India .
= = Programs = =
The museum is a center for living traditions of art , folk performing arts , and crafts set up with the objective of preserving and promoting South India 's heritage and culture . Special programmes feature dances , crafting of necklaces , basket weaving , and puppet shows . The museum also holds workshops for training in traditional crafts such as indigo dying . Potters trained at the center are issued a certificate of their skills by the regional office of the Department of the Development Commissioner ( Handicrafts ) . Classical dances such as Bharatnatyam , Mohiniyattam and Kuchipudi , and music concerts are regular events held in the large amphitheater . Each year , 15 @,@ 000 school children visit the museum .
= = Grounds = =
The center occupies ten acres overlooking the Bay of Bengal , at Muttukadu , 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) south of Chennai , on the East Coast Road to Mamallapuram , Tamil Nadu , India . The grounds include a research unit , crafts bazaar , playground , an area to hold religious functions , stone workshop , and souvenir kiosks . The craftsmen demonstrate or explain how they make their wares .
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= Liberation of Arnhem =
Operation Anger ( sometimes known as Operation Quick Anger ) , was a military operation to seize the city of Arnhem in April 1945 , during the closing stages of the Second World War . It is occasionally referred to as the Second Battle of Arnhem or the Liberation of Arnhem . The operation was part of the Canadian First Army 's liberation of the Netherlands and was led by the 49th British Infantry Division , supported by armour of the 5th Canadian Armoured Division , Royal Air Force air strikes and boats of the Royal Navy .
The Western Allies first tried to liberate Arnhem in September 1944 during Operation Market Garden . Poor planning , the unexpected presence of German armoured units and a delayed advance by ground forces meant that the 1st British Airborne Division were defeated and a new front stabilised south of the city . Fresh planning to take Arnhem began in the new year as the Canadian First Army sought ways to link up its units advancing into the Netherlands . However it was not until April that the liberation of the city became a distinct possibility . After II Canadian Corps secured the eastern bank of the IJssel river and advanced north , I Canadian Corps prepared to assault Arnhem .
The operation began on 12 April 1945 and proceeded to plan , as the three infantry brigades of the 49th Division leapfrogged each other through the city . Within four days Arnhem was totally under Allied control , allowing the Canadians to advance further into the Netherlands . Less than two weeks after the battle a general truce brought major combat operations in the country to an end and on 5 May the German commander in chief in the Netherlands surrendered to the Canadian Army . Three days later Germany unconditionally surrendered , bringing the war in Europe to a close .
= = Background = =
= = = The first battle of Arnhem = = =
In September 1944 the Allies launched Operation Market Garden , an effort to advance around the Siegfried Line and open a route to the Ruhr . The British 1st Airborne Division landed at Arnhem and fought for nine days in the city and surrounding towns and countryside , but the British 2nd Army 's advance failed to reach them and they were nearly annihilated . After withdrawing south of the Nederrijn the front line stabilised on the “ Island ” ( the polder between Nijmegen and Arnhem ) over the winter .
The residents of Arnhem and Oosterbeek ( over 450 of whom had been killed in the battle ) were evicted from their homes which were then systematically looted of anything of value to aid refugees in Germany . The shattered settlements were then turned into strong defensive positions to resist future Allied advances . The Arnhem road bridge that the British had fought so hard for was bombed by the Allies in October 1944 to deny its use to the Germans . Arnhem itself was extensively shelled by the Allies over the winter and was even hit by short @-@ falling German @-@ fired V @-@ 2 rockets . In retaliation for a Dutch railway workers strike supposed to aid the Allies ' September advance , the Germans banned all inland freight movement . This prevented food being grown in the north from reaching the south and west of the country and caused thousands of deaths amongst the Dutch population in the Hongerwinter .
= = = Allied crossing of the Lower Rhine = = =
In February 1945 the Allies launched Operations Veritable and Grenade , striking east from land captured during Market Garden directly into Germany . These paved the way for Operations Plunder and Varsity , crossing the River Rhine further upstream from Arnhem . 21st Army Group then advanced rapidly into north @-@ west Germany . Whilst the British 2nd Army advanced west , General Henry Crerar ’ s Canadian First Army was given the task of liberating the Netherlands .
The Canadian Army had been instructed to plan advances across the Lower Rhine when it first assumed responsibility for the Nijmegen salient in November , but any plans were delayed by the winter and the subsequent allocation of resources for Operation Veritable . However , after Operation Veritable Crerar saw advantages to seizing Arnhem and opening a route to Emmerich during the coming crossing of the Rhine . The first draft of the plan to take the city – known as Operation Anger – was compiled in February as a subsidiary operation to Plunder , but Lieutenant General Charles Foulkes , commander of the recently arrived I Canadian Corps , thought it safer to wait until the Rhine had been crossed before launching an action on Arnhem , and Anger was shelved .
After Plunder the II Canadian Corps , commanded by Lieutenant General Guy Simonds , struck west and seized Emmerich , approaching the IJssel from the east . Crerar saw an opportunity to take Arnhem and open a route between the city and Zutphen to the north , and ordered his two Corps commanders to coordinate their advances accordingly . However , he was wary of trying to seize Arnhem before the IJssel had been bridged further north .
In March the 49th ( West Riding ) Division ( nicknamed The Polar Bears ) , who had been on the Nijmegen Island since November , came under the command of I Canadian Corps . On 2 April the division , supported by Canadian units , led Operation Destroyer to clear the Island , carefully timing the initial attack to coincide with II Corps ' clearance of the east bank of the IJssel . On 3 April elements of I Corps crossed the Nederrijn east of the IJssel and met units from II Corps in the town of Westervoort opposite Arnhem . The rest of the Island was cleared within another day and the Allies occupied the southern bank of the Nederrijn in preparation for the assault on Arnhem .
The original ( February ) plan for Operation Anger had called for an immediate crossing of the Nederrijn near Oosterbeek as soon as the river was reached , if the situation allowed it ( Operation Quick Anger ) . Alternatively , if the German defenses were considered too strong , a better prepared crossing downstream at Renkum could be made ( Operation Anger ) . However , Crerar had ruled that operations could not be made against Arnhem until II Corps had crossed the IJssel and advanced on Apeldoorn , and so Anger could not yet proceed . Additionally reconnaissance patrols on 3 and 4 April determined that German observation posts and positions on the Westerbouwing Heights overlooking the river would make crossing the Nederrijn dangerous . Attempts were made to create smokescreens obscuring the southern bank of the Nederrijn from the watching Germans , a technique that had proved successful in the buildup to Operation Plunder . The screen stretched from the town of Randwijk , 16 kilometres ( 10 miles ) west of Arnhem , along the south bank of the river to Huissen , south of Arnhem , but strong winds and a lack of appropriate generators reduced its effectiveness . Additionally the ground on the Island was deteriorating and on 7 April , after considering various alternatives , Foulkes decided Arnhem must be attacked from the east , across the IJssel .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Allied forces = = =
The attack was necessarily delayed whilst the 49th Division moved to Westervoort and II Canadian Corps prepared to cross the IJssel further north . The move caused serious logistical problems as the roads around the Island and Westervoort became jammed with traffic . This delay caused concern that the enemy would have time to prepare for the assault , but in the event it appeared they had neither the troops or equipment to improve their situation .
The attack was planned to proceed in three phases . The initial assault would be carried out by the 56th British Infantry Brigade who would cross the IJssel at night in Buffalo IVs of The Ontario Regiment before clearing the eastern and southern districts of the city . In phase two , the 146th British Infantry Brigade would move forward and attack the high ground north of Arnhem . In the third phase , the 147th British Infantry Brigade would advance through 56th 's positions and secure the high ground and north bank of the Nederrijn west of the city . With the heights around Arnhem secure the 5th Canadian Armoured Division would advance through the city and I Corps would resume its advance west . The British took several Canadian units under command along with Churchill Crocodile tanks of the 79th British Armoured Division . Most of the 1st Canadian Infantry Division and 5th Canadian Armoured Division were placed in support , and a composite group known as Murphyforce provided a diversion south of the Nederrijn .
The river crossing would be assisted by 552 Landing Craft Flotilla of the Royal Navy who provided several landing craft previously used in Plunder , and the Royal Army Service Corps ( RASC ) would run DUKWs across the river during the operation . I Corps ' Royal Canadian Engineers ( RCE ) , would build four Bailey pontoon ferries as soon as locations on the enemy bank were captured ( two across the IJssel and two across the Nederrijn ) . The RCE would also deploy a prefabricated Bailey bridge as soon as the situation allowed it . The bridge was built in advance further upstream at Doornenburg and floated nearer to the IJssel just prior to the attack . As soon as the situation allowed it this bridge would be floated into position between Westervoort and Arnhem , hopefully allowing armour to cross the river much faster than the enemy would expect . Canadian pioneers would lay a heavy artillery smokescreen over Arnhem during the attack and in the buildup to the battle they maintained the smoke screen along the Nederrijn , in the hope it would deceive the Germans as to the true direction of the crossing .
Allied order of battle
49th ( West Riding ) Infantry Division The Polar Bears GOC Major @-@ General Stuart Rawlins
56th Infantry Brigade , CO Brigadier R.H. Senior
2nd Battalion , South Wales Borderers
2nd Battalion , Gloucestershire Regiment
2nd Battalion , Essex Regiment
146th Infantry Brigade , CO Brigadier D.S. Gordon
4th Battalion , Lincolnshire Regiment
1 / 4th Battalion , King 's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry
Hallamshire Battalion , York and Lancaster Regiment
147th Infantry Brigade , CO Brigadier H. Wood
1st Battalion , Leicestershire Regiment
1 / 7th Battalion , Duke of Wellington 's Regiment
11th Battalion , Royal Scots Fusiliers
Attached
Units of the 5th Canadian Armoured Division
11th Armoured Regiment ( The Ontario Regiment )
12th Independent Machine Gun Company , Princess Louise Fusiliers
Units of the 79th British Armoured Division
617th Assault Squadron , Royal Engineers
= = = German forces = = =
The German forces in the Netherlands ( under the overall command of Generaloberst Johannes Blaskowitz ) had recently been re @-@ designated Fortress Holland ( German : Festung Holland ) , although this name change had little effect on the units on the ground . The rout of forces the previous year , the formation of ad hoc Kampfgruppe ( Battle Groups ) and cannibalising of units made it difficult for Allied intelligence to determine German strength north of the Rhine , and still did several years after the war . Approximately 10 @,@ 000 troops of the 30th German Corps were believed to be in the Arnhem – Apeldoorn area , under the command of General Philipp Kleffel . There were believed to be up to 1 @,@ 000 men of the 346th Infantry Division , the 858th Grenadier Regiment and other miscellaneous units occupying the Arnhem area , including a divisional battle school , paratroopers and Dutch @-@ SS . As well as the natural defence provided by the rivers and the high ground north and west of the city , Arnhem itself had been turned into a strong defensive position after the battle the previous year . On the very day of the opening assault on Arnhem , Heinrich Himmler issued a decree that all cities should be defended at any price , failure to do so being punishable by death .
= = Battle = =
On 11 April , II Corps launched Operation Cannonshot – the crossing of the IJssel further north at Deventer – prior to striking west toward Apeldoorn . On the morning of 12 April Foulkes was informed that the operation was well underway , whereupon he ordered the 49th Division to commence their attack that evening . The whole day was spent bombarding the enemy in Arnhem using artillery and ground attack aircraft . The RAF laid on 36 Spitfire and 83 rocket firing Typhoon sorties to soften up the German positions and the attack was preceded by one of the heaviest artillery barrages ever fired by I Canadian Corps . One field gun battery of eight guns fired 640 rounds in ten minutes ( an average rate of eight rounds per gun per minute ) , and the Pioneer Corps fired 30 @,@ 000 smoke shells over the course of the battle . A diversionary barrage from south of the Nederrijn provoked a strong German response suggesting they had probably prepared for an attack to be made from the south rather than the east .
= = = Phase one = = =
The initial assault did not proceed entirely to plan . The crossing was set to begin at 10 : 40pm but was delayed by the late arrival of several assault craft . Additionally several explosive charges on the eastern bank of the river designed to clear a path through landmines and the ' bund ' failed to detonate . The 2nd Battalion The Gloucestershire Regiment then discovered several Buffaloes were inoperative and so the companies were forced to cross separately and not in one assault as planned . Despite this the four companies of 2nd Battalion began crossing separately , their way illuminated by Monty 's moonlight ( searchlights reflecting their light off the clouds overhead ) and Bofors guns firing coloured tracer in the direction of attack . Under the cover of heavy machine guns and mortars the first company reached the west bank of the IJssel at 11.15pm. They began to take their objectives in the face of light opposition along the riverbank , sustaining 32 casualties . After a slight delay they secured the landing area for the prefabricated Bailey bridge and at 12.50am The Royal Canadian Engineers began floating the components of the bridge into position . The second wave ; the 2nd Battalion The South Wales Borderers crossed the river under heavy artillery fire . Their assault craft drifted downstream in the crossing , but once ashore they advanced rapidly into the city . However their advance stalled and the 1 / 7th Battalion , Duke of Wellington 's Regiment , originally due to cross in Phase 3 , was sent over the river to support them . By 7 : 00am the 2nd Battalion The Essex Regiment were across the river and by 8 : 45am the RCE had set up a pontoon ferry to begin moving tanks of the Ontario Regiment across as well .
= = = Phase two = = =
The Royal Canadian Engineers continued assembling the Bailey bridge throughout the night and 12 hours after H @-@ Hour , traffic was rolling across the IJssel . This allowed Phase 2 of the operation to proceed and soon troops of 146th Brigade and tanks of the Ontario Regiment were moving up to 56th Brigade 's positions . There was relatively little resistance in the morning , although the South Wales Borderers had to beat back a counterattack near the Railway Junction . In the late morning the British advanced towards a large Enka BV factory complex in the eastern area of the city where a battalion of the 346th Infantry and troops of the 46th Festungs Machine Gun Battalion had set up a strong point . The Germans had moved in from Oosterbeek that morning and had thus escaped the earlier bombardments . The 4th Battalion The Lincolnshire Regiment were tasked to clear the complex , although the Germans – being relatively fresh – were able to offer some resistance . With support from the tanks of the Ontario Regiment , and the 79th Division the Germans were eventually overwhelmed in a battle which lasted most of the day . By the evening of 13 April most of the resistance in the city had broken and the 147th Brigade were preparing to cross into Arnhem .
= = = Phase three = = =
The 147th Brigade crossed the Nederrijn from the Island overnight and by the morning of the 14 April they were ready to move through 56th Brigade 's positions . By now the German defence was crumbling , but the battalions of the 147th encountered significant numbers of mines and demolitions as they advanced . D Company of the Duke of Wellington 's Regiment ambushed what they believed to be a German counterattack led by three French Renault tanks , although it later transpired that the Germans had no idea that the British were there . Later in the day , Dutch soldiers of the 34th SS Volunteer Grenadier Division Landstorm Nederland supported by armour counterattacked the Duke of Wellington 's positions . The Dutch were eventually beaten back after heavy fighting knocked out their tanks , but were able to blunt a later British advance into their area . By the end of the day the Allied units had reached all of their objectives and most of Arnhem was secure . The 5th Armoured Division began moving onto the high ground north of the city that night , where they met elements of SAS units who had been operating behind enemy lines since earlier that month . On 15 April the Duke of Wellingtons occupied the city 's zoo and upon discovering a live polar bear offered it to their brigade commander , who declined . The Germans were cleared out of the precinct of Velp and the surrounding area on 15 and 16 April , bringing Operation Anger to an end .
= = Aftermath = =
The Allies liberated a ruined city . After the looting the previous year , houses were little more than empty wrecks – devoid of furniture , household goods and even doors . Canadian Broadcasting Corporation correspondent Matthew Halton described the city as " a deserted , burning shell " and the 49th Division war diary noted that " a town had never been more wantonly destroyed . " Evidence of the first battle of Arnhem lay everywhere and the liberation was likened to " entering an ancient tomb . "
The Allied advance continued immediately . The 5th Canadian ( Armoured ) Division began moving through Arnhem towards the high ground north of the city on the night of the 14 – 15 April . In a change to the original plan to head west , the division was given a new mission known as Operation Cleanser and moved north to secure towns between Arnhem and the IJsselmeer . A large German force counterattacked the 5th Division on the night of the 16th at Otterlo , hoping to break out to the West , but were beaten back after heavy losses . On 17 April the 49th Division attacked Ede , occupied by the Dutch SS , and liberated the town in 24 hours . On 27 April a temporary truce came into effect , allowing the distribution of food aid to the starving Dutch civilians in areas under German control ( Operation Manna ) , and on 5 May Generaloberst Blaskowitz agreed to the unconditional surrender of all German forces in the Netherlands .
The British recorded 62 killed and 134 wounded in the action , although it is unclear if this includes Canadian casualties . German figures are imprecise with prisoners of war being recorded as 601 in some sources and up to 1 @,@ 600 in others . Casualties are similarly unknown , although could have been as high as 3 @,@ 000 . Most of the Allied men killed in the battle were buried at the Arnhem Oosterbeek War Cemetery after the war , whilst Germans who had been buried at localised cemeteries or in field graves were eventually re @-@ interred at Ysselsteyn , along with most Germans killed in the Netherlands . Units involved in the battle were later awarded the battle honour Arnhem 1945 . In 1999 the Princess Louise Fusiliers were also granted the honour after research by Captain Sanchez King was able to demonstrate the regiment 's entitlement .
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= Turning Point ( 2008 wrestling ) =
Turning Point ( 2008 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced by the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) promotion , which took place on November 9 , 2008 at the TNA Impact ! Zone in Orlando , Florida . It was the fourth in the Turning Point chronology and the first under its name to take place in November . It was originally scheduled for December , but TNA moved it to November in late 2008 for an unknown reason . It was the eleventh event in the 2008 TNA PPV schedule . Eight professional wrestling matches , with three involving championships , were featured on the event 's card .
The main event was for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , in which then @-@ champion Sting defeated the challenger A.J. Styles . Kevin Nash versus Samoa Joe was also featured on the card . Nash defeated Joe in the contest . A Falls Count Anywhere match pitting Kurt Angle against Abyss was promoted for the undercard , which Angle won . The TNA Legends Championship was defended for the first time by Booker T against Christian Cage during the show . Booker T was the victor in the bout , thus retaining the championship .
30 @,@ 000 was the reported figure of purchasers for the event by The Wrestling Observer Newsletter . Turning Point had an attendance of 1 @,@ 100 people . Bryan and Chris Sokol of the professional wrestling section of the Canadian Online Explorer website rated Turning Point a 7 out of 10 , which was just above the 2007 event 's rating of 6 @.@ 5 . In his review , Phil Allely of the United Kingdom 's The Sun newspaper felt Turning Point was " a thoroughly enjoyable show " .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
On the first day of 2008 , TNA updated their official website to publicize the official dates for all of their PPV events to take place that year . The next installment in the Turning Point chronology was scheduled for December 14 , 2008 . The date was later changed to December 21 , and the location was announced as the TNA Impact ! Zone in Orlando , Florida . In October 2008 , three events were rescheduled : Genesis , Final Resolution , and Turning Point . The first moved was Turning Point to the Genesis event date of November 9 , while Final Resolution was announced for some time in December . Genesis was later announced to be taking place in Charlotte , North Carolina on January 11 , 2009 . The song Indestructible by the rock band Disturbed was used as the official theme of the event . The promotional poster for the gathering , featuring Mick Foley , was released through PPV providers .
= = = Storylines = = =
Turning Point featured eight professional wrestling matches that involved different wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds and storylines . Wrestlers were portrayed as either villains or heroes in the scripted events which built tension and culminated with a wrestling match or series of matches .
Heading into Turning Point , TNA 's main storyline was an on @-@ screen rivalry between professional wrestling veterans , who played the villains and called themselves The Main Event Mafia ( Sting , Kurt Angle , Kevin Nash , Booker T , and Scott Steiner ) , and the younger talent of the company , who played the heroic characters and were led by A.J. Styles and Samoa Joe . Multiple smaller rivalries broke off from this storyline , such as one over the TNA World Heavyweight Championship between the reigning champion , Sting , and the challenger , Styles . It began on August 10 at TNA 's Hard Justice PPV event when Sting assaulted Styles after his encounter with Angle . Sting then defeated Joe , an ally of Styles , at TNA 's Bound for Glory IV PPV event on October 12 after an assist from Nash , which later sparked a rivalry between Joe and Nash . Sting 's and Styles ' rivalry soon escalated to a point where storyline co @-@ owner of TNA Mick Foley announced on the October 30 episode of TNA 's television program TNA Impact ! that the two would fight for the championship at Turning Point .
The build to the encounter between Joe and Nash began in December 2007 . On December 2 , 2007 at the previous Turning Point event , Joe was scheduled to take part in a Six Man Tag Team match , partnering with Nash and Nash 's longtime real @-@ life friend Scott Hall to face The Angle Alliance ( Angle , Styles , and Tomko ) . Hall , however , missed the event citing " food poisoning " , leaving Joe legitimately angered by the excuse . Joe went on to make an on @-@ camera statement in the ring insulting Hall . Following the incident , TNA began a storyline in which Joe was unhappy with his position in the company for various reasons and had continuous conflicts with Nash . After time , Nash became Joe 's on @-@ screen mentor , which led to Joe defeating Angle on April 13 at TNA 's Lockdown PPV event to become the new TNA World Heavyweight Champion . Joe and Nash 's partnership seemed to come to a close after Nash disappeared from TNA television in mid @-@ 2008 . He returned at Bound for Glory IV where he cost Joe the championship in his match against Sting . On the October 30 episode of Impact ! , Foley announced that Joe would face Nash at Turning Point .
Another bout advertised for the event was Angle versus Abyss in a Falls Count Anywhere match . At Bound for Glory IV , Angle lost to TNA founder and on @-@ screen co @-@ owner Jeff Jarrett with Foley as Special Guest Enforcer . On the Impact ! after Bound for Glory IV , Angle challenged Jarrett to another match at Turning Point , however , Jarrett refused . Angered by Jarrett 's refusal , Angle began assaulting several wrestlers in TNA to persuade Jarrett into accepting the challenge . On the October 23 episode of Impact ! , Angle challenged Jarrett again to a rematch , which Jarrett again refused . Jarrett , however , recommended Abyss as Angle 's opponent , who was a casualty of Angle 's attacks the previous week . On the October 30 episode of Impact ! , Angle fought Abyss in a contest which ended in a disqualification after Angle struck Abyss with a steel chair . Following their encounter , a match was promoted pitting Angle against Abyss in a Falls Count Anywhere match at Turning Point .
On the October 23 episode of Impact ! , Booker T introduced a new championship named the TNA Legends Championship and declared himself the inaugural champion . Afterwards , Christian Cage , who had remained neutral in the storyline , entered the arena and challenged Booker T to defend the championship against him at Turning Point . Booker T accepted after he added the stipulation that if Cage lost the encounter he would have to join The Main Event Mafia . Later on the October 30 episode of Impact ! , the match was made official when it was promoted for the event .
= = Event = =
= = = Miscellaneous = = =
The event featured employees other than the wrestlers involved in the matches . There were four overall commentators for the event ; Mike Tenay and Don West provided English commentary , while Hector Guerrero and Willie Urbina served as the Spanish announce team . There were three ring announcers for the spectacle as the normal ring announcer , David Penzer , was used for all but two contests . Retired Army veteran Sean M. Autrey served as the special guest ring announcer for the Rhino and Sheik Abdul Bashir encounter . Jeremy Borash announced the competitors for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship match , using a style similar to professional boxing as made famous by Michael Buffer . Shane Sewell , Earl Hebner , Rudy Charles , Mark " Slick " Johnson , and Andrew Thomas participated as referees for the encounters . Borash and Lauren Thompson were used as interviewers throughout the event . Besides wrestlers who were appearing in a wrestling role , Jeff Jarrett , Mick Foley , Scott Steiner , and Matt Morgan were also featured in backstage segments . Other than contractual employees being featured , the group Insane Clown Posse ( ICP ) and Scott Hall were seen in attendance . This was later revealed to have been scripted to occur , as TNA had asked ICP to attend the event , but were unaware of Hall being their guest .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The event commenced with a ten @-@ man X Division elimination rankings match , which involved Eric Young , Consequences Creed , Doug Williams , Homicide , Jay Lethal , Jimmy Rave , Petey Williams , Sonjay Dutt , Tanahashi , and Volador . The match was announced as following lucha libre tag team rules , in which a participant could be replaced if thrown from the ring to the floor , but not eliminated from the match unless by pinfall or submission . The order of elimination determined the standings in the X Division towards a future TNA X Division Championship match , in storyline . Homicide was injured during the match , thus was declared eliminated after a bad fall to the outside area . Lethal and Young were the final two men in the contest . Young was the victor in the match after slamming Lethal into the mat with a bridging back suplex at 17 minutes .
A tag team match pitting the team of Roxxi and Taylor Wilde against the team of Awesome Kong and Raisha Saeed , who were accompanied by Rhaka Khan , was held . After various maneuvers were performed by each competitor , Wilde gained the pinfall victory on Saeed after forcing her back into the mat with a bridging German suplex at eight minutes .
Rhino fought Sheik Abdul Bashir in the following bout . Ten year Army veteran Sean M. Autrey served as the special guest ring announcer for the encounter . The match lasted nine minutes , and came to a finish when Rhino pinned Bashir after a tackle .
The TNA World Tag Team Championship was contested between the reigning champions Beer Money , Inc . ( James Storm and Robert Roode ) , who were accompanied by Jacqueline , and The Motor City Machineguns of Alex Shelley and Chris Sabin . After several tag team maneuvers from both teams , Storm spat beer in Sabin 's face , blinding him . This allowed Beer Money to lift up and slam Sabin back @-@ first to the mat with their Drinking While Investing ( DWI ) tag team maneuver to gain the pinfall and retain the championship at 17 minutes .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The fifth match was Booker T 's defense of the TNA Legends Championship against Christian Cage , with the added stipulation that if Cage lost , he would be forced to join The Main Event Mafia . Booker T was accompanied by Sharmell for the bout . The match lasted for 11 minutes , ending when Booker T pinned Cage with a roll @-@ up .
A Falls Count Anywhere match between Kurt Angle and Abyss followed , lasting 17 minutes . At one point during the encounter while Abyss was standing on the concrete floor and Angle was on the stage , Angle performed a running leap off the stage into a somersault senton , connecting with Abyss on the floor . Angle was the victor in the bout , after throwing Abyss off of a scaffold through the Spanish announcers ' table , then descending and covering Abyss for the pinfall .
Kevin Nash fought Samoa Joe in the seventh contest of the night . The match lasted 12 minutes . At two points during the match , Nash performed his signature Jackknife Powerbomb with Joe kicking out before the three count . This led to Nash hitting Joe in the groin and placing his feet on the ropes for leverage in his winning pin attempt .
The main event was for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship between the champion , Sting , and the challenger , A.J. Styles . During the 15 minutes the match lasted , Styles executed his aerial technique the Spiral Tap , in which he jumps off one of the top padded turnbuckles , spins and flips in mid @-@ air before landing on his opponent . He then ascended the turnbuckle to perform the maneuver once again , but was distracted by Angle and Booker T. Later , Styles missed a pele kick on Sting , which allowed Sting to counter with a small package pin on Styles to retain the championship .
= = Reception = =
A total of 1 @,@ 100 people attended the event . In late 2008 , The Wrestling Observer Newsletter reported that the number of pay @-@ per @-@ view purchasers for the event was believed to be 30 @,@ 000 . Canadian Online Explorer writers Bryan and Chris Sokol rated the entire event a 7 out of 10 , which was .5 above the 2007 event 's rating of 6 @.@ 5 by Chris Sokol . The Falls Count Anywhere match was given the highest rating during their review , at 8 out of 10 . The lowest rating was given to the women 's tag team match and the Rhino versus Bashir bout , at 5 out of 10 . The main event match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship was rated 7 out of 10 . Wade Keller of the Pro Wrestling Torch stated during his review that the Falls Count Anywhere match " had an epic feeling for a falls count anywhere brawl . It had various chapters , many convincing near falls , several creative big spots , and the crowd was into it . " While regrading the main event , Keller stated he thought it was a " good match . " James Caldwell , also of the Pro Wrestling Torch , mentioned during his review that Joe versus Nash had " good drama " due to the storyline " with a big game veteran vs. a big game ' Young Lion ' in a compelling match @-@ up . Joe losing should be treated as a huge deal with proper follow @-@ up to move Joe up to the next level . If he 's losing , it needs to mean something for his overall growth . " Phil Allely , a journalist for The Sun , stated he felt the event was " a thoroughly enjoyable show " . The event was released by TNA Home Video on DVD on March 24 , 2009 as part of the " TNA Wrestling : Cross The Line Vol . 2 " box set , which included the December 2008 Final Resolution event and the Genesis 2009 event .
= = Aftermath = =
On the November 13 episode of Impact ! , Cage was to be inducted into The Main Event Mafia ( MEM ) , however , they instead turned on and assaulted him . This led to Cage 's occasional tag team partner , Rhino , becoming involved in the overall storyline as the leader of the group The TNA Front Line after he was attacked by MEM on the November 20 episode of Impact ! . During that same telecast , Angle versus Rhino was announced as TNA 's Final Resolution event , with the added stipulations that if Angle won he would gain an opportunity to face Jeff Jarrett , while if Rhino won , then Angle was to be released from his TNA contract . Angle went on to defeat Rhino at the event , which led to Angle defeating Jarrett in a No Disqualification match at TNA 's Genesis event in January 2009 .
Sting and Styles went on to have another match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship at Final Resolution . This time , the team of Sting , Steiner , Nash , and Booker T faced off against Styles , Joe , and two mystery partners ( The TNA Front Line ) in an Eight Man Tag Team match . The stipulations were if anyone from Styles ' team pinned a member of Sting 's team , then Styles won the TNA Title , while if anyone from Sting 's team pinned a member of Styles ' team , then Sting retained the title . The match was announced on the November 20 episode of Impact ! . Styles ' mystery partners were revealed on the November 27 episode of Impact ! as Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) . Sting went on to retain the title at Final Resolution after he pinned Joe .
Eric Young got his TNA X Division Championship match on the November 13 episode of Impact ! against then @-@ champion Sheik Abdul Bashir . Though he defeated him to become the new champion , a week later the decision was reversed and Young was forced to relinquish the title belt to Bashir due to a controversial ending to their match . Young and Bashir fought for the championship once again at Final Resolution , with referee Shane Sewell interfering in the bout like he had done in the previous encounter , which allowed Young to gain the victory . Afterwards , Management Director Jim Cornette stripped Young of the championship . This set up a tournament for the title , ending at Genesis where Alex Shelley defeated Chris Sabin to become the new champion .
= = Results = =
X Division rankings match eliminations
|
= Niobium =
Niobium , formerly columbium , is a chemical element with symbol Nb ( formerly Cb ) and atomic number 41 . It is a soft , grey , ductile transition metal , which is often found in the pyrochlore mineral , the main commercial source for niobium , and columbite . The name comes from Greek mythology : Niobe , daughter of Tantalus since it is so similar to tantalum .
Niobium has physical and chemical properties similar to those of the element tantalum , and the two are difficult to distinguish . The English chemist Charles Hatchett reported a new element similar to tantalum in 1801 and named it columbium . In 1809 , the English chemist William Hyde Wollaston wrongly concluded that tantalum and columbium were identical . The German chemist Heinrich Rose determined in 1846 that tantalum ores contain a second element , which he named niobium . In 1864 and 1865 , a series of scientific findings clarified that niobium and columbium were the same element ( as distinguished from tantalum ) , and for a century both names were used interchangeably . Niobium was officially adopted as the name of the element in 1949 , but the name columbium remains in current use in metallurgy in the United States .
It was not until the early 20th century that niobium was first used commercially . Brazil is the leading producer of niobium and ferroniobium , an alloy of niobium and iron which has a niobium content of 60 @-@ 70 % . Niobium is used mostly in alloys , the largest part in special steel such as that used in gas pipelines . Although these alloys contain a maximum of 0 @.@ 1 % , the small percentage of niobium enhances the strength of the steel . The temperature stability of niobium @-@ containing superalloys is important for its use in jet and rocket engines .
Niobium is used in various superconducting materials . These superconducting alloys , also containing titanium and tin , are widely used in the superconducting magnets of MRI scanners . Other applications of niobium include welding , nuclear industries , electronics , optics , numismatics , and jewelry . In the last two applications , the low toxicity and iridescence produced by anodization are highly desired properties .
= = History = =
Niobium was discovered by the English chemist Charles Hatchett in 1801 . He found a new element in a mineral sample that had been sent to England from Massachusetts , United States in 1734 by John Winthrop F.R.S. ( grandson of John Winthrop the Younger ) and named the mineral columbite and the new element columbium after Columbia , the poetical name for the United States . The columbium discovered by Hatchett was probably a mixture of the new element with tantalum .
Subsequently , there was considerable confusion over the difference between columbium ( niobium ) and the closely related tantalum . In 1809 , the English chemist William Hyde Wollaston compared the oxides derived from both columbium — columbite , with a density 5 @.@ 918 g / cm3 , and tantalum — tantalite , with a density over 8 g / cm3 , and concluded that the two oxides , despite the significant difference in density , were identical ; thus he kept the name tantalum . This conclusion was disputed in 1846 by the German chemist Heinrich Rose , who argued that there were two different elements in the tantalite sample , and named them after children of Tantalus : niobium ( from Niobe ) , and pelopium ( from Pelops ) . This confusion arose from the minimal observed differences between tantalum and niobium . The claimed new elements pelopium , ilmenium and dianium were in fact identical to niobium or mixtures of niobium and tantalum .
The differences between tantalum and niobium were unequivocally demonstrated in 1864 by Christian Wilhelm Blomstrand , and Henri Etienne Sainte @-@ Claire Deville , as well as Louis J. Troost , who determined the formulas of some of the compounds in 1865 and finally by the Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac in 1866 , who all proved that there were only two elements . Articles on ilmenium continued to appear until 1871 .
De Marignac was the first to prepare the metal in 1864 , when he reduced niobium chloride by heating it in an atmosphere of hydrogen . Although de Marignac was able to produce tantalum @-@ free niobium on a larger scale by 1866 , it was not until the early 20th century that niobium was used in incandescent lamp filaments , the first commercial application . This use quickly became obsolete through the replacement of niobium with tungsten , which has a higher melting point . That niobium improves the strength of steel was first discovered in the 1920s , and this application remains its predominant use . In 1961 , the American physicist Eugene Kunzler and coworkers at Bell Labs discovered that niobium @-@ tin continues to exhibit superconductivity in the presence of strong electric currents and magnetic fields , making it the first material to support the high currents and fields necessary for useful high @-@ power magnets and electrical power machinery . This discovery enabled — two decades later — the production of long multi @-@ strand cables wound into coils to create large , powerful electromagnets for rotating machinery , particle accelerators , and particle detectors .
= = = Naming the element = = =
Columbium ( symbol " Cb " ) was the name originally given to this element by Hatchett , and this name remained in use in American journals — the last paper published by American Chemical Society with columbium in its title dates from 1953 — while niobium was used in Europe . To end this confusion , the name niobium was chosen for element 41 at the 15th Conference of the Union of Chemistry in Amsterdam in 1949 . A year later this name was officially adopted by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) after 100 years of controversy , despite the chronological precedence of the name columbium . The latter name is still sometimes used in US industry . This was a compromise of sorts ; the IUPAC accepted tungsten instead of wolfram in deference to North American usage ; and niobium instead of columbium in deference to European usage . Not everyone agreed , and while many leading chemical societies and government organizations use the official IUPAC name , many leading metallurgists , metal societies , and the United States Geological Survey still use the original American name , " columbium " .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical = = =
Niobium is a lustrous , grey , ductile , paramagnetic metal in Group 5 of the periodic table ( see table ) , with an electron configuration in the outermost shells atypical for Group 5 . ( This can be observed in the neighborhood of ruthenium ( 44 ) , rhodium ( 45 ) , and palladium ( 46 ) . )
Although it is thought to have a body @-@ centered cubic Crystal structure from T = 0 K to its melting point , high @-@ resolution measurements of the thermal expansion along the three crystallographic axes reveal anisotropies which are inconsistent with a cubic structure . Therefore , further research and discovery in this area is expected .
Niobium becomes a superconductor at cryogenic temperatures . At atmospheric pressure , it has the highest critical temperature of the elemental superconductors : 9 @.@ 2 K. Niobium has the greatest magnetic penetration depth of any element . In addition , it is one of the three elemental Type II superconductors , along with vanadium and technetium . The superconductive properties are strongly dependent on the purity of the niobium metal .
When very pure , it is comparatively soft and ductile , but impurities make it harder .
The metal has a low capture cross @-@ section for thermal neutrons ; thus it is used in the nuclear industries where neutron transparent structures are desired .
= = = Chemical = = =
The metal takes on a bluish tinge when exposed to air at room temperature for extended periods . Despite a high melting point in elemental form ( 2 @,@ 468 ° C ) , it has a lower density than other refractory metals . Furthermore , it is corrosion @-@ resistant , exhibits superconductivity properties , and forms dielectric oxide layers .
Niobium is slightly less electropositive and more compact than its predecessor in the periodic table , zirconium , whereas it is virtually identical in size to the heavier tantalum atoms , as a result of the lanthanide contraction . As a result , niobium 's chemical properties are very similar to those for tantalum , which appears directly below niobium in the periodic table . Although its corrosion resistance is not as outstanding as that of tantalum , the lower price and greater availability make niobium attractive for less demanding applications , such as vat linings in chemical plants .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Niobium in the Earth 's crust comprises one stable isotope , 93Nb . By 2003 , at least 32 radioisotopes had been synthesized , ranging in atomic mass from 81 to 113 . The most stable of these is 92Nb with a half @-@ life of 34 @.@ 7 million years . One of the least stable is 113Nb , with an estimated half @-@ life of 30 milliseconds . Isotopes that are lighter than the stable 93Nb tend to decay by β + decay , and those that are heavier tend to decay by β − decay , with some exceptions . 81Nb , 82Nb , and 84Nb have minor β + delayed proton emission decay paths , 91Nb decays by electron capture and positron emission , and 92Nb decays by both β + and β − decay .
At least 25 nuclear isomers have been described , ranging in atomic mass from 84 to 104 . Within this range , only 96Nb , 101Nb , and 103Nb do not have isomers . The most stable of niobium 's isomers is 93mNb with a half @-@ life of 16 @.@ 13 years . The least stable isomer is 84mNb with a half @-@ life of 103 ns . All of niobium 's isomers decay by isomeric transition or beta decay except 92m1Nb , which has a minor electron capture decay chain .
= = = Occurrence = = =
Niobium is estimated to be the 34th most common element in the Earth ’ s crust , with 20 ppm . Some think that the abundance on Earth is much greater , and that the element 's high density has concentrated it in the Earth ’ s core . The free element is not found in nature , but niobium occurs in combination with other elements in minerals . Minerals that contain niobium often also contain tantalum . Examples include columbite ( ( Fe , Mn ) ( Nb , Ta ) 2O6 ) and columbite – tantalite ( or coltan , ( Fe , Mn ) ( Ta , Nb ) 2O6 ) . Columbite – tantalite minerals are most usually found as accessory minerals in pegmatite intrusions , and in alkaline intrusive rocks . Less common are the niobates of calcium , uranium , thorium and the rare earth elements . Examples of such niobates are pyrochlore ( ( Na , Ca ) 2Nb2O6 ( OH , F ) ) and euxenite ( ( Y , Ca , Ce , U , Th ) ( Nb , Ta , Ti ) 2O6 ) . These large deposits of niobium have been found associated with carbonatites ( carbonate @-@ silicate igneous rocks ) and as a constituent of pyrochlore .
The three largest currently mined deposits of pyrochlore , two in Brazil and one in Canada , were founded in the 1950s , and are still the major producers of niobium mineral concentrates . The largest deposit is hosted within a carbonatite intrusion in Araxá , state of Minas Gerais , Brazil , owned by CBMM ( Companhia Brasileira de Metalurgia e Mineração ) ; the other active Brazilian deposit is located near Catalão , state of Goiás , and owned by Anglo American plc ( through its subsidiary Mineração Catalão ) , also hosted within a carbonatite intrusion . Together , those two mines produce about 88 % of the world 's supply . Brazil also has a large but still unexploited deposit near São Gabriel da Cachoeira , state of Amazonas , as well as a few smaller deposits , notably in the state of Roraima .
The third largest producer of niobium is the carbonatite @-@ hosted Niobec mine , in Saint @-@ Honoré , near Chicoutimi , Quebec , Canada , owned by Magris Resources . It produces between 7 % and 10 % of the world 's supply .
= = Production = =
After the separation from the other minerals , the mixed oxides of tantalum Ta2O5 and niobium Nb2O5 are obtained . The first step in the processing is the reaction of the oxides with hydrofluoric acid :
Ta2O5 + 14 HF → 2 H2 [ TaF7 ] + 5 H2O
Nb2O5 + 10 HF → 2 H2 [ NbOF5 ] + 3 H2O
The first industrial scale separation , developed by de Marignac , exploits the differing solubilities of the complex niobium and tantalum fluorides , dipotassium oxypentafluoroniobate monohydrate ( K2 [ NbOF5 ] · H2O ) and dipotassium heptafluorotantalate ( K2 [ TaF7 ] ) in water . Newer processes use the liquid extraction of the fluorides from aqueous solution by organic solvents like cyclohexanone . The complex niobium and tantalum fluorides are extracted separately from the organic solvent with water and either precipitated by the addition of potassium fluoride to produce a potassium fluoride complex , or precipitated with ammonia as the pentoxide :
H2 [ NbOF5 ] + 2 KF → K2 [ NbOF5 ] ↓ + 2 HF
Followed by :
2 H2 [ NbOF5 ] + 10 NH4OH → Nb2O5 ↓ + 10 NH4F + 7 H2O
Several methods are used for the reduction to metallic niobium . The electrolysis of a molten mixture of K2 [ NbOF5 ] and sodium chloride is one ; the other is the reduction of the fluoride with sodium . With this method , a relatively high purity niobium can be obtained . In large scale production , Nb2O5 is reduced with hydrogen or carbon . In the aluminothermic reaction , a mixture of iron oxide and niobium oxide is reacted with aluminium :
3 Nb2O5 + Fe2O3 + 12 Al → 6 Nb + 2 Fe + 6 Al2O3
Small amounts of oxidizers like sodium nitrate are added to enhance the reaction . The result is aluminium oxide and ferroniobium , an alloy of iron and niobium used in the steel production . Ferroniobium contains between 60 and 70 % niobium . Without iron oxide , the aluminothermic process is used to produce niobium . Further purification is necessary to reach the grade for superconductive alloys . Electron beam melting under vacuum is the method used by the two major distributors of niobium .
As of 2013 , CBMM from Brazil controlled 85 percent of the world 's niobium production . The United States Geological Survey estimates that the production increased from 38 @,@ 700 tonnes in 2005 to 44 @,@ 500 tonnes in 2006 . Worldwide resources are estimated to be 4 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 tonnes . During the ten @-@ year period between 1995 and 2005 , the production more than doubled , starting from 17 @,@ 800 tonnes in 1995 . Between 2009 and 2011 production was stable at 63 @,@ 000 tonnes per year , with a slight decrease in 2012 to only 50 @,@ 000 tonnes per year .
Lesser amounts are found in Malawi 's Kanyika Deposit ( Kanyika mine ) .
= = Compounds = =
In many ways , Niobium is similar to tantalum and zirconium . It reacts with most nonmetals at high temperatures ; with fluorine at room temperature ; with chlorine and hydrogen at 200 ° C ; and with nitrogen at 400 ° C , with products that are frequently interstitial and nonstoichiometric . The metal begins to oxidize in air at 200 ° C. It resists corrosion by fused alkalis and by acids , including aqua regia , hydrochloric , sulfuric , nitric and phosphoric acids . Niobium is attacked by hydrofluoric acid and hydrofluoric / nitric acid mixtures .
Although niobium exhibits all of the formal oxidation states from + 5 to − 1 , the most common compounds have niobium in the + 5 state . Characteristically , compounds in oxidation states less than 5 + display Nb – Nb bonding .
= = = Oxides and sulfides = = =
Niobium forms oxides in the oxidation states + 5 ( Nb2O5 ) , + 4 ( NbO2 ) , + 3 ( Nb2O3 ) , and the rarer oxidation state , + 2 ( NbO ) . Most common is the pentoxide , precursor to almost all niobium compounds and alloys . Niobates are generated by dissolving the pentoxide in basic hydroxide solutions or by melting it in alkali metal oxides . Examples are lithium niobate ( LiNbO3 ) and lanthanum niobate ( LaNbO4 ) . In the lithium niobate is a trigonally distorted perovskite @-@ like structure , whereas the lanthanum niobate contains lone NbO3 −
4 ions . The layered niobium sulfide ( NbS2 ) is also known .
Materials can be coated with a thin film of niobium ( V ) oxide chemical vapor deposition or atomic layer deposition processes , produced by the thermal decomposition of niobium ( V ) ethoxide above 350 ° C.
= = = Halides = = =
Niobium forms halides in the oxidation states of + 5 and + 4 as well as diverse substoichiometric compounds . The pentahalides ( NbX
5 ) feature octahedral Nb centres . Niobium pentafluoride ( NbF5 ) is a white solid with a melting point of 79 @.@ 0 ° C and niobium pentachloride ( NbCl5 ) is yellow ( see image at left ) with a melting point of 203 @.@ 4 ° C. Both are hydrolyzed to give oxides and oxyhalides , such as NbOCl3 . The pentachloride is a versatile reagent used to generate the organometallic compounds , such as niobocene dichloride ( ( C
5H
5 )
2NbCl
2 ) . The tetrahalides ( NbX
4 ) are dark @-@ coloured polymers with Nb @-@ Nb bonds ; for example , the black hygroscopic niobium tetrafluoride ( NbF4 ) and brown niobium tetrachloride ( NbCl4 ) .
Anionic halide compounds of niobium are well known , owing in part to the Lewis acidity of the pentahalides . The most important is [ NbF7 ] 2 − , an intermediate in the separation of Nb and Ta from the ores . This heptafluoride tends to form the oxopentafluoride more readily than does the tantalum compound . Other halide complexes include octahedral [ NbCl6 ] − :
Nb2Cl10 + 2 Cl − → 2 [ NbCl6 ] −
As with other metals with low atomic numbers , a variety of reduced halide cluster ions is known , the prime example being [ Nb6Cl18 ] 4 − .
= = = Nitrides and carbides = = =
Other binary compounds of niobium include niobium nitride ( NbN ) , which becomes a superconductor at low temperatures and is used in detectors for infrared light . The main niobium carbide is NbC , an extremely hard , refractory , ceramic material , commercially used in cutting tool bits .
= = Applications = =
Out of 44 @,@ 500 metric tons of niobium mined in 2006 , an estimated 90 % was used in high @-@ grade structural steel . The second largest application is superalloys . Niobium alloy superconductors and electronic components account for a very small share of the world production .
= = = Steel production = = =
Niobium is an effective microalloying element for steel , within which it forms niobium carbide and niobium nitride . These compounds improve the grain refining , and retard recrystallization and precipitation hardening . These effects in turn increase the toughness , strength , formability , and weldability . Within microalloyed stainless steels , the niobium content is a small ( less than 0 @.@ 1 % ) but important addition to high strength low alloy steels that are widely used structurally in modern automobiles .
These same niobium alloys are often used in pipeline construction .
= = = Superalloys = = =
Quantities of niobium are used in nickel- , cobalt- , and iron @-@ based superalloys in proportions a great as 6 @.@ 5 % for such applications as jet engine components , gas turbines , rocket subassemblies , turbo charger systems , heat resisting , and combustion equipment . Niobium precipitates a hardening γ ' ' -phase within the grain structure of the superalloy .
One example superalloy is Inconel 718 , consisting of roughly 50 % nickel , 18 @.@ 6 % chromium , 18 @.@ 5 % iron , 5 % niobium , 3 @.@ 1 % molybdenum , 0 @.@ 9 % titanium , and 0 @.@ 4 % aluminium . These superalloys are used , for example , in advanced air frame systems for the Gemini program . Another niobium alloy was used for the nozzle of the Apollo Service Module . Because niobium is oxidized at temperatures above 400 ° C , a protective coating is necessary for these applications to prevent the alloy from becoming brittle .
= = = Niobium @-@ base alloys = = =
C @-@ 103 alloy was developed in the early 1960s jointly by the Wah Chang Corporation and Boeing Co . DuPont , Union Carbide Corp. , General Electric Co. and several other companies were developing Nb @-@ base alloys simultaneously , largely driven by the Cold War and Space Race . It is composed of 89 % niobium , 10 % hafnium and 1 % titanium and is used for liquid rocket thruster nozzles , such as the main engine of the Apollo Lunar Modules .
The reactivity of Nb with oxygen requires it to be worked in a vacuum or inert atmosphere , which significantly increases the cost and difficulty of production . Vacuum arc remelting ( VAR ) and electron beam melting ( EBM ) , novel processes at the time , enabled the development of niobium and other reactive metals . The project that yielded C @-@ 103 began in 1959 with as many as 256 experimental Nb alloys in the " C @-@ series " ( possibly from columbium ) that could be melted as buttons and rolled into sheet . Wah Chang had an inventory of Hf , refined from nuclear @-@ grade Zr , that it wanted to put to commercial use . The 103rd experimental composition of the C @-@ series alloys , Nb @-@ 10Hf @-@ 1Ti , had the best combination of formability and high @-@ temperature properties . Wah Chang fabricated the first 500 @-@ lb heat of C @-@ 103 in 1961 , ingot to sheet , using EBM and VAR . The intended applications included turbine engines and liquid metal heat exchangers . Competing Nb alloys from that era included FS85 ( Nb @-@ 10W @-@ 28Ta @-@ 1Zr ) from Fansteel Metallurgical Corp. , Cb129Y ( Nb @-@ 10W @-@ 10Hf @-@ 0.2Y ) from Wah Chang and Boeing , Cb752 ( Nb @-@ 10W @-@ 2.5Zr ) from Union Carbide , and Nb1Zr from Superior Tube Co .
= = = Superconducting magnets = = =
Niobium @-@ germanium ( Nb
3Ge ) , niobium @-@ tin ( Nb
3Sn ) , as well as the niobium @-@ titanium alloys are used as a type II superconductor wire for superconducting magnets . These superconducting magnets are used in magnetic resonance imaging and nuclear magnetic resonance instruments as well as in particle accelerators . For example , the Large Hadron Collider uses 600 tons of superconducting strands , while the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor uses an estimated 600 tonnes of Nb3Sn strands and 250 tonnes of NbTi strands . In 1992 alone , more than US $ 1 billion worth of clinical magnetic resonance imaging systems were constructed with niobium @-@ titanium wire .
= = = = Other superconductors = = = =
The Superconducting Radio Frequency ( SRF ) cavities used in the free electron lasers FLASH ( result of the cancelled TESLA linear accelerator project ) and XFEL are made from pure niobium . A cryomodule team at Fermilab used the same SRF technology from the FLASH project to develop 1 @.@ 3 GHz nine @-@ cell SRF cavities made from pure niobium . The cavities will be used in the 30 @-@ kilometre ( 19 mi ) linear particle accelerator of the International Linear Collider . The same technology will be used in LCLS @-@ II at SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory and PIP @-@ II at Fermilab .
The high sensitivity of superconducting niobium nitride bolometers make them an ideal detector for electromagnetic radiation in the THz frequency band . These detectors were tested at the Heinrich Hertz Submillimeter Telescope , the South Pole Telescope , the Receiver Lab Telescope , and at APEX , and are now used in the HIFI instrument on board the Herschel Space Observatory .
= = = Other uses = = =
= = = = Electroceramics = = = =
Lithium niobate , which is a ferroelectric , is used extensively in mobile telephones and optical modulators , and for the manufacture of surface acoustic wave devices . It belongs to the ABO3 structure ferroelectrics like lithium tantalate and barium titanate . Niobium capacitors are available as alternative to tantalum capacitors , but tantalum capacitors still predominate . Niobium is added to glass to attain a higher refractive index , making possible thinner and lighter corrective glasses .
= = = = Hypoallergenic applications : medicine and jewelry = = = =
Niobium and some niobium alloys are physiologically inert and hypoallergenic . For this reason , niobium is used in prosthetics and implant devices , such as pacemakers . Niobium treated with sodium hydroxide forms a porous layer that aids osseointegration .
Like titanium , tantalum , and aluminium , niobium can be heated and anodized ( " reactive metal anodization " ) to produce a wide array of iridescent colours for jewelry , where its hypoallergenic property is highly desirable .
= = = = Numismatics = = = =
Niobium is used as a precious metal in commemorative coins , often with silver or gold . For example , Austria produced a series of silver niobium euro coins starting in 2003 ; the colour in these coins is created by the diffraction of light by a thin anodized oxide layer . In 2012 , ten coins are available showing a broad variety of colours in the centre of the coin : blue , green , brown , purple , violet , or yellow . Two more examples are the 2004 Austrian € 25 150 Years Semmering Alpine Railway commemorative coin , and the 2006 Austrian € 25 European Satellite Navigation commemorative coin . The Austrian mint produced for Latvia a similar series of coins starting in 2004 , with one following in 2007 . In 2011 , the Royal Canadian Mint started production of a $ 5 sterling silver and niobium coin named Hunter 's Moon in which the niobium was selectively oxidized , thus creating unique finishes where no two coins are exactly alike .
= = = = Other = = = =
The arc @-@ tube seals of high pressure sodium vapor lamps are made from niobium , sometimes alloyed with 1 % of zirconium ; niobium has a very similar coefficient of thermal expansion , matching the sintered alumina arc tube ceramic , a translucent material which resists chemical attack or reduction by the hot liquid sodium and sodium vapour contained inside the operating lamp .
Niobium is used in arc welding rods for some stabilized grades of stainless steel and in anodes for cathodic protection systems on some water tanks , which are then usually plated with platinum .
Niobium is an important component of high performance heterogeneous catalysts for the production of acrylic acid by selective oxidation of propane .
= = Precautions = =
Niobium has no known biological role . While niobium dust is an eye and skin irritant and a potential fire hazard , elemental niobium on a larger scale is physiologically inert ( and thus hypoallergenic ) and harmless . It is frequently used in jewelry and has been tested for use in some medical implants .
Niobium @-@ containing compounds are rarely encountered by most people , but some are toxic and should be treated with care . The short- and long @-@ term exposure to niobates and niobium chloride , two chemicals that are water @-@ soluble , have been tested in rats . Rats treated with a single injection of niobium pentachloride or niobates show a median lethal dose ( LD50 ) between 10 and 100 mg / kg . For oral administration the toxicity is lower ; a study with rats yielded a LD50 after seven days of 940 mg / kg .
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= New York State Route 222 =
New York State Route 222 ( NY 222 ) is an east – west state highway in central New York in the United States . It runs from an intersection with NY 38 in the village of Groton in northeastern Tompkins County to a junction with the conjoined routes of U.S. Route 11 , NY 13 , and NY 41 in the city of Cortland in western Cortland County . NY 222 passes through the town of Cortlandville , where it intersects NY 281 and serves Cortland County – Chase Field Airport . The road was acquired by the state of New York in the early 20th century and designated NY 222 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York .
= = Route description = =
NY 222 begins at an intersection with NY 38 ( Main and Cayuga streets ) in the village of Groton . The route proceeds east along the two @-@ lane East Cortland Street , serving several blocks of homes in the eastern part of the village . It soon exits the village limits , at which point NY 222 changes names to Cortland Road and the residential areas give way to wide stretches of farmland . As the highway runs across the town of Groton , it passes only a handful of houses as it intersects County Route 102 ( CR 102 , named Salt Road ) and CR 103A ( Champlin Road ) at junctions roughly 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) apart . NY 222 's eastward track continues to a nearby intersection with CR 180 ( Lafayette Road ) , where the route crosses Fall Creek and darts northeastward to run along the base of a large hill .
The highway briefly parallels Fall Creek ; however , it soon splits to the southeast at a junction with CR 103 ( Groton City Road ) . From here , NY 222 continues on a generally southeasterly alignment along the base of a rural valley to the Tompkins – Cortland county line . Now in the town of Cortlandville , the route loses the Cortland Road name as it curves eastward to match similar turns in the course of the valley . The highway follows a winding course until the surrounding gully empties into the much wider Tioughnioga River valley , where the route straightens out and intersects with CR 119 ( Sears Road ) . East of this point , NY 222 begins to run northeastward past homes as it approaches Cortland County – Chase Field Airport . The route provides direct access to the airport and subsequently meets NY 281 ( West Road ) at the northeastern tip of the airport property .
Past NY 281 , NY 222 crosses a commercial section of Cortlandville , passing several strip malls prior to entering the city of Cortland . Now named Groton Avenue , the route slowly curves eastward while traversing a residential part of the city . It passes north of the State University of New York at Cortland , and the campus marks the western edge of downtown Cortland . NY 222 becomes a commercialized street again , serving a pair of city blocks before intersecting with US 11 and NY 41 ( Main Street ) . US 11 and NY 41 join NY 222 , and the concurrency between the three routes heads east through downtown as Clinton Avenue . The overlap lasts for just one block , however , as NY 222 ends upon intersecting NY 13 at the next junction . NY 13 northbound continues east along Clinton Avenue while NY 13 southbound heads south along Church Street on an overlap with US 11 and NY 41 .
= = History = =
The east – west highway connecting the village of Groton to the city of Cortland was originally improved to state highway standards as part of three separate projects in the early 20th century . On July 10 , 1906 , the first project was let to rebuild the section between the Cortland city line and Highland Road , a north – south road west of what is now Cortland County – Chase Field Airport . The road was added to the state highway system on October 11 , 1907 as unsigned State Highway 446 ( SH 446 ) . A contract to improve the part of the Groton – Cortland road leading west from Highland Road to the Tompkins County line was awarded on April 29 , 1912 , which was accepted into the state highway system on January 8 , 1913 , as SH 996 .
In Tompkins County , the road was reconstructed as part of a project contracted out on August 24 , 1916 . Work on the highway was completed in the early @-@ to @-@ mid @-@ 1920s , and the improved road was added to the state highway system as SH 1433 . The Groton – Cortland state highway did not have a posted route number until the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , when hundreds of state @-@ maintained highways were assigned a designation for the first time . SH 446 , SH 996 , and SH 1433 were collectively designated as NY 222 , which continued east into downtown Cortland by way of locally maintained streets . The alignment of NY 222 has not been changed since that time .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Fragile ( Tech N9ne song ) =
" Fragile " is a song by American hip hop recording artist Tech N9ne , taken from his thirteenth studio album Something Else ( 2013 ) . " Fragile " was released on July 17 , 2013 as the album 's second single . It was produced by ¡ Mayday ! , Daniel " Keys " Perez and Ralfy " FAFA " Valencia . The song features a guest verse from fellow American rapper Kendrick Lamar , and the chorus is sung by ¡ Mayday ! and Kendall Morgan .
" Fragile " details each rappers disdain for music journalists and their criticism of their music . Ironically , the song was met with generally positive reviews from music critics . A music video was released on February 9 , 2014 featuring the artists rapping and singing in an abandoned warehouse . The song peaked at numbers 23 and 38 on the US Billboard Hot Rap Songs and Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs charts .
= = Background = =
On July 17 , 2013 , " Fragile " featuring Kendrick Lamar , ¡ Mayday ! and Kendall Morgan was premiered via Complex . Following its premiere the song was made available for purchase with the iTunes pre @-@ order for Something Else , also being released to Amazon.com as the album 's second official single .
The song was inspired by Max Bell , a writer for LA Weekly who referred to Tech N9ne 's Paid Dues performance as " gimmicky and redundant " . He would later thank the writer during an interview , for giving him the inspiration to make the song . The song details each rapper 's disdain for media criticism , as they address the critics and journalists that write about their music . Both artists rap with rapid @-@ fire , aggressive verses , while Wrekonize and Bernz of ¡ Mayday ! and Kendall Morgan both sing the song 's chorus .
= = Writing and production = =
The song 's composition begun after Strange Music label @-@ mate ¡ Mayday ! sent Tech N9ne the song with their and Kendall Morgan 's vocals on it . He said the introspective chorus made him take a moment to reflect on his own rhymes . He detailed himself creating his verse saying ,
" After I wrote my verse , it was my second show in Seattle . We did two shows , because I sold out both shows . There was like 2 @,@ 000 the first night , and another 2 @,@ 000 on the second night . So it was like , ' Whoa , we sold out both shows ! ' I was already tired from the night before , and we already had booked the studio time in Seattle . I went there , and I finished the last four bars of the verse I wrote . I wrote most of the verse — the first eight bars — on bus . It was getting closer to the show , and I wrote the last four bars at the studio because , our meet and greets aren ’ t an hour anymore . There ’ s like 300 people or 400 people , so you ’ re there until 6 pm now instead of 3 or 4 . Now we got to go the studio , and I gotta be on stage at 9 pm , so it ’ s coming down to the wire I still have to eat and whatnot . But I did it , and after I did it , I ’ m like , ' Ooh , the verse is elite . ' "
Following him writing his own verse , Tech N9ne decided he wanted another major rapper on the song after him . He stated , " It was already elite , so I needed somebody who could come after me , and there aren ’ t too many who can do it . " After contemplating over which rapper would be featured on the song , even sending the song to Eminem with hopes he would get on the song , Tech N9ne decided to feature American rapper Kendrick Lamar on the song . This song would be Tech N9ne and Lamar 's second collaboration .
The song 's production was created by ¡ Mayday ! , Ralfy " FAFA " Valencia , and Danny " Keys " Perez . The instrumental is based around a brokenhearted guitar and piano @-@ based beat , along with a simple drum pattern for the verses , before escalating with keys and guitar riffs for the hook .
= = Critical reception = =
" Fragile " was met with generally positive reviews from music critics . Arasia Graham of HipHopDX said , " " Fragile " finds Tech N9ne and Kendrick Lamar annihilating a clear @-@ cut beat through their bars with a concise delivery , while expressing disdain for critics . And Kendall Morgan ’ s emotive vocals entice the track making it a contender for best on the album . " Steve Jones of USA Today also named it one of the album 's best songs .
Sha Be Allah of The Source called the song " a slow tempo , rimshot driven track blessed with lyrics from arguably the best of the underground and mainstream . " David Jeffries of AllMusic stated , " " Fragile " ups the album artistically with jazz club ambience and the great Kendrick Lamar as guest star . " Jonathan Sawyer of Hypetrak said , the song " is impressive all the way around . From the instrumentation to the hook provided by Morgan and ¡ Mayday ! to the spitfire verses from Tech N9ne and Kendrick , this is easily one of the standouts from N9ne 's forthcoming Something Else album . "
= = Music video = =
On December 3 , 2013 , Tech N9ne shot the music video for " Fragile " with director Anthony Devera . Kendrick Lamar , Bernz and Wrekonize of ¡ Mayday ! and Kendall Morgan were all present in their respective roles . On February 9 , 2014 , the music video was released for " Fragile " . The video features the artists rapping and singing in an abandoned warehouse .
= = Charts = =
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= Secret of Evermore =
Secret of Evermore is a role @-@ playing video game for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System . It was released by Square in North America on October 1 , 1995 . In February 1996 , it saw release in the PAL territories of Europe and Australia . A Japanese release was planned to follow the North American release by a few months , but was ultimately cancelled .
The story of Secret of Evermore follows a boy and his pet dog as they are inadvertently transported to a fantasy world created by an eccentric inventor . The player guides both the boy and his shapeshifting dog through Evermore , a world that is composed of separate realms , each resembling a different period of real @-@ world history . The gameplay shares many similarities with Secret of Mana , such as real @-@ time battles , a ring @-@ shaped menu system , and the ability to switch control between the two characters . Despite similar game mechanics and a similar title , it is not an entry in the Mana series .
Secret of Evermore is unique in that it is the only game developed by Square designers in North America . The game received positive reviews upon its release due to its graphics and gameplay , but was criticized for not being up to the standards of what many reviewers were used to by its developer .
= = Gameplay = =
Secret of Evermore takes many of its interface and gameplay aspects from Secret of Mana . The game mostly consists of an aerial view setting , in which the boy and his dog negotiate the terrain and fend off hostile creatures . If the boy is currently selected as the player character , his dog will be controlled by the artificial intelligence , and vice versa . Both characters can find refuge in caves or a town , where they can regain their hit points or purchase restorative items and equipment . Upon collecting enough experience points in battle , either character can increase in level with improved stats such as strength and evasion . Options including changing equipment , casting alchemy spells , or checking status can be quickly performed by rotating through the game 's Action Ring system . Combat takes place in real @-@ time . Located below the players hit points is a percentage gauge that determines the amount of damage done to an enemy , as well as how far the player can run . Swinging a weapon or running causes the gauge to fall to 0 % and then quickly recharges , allowing the character to attack at full strength or to run at full sprint once it is full . The gauge may also fill up to allowing the player to use charged attacks with equipped weapons .
The protagonist wields four different styles of weapons throughout the game : sword , spear , axe , and bazooka . Almost all swords , axes , and spears have four versions , and repeated use of them can increase their skill levels to a maximum of three , unlocking a new charged attack with each level . The range and power of each type of weapon increased the more it is used ; for instance , spears at a high enough level may be thrown at an enemy across the screen , while the swords and axes can cut swathes of destruction around the boy 's vicinity . With the exception of the Bone Crusher , all swords , axes , and spears can cut through vegetation ; some weapons are required to break rocks and other barriers .
In each of the four worlds of Secret of Evermore , the in @-@ game currency will change . The shopkeepers in Prehistoria exchange talons ; in Antiqua , gemstones ; in Gothica , gold coins ; and in Omnitopia , credits . There are individuals in each region who offer to convert the player 's money to the local currency . In either of the game 's two marketplaces ( located in Antiqua and Gothica , respectively ) , the storekeepers offer to trade in goods instead of money . Certain goods , such as rice , spices , and tapestries , can be bought using the local currency , but others must be exchanged for other goods . Most vendors only specialize in one type of good , and some rare items require an extensive amount of trading to obtain .
= = = Alchemy = = =
A unique element to Secret of Evermore is its system of magic . In order to cast magic , the boy must be given an " Alchemic Formula " by one of many non @-@ playable characters called " Alchemists " . Some Alchemists make their home in out @-@ of @-@ the @-@ way areas and will dispense rare formulas if the player manages to seek them out . Unlike some role @-@ playing games , there are no magic points needed to cast spells . Alchemy Formulas require pairs of ingredients in order to be used ; Some are available throughout the game , and others are only native to certain environments . In the primitive realms , ingredients appear as such items as wax , limestone , clay , and gunpowder . In the advanced realms , however , the ingredients become more complex , such as ethanol and dry ice .
A secondary function of the dog is to " sniff out " ingredients by putting his nose to the ground and smelling for items . The player can command the dog to search the ground at any time , including in huts and cities . If all goes well , the dog will lead his human companion to a certain spot on the map , where the player can uncover the unseen ingredients . With repeated use , Alchemy Formulas will increase in level , enhancing their curative , offensive , or support effectiveness . Although there are dozens of Formulas available to be found within the game , only nine can be equipped at a time . To overcome this , there are several Alchemists scattered throughout the game who offer to manage the boy 's current Alchemy list ; any formula that has already been learned can be stored by the Alchemist for later use .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
The plot revolves around a teenage boy and his dog , to whom the player must assign names . Most of the game takes place in the fictional world of Evermore . The player explores four main areas within this world , corresponding to different historical eras : Prehistoria contains cavemen and dinosaurs ; Antiqua boasts a Colosseum and pyramid theme ; Gothica contains medieval castles and is populated by dragons ; and Omnitopia is a futuristic space station .
Throughout their travels , the boy , at the company of his dog , often quotes or mentions fictional B movies that relate to their current situation . For example , he compares himself to " Dandy " Don Carlisle in the film Sink , Boat , Sink after washing ashore at Crustacia . ( For legal reasons , all references to movies and actors were fictional . ) In addition , the dog 's body transforms based on the theme of the area that players are in . In the world of Prehistoria , the dog is transformed into a feral wolf , in the Antiqua region he becomes a greyhound , in Gothica he takes the form of a fancy poodle , and in Omnitopia he becomes a robotic toaster @-@ dog capable of shooting lasers .
= = = Story = = =
The story of Secret of Evermore begins with a black and white flashback to 1965 , in a small town called Podunk , USA . In a laboratory situated on the roof of a mansion , a malfunction occurs which floods the area with white flash of light . Thirty years later , the game 's young protagonist is leaving a theater when his pet dog chases after a cat in the street . The boy hurriedly follows after him , eventually reaching a large , abandoned mansion . He discovers the hidden laboratory with a large machine built in the center . When the dog begins to chew on some wires , the pair find themselves transported to the surreal world of Evermore , beginning in the space station Omnitopia . A butler dressed in a white tuxedo greets the boy when he appears , only to lock him in a room with several attack robots . The boy manages to escape in a shuttle pod , where he finds his dog holed up in the cockpit .
The shuttle crash @-@ lands in a dense jungle on top of a plateau . When the boy emerges , he finds a ferocious @-@ looking beast has replaced his dog . He decides to perform a test to see if the wolf and his pet dog are one and the same ; he tosses a stick for the wolf to fetch , only to receive a giant bone instead . The boy shrugs this off and assumes that it is the same dog .
In each of the four realms , the boy encounters a citizen of Podunk involved in the original experiment gone awry 30 years ago . Professor Sidney Ruffleberg and his three companions were transported to Evermore , but are unable to leave . The boy quickly learns that the regions are manifestations of those citizens ' personal utopias . Each of the three companions act as the ruler of his or her world : Elizabeth , the Professor 's niece , is the tribal chief of Prehistoria ; Horace Highwater , curator of the Podunk Museum , oversees Antiqua ; Camellia Bluegarden , a portly librarian , is the Queen of Gothica ; and Professor Ruffleberg monitors everything from Omnitopia , with his android butler , Carltron , alongside him . Within Prehistoria , Antiqua , and Gothica , the boy and his canine companion aid Elizabeth , Horace , and Camellia in thwarting attempts by robotic clones of the Podunk citizens from ruling their respective areas .
The duo finally returns to Omnitopia and finds Ruffleberg , who explains everything . He and his butler Carltron once engaged in chess matches . Ruffleberg outfitted him with an intelligence chip to make him a more challenging opponent , but the upgrade backfired by making Carltron more malevolent . He sabotaged the transporter to Evermore and designed the hostile beasts roaming the game . With Ruffleberg 's help , the boy and his canine companion break into Carltron 's room . The area is guarded by android clones of the boy and his dog , along with a giant mecha version of Carltron . At the last moment , Ruffleberg appears and deactivates Carltron , who promptly freezes in place .
With Carltron 's defeat , the monsters plaguing Evermore disappear , but the world itself grows unstable . The boy returns to each of the worlds to collect Ruffleberg 's companions , taking them back to the real world . In doing so , Evermore 's destruction is averted and it continues to exist without them . After the credits roll , a final scene shows Professor Ruffleberg returning Carltron to his old task of cleaning the lab . Carltron grins and rubs his hands together , implying that he is not as docile as the professor believes .
= = Development = =
Development on Secret of Evermore began in early 1994 at Square Soft , the Redmond , Washington office of the Japanese parent company Square . The concept of a boy traveling with his dog through a world based on cheesy B movies was dictated from overseas , whereupon Square Soft began work on the detailed storyline . This resulted in popular culture references and dialog that are distinctly American for a mainstream console RPG . The game 's associate producer and writer , George Sinfield , decided that making such references would be familiar to American players . The working title for the game was " Vex and the Mezmers . " Producer Alan Weiss originally had the concept of a group of magic users who " could tell dream stories and transport the listeners into the experience , virtually . During one of these storytelling sessions , Vex got trapped in one of these worlds and started to corrupt the dreams . The game was going to be about finding Vex and defeating him . " But when George Sinfield asked the name be changed , the studio had a naming competition which resulted in Secret of Evermore .
Many of Secret of Evermore 's elements were copied from Secret of Mana because they had been proven to be effective . The size of the game was an early issue . It was decided that the game would be single @-@ player to preserve memory because it was originally planned to be only 12 @-@ megabits . However , the game would double to 24 @-@ megabits near the end of development . Various pieces of concept art were designed by Daniel Dociu . Using computer software , including SGI Indy II and Alias workstations , the game 's artwork and design were mapped out by three animators , four background artists , and a 3D rendering artist . It was put together using the company 's SAGE ( Square 's Amazing Graphical Editor ) program , led by programmer Brian Fehdrau . Rather than having to hand off their work to the programmers , the artists and designers were able to test their ideas directly using the SAGE program . Using another company program , SIGIL ( Square Interpreted Game Intelligence Language ) , Secret of Evermore was made into a final product . One of the worlds that was cut was called Romancia " where ' everything is all flowers and sweet stuff , excessively so . ' It was pink and purple . "
There is a persistent misconception that the game is , or was released in lieu of , a follow @-@ up to Secret of Mana . Other Square titles such as Final Fantasy VI and Chrono Trigger were being localized simultaneously with the production of Secret of Evermore . Fehdrau explained in an interview that Secret of Evermore was not created in place of Seiken Densetsu 3 and that the team that developed Secret of Evermore was assembled from newly hired staff , and would otherwise never have been assembled . Several of the team members joined Humongous Entertainment , which spawned Cavedog Entertainment , while the rest of the team spread to other Seattle @-@ area game studios like Electronic Arts , Boss Game Studios , Microsoft Game Studios , and Gas Powered Games , among others .
Secret of Evermore was released on October 1 , 1995 , in North America . In 1996 , it was translated into German , French and Spanish for the non @-@ English @-@ speaking market in some PAL territories , including Australia and New Zealand . Some PAL versions were packaged in a large box and included a strategy guide .
= = = Music = = =
The score for Secret of Evermore was composed and produced by Jeremy Soule as his first video game project . While still in high school , Soule was a large fan of video games and he felt that the scores in most games " lacked drama and intensity . " After completing high school , Soule created an experimental demo showcasing what he felt video game scores should sound like . Soule was hired by Square Soft after reviewing the demo and was promptly given the task to score Secret of Evermore . The score is described by Soule as a mix of ambient sounds and low @-@ key music . The soundtrack was released on a CD containing 29 tracks , the first eight of which are arranged versions of the original sound . The disc was published by Square and was only initially available to those who pre @-@ ordered Secret of Evermore .
= = Reception = =
Secret of Evermore received positive reviews from most media outlets . Most publications praised its graphics . For instance , RPGFan called the game a " wonderful visual experience , " applauding its use of color , animation , and background . Zachary Lewis of RPGamer noted that the locales found in Secret of Evermore were detailed in a much more realistic way than other games of the genre . GamePro was complimentary of its American art @-@ style , but longed for the Japanese art found in other Square titles . Another highlight for many critics was gameplay , particularly aspects also found in Secret of Mana such as the ring menu .
Reviewers were more critical concerning the game 's sound . Although the musical score was appreciated for its overall quality , both RPGFan and RPGamer found that there were too few adequately long tracks , with mediocre ambient sound effects to fill the dead time . Critics were mixed on the issue of Secret of Evermore being the first game developed by Square in the United States . Super Play found that the game was not up to the standards held by other Square games . Others noted that Secret of Evermore was a decent first attempt by the American team . GamePro dubbed the game " worthy of a sequel , " while Game Players anticipated another game from the same development team .
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= Two Cars in Every Garage and Three Eyes on Every Fish =
" Two Cars in Every Garage and Three Eyes on Every Fish " is the fourth episode of The Simpsons ' second season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 1 , 1990 . In the episode , Bart catches a three @-@ eyed fish in a river downstream of the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant . This causes the plant to become inspected , and in order to prevent it from being shut down , Mr. Burns decides to run for governor . After a hard campaign which sees Burns rise from being universally despised to running neck and neck with popular incumbent Mary Bailey , it is decided that Burns will have dinner with a random employee the night before the election . Homer is chosen , much to Marge 's chagrin .
The episode was written by Sam Simon and John Swartzwelder , and directed by Wes Archer . It was the first episode produced for season two and was intended to air as the season premiere , but was replaced with " Bart Gets an " F " " due to Bart 's popularity in the early 1990s . The episode features cultural references to several American films , mostly the 1941 film Citizen Kane , with Burns in the role of the character Charles Foster Kane . Mary Bailey shares her name with George Bailey 's wife in the 1946 film It 's a Wonderful Life .
Journalists have described the episode as a satire on both American politics and environmentalism . It won an Environmental Media Award in 1991 for being the best television episode of the year with an environmental message . Since the episode first aired , the three @-@ eyed fish Blinky has been mentioned several times in news articles regarding nuclear waste and mutation . The episode was positively received by television critics for its satire on American politics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 15 @.@ 8 , and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
Bart and Lisa go fishing downstream of the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant , and Springfield Shopper reporter Dave Shutton pulls up just as Bart catches a three @-@ eyed fish , much to both the kids ' and Shutton 's surprise . The fish , nicknamed Blinky by the media , makes headlines around the state , and incumbent governor Mary Bailey calls in a government inspection team to investigate nuclear waste coming from the plant that could have caused the fish to mutate . After the inspection , the plant 's owner , Mr. Burns , is presented with a list of 342 violations , which would cost $ 56 million to rectify . Distraught , Burns talks to plant employee Homer , who half @-@ heartedly suggests Burns run for governor against Bailey so that he could change the standards and prevent the plant from being shut down . Burns instantly pounces on the idea .
Burns 's political advisers break the news to Burns that he is greatly despised by many people while Bailey is beloved by all . To compensate for this , they force Burns to try being friendly and even smile . Burns makes a television commercial discussing Blinky with an actor portraying Charles Darwin , who claims Blinky is an evolutionary step and not a mutated fish . Combined with a promise to lower taxes and a smear campaign against Bailey , Burns ties with her in the polls . On the night before the election , Burns 's advisers suggest that Burns have dinner at the home of a middle @-@ class family as an opportunity to put himself in the lead . Burns scans his employees for the most average man he can find , and Homer is chosen .
The impending dinner with Burns divides the Simpson household . Homer supports Burns , while Marge and Lisa oppose him . Before the dinner arrives , Burns 's advisers prepare the family for the event , even giving them pre @-@ written questions to ask in lieu of conversation . Lisa becomes disillusioned by it all , but Marge tells her not to worry . To everyone 's surprise , Marge serves Blinky for dinner . Burns tries to act as if it does not bother him , but is not able to keep from spitting it out . The cameras flash as the bite flies through the air , and by the time the chunk hits the floor the press is gone and his gubernatorial campaign dissolves . Bailey wins the election and , despite Burns saying that Homer 's dreams will be unfulfilled for as long as he is alive , the Simpson family happily get together again .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Sam Simon and John Swartzwelder , and directed by Wes Archer . Blinky had previously made a brief appearance in the season one episode " Homer 's Odyssey " , in which he was seen swimming in the lake outside of the plant . The writers liked the design of the fish and decided to devote an episode to him . While the idea of Blinky was completely fictional at the time , a three @-@ eyed fish was caught in 2011 in Córdoba , Argentina near a local nuclear power plant . The fish was a seawolf and did not resemble Blinky besides the three eyes . The fishermen sent the fish to a radiation test , to determine whether the mutation came from being exposed to the water from the nuclear power plant .
Mary Bailey and Springfield Shopper reporter Dave Shutton made their first appearance on the show in this episode . Dave Shutton , voiced by Harry Shearer , was named after a friend of Swartzwelder . Dave Shutton 's roles have since become less relevant and have been reduced to cameos and appearances in crowd scenes . Mary Bailey would later appear briefly in episodes such as " Bart vs. Lisa vs. the Third Grade " and " The Seven @-@ Beer Snitch " .
During the first season of The Simpsons , Bart quickly became one of the most popular characters on television in what was termed " Bartmania " . Due to the success of the first season , the Fox network decided to switch The Simpsons ' timeslot in hopes that it would steal ratings from NBC 's " powerhouse " line up . The show was moved from its 8 : 00 p.m. EST Sunday night slot to the same time on Thursday , where it would compete with NBC 's The Cosby Show , the number one show at the time . " Two Cars in Every Garage and Three Eyes on Every Fish " was the first episode produced for the second season , but " Bart Gets an F " aired first because of Bart 's popularity and the producers wanted to premiere with an episode involving him in hopes of stealing viewers from The Cosby Show .
= = Cultural references = =
The name of the episode comes from the slogan in a political advert used in Herbert Hoover 's presidential campaign in 1928 , " A Chicken In Every Pot " , which the advert later amplifies with " And a car in every backyard , to boot . " .
Several parts of the episode are inspired by the 1941 film Citizen Kane , all with Mr. Burns in the role of Charles Foster Kane . The campaign rally scene where Burns speaks in front of a giant poster of himself is a reference to a scene from that film . The scene where Burns trashes the Simpson family 's dining room after the dinner is similar to the scene in which Kane destroys his ex @-@ wife 's room .
Mary Bailey shares her name with George Bailey 's wife in the 1946 film It 's a Wonderful Life .
Burns hires an actor to portray the nineteenth @-@ century scientist Charles Darwin to help in his claim that the three @-@ eyed fish was the result of evolution . Darwin was a naturalist who presented compelling evidence that all species of life have evolved over time from common ancestors , through the process he called natural selection .
The clip of Burns driving a military tank in his campaign montage is similar to a clip featured in Michael Dukakis 's 1988 United States presidential campaign , in which he can be seen driving a tank .
A re @-@ run of the episode that aired on June 25 , 1992 , included a new chalkboard gag in the opening credits that featured Bart writing " It 's potato , not potatoe " on the chalkboard . This is a reference to a spelling blunder by the then @-@ Vice President of the United States Dan Quayle , who corrected a student 's correct spelling of " potato " to " potatoe " at an elementary school spelling bee in Trenton , New Jersey , on June 15 , 1992 .
= = Themes and impact = =
Journalists have described " Two Cars in Every Garage and Three Eyes on Every Fish " as a satire on American politics . Joanne Ostrow , a reviewer for The Denver Post , said only a cartoon could get away with " such pointed satire " of American political campaigning and advertising that is featured in the episode . She compared it to the " counter @-@ cultural posture " television shows such as Second City Television and Saturday Night Live took in the mid @-@ 1970s : " In those days , this sort of alternative viewpoint was kept out of prime time . [ In The Simpsons case ] , it 's still relegated to the ( distant ) fourth network , but at least the time is prime . " Jeremy Kleinman of DVD Talk wrote : " The writers of The Simpsons have often come across as unabashedly liberal and this episode is no exception as political / social commentary takes a step closer to the foreground during this episode . " Al Jean , current show runner of The Simpsons , has himself admitted in an interview that the show is of a " liberal bent " . In the DVD commentaries , creator Matt Groening and the majority of people who work on the show state several times that they are very liberal , but some , such as John Swartzwelder ( one of the writers of this and many other The Simpsons episodes ) , are libertarian . The show portrays government and large corporations as callous entities that take advantage of the common worker . Thus , the writers often portray authority figures in an unflattering or negative light . In The Simpsons , politicians are corrupt , ministers such as Reverend Lovejoy are indifferent to churchgoers , and the local police force is incompetent .
The episode also features an environmentalism theme . This theme is present in the nuclear power plant 's polluting of Lake Springfield , which causes the fish of the lake to become mutated . University of the Sciences in Philadelphia physics and mathematics professor Paul Halpern discussed the episode in his book What 's Science Ever Done for Us ? : What the Simpsons Can Teach Us About Physics , Robots , Life , and the Universe . He comments : " Considering the fact that [ Charles Darwin 's theory of ] natural selection takes generations and that successful varieties must sustain a survival advantage over others , the only way Mr. Burns can prove his assertion [ that the fish is the next step in evolution through natural selection ] is by tracking Blinky over time to see if the third eye allows the mutant fish to find food more quickly or dodge predators . " Mark Meister and Phyllis M. Japp discuss the environmental theme of the episode in their book Enviropop : Studies in Environmental Rhetoric and Popular Culture . The authors think human pollution is characterized in the episode as an improvement on nature , and human progress is viewed as an " integral " part of human evolution . They add : " These references articulate specific criticism of current environmental regulations , specifically the lax enforcement of the regulations concerning the dumping , safe storage , and disposal of nuclear waste . Furthermore , this episode condemns the manipulation of political and economic power to disguise ecological accountability and to shift blame for environmental problems . " The authors also say the episode comments on the lack of adherence to safety standards for the plant , and criticizes the " apathetic acceptance " of unforced environmental inspections . In addition , they comment that the episode " explicitly criticizes media spin @-@ doctors who distort the impacts of ecological degradation caused by wealthy corporations such as the nuclear power plant . "
On February 13 , 1991 , a local group in Albany , New York , fought the government 's plan to create a nuclear waste dump in their neighborhood . It was staged by Citizens Against Radioactive Dumping ( CARD ) at the monthly meeting of the Low @-@ Level Radioactive Waste Siting Commission in Albany . Here four children dressed up as Homer , Marge , Bart , and Lisa , and presented a three @-@ eyed fabric fish , which looked like Blinky , to the commission . In addition to that they performed a rap song , which explained the plot of the episode .
Since the episode 's initial airing , Blinky has been mentioned several times in news articles regarding nuclear waste and mutation . A reporter for the Lincoln Journal Star compared Blinky to a rainbow trout with two mouths caught in Lincoln , Nebraska , in 2005 . The fish was mentioned in a National Review article discussing a legislation which would make it illegal to import , possess or release alive into California any live transgenic fish : " Sounds like someone watched one too many episodes of The Simpsons with Blinky , the three @-@ eyed fish that swims by the nuclear @-@ power plant . " Matt Smith of SF Weekly compared Blinky to a type of fish found in San Francisco Bay , which , according to a study by the University of California , Davis , had a shrunken brain and misshapen body that had been caused by the dumping of toxic chemicals into the bay . In an article about the now closed nuclear weapons production facility Rocky Flats Plant , Brian Park of The Rocky Mountain Collegian joked that after its closure , " years of clean up ensued and now the area is a wildlife refuge ; no word yet if Blinky has been spotted . " Barbara Taormina of the North Shore Sunday wrote in her article about the new liquefied natural gas ( LNG ) pipeline in Massachusetts Bay : " Will Blinky , the mutant three @-@ eyed fish from The Simpsons be showing up in Massachusetts Bay ? Probably not , but local environmentalists are worried that digging for the new LNG pipeline may stir up radioactive waste dumped decades ago . " In his article about the nuclear power plant operator Exelon , Thomas M. Anderson of Kiplinger wrote : " The thought of more nuclear power may conjure up images of the Three Mile Island accident or Blinky [ ... ] , but a growing number of policymakers and even environmentalists are coming to appreciate the advantages of atomic energy . "
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Two Cars in Every Garage and Three Eyes on Every Fish " finished nineteenth in the ratings for the week of October 29 – November 4 , 1990 , with a Nielsen rating of 15 @.@ 8 , equivalent to approximately 14 @.@ 7 million viewing households . The Simpsons was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , but was beaten by The Cosby Show which got a 20 @.@ 2 rating . The episode won an Environmental Media Award in the " Best Television Episodic Comedy " category , which has been awarded every year since 1991 to the best television episode with an environmental message . It was The Simpsons first Environmental Media Award , but the show has won six more since then .
The episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics since airing . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called the episode a " superb example " of political satire , " demonstrating the lengths people will go to to win votes . Marge , of course , sees straight through Burns and uses Blinky the three @-@ eyed fish to demonstrate his lack of conviction . " Phil Rosenthal of the Los Angeles Daily News called the episode a " wonderful stab " at American politics and the " media machine that drives it " , and added : " The message is so subtle , the makers of The Simpsons might deny it is there at all for fear of turning off a portion of its audience . Truth is , you may very well be so busy laughing and taking in the fine details , such as the references to Citizen Kane , to notice . " Hal Boedeker of The Miami Herald said the episode took " some well @-@ aimed satirical jabs at American politics and the publics ' short attention span . The episode has the wit of the best of All in the Family , and benign mother Marge becomes a force for good , in the Edith Bunker tradition . " Virginia Mann of The Record called the episode " terrific " , though she believed its social and political " overtones " were more likely to appeal to adults than children . Tom Shales of the Washington Post described the episode as " a bull 's @-@ eye political satire " .
Doug Pratt , a DVD reviewer and Rolling Stone contributor , thought the episode 's story was " nicely composed , so you don 't have to recognize the Citizen Kane references to appreciate the effort , but it adds to the fun . " He also noted that it begins the exploration of Mr. Burns " in earnest , the first of many characters who will receive elaborate coverage as the series advances . " Jeremy Kleinman of DVD Talk thought both Lisa 's " tremendous intellect " and Marge 's " moral compass " were " probed " in the episode , and he thought one " clear highlight " of the episode was Burns 's attempts to explain away Blinky 's mutation by turning to an actor portraying Charles Darwin who proceeds to give a speech suggesting that Blinky is merely advanced . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson wrote : " The episode took an unusual approach for an early show , as it focused largely on a secondary character . One could argue that season one ’ s ' Krusty Gets Busted ' did the same , but ' Two Cars in Every Garage and Three Eyes on Every Fish ' provided a heavier emphasis on Burns than that prior program did Krusty . This helped make it a fairly good episode . It fleshed out Burns ’ character a little better and gave us a reasonably entertaining experience . The episode fell short of greatness , but it worked nicely for the most part . " Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly described the episode as " masterful " .
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= Dead Man Walking ( Body of Proof ) =
" Dead Man Walking " is the fifth episode of the first season of the American medical drama Body of Proof . It was originally broadcast in the United States on ABC on April 19 , 2011 . The episode was directed by Matthew Gross and written by series creator Christopher Murphey .
In the episode , Megan ( Dana Delany ) investigates the murder of Ted Harbison ( Kevin Kaine ) , who dies shortly after surgery and has to face up to her past , by going back to her former hospital ; and Ethan ( Geoffrey Arend ) and Curtis ( Windell Middlebrooks ) autopsy Jessica Archer ( Christina Hendricks ) , a woman who died from a blood clot , and meet her twin sister Karen ( Hendricks ) , for whom Ethan begins to develop feelings .
The episode received positive reviews , and was watched by 11 @.@ 30 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings , on the Tuesday night it aired in the United States . Critics praised Hendricks , with one stating that " guest stars like this should help keep up the quality " , saying her role was " lovely " . Christine Orlando from TV Fanatic called it " one of its most entertaining episode 's yet " due to the partnership between Ethan and Curtis .
= = Plot = =
Ted Harbison ( Kevin Kaine ) is found dead in a park . Dr. Megan Hunt ( Dana Delany ) investigates into his death and whilst investigating , it is revealed Ted had surgery just before he died , and Megan finds three surgical staples that weren 't closed fully , causing him to bleed out internally , causing Megan to think that Ted was murdered . Megan visits her old hospital , where she was once a neurosurgeon . Ted 's surgeon , Doctor Chandler ( Marc Blucas ) has a reputation for recklessness whilst performing surgeries and Megan finds out that the video was never turned on , meaning the surgery was never recorded . Whilst at the hospital , Megan meets her old friend and the hospital administrator Gwen Baldwin ( Carolyn McCormick ) and whilst there Gwen reveals her son died of an overdose . Meanwhile , in Philadelphia , Ethan ( Geoffrey Arend ) and Curtis ( Windell Middlebrooks ) autopsy Jessica Archer ( Christina Hendricks ) , with both Ethan and Curtis unsure how she died . Jessica 's twin sister arrives , Karen ( Hendricks ) , and Ethan and her are attracted to each other .
Meanwhile , Megan discovers that the surgical staple gun was tampered with . The guns come in packs of three but the pack was broken up between three surgeries , one was given to Ted , another to George White ( Dan Amboyer ) who Megan has to perform emergency surgery on after finding him near @-@ dead , and the third staple gun was not used . Megan finds traces of fungus found on bonsai trees on the staple guns and Megan realizes that Gwen has bonsai trees . When her son died , he was pledging for the fraternity where George is president . Gwen tampered with the staple guns to kill George , not realizing that the pack would be broken up . Ethan and Curtis find out that Jessica had a genetic mutation that caused a blood clot , so Ethan warns Karen that she might also have one . Megan confronts Gwen , who confesses to Megan . Gwen is eventually taken away by the police , after admitting to George 's attempted , and Ted 's accidental murder .
= = Production = =
" Dead Man Walking " was written by series creator Christopher Murphey and directed by Matthew Gross , best known for directing Dirty Sexy Money and Day Break , and films such as Fired Up ! and Joe Somebody . This was Gross 's first episode as a director , but he wrote the second episode of season one , " Letting Go " , alongside Murphey . Daniel Licht who has worked on the series since its inception , returned to compose the music for the episode . Actresses Christina Hendricks ( best known for her role in Mad Men ) and Carolyn McCormick ( best known for her role in Law & Order ) guest starred in the episode as Jessica / Karen Archer and Gwen Baldwin , respectively . It was reported that that Hendricks was to make a guest appearance in Body of Proof , in September 2010 by the Daily Mail . In addition to Hendricks and McCormick , actor Marc Blucas ( best known for his role in Buffy The Vampire Slayer ) played Dr. Chandler , as well as actresses Milena Govich and Meta Golding also guest starring in the episode . Regular cast member John Carroll Lynch who plays Detective Bud Morris , did not appear in this episode , although was credited .
" Dead Man Walking " , along with the eight episode 's from Body of Proof 's first season , were released on a two @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on September 20 , 2011 . The sets included brief audio commentaries from various crew and cast members for several episode 's , a preview of season 2 and a 10 @-@ minute " featurette " on the making of the show , with commentaries from the medical consultants who helped with the script , as well as a " Contaminated Evidence " blooper reel .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast on April 19 , 2011 , " Dead Man Walking " was seen by 11 @.@ 3 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings . Among viewers between ages 18 and 49 , it received a 2 @.@ 4 rating / 9 share ; a share represents the percentage of households using a television at the time the program is airing . This episode achieved higher viewers than the previous episode , " Talking Heads " , but a lower amount of viewers than the subsequent episode " Society Hill " . Body of Proof came seventh in the ratings on Tuesday night , it was outperformed by the CBS police procedural drama NCIS , as well as ABC 's Dancing with the Stars . " Dead Man Walking " was watched by 1 @.@ 75 million viewers upon its airing on Channel 5 in the United Kingdom .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Dead Man Walking " received positive reviews . Jessica Banov from FayObserver said that Body of Proof was finding its " groove " due to this episode , as well as highly praising Hendricks guest role , saying that " guest stars like this should help keep up the quality " . Christine Orlando from TV Fanatic also praised the episode , calling it " one of its most entertaining episode 's yet " . She also praised the character development between Megan and Peter ( Nicholas Bishop ) , as well as praising the partnership between Ethan and Curtis , saying that they " made up for " the fact Bud was not in the episode . She said , " This partnership just keeps getting better and the visual of the two of them in bio @-@ hazard suits was so comical . I look forward to more of these two as the show continues " . She was also " glad " that Dr. Kate Murphy ( Jeri Ryan ) had a bigger role , summarising that the " character interaction sells this show " . Like Banov , Orlando praised Hendricks guest role , saying it was " lovely " and that " she and real life husband Geoffrey Arend had a sweet sort of chemistry " . She also hope that Hendricks would reprise her role as Karen , stating that it would be " wonderful " . Finally , Orlando said that her favourite scene was with Kate in , when she and " an entire team of cops going in to a hospital and shutting it down " . She called it , " Dramatic , but effective " .
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= Armillaria luteobubalina =
Armillaria luteobubalina , commonly known as the Australian honey fungus , is a species of mushroom in the family Physalacriaceae . Widely distributed in southern Australia , the fungus is responsible for a disease known as Armillaria root rot , a primary cause of Eucalyptus tree death and forest dieback . It is the most pathogenic and widespread of the six Armillaria species found in Australia . The fungus has also been collected in Argentina and Chile . Fruit bodies have cream- to tan @-@ coloured caps that grow up to 10 cm ( 4 in ) in diameter and stems that measure up to 20 cm ( 8 in ) long by 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 in ) thick . The fruit bodies , which appear at the base of infected trees and other woody plants in autumn ( March – April ) , are edible , but require cooking to remove the bitter taste . The fungus is dispersed through spores produced on gills on the underside of the caps , and also by growing vegetatively through the root systems of host trees . The ability of the fungus to spread vegetatively is facilitated by an aerating system that allows it to efficiently diffuse oxygen through rhizomorphs — rootlike structures made of dense masses of hyphae .
Armillaria luteobubalina was first described in 1978 , after having been discovered several years earlier growing in a Eucalyptus plantation in southeastern Australia . It distinguished itself from other known Australian Armillaria species by its aggressive pathogenicity . It may take years for infected trees to show signs of disease , leading to an underestimation of disease prevalence . Studies show that the spread of disease in eucalypt forests is associated with infected stumps left following logging operations . Although several methods have been suggested to control the spread of disease , they are largely economically or environmentally unfeasible . Phylogenetic analyses have determined that A. luteobubalina is closely related to A. montagnei and that both of these species are in turn closely related to the Brazilian species A. paulensis . The distribution of A. luteobubalina suggests that it is an ancient species that originated before the separation of the precursor supercontinent Gondwana .
= = History and phylogeny = =
Armillaria luteobubalina was first described in 1978 by mycologists Roy Watling and Glen Kile , who studied its effects on a fast @-@ growing plantation of Eucalyptus regnans near Traralgon , Victoria . The plantation , established in 1963 , consisted largely of trees with a mean height of about 25 m ( 80 ft ) . A cluster of dead and dying trees discovered in 1973 suggested attack by a virulent primary pathogen , that is , one capable of infecting a host before invasion by other , secondary pathogens . This finding was inconsistent with the pathogenic behaviour of the known Armillaria species in Australia at the time , A. mellea and A. elegans . Further study over the next few years showed that the fungus spread by the growth of underground mycelia in root systems , expanding outward from the initial infected stump at an average of 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) per year . Most Australian records of Armillaria infections referred to A. mellea , based on the presence of black rhizomorphs . For over one hundred years , A. mellea was thought to be a pleiomorphic ( occurring in various distinct forms ) species with a widespread distribution and host range , and variable pathogenicity. which led to great confusion among taxonomists and plant pathologists alike . In 1973 , Veikko Hintikka reported a technique to distinguish between Armillaria species by growing them together as single spore isolates on petri dishes and observing changes in the morphology of the cultures . Using similar techniques , mycologists eventually determined that the Armillaria mellea species complex in Europe and North America in fact consisted of five and ten distinct " biological species " , respectively .
Watling and Kile compared the macroscopic and microscopic characters of the pathogenic Armillaria with A. polymyces ( now known as A. obscura ) , A. mellea , A. limonea and A. novae @-@ zelandiae and found sufficient differences between them to warrant designating the species as new . Its specific epithet is derived from the Latin lutea " yellow " , and was chosen to highlight an important distinguishing characteristic : the strong yellow colour of the cap and lack of reddish or brown tones in the stem typical of other resident Armillaria .
A phylogenetic study of South American Armillaria species concluded that A. luteobubalina is in a lineage that includes A. montagnei , and these are sister to a lineage containing A. paulensis , a species known from a single specimen collected in São Paulo , Brazil . Although they are very similar , specimens of A. luteobubalina have smaller spores than Argentinian specimens of A. montagnei , and their distinctness is well @-@ supported with phylogenetic analysis . Based on analysis of pectic enzymes , A. luteobubalina is closely related to A. limonea , a species found in New Zealand ; this result corroborates phylogenetic analyses reported in 2003 and 2006 . Molecular analysis of 27 collections of A. luteobubalina from southwest Western Australia and one from Traralgon revealed four distinct polymorphic groups . The genetic variety suggests it is native to Australia .
= = Description = =
Up to 10 cm ( 4 in ) in diameter , the cap is convex to flattened in shape with a central umbo ( a rounded elevation ) and is various shades of cream , yellow and tan . The cap surface is covered with darker scales and feels rough to the touch . The cap edge , or margin , is rolled inward in young specimens . The crowded gills are sinuate and white to cream in colour initially , brownish @-@ cream or pinkish brown in maturity , and sometimes with yellow or rust @-@ coloured marks close to the margins . The stem is central ( that is , it joins the cap in the centre ) and is up to 20 cm ( 8 in ) long by 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 in ) thick . It is slightly thicker at its base than its apex , sometimes almost bulb @-@ like . The stem surface is streaked with fibrils that run up and down its length . It has a floppy yellow wool @-@ like ring which may develop irregular , jagged edges with time . The flesh is white , and in the stem has a woolly or stringy consistency . Although it has a hot @-@ bitter taste , Armillaria luteobubalina is edible , and cooking removes the bitterness .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spore print is white when fresh , but becomes more cream @-@ coloured when dry . The smooth spores are oval to ellipsoid , hyaline ( translucent ) , non @-@ amyloid ( meaning they do not absorb iodine from Melzer 's reagent ) , and typically measure 6 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 5 by 4 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 5 μm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are thin @-@ walled , hyaline , and lack clamp connections at their bases . They are usually four @-@ spored but occasionally two @-@ spored , with sterigmata ( projections that attach to the spores ) up to 4 μm long . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia that occur on the edge of a gill ) are mostly club @-@ shaped , thin @-@ walled , hyaline , and measure 15 – 30 by 6 – 10 μm .
= = = Similar species = = =
Five other Armillaria species are found in Australia . Within the range of A. luteobubalina , A. hinnulea is restricted to gully habitats . A. fumosa is a rarer species found only in poorly drained or seasonally wet locations . A. luteobubalina and A. montagnei share cap features and a similar unpleasant flavour , but the latter species has an olive @-@ tinged cap , larger spores ( 9 @.@ 5 – 11 by 5 @.@ 5 – 7 µm compared to 6 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 5 by 4 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 5 µm ) and a more conspicuous annulus than those found in A. luteobubalina . The morphology of the vegetative structures of A. limonea is distinctly different than A. luteobubalina , and can be used to distinguish the two species . A. novae @-@ zelandiae has a sticky more flattened cap and stem below the ring and is found in wet forests , and A. pallidula is a species with cream gills maturing to pale pink found in tropical Australia arising from dead tree stumps or the roots of dead or living trees . A. luteobubalina is the only Armillaria species which occurs in Western Australia . Distinguishing Australian species is economically important , because A. luteobubalina is more pathogenic than the other members of the genus . A molecular diagnostic test , developed in 2002 , can accurately identify each species using DNA extracted from its mycelia . Before this , species identification was limited to times when fruit bodies were in season . This technology also revealed a variation in the molecular material of A. luteobubalina that suggested sexual reproduction .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Armillaria luteobubalina has been recorded in southeastern Australia , from the southeastern corner of Queensland through eastern New South Wales and across Victoria into southeastern South Australia . It also occurs in Tasmania and southwestern Western Australia . Those of the karri forests ( consisting largely of the species E. diversicolor ) of the southwest have paler and yellower caps than those in the jarrah forests ( which contain predominantly Eucalyptus marginata ) further north . The fruit bodies arise on wood , especially on stumps or around the base of trees , and often in huge numbers . They usually appear between April and July , although most production occurs in the second half of May . Abundant in woodlands , it can invade gardens and orchards , where it can attack many woody plants . The honey fungus infected and killed many plants near tuart trees ( Eucalyptus gomphocephala ) which had been cut down near Kings Park in suburban Perth . Armillaria luteobubalina is commonly found in eucalyptus forests in Australia , and is thought to be the most pathogenic and most widespread Armillaria species in the major western Australian forest types . The mushroom has also been reported from southern South America , in Argentina and Chile . A 2003 study of the molecular phylogenetics and pattern of its distribution in South America and Australia indicate that A. luteobubalina is an ancient species , originating before the separation of the precursor supercontinent Gondwana . Genetic differences between isolates in the South American and Australian populations indicate a long period of geographical separation , and the authors suggest that they " later might be regarded as independent taxa " .
= = Root rot = =
= = = Appearance of infected trees = = =
Trees that are infected by A. luteobubalina show characteristic symptoms both above and below ground . Above the ground , the base of the tree develops inverted V @-@ shaped lesions , and the infected wood undergoes white rot , a fungal wood decay process where the cellulose and lignin of the sapwood are both broken down , leaving the wood stringy . The bark of the stem dies and becomes discoloured up to 3 m ( 10 ft ) above the ground . Clusters of fruit bodies appear at the base of the tree in autumn . Crowns may show gradual deterioration , or tree death may occur suddenly . Below the ground , characteristic symptoms of infections include rotting the ends of tree roots , white @-@ rotted sapwood , and the presence of fan @-@ shaped areas of white mycelium below dead or infected bark .
= = = Occurrence = = =
In selectively logged eucalypt forests in the central highlands of Victoria , it has been estimated that about 3 – 5 % of the forest area is " moderately to severely affected " by Armillaria root rot caused by A. luteobubalina . A review of eucalypt plantations planted in New South Wales from 1994 to 2005 found that infection by A. luteobubalina was rare , and only accounted for 1 % of mortality in total . In this instance , the cases had been restricted to Eucalyptus nitens on the Dorrigo Plateau . Unlike other Armillaria species found in Australia 's native forests , which require a host tree to become weakened by prior infection by a different species , A. luteobubalina is a primary pathogen , and can infect healthy trees . Tree roots may be infected for years before showing above @-@ ground symptoms , making it difficult to accurately assess the true extent of disease in a forest stand . Surveys are usually conducted in autumn , to coincide with the appearance of fruit bodies ; infection is assessed by the presence of basal scars on the trees , and the appearance of fruit bodies . Several factors , however — such as cost , variable on @-@ site conditions , and non @-@ symptomatic diseased trees — make it difficult for such surveys to reliably detect all infections . One study showed that above @-@ ground examinations detected only 50 % of the trees actually infected , leading to underestimation of the incidence of true infection by 20 – 40 % . The study used more intensive surveying methods to determine that 25- to 30 @-@ year @-@ old karri regrowth forests in western Australia showed an average of 40 – 45 % incidence of infection .
= = = Disease spread = = =
Several studies have shown that the spread of Armillaria root rot in eucalypt forests is associated with infected stumps that remain after an area has been logged . Armillaria luteobubalina can persist on these stumps , using them as a source of food for up to 25 or more years . In one case reported in Ovens , Victoria , the disease was spread to blueberry plants ( Vaccinium species ) via buried fragments of infected Eucalyptus that remained following preparation of the previously forested site for planting . In individual forest stands , fungal infection is usually found in discrete disease patches separated by stands of healthy trees — a discontinuous distribution . Large @-@ scale aerial photography can be used to identify regions of forest infected by the species . The species also causes damage to trees and bushes in coastal dune woodlands , shrubland , and heath communities . It can be found on a wide range of hosts , but is most commonly associated with ( in order of decreasing frequency ) jarrah ( Eucalyptus marginata ) , bull banksia ( Banksia grandis ) , marri ( E. calophylla ) , Lasiopetalum floribundum , and Acacia saligna . It has also infected scattered populations of wandoo ( E. wandoo ) . The fungus has also been reported to infect Nothofagus species in Argentina , and Pinus radiata in Chile . Armillaria luteobubalina uses " an elaborate , sophisticated aeration system " that enables it to efficiently deliver oxygen into the rhizomorphs , helping it thrive in low @-@ oxygen environments . When grown in culture , the mycelium develops into a continuous region of tissue with a perforated crust . This tissue is hydrophobic and resistant to becoming waterlogged . Rhizomorphs develop beneath clusters of so @-@ called " air @-@ pores " near the perforations . These gas spaces connect the atmosphere with the central canal of the rhizomorph , to facilitate diffusion of oxygen and satiate the organism 's high oxygen requirement during growth . This aeration system is thought to be an important factor in the organism 's pathogenicity , allowing it to grow on wet or waterlogged root surfaces and send hyphae or rhizomorphs into live roots or cut stumps , where conditions may be hypoxic . The rhizomorphs have a dichotomous branching pattern , so that they split or bifurcate at various intervals . Experiments and field observations have shown that this allows the fungus to be a more aggressive and virulent pathogen than Armillaria species whose rhizomorphs branch monopodially ( where lateral branches grow from a main stem ) . Although the structure of A. luteobubalina rhizomorphs is specialised for spread in potentially anaerobic conditions , the soil mycelium is adaptive and can amplify the absorptive surface of peripheral hyphae in response to the presence of nutrient @-@ rich soil .
= = = Control = = =
Methods for controlling the spread of Armillaria root rot include physical removal of infected trees , stumps and large roots ; fumigation of soil around infected hosts ; and injection of fumigants directly into infected hosts . These methods are often not practical due to high cost , introduction of toxic chemicals that affect other organisms , or health and safety issues for the operator . Biological control is another method that has been investigated to control root rot caused by A. luteobubalina . In one study , thinning stumps of Eucalyptus diversicolor were simultaneously inoculated with A. luteobubalina and one of the saprobic wood decay fungi Coriolus versicolor , Stereum hirsutum and Xylaria hypoxylon ; all three fungi significantly reduced infection by A. luteobubalinea . These results were echoed in another study of stumps in karri regrowth forests , where it was shown that the presence of other wood decay fungi suppressed the growth of A. luteobubalina on the stump base .
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= Michael Woodruff =
Sir Michael Francis Addison Woodruff , FRS , FRCS ( 3 April 1911 – 10 March 2001 ) was an English surgeon and scientist principally remembered for his research into organ transplantation . Though born in London , Woodruff spent his youth in Australia , where he earned degrees in electrical engineering and medicine . Having completed his studies shortly after the outbreak of World War II , he joined the Australian Army Medical Corps , but was soon captured by Japanese forces and imprisoned in the Changi Prison Camp . While there , he devised an ingenious method of extracting nutrients from agricultural wastes to prevent malnutrition among his fellow POWs .
At the conclusion of the war , Woodruff returned to England and began a long career as an academic surgeon , mixing clinical work and research . Woodruff principally studied transplant rejection and immunosuppression . His work in these areas of transplantation biology , led Woodruff to perform the first kidney transplant in the United Kingdom , on 30 October 1960 . For this and his other scientific contributions , Woodruff was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1968 and made a Knight Bachelor in 1969 . Although retiring from surgical work in 1976 , he remained an active figure in the scientific community , researching cancer and serving on the boards of various medical and scientific organizations . He died on 10 March 2001 , at the age of 89 .
= = Early life = =
Michael Woodruff was born on 3 April 1911 in Mill Hill , London , England . In 1913 , his father , Harold Woodruff , a professor of veterinary medicine at the Royal Veterinary College in London , moved the family to Australia so he could take up the post of Professor of Veterinary Pathology and Director of the Veterinary Institute at the University of Melbourne . The elder Woodruff later became the Professor of Bacteriology . The family 's new life in Australia was interrupted by World War I , which prompted Harold to enlist in the armed services . He became an officer in the Australian Army Veterinary Corps and was sent to Egypt .
The remainder of the Woodruffs returned to London , and the two boys lived with their mother and paternal grandmother in the latter 's residence in Finchley . However , Michael and his brother went back to Australia in 1917 after their mother , Margaret , died of a staphylococcal septicaemia . The two then spent a short time under the care of an aunt before being rejoined by their father in 1917 .
In 1919 , Harold remarried and his new wife raised the children from his first marriage . The two boys did their early schooling at Trinity Grammar School in Melbourne . From then on he spent all of his youth in Australia except for a year in Europe in 1924 when his father went on sabbatical leave at Paris 's Pasteur Institute . During this time , Woodruff and his brother boarded at Queen 's College in Taunton , Somerset on the south coast of England . The headmaster at the school derogatorily regarded Australians as " colonials " who were " backward " and put Woodruff in a year level one year lower than appropriate . Upon returning to Australia , Woodruff attended the private Methodist Wesley College , where he enjoyed mathematics and rowing .
He won a government scholarship to the University of Melbourne and Queen 's College , a university residential college . Woodruff studied electrical engineering and mathematics , receiving some instruction from the influential physicist Harrie Massey , then a tutor . Despite success in engineering , Woodruff decided that he would have weak prospects as an engineer in Australia because of the Great Depression . He decided to take up medical studies at the end of his third year of undergraduate study , but his parents wanted him to finish his degree first . Despite his fears regarding his ability to succeed as an engineer , Woodruff placed first in his graduating class with first @-@ class honours . He also completed two years of the maths program with first @-@ class honours .
After graduating in 1933 , he entered the medical program at the University of Melbourne . His mentors included Anatomy Professor Frederic Wood Jones . While at the University , he passed the primary exam for the Royal College of Surgeons in 1934 , one of only four successful candidates who sat the examination in Melbourne that year . He finished the program in 1937 and received an MBBS with honours as well as two prizes in surgery . After graduation , he studied internal medicine for one more year , and served as a house surgeon at the Royal Melbourne Hospital . Woodruff then started his surgical training .
= = World War II = =
At the outbreak of World War II , Woodruff joined the Australian Army Medical Corps . He stayed in Melbourne until he finished his Master of Surgery Degree in 1941 . At that time , he was assigned to the Tenth Australian Army General Hospital in Malaya as a captain in the Medical Corps . According to Woodruff , his time in Malaya was quiet and relatively leisurely as the war in the Pacific was yet to begin in earnest . However , after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor changed the situation and he was posted to a casualty clearing station where he worked as an anaesthetist , before being transferred into the Singapore General Hospital . A Japanese offensive resulted in the fall of Singapore and Woodruff was taken prisoner along with thousands of other Australian and British personnel .
After being captured , Woodruff was imprisoned in the Changi Prison Camp . In the camp , Woodruff realized that his fellow prisoners were at great risk from vitamin deficiencies due to the poor quality of the rations they were issued by the Japanese . To help fight this threat , Woodruff asked for permission from the Japanese to allow him to take responsibility for the matter , which was granted . He devised a method for extracting important nutrients from grass , soya beans , rice polishings , and agricultural wastes using old machinery that he found at the camp . Woodruff later published an account of his methods through the Medical Research Council titled " Deficiency Diseases in Japanese Prison Camps " . Woodruff remained a POW for three and a half years and later during this period he was sent to outlying POW camps to treat his comrades . As the prisoners were not allowed to be transferred , he had to improvise in his practise . During this time he also read Maingot 's surgery textbook , as a copy was in the camp , and he later said that reading about the fact that skin allografts were rejected a fortnight after being initially accepted , had stoked his interest in doing research on the topic .
At the conclusion of World War II , Woodruff returned to Melbourne to continue his surgical training . During his studies , he served as the surgical associate to Albert Coates . This position was unpaid , so Woodruff accepted an appointment was a part @-@ time pathology lecturer to support himself . In January 1946 , Woodruff participated in an Australian Student Christian Movement meeting , where he met Hazel Ashby , a science graduate from Adelaide . She made a great impression on Woodruff , and he married her half a year later . The couple were research partners for the rest of their lives .
= = Early career = =
Soon after his marriage , Woodruff decided to travel to England in order to take the second half of the FRCS Exam . Woodruff took his new wife over with no guarantee of employment , and declined a two @-@ year travelling fellowship to Oxford University offered by the Australian Red Cross because it required him to return home and work . Before departing , he applied for a position as a Tutor of Surgery at the University of Sheffield , and learned en route that they had accepted his application . He took the FRCS exam in 1947 and passed — a result that , in Woodruff 's view , was certainly not hindered by the fact that one of his examiners , Colonel Julian Taylor , had been with him at Changi .
= = = Sheffield = = =
After passing his exam , Woodruff entered his position at Sheffield , where he trained in emergency and elective surgery . Originally , he had planned to do surgical research , but Sheffield had no space for him in its surgical lab . Instead , Woodruff was given a place in the pathology laboratory where he studied transplant rejection , a process in which the immune system of a transplant recipient attacks the transplanted tissue . Woodruff was particularly interested in thyroid allografts to the anterior chamber of the eye because they did not appear to meet with rejection . Woodruff 's work with the allografts gave him a solid basis to work in the developing field of transplantion and rejection . To further himself in these areas , Woodruff arranged to meet Peter Medawar , an eminent zoologist and important pioneer in the study of rejection . The two men discussed transplantation and rejection , beginning a lasting professional relationship . Despite his achievements at Sheffield , Woodruff was rejected upon applying for a post at the Royal Melbourne Hospital .
= = = Aberdeen = = =
In 1948 , shortly after applying for the position in Melbourne , Woodruff moved from Sheffield to the University of Aberdeen where he was given a post as a senior lecturer , having not known where the Scottish city was beforehand . At Aberdeen , Woodruff was given better laboratory access under Professor Bill Wilson , and was also awarded a grant that allowed his wife to be paid for her services . He took advantage of this access and his wife 's skills as a lab assistant to investigate in utero grafts ( tissue grafts performed while the recipient was still in the womb ) . At the time , the surgical community hypothesized that if a recipient were given in utero grafts , he would be able to receive tissue from the donor later in life without risk of rejection . Woodruff 's experiments with rats , however , produced negative results . Woodruff also commenced work on antilymphocyte serum for immunosuppression , with little initial success .
While in Aberdeen , Woodruff also visited the United States on a World Health Organization ( WHO ) Traveling Fellowship . During the visit , he met many of the leading American surgeons , an experience that increased his own desire to continue his work and research . After returning from the US , Woodruff experimented with the effects of cortisone and the impact of blood antigen on rejection . As part of his blood antigen studies , Woodruff found two volunteers with identical blood antigens and arranged for them to exchange skin grafts . When the grafts were rejected , Woodruff determined that rejection must be controlled by additional factors . In 1951 Woodruff was bestowed a Hunterian Professorship of the Royal College of Surgeons of England for his lecture The transplantation of homologous tissue and its surgical application .
= = = Dunedin = = =
In 1953 , Woodruff moved to Dunedin to take up a position as the Chair of Surgery at the University of Otago Dunedin School of Medicine , New Zealand 's only medical school at that time . Woodruff had earlier failed in his applications for the corresponding position at St Mary 's in London and St Andrews University in Edinburgh . While in Dunedin , Woodruff conducted research on the use of white blood cells to increase tolerance for allografts in rats . This line of research proved to be largely unsuccessful , but some of Woodruff 's other projects did well . Among his more important accomplishments in the period , Woodruff established a frozen skin bank for burn treatment . As there was no plastic surgeon in the city , Woodruff ended up being responsible for treating burns . He also worked on the phenomenon known as runt disease ( graft versus host disease ) . Although Woodruff had been productive in four years in New Zealand , Dunedin had a population of roughly 100 @,@ 000 , so there were not enough people in the region to supply a clinical medical school , so he began to look for an appointment elsewhere .
= = Edinburgh = =
In 1957 , Woodruff was appointed to the Chair of Surgical Science at the University of Edinburgh without requiring an interview . At the university , he split his time equally between his clinical and teaching responsibilities and his research . He was also allowed to appoint two assistant researchers who went on to become prominent in their own right , Donald Michie and James Howard . As a major part of his research , Woodruff served as the honorary director of a Research Group on Transplantation established by the Medical Research Council .
The research group 's principal investigations concerned immunological tolerance ( the body 's acceptance of tissues , as opposed to rejection ) , autoimmune haemolytic anaemia ( especially in mice ) , and immune responses to cancer in various animals . In his clinical role , Woodruff started a vascular surgery program and worked with the use of immunotherapy as a cancer treatment as well as the treatment of autoimmune haemolytic anaemia . However , his most important clinical accomplishments were in kidney transplantation .
Most notably , he performed the first ever kidney transplant in the UK , at the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary . Woodruff had been waiting for the right patient for some time , hoping to find a patient with an identical twin to act as the donor , as this would significantly reduce the risk of rejection . The patient that Woodruff eventually found was a 49 @-@ year @-@ old man suffering from severely impaired kidney function who received one of his identical twin brother 's kidneys on 30 October 1960 . Both twins lived an additional six years before dying of an unrelated disease . Woodruff thought that he had to be vigilant with his first kidney transplant , as he regarded the British medical community 's attitude to be conservative towards transplantation . From then until his retirement in 1976 , he performed 127 kidney transplants . Also in 1960 , Woodruff published The Transplantation of Tissues and Organs , a comprehensive survey of transplant biology and one of seven books he wrote . He was awarded the 1969 Lister Medal for his contributions to surgical science . The corresponding Lister Oration , given at the Royal College of Surgeons of England , was delivered on 8 April 1970 , and was titled ' Biological aspects of individuality ' .
The success of Woodruff 's clinical transplant program was recognised and enhanced by funding from the Nuffield Foundation to construct and open the Nuffield Transplant Surgery Unit at the Western General Hospital in Edinburgh . In 1970 an outbreak of hepatitis B struck the transplant unit , resulting in the death of several patients and four of Woodruff 's employees due to fulminant hepatic failure . Woodruff was deeply shaken by the loss and the unit was closed for a period while an investigation was carried out to develop a contingency plan to avoid such a disaster in future . The unit then resumed operations .
Woodruff retired from the University of Edinburgh in 1976 , his role then being filled by Prof Geoffrey Duncan Chisholm , and joined the MRC Clinical and Population Cytogenetics Unit . He spent the next ten years there , engaged in cancer research with an emphasis on tumor immunology using Corynebacterium parva . During that time , Woodruff also published twenty @-@ five papers and two books . After retiring from his cancer research , Woodruff lived quietly with his wife in Edinburgh , traveling occasionally , until his death there on 10 March 2001 at the age of 89 .
= = Legacy = =
Woodruff 's contributions to surgery were important and long @-@ lasting . In addition to performing the first kidney transplant in the UK , he devised a method of implanting a transplanted ureter in the bladder during transplants that is still used today . Furthermore , he established a large , efficient transplant unit in Edinburgh that remains one of the world 's best . Although best known for these clinical accomplishments , Woodruff 's contributions to the study of rejection and tolerance induction were equally important . Among these contributions , Woodruff 's work with anti @-@ lymphocyte serum has led to its wide use to reduce rejection symptoms in organ transplant recipients up to the current day .
These important contributions to medicine and biology were first seriously honoured in 1968 when Woodruff was elected to be a Fellow of the Royal Society . The next year , 1969 , Woodruff was knighted by the Queen , a rare accomplishment for a surgeon . Additionally , numerous medical organizations gave Woodruff honorary membership , including the American College of Surgeons , the American Surgical Association , and the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh . Woodruff also held office in several scientific organizations , serving as Vice @-@ President of the Royal Society and President of The Transplantation Society . Finally , Woodruff served for many years as a WHO advisor and as a visiting professor at a number of universities .
Despite his profound influence on transplantation and what Peter Morris called " a commanding presence in any gathering " , Woodruff was not known for his ability as a lecturer as he had a rather uncertain style of presentation and had a tendency to mumble . Nevertheless , Morris said that Woodruff has " a great turn of phrase and a rather wicked sense of humour " . Morris concluded that " What is surprising is that he was not successful in producing many surgeons in his own mould , despite the intellectual talent that was entering surgery and especially transplantation in the 1960s . However , his influence in transplantation at all levels was enormous . "
= = = Publications = = =
Woodruff 's impact is also apparent in his large volume of publications . In addition to authoring over two hundred scholarly papers , Woodruff wrote seven books during his career , covering numerous aspects of medicine and surgery .
Deficiency Diseases in Japanese Prison Camps . M.R.C Special Report No. 274 . H.M. Stationery Office , London 1951 .
Surgery for Dental Students . Blackwell , Oxford . ( Fourth Ed . , 1984 with H.E. Berry ) 1954 .
The Transplantation of Tissues and Organs . Charles C. Thomas . Springfield , Illinois 1960 .
The One and the Many : Edwin Stevens Lectures for the Laity . Royal Society of Medicine , London 1970 .
On Science and Surgery . Edinburgh University Press , Edinburgh 1976 .
The Interaction of Cancer and Host : Its Therapeutic Significance . Grune Stratton , New York 1980 .
Cellular Variation and Adaptation in Cancer : Biological Basis and Therapeutic Consequences . Oxford University Press 1990 .
= = Personal life = =
The Woodruffs had two sons , followed by a daughter . Their first son completed a medical degree at University College London and became an ophthalmologist . The two younger children both did their tertiary education at Sheffield University . The second son became a civil engineer and the daughter completed a science degree in botany .
Woodruff and his wife were avid tennis players and had a court in their home in Edinburgh . After moving to Edinburgh , Woodruff took up sailing with the Royal Forth Yacht Club , and went on to compete in some races . He owned a boat was known to go sailing on it in the Mediterranean each summer with his wife . During his student years , Woodruff was a keen rower and field hockey player .
Woodruff was a lover of classical music , and after taking up the organ at university and learning from A. E Floyd , the organist of St Paul 's Cathedral , he became the college organist at Queen ’ s College in Melbourne ; he later learned to play the piano . In his spare time , Woodruff continued to pursue his love of pure mathematics , especially number theory . He periodically attempted to prove Fermat 's Last Theorem , but failed .
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= SMS Zieten =
SMS Zieten was the first aviso built for the Imperial German Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) . She was built in Britain in 1875 – 1876 , and was the last major warship built for Germany by a foreign shipyard . Ordered as a testbed for the new Whitehead torpedo , Zieten was armed with a pair of 38 cm ( 15 in ) torpedo tubes , and was capable of a top speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) , making her the fastest ship in the German fleet at the time . Zieten proved to be the first torpedo @-@ armed vessel in a series of avisos that ultimately developed into the first light cruisers . In addition to her impact in German warship design , Zieten also influenced numerous other navies , who built dozens of similar avisos and torpedo vessels of their own .
Zieten served for the first two decades of her career with the torpedo boat flotilla . In 1878 – 1880 , she was captained by Alfred von Tirpitz , the future architect of the High Seas Fleet . In 1882 , she cruised the Mediterranean Sea with several other German warships , and was present during the British bombardment of Alexandria , where she protected German interests . Zieten was used as a fishery protection ship from 1899 until 1914 , when the outbreak of World War I necessitated her mobilization as a coastal patrol ship . She served in this capacity for the duration of the war , and was stricken from the naval register in December 1919 . The ship was finally sold for scrapping in August 1921 , after forty @-@ five years of service .
= = Design = =
In 1869 , the Prussian Navy sent then @-@ Korvettenkapitän Alexander von Monts to Austria to examine the new Whitehead torpedoes then being developed there . Albrecht von Stosch , the commander in chief of the new Imperial German Navy , approved a plan to develop a torpedo arm for the German fleet , and placed Monts in charge of the program in 1873 . That year , Stosch 's naval construction program called for a tender for the new torpedo boats . The tender was ordered from the British firm the Thames Iron Works , and named Zieten . She was to be the last major warship purchased by the German navy from a foreign shipyard .
In addition to the planned role as a tender for torpedo boats , she was also intended to serve as a test platform for the new self @-@ propelled torpedo . Up to the mid @-@ 1870s , the German navy had only experimented with a handful of torpedo ships , all of which were equipped with the old spar torpedo . The ship 's design provided the basis for both later German avisos — the Blitz class — and all subsequent light cruisers , but also to numerous foreign designs , such as several classes of French , Italian , and Austrian avisos and torpedo craft .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Zieten was 69 @.@ 5 meters ( 228 ft ) long at the waterline and 79 @.@ 4 m ( 260 ft ) long overall . She had a beam of 8 @.@ 56 m ( 28 @.@ 1 ft ) and a draft of 3 @.@ 8 m ( 12 ft ) forward . She displaced 1 @,@ 001 metric tons ( 985 long tons ; 1 @,@ 103 short tons ) as designed and up to 1 @,@ 170 t ( 1 @,@ 150 long tons ; 1 @,@ 290 short tons ) at full combat load . The hull was constructed with transverse iron frames and contained eight watertight compartments . Initially , Zieten had only a small bridge forward , but in 1899 , a new superstructure was built ; it included a conning tower with a compass platform . A chart house was also added forward of the funnel .
Zieten was a good sea boat with a gentle motion , but she was very crank . She was very maneuverable , but she handled poorly in a head sea . In bad weather , she took on considerable amounts of water and was very dangerous . The ship had a crew of 6 officers and 88 enlisted men , though later in her career the figure rose to 7 and 99 , respectively . During her career as a fishery protection ship , it rose further , to 7 officers and 104 sailors . Zieten carried a number of smaller boats : one picket boat , one cutter , two yawls , and one dinghy . Later in her career , the picket boat was removed and two barges were added .
= = = Machinery = = =
The ships propulsion system consisted of two horizontal 2 @-@ cylinder double expansion engines manufactured by John Penn and Sons . The engines drove two 3 @-@ bladed propellers that were 3 @.@ 05 m ( 10 @.@ 0 ft ) wide in diameter . Steam was provided by six coal @-@ fired cylindrical boilers , also manufactured by John Penn and Sons , which were trunked into a single funnel amidships . The boilers were replaced with new models in 1891 during a refit at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Kiel . As built , Zieten was fitted with a schooner rig with a sail area of 355 square meters ( 3 @,@ 820 sq ft ) to supplement her steam engines , but this was later reduced to only an auxiliary gaff sail .
The engines were rated at 2 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 500 kW ) , but only managed to reach 1 @,@ 807 ihp ( 1 @,@ 347 kW ) at maximum power . With the new boilers , the engines reached 2 @,@ 376 ihp ( 1 @,@ 772 kW ) . Her top speed as designed was to have been 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) , but with her original boilers , she could make 15 @.@ 9 knots ( 29 @.@ 4 km / h ; 18 @.@ 3 mph ) at full power . This speed nevertheless made Zieten the fastest ship in the German fleet . With the new boilers , she could steam at up to 16 @.@ 3 knots ( 30 @.@ 2 km / h ; 18 @.@ 8 mph ) . Zieten could carry up to 130 t ( 130 long tons ; 140 short tons ) of coal , which allowed her to steam for 1 @,@ 770 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 280 km ; 2 @,@ 040 mi ) at a cruising speed of 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) . During the refit , she also had one electricity generator , with an output of 10 kilowatts ( 13 hp ) at 67 volts , installed .
= = = Armament = = =
Zieten 's primary armament consisted of a pair of 38 @-@ centimeter ( 15 in ) torpedo tubes . Both were submerged in the hull , one in the bow and one in the stern . They were supplied with a total of ten Whitehead torpedoes . These powerful weapons , coupled with the ship 's high speed and maneuverability , made her a powerful vessel for the period . In 1878 , the forward torpedo tube was relocated to a swivel launched mounted on the deck , and two 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns were installed . She was also equipped with six machine guns . Later in her career , the torpedo tubes were removed , due to their obsolescence , and she was rearmed with six 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) SK L / 40 guns , though two were later removed . The guns were supplied with a total of 864 rounds of ammunition , and could engage targets out to 6 @,@ 200 m ( 20 @,@ 300 ft ) . She was also equipped to lay naval mines , and she could carry 49 of them .
= = Service history = =
Zieten was built by the Thames Iron Works in London . She was laid down in 1875 and was launched on 9 March 1876 . She was completed on 15 July 1876 , and commissioned into the German fleet on 1 August . She was thereafter used in experiments with early torpedoes and as a tender for torpedo boats . In 1876 , Otto von Diederichs served aboard the ship as her executive officer in her first crew . In August , the ship conducted sea trials in the North Sea , before arriving in Wilhelmshaven on 11 August for fitting @-@ out work . Diederichs supervised the installation of the ship 's torpedo tubes , along with the magazine for storing the torpedoes . The work lasted until September , which prevented Zieten from participating in the annual August – September fleet exercises . As a result , she was placed in reserve on 17 September for the winter . In March 1877 , Diederichs returned to the ship and prepared her for service in the training season that year . The ship was ready for active duty by 11 June , and thereafter conducted further sea trials and torpedo training .
After Zieten entered service in June 1877 , Diederichs was replaced by Alfred von Tirpitz , who took over torpedo testing while he was assigned to the Torpedo School at Kiel . Diederichs meanwhile readied the old gunboat Scorpion as a tender for Zieten . On 18 September , Zieten and Scorpion participated in the first major test of the new Whitehead torpedoes in the German navy . During the exercises , Zieten scored three hits on a stationary target , which was deemed a great success . After the conclusion of the maneuvers , Zieten was placed in reserve on 2 October for the winter . The analysis of the testing showed that the bow @-@ mounted torpedo tube was not satisfactory , and so Diederichs was tasked with redesigning her armament in January 1878 . Diederichs moved the bow tube to a swivel mount on her deck , and added two 12 cm guns to improve her defense against small warships .
The refit work was completed by 16 April 1878 , permitting Tirpitz to take command of the ship on 6 May . He served as the ship 's commander until August 1880 . Tirpitz , as the commander of Germany 's torpedo boat flotilla , staunchly advocated the development of torpedo craft rather than a fleet of battleships . In July 1880 , during maneuvers with the fleet , Zieten torpedoed and sank the old paddle steamer Barbarossa . In 1882 , Zieten joined a cruising squadron that consisted of the corvettes Gneisenau and Nymphe , the steamer Loreley , and a gunboat , for operations in the Mediterranean Sea . The ships were present during the British bombardment of Alexandria in August 1882 ; they sent men ashore to protect the German embassy , along with a German @-@ run hospital . In July , Zieten joined a squadron of ships to take the newly crowned Kaiser Wilhelm II for a tour of Baltic ports , which included a visit to Tsar Alexander III of Russia .
The ship was assigned as the dispatch vessel for the Reserve Squadron in the North Sea in 1898 , along with the coastal defense ships Beowulf and Frithjof . Starting in 1899 , Zieten was used intermittently as a fishery protection ship . In September 1902 , Zieten participated in the final exercises during the annual fleet maneuvers . Her career as a fishery protection ship lasted until 1914 , when she was mobilized at the outbreak of World War I in August . She was used as a coast guard ship for the duration of the conflict . After Germany 's defeat , Zieten was stricken from the naval register on 6 December 1919 . The ship was sold on 18 August 1921 for 655 @,@ 000 marks and broken up in Wilhelmshaven .
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= Kinne Cemetery =
Kinne Cemetery , also known as the Glasgo Cemetery and Old Kinne Burying Ground , is a historic cemetery in Jarvis Road in Griswold , Connecticut . The earliest marked stone is for Daniel Kinne who died in 1713 . In the 1930s , the inscriptions of 79 stones in the Kinne Cemetery were recorded for the Hale Index . There are around 80 fieldstones with no carving or identification , but it is unknown if this stems from wearing of the gneiss stone or that there were no skilled carvers locally available . The seven carvers that have been identified are Lebbeus Kimball , Jotham Warren , Josiah Manning , Peter Barker , Mr. Huntington of Lebanon , E. Marston of Mystic Bridge and O. Doty of Stonington . The National Historic Register of Places nomination notes , " the cemetery is significant artistically because the carving on the stones gives many good examples of the funerary art that was characteristic of the 18th and 19th centuries in New England . " The cemetery is notable because of the burial of Isaac C. Glasko , the namesake of the village of Glasgo , and a prominent African American land @-@ holding man who ran a blacksmith shop that was important to the marine industry of the area . The cemetery was made apart of the Connecticut Freedom Trail in 1995 and it was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 12 , 2001 .
= = History = =
Established around 1713 , the Kinne Cemetery is one of eighteen family cemeteries in Griswold . It rests upon the land of Joseph Kinne , who came to Griswold from Salem , Massachusetts in 1704 and includes the land of Thomas Kinne , also came from Salem in 1714 . The exact date of its founding is unknown , but the earliest extant stone is for Daniel Kinne , died 1713 . According to the National Register of Historic Places nomination , the cemetery was an active burial site for the Kinne family , including those of married Kinne daughters , until the interment of Clark Robbins Cook in 1912 . However , the Hale Index lists the last marked interment as that of Herbert Kinney , died August 24 , 1916 .
In order to improve and enlarge the cemetery , the Kinne Historical and Genealogical Society was incorporated by special act of the Connecticut General Assembly in 1884 . In 1887 , the land adjacent to the Glasgo Pond was purchased by the society , though the boundary of 168 feet ( 51 m ) by 170 feet ( 52 m ) does not match the town 's record . The land 's grantor , Nathan B. Lewis , purchased the land thirty years prior in 1857 from a Kinne family connection , Alexander Steward . According to the Town of Griswold 's records , the property is designated as " map 78 , block 136 , lot 3 " . In the 1930s , the inscriptions of 79 stones in the Kinne Cemetery were recorded for the Hale Index . According to another study , 71 of the 74 interments are related by blood or marriage to the Kinne family .
In the Summer of 1999 , a group of volunteers worked to restore and clean up the cemetery that led to a ceremony in October 1999 with more than 60 people in attendance . The article in The Day highlighted the difficulty in finding the cemetery which is located on the banks of the Pachaug River , in the village of Glasgo , located in the town of Griswold . Iva Arpin said that the town would repair the stone walls and that the Children of the American Revolution would return in the spring to continue their work on the cemetery . In 2002 , the cemetery had undergone a significant restoration which included the unearthing and accounting for all the burial markers that had been strewn about the grounds . Arpin noted that some of the stones showed signs of vandalism . The Day described how some of the marker stones and monuments were covered in nearly a foot of pine needles and that the roots had uprooted the anchor stones causing the headstones to fall and break .
By 2007 , concerns about public use of the land for recreation and reflection had provoked concern from Kinne descendents , but there is little that descendents could do . The grounds were once under the control of the Kinne Family Historical Society , but it was disbanded " generations ago " and the town owns the cemetery by default . The cemetery had been disturbed by the gravestones being stacked to " help climbers reach their optimum height before swinging " from a rope on a tree into the pond . Pieces of the wall and a gravestone had been thrown towards the pond and came to rest on a ledge . Courtland Kinne , a descendent of Thomas Kinne , wants a jersey barrier erected to stop vehicles from parking next to the gravestones , the wrought iron fence around the burial ground and the trees within the grounds to be removed because their roots could disturb the plots .
= = Importance = =
The Kinne Cemetery shows the evolution of funerary art over the course of the centuries . The earliest marked stone is for Daniel Kinne who died in 1713 . Daniel Kinne 's stone has a simple rounded top with only his name carved into it .
= = Interments = =
This is an alphabetical list of interments recorded from the Hale Index survey with all data stemming from a copy of the Charles R. Hale Collection of Cemetery Inscriptions . Additional field stones are noted , but were not listed in the Hale Collection . According to the National Historic Register , names are missing from this list , including Isaac C. Glasko ( 1776 @-@ 1861 ) who was " of mixed Indian and Negro blood . " The listing here is not complete because the records of many field stones were incomplete and did not contain identification , including the earliest stone for Daniel Kinne who died in 1713 . Kinne 's stone only had the name carved .
= = Gallery = =
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= Frank Lapidus =
Frank J. Lapidus is a fictional character on the ABC television series Lost played by Jeff Fahey . Frank is introduced in the second episode of season four as a pilot hired on a mission to the island where Oceanic Flight 815 crashed . He aids the survivors of the crash against mercenary Martin Keamy ( Kevin Durand ) and helps to rescue a group who become known as the Oceanic Six . Three years later , Frank encounters the group again while working as a commercial airline pilot . His plane lands back on the island , and he is forcibly taken in by a group of his passengers headed by Ilana ( Zuleikha Robinson ) and Bram ( Brad William Henke ) , who are working for the island 's highest authority figure Jacob ( Mark Pellegrino ) . In the series finale , he ultimately escapes the island with a few of his fellow inhabitants .
Frank 's name was created by co @-@ executive producer Edward Kitsis , who had been pitching the name " Lapidus " for years and had also used it for an unseen character in the episode " Exposé " . Fahey was the producers ' first choice for the role , which was developed to suit his personality . As a result of the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike , Frank 's role in the first half of season four was diminished , and some planned storylines were carried over into the fifth season . Frank 's introduction , along with the three other new characters from the freighter introduced in season four , was well received , as was his return in season five . Lost executive producer Damon Lindelof confirmed in an interview that Lapidus would be a series regular for the show 's sixth and final season .
= = Arc = =
Originally from The Bronx , New York , Frank was the intended pilot of Oceanic Airlines Flight 815 , which crashed on an island in the South Pacific . He is first encountered in The Bahamas , ringing the NTSB to state that the body of the pilot of Flight 815 shown on the sea bed , on the Television news , is not who it is claimed to be . Frank is later recruited as a pilot on behalf of Charles Widmore ( Alan Dale ) , who is chartering a freighter destined for the island upon which Flight 815 crashed . Frank reveals himself to be a conspiracy theorist who believes there are still survivors of Flight 815 . He goes on to pilot a helicopter from the freighter to the island , which malfunctions on approach . His team — consisting of Daniel Faraday ( Jeremy Davies ) , Charlotte Lewis ( Rebecca Mader ) and Miles Straume ( Ken Leung ) — parachute to safety , and Frank is able to land the helicopter without incurring significant damage . Lapidus identifies Juliet Burke ( Elizabeth Mitchell ) as a " local " and in response to the return of Charlotte , who was being held hostage by John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) , flies Desmond Hume ( Henry Ian Cusick ) and Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) to the freighter .
Later , Frank disagrees with the actions of fellow freighter passenger Martin Keamy ( Kevin Durand ) , a mercenary hired to capture island inhabitant Benjamin Linus ( Michael Emerson ) . He helps a group of survivors avoid Keamy 's team , and later attempts to resist Keamy 's command . When Keamy murders the freighter 's captain ( Grant Bowler ) in a display of power , he is forced to comply , but is able to secretly transfer a satellite phone to the survivors as a warning . When a group of survivors overpower Keamy 's mercenaries , Frank attempts to fly them to safety . Due to a lack of fuel , the group — consisting of Lapidus , Sayid , Desmond , Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) , Hugo Reyes ( Jorge Garcia ) , Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) , Sun @-@ Hwa Kwon ( Yunjin Kim ) and Aaron Littleton — crash into the ocean , where they take to a lifeboat and are later rescued by the Searcher , a ship belonging to Desmond 's girlfriend Penelope Widmore ( Sonya Walger ) .
Following their rescue , Frank begins working for Ajira Airways . He encounters the survivors again three years later , while piloting Flight 316 to Guam . Frank realizes the Oceanic Six intend to return to the island , and minutes later , the flight experiences extreme turbulence . Frank and his co @-@ pilot are able to land the plane on the adjacent Hydra Island , although the co @-@ pilot is killed . After gathering the survivors of Flight 316 together , Frank accompanies Sun and Ben to the main island . They meet Christian Shephard ( John Terry ) , who reveals that the remaining survivors have travelled through time to 1977 . Christian instructs them to await the arrival of John Locke , which they do . Sun is determined to remain with Locke and find her husband Jin @-@ Soo Kwon ( Daniel Dae Kim ) , so Frank parts from her , returning to Hydra Island intent on repairing the jet radio to call for help . Upon his return , Frank finds that passenger Ilana ( Zuleikha Robinson ) has found guns on the island and claimed leadership of the group . After he is unable to answer her cryptic question " What lies in the shadow of the statue ? " she attacks him and knocks him out . Frank later regains consciousness in an outrigger , being transported back to the main island by Ilana , Bram ( Brad William Henke ) and three other Flight 316 survivors . He overhears them discussing whether or not he may be a potential " candidate " , though when he asks what he may be a candidate for , they refuse to elaborate . Frank accompanies the group through the jungle to meet up with the island 's native inhabitants The Others , at the foot of the aforementioned statue .
In the season six premiere " LA X " , Frank tells Sun that he does not trust Ilana and her men . He then witnesses The Man in Black ( also O 'Quinn ) , who was posing as Locke all along , knock out Richard Alpert , the Others ' ageless advisor . He then participates in the burial of the real Locke . Frank then accompanies Ben , Sun and Ilana to rescue any inhabitant of the attacked Temple . They only rescue Miles . They eventually decide to head for the beach . Frank overhears Miles saying that Ben killed Jacob ( Mark Pellegrino ) . He then tells Ben that he was the original pilot of Oceanic Airlines Flight 815 . He is at the beach when Jack , Hurley and Richard arrive .
In order to stop the Man in Black from leaving the island , Richard suggests that they destroy the Ajira plane . After Ilana is killed while holding dynamites , Frank goes to the Black Rock with the group in order to get more dynamite . However , Hurley blows up the ship in order to prevent anymore risks ; destroying all the dynamite supplies . After Hurley tells of his plan to talk to the Man in Black and Richard goes with his plan to destroy the plane , Frank joins Hurley , along with Jack , and Sun . Their group then merge with the Man in Black 's camp .
Later , Charles Widmore 's second in command , Zoe , arrives at the camp and threatens to destroy the camp with artillery shells if the Man in Black does not give back Desmond . Frank , Jack , Hurley , Sun , and Claire Littleton ( Emilie de Ravin ) go with Sawyer 's plan of betraying the Man in Black by joining Widmore , and they escape from the Man in Black 's group . After Jack leaves the group , due to his reluctance to leave the island , the remaining group reach Hydra Island . However , Widmore betrays them , and has them locked in the animal cages at Hydra Station . The Man in Black attacks Widmore 's camp as the Smoke Monster ; allowing Jack , who has joined the Man in Black , to free Frank and the rest of the group . They then head to the Ajira plane to leave the island . But when they get to the plane , the Man in Black reveals the plane is rigged with C4 . He then suggests they leave the island by Widmore 's submarine .
Frank and the group reach the sub , and they take control of it . After betraying the Man in Black , Widmore 's men attack , but they manage to submerge . Jack then discovers the Man in Black planted the C4 in Jack 's bag . Sayid sacrifices himself and runs off with the C4 as far away from the others as he could until it explodes . The explosion causes the submarine to sink , and Frank is knocked out after a door hits him . Frank revives and makes it to the surface of the water . He is found by Richard and Miles as they head for Hydra Island to blow up the Ajira plane . Frank convinces them to steal the plane and let him fly it . After much repair work and picking up Kate , Claire , and Sawyer , the plane takes off and heads for home .
= = Development = =
After Naomi Dorrit ( Marsha Thomason ) landed on the island in season three , the producers began to plan who else would be on the boat she came from . They wanted these new characters to be interested in finding the island for their own personal reasons . The team created consisted of Frank , Daniel Faraday , Charlotte Lewis and Miles Straume , referred to as the " freighter folk " . Their relationship with the survivors of Flight 815 formed the crux of the fourth season . Co @-@ executive producer / writer Edward Kitsis had been pitching the name " Lapidus " for years , finally naming an unseen character in the fourteenth episode of the third season Rick Lapidus . Unsatisfied , Kitsis developed the character " Frank Lapidus , Helicopter Pilot " . According to producers Damon Lindelof and Carlton Cuse , Jeff Fahey " was the first and only choice for the role " . Cuse had enjoyed Fahey 's roles in The Lawnmower Man and The Marshal , and he and Lindelof commended his " intense eyes " , stating that " he has exactly the right sensibilities " for the part . Fahey was offered the part without having to audition . At the time the producers began to consider him for the role , he had taken a break from acting and was living in Afghanistan , doing charity work and running an orphanage in Kabul . When Cuse contacted him about appearing in the show , Fahey was on the top of a mountain in Caracas , Venezuela during a rainstorm , having just opened an orphanage . He had never seen the series before , but the producers talked him through the first three seasons in an attempt to convince him to return to acting and accept the role . When he was cast , Fahey was unaware of whether he would be a guest star , or would develop into a regular . Focus on the character was diminished by the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike , which resulted in the fourth season being cut short . The latter half of the season did feature the character more predominately , however some stories planned for Frank and his fellow freighter folk had to be deferred to the fifth season .
Frank was not originally envisioned with a beard , however at the time of his casting , Fahey himself had one . Lindelof and Cuse felt that the beard worked with Lapidus ' character , and allowed Fahey to keep it for the role , with the requirement he shave it back to a more manageable length . The character remained bearded until his return in fifth season episode " 316 " , set three years on from his original introduction . Fahey praised the way the character was developed to suit him , explaining that upon meeting with Lindelof and Cuse , rather than discussing the show with him , they were more interested in him personally and his experiences , going on to incorporate elements of himself into Lapidus . He expanded : " The beauty of this is they 'll feed you a concept based on an idea of who you are . The actor and the characters are not suits off the rack , they tailor @-@ make them to you . What 's very exciting is it is a very positive give and take . It 's a nice dance , as it were . " Fahey was not given an overarching overview of his character , nor were any of the other new freighter folk , which he found exciting , creating a level of intrigue amongst the cast and crew as well as fans . Prior to arrival on the island , Lapidus was described by Naomi as a drunk . Entertainment Weekly 's Kristin Dos Santos deemed Lapidus the most laid back of the four new characters , though Fahey commented that " It might be because he 's just rolled around a few more places a little longer than the others " , agreeing with Dos Santos ' assessment that Lapidus was " a little nomadic " . Lindelof and Cuse have said that Frank " never takes anything at face value [ and is ] a true conspiracy nut [ who ] has probably seen every episode of The X @-@ Files , [ which will ] pay off for him " .
= = Reception = =
Producers Lindelof and Cuse were initially worried about how the freighter folk characters would be received by fans , after the unhappy reaction to new characters Nikki ( Kiele Sanchez ) and Paulo ( Rodrigo Santoro ) , introduced in season three . However , following their introduction in " Confirmed Dead " , the four characters were well received , with Paige Albiniak of the New York Post citing them as a reason behind the show 's improved ratings . Erin Martell of AOL 's TV Squad wrote that within one episode Fahey had already won her over , and called Frank her favorite new Lost character . IGN 's Chris Carabott described Frank , as well as the other new characters from the freighter , as " great " and " exciting " , writing that : " Fahey 's Lapidus has exceptional screen presence that even overshadows the regular cast members to an extent . " TV Guide 's Bruce Fretts praised the casting of the freighter folk , noting that Fahey had been a personal favourite of his since his appearance in The Marshall . He deemed the group all stronger actors than former Lost stars Michelle Rodriguez , Rodrigo Santoro , Maggie Grace and Ian Somerhalder , and expressed hope that they would remain on the show longer . Jeff Jensen from Entertainment Weekly called the new characters " fascinating " and wrote that they " totally worked for me , while their intriguing backstories left me jonesing for more . " Peter Mucha of The Philadelphia Inquirer deemed Frank 's flashback " mind @-@ bending " , and Oscar Dahl of BuddyTV called " Confirmed Dead " the " perfect introduction " to the new characters , writing that he could not wait to find out more about them . Michael Ausiello of TV Guide also enjoyed their introduction , and praised the actors ' performances . Casey Gillis for The News & Advance highlighted the introduction of the freighter folk as one of the highlights of the season , opining that they " fit seamlessly into the ensemble " , while Digital Spy 's Ben Rawson @-@ Jones praised the season for introducing Frank , who he deemed " a real cult figure . " In contrast , James Poniewozik of Time was critical of Lapidus . He wrote that he was amazed by the economy and precision with which the new characters were introduced because " Each got just one flashback and a little time on the island , and yet by the end of the episode , I felt I had a true handle on what they were like as individuals . " He appended , however , that this was : " with the possible exception of Frank , who seems a bit too generic @-@ drunk @-@ hippie @-@ guy for now . "
Following the episode " Something Nice Back Home " , TV Guide 's Trish Wethman noted that she was intrigued by Lapidus ' " seemingly heroic antics " in saving a group of the survivors from Keamy and his men , though overall was confused by the motivations of the freighter folk . Carabott wrote that Frank 's return in the fifth season episode " 316 " was shocking , but seemed as though it was meant to be . He opined that : " The chances of Frank being on that plane are astronomical and the fact that he was supposed to be the pilot of Flight 815 just makes the situation all the more unusual . His appearance in this episode is absurd but after four and a half seasons of Lost it makes perfect sense . " James Yates of the Staten Island Advance wrote that it was " great " to see Frank again , as he had missed the character 's presence , and hoped he would play a major part upon returning to the island .
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= Sonic the Hedgehog 2 =
Sonic the Hedgehog 2 ( Japanese : ソニック ・ ザ ・ ヘッジホッグ2 ( ツー ) , Hepburn : Sonikku za Hejjihoggu Tsū ) is a platform video game developed by Sonic Team , with assistance from Sega Technical Institute , and published by Sega for the Sega Genesis console . It was released worldwide in November 1992 . The game is the second main entry in the Sonic the Hedgehog series , and the first to feature Miles " Tails " Prower , a flying two @-@ tailed fox . He and protagonist Sonic the Hedgehog must stop the series antagonist Dr. Ivo Robotnik from stealing the Chaos Emeralds in order to power his space station , called the Death Egg .
Development of the game began in November 1991 , two months later than originally intended , because Sega of America felt that it was too soon for a sequel . Both American and Japanese Sonic Team staff contributed to development ; art director Tim Skelly designed the appearance of the game 's new 3D special stages , based on an earlier tech demo created by Yuji Naka . The staff increased the speed of Sonic the Hedgehog 2 in comparison to its predecessor . As with the original game , the soundtrack was composed by Masato Nakamura .
Sonic the Hedgehog 2 was a critical and commercial success . It has sold over six million copies , making it the second @-@ best @-@ selling Genesis game behind the original Sonic the Hedgehog . It has since been released in several compilations and downloads for various platforms , which were also generally positively received . A remastered version was released on iOS and Android devices in December 2013 , including new features such as Boss Rush and Time Attack modes , and the ' Hidden Palace Zone ' , which was scrapped from the original 1992 release . Two sequels , Sonic the Hedgehog 3 and Sonic & Knuckles , were released in 1994 .
= = Plot = =
The game 's two protagonists are Sonic the Hedgehog and his sidekick , Miles " Tails " Prower ; Tails is described as having idolized Sonic as a child and wanting to keep up with him . The game 's premise is similar to that of the original Sonic the Hedgehog . Sonic 's nemesis , Dr. Ivo Robotnik , is planning world domination with his army of robots , which he has placed animals inside , and the power of the seven Chaos Emeralds . However , this time he is constructing an armored space station known as the Death Egg . The goal of the game is to defeat Robotnik , optionally saving as many animals as possible and collecting all seven Emeralds . By default , the game ends with Sonic riding on Tails ' biplane , the Tornado . However , if the player has collected all of the Chaos Emeralds , Sonic , in his Super Sonic form , flies alongside it .
= = Gameplay = =
Sonic the Hedgehog 2 is a 2D , side @-@ scrolling platform game . At the game 's start , the player can select to either play as Sonic , Tails , or both . In the latter mode , players control Sonic while Tails runs along beside him . A second player can join in at any time and control Tails separately . The game takes place over a series of levels , each divided into one , two , or three acts with a boss fight with Robotnik at the end of the last act . The character can jump on enemies to defeat them ; the game also introduces a new move , the " spin dash " or " Super Dash Attack " , by which the player curls in a ball and spins while stationary , resulting in a speed boost . When the player is attacked by an enemy without rings , is crushed , falls off @-@ screen , or exceeds the act 's ten @-@ minute limit , they lose a life and return to the most recently passed checkpoint . Dying with zero lives gives the player a game over .
When the player collects at least 50 rings and passes a checkpoint , they can warp to a " special stage " . In these stages , the player runs through a pseudo @-@ 3D half @-@ pipe course , collecting rings and dodging bombs . A set amount of rings must be collected to pass through each of three checkpoints and in turn to obtain the emerald itself . If Sonic collides with a bomb , he loses ten rings and is immobilized momentarily . The stages rise in difficulty , and the player cannot enter any stage without passing the previous one . After finishing , the player is transported back to the star post they used to enter the special stage . When all Emeralds have been collected , if the player chose Sonic , he has the ability to turn into Super Sonic , which requires 50 rings or more . Super Sonic is yellow and invincible to enemy attacks , and his speed , acceleration , and jump height are increased as well . However , he loses one ring per second and reverts to being regular Sonic when all of his rings are gone .
The game also has a competitive mode , where two players compete against each other to the finish line , as either Sonic or Tails , in a split @-@ screen race through three of the regular levels and a special stage . After one player finishes one of the regular levels , the other player must finish the zone within 60 seconds , or the level ends instantly . In the regular levels , players are ranked in five areas ( score , time , rings held at the end of the level , total rings collected , and number of item boxes broken ) . The player with wins in the most number of categories , wins the level . In the Special Stage , players compete to obtain the most rings . The mode ends when all stages have been completed , or if a player loses all their lives , in which their opponent will automatically win .
= = = Knuckles the Echidna in Sonic the Hedgehog 2 = = =
Sonic & Knuckles was released in 1994 , two years after Sonic 2 . The Sonic & Knuckles game cartridge features a special " lock @-@ on " adapter by which the player can attach other Genesis cartridges . Attaching Sonic 2 unlocks Knuckles the Echidna in Sonic the Hedgehog 2 , a variation of Sonic 2 whereby the player plays as Knuckles the Echidna , a character introduced in Sonic the Hedgehog 3 ( 1994 ) and not playable until Sonic & Knuckles .
Though the game is largely identical to Sonic the Hedgehog 2 , Knuckles may glide and climb walls , allowing him access to new areas . He cannot jump as high , making some areas , such as certain boss fights , more difficult . Fewer rings are needed to progress in special stages and the score made within them no longer resets . The two @-@ player mode is removed .
= = Development = =
Following the release of the original Sonic the Hedgehog , creator Yuji Naka quit Sega due to disagreements over its corporate policies . Mark Cerny , who had recently founded the Sega Technical Institute ( STI ) at Sega of America , met with Naka in Japan and offered him a higher salary and more creative freedom if he joined STI . Naka agreed , and Hirokazu Yasuhara , lead level designer of Sonic the Hedgehog , also decided to move to STI . Yasuhara had been assigned to help Cerny establish STI in 1990 , but the outbreak of the Gulf War delayed his move to the United States by three months , during which he joined Sonic Team and became part of the Sonic project .
Development of Sonic 2 began in November 1991 , two months later than Cerny had intended , because Sega of America initially felt it was too soon for a sequel . Both American and Japanese Sonic Team staff contributed to development ; art director Tim Skelly designed the appearance of the game 's pseudo @-@ 3D special stages , based on a tech demo created by Naka . The special stages were created out of pre @-@ rendered 3D polygons , video of which was compressed and halved , both vertically and horizontally , to fit in the game cartridge . Sonic 2 also introduced Sonic 's sidekick , a two @-@ tailed flying fox named Tails , inspired by Japanese folklore about the kitsune and created by level artist Yasushi Yamaguchi . Sega of America objected to the character 's name , Miles Prower ( a pun on " miles per hour " ) , so he was given the nickname Tails as a compromise . Masaharu Yoshii served as the game 's director . The staff increased the speed of Sonic the Hedgehog 2 compared to the first game .
The game was originally believed to contain time travel elements and also have a port to the Mega @-@ CD / Sega CD , Sega 's add @-@ on for the Genesis . The port never surfaced , and time travel was instead implemented in an original Sonic game for the Mega CD , Sonic the Hedgehog CD .
A demonstration cartridge of the game was stolen at a New York toy show earlier in 1992 . Sega 's Akinori Nishiyama stated that the leak was due to the lack of security . The prototype features a playable section of a level titled " Hidden Palace Zone " , a level cut shortly before release . Naka said of the level :
The basic idea was about the same as it was in Sonic & Knuckles . You 'd encounter the stage through normal play by collecting the emeralds . The idea behind the stage was , " Where do the Chaos Emeralds come from ? " That 's where Sonic was originally supposed to be granted his Super Sonic powers . We finally were able to use it in S & K , though it wound up being quite different from what we had planned in Sonic 2 . But even from Sonic 1 we 'd been throwing around those sorts of ideas . Still , when we were running out of time , we looked over things quickly trying to figure out what to dump ... and CHOP went the Hidden Palace . There 's simply no way we could have thrown that in by the deadline at the rate we were going .
The " Hidden Palace " level was lost for over 20 years until it was included in the iOS remaster release in December 2013 , which implemented the level . Sega provided some magazines , such as GamePro , with screenshots of early builds of the game that showed another removed level ; a desert themed level , named " Dust Hill Zone " . Naka has also alluded to another , unidentified , scrapped level in the Sonic Jam Official Strategy Guide , explaining why the " Metropolis Zone " had three parts to it , while every other level only had two : " Due to problems with the story , Act 3 was going to be a different Zone that would only appear once , but since it was cut , we still wanted to have something after Act 2 . So that 's why there are three acts in this one . We had already finished the map , and it would have been a shame to waste it , so this is what we went with . "
= = = Music = = =
Sonic the Hedgehog 2 's music , like the previous game , was composed by Masato Nakamura , bassist and lead songwriter of the J @-@ pop band Dreams Come True . The music began early on in development with only concept images for Nakamura 's reference , but having a previous game meant he had experience with creating music for the Genesis , and began taking a similar approach to the first game . Nakamura treated Sonic the Hedgehog 2 as a film , and designed the music around the atmosphere that he felt from the images of the stages . Except for the graphics and some discussion with Sonic Team , Nakamura was given freedom over the music creation which he believes was the reason why he was able to create " such melodic tunes and unusual rhythm patterns " .
Nakamura created the music while he was recording with Dreams Come True in London , working on their fourth album The Swinging Star . As a gift to Sonic Team , Masato produced an alternate version of the ending theme with Dreams Come True , which was included in the album they were recording at the time . In 2011 , the stage music from Chemical Plant and Casino Night Zone were remixed by Sega for use in Sonic Generations .
Later in October of the same year , a three @-@ disc compilation of the music from Sonic the Hedgehog and Sonic the Hedgehog 2 was released in Japan . Alongside music from the game , the compilation includes comments by Yuji Naka and an interview with Nakamura . The first disc contains original tracks from both games , and the second contains Nakamura 's demo recordings produced during the games ' development . The third disc contains " Sweet Sweet Sweet " by Dreams Come True , its English @-@ language version " Sweet Dream " , and 2006 remixes of both songs by singer Akon which were used in Sonic the Hedgehog ( 2006 ) .
= = = Release = = =
Sega launched a $ 10 million advertising campaign for Sonic the Hedgehog 2 's release . Sega sought a global release date to make the game available in all stores on the same day , a fairly novel concept at the time . This required Sega to reconfigure its distribution system to ensure that games were available in all major stores . The release date , Tuesday , November 24 , 1992 was marketed as " Sonic 2s day " . While the Genesis release in North America and the Mega Drive release in Europe both released the game on this day , Sega made the game available a few days before in Japan on November 21 , 1992 . 400 @,@ 000 copies of Sonic 2 were sold in the first seven days after release and over 6 million in the life span of the console .
= = Alternate versions and ports = =
= = = 8 @-@ bit version = = =
A version of the game for the Sega Master System and Game Gear was developed by Aspect . Though based on the original game of the same name , it is a distinct game , with different level designs and a different plot , and this version , unlike the 16 @-@ bit release , does not have the spindash , which led it to being thought to be made before the Sega Genesis version .
= = = Compilation releases = = =
Compilations that include the game are Sonic Compilation ( 1995 ) for the Sega Mega Drive / Genesis ; Sonic Jam ( 1997 ) for the Sega Saturn ; Sonic Mega Collection ( 2002 ) for the Nintendo GameCube ; Sonic Mega Collection Plus ( 2004 ) for the PlayStation 2 , Xbox , and PC ; Sega Genesis Collection ( 2006 ) for the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable ; Sonic 's Ultimate Genesis Collection ( 2009 ) for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 ; and Sonic Classic Collection ( 2010 ) for the Nintendo DS .
= = = Download releases = = =
The game was made available for download on Wii 's Virtual Console on June 11 , 2007 , PlayStation 3 via the PlayStation Network on April 19 , 2011 , and Xbox 360 via Xbox Live Arcade , the latter having enhancements such as online leaderboards , achievements , and online play . Various mobile phone versions exist as well , including the iOS release . A remastered version of the game , made using Christian Whitehead 's " Retro Engine " , was released for iOS , Android and Windows Phone devices on December 12 , 2013 , featuring Knuckles as a playable character , a boss attack mode , online multiplayer , additional multiplayer stages , and the previously unreleased Hidden Palace Zone . The game was released as part of the Nintendo 3DS 3D Classics line in Japan on July 22 , 2015 , with a release in North America and Europe initially slated for September 2015 , before being pushed back to October 8 .
= = Reception = =
Due to the popularity of its predecessor , Sonic the Hedgehog 2 already had an established fanbase anticipating its release . The game received critical acclaim upon release and was a best seller in the UK charts for 2 months . As of 2006 , the game has sold over 6 million copies , making it the second best @-@ selling game for the Sega Genesis ( after the original Sonic the Hedgehog ) .
Reviewers praised the game for its large levels , colorful graphics and backgrounds , increased cast of characters , enemies , and music . GameSpot stated that " time may have eroded Sega 's prominence , but it hasn 't done much to diminish how sweet Sonic the Hedgehog 2 is , " and , along with other reviewers , commented on how it is still a fun game to play . Electronic Gaming Monthly awarded it as the best Sega Genesis game of 1992 . In 2000 , Game Informer ranked Sonic 2 number 61 on its " Top 100 Games of All Time " list , calling it " the most challenging and finely polished Sonic the Hedgehog title . " Mega placed the game at # 36 in their " Top Sega Mega Drive Games of All Time " list . Critics also enjoyed the faster gameplay the game offered in comparison to its predecessor , as well as its new features . Lucas Thomas of IGN praised the new " Spin @-@ Dash " ability , which would prepare Sonic to launch at a faster speed . Thomas also noted that the levels of Sonic 2 were designed to showcase the character 's speed , and was less a " platform @-@ jumping game " than a " platform @-@ running " game , in slight contrast to its predecessor .
The game 's main criticisms were of the two player mode , a new introduction to the series . The game allowed two @-@ player mode in three different zones ( Emerald Hill , Casino Night and Mystic Cave ) . Reviewers criticized the mode 's noticeable slowdown and prominent flickering , and the squashed play area for each player . However , Lucas Thomas praised the innovation of the new two player mode , quipping that " Mario and Luigi could never run competitively through the same levels , at the same time " . William Burrill of the Toronto Star described the two player racing mode as the " only part of the game that can be faulted , " citing that the mode and its split screen view " squeezes the graphics , plumps up the characters and slows down the action . "
= = Legacy = =
Sonic the Hedgehog 2 's financial success was a major factor in Sega catching up to Nintendo in the early @-@ 1990s console wars . It brought their market share up to 50 % within six months of its release . Tails , whom Sonic the Hedgehog 2 introduced , would go on to become one of the most prominent and frequently recurring characters in the series , appearing and acting as Sonic 's sidekick in most of the franchise 's media , including in recent games such as Sonic Colors , Sonic Generations , and Sonic Lost World in which most of the recurring cast does not appear or is relegated to minor roles . Tails starred alone in two games for the Sega Game Gear : Tails ' Skypatrol and Tails Adventure . Furthermore , Sonic the Hedgehog 2 's popularity managed extend its own cult following and spawn various merchandise such as comic books ( the well @-@ received fortnightly Sonic the Comic ) , a television series , and a sequel , Sonic the Hedgehog 3 , which received similar acclaim .
For Sonic 's twentieth anniversary , Sega released Sonic Generations , a game that remade aspects of various past games from the franchise . The PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 , and PC versions contained a remade " Chemical Plant " level . It also contained a remake of the final boss fight , the Death Egg Robot , as the Classic Era boss of the game . Separately , the Nintendo 3DS version of the game contained a remake of the " Casino Night " level . A " Casino Night " themed pinball minigame was made available for download as a pre @-@ order bonus for the console versions at GameStop .
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= Shivalik @-@ class frigate =
The Shivalik class or Project 17 class is a class of multi @-@ role frigates in service with the Indian Navy . They are the first stealth warships built in India . A total of three ships were built between 2000 and 2010 , and all three were in commission by 2012 .
The Shivalik class , along with the seven Project 17A frigates currently being developed from them , are projected be the principal frigates of the Indian Navy in the first half of the 21st century . All ships of the class were built by Mazagon Dock Limited . The class and the lead vessel have been named for the Shivalik hills . Subsequent vessels in the class are also named for hill @-@ ranges in India .
Originally conceived as a successor to the Talwar @-@ class frigates , the Shivalik @-@ class frigates feature improved stealth features and land attacking capabilities .
= = Design and description = =
Project 17 was conceived in the 1990s to meet the Indian Navy 's need for a class of stealthy frigates that were to be designed and built in India . The Directorate of Naval Design ( DND ) ' s specifications for the project called for a class of " 5000 ton stealth frigates ( Project 17 ) incorporating advanced signature suppression and signature management features " . The first three units were formally ordered by the Indian Navy in early 1999 .
Shivalik 's design embodies many firsts in Indian ships . Shivalik is the first Indian naval vessel to use a combined diesel or gas ( CODOG ) propulsion system . The CODOG gearboxes were designed and built by Elecon Engineering .
The main features of the class are its stealth characteristics and land @-@ attack capability . The ships incorporate structural , thermal and acoustic stealth features . The vessels use 10 gigabit LAN for their network .
There has also been an increased emphasis on crew comfort in this class of ships with more spacious accommodation being provided . Also , INS Shivalik is the first ship in the Indian Navy with chapati- and dosa @-@ makers on board .
= = = General characteristics and propulsion = = =
The Shivalik @-@ class frigates have a length of 142 @.@ 5 m ( 468 ft ) overall , a beam of 16 @.@ 9 m ( 55 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 5 m ( 15 ft ) . The ships displace about 4 @,@ 900 tonnes ( 4 @,@ 800 long tons ; 5 @,@ 400 short tons ) at normal load and 6 @,@ 200 tonnes ( 6 @,@ 100 long tons ; 6 @,@ 800 short tons ) at full load . The complement is about 257 , including 35 officers .
They use two Pielstick 16 PA6 STC Diesel engines and two GE LM2500 + boost turbines in CODOG configuration providing a total of 47 @,@ 370 shp ( 35 @,@ 320 kW ) of power . This allows the ships to reach a maximum speed of 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) .
= = = Electronics and sensors = = =
The Shivalik @-@ class frigates are equipped with a wide range of electronics and sensors . These include :
1 × MR @-@ 760 Fregat M2EM 3 @-@ D radar
4 × MR @-@ 90 Orekh radars
1 × ELTA EL / M @-@ 2238 STAR
2 × ELTA EL / M @-@ 2221 STGR
1 × BEL APARNA
In addition , the ships use HUMSA ( hull @-@ mounted sonar array ) , ATAS / Thales Sintra towed array systems and the BEL Ajanta Electronic Warfare suite .
= = = Armament = = =
The Shivalik @-@ class frigates are equipped with a mix of Russian , Indian and Israeli weapon systems . These include the 76mm Otobreda naval gun , Klub and BrahMos supersonic anti @-@ ship missiles , Shtil @-@ 1 anti @-@ aircraft missiles , RBU @-@ 6000 anti @-@ submarine rocket launchers and 6 – 324 mm ILAS 3 ( 2 triple ) torpedoes . A 32 cell VLS launched Barak SAM and AK @-@ 630 act as Close @-@ in weapon systems ( CIWS ) . The ships also carry two HAL Dhruv or Sea King Mk . 42B helicopters .
= = Construction and service = =
All the three ships of the class were constructed at the Mazagon Dock Limited . The construction of the lead ship , Shivalik , commenced in December 2000 . The ship 's keel was laid in July 2001 and was launched in April 2003 . It underwent sea trials in February 2009 before being commissioned in April 2010 . The second ship , Satpura , was laid in October 2002 . It was launched in June 2004 and commissioned in August 2011 . The third and final ship , Sahyadri , was laid in September 2003 , launched in May 2005 and commissioned in July 2012 . All the three ships are named after hill @-@ ranges in India : Shivalik after the Sivalik Hills , Satpura after the Satpura range and Sahyadri after the Sahyadri range commonly called Western Ghats .
The lead ship of the class , INS Shivalik , was deployed in the North West Pacific for JIMEX 2012 ( Japan @-@ India Maritime Exercise ) with four other ships which included INS Rana , a Rajput @-@ class guided missile destroyer , INS Shakti , a Deepak @-@ class fleet tanker , and INS Karmuk , a Kora @-@ class corvette , and took part in India 's first bi @-@ lateral maritime exercise with Japan . The Japanese Maritime Self @-@ Defence Force ( JMSDF ) was represented by two destroyers , one maritime patrol aircraft and a helicopter . After the deployment in the north Pacific , the battle group was deployed in the South China Sea . As part of India 's Look East policy , the ships visited the Shanghai port on 13 June 2012 , for a five @-@ day goodwill tour . INS Shakti served as the fuel and logistics tanker to the three destroyers . The ships left the port on 17 June 2012 . Before leaving the port , the ships conducted a routine passage exercise with the People 's Liberation Army Navy .
The second ship , INS Satpura , participated in the Malabar 2012 exercise with the United States Navy along with the Indian destroyers INS Ranvir , INS Ranvijay , corvette INS Kulish and replenishment oiler INS Shakti . The other ships which participated in the exercise included Carrier Strike Group ( CSG ) 1 of the US Navy , consisting of : USS Carl Vinson , embarked Carrier Air Wing ( CVW ) 17 , the Ticonderoga @-@ class guided @-@ missile cruiser USS Bunker Hill and the Arleigh Burke @-@ class guided @-@ missile destroyer USS Halsey . Military Sealift Command 's fast combat support ship USNS Bridge also provided support for the exercise .
INS Shivalik participated in the PLAN 's 65th anniversary celebrations held in Qingdao sailing 4 @,@ 500 miles from Port Blair without any assistance from support ships . India , Indonesia and China conducted three high level exercises including anti @-@ hijack exercise .
= = Ships = =
= = Gallery = =
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= Twilight Zone : 19 Original Stories on the 50th Anniversary =
Twilight Zone : 19 Original Stories on the 50th Anniversary is a collection of short stories written by various authors and edited by Carol Serling , the widow of series creator Rod Serling . Each story was written with themes or styles similar to The Twilight Zone episodes , including narrated introductions and conclusions to each story . Authors who contributed a story include Twilight Zone veteran Earl Hamner , Alan Brennert and William F. Wu , and a previously unpublished story by Rod Serling . Reviewers listed some of the better stories as being Kelley Armstrong 's " A Haunted House of Her Own " , Alan Brennert 's " Puowaina " and Mike Resnick and Lezli Robyn 's " Benchwarmer " .
= = Background = =
This anthology of short stories was published to mark the fiftieth anniversary of the television debut of The Twilight Zone . Since the death of her husband , The Twilight Zone creator Rod Serling , Carol Serling had been acting as a consultant for a series of fiction anthologies and for the 1983 theatrical film . She contributed to or edited books including Journeys to the Twilight Zone , Adventures in the Twilight Zone , Return to the Twilight Zone , More Stories from the Twilight Zone , and the non @-@ fiction book Rod Serling and The Twilight Zone : The 50th Anniversary Tribute . Among the authors solicited to write stories for the 50th anniversary book were Alan Brennert and William F. Wu , who worked on the 1980s The Twilight Zone series ; Earl Hamner , who wrote episodes for the original series ; and Rod Serling 's older brother , Robert J. Serling . Peter S. Beagle and Harlan Ellison were advertised as contributors but their stories did not make it into the book .
= = Synopsis and format = =
The book begins with an introduction by the editor Carol Serling and ends with brief biographies of all the authors . Each of the 19 self @-@ contained short stories includes an introduction and conclusion with the same tone and style as Rod Serling 's narration at the beginning and end of each Twilight Zone episode .
Adam Balm on Ain 't It Cool News categorized the short stories into following four basic types of The Twilight Zone episode formats : the social revenge fantasies ( " The Art of Miniature " , " Family Man " , and " The Good Neighbor " ) use unlikable characters who eventually suffer an ironic twist to their predicament ; stories about paranoid characters trying to convince others that something is wrong ( " The Street that Forgot Time " ) ; stories with a war theme ( " Genesis " , " Puowaina " , " Ghost Writer " , and " The Soldier He Needed to Be " ) ; and stories centered on a hitch @-@ hiker ( " On the Road " and " Truth or Consequences " ) .
= = Publication and reception = =
The book was published by Tor Books as a hardcover and paperback in September 2009 . To help with its promotion a 39 second video trailer was produced . Compared to Rod Serling and The Twilight Zone : The 50th Anniversary Tribute , which was reviewed by writer Elizabeth Hand as " a piece of hagiography that does little to illuminate Serling 's genius or the enduring appeal of his most famous creation " , the anthology was called " a far superior homage to Serling " . In her Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction column Hand listed Hagberg 's " Genesis " are the best story in the anthology though Lansdale 's and Stine 's are also good . She called Rod Serling 's and Strieber 's stories " the only real misfires " .
The review in Publishers Weekly listed Armstrong 's " A Haunted House of Her Own " , Brennert 's " Puowaina " , and Tad Williams 's " Ants " as the best stories . The review also listed Wu 's " On the Road " , Douglas 's " Truth or Consequences " , and Serling 's " Ghost Writer " as being " less satisfying " stories . The review concluded that the book is " largely inoffensive and faithful to the Twilight Zone format , this anthology is primarily of interest to hardcore fans " . Carl Hays from Booklist wrote a positive review , saying " superior craftsmanship ensures can 't @-@ miss entertainment for speculative @-@ fiction fans and anyone nostalgic for the original Twilight Zone aura " . Impressed by the authors , the reviewer in the Library Journal wrote " with this slate of authors and the perennial popularity of the show , all libraries should own a copy " .
The Starlog reviewer , David McDonnell , lists the anthology 's best stories as Lansdale 's " Torn Away " , Zahn 's " Vampin ' Down the Avenue " , Resnick and Robyn 's " Benchwarmer " , and Armstrong 's " A Haunted House of Her Own " . McDonnell noted that Rod Serling 's " El Moe " was least like a typical Twilight Zone story , and that Williams 's " Ants " belonged to the Alfred Hitchcock Presents universe rather than The Twilight Zone . On Ain 't It Cool News , Adam Balm identified Wu 's " On the Road " as " the best entry in the collection " . Balm wrote that the anthology is " uneven , with too many stories disappointing and too many that are nostalgianautic remember @-@ whens , mining territory long since tamed and settled by others " but ultimately worth the money spent .
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= Invasion of the Cape Colony ( 1795 ) =
The Invasion of the Cape Colony was a British military expedition launched in 1795 against the Dutch Cape Colony at the Cape of Good Hope , the southern tip of Southern Africa . The Dutch colony at the Cape , established in the seventeenth century , was at the time the only viable South African port for ships making the journey from Europe to the European colonies in the East Indies . It therefore held vital strategic importance , although it was otherwise economically insignificant . In the winter of 1794 , during the French Revolutionary Wars , French troops captured the Dutch Republic , which was reformed into the client state of the Batavian Republic . In response , Great Britain launched operations against the Dutch Empire to prevent the use of its facilities by the French Navy .
The British expedition was led by Vice @-@ Admiral Sir George Keith Elphinstone and sailed in April 1795 , arriving off Simon 's Town at the Cape in June . Attempts were made to negotiate a settlement with the colony , but talks achieved nothing and an amphibious landing was made on 7 August . A short battle was fought at Muizenberg , and skirmishing between British and Dutch forces continued until September when a larger military force landed . With Cape Town under threat , Dutch Governor Abraham Josias Sluysken surrendered the colony . Elphinstone subsequently strengthened the garrison against counterattack and stationed a Royal Navy squadron off the port . Almost a year later a Dutch reinforcement convoy reached the colony only to find that it was badly outnumbered , and surrendered without a fight . The British Cape Colony continued until the Peace of Amiens in 1802 when it was returned to the Dutch . In 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars a second British invasion recaptured the colony after the Battle of Blaauwberg and it remained a British colony until the establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910 .
= = Background = =
The French Revolutionary Wars , which began in 1792 following the French Revolution , expanded in January 1793 when the French Republic declared war on the Dutch Republic and the Kingdom of Great Britain . This brought the war to the Indian Ocean , where both Britain and the Netherlands maintained lucrative empires . Trade from these empires was menaced by French privateers and warships operating from Île de France , ( now Mauritius ) but it was protected in the waters off Southern Africa by the presence of the Dutch Cape Colony . Situated at the Cape of Good Hope , the Cape Colony had been established in the seventeenth century to offer a harbour for shipping traveling between Europe and the East Indies , and in the 1790s it remained the only such station between Rio de Janeiro and British India .
The Cape Colony was administered from two towns , the larger Cape Town on the wide Table Bay facing west and smaller Simon 's Town on False Bay facing south . Neither bay was sheltered from Atlantic storms and both were notoriously dangerous , with winds , currents and rocks posing considerable threats to shipping . Beyond its importance as a resupply port for East Indies shipping the colony had little economic value in the 1790s , and was defended by a garrison of approximately 1 @,@ 000 Dutch regular soldiers supplemented by Boer militia and local Khoikhoi units , commanded by General Abraham Josias Sluysken and Colonel Robert Jacob Gordon , in total around 3 @,@ 600 troops . This garrison was centered on the Castle of Good Hope and operated from a series of coastal fortifications which protected Table Bay . False Bay was more weakly defended , covered by only two lightly armed batteries .
In the winter of 1794 , French soldiers invaded the Netherlands and captured Amsterdam . The French National Convention reconstituted the Dutch Republic into a revolutionary client state named the Batavian Republic , although the Stadtholder William of Orange fled to Britain . There he issued the Kew Letters instructing his colonial governors to cooperate with British occupation forces . At the urging of Sir Francis Baring , the Secretary of State for War Henry Dundas authorised a mission to ensure control of the Cape Colony and eliminate the potential threat it posed to the East Indian trade . The Admiralty sent two battle squadrons to the Cape on 3 April 1795 , one under Vice @-@ Admiral Sir George Keith Elphinstone and the other under Commodore John Blankett , carrying a small expeditionary force of 515 soldiers from the 78th Regiment of Foot under Major @-@ General Sir James Henry Craig . A larger force under General Alured Clarke was instructed to follow these squadrons on 15 May with troops and supplies for a longer campaign , with orders to hold at Salvador until requested .
= = Invasion = =
Blankett and Elphinstone united off the Cape on 10 June 1795 and anchored in Simon 's Bay . There messages were sent to Sluysken offering an alliance against the French . The Dutch governor was inclined to resist however , evacuating the civilian population from Simon 's Town in early July and making preparations to raze the town . To prevent this , Craig landed 800 soldiers and Royal Marines on 14 July , who occupied Simon 's Town while the Dutch withdrew to the pass at Muizenberg , through which passed the road to Cape Town . For the next month the two armies observed an uneasy truce , broken by occasional patrols and sniping . During this period , Elphinstone and Sluysken continued negotiations for the surrender of the colony . These negotiations were stalled by disputes in the colonial government regarding the legitimacy of the deposed William of Orange and suspicion concerning British intentions . While the debates continued , British envoys were permitted free movement in Cape Town , making detailed observations of the defences .
Elphinstone became concerned that the Dutch positions were too strong for his forces to overwhelm , and on 19 June he sent HMS Sphinx to request assistance from Clarke 's fleet . On 7 August , with negotiations stalled , Elphinstone ordered an attack on the pass at Muizenberg . Craig 's forces were supplemented with 1 @,@ 000 sailors from Elphinstone 's squadron redeployed on land under Captains Temple Hardy and John William Spranger . Among this force were a number of American citizens who immediately deserted to the Dutch and were promised repatriation . At noon on 7 August HMS America , HMS Stately , HMS Echo and HMS Rattlesnake opened fire on Dutch forward positions . Return fire from Dutch field guns killed two men on America and wounded three more , but Craig 's troops were able to advance against the Dutch positions and seize them , the Dutch defenders falling back in confusion . A second attack by soldiers of the 78th captured a rocky height nearby and a Dutch counterattack the following morning was driven off by Hardy 's sailors and marines .
The Dutch fell back to Wynberg but British forces were not strong enough to advance , suffering shortages of food and ammunition . Elphinstone 's positions were however improved by reinforcements , which arrived in the Arniston on 9 August , as well as disorganisation in the Dutch command resulting in stalemate . The British commander subsequently authorised the seizure of five Dutch East Indiamen merchant ships at anchor at Simon 's Town on 18 August . Skirmishing continued throughout the month , with stronger Dutch attacks on 1 and 2 September followed by a larger planned assault on Simon 's Town on 3 September in which Sluysken committed all his reserves including 18 cannon . That morning however 14 East India Company ships were seen arriving in Simon 's Bay and the attack was cancelled . These ships were the reinforcement fleet under Clarke , who landed 4 @,@ 000 troops from the 78th , 93rd and 98th Regiments of Foot and a unit from Saint Helena , at Simon 's Town for an overland campaign against Cape Town . Clarke 's army then advanced against Dutch piquets , losing one killed and 17 wounded in skirmishes . To support this operation , Elphinstone sent America , Rattlesnake , Echo and the Indiaman Bombay Castle to blockade Cape Town and provide artillery support . Outnumbered and surrounded , Sluysken requested a 48 @-@ hour truce from Clarke , but was given a 24 @-@ hour ultimatum to surrender . With no alternative , the Dutch governor passed control of his colony to the British on 15 September 1795 , although he allowed approximately 40 British deserters in Cape Town , mostly impressed Americans , to escape into the countryside before the deadline passed .
= = = Elphinstone 's order of battle = = =
= = Aftermath = =
Total British losses were four killed and 54 wounded . Captured in Table Bay were the Dutch East Indiaman Castor and the 14 @-@ gun naval brig Star , which was renamed HMS Hope . Elphinstone 's substantial squadron remained on station at the Cape to deter efforts to recapture the colony . Parts of this force were subsequently deployed to bolster British forces in the Indian Ocean . The blockade of Île de France was restored and Arrogant and Victorious were sent to the Dutch East Indies where they would fight an inconclusive battle with a French squadron off Sumatra in September 1796 . Elphinstone himself sailed for Madras , where he received reports that a Dutch force had sailed from the Netherlands to retake the Cape Colony . The admiral returned to Cape Town , assembling a large squadron to await the Dutch arrival . Further reports revealed the strength and progress of the Dutch and Elphinstone had ample time to prepare his squadron for their arrival and increase the garrison ashore . The Dutch Rear @-@ Admiral Engelbertus Lucas spent almost six months on the passage and gathered no intelligence on British defences . Thus when he arrived off the Cape he was soon discovered by Elphinstone in Saldanha Bay and intimidated into surrender without a fight .
No further attacks on the Cape Colony were made during the course of the war . Elphinstone returned to Britain in October 1796 and was subsequently awarded the title of Baron Keith for his service in the capture and defence of the Cape , a reward that historian C. Northcote Parkinson calls " on the whole , easily earned " . At the Peace of Amiens in 1802 one of the treaty terms returned the Cape Colony , along with all captured Dutch colonies except Ceylon , to the Batavian Republic . The peace was short @-@ lived , and after the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars in 1803 a second British invasion was planned , executed in 1806 and victory secured following the Battle of Blaauwberg . The Cape Colony remained part of the British Empire until its independence as part of a unified South Africa in 1910 .
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= Sleazy ( Kesha song ) =
" Sleazy " is a song by American recording artist and songwriter Kesha , taken from her first extended play ( EP ) , Cannibal ( 2010 ) . The song was written by Kesha alongside Lukasz " Dr. Luke " Gottwald , Benjamin Levin , Shondrae " Bangladesh " Crawford and Klas Åhlund , with production done by Bangladesh , Dr. Luke and Levin . While working on the album she enlisted the help of producer Bangladesh so that she could give her music a more distinct edge . Kesha uses a " sing @-@ rap " vocal style throughout the song and uses layered vocals that are enhanced in some parts with the use of auto @-@ tune . Lyrically the song speaks of wealthy men hitting on Kesha , trying to buy her attention .
The song was later re @-@ released featuring rapper André 3000 . The collaboration came about after Kesha sent him a copy of the track in hopes that he would like it ; they later spoke on the phone and André agreed to appear on the track . André 's verse speaks about a young child dealing with his deadbeat father and also his friendship with Kesha . Critical reception of the song was generally positive with critics citing the song as a strong club number that is influenced by the songs of Jennifer Lopez , Gwen Stefani and Lil Wayne . " Sleazy " charted in both Canada and the United States peaking at forty @-@ six and fifty @-@ one , respectively .
= = Background = =
" Sleazy " was written by Kesha alongside Lukasz Gottwald , Benjamin Levin , Shondrae Crawford and Klas Åhlund for Kesha 's first extended play ( EP ) , Cannibal ( 2010 ) . The song was also produced by Bangladesh , Dr. Luke and Benny Blanco with engineering done by Emily Wright , Sam Holland , Chris " TEK " O 'Ryan and Chris Holmes . The song was released on October 29 , 2010 , as a digital download . It was also released as a B @-@ side to the single " We R Who We R " in the United Kingdom . While working on the album Kesha enlisted the help of producer Bangladesh . He explained that Kesha chose to include him on the project because she wanted to add a tougher edge to her music , " She says she wanna be gangster " .
= = Composition = =
" Sleazy " is a dance @-@ pop and hip hop song that is three minutes and twenty @-@ five seconds in length . On the song , Kesha criticizes wealthy men who try to buy her attention . It also contains suggestive innuendos such as , " Rat tat tat on your dumb dumb drum , the beat so fat gonna make me come , um um um , over to your place . " Vocally , the song follows in similar form to her previous singles footsteps as Kesha uses her " sing @-@ rap " vocal style present throughout the song . Kesha uses layered vocals that are enhanced in some parts with the use of auto @-@ tune and she sings over a thundering bass line that is combined with a ticking beat as a backing .
Production of the song has been cited for drawing influence from multiple songs including ; Gwen Stefani 's " Hollaback Girl " for its " swagga " , Jennifer Lopez 's " Love Don 't Cost a Thing " for its " attitude " , as well as combining " a touch of Lil Wayne 's ' Milli ' " . Josh Langhoff from PopMatters , however , felt that the song followed similar suit to that of MIA . Jocelyn Vena , from MTV News , commented that " Sleazy " " fits right in with [ Kesha 's ] party @-@ anthem discography " . Daniel Brockman of The Boston Phoenix wrote that the song contains " tribal anti @-@ bourgeois bounce [ s ] " . Bill Lamb from About.com noted that Bangladesh 's production " pumps up the hard edge and club readiness " . " The Sleazy Remix " features rapper André 3000 , who raps over the song 's " bouncy thump " beat talking about a young child dealing with his deadbeat father , " We start out so cute in our baby pictures / That mama shot for our daddy so that he wouldn 't forget you / He forgot anyway , but hey , one day he 'll remember / If not , he 's human , I 'm human , you human , we 'll forgive him . " André then transitions into a rap about his friendship with Kesha before she takes over the rest of the song .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic called " Sleazy " " apropos " , writing that she is able to self @-@ realize that " her calling card is her unrepentant filthiness . " Jocelyn Vena of MTV News was positive in the song 's review writing that it was " club @-@ banging glory thanks to a killer beat and funky sing @-@ along lyrics " . Nadine Cheung from AOL Radio felt that the song followed similar form to " We R Who We R " , writing : " [ following ] the anthemic lead single , " We R Who We R " [ ... ] [ Sleazy is ] [ i ] n true Kesha form , the Nashville native uses her sing @-@ song rapping style to eschew the luxe life : " I don 't need you or your brand new Benz , or your bourgie [ sic ] friends / I don 't need love lookin ' like diamonds / Lookin ' like diamonds . " Chad Grischow from IGN noted that Kesha 's " ' broke and proud of it ' attitude is a refreshing change for the money flaunting pop landscape " . Gary Graff wrote for Billboard that " the addition of producer Bangladesh for the martial " Sleazy " lets Ke $ ha sink her teeth into some fresh flavors on ' Cannibal , ' which will certainly enhance her ' Animal ' attraction " .
Josh Langhoff of PopMatters noted that though rap may not be her " steez " , " you can tell she works hard at it " as she " rattles off a well @-@ constructed string of rapid @-@ fire syllables " Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly recommended " Sleazy " as a downloadable track , commenting it is " a boom @-@ box stomper " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine commented on " Sleazy " ' s change of producer , writing that although Bangladesh produced it and Åhlund penned it , Kesha did not accomplish anything significant . Melinda Newman of HitFix called the song " the most interesting song on the album " and wrote that the song featured a " compelling ... sung chorus . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
In the United States , " Sleazy " entered the Billboard Hot 100 on the issue week ending November 20 , 2010 , at position fifty @-@ one , where it reached its peak . The song stayed on the chart for one week before falling off . In Canada , " Sleazy " entered the Canadian Hot 100 in the same week at position forty @-@ six , also only charting for one week . On the week of December 31 , 2011 , " Sleazy " re @-@ entered the Billboard Hot 100 . The song reached a new peak of thirty @-@ seven and fifteen on the Digital Sales Chart , selling 63 @,@ 000 copies that week .
= = Remixes = =
André 3000 is featured on an official remix of the song , released digitally on January 18 , 2011 . Kesha explained to Rap @-@ Up how she got him to record a verse for the song : " I sent him the track and was fully aware that he ’ s only been on a few songs in the past five years . But he ended up liking it . We got on the phone , and he said , ‘ With a flow like that , you could definitely have a career as a rapper . ’ It was the biggest compliment I ’ ve ever had . It was coming from a god ! " She further elaborated that André 3000 is " one of my favorite musicians , lyricists , rappers , of all time . "
After the release of the original remix with André , Kesha and co @-@ producer of the track , Luke , decided that they wanted to remix the track again with the intention of adding some of Kesha 's desired future collaborations . The first to add their verses to the track was Lil Wayne . Kesha and Wayne both happened to be in the studio on the same day as each other and she took the opportunity to ask him if he would participate in the remixing of the song . Following this Wiz Khalifa and T.I. were then asked to collaborate on the track . All three rappers agreed to write and appear on the song and with this the remix was completed . According to Kesha , the four rappers on the remix , titled " Sleazy Remix 2 @.@ 0 : Get Sleazier " , are included because they are four of her favorite rappers . On December 7 , 2011 , she posted the following message on the internet , revealing that the song would be released exclusively to iTunes on December 13 , 2011 : " Get ready to get even $ leazier with this sick collaboration I did with 4 of my favorite MCs of all time : Weezy , André 3000 , Wiz Khalifa , and T.I. , I opened the ‘ Get $ leazy ’ tour with this song every night and it always got the party started ... Get ready , this is the SICKEST and SLEAZIEST version YET . $ . "
= = Music video = =
The music video for the song was directed by Nicholaus Goossen and was released on January 27 , 2012 . The director of the video enlisted actors and some of Kesha 's friends to lip @-@ sync over the song 's production and verses . A drag queen performs Wiz ' verses , while Napoleon Dynamite actor Efren Ramirez raps over André 's verse , and finally an elderly man can be seen playing chess while lip @-@ syncing to T.I 's verse . Kesha and the featured artists on the remix cameo in the video for a short time where they are seen on television screens , which are later smashed by a man wearing a bandanna . Jessica Sager from PopCrush wrote that even with Kesha absent from the video it was still in her style , writing : " Even without Kesha , the remix video is still ... well , ' Kesha ' . " Rap @-@ Up magazine wrote that the video was comical and unexpected . A Directors Cut version , featuring scenes with Kesha , was leaked on August 20 , 2012 .
= = Cover versions = =
American singer @-@ songwriter and musician Ben Folds originally covered the song in November 2010 , in Columbus , Ohio . Following this Folds recorded the song for Download to Donate 's Tsunami Relief album for Japan . Amanda Hensel of PopCrush commented that the cover was executed " so artistically that it 's like a whole new song " . Eliot Glazer of MTV Buzzworthy felt that the idea of Folds covering " Sleazy " was a " welcome experiment " . Glazer praised Folds ' vocals on the track and went on to say " we don 't know what 's more epic : the cover of the song or the mere fact that it happened in the first place " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting – Kesha Sebert , Lukasz Gottwald , Benjamin Levin , Shondrae Crawford , Klas Åhlund
Production – Bangladesh , Dr. Luke , Benny Blanco
Instruments and programming – Bangladesh , Dr. Luke , Benny Blanco
Background vocals – Rani Hancock , Dr. Luke , Sam Holland , Benny Blanco , Emily Wright
Engineering – Emily Wright , Sam Holland , Chris " TEK " O 'Ryan , Chris Holmes
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Cannibal , Dynamite Cop Music / Where Da Kasz at BMI .
= = Charts = =
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= Peter Taylor ( footballer , born 1928 ) =
Peter Thomas Taylor ( 2 July 1928 – 4 October 1990 ) was an English football player and manager . A goalkeeper with a modest playing career , he went on to work in management alongside Brian Clough at Derby County and Nottingham Forest , winning the Football League with both clubs and the European Cup twice with Nottingham Forest .
He began his playing career at Nottingham Forest during World War II , before joining Coventry City in July 1945 . He spent the 1953 – 54 season as Coventry 's first choice goalkeeper , but was otherwise mostly used a reserve player . He was sold on to Middlesbrough for £ 3 @,@ 500 in 1955 , and kept goal for the Second Division club for four full seasons after being promoted to the first team in the 1956 – 57 campaign . He lost his first team place in 1960 , and in June 1961 joined Port Vale for a £ 750 fee . He took a free transfer to non @-@ league Burton Albion in May 1962 , where he ended his playing career . Throughout his playing career he built for his future management career by learning from Coventry manager Harry Storer and building a close relationship with Middlesbrough striker Brian Clough , six years his junior .
He was appointed as manager of Burton Albion in October 1962 after impressing the chairman with his knowledge of the game . He built a strong team and led the club to victory in the Southern League Cup in 1964 . In 1965 , Clough appointed him as his assistant at Hartlepools United , and Taylor helped Clough to rebuild the playing squad . The pair moved on to Derby County in May 1967 , taking the club to the Second Division title in 1968 – 69 , then the First Division title in 1971 – 72 , and the semi @-@ finals of the European Cup in 1973 . The duo resigned in October 1973 after their strained relationship with the club 's board of directors became unworkable . Clough and Taylor moved on to Brighton & Hove Albion in November 1973 , and Taylor stayed on as manager after Clough left Brighton in July 1974 .
In July 1976 , Taylor left Brighton to work alongside Clough at Nottingham Forest . Repeating their achievement at Derby by winning promotion into the top @-@ flight in 1976 – 77 and then winning the league title in 1977 – 78 , they then surpassed their previous accomplishments by winning the European Cup in 1979 and 1980 . Forest also lifted the Anglo @-@ Scottish Cup , the FA Charity Shield , the European Super Cup , and twice won the League Cup . Taylor retired in May 1982 , but returned to the game in November 1982 to manage Derby County . He retired for the second and final time in April 1984 , though following a dispute over a player transfer in May 1983 he and Clough were not on speaking terms until Taylor 's sudden death in October 1990 – something which Clough would greatly regret . In April 2009 , a statue of Clough and Taylor was commissioned at Derby 's Pride Park Stadium , and in October 2015 Nottingham Forest 's main stand at the City Ground was renamed the Peter Taylor Stand .
= = Playing career = =
Peter Taylor was born on 2 July 1928 , one of eight children raised in The Meadows , Nottingham , to Tom and Jenny Taylor , an engineer and housewife respectively . He met his future wife Lily Thorpe at the age of 14 , who persuaded him to play for her father 's team , local non @-@ league side Christchurch . He later moved on to play for Mapperley Methodists , before he was spotted by Nottingham Forest , and signed to their youth team , the Forest Colts . He made his first team debut for the club as an amateur in a wartime fixture against local rivals Notts County at Meadow Lane in 1944 , at the age of 16 .
He signed with Coventry City on his 17th birthday , though was initially only a part @-@ time player as his father insisted that he also complete an apprenticeship in bricklaying . Under the stewardship of Harry Storer , the " Sky Blues " finished seventh in the Second Division in 1950 – 51 , and Taylor made his debut in the Football League on the final day of the season , breaking Alf Wood 's run of 261 consecutive first team appearances . The Birmingham Sports Argus described how " if Peter 's role [ back @-@ up goalkeeper to Wood ] has denied him the glamour of a glorious achievement in action , he has his share of personal glamour . He 's a tall fair @-@ haired good looker , and so comely , that he was been described as the film star of Highfield Road . Is single too . " Taylor did not stay single for long however , and married Lily Thorpe in June 1951 .
Coventry were relegated in 1951 – 52 , with Taylor having made 29 appearances . Coventry finished sixth in the Third Division South in 1952 – 53 , with Taylor only appearing eight times . It proved to be Storey 's final season as manager , and Taylor later cited Storer as his managerial mentor , and would go on to quote Storer numerous times throughout his career . Taylor played 42 games as Coventry posted a 14th @-@ place finish under Jack Fairbrother in 1953 – 54 , then played ten matches as they finished ninth in 1954 – 55 . Taylor decided to leave the club after losing his first team place to future Coventry City Hall of Famer and England international Reg Matthews .
Taylor was sold to Middlesbrough in the summer of 1955 for £ 3 @,@ 500 by new Coventry manager Jesse Carver , following an assessment of the playing staff by Carver and new coach George Raynor . It was at Middlesbrough that Taylor first met his future managerial partner Brian Clough , who was then fourth @-@ choice striker at Ayresome Park . Taylor spotted Clough 's potential and helped him to achieve a place in the first team . Taylor initially contacted Storer , now manager of Derby County , to try and get him to sign Clough , but Storer had told him he had spent the club 's budget on signing Martin McDonnell and Paddy Ryan . Manager Bob Dennison led " Boro " to 14th in the Second Division in 1955 – 56 , seeing both Clough and Taylor only as " useful reserves " . The pair spent their spare time coaching schoolboys to boost their wages and to gain experience . Clough went on to become the club 's star striker with 197 goals in 213 league games , and though Taylor would also break into the first team after replacing Rolando Ugolini , he later admitted he was only ever an " average goalkeeper " .
Bob Dennison , although one of my favourite people , was too unambitious for Brian [ Clough ] , and his staff were in the same easygoing mould . Harold Shepherdson , the England trainer , and coaches like Micky Fenton and Jimmy Gordon were nice men running a pleasant club that treated players decently while getting nowhere " .
In June 1961 , Port Vale manager Norman Low paid Middlesbrough £ 750 for Taylor 's services . Largely unneeded at Vale Park , Ken Hancock being a virtual ever @-@ present from 1960 to 1964 , his only appearance was in a 2 – 1 Third Division defeat at Bradford Park Avenue on 3 February 1962 . He left on a free transfer for Burton Albion in May 1962 , where he began his management career .
= = Management career = =
= = = Burton Albion = = =
In October 1962 , Taylor was offered the manager 's job at Burton Albion after impressing chairman Trevor Grantham with his knowledge and theories on the game . In summer 1963 he oversaw a complete overhaul of the playing staff , only retaining four players , and completely rebuilt the squad . He signed strikers Richie Barker and Stan Round , who would score a combined 308 goals for the club , and remain the club 's two highest goalscorers ( as of 2016 ) . He survived calls for his resignation after a defeat to Kidderminster Harriers in the FA Cup and went on to create one of the most successful sides in Burton 's history , beating Weymouth to win the Southern League Cup in 1964 . In 1965 , he walked out on a newly signed £ 34 a week three @-@ year contract at Burton to became Clough 's assistant manager at Hartlepools United on wages of £ 24 a week . He later admitted the decision , which he took against the advice of his friends and family , was " against all logic " . His successor , Alex Tait , led Burton to promotion out of the Southern League Division One in 1965 – 66 .
= = = Hartlepools United = = =
Before their arrival , Hartlepools had been forced to apply for re @-@ election to the Football League six times in the previous seven years , and Taylor stated that the squad were all free transfer signings and some of the players struggled with " drink , debt or abandoned wives " . The two gradually turned around the club 's fortunes , and started by painting Victoria Park . Taylor had little chance to show his skills in the transfer market as the club only had £ 7 @,@ 500 to spend , £ 4 @,@ 000 of which went on centre @-@ half Johnny Gill . Other signings included two of Taylor 's former players at Burton , defender Tony Parry and goalkeeper Les Green ; Parry would go on to win the club 's Player of the Year award . The pair went on to lead the club to an eighth @-@ place finish in the Fourth Division in 1966 – 67 after replacing most of the playing staff , an improvement on 1965 – 66 when the pair had only managed an 18th @-@ place finish . Clough had initially wanted to quit the club numerous times due to interference from chairman Ernest Ord , but Taylor insisted that they stay as they could not walk out on their first job in management . After Ord resigned as chairman Clough wanted to remain at Hartlepools , but Taylor persuaded him to take the offer to manage Derby .
= = = Derby County = = =
In May 1967 , Clough and Taylor left Hartlepools to join Derby County after being recommended to the club by Len Shackleton . At Derby , Taylor and Clough proceeded to re @-@ build the side , with Taylor instrumental in signing players such as Dave Mackay and Roy McFarland . Future England centre @-@ half McFarland , whom he described as an " uncut diamond " from the Third Division , was his first signing for a fee of £ 24 @,@ 000 . Other signings he initiated included winger John McGovern ( who the pair had signed at Hartlepools and would follow Clough on to Leeds and Nottingham ) and full @-@ back John Robson . After the 1967 – 68 season had finished with the club fifth from bottom in the Second Division , Clough and Taylor had released 16 players and numerous more staff members , including " a tea lady who laughed after a bad defeat " .
Derby were promoted to the First Division in 1968 – 69 , prompting chairman Sydney Bradley to state that " Brian and Peter built an ocean liner out of a shipwreck " . Derby finished fourth in 1969 – 70 , and then strengthened again from a player Taylor had scouted , signing midfielder Archie Gemmill from Preston North End for £ 64 @,@ 000 . Most signings involved scouting from Taylor , with the only two transfers he had played no part in being Clough 's former Sunderland teammates Colin Todd and John O 'Hare . Following a ninth @-@ place finish in 1970 – 71 , Derby went on to win the League Championship in 1971 – 72 – the first in the club 's history . Clough and Taylor continued to strengthen the club in the transfer market however , with Taylor noting that " a manager should always be looking for signs of disintegration in a winning side and then sell the players responsible before their deterioration is noticed by possible buyers " .
Derby reached the semi @-@ finals of the European Cup the following season , controversially losing to Juventus ; Taylor had spotted Juventus player Helmut Haller talking with referee Gerhard Schulenberg at half @-@ time and described how a " squad of heavies " restrained him after he attempted to overhear the pair 's conversation . Clough went on to call the Italian team " cheating bastards " . On 15 October 1973 , both he and Clough resigned , partially after a dispute with the Derby board over Taylor 's crucial but largely undefined role , although numerous reasons were behind Clough and Taylor 's resignation . Taylor in particular had been frustrated by what he felt was a lack of support from the club 's directors over the pair 's transfer policy . The pair had come close to leaving Derby earlier , turning down offers to manage Coventry City and the Greece national team . Fans protested against the board following their resignation , and the players also demanded they be reinstated , but chairman Sam Longson 's relationship with Clough and Taylor was irreparable .
" If we had stayed , Derby County would have won the European Cup long before Nottingham Forest and would still be among the premier clubs of England . They are back in the Second Division today because a few interfering directors imagined they could run the show . "
= = = Brighton & Hove Albion = = =
Clough was appointed as manager at Third Division Brighton & Hove Albion on 1 November 1973 , with Taylor joining as his assistant . Just after the pair were appointed , the team lost 4 – 0 at home to Walton & Hersham in an FA Cup replay and then 8 – 2 at home to Bristol Rovers on 1 December . Brighton finished 19th in the final table in the 1973 – 74 season , narrowly avoiding relegation to the Fourth Division , and the pair began to rebuild the team by signing Peter Grummitt , Andy Rollings , Ian Mellor , Steve Govier , and Ken Goodewe ; Taylor felt that Clough never settled at Brighton however , and spent too much time away on media commitments . Clough left for Leeds United in July 1974 , but Taylor refused to go with Clough as he felt Brighton and club chairman Mike Bamber had treated them well , and so the partnership ended after nine years as Taylor stayed at the Goldstone Ground as sole manager . He went on to sign striker Peter Ward and midfielder Brian Horton , but admitted that both he and Clough were much more effective as a duo ; he felt that he had struggled to make the good players he signed play to their full potential whilst feeling that Clough had bought and sold poorly as Leeds manager . He stayed on at the South coast club for a further two seasons , guiding the team to a fourth @-@ place finish in 1975 – 76 , missing promotion by two points . His successor , Alan Mullery , managed to lead the team Taylor left behind to promotion in 1976 – 77 and then into the top @-@ flight in 1978 – 79 .
= = = Nottingham Forest = = =
On 16 July 1976 , Taylor resigned as Brighton manager and joined once again with Clough , who had by this time moved on to Nottingham Forest . After assessing the players Taylor told Clough that " that was a feat by you to finish eighth in the Second Division because some of them are only Third Division players " . He then berated John Robertson for allowing himself to become overweight and disillusioned , and got Robertson on a diet and training regime that would help him to become a top international . He also spotted Tony Woodcock playing for the reserves and converted him from an unwanted midfielder into a striker who would win 42 caps for England . In September 1976 , he bought striker Peter Withe for £ 43 @,@ 000 , and sold him on to Newcastle United for £ 250 @,@ 000 two years later . Withe was replaced in the starting eleven by Garry Birtles , who Taylor had scouted playing for non @-@ league Long Eaton United ; Birtles would also go on to represent England .
Within a year of Taylor 's arrival , Forest were promoted to the First Division after securing third automatic promotion place in 1976 – 77 . Taylor and Clough then decided to replace goalkeeper John Middleton with Peter Shilton , whom they purchased for £ 270 @,@ 000 ; Taylor reasoned : " Shilton wins you matches . " After spending some time secretly following Kenny Burns he came to the conclusion that Burns 's reputation as a hard drinker and gambler was exaggerated and he sanctioned a £ 145 @,@ 000 move for the player , who would become FWA Footballer of the Year in 1977 – 78 after being converted from centre @-@ forward to a sweeper role . Clough and Taylor were appointed joint @-@ managers of the England youth team in December 1977 , but the pair resigned after less than a year in charge as Forest 's success meant they struggled to make time to also coach the England players .
In their first season back in the top division , Forest won the Championship by a seven point margin ahead of runners @-@ up Liverpool , conceding just 24 goals in 42 games with Shilton in goal . They also won the League Cup , with a 1 – 0 win over Liverpool in the replay , despite Shilton , David Needham and Archie Gemmill all being non @-@ eligible to play as they were cup @-@ tied . In February 1979 , Taylor authorised the English game 's first £ 1 million transfer , when Forest purchased Trevor Francis from Birmingham City . Taylor later reported that Clough had been holding out for a fee of £ 925 @,@ 000 until Taylor rang Birmingham to confirm the deal at £ 1 million , before ringing Clough to say " We 've got Francis , I 've just paid their price " ; Clough replied simply by saying " Good " , and then put down the phone .
In 1979 , Forest won the European Cup with a 1 – 0 victory over Malmö FF at the Olympiastadion . They also won the League Cup again after beating Southampton 3 – 2 ; Taylor led the team out at Wembley as Clough felt it was Taylor turn – they always wanted to lead their team out together but were always denied permission by Football League chairman Alan Hardaker . After this success Forest bought Asa Hartford and Frank Gray , though Harford was sold on after two months after Taylor realised his limited passing range did not fit Forest 's style of play . Forest were denied a third consecutive League Cup win in 1980 after a defeat in the final by Wolverhampton Wanderers .
The European Cup was retained in 1980 , this time against Kevin Keegan 's Hamburger SV at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium . Clough and Taylor then began the process of breaking up the championship winning team , selling off Martin O 'Neill , Ian Bowyer , Garry Birtles , and Larry Lloyd ; as a new team was built based around youngsters such as Gary Mills , Stuart Gray , Colin Walsh , and Bryn Gunn . New signings included striker Ian Wallace and Switzerland international Raimondo Ponte . Taylor retired in May 1982 after Forest finished 12th in the league , with recent signings Justin Fashanu and Raimondo Ponte proving to be unsuccessful . Clough would stay at Forest for another 11 seasons , but without Taylor would only add two League Cups and two Full Members Cups to the club 's trophy cabinet , and would struggle against alcoholism .
= = = Return to Derby County = = =
Taylor took over as manager of Derby County in November 1982 , to the great surprise of most people in the game . He brought in Roy McFarland as his assistant , and signed Archie Gemmill and Bobby Davison . At the time Derby were going through serious financial problems and were bottom of the table , but he steered them to a mid @-@ table position by the end of the season with a 15 @-@ match unbeaten run . In the Third Round of the FA Cup on 8 January 1983 they knocked out Clough 's Forest team with a 2 – 0 win at the Baseball Ground . They reached the Fifth Round , where they were knocked out by Manchester United .
However , the following season saw the team struggle again , and Taylor resigned in early April 1984 with the club third from bottom of the Second Division , before Derby went on to be relegated . However , the team did manage to reach the quarter @-@ finals of the FA Cup , and the revenue obtained from the cup run helped to keep the club afloat .
= = Relationship with Clough = =
Clough was quoted as saying " I 'm not equipped to manage successfully without Peter Taylor . I am the shop window and he is the goods in the back . " The two worked as a pair by complementing each other 's strengths , as Clough had a forceful personality and was adept at motivating players , whilst Taylor was more reserved though had an ability to spot talented players . Former Hartlepools player Cliff Wright described the pair as " good cop , bad cop . Cloughie would knock you to the ground , verbally at least , and Pete would pick you up and put you back together . " As the bigger personality and the man with the title of manager , Clough garnered much greater publicity than Taylor , which caused Taylor to grumble that " I sometimes wonder why he never says to Bell 's whisky , for instance , when they 're handing out Manager of the Month awards , ' You 'll have to present an extra gallon bottle . There are two of us . " On a personal level they were very close , and often finished each other 's sentences .
Though Taylor 's friendship and partnership with Clough had been strong , their relationship had sometimes become strained on occasion . While at Derby in 1971 , Taylor was riled when he learned that Clough had failed to disclose to him that he had received a pay rise of £ 5 @,@ 000 from chairman Sam Longson . He was also annoyed that Clough was often away earning extra money from media work while he was left to do a larger share of the work with the players . The relationship worsened in the autumn of 1980 when Taylor published With Clough , by Taylor , an autobiography which was largely based on Taylor 's work with Clough . Taylor had not told Clough that he was writing the book and did not give him a share of the proceeds .
Although they initially parted on good terms when Taylor retired in May 1982 , the relationship was finally damaged permanently after a dispute over the transfer of John Robertson from Forest to Derby , whom Taylor was now managing , in May 1983 . Clough was apparently angered that Taylor did not inform him about the deal . Clough attacked Taylor in a tabloid article on 3 July 1983 as being a " rattlesnake " , " a snake @-@ in @-@ the @-@ grass " and said that " We pass each other on the A52 going to work on most days of the week . But if his car broke down and I saw him thumbing a lift , I wouldn 't pick him up , I 'd run him over " . The two men would never speak to one another again .
= = Death = =
On 4 October 1990 , Peter Taylor died suddenly of pulmonary fibrosis whilst on holiday in Costa De Los Pinos , Majorca , at the age of 62 . When told of Taylor 's death by Ron Fenton , Clough apparently did not speak , put the phone down on him and cried heavily . He also , whilst very upset , made a phone call to the Taylor family . Clough attended the funeral 11 days later and dedicated his 1994 autobiography to Taylor saying " To Peter . Still miss you badly . You once said : ' When you get shot of me there won 't be as much laughter in your life ' . You were right " .
= = Statistics = =
= = = Playing statistics = = =
Sourced from Peter Taylor profile at the English National Football Archive ( subscription required )
= = = Managerial statistics = = =
= = Honours = =
Burton Albion
Southern League Cup : 1964
Derby County ( with Clough )
Football League Second Division : 1968 – 69
Football League First Division : 1971 – 72
Nottingham Forest ( with Clough )
Football League Second Division third @-@ place promotion : 1976 – 77
Anglo @-@ Scottish Cup : 1976 – 77
Football League First Division : 1977 – 78
League Cup : 1978 , 1979
FA Charity Shield : 1978
European Cup : 1979 , 1980
European Super Cup : 1979
= = = Legacy = = =
Clough paid tribute to Taylor when he was awarded the freedom of the city of Nottingham in March 1993 , saying that " I have only one regret today , and that is that me mate isn 't here with me " . Taylor was portrayed by Timothy Spall in The Damned United , a film released in 2009 based on Clough 's ill @-@ fated spell at Leeds United . In August 2010 , Derby County unveiled a statue of Clough and Taylor at Pride Park Stadium . In September 2015 , Nottingham Forest announced that the Main Stand at the City Ground would be renamed the Peter Taylor Stand as part of the club 's 150th anniversary celebrations .
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= Death of Charlotte Shaw =
Charlotte Shaw was a fourteen @-@ year @-@ old British schoolgirl who drowned while crossing a swollen stream on Dartmoor during training for Ten Tors in 2007 . Her death , the first to occur in connection with Ten Tors or one of its training expeditions , made national news headlines in the United Kingdom . She was with a group of students from Edgehill College trekking the route of Ten Tors in training for the main event when the group got into difficulties crossing a stream . Shaw slipped into the water and was washed downstream . She was located 20 minutes later by a Royal Navy search and rescue helicopter and airlifted to Derriford Hospital in Plymouth , where she died in the early hours of the next morning .
A police investigation concluded that nobody should be held criminally responsible for Shaw 's death . The investigation was later criticised by the coroner , who adjourned the inquest and recommended that the Crown Prosecution Service ( CPS ) reconsider the possibility of criminal charges . Three months later , however , the CPS reported that there was insufficient evidence to press charges and the inquest was resumed . After hearing testimony from eyewitnesses , including other members of Shaw 's group , the inquest concluded with a narrative verdict in October 2010 . In addition to the verdict , the coroner gave several recommendations for future activities of a similar nature . Among the recommendations were suggestions that both participants and the adult " team leaders " should receive better training .
On the same day Shaw died , 26 other participants had to be airlifted from the moor . The British Army , which organises Ten Tors , initially stated that the 2007 event would proceed as planned . However , in the light of severe weather and Shaw 's death , it was abandoned halfway through . The rules for the event were modified before the 2007 event to allow teams to carry a mobile telephone for use in case of an emergency .
= = Background = =
Ten Tors is an annual event organised by the British Army in which groups of young people , between the ages of 14 and 20 , trek a route of 35 , 45 or 55 miles ( depending on the age of the participant ) across Dartmoor . The event started in 1960 with just over 200 teenagers taking part and has grown to include 2 @,@ 400 teenagers from schools and youth organisations , mostly from the United Kingdom . The number of participants is capped at 2 @,@ 400 — 400 groups of six — to minimise damage to the environment caused by the event . Participants start from the British Army training camp at Okehampton and are required to carry all their supplies for the trek and spend one night in a tent on the moor . Shaw 's group , on a training expedition with dozens of other groups ahead of the main event , was accompanied by a teacher from Edgehill College designated the " team manager " . All team managers undergo compulsory training , run by the Army and the Dartmoor Rescue Group , which involves trekking the route themselves .
Charlotte Shaw was a 14 @-@ year @-@ old from Frithelstock , near Great Torrington , Devon . She was a student at Edgehill College , Bideford ( Kingsley School since 2009 ) , where she was involved in various sporting activities run by the school , including captaining its netball and gymnastics teams . Shortly after Shaw 's death was announced , the school released a statement in which it said " We are all shocked by the tragedy . [ Shaw ] was a delightful member of our school community " . Shaw was part of a group of 10 students from Edgehill who , along with 84 other groups , were training on 4 March 2007 for Ten Tors , which is held every May . Her death is believed to be the first to occur during , or training for , Ten Tors .
Dartmoor is notorious for its rapidly changeable weather . Weather conditions on 4 March 2007 were poor — described by a member of the Dartmoor Rescue Group as " atrocious " — and there had been heavy rain in the 12 hours prior to the accident , causing rivers and streams on Dartmoor to swell much higher than their normal levels . On the same day , 26 other teenagers had to be airlifted from the moor due to the adverse weather .
= = Death = =
During the training expedition , Shaw 's group came to Walla Brook at a crossing near Watern Tor in the north @-@ east of Dartmoor . According to evidence given at Shaw 's inquest in 2009 , the group believed they had to cross because the alternative route would add at least four miles to the trek . Another member of the group got into difficulties crossing the stream , which , due to heavy rain , had swollen to approximately five times its normal size . The other group member removed her rucksack and passed it to Shaw . As Shaw , the last member of the group on her side of the stream , was throwing the rucksack across , she slipped and fell into the water .
Shaw was knocked unconscious and swept downstream . A third member of the group raised the alarm by mobile telephone by 14 : 05 ( GMT ) , less than five minutes after Shaw had been swept away , and Devon and Cornwall Police , a Royal Navy helicopter and the Dartmoor Rescue Group were mobilised to search for Shaw . Believing that the weather conditions may be too bad for the helicopter to fly , members of the Dartmoor Rescue Group — a volunteer organisation which co @-@ ordinates the four separate charities who undertake search and rescue operations on Dartmoor — set out on foot in an attempt to reach the scene of the accident .
Shaw was found by the Royal Navy helicopter , approximately 20 minutes after the alarm was raised , 150 metres downstream from where she had fallen in . Due to poor visibility as a result of heavy rain , the other members of her group had been unable to see her . The helicopter , from RNAS Culdrose , airlifted Shaw to Derriford Hospital in Plymouth , but she died in the early of hours of 5 March . The cause of death was later established as cardiac arrest as a result of drowning .
= = Aftermath = =
Devon and Cornwall Police launched an investigation into the accident , saying in a statement , " There is absolutely no suggestion at all of wrongdoing . The police are here to fully investigate the circumstances and report them to the coroner . " An inquest was opened and , three weeks later , the police investigation concluded that nobody should face criminal charges as a result of the accident . Shaw 's funeral was held in Bideford Methodist Church on 21 March 2007 and was attended by hundreds of mourners .
The Army said in a statement that it had no plans to cancel the 2007 Ten Tors event , however the event was abandoned halfway through due to " deteriorating weather conditions " . A spokesman for the Dartmoor Rescue Group said that Shaw 's death , which occurred in similar conditions , was a factor in the decision . For the first time , participants were allowed to carry one mobile telephone per group for use in an emergency . The Edgehill College team had been given special dispensation to enter a larger @-@ than @-@ normal team for the event in order to allow all the participants of the expedition on which Shaw died to take part . In light of Shaw 's death , the North Dartmoor Search and Rescue Team , one of four teams working under the umbrella organisation Dartmoor Rescue Group , developed a capability to conduct rescues from fast @-@ flowing water , known as " swift @-@ water " rescues .
= = Inquest = =
An inquest into Shaw 's death commenced in Exeter shortly after her death was reported to the coroner . The inquest heard evidence in late 2009 , among which was eyewitness testimony that the team manager , a teacher from Edgehill College , had met with the group the morning of Shaw 's death . During the meeting , the group asked to end the training hike early , but they were instructed by the teacher to carry on . However , the group 's navigator gave evidence that she and Shaw had been happy to continue the expedition . The possibility was also raised by other group members that the group was under @-@ prepared for the conditions they faced . The group member whose bag Shaw had been attempting to throw across the stream told the coroner " We were not told how to cross swollen rivers . We were told how to check how deep it was but we were never told how to cross them . Nobody ever talked to us about using ropes " .
The inquest was adjourned in December 2010 , as the coroner , Elizabeth Earland , recommended that the Crown Prosecution Service ( CPS ) reconsider criminal charges in the case . The CPS completed its review in April 2010 and concluded that there was insuffient evidence to pursue a criminal case . Devon and Cornwall Police were criticised by the coroner for their handling of the investigation , particularly regarding contradictory testimony by eyewitnesses . The force voluntarily referred the case to the Independent Police Complaints Commission ( IPCC ) after the coroner 's comments in December 2009 , but , in January 2010 , the IPCC decided not to open its own inquiry . A solicitor representing Shaw 's family said in a statement that " No @-@ one wanted criminal proceedings " , but indicated that the family planned to take civil proceedings against Edgehill College for negligence .
The inquest concluded in October 2010 . Earland , the Exeter and Greater Devon Coroner , recorded a narrative verdict and came up with several recommendations . Among the recommendations were that Ten Tors participants should undergo more than two training expeditions prior to the main event , that the team managers attain recognised qualifications and that the Health and Safety Executive ensure that independent schools adhere to the same safety standards as state schools . She went on to say that " It would be a tragedy if [ Ten Tors ] was to stop but the public need to be satisfied it is as safe as it reasonably can be , bearing in mind it is what it says , a challenge , not a survival exercise . " After the inquest , Shaw 's mother stated that she had been helped by the inquest , saying " I have found out the facts and I 'm grateful for that but I am still looking for accountability and some kind of apology and acknowledgement " .
Charlotte Shaw 's mother subsequently sued Edgehill College and the teacher leading the expedition for negligence . The judgement given on 28 June 2012 found that the teacher had given clear instructions that the group should not attempt to cross Walla Brook but should instead go round it . It further found that the intervention of a passerby , who suggested that the group could cross the brook , had meant that the school could not be held responsible for the accident . It said that the failure of two teachers to meet up with the group as planned was not incompetence . The judge therefore rejected the claim .
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= The Return of Dr. Octagon =
The Return of Dr. Octagon is the tenth studio album by American rapper Keith Thornton , better known as Kool Keith . Released in the United States on June 27 , 2006 , it is his second studio album under the Dr. Octagon alias , following Dr. Octagonecologyst . The album revives the character of Dr. Octagon , who was killed off on Thornton 's 1999 release First Come , First Served . Production for the album began in 2002 under the title The Resurrection of Dr. Octagon with producer Fanatik J.
Thornton signed a contract with CMH Records to release the album . Following a contractual dispute , Fanatik J was released from the project . The album 's production was completed by the One @-@ Watt Sun production team based upon three completed vocal recordings and older unfinished recordings . Thornton had little involvement with the production of the album . He later stated that he liked the completed product , but that it hurt his musical reputation .
The Return of Dr. Octagon initially received great reviews . The first single Aliens garnered the coveted Guardian Single of the Week in the U.K. , and also was given a place among Wire Magazines top Hip Hop records of the year , but what followed were much more polarized reviews . The album did not chart . Much praise and criticism centered on the production , with HipHop Dx stating " This is Kool Keith 's best album in years--arguably even better than his classic Octagonecologyst , " and Newsweek stating that " If this album surpasses its predecessor , full credit goes to the Berlin production trio One Watt Sun , who come off sounding like a cross between Parliament @-@ Funkadelic and Kraftwerk . " Yet others felt that the production fit neither Thornton 's lyrical style nor the Dr. Octagon character .
= = Origins and recording = =
Keith Thornton , best known by the stage name Kool Keith , released the album Dr. Octagonecologyst in 1996 , under the name Dr. Octagon , produced by Dan " The Automator " Nakamura . Thornton later expressed some frustration with the " Dr. Octagon " nickname , saying , " Octagon wasn 't my life ... I 've done a lot of things that were totally around different things other than Octagon . Are some people just afraid to venture off into my life and see that I do other things which are great ? I think people stuck me with something . " In 1999 , Thornton released the album First Come , First Served , which featured a track in which the newly introduced character Dr. Dooom murdered Dr. Octagon . Thornton had intended to move away from the Dr. Octagon character , but later decided to record another album under the Octagon name .
In 2002 , Thornton announced The Resurrection of Dr. Octagon , a proposed sequel to Dr. Octagonecologyst that would reintroduce the character . Los Angeles @-@ based producer Fanatik J was chosen to create the music for the album . Thornton himself took part in the production of early material for the project , playing bass , guitar , and keyboards on many of the tracks .
Thornton signed a contract with CMH Records to release the album . On July 23 , 2002 , Rolling Stone reported that a new Dr. Octagon album would be released in February 2003 . Explaining his choice of label , Thornton said , " I chose to go with somebody that [ would ] take this as a creative project , not a marketing project . Major labels tend to let inexperienced people oversee your projects . Your innovation goes down because they have [ too much ] input . You don 't see anybody going into the studio to tell James Brown what to do . Even though he can adapt to certain things , nobody tells him how to sing . That 's the way I feel about myself . "
Preceding the production of the album , Thornton told Rolling Stone that " this album is fine @-@ tuned with instruments , deeper and more spaced out . The last one was cool , but I didn 't like it because it wasn 't funky . When I don 't work on a project , it 's not that funky . When I do work on it , it 's funky , and it has soul to it ... I 'm proud of my funky sounds right now . " Fanatik J was not named as the album 's producer . Thornton stated that with Dr. Octagonecologyst , Thornton had given Nakamura his first successful album as a producer , and that with The Return of Dr. Octagon , he would " make another person and create another star . "
As production on the album was underway , Thornton had a falling out with Fanatik J over contract rights . Thornton referred to Fanatik J as " greedy " and stated that " He went out of his level of producer 's ranking . Maybe he thought he was an overnight Quincy Jones , that he was the Automator . " Fanatik J later engaged in a legal battle with CMH over contractual terms that did not give him input on remixes .
Following Fanatik J 's disputes with the label , CMH contacted San Francisco @-@ based producer John Lindland and Melbourne @-@ based producers Simon Walbrook and Ben Green to produce material for the album . Lindland , Walbrook and Green began creating material for the album under the billing of One @-@ Watt Sun . Thornton was briefly involved with the project , recording vocals for three tracks : " Trees , " " Ants , " and " Aliens , " based upon rough sonic and lyrical themes created by the production team . After Thornton had a falling out with the label over contractual terms , he gave the label recordings he had made two years previously , consisting of Thornton rapping and goofing off , in order to complete his contract . The album was completed without his involvement .
= = Music = =
= = = Production = = =
One @-@ Watt Sun met at various points in Berlin , Prague , Melbourne , and Byron Bay to work on the album 's music tracks with Pro Tools software . The music and structure of the vocal recordings were completed the following year . None of Fanatik J 's production work appeared on the final album . According to Allmusic reviewer Marisa Brown , One @-@ Watt Sun 's production incorporates elements of " pop , dirty blues , rock , and R & B " .
Some critics felt that the album 's production was inferior to that of Dr. Octagonecologyst . KutMasta Kurt , a frequent collaborator with Thornton , disliked the album 's production , stating " The Dr. Octagon character was rapping over sounds that were dark and sinister , but they turned the album into this dancey electro @-@ pop . A lot of it had this Euro @-@ dance feel , and I was like , ' Wait a second , not only did they change the music , they changed it into something [ to which ] I couldn 't relate . ' " KutMasta Kurt also recounts a conversation with Thornton on a European flight in December 2006 , in which Thornton stated that The Return of Dr. Octagon does not sound like a Dr. Octagon album . Thornton himself said that he liked the album 's production , but that the album hurt his reputation as a musician . According to Thornton , " I 'm not mad . But I don 't repeat words when I rap . They cooked up some electronic stuff , you know , WORD ! WORD ! WORD ! making me sound like triple people . It 's interesting . "
= = = Storyline and lyrical themes = = =
Although Thornton 's vocals were largely edited without his involvement , a background story for the album was created by the label and published in a series of eight segments , each revealing a new chapter and featuring an exclusive remix by the likes of Prefuse 73 , Aesop Rock , Kid Loco , Spank Rock and others . The remixers appear in the story as " interpreters " hired to decipher the meaning of each remixed song , reportedly sent in a package to the offices of OCD .
The story begins three weeks after OCD received the package . Still unable to decode its meaning , the record company receives a phone call from an unknown source , tracked to Los Angeles , New York , Australia and Saturn . The caller claims to have received the same package five years ago and that it had brought destruction and chaos upon his society , and warns that they are coming after Octagon .
OCD then receives a message from a hacker identifying himself as Cassettes Won 't Listen , who states that eight years ago , himself and five friends were abducted by aliens , tortured , cloned , and kept in isolation . The last survivor was killed by one of the clones , whom Cassettes Won 't Listen then went underground to fight . Cassettes Won 't Listen reveals that Dr. Octagon was imprisoned in the cell next to him , as " a prime candidate to study all things regarding grills , pills and bills " . Octagon was cloned : his clones have been sent out to destroy the universe .
Rob Sonic learns that the clones were created by a giant gorilla driving a pickup truck , who intends to steal the package to prevent the world from hearing Octagon 's message , allowing him to destroy the Earth . The story concludes with the remixers and OCD 's staff escaping with the package on Kid Loco 's plane . An intern briefly sees a figure standing on OCD 's rooftop , wearing a labcoat with a stethoscope around his neck , holding the head of " some black hairy creature " in his hand .
PopMatters writer Michael Frauenhofer wrote that " Dr. Octagon ’ s lyrics on this album typically appear to be unconnected , but over the course of each track can be seen building around a general theme , be it conservation , societal conformity , American militarism , or , yes , his characteristic fascination with sex . "
According to Allmusic reviewer Marisa Brown , Dr. Octagon has matured and his focus has broadened since Dr. Octagonecologyst , in which the character focused largely on sex . Brown writes that Octagon is now " truly worried about the state of humankind , both physically and musically ; in short , someone who could truly save the world " . Brown also states that while the album focuses on science fiction and abstract themes , " there are also as many , if not more , songs about man 's own behavior toward himself and his environment . "
Frauenhofer referred to " Trees " as " a definite highlight " in which " the doctor drops his trademark off @-@ kilter raps on , surprisingly , environmentalism . " Pitchfork Media 's Tom Breihan wrote that the song " Ants " compares " the humans infesting Earth to ants in a colony , enthused and disgusted at once " . Frauenhofer , describing the song " Eat It , " wrote that Princess Superstar " constantly references sex " while Dr. Octagon " confusingly interjects with his complaints about how women only want to go out and talk and eat " , but Frauenhofer states that the sexual content of the album 's lyrics is not as explicit as previous Thornton albums , such as Sex Style . Dallas Observer writer Geoff Johnston described the song as being " as profane as one would hope for . "
= = = Singles and music videos = = =
" Aliens " was released as the first single from the album . A remix of " Aliens " by British drum and bass producer Sub Focus was chosen as compilation of the month in the May 2006 issue of Mixmag . Music videos were produced for the singles " Aliens " and " Trees " , in which Thornton did not appear . The music video for " Trees " was produced as a public service announcement for MTV 's " Break the Addiction " campaign , as well as a promo video for the album .
= = Release = =
OCD International was created as an imprint of CMH to release the material . On October 12 , 2004 , a bootleg consisting of material produced by Chilly Chill from the Lench Mob was released under the title Dr. Octagon Part 2 by Real Talk Records . It was discontinued by court order .
On June 27 , 2006 , OCD International released One @-@ Watt Sun 's material under the title The Return of Dr. Octagon in the United States on compact disc , although the completed work more closely resembled a remix album than what Thornton had originally intended . In the United Kingdom , the CMH @-@ completed album was released by Buttercuts Records on compact disc and vinyl .
CMH distributor World 's Fair promoted The Return of Dr. Octagon as the official sequel to Dr. Octagonecologyst , and claimed that Thornton would tour in support of the album . Early news stories reported by outlets such as The Guardian , MTV2 , MySpace , Remix Magazine , and The Washington Post endorsed the label 's claims . Internet rumors began to spread that the album had been released without Thornton 's authorization via what turned out to be an unsubstantiated piece of journalism by David Downs . In August , Thornton performed under the Dr. Octagon billing , but did not promote the album . According to Thornton , " This ain 't the record I did . It was totally new music . I was really pissed off about people wanting me to go out and tour and do these songs . " OCD originally intended to ship 50 @,@ 000 units during the first year , but halted the plan due to the remarkably high volume of downloads received by the online remixes .
In September , Thornton stated that he had not received royalties from CMH Records . According to Thornton , " I hope they 're sending them . You have another interview if they don 't send me a check . Honestly , with the next single , I want them to leave me a sparkling diamond . "
= = Reception = =
Metacritic , which compiles reviews from a wide range of critics , gives the album a score of 61 % , denoting generally favorable reviews . The album did not chart .
The earliest reviews of the album , published by the LA Weekly and Newsweek , were positive . Rolling Stone critic Christian Hoard wrote that " Octagon 's verses often feel unfocused and random , but when he bears down he can be mesmerizing , channeling his quick @-@ tongued rhymes with streetwise brassiness and cosmic vibrations . " Allmusic reviewer Marisa Brown wrote that the album " doesn 't always make a lot of sense , but that 's the beauty of it . It 's a kind of concept album that concentrates more on the actual overall sound than the concepts . Its elements are all on the very edge of control , which is both exhilarating and terrifying at the same time ; if it works , it could bring us to where we 've never been , protect us from what may be , but if it fails , it could kill us all . " Hip Hop DX reviewer B. Love wrote , " This is Kool Keith 's best album in years — arguably even better than his classic Octagonecologyst — and marks a fine return to form for one of rap music 's most distinctive and original talents . "
Other reviews were mixed . Pitchfork Media 's Tom Breihan wrote that " Keith himself is responsible for all of the album 's good moments . Even when he 's in unhinged @-@ rant mode , Keith 's imagery often remains lucid . And so the album 's best song is " Ants , " where he comes off frantic but omnipotent ... It 's dense and fascinating stuff , a tantalizing glimpse of what might 've happened if Keith hadn 't treated the reemergence of his most popular persona like an easy payday . " PopMatters writer Michael Frauenhofer wrote that " The Return of Dr. Octagon is still better than anything Kool Keith 's done in a little while , but apart from its best tracks , it 's not close to the level of his finest work of the past , and it doesn 't really build much on the legend of Dr. Octagon , which still rests most firmly on the good doctor 's debut . "
Negative reviews came from Billboard writer Ron Hart and Michael Pollock of Prefix magazine . Hart wrote that " Kool Keith has dropped nothing but disappointment and at an alarmingly steady rate . " Pollock wrote that " Despite all the stupid records he 's put out before , The Return of Dr. Octagon is the first one that plunges wholly into self @-@ parody . He 's now a fully realized clown , a prop , a joke and , most disappointingly , a sub @-@ par rapper whose forced ideas and personality obstacles have devolved into flimsy , uninspired character sketches . "
Dan the Automator criticized the release , stating " That wasn 't a Dr. Octagon record . Dr. Octagon is me , Kool Keith , and Q @-@ Bert . The label didn 't have the legal right to use the name , but I didn 't want to get involved in a legal battle ... Keith 's my man , just trying to make a little bit of money . " KutMasta Kurt stated that Thornton was reluctant to perform songs from the album , because the lyrics did not fit the music . John Lindland , who coproduced the final album under the name One @-@ Watt Sun , stated in defense of the album , " People say it 's a fake . We don 't have that feeling . We think that those are great tracks . It wasn 't about remixing anything . They were our ideas , and Keith went on grooves that we sent to LA . " In response to Fanatik J 's criticism of the album , One Watt Sun referred to him as being disgruntled as a result of the label discarding his music . According to Lindland , " If we were him , we 'd have [ a ] beef too " .
Dr. Dooom 2 , Thornton 's 2008 follow @-@ up to First Come , First Served , was produced in response to The Return of Dr. Octagon . According to Thornton , " I 'm one of those artists that people take my music without my consent . People love to snatch my music and do things on their own . You got people that put me on beats I never rapped on . I just feel that it 's a bad thing . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
The following people contributed to The Return of Dr. Octagon :
= = = Musicians = = =
Kool Keith — vocals , lyrics
Princess Superstar — vocals , lyrics
April McClellan — vocals
= = = Additional personnel = = =
One Watt Sun — songwriting , production , mixing
Mike Letho — mixing
Nilesh " Nilz " Patel — mastering
Tomáš Sochůrek — additional mixing
Francois Tetaz — additional mixing
Argee Geronca — artwork design
Brent Wadden — artwork design
Mario Campos — artwork design
Michael Tullberg — photography
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= Nigel ( bishop of Ely ) =
Nigel ( sometimes Nigel Poor or Nigel of Ely ; c . 1100 – 1169 ) was an Anglo @-@ Norman Bishop of Ely . He came from an ecclesiastical family ; his uncle Roger of Salisbury was a bishop and government minister for King Henry I , and other relatives also held offices in the English Church and government . Nigel owed his advancement to his uncle , as did Nigel 's probable brother Alexander , who like Nigel was advanced to episcopal status . Nigel was educated on the continent before becoming a royal administrator . He served as Treasurer of England under King Henry , before being appointed to the see , or bishopric , of Ely in 1133 . His tenure was marked by conflicts with the monks of his cathedral chapter , who believed that Nigel kept income for himself that should properly have gone to them .
Following the accession of Henry I 's successor , King Stephen , Nigel remained as treasurer only briefly before his family was ousted from political office by the new king . Nigel rebelled and deserted to Stephen 's rival Matilda , but eventually reconciled with Stephen . Although he subsequently held some minor administrative posts , he never regained high office under Stephen . On the king 's death , Nigel was returned to the treasurership by the new king , Henry II . Nigel 's second tenure as treasurer saw him return the administration to the practices of Henry I. He withdrew from much of his public work after around 1164 , following an attack of paralysis . He was succeeded as treasurer by his son , Richard fitzNeal , whom he had trained in the operations of the Exchequer , or Treasury of England . Most historians , then and now , have felt that Nigel 's administrative abilities were excellent ; he is considered to have been more talented as an administrator than as a religious figure .
= = Background and early life = =
Nigel 's date of birth is uncertain , but it is likely to have been some time around 1100 . Historians occasionally refer to him as Nigel Poor or Nigel of Ely , but before his elevation to the episcopate he was commonly known as Nigel , the bishop 's nephew , or Nigel , the treasurer . He was probably a Norman by ancestry although he was brought up in England , which in 1066 had been conquered by the Duke of Normandy , William the Conqueror . Following William 's death in 1087 his realm was divided between two of his sons . His middle son , William Rufus , inherited the Kingdom of England , and the Duchy of Normandy passed to his eldest son , Robert Curthose . The youngest son , Henry , received a grant of money , which he used to purchase a lordship in Normandy . The brothers fought amongst themselves for the next twenty years ; the initial conflict was between Rufus and Robert , but after Rufus ' death in 1100 Henry , who succeeded Rufus as King of England , also became involved . Eventually , in 1106 , Henry captured Robert , imprisoned him for life , and took control of Normandy .
Nigel 's uncle Roger of Salisbury , Bishop of Salisbury , saw to Nigel 's education at the school of Laon in France , where he probably studied mathematics under Anselm of Laon . It is likely that his father was Roger 's brother Humphrey . Other students at Laon included William de Corbeil , later Archbishop of Canterbury , Robert de Bethune , who became Bishop of Hereford , Geoffrey le Breton , future Archbishop of Rouen , and other men subsequently to hold bishoprics in the Anglo @-@ Norman dominions .
When he took vows as a cleric is unrecorded , but Nigel held a prebend , an ecclesiastical office in the cathedral , in the see of London before holding one of the offices of archdeacon in the diocese of Salisbury , although which archdeaconry he held is unclear . Most modern historians believe that Nigel was brother to Alexander of Lincoln , later Bishop of Lincoln , but this relationship is not specifically attested in the sources , which merely state that both were Roger 's nephews . William of Malmesbury , a medieval chronicler , considered both Alexander and Nigel to be well educated and diligent . Nigel attended the consecration of Bernard as Bishop of St David 's at Westminster in 1115 , and may have returned to England from Laon by 1112 . From the time of his return until around 1120 he served as a royal chaplain and attested a number of royal charters .
= = Under Henry I = =
Nigel first became Treasurer in the reign of Henry I , and seems to have held that office from around 1126 . He was already a receiver , or auditor and administrator , in the treasury of Normandy , and he served as treasurer for both realms , moving with the king and court between England and Normandy . The date of his appointment is unclear , as until he became a bishop , royal charters listed him as " nephew of the bishop " ( Roger of Salisbury ) , rather than by any office he held . In 1131 , though , he was listed in a papal letter as " Nigel , the treasurer " , which securely establishes that he held the office at that date .
In 1133 , Roger of Salisbury secured the bishopric of Ely for Nigel . Ely had been without a bishop since 1131 ; after the two @-@ year vacancy , King Henry made the appointment because he was settling outstanding business before leaving England to return to Normandy . At this time Henry also appointed Geoffrey Rufus to Durham , and Æthelwold to the newly created Diocese of Carlisle . Nigel was consecrated on 1 October 1133 at Lambeth by William de Corbeil — who was by then Archbishop of Canterbury — possibly with the assistance of Roger of Salisbury . Nigel continued to hold the office of treasurer until 1136 , when he was replaced by a relative , Adelelm , although the historian C. Warren Hollister placed his departure from the office in 1133 with his appointment to Ely . The Constitutio domus regis , or Establishment of the King 's Household , may have been written by Nigel , or possibly for his use , and probably was composed around 1135 .
Ely had until 1109 been an independent monastery , but its last abbot , Richard , had proposed to the king a plan by which the abbey would become a bishopric , presumably with the abbot himself as bishop . Richard died before the proposal could be put into operation , but in 1109 , the custodian of the vacant abbey secured permission to make the change , and became the first Bishop of Ely . However , the administrative changes needed to make the abbey into a bishopric took longer , and were still unresolved at the time of Nigel 's appointment . Regardless , Nigel was constantly at court , as shown by his appearance 31 times as a witness to charters during the last 10 years of Henry I 's reign . This left little time for administration of his diocese , and Nigel appointed a married clergyman , Ranulf of Salisbury , to administer the diocese . Ranulf seems to have tyrannized the monks of the cathedral chapter , and Nigel appears to have done little to protect his monks from abuse . Later , during the early years of Stephen 's reign , Nigel claimed to have uncovered a plot led by Ranulf to assassinate Normans . The exact nature of the conspiracy is obscure , and it is unclear what prompted it . The medieval chronicler Orderic Vitalis claimed that Ranulf planned to kill all the Normans in the government and hand the country over to the Scots . After the discovery of the plot , Ranulf fled the country and Nigel made peace with the monks of his cathedral chapter . Another source of conflict with his monks was the desire of the cathedral chapter to enjoy the same " liberty " as a corporate body that the bishops did in the diocese . This liberty was a group of rights that the abbey had originally held , and had transferred to the bishop when the abbey became a bishopric . The rights included sake and soke , or the right to command dues from the land , and the right to levy tolls . They also included the right to hold courts dealing with theft . Around 1135 , Nigel conceded this point to the monks . Although he restored some of the lands that had been taken from the monks by Ranulf , the Liber Eliensis ( the house chronicle of the monks of Ely ) continued to decry his administration of the diocese and the lands of the cathedral chapter , alleging that " he kept back for himself some properties of the church which he wanted , and very good ones they were " . The chronicle contains a number of complaints that Nigel oppressed the monks or despoiled them .
= = Stephen 's early reign = =
Following King Henry 's death in 1135 , the succession was disputed between the king 's nephews — Stephen and his elder brother , Theobald II , Count of Champagne — and Henry 's surviving legitimate child Matilda , usually known as the Empress Matilda because of her first marriage to the Holy Roman Emperor , Henry V. King Henry 's only legitimate son , William , had died in 1120 . After Matilda was widowed in 1125 , she returned to her father , who married her to Geoffrey , Count of Anjou . All the magnates of England and Normandy were required to declare fealty to Matilda as Henry 's heir , but when Henry I died in 1135 , Stephen rushed to England and had himself crowned before either Theobald or Matilda could react . The Norman barons accepted Stephen as Duke of Normandy , and Theobald contented himself with his possessions in France . Matilda , though , was less sanguine , and secured the support of the Scottish king , David , who was her maternal uncle , and in 1138 also the support of her half @-@ brother , Robert , Earl of Gloucester , an illegitimate son of Henry I.
After Stephen 's accession , Nigel was at first retained as treasurer , but the king came to suspect him and his family of secretly supporting the Empress Matilda . The prime movers behind Stephen 's suspicions against the bishops were the Beaumont family , headed by the twin brothers Robert , Earl of Leicester , and Waleran , Count of Meulan , who wished to be the main advisors of the king . Roger , Alexander , and Nigel together held key castles , including Salisbury , Devizes , Sherborne , Malmesbury , Sleaford , and Newark . The Beaumonts alleged that Roger and his family were fortifying the castles they held in preparation for turning them over to Matilda . They urged the king to confiscate the castles before they were lost . Although the Gesta Stephani , or Deeds of King Stephen , a medieval chronicle of the events of Stephen 's reign , alleges that Roger was disloyal to Stephen , the evidence is against such action by Roger , as he had been an opponent of Matilda since 1126 , when she was first put forward as her father 's heir . Roger and his family also had been early supporters of Stephen 's seizure of the crown after Henry I 's death . The contemporary chronicler Orderic Vitalis felt that Roger 's family were going to betray the king , but William of Malmesbury believed that the allegations were based on envy from " powerful laymen " . Whatever Roger 's position , Nigel 's own position on Matilda is less clear , and it is possible that he was never as opposed to her as his uncle . No evidence survives that he was estranged from Stephen , however , as Nigel continued to witness charters throughout the first four years of Stephen 's reign . According to the historian Marjorie Chibnall , Nigel 's family may have been caught up in a dispute between Henry of Blois and the Beaumonts .
= = Arrest of the bishops = =
In 1139 , supporters of Roger and his family brawled in public with some men who supported Alan of Brittany . The brawl may have been provoked by the Beaumonts , for Alan was often associated with them . At a court held at Oxford in June 1139 , Stephen required Roger of Salisbury , Alexander of Lincoln , and Nigel to surrender their castles as a consequence of the brawl . When Roger and his family delayed , the king ordered their arrest . Nigel managed to escape arrest by fleeing to the castle of Devizes , and the king followed and began a siege . The king threatened to hang Roger in front of the castle unless it capitulated , and Nigel , under pressure from Roger 's wife , surrendered the castle after the siege had lasted three days . All three bishops then submitted and surrendered their secular offices and castles . They were , however , allowed to retain their dioceses . Nigel surrendered Newark Castle and Sleaford Castle , both of which had been constructed by Alexander . Stephen promptly gave Newark to Robert , Earl of Leicester , who was in turn excommunicated by Alexander of Lincoln .
Stephen 's brother , Henry of Blois , who was Bishop of Winchester and papal legate in England , called an ecclesiastical council at Winchester on 29 August 1139 , and summoned the king to answer charges that he had unlawfully arrested clergy . The king refused to attend , and sent a representative instead . After meeting for a few days , the council was dismissed on 1 September without deciding anything except to appeal to the pope in Rome . In the end , the appeal never reached Rome . Part of the problem confronting the assembled bishops was that Stephen had not expelled Roger 's family from their ecclesiastical offices , merely their secular ones . Stephen 's representatives argued that the bishops had given up their castles and money voluntarily to avoid secular charges . The defence taken by the king was not novel ; it had been used before by William I and William II against Odo of Bayeux and William de St @-@ Calais , respectively .
Traditionally , the arrest of the bishops has been seen as a turning point in Stephen 's reign , and the event that turned the ecclesiastical hierarchy against him . Recent historians have held a lively debate on the issue ; a few still hold to the traditional interpretation , but most have decided that reactions in the English church were more ambivalent . One modern historian , David Crouch , believes that the arrest of the bishops signalled the beginnings of the Anarchy , not because of any alienation of the church , but through court politics , where Stephen showed himself incapable of manipulating the factions of his court . The ascendency of the Beaumonts was marked by the placement of one of their protégés , Philip de Harcourt , as Chancellor .
Roger died in December 1139 while in the king 's custody . After the death of his uncle , Nigel , then in East Anglia , revolted . In January 1140 , he fortified the Isle of Ely , but was soon besieged and forced to flee . Even his own cathedral chapter refused to support him , and his revolt collapsed in January . Nigel took refuge at the court of Stephen 's rival , the Empress Matilda , who had landed in England in the south on 30 September 1139 in a bid to take the throne . The revolt stood little chance of succeeding , for there were no supporters of Matilda close to East Anglia , and it is likely that Nigel reacted more out of fear and anger at his uncle 's death than anything else . It appears likely that Nigel appealed to Pope Innocent II at this time , for in October 1140 Innocent issued a papal bull , or papal instruction , ordering the restoration to Nigel of the lands of his bishopric , and it appears that after the capture of Stephen , Matilda managed to restore Nigel to Ely briefly . In 1141 , Nigel , along with his brother Alexander , was one of the supporters of Matilda who , after the capture of Stephen by Matilda 's forces , reached an agreement with Henry of Blois to replace Stephen with Matilda on the throne . Ultimately , this agreement came to nothing when Matilda 's chief supporter , her half @-@ brother Robert of Gloucester , was captured and later exchanged for Stephen . Stephen 's release meant that the king was free to send Geoffrey de Mandeville against Nigel , and Nigel submitted to the king , probably in 1142 .
= = Stephen 's later reign = =
In 1143 , Nigel became involved in a quarrel with the powerful Henry of Blois . Charges of depriving a priest of a church , giving church property to laymen , and encouraging sedition were brought against Nigel , and he was forced to go to Rome to defend himself , only reaching Rome in 1144 . He did not return to his diocese until 1145 . He probably accompanied Theobald of Bec , the Archbishop of Canterbury , who went to Rome around this time on separate business . While he was in Rome , Pope Lucius II issued a number of rulings in Nigel 's favor , ordering his restitution to Ely . He was then finally reconciled with Stephen by paying a fine of £ 200 and offering his son Richard fitzNeal as a hostage . While Nigel was at Rome , Ely was attacked by the king 's forces . The monks sent to Geoffrey de Mandeville for aid , and Geoffrey came and occupied the Isle of Ely , while the king 's forces occupied the lands of the diocese outside the Isle . Both occupying forces did damage to the lands of the diocese and the cathedral chapter . The monks , in the Liber Eliensis , complained that Nigel had taken items from the church to finance his trip to Rome , and that they were required to help contribute to the bribe when Nigel was reconciled with Stephen .
By 1147 , Nigel was again witnessing Stephen 's charters , and in 1153 or 1154 he was named in a grant of lands to St Radegund 's Priory in Cambridge . He assisted with the consecration of Hilary of Chichester as Bishop of Chichester in August 1147 . He took part in shire courts in both Norfolk and Suffolk in 1150 , and continued to assist with episcopal consecrations throughout the remainder of Stephen 's reign . No records exist of him being involved with treasury affairs during this time . His witnessing of charters is sparse , and almost always in company with other bishops ; this suggests that he was only at court for councils or other similar events . Nigel was a witness to Stephen 's charter that left England to Matilda 's son , Henry of Anjou . When Henry succeeded Stephen , Nigel was present at the coronation .
= = Return to the Exchequer = =
After the accession of Henry II , Nigel was summoned to reorganize the Exchequer , or treasury , that was responsible for the production of the government 's financial records , including the Pipe Rolls . The king had to ask Nigel several times to return before the bishop agreed , and one reason for Nigel 's reluctance may have been that he would have to work with Robert , Earl of Leicester , one of the Beaumonts , who had been responsible for turning Stephen against Nigel 's family in 1139 . Another of Nigel 's colleagues in the administration was a layman , Richard de Lucy , who served as a justice until 1178 . Nigel was the only surviving minister of Henry I , and his knowledge of the Exchequer was needed to help reorganize the revenues of the king and restore administrative practices lost during Stephen 's reign . The lone pipe roll to survive from Henry I 's reign , for the year 1130 , may be Nigel 's own copy , brought with him to the Exchequer when he returned under Henry II . Nigel was able to increase the revenues compared to what had been collected under Stephen , but he was unable to quickly return them to the amounts collected under Henry I. It may have been Nigel who urged the king to attempt to recover estates that had been alienated during Stephen 's reign .
The pipe roll for 1155 – 1156 has several entries which declare that Nigel was making decisions about monetary affairs and issuing writs , but later pipe rolls do not contain any such entries . It appears likely that after the initial reorganization of the Exchequer , Nigel 's involvement lessened . He continued to be active , though , and obtained tax exemptions and other privileges until his death in 1169 . His son , Richard fitzNeal , who is the main source for information about Nigel 's career in the Exchequer , stated that he fulfilled Nigel 's treasury duties when Nigel was ill . Nigel continued to spar with Robert , the Earl of Leicester , and Richard fitzNeal relays a story about Nigel and Robert confronting each other at the Exchequer over traditional exemptions of the barons of the Exchequer , or judges of the Exchequer . Among the reforms carried out by Nigel were the restoration of the " blanch farm " system , whereby a random sample of coins was assayed and any shortage was collected from the sheriff , and the restoration of collections from a swath of counties that had quit paying taxes during Stephen 's reign . The most substantial change was the return to a unified system of finances , which in turn required a reconciliation of the two different systems in use by Stephen and Matilda . Despite Nigel 's reinstatement to the Exchequer , and the nomination of his son as treasurer , Nigel did not enjoy the power that his uncle had wielded under Henry I. The exact date of Richard 's appointment as treasurer is obscure , but it was sometime between 1158 and 1160 , as he is securely attested as treasurer in 1160 . The Liber Eliensis states that Nigel paid the king £ 400 to secure the office for Richard . Some historians have seen Nigel as Henry II 's " minister of finance " .
Nigel also served as a royal justice under Henry II . Although his relations with the government had improved , his relations with the monks of his cathedral chapter , which had never been good , continued to be marked by quarrels . In 1156 , the English Pope Adrian IV threatened to suspend Nigel from office unless the bishop restored all the lands that had belonged to the church when Nigel became bishop . The restitution was hampered by the absence of the king from England , and the dispute dragged on until finally it was resolved by Nigel pledging in front of Theobald of Bec , Archbishop of Canterbury , to restore the lands . By 1158 , Nigel had managed to restore enough possessions that Adrian relaxed the conditions . Even this did not end the quarrels with the monks , as Nigel then named a married clerk as sacrist of Ely , an action which was condemned by Thomas Becket , the new Archbishop of Canterbury . Nigel did manage to secure a reduction in the assessment of knight 's fees due from the diocese , from the 60 fees that were due under Henry I , to 40 in 1166 .
= = Death and legacy = =
Nigel died on 30 May 1169 . In either 1164 or in 1166 , or possibly both , he had been struck by paralysis , and after this he seems to have withdrawn from active affairs . He took little part in the disputes between the king and Thomas Becket , although he did agree with his fellow bishops who opposed the king 's attempt to reduce clerical benefits . He may have been buried at Ely , where a 12th @-@ century marble slab possibly marks his tomb .
Nigel was a married bishop , and his son Richard fitzNeal was later Lord Treasurer and Bishop of London . Another son was William , called William the Englishman . Richard , who wrote the Dialogus de Scaccario , or Dialogue concerning the Exchequer about the procedures of the Exchequer , had been taught those procedures by his father . Nigel 's uncle Roger had at least one son , Roger , who was King Stephen 's chancellor ; Adelelm , who succeeded Nigel as treasurer after his first term , was probably Roger 's son also . Another relative was William of Ely , who succeeded Richard fitzNeal as treasurer in 1196 , although the exact relationship is unclear .
Nigel was active in draining the Fens , the swampy land around Ely , to increase the agricultural lands around his bishopric . He also fortified the Isle of Ely with stone defences , probably starting around 1140 . The remains of one castle on Cherry Hill in Ely probably date to Nigel 's fortifications . Early in his time as bishop he was active in recovering lands of the church that had been granted to knights by his predecessors , and soon after his consecration he ordered an inquest made into the lands actually owned by the diocese and cathedral chapter . The bishop spent most of his life in debt , but in the year he died he managed to clear it with his son 's help . The monks of his cathedral chapter did not like the fact that they were required to pay for the bishop 's appeals to Rome to recover his see , or pay for regaining the king 's favour . Their dislike of their bishop is evident in the Liber Eliensis . The art historian C. R. Dodwell wrote of Nigel 's efforts :
When .... Nigel ... needed to raise money in order to repair his own political fortunes , he stripped down , sold , or used as security , a quite astounding number of Ely 's monastic treasures . These numbered Crucifixes of gold and silver from the Anglo @-@ Saxon past , and they included an alb with gold @-@ embroidered apparels , given by St Æthelwold , and a chasuble , given by King Edgar , which was almost all of gold . A gold and bejewelled textile covering ... was sold to the Bishop of Lincoln , Alexander , who took it with him to Rome as a gift of particular splendour . It is a biting commentary on attitudes of the Anglo @-@ Norman episcopy to Anglo @-@ Saxon art , that it was left to the pope to point out that such an artistic heirloom should never have left Ely in the first place and to order its return .
Most historians have seen Nigel as an administrator , not a religious bishop . The historian David Knowles wrote that Nigel " had devoted all his energies and abilities to matters purely secular ; in the department of financial administration he was supreme , and more than any other man he helped to ensure the continuity and development of the excellent administrative practice initiated under Henry I " . The historian W. L. Warren said that " Stephen probably paid dearly for the dismissal of Bishop Roger of Salisbury and Bishop Nigel of Ely , for the expertise of the exchequer was lodged in their expertise . " Whatever Nigel 's administrative talent , his ecclesiastical abilities are generally held to be low ; the Gesta Stephani says of both him and Alexander that they were " men who loved display and were rash in their reckless presumption ... disregarding the holy and simple manner of life that befits a Christian priest they devoted themselves so utterly to warfare and the vanities of this world that whenever they attended court by appointment they ... aroused general astonishment on account of the extraordinary concourse of knights by which they were surrounded on every side . "
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= Rainilaiarivony =
Rainilaiarivony ( 30 January 1828 – 17 July 1896 ) was the Prime Minister of Madagascar from 1864 to 1895 , succeeding his older brother Rainivoninahitriniony , who had held the post for thirteen years . His career mirrored that of his father Rainiharo , a renowned military man who became Prime Minister during the reign of Queen Ranavalona I. Despite a childhood marked by ostracism from his family , as a young man Rainilaiarivony was elevated to a position of high authority and confidence in the royal court , serving alongside his father and brother . He co @-@ led a critical military expedition with Rainivoninahitriniony at the age of 24 and was promoted to Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the army following the death of the queen in 1861 . In that position he oversaw continuing efforts to maintain royal authority in the outlying regions of Madagascar and acted as adviser to his brother , who had been promoted to Prime Minister in 1852 . He also influenced the transformation of the kingdom 's government from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional one , in which power was shared between the sovereign and the Prime Minister . Rainilaiarivony and Queen Rasoherina worked together to depose Rainivoninahitriniony for his abuses of office in 1864 . Taking his brother 's place as Prime Minister , Rainilaiarivony remained in power for the next 31 years by marrying three queens in succession : Rasoherina , Ranavalona II and Ranavalona III .
As Prime Minister , Rainilaiarivony actively sought to modernize the administration of the state , in order to strengthen and protect Madagascar against the political designs of the British and French colonial empires . The army was reorganized and professionalized , public schooling was made mandatory , a series of legal codes patterned on English law were enacted and three courts were established in Antananarivo . The statesman exercised care not to offend traditional norms , while gradually limiting traditional practices , such as slavery , polygamy , and unilateral repudiation of wives . He legislated the Christianization of the monarchy under Ranavalona II . His diplomatic skills and military acumen assured the defense of Madagascar during the Franco @-@ Hova Wars , successfully preserving his country 's sovereignty until a French column captured the royal palace in September 1895 . Although holding him in high esteem , the French colonial authority deposed the Prime Minister and exiled him to French Algeria , where he died less than a year later in August 1896 .
= = Early life = =
Rainilaiarivony was born on 30 January 1828 in the Merina village of Ilafy , one of the twelve sacred hills of Imerina , into a family of statesmen . His father , Rainiharo , was a high @-@ ranking military officer and a deeply influential conservative political adviser to the reigning monarch , Queen Ranavalona I , at the time that his wife , Rabodomiarana ( daughter of Ramamonjy ) , gave birth to Rainilaiarivony . Five years later Rainiharo was promoted to the position of Prime Minister , a role he retained from 1833 until his death in 1852 . During his tenure as Prime Minister , Rainiharo was chosen by the queen to become her consort , but he retained Rabodomiarana as his wife according to local customs that allowed polygamy . Rainilaiarivony 's paternal grandfather , Andriatsilavo , had likewise been a privileged adviser to the great King Andrianampoinimerina ( 1787 – 1810 ) . Rainilaiarivony and his relatives issued from the Andafiavaratra family clan of Ilafy who , alongside the Andrefandrova clan of Ambohimanga , constituted the two most influential hova ( commoner ) families in the 19th @-@ century Kingdom of Imerina . The majority of political positions not assigned to andriana ( nobles ) were held by members of these two families .
According to oral history , Rainilaiarivony was born on a day of the week traditionally viewed as inauspicious for births . Custom in much of Madagascar dictated that such unlucky children had to be subjected to a trial by ordeal , such as prolonged exposure to the elements , since it was believed the misfortune of their day of birth would ensure a short and cursed life for the child and its family . But rather than leave the child to die , Rainilaiarivony 's father reportedly followed the advice of an ombiasy ( astrologer ) and instead amputated a joint from two fingers on his infant son 's left hand to dispel the ill omen . The infant was nonetheless kept outside the house to avert the possibility that evil might still befall the family if the child remained under their roof . Relatives took pity and adopted Rainilaiarivony to raise him within their own home . Meanwhile , Rainilaiarivony 's older brother Rainivoninahitriniony enjoyed the double privilege of his status as elder son and freedom from a predestined evil fate . Rainiharo selected and groomed his elder son to follow in his footsteps as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief and Prime Minister , while Rainilaiarivony was left to make his way in the world by his own merits .
At age six , Rainilaiarivony began two years of study at one of the new schools opened by the London Missionary Society ( LMS ) for the children of the noble class at the royal palace in Antananarivo . Ranavalona shut down the mission schools in 1836 , but the boy continued to study privately with an older missionary student . When Rainilaiarivony reached age 11 or 12 , the relatives who had raised him decided he was old enough to make his own way in the world . Beginning with the purchase and resale of a few bars of soap , the boy gradually grew his business and expanded into the more profitable resale of fabric . The young Rainilaiarivony 's reputation for tenacity and industriousness , as he fought against his predestined misfortunes , eventually reached the palace , where at the age of 14 the boy was invited to meet Queen Ranavalona I. She was favorably impressed , awarding him the official ranking of Sixth Honor title of Officer of the Palace . At 16 he was promoted to Seventh Honor , then promoted twice again to Eighth and Ninth Honor at age 19 , an unprecedented ascent through the ranks .
As a regular among the foreigners at the palace , young Rainilaiarivony was tasked by an English merchant as a courier for his confidential business correspondence . The merchant was impressed by the young man 's punctuality and integrity and would regularly refer to him as the boy who " deals fair . " With the addition of the Malagasy honorific " ra " , the expression was transformed into a sobriquet — " Radilifera " — that Rainilaiarivony adopted for himself and transmitted to a son and grandson . The arrival of a doctor from Mauritius in 1848 provided Rainilaiarivony with the opportunity to study medicine over the course of three years . With this knowledge he became indispensable at the palace , where he provided modern medical care to the Queen and other members of the aristocracy . Successfully curing the Queen of a particularly grievous illness earned him a promotion to Tenth Honor in April 1851 , thereby qualifying him for more responsible positions within the monarch 's closest circle . Rainiharo took advantage of this trust to successfully encourage friendship between his own sons and the only child and heir apparent of the queen , her son Radama II , who was one year Rainilaiarivony 's junior .
= = Marriage and family = =
Around 1848 — the exact date of his marriage is not recorded — Rainilaiarivony , then around 20 or 21 years old and having adopted the name Radilifera , concluded a marriage with his paternal cousin Rasoanalina . She bore him sixteen children over the course of their marriage . In addition , a one @-@ year @-@ old son that Rasoanalina had conceived with another man prior to the union , Ratsimatahodriaka ( Radriaka ) , was adopted by Rainilaiarivony as his own . As a young man , Ratsimatahodriaka was groomed by Rainilaiarivony to become his successor , but the youth fell from a balcony while intoxicated and died in his early twenties .
Most of Rainilaiarivony 's children failed to achieve their full potential . One son , Rafozehana , died young of delirium tremens , and sons Ratsimandresy and Ralaiarivony both met violent ends while still in their youth . Randravalahy , to whom Rainilaiarivony later ascribed the name Radilifera , was sent to France to study but returned before earning his diploma and faded into obscurity among the upper classes of Imerina . Ramangalahy studied medicine and was on his way to becoming a successful doctor , but died of illness in his twenties . Three brothers turned to crime : Rajoelina , who violated the laws of his country to enrich himself by selling contraband gold to an English company ; Penoelina , who studied in England before health issues recalled him to Madagascar , where he and his friends engaged in sexual assault and theft ; and Ramariavelo ( Mariavelo ) , who organized a group of bandits to rob the houses of common citizens . One of Rainilaiarivony 's daughters died in her twenties following a self @-@ induced abortion , and the rest married and lived quiet lives out of public view .
= = Military career = =
The February 1852 death of Prime Minister Rainiharo left the queen without her consort , long @-@ time political adviser and military Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief . She consequently awarded Rainilaiarivony a double promotion to Twelfth Honor ten days afterward , in preparation for an increase in military and political responsibilities . Shortly thereafter the queen expressed romantic interest in Rainilaiarivony and proposed that he assume the former role of his father as prince consort and Prime Minister . The young man refused on the double basis of their age difference , the queen being forty years his senior , as well as the perceived impropriety of becoming intimate with his father 's former lover . Ranavalona continued to harbor feelings for him throughout her lifetime but she did not express resentment over his refusal to reciprocate them and went on to take another high @-@ ranking official as consort : Rainijohary , who was jointly awarded the role of Prime Minister along with the new Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Rainivoninahitriniony . Within a year the queen had assigned the 24 @-@ year @-@ old Rainilaiarivony to his first position of responsibility within the military , and promoted him to Royal Secretary , keeper of the Royal Seal , and supervisor to the Royal Treasurer .
Several years prior to his death , former Prime Minister Rainiharo had led military campaigns to bring the peoples of the south under Merina control . Strong military campaigns on both sides of the conflict had concluded in a peace agreement between the Merina armies and those of the Bara people of the central southern highlands , who were accorded semi @-@ autonomous status in exchange for serving as a buffer between the Sakalava to the west and the Tanala , Antemoro , Antefasy and other ethnic groups to the southeast . Upon learning of Rainiharo 's death , disgruntled southeastern factions rose up against the Merina military stationed at posts within their territory . Queen Ranavalona responded by sending Rainivoninahitriniony and Rainilaiarivony on their first military expedition to liberate the besieged Merina colonists and quell the uprising .
Under the brothers ' joint command were ten thousand soldiers armed with muskets and another thousand carrying swords . An additional 80 @,@ 000 porters , cooks , servants and other support staff accompanied the army throughout the massive campaign . Over 10 @,@ 000 were killed by Merina soldiers in the campaign , and according to custom numerous women and children were captured to be sold into slavery in Imerina . Rainilaiarivony took 80 slaves , while his older brother took more than 160 . However , the campaign was only partly successful in pacifying the region and the Merina hold over the outlying areas of the island remained tenuous throughout the 19th century .
= = = First thwarted coup attempt = = =
As the queen 's son Radama grew to adulthood , he became increasingly disillusioned by the high death toll of his mother 's military campaigns and traditional measures of justice , and was frustrated by her unilateral rejection of European influence . The young prince developed sympathetic relationships with the handful of Europeans permitted by Ranavalona to frequent her court , namely Jean Laborde and Joseph @-@ François Lambert , with whom he privately concluded the lucrative Lambert Charter . The charter , which would come into effect upon Radama 's accession to the throne , granted Lambert large tracts of land and exclusive rights to road construction , mineral extraction , timber harvesting and other activities on the island . In May 1857 , when Rainilaiarivony was 29 years old , Lambert consequently invited Prince Radama , Rainivoninahitriniony , Rainilaiarivony and a number of other officers to conspire with him in a plot to overthrow Ranavalona .
On the eve of the coup , Rainivoninahitriniony informed Lambert that he could not guarantee the support of the army and that the plot should be aborted . One of the officers believed the brothers had betrayed them and sought to exonerate himself by notifying the queen of the failed conspiracy . She reacted by expelling the foreigners from the island and subjecting all the implicated Merina officers to the tangena ordeal in which they were forced to swallow a poison to determine their guilt or innocence . Rainilaiarivony and his brother were excepted from this and remained , like her son Radama , in the queen 's confidence for the few remaining years of her life .
= = = Second thwarted coup attempt = = =
In the summer of 1861 , when Rainilaiarivony was 33 years old , Queen Ranavalona 's advanced age and acute illness produced speculation about who would succeed her . Ranavalona had repeatedly stated her intention that her progressive and pro @-@ European son , Radama II , would be her successor , much to the chagrin of the conservative faction at court . The conservatives privately rallied behind the queen 's nephew and adoptive son Ramboasalama , whom the queen had initially declared heir apparent some years prior , and who had never abandoned hope to one day reclaim the right that had briefly been accorded to him .
According to custom , pretenders to the throne had historically been put to death upon the naming of a new sovereign . Radama was opposed to this practice and asked the brothers to help ensure his accession to the throne with minimum bloodshed on the day of the queen 's death . Rainilaiarivony successfully maintained authority over the palace guards anxiously awaiting the command from either faction to slaughter the other . When the queen 's attendant quietly informed him that her final moments were approaching , Rainilaiarivony discreetly summoned Radama and Rainivoninahitriniony from the Prime Minister 's palace to the royal Rova compound and ordered the prince crowned before the gathered soldiers , just as the queen was pronounced dead . Ramboasalama was promptly escorted to the palace where he was obliged to publicly swear allegiance to King Radama .
Rainilaiarivony was made responsible for the tribunal where Ramboasalama 's supporters were tried , convicted of subversion and sentenced to banishment and other punishments . Ramboasalama was sent to live with his wife Ramatoa Rasoaray — Rainilaiarivony 's sister — in the distant highland village of Ambohimirimo , where he died in April 1862 . Rainijohary , the former Prime Minister and consort of Ranavalona , was relieved of his rank and exiled , leaving his co @-@ minister Rainivoninahitriniony as the sole Prime Minister . At the same time , Rainilaiarivony was promoted by Radama to the position of Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the military .
= = = Creation of a limited monarchy = = =
As Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Rainilaiarivony maintained a distance from politics throughout the reign of the new monarch , Radama II , instead preferring to focus on his military responsibilities . Meanwhile , disputes between Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony and King Radama grew frequent as the young sovereign pursued radical reforms that had begun to foment displeasure among the traditional masses . The situation came to a head on 7 May 1863 , when Radama insisted on legalizing duels , despite widespread concern among the king 's advisers that the innovation would lead to anarchy . The Prime Minister initiated the arrest of the menamaso , the prince 's influential advisers , while Rainilaiarivony enacted his brother 's instructions to keep the peace in the capital city . However , the situation deteriorated in dramatic fashion and , by the morning of 12 May , King Radama II was declared dead , having been strangled on the Prime Minister 's orders .
Not having been involved in the coup d 'état , Rainilaiarivony provided direction for his brother and the rest of the court as they grappled with the gravity of their acts . He proposed that future monarchs would no longer have absolute power but would instead rule by the consent of the nobles . A series of terms were proposed by Rainilaiarivony that the nobles agreed to impose on Radama 's widow , Rasoherina . Under Rainilaiarivony 's new monarchy , a sovereign required the consent of the nobles to issue a death sentence or promulgate a new law , and was forbidden to disband the army . The new power sharing agreement was concluded by a political marriage between the queen and the Prime Minister .
Because of the new limitations placed on future Merina monarchs by Rainilaiarivony and the Hova courtiers , Radama 's strangling represented more than a simple coup d 'état . The ruling conditions imposed on Rasoherina reflected a power shift toward the oligarchs of the Hova commoner class and away from the Andriana sovereigns , who had traditionally drawn their legitimacy from the deeply held cultural belief that the royal line was imbued with hasina , a sacred authority bestowed by the ray aman @-@ dreny ( ancestors ) . In this respect , the new political structure in Imerina embodied the erosion of certain traditional social values among the Merina elite , who had gained exposure to contemporary European political thought and assimilated a number of Western governance principles . It also signalled the expansion of a rift between the pro @-@ European , progressive elite to which Rainilaiarivony and his brother belonged , and the majority of the population in Madagascar , for whom traditional values such as hasina remained integral to determining the legitimacy of a government — a divide that would deepen in the decades to come through Rainilaiarivony 's efforts to effect a modernizing political and social transformation on a nationwide scale .
= = Tenure as Prime Minister = =
= = = Rise to power = = =
Rainivoninahitriniony 's tenure as sole Prime Minister was short lived . His violent tendencies , irritability and insolence toward Rasoherina , in addition to lingering popular resentment over Rainivoninahitriniony 's role in the violent end to Radama 's rule , gradually turned the opinion of the nobles against him . As Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Rainilaiarivony attempted to counsel his brother , while simultaneously overseeing diplomatic and military efforts to re @-@ pacify the agitated Sakalava and other peoples , who viewed the coup as an indication of weakening Merina control . The Prime Minister repaid these efforts by repeatedly castigating high @-@ ranking officers and even threatening Rainilaiarivony with his sword .
Two of Rainilaiarivony 's cousins urged him to take his elder brother 's place in order to end the shame that Rainivoninahitriniony 's behavior was bringing upon their family . After weighing the idea , Rainilaiarivony approached Rasoherina with the proposal . The queen readily consented and lent her assistance in rallying the support of the nobles at court . On 14 July 1864 , little more than a year after the coup , Rasoherina deposed and divorced Rainivoninahitriniony , then exiled the fallen minister the following year . Rainilaiarivony was promoted to Prime Minister . The arrangement was sealed when Rainilaiarivony took Rasoherina as his bride and demoted his longtime spouse Rasoanalina to the status of second wife . Rainilaiarivony confided in a friend shortly before his death that he deeply loved his first wife and came to share the same degree of feeling toward Rasoherina as well , but never developed the same affection for the subsequent queens he married . None of his royal spouses bore him any children .
By taking this new role , Rainilaiarivony became the first Hova to concurrently serve as both Prime Minister and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief . The sociopolitical transformation that had been triggered by the strangling of Radama II reached its zenith with Rainilaiarivony 's consolidation of administrative power . Rasoherina and her successors remained the figureheads of traditional authority , participated in political councils and provided official approval for policies . The Prime Minister issued new policies and laws in the Queen 's name . However , the day @-@ to @-@ day governance , security and diplomatic activities of the kingdom principally originated with , and were managed by , Rainilaiarivony and his counselors . This new level of authority enabled the Prime Minister to amass a vast personal fortune , whether through inheritance , gifts or purchase , including 57 houses , large plantations and rice paddies , numerous cattle and thousands of slaves . The most prominent of Rainilaiarivony 's properties was the Andafiavaratra Palace , constructed for him on the slope just below the royal Rova compound by English architect William Pool in 1873 .
= = = Policies and reforms = = =
Government administration and bureaucracy was strengthened under Rainilaiarivony 's leadership . In March 1876 , Rainilaiarivony established eight cabinet ministries to manage foreign affairs , the interior , education , war , justice , commerce and industry , finance , and legislation . State envoys were installed throughout the island 's provinces to manage administrative affairs , ensure the application of law , collect taxes and provide regular reports back to Antananarivo on the local state of affairs . The traditional method of tax collection through local administrators was expanded in the provinces , bringing in new revenues , most commonly in the form of locally produced goods such as woven mats , fish , or wood . Rainilaiarivony actively encouraged Merina settlement in the coastal provinces , but coastal peoples were not invited to participate in political administration of the territories they inhabited . Approximately one third of the island had no Merina presence and retained de facto independence from the authority of the crown , including parts of the western provinces of Ambongo and Menabe , and areas in the southern Bara , Tanala , Antandroy and Mahafaly lands .
Rainilaiarivony 's first royal wife , Queen Rasoherina , died on 1 April 1868 , and was succeeded by her cousin Ranavalona II ( crowned on 3 September 1868 ) who , like Rasoherina , was a widow of Radama II . Ranavalona II was a pupil of Protestant missionaries and had converted to Christianity . Rainilaiarivony recognized the growing power of Christianity on the island and identified the need to bring it under his influence in order to avert destabilizing cultural and political power struggles . The Prime Minister encouraged the new queen to Christianize the court through a public baptism ceremony at Andohalo on 21 February 1869 , the day of their marriage . In this ceremony the supernatural royal talismans were ordered to be destroyed and replaced by the Bible . The Christianization of the court and the establishment of the independent royal Protestant chapel on the palace grounds prompted the wide @-@ scale conversion of hundreds of thousands of Malagasy . These conversions were commonly motivated by a desire to express political allegiance to the Crown , and as such were largely nominal , with the majority of converts practicing a syncretic blend of Christian and traditional religions . Rainilaiarivony 's biographers conclude that the Prime Minister 's own conversion was also largely a political gesture and most likely did not denote a genuine spiritual shift until late in his life , if ever . Some local officials attempted to force conversions to Protestantism by mandating church attendance and persecuting Catholics , but Rainilaiarivony quickly responded to quell these overzealous practices . The Prime Minister 's criminalization of polygamy and alcohol consumption , as well as the declaration of Sunday as a day of rest , were likewise inspired by the growing British and Protestant influences in the country . The Christianization of the court came at a steep personal price : with the outlawing of polygamy , Rainilaiarivony was forced to repudiate his first wife . The Prime Minister was deeply saddened by this necessity and by the consequent souring of his relationships with Rasoanalina and their children after the divorce .
The Prime Minister recognized that the modernization of Madagascar and its system of state administration could strengthen the country against invasion by a Western power and directed his energy to this end . In 1877 , he outlawed the enslavement of the Makoa community . Rainilaiarivony expanded the public education system , declaring school attendance mandatory in 1881 and forming a cadre of school inspectors the following year to ensure education quality . The island 's first pharmacy was established by LMS missionaries in 1862 , and the first hospital was inaugurated in Antananarivo three years later , followed by the launching in 1875 of a state medical system staffed by civil servant clinicians . Rainilaiarivony enacted a series of new legal codes over the course of his administration that sought to create a more humane social order . The number of capital offenses was reduced from eighteen to thirteen , and he put an end to the tradition of collective family punishment for the crimes of one individual . Fines were fixed for specific offenses and corporal punishment was limited to being locked in irons . The structure of legal administration was reorganized so that matters that exceeded the authority of the traditional community courts at the level of the fokonolona village collective , administered by local magistrates and village heads , would be referred to the three high courts established in the capital in 1876 , although final judicial authority remained with Rainilaiarivony . The Code of 305 Laws established that same year would form the basis of the legal system applied in Madagascar for the remainder of the 19th century and throughout much of the colonial period . To strengthen rule of law , the Prime Minister introduced a rural police force , modernized the court system and eliminated certain unjust privileges that had disproportionately benefited the noble class .
Beginning in 1872 , Rainilaiarivony worked to modernize the army with the assistance of a British military instructor , who was hired to recruit , train and manage its soldiers . Rainilaiarivony purchased new local and imported firearms , reintroduced regular exercises and reorganized the ranking system . He prohibited the purchasing of rank promotions or exemptions from military service and instituted free medical care for soldiers in 1876 . The following year Rainilaiarivony introduced the mandatory conscription of 5 @,@ 000 Malagasy from each of the island 's six provinces to serve five years in the royal army , swelling its ranks to over 30 @,@ 000 soldiers .
= = = Foreign relations = = =
During his time in power , Rainilaiarivony proved himself a competent and temperate leader , administrator and diplomat . In foreign affairs he exercised acumen and prudent diplomacy , successfully forestalling French colonial designs upon Madagascar for nearly three decades . Rainilaiarivony established embassies in Mauritius , France and Britain , while treaties of friendship and trade were concluded with Britain and France in 1862 and revised in 1865 and 1868 respectively . Upon the arrival of the first American plenipotentiary in Antananarivo , a treaty between the United States and Madagascar was agreed in 1867 . A British contemporary observed that his diplomatic communication skills were particularly evident in his political speeches , describing Rainilaiarivony as a " Great orator among a nation of orators " .
The early years of Rainilaiarivony 's tenure as Prime Minister saw a reduction in French influence on the island , to the benefit of the British , whose alliance he strongly preferred . Contributing factors to the eclipse of French presence included a military defeat in 1870 and economic constraints that forced an end to French government subsidy of Catholic missions in Madagascar in 1871 . He permitted foreigners to lease Malagasy land for 99 years but forbade its sale to non @-@ citizens . The decision not to undertake the construction of roads connecting coastal towns to the capital was adopted as a deliberate strategy to protect Antananarivo from potential invasion by foreign armies .
Despite the strong presence of British missionaries , military advisers and diplomats in Antananarivo in the early part of Rainilaiarivony 's administration , the 1869 opening of the Suez Canal led the British to shift their focus to reducing French presence in Egypt , at the expense of their own long @-@ standing interests in Madagascar . When Jean Laborde died in 1878 and Rainilaiarivony refused to allow his heirs to inherit Malagasy land accorded him under Radama II 's Lambert Charter , France had a pretext for invasion . Rainilaiarivony sent a diplomatic mission to England and France to negotiate release of their claims on Malagasy lands and was successful in brokering a new agreement with the British . Talks with the French conducted between November 1881 and August 1882 broke down without reaching consensus on the status of French land claims . Consequently , France launched the First Franco @-@ Hova War in 1883 and occupied the coastal port towns of Mahajanga , Antsiranana , Toamasina and Vohemar . Queen Ranavalona II died during the height of these hostilities in July 1883 . Rainilaiarivony chose her 22 @-@ year @-@ old niece , Princess Razafindrahety , to replace her under the throne name Ranavalona III . It was widely rumored that Rainilaiarivony may have ordered the poisoning of Razafindrahety 's first husband in order to free the princess to become his spouse and queen . Thirty @-@ three years younger than her new husband , Ranavalona III was relegated to a largely ceremonial role during her reign , while the Prime Minister continued to manage the critical affairs of state . In December 1885 , Rainilaiarivony successfully negotiated the cessation of hostilities in the first Franco @-@ Hova War .
The agreement drafted between the French and Malagasy governments did not clearly establish a French protectorate over the island , partly because recent French military setbacks in the Tonkin Campaign had begun to turn popular opinion against French colonial expansion . The Malagasy crown agreed to pay ten million francs to France to settle the dispute , a sum that was partly raised through the unpopular decision to increase fanampoana ( forced labor in lieu of cash taxes ) to mobilize the populace in panning for gold in the kingdom 's rivers . This expense , coupled with Rainilaiarivony 's removal of $ 50 @,@ 000 in silver and gold coins from the tomb of Ranavalona I to offset the cost of purchasing arms in the run @-@ up to the First Franco @-@ Hova War , effectively emptied the royal treasury reserves . Capitalizing on Madagascar 's weakened position , the French government then occupied the port town of Antsiranana and installed French Resident @-@ General Le Myre de Vilers in Antananarivo , citing vague sections of the treaty as justification . The Resident @-@ General was empowered by the French government to control international trade and foreign affairs on the island , although the monarchy 's authority over internal administration was left unchallenged . Refusing to acknowledge the validity of the French interpretation of the treaty , Rainilaiarivony continued managing trade and international relations and unsuccessfully solicited assistance from the United States in maintaining the island 's sovereignty . In 1894 , the French government pressed Rainilaiarivony to unconditionally accept the status of Madagascar as a French protectorate . In response , Rainilaiarivony broke off all diplomatic relations with France in November 1894 .
= = Deposition and exile = =
The cessation of diplomatic relations between France and Madagascar prompted immediate French military action in a campaign that became known as the Second Franco @-@ Hova War . The expedition ended eleven months later in September 1895 when a French military column reached Antananarivo and bombarded the royal palace with heavy artillery , blasting a hole through the roof of the queen 's quarters and inflicting heavy casualties among the numerous courtiers gathered in the palace courtyard . Rainilaiarivony sent an interpreter to carry a white flag to the French commander and entreat his clemency . Forty @-@ five minutes later he was joined by Radilifera , the Prime Minister 's son , to request the conditions of surrender ; these were immediately accepted . The following day Queen Ranavalona signed a treaty accepting the French protectorate over Madagascar . She and her court were permitted to remain at the palace and administer the country according to French dictates .
Upon the queen 's signing of the treaty , the French government deposed Rainilaiarivony from his position as Prime Minister and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief . The Minister of Foreign Affairs , an elderly man named Rainitsimbazafy , was jointly selected by the French and Ranavalona as his replacement . The French ordered Rainilaiarivony to be exiled to French Algeria , although he initially remained in Antananarivo for several months after the treaty was signed . On 15 October 1895 the former prime minister was placed under house arrest and put under the guard of Senegalese soldiers at his home in Amboditsiry . On 6 February 1896 , at the age of 68 , Rainilaiarivony boarded a ship bound for Algiers and left his island for the first time in his life . He was accompanied by his grandson , Ratelifera , as well as an interpreter and four servants . On 17 March 1896 the ship docked at the port of Algiers , where he would live out the few remaining months of his life .
The French government installed Rainilaiarivony in the Geryville neighborhood of Algiers , one of the derelict parts of town . He was assigned a French attendant and guard named Joseph Vassé , who maintained detailed documentation on the personality and activities of Rainilaiarivony throughout his exile in French Algeria . Vassé described the former prime minister as a man of great spontaneity , sincere friendliness , and openness of heart , but also prone to mood swings , touchiness , and a tendency to be demanding , especially in regard to his particular tastes in clothing . His intelligence , tact and leadership qualities won him the admiration of many who knew him , including Le Myre des Vilers , who referred to him as both an enemy and a friend . Upon learning of Rainilaiarivony 's living situation in Algiers , Le Myre de Vilers privately lobbied the French government for better accommodation . Consequently , Vassé found a new home for the former Prime Minister at the elegant estate called Villa des Fleurs ( " Villa of the Flowers " ) in the upscale Mustapha Supérieur neighborhood , neighboring the residence of the exiled former king of Annam .
The beauty of his Villa des Fleurs home and the warm reception he received in French Algeria pleased Rainilaiarivony and contributed to a positive impression of his new life in Algiers . He quickly developed an excellent reputation among the local high society , who perceived him as a kind , intelligent , generous and charming figure . The Governor @-@ General of French Algeria regularly invited him to diplomatic balls and social events where Rainilaiarivony danced with the enthusiasm and endurance of a much younger man . When not busy with diverse social engagements , Rainilaiarivony avidly read the newspaper and corresponded with contacts in Madagascar . As an insurrection in Madagascar emerged against French rule , the former prime minister wrote a letter published in a Malagasy newspaper on 5 July 1896 that condemned the participants as ungrateful for the benefits that contact with the French would bring to the island . His last outing in Algiers was on 14 July 1896 to watch the Bastille Day fireworks show . As he walked through the streets to join other spectators in his party , he was greeted with cheers and calls of " Vive le Ministre ! " ( " Long live the Minister ! " ) from admiring onlookers .
= = Death = =
The intense heat at the outdoor Bastille Day event on 14 July exhausted the former prime minister , and that evening Rainilaiarivony developed a fever . He slept poorly , disturbed by a dream in which he saw the former queen Rasoherina stand beside his bed , saying , " In the name of your brother , Rainivoninahitriniony , be ready . " One of Rainilaiarivony 's servants reported the dream to Vassé , explaining it as a premonition that foretold Rainilaiarivony 's impending death . The former prime minister remained in bed and rapidly weakened over the next several days as his fever worsened and he developed a headache . He was constantly attended by his closest friends and loved ones . Rainilaiarivony died in his sleep on 17 July 1896 .
Rainilaiarivony 's body was initially interred within a stone tomb in Algiers . In 1900 , the former prime minister 's remains were exhumed and transported to Madagascar , where they were interred in the family tomb constructed by Jean Laborde in the Isotry neighborhood of Antananarivo . French colonial governor General Gallieni and Rainilaiarivony 's grandson both spoke at the funeral , which was heavily attended by French and Malagasy dignitaries . In his eulogy , Gallieni expressed esteem for the former prime minister in the following terms : " Rainilaiarivony was worthy of leading you . In the years to come , will there be a monument erected in his memory ? This should be an obligation for the Malagasy who will have the freedom to do so . France has now taken Madagascar , come what may , but it 's a credit to Rainilaiarivony to have protected it the way he did . " Following the funeral a commemorative plaque was installed at Rainilaiarivony 's family tomb , engraved with the words " Rainilairivony , ex Premier Ministre et Commandant en chef de Madagascar , Commandeur de la Légion d 'honneur " ( " former Prime Minister and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of Madagascar , Commander of the Legion of Honor " ) .
= = Online resource = =
Registers of Rainilaiarinony ( 1864 @-@ 1895 ) ( British Library - Endangered Archives Programme )
= = Honours = =
= = = National honours = = =
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Royal Hawk .
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Radama II .
Collar of the Order of Merit .
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Ranavalona .
= = = Foreign honours = = =
Commander of the Order of the Legion of Honour ( 18 / 01 / 1887 ) .
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= Holt Manufacturing Company =
The Holt Manufacturing Company traces its roots to the 1883 founding of Stockton Wheel Service in Stockton , California , United States . Benjamin Holt , who was later credited with patenting the first workable crawler tractor design , incorporated the Holt Manufacturing Company in 1892 . Holt Manufacturing Company was the first company to successfully manufacture a continuous track tractor . By the start of the 20th century , Holt Manufacturing Company was the leading manufacturer of combine harvesters in the United States and the leading California @-@ based manufacturer of steam traction engines .
Holt Manufacturing Company operated from its base in Stockton , California , until opening a satellite facility in Walla Walla , Washington , to serve the Pacific Northwest . In 1909 , Holt Manufacturing Company expanded by purchasing the facility of defunct farm implement maker Colean Manufacturing Company in East Peoria , Illinois . Holt changed the name of the company to Holt Caterpillar Company , although he did not trademark the name Caterpillar until 1910 .
The company 's initial products focused on agricultural machinery and were distributed internationally . During World War I , almost all of its production capacity was dedicated to military needs . Its tractors were widely used by the Allies in place of horses to haul heavy artillery and tow supply trains . Holt tractors also played a part , to varying degrees , in the development of military tanks in Great Britain , France , and Germany . Holt 's equipment was credited with helping the Allies to win the war , and its tractor was regarded as " one of the most important military vehicles of all time . " The Holt Manufacturing Company gained worldwide recognition for the quality and durability of its equipment .
As the war ended , the Holt company was left with huge surplus inventories of heavy @-@ duty tractors ill @-@ suited for the agricultural market , which had been dominated during the war by the Holt Company 's primary competitor , C. L. Best . The company decided to focus instead on heavy construction equipment and sought to capitalize on the passage of the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921 . Laden with debt and needing more capital to switch its product line , the company struggled to move forward .
Both the Holt Manufacturing Company and C. L. Best were hurt by the depression of 1920 – 21 which further inhibited sales . Both companies streamlined their over @-@ lapping product lines . The two companies had spent about US $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( about $ 20 @,@ 240 @,@ 038 today ) in legal fees fighting each other in various contractual , trademark and patent infringement lawsuits since 1905 , but , on the advice of investors , the two companies merged in 1925 to form the Caterpillar Tractor Co . As of 2010 , Caterpillar Inc. was the 229th largest company in the world .
= = Company origins = =
Charles H. Holt arrived in San Francisco from Concord , New Hampshire , in 1864 to form C. H. Holt and Co . Initially the company produced wooden wheels for wagons and , later on , steel wheels for streetcars . In 1869 , at age 20 , his younger brother Benjamin went to work in their father 's sawmill in New Hampshire along with William Harrison Holt and Ames Frank Holt , preparing hardwoods for shipping to Charles in San Francisco . William and Ames joined Charles in San Francisco in 1871 .
In the same year , Charles and Ames established the Holt Brothers Company in San Francisco . The company sold hardwood , lumber , and wagon and carriage materials , primarily manufacturing wagon axles , wheels , and frames . W. Harrison Holt and Ames both temporarily returned around 1871 to New Hampshire – where both were married – to manage the eastern business . The brothers built a factory in Concord , New Hampshire , to manufacture wagon wheels , wheel components , bodies and running gear . In 1872 , at age 23 , Benjamin was given an interest in his father 's business , and he assumed more responsibility for the company 's operations . W. Harrison Holt moved to Tiffin , Ohio , to manage the company 's lumber business there , where he remained until the early 1880s . Their mother died in 1875 , and their father died eight years later in 1883 . After his father 's death , Benjamin Holt left New Hampshire in 1883 to help Charles build the business in California .
Charles , Benjamin and Frank incorporated the Holt Bros. Company on January 7 , 1892 , to deal in lumber and iron . Four days later , they also filed incorporation papers for " Holt Manufacturing Company " with Charles H. Holt , Benjamin Holt , Frank A. Holt , G. H. Cowie and G. L. Dickenson as directors .
The Holt Bros. Company formed a subsidiary , the " The Stockton Wheel Company " , to build the wheels . They based their company in the warm Central Valley town of Stockton , California . Stockton was an ideal location , as it could be reached by sea @-@ going ship via the San Joaquin River , 72 miles ( 116 km ) east of San Francisco , and was hot enough to season woods in a way that would prepare them for use in the arid valleys of California and the deserts of the West . The factory cost US $ 65 @,@ 000 ( or about $ 1 @,@ 848 @,@ 860 ) to build and used a 40 @-@ horsepower Corliss steam engine that had been manufactured in Providence , Rhode Island , and shipped around Cape Horn . All of the plant 's machines were driven by belts connected to the Corliss engine .
Brothers Charles and Benjamin eventually bought @-@ out the other brothers , with Charles running the business side and Benjamin running manufacturing operations .
During the first year , the Holt subsidiary Stockton Wheel Company produced 6 @,@ 000 wagon wheels and 5 @,@ 000 carriage bodies . One of their most popular wheel types was 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in diameter and used by redwood loggers , who connected two of these wheels with a strong 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) axle , and then attached a team of horses to pull logs from the forest .
= = = Farm equipment and tractors = = =
In the late 19th century , there was a large number of companies across the world striving to build a practical horse @-@ drawn combine harvester and other farm equipment . They soon moved on inventing steam @-@ powered farm machinery and , later , designs for crawler @-@ type tractors . More than 100 patents were issued for various crawler designs . Holt began manufacturing horse @-@ drawn combine harvesters in the 1890s and converted to steam @-@ power types around the start of the 20th century . Over the next few years , Benjamin Holt designed and manufactured the first successful crawler @-@ type tractor and designed a gasoline engine ( see Tractor design , below . )
In California , the Best Manufacturing Company of San Leandro and the Holt Manufacturing Company were direct competitors . In 1905 , they resolved a patent infringement lawsuit when Daniel Best retired and gave one @-@ third of Best Manufacturing Company to his son , Clarence Leo ( " C. L. " ) Best . He sold the remaining two @-@ thirds to Benjamin Holt for US $ 325 @,@ 000 ( roughly equivalent to $ 8 @,@ 559 @,@ 537 today ) . C. L. Best was made plant manager of the new concern , but Holt retained effective control . C. L. did not stay long , however , but left in 1910 to form the C. L. Best Gas Traction Company to replace his father 's firm , resulting in further difficulties between the two men . Holt registered " Caterpillar " as a trademark in 1911 .
= = = Plant in Illinois = = =
Holt wanted to find manufacturing facilities closer to the vast agricultural markets of the midwest . Benjamin Holt 's nephew , Pliny E. Holt , had been dispatched in March 1909 to Minneapolis , Minnesota , where he began manufacturing operations . They shipped parts for ten Model 45 tractors , but only two were produced . Pliny met Murray Baker , an implement dealer , who knew of an available factory that had been used to manufacture farm implements and steam traction engines . Baker , who later became the first executive vice president of what became Caterpillar Tractor Company , wrote to Holt headquarters in Stockton and described the plant of the bankrupt Colean Manufacturing Co. of East Peoria , Illinois . Pliny inspected the Colean factory in late June 1909 and learned they had spent at least $ 450 @,@ 000 on the relatively new building and machinery . Holt could acquire the assets for the $ 50 @,@ 000 note held by a trust company . Pliny Holt wrote a letter to the Stockton management team on July 1 , 1909 , reporting , " The plant is as complete and perfect in every detail as I have ever seen ... and one of the best arranged plants that I ever saw . "
On October 25 , 1909 , Pliny Holt purchased the factory , and immediately began preparing the plant for operations with 12 employees . The " Holt Caterpillar Company " was incorporated in both Illinois and California on January 12 , 1910 , and Pliny accepted the deed to the plant on Feb 16 , 1910 . East Peoria became Holt Manufacturing Company 's eastern manufacturing plant , competing with the nearby Avery Tractor Company .
The Peoria facility proved so profitable that only two years later the Peoria facility employed 625 people and was exporting tractors to Argentina , Canada , and Mexico . Tractors were built in both Stockton and East Peoria .
= = = Los Angeles Aqueduct = = =
In 1909 , the engineers building the 233 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 375 km ) Los Angeles Aqueduct bought one of Holt 's Model 70 @-@ 120 tractors to haul supplies across the Mojave Desert . It effortlessly hauled 30 short tons ( 27 t ) up a 14 % grade . They were so impressed that they ordered 26 more , giving the Holt tractor and the company considerable credibility and substantially boosting sales .
= = = Subsidiaries merged = = =
In 1913 , Holt merged its various companies into the Holt Manufacturing Company , with a combined capital of US $ 3 million . The merged subsidiaries were : the Stockton Wheel Co . ; the Houser and Haines Manufacturing Company of Stockton ; the Aurora Engine Company of Stockton ; the Best Manufacturing Company of San Leandro ; the Canadian Holt Company , Limited of Calgary ; the Holt Manufacturing Company of Stockton ; and the Holt Caterpillar Company of Peoria , Illinois .
= = = Post @-@ war challenges = = =
Holt tractors were widely used as artillery tractors during World War I and their capabilities and reliability had become well @-@ known . Benjamin Holt also gained valuable experience securing government contracts . These capabilities separated him from his competition . Holt had obtained significant loans and begun a large expansion to meet the war planners ' need for his tractors . Holt also made a steam powered tank for evaluation using Doble steam engines .
C. L. Best Gas Tractor Company had meanwhile concentrated on supplying the market for smaller agricultural tractors . Although Best did not make tractors for the war effort , they had secured promises from the federal government that they would be able to obtain all the steel required to continue building tractors for farmers during the war . As a result , Best had gained a considerable market advantage over Holt by war 's end . Best also assumed considerable debt to allow it to continue expansion , especially production of its new Best Model 60 " Tracklayer " .
When the war ended , Holt 's planned expansion to meet the military 's needs was no longer needed . The company was left in a difficult situation . The types of tractors needed by the military were very different from what farmers needed . Their situation was worsened as artillery tractors were brought back from Europe , depressing prices for new equipment and Holt 's unsold inventory of military tractors . The company moved to focus less on agricultural machinery and more on producing road @-@ building equipment . To keep the company afloat , they borrowed heavily .
Both companies were affected by the transition from a wartime to a peacetime economy , which contributed to a nationwide depression , further inhibiting sales .
On December 5 , 1920 , 71 @-@ year @-@ old Benjamin Holt died after a month @-@ long illness . Holt had been considered a " quiet and unassuming man who loved his work " . He was well liked by his workers and dedicated a trust fund for employees who suffered financial difficulties .
= = = Caterpillar company formed = = =
The banks who held the company 's large debt forced the Holt board of directors to accept their candidate , Thomas A. Baxter , to succeed Benjamin Holt . Baxter was a former Boston banker who had joined the Holt company in 1913 as a business manager . The company struggled with the transition from wartime boom to peacetime bust . Baxter initially cut the large tractors from the company 's product line and introduced smaller models focused on the agricultural market . When the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921 funded a US $ 1 billion federal highway building program , Baxter began focusing company assets towards road construction . Along with the C. L. Best Gas Traction Company , formed by Clarence Leo Best in 1910 , Holt faced fierce competition with the Fordson company .
Between 1907 and 1918 , Best and Holt had spent about US $ 1 @.@ 5 million in legal fees fighting each other . The two companies competed economically and intellectually : Benjamin Holt had 47 patents in his name , while his nephew Pliny Holt had 38 patents ; Best founder Daniel Best received 42 patents and his son C. L. Best had 27 patents .
Harry H. Fair of the bond brokerage house of Pierce , Fair & Company of San Francisco was involved in funding C. L. Best 's debt , when Holt shareholders approached him about their company 's financial plight . He concluded that both companies might not survive and recommended that the Holt and Best companies should consolidate operations . In April and May 1925 , the financially stronger C. L. Best merged with the market leader Holt Caterpillar to form the Caterpillar Tractor Co . Baxter had been removed as CEO earlier in 1925 , and Clarence Leo Best assumed the title of CEO , and remained in that role until October 1951 . The new company was headquartered in San Leandro until 1930 , when under the terms of the merger it was moved to Peoria .
The Caterpillar company consolidated its product lines , offering only five track @-@ type tractors : the 2 Ton , 5 Ton , and 10 Ton from the Holt Manufacturing Company 's old product line and the Caterpillar 30 and Caterpillar 60 from the C. L. Best Tractor Co . ' s former product line . The 10 Ton and 5 Ton models were discontinued in 1926 . In 1928 , the 2 Ton was discontinued . The first completely new tractor produced after the union of the two companies was the 1929 Caterpillar L20 .
After Benjamin Holt 's death in 1920 , William K. " Bill " Holt formed the first Caterpillar dealership in Mexico . In 1933 , he was authorized to operate the dealership for the 60 southern counties of Texas . The company merged with another Holt business and was renamed HOLT CAT . It continues as the largest Caterpillar dealership in the United States , under the ownership and management of Benjamin 's great @-@ grandson , Peter Holt ( who is better known as the owner of the NBA 's San Antonio Spurs , the five @-@ time world champions ) .
As of 2010 , Caterpillar Inc. was the 229nd largest company in the world , In 2011 , Caterpillar was the best @-@ performing stock last year among the 30 companies in the Dow Jones industrial average with a market value of US $ 45 @.@ 13 billion . Caterpillar is one of the 30 companies whose stock is tracked in the Dow Jones Industrial Average . It is a Fortune 500 company , ranked number 229 in 2010 , and first in its industry , with more than $ 67 billion in assets .
= = Tractor design = =
= = = Horse @-@ drawn combine harvester = = =
Among his brothers , Benjamin showed himself to be the most technically adept . He saw the need for farm machinery and expanded the company 's line to include farm equipment , including combine harvesters and the steam @-@ powered traction engines required to pull them through the fields . In 1883 , Benjamin Holt produced his first horse @-@ drawn " Link @-@ Belt Combined Harvester " . It allowed a farmer to combine cutting and threshing grain into a single mechanical operation , enabling farmers to cut more wheat in one pass , increasing productivity and cutting labor hours nearly in half . One key innovation Holt implemented was using flexible chain belts rather than gears to transmit power from the ground wheels to the working parts of the machine .
In 1886 , the company sold its first combine harvester . It had a 14 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) cutting bar and was pulled by an 18 @-@ horse team . The largest combine Stockton Wheel Co. manufactured had a 50 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 15 m ) cutting bar . In comparison , large modern combines have a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) cutting bar . Some of the Holt combines needed as many as 40 horses to operate .
Holt adapted the combine to work on slopes . He added two separate wooden frames which enabled the drive wheels to be raised or lowered independently . This allowed the combine to operate on slopes as steep as 30 degrees while the threshing machine remained level . In 1890 , Holt built his first experimental steam traction engine , nicknamed " Old Betsy " . Built on a 24 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) frame , it developed 60 horsepower ( 45 kW ) from a single cylinder ( 11 @-@ inch diameter ( 280 mm ) , 12 @-@ inch stroke ( 300 mm ) ) . The firebox could burn wood , coal , or oil as fuel . Carrying 675 US gallons ( 2 @,@ 560 l ; 562 imp gal ) of water , the traction engine weighed 48 @,@ 000 pounds ( 22 @,@ 000 kg ) and rode on huge metal wheels . Holt 's tractors were popular despite their weight and awkward size because they could harvest large fields for one @-@ sixth the cost of a horse @-@ drawn combine . Foresters soon adapted them to haul redwood logs out of road @-@ less forests . By 1897 , the company had about 200 employees and had sold over 800 of their combined harvesters in California . Holt Manufacturing made about 130 steam @-@ powered tractors between 1890 and 1904 .
The steam tractors were extremely heavy , sometimes weighing 1 @,@ 000 pounds ( 450 kg ) per horsepower , and often sank into the rich , soft earth of the San Joaquin Valley Delta farmland surrounding Stockton , California . Holt tried to solve the problem by increasing the size and width of the wheels , but this also made the tractors increasingly complex , expensive and difficult to maintain . One tractor had wheels 7 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) tall and 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) wide , producing a tractor 46 feet ( 14 m ) wide . Holt could spend hours in his private workshop , and experimented by adding multiple wheels and ultimately with a track @-@ laying technique .
= = = First workable crawling tread = = =
Many people had attempted to add tracks to moving machines . Over 100 patents had already been issued worldwide , but all failed to work in practical situations . In 1903 Benjamin Holt paid Alvin Lombard US $ 60 @,@ 000 for the right to produce vehicles under Lombard 's patent for the Lombard Steam Log Hauler . The center of innovation was in England , and in the same year Holt traveled to England to learn more about ongoing development . During that period , the chief engineer ( and managing director ) of Richard Hornsby & Sons in Grantham , England , David Roberts , was experimenting with a chain @-@ track . Hornsby 's design incorporated a steering clutch that varied the speed of each set of wheels , allowing the operator to turn the tractor by retarding one tread or the other . Roberts of Hornsby & Sons obtained a patent for their design in July 1904 .
By December 1903 , Holt wielded considerable influence over former competitors , including Houser @-@ Haines Manufacturing and Mattison @-@ Williamson Works .
Holt returned to Stockton and applied his skills and his company 's expertise in metallurgy , design , and testing to develop a workable track @-@ laying system . He replaced the wheels on a 40 horsepower ( 30 kW ) Holt steamer , No. 77 , with a set of wooden tracks bolted to chains . On Thanksgiving Day , November 24 , 1904 , he successfully tested the updated machine plowing the soggy delta land of Roberts Island . Company photographer Charles Clements was reported to have observed that the tractor crawled like a caterpillar , and Holt seized on the metaphor . " Caterpillar it is . That 's the name for it ! " Others reported that Holt got the name from British troops who witnessed a working prototype of Hornsby 's track @-@ type vehicle in July 1907 . Continuous tracks allowed practical cultivation of the rich farmland on an industrial scale . The invention also allowed planters to reclaim thousands of acres of delta land previously unusable for farming .
Holt began producing models under the Caterpillar brand . His first production model had a dual @-@ track frame 30 inches ( 760 mm ) high by 42 inches ( 1 @,@ 100 mm ) wide by 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) long . Its tracks used 3 by 4 inches ( 76 mm × 102 mm ) slats made of the same redwood used previously to produce wagon wheels . Holt sold the first model of steam @-@ powered tractor crawlers for US $ 5 @,@ 500 . By 1915 , the Holt company employed 1 @,@ 000 workers in its Stockton plant . Nearly 2 @,@ 000 Caterpillar crawlers had been sold in more than 20 countries .
= = = Gasoline engines = = =
Pliny E. Holt , the son of Benjamin 's half @-@ brother , William Harrison Holt , had been working with Stockton Wheel Company for the past nine years . In 1906 , he was named president of the newly formed Aurora Engine Company , named after Aurora Street in Stockton where it was located . The new company manufactured gasoline engines to replace the large , heavy steam boilers used to power the earlier Holt tractors . A gasoline engine considerably reduced the overall size and weight of a tractor , produced more power per pound of weight , and reduced the tractor 's cost , making it more cost @-@ effective and affordable . Holt 's most popular gasoline engine tractor was a Model 75 , weighing 24 @,@ 000 pounds ( 11 @,@ 000 kg ) with a 75 horsepower ( 56 kW ) engine . Pliny was also treasurer of another subsidiary , the Houser and Haines Manufacturing Company of Stockton , from 1905 – 09 .
As well as having a better power @-@ to @-@ weight ratio , a gasoline @-@ engined tractor required fewer men to operate it . Competing steam engines typically required a crew of seven , including one highly skilled and well @-@ paid , licensed " farm engineer " . He was responsible for rising in the middle of the night to start the boiler fire to get up steam by first light . Steam traction boilers had a huge need for water and fuel , either coal or wood . Much of the seven @-@ man crew 's time was spent keeping it fueled .
= = = Tiller wheel = = =
C. L. Best introduced a crawler tractor in 1913 that was virtually a carbon copy of Holt 's design . Holt 's tractors had a conventional wheel on the front , which was used to steer , and crawling @-@ type wheels on the back , but otherwise looked very similar to a traction engine . During 1914 , both Best and Holt introduced models without the front " tiller " or steering wheel . Holt offered the Caterpillar 45 and Best introduced his C. L. Best Model 40 " Tracklayer " .
= = Patents and trademark disputes = =
Benjamin Holt aggressively defended his patents and was quick to sue anyone he felt might be infringing his rights . In June 1899 , he claimed that the Haines @-@ Houser 's tractors used certain devices for which Holt held the trademark . Holt sent all farmers who owned Haines @-@ Houser tractors in Yolo County , California , a letter containing a demand that they stop using the competitor 's harvesters or face a lawsuit . In the same month he sued William W. Nelson , George W. Bailey , Henry K. Heiken , Hugh A. Logan , William Sullivan and three other Sullivans for infringement of his patents for " traveling threshers and combined harvesters . " The defendants successfully filed a demurrer , getting the suit dismissed 16 months later . Competitors latched onto Holt 's litigious nature and warned farmers considering buying his equipment that they might be prosecuted for patent infringement .
= = = Holt payment to Best = = =
In 1905 , a patent infringement lawsuit ensued between the two . After three years of legal battles , the two companies decided to settle out of court . The parties resolved two suits when Holt made a cash payment to C. L. Best and provided C. L. Best a license giving them access to all Holt patents applying to manufacturing the C. L. Best 's " Tracklayers . " In 1916 , C. L. Best bought his father 's old factory in San Leandro , which Holt had closed after acquiring the company . C. L. Best built a new factory on the same location . His company gained attention for its continued improvements to its products .
= = = Holt buys Lombard patent = = =
Holt received a patent on December 7 , 1907 , for his improved " Traction Engine " ( " improvement in vehicles , and especially of the traction engine class ; and included endless traveling platform supports upon which the engine is carried " ) . In 1908 , he designed a gasoline engine to power the tractor .
Although Holt had paid Alvin Orlando Lombard US $ 20 @,@ 000 in 1903 ( about $ 526 @,@ 741 today ) for rights to use his patents , Lombard visited Holt in 1910 complaining of patent infringement . In the opinion of Holt 's " very expensive lawyers " , they concluded that Lombard 's patents had little value due to prior art . So when Lombard visited , Holt calmly took him on a leisurely country drive in his Oldsmobile roadster , and when Lombard raised the issue of money , Holt merely suggested that they divide the country . Lombard should take up the Northern woods and Holt would take the remainder of the nation . Holt promised to write a letter to that effect , although he never did .
= = = Best invalidates Lombard patent = = =
In 1915 , the C. L. Best Gas Traction Co. exhibited its new " Tracklayer " at the California state fair . Holt once again sued , this time for patent infringement . C. L. Best thought that his best defense was to prove that Holt 's patents violated Lombard 's patents . One of Best 's lawyers , Henry Montgomery , visited Lombard and sought his assistance as a friendly witness . Lombard was more than friendly . He allegedly responded , " By God , young man , I 'm glad to see you . If God Almighty could charter me to kill a man , I 'd get on the train and go to California and kill old Ben Holt . " Best bought all rights to Lombard 's 1901 and 1907 patents for $ 20 @,@ 000 , which pre @-@ dated Holt 's " crawler " patents also purchased from Lombard . Holt 's earlier rights to the Lombard patents were annulled and Best counter @-@ sued Holt .
= = = Caterpillar trademark = = =
Holt was credited with producing the first practical continuous tracks for use with tractors and he registered " Caterpillar " as a trademark in 1910 . Since Holt had trademarked Caterpillar , Best named his tractors Tracklayers . In 1911 , Holt began building the " Holt Model 60 Caterpillar " in its Stockton plant and a " Holt Model 40 @-@ 60 Caterpillar " at its East Peoria factory . Additional models followed , including the " Holt Model 60 @-@ 75 Caterpillar " , which sold very well , eventually renamed as the " Holt Model 75 Caterpillar " , their best @-@ selling front tiller @-@ wheeled tractor .
= = = New Best competitor re @-@ emerges = = =
In 1910 , Daniel Best 's son C. L. Best left the Holt Manufacturing Company where he had been general manager and re @-@ established his father 's company under the name C. L. Best Gas Traction Co. in Elmhurst , near San Leandro , California . Holt immediately sued , claiming breach of contract and infringement because as owner of the Best Manufacturing Company , he believed he also owned the " Best " name . Holt did not prevail and Best continued to produce tractors that directly competed with Holt 's models .
Holt continued to innovate and worked to build a tractor that could perform rugged tasks yet was not heavy itself . He fitted adjustable blades onto his tractors and hired them out to grade roads and move soil and rock for construction purposes . By 1916 , Holt had sold over 2 @,@ 000 tractors worldwide .
= = Early military uses = =
In England , starting in 1905 , David Roberts of Richard Hornsby & Sons had attempted to interest British military officials in a tracked vehicle , but failed . Holt bought the patents related to the " chain track " track @-@ type tractor from Richard Hornsby & Sons in 1912 for £ 4 @,@ 000 ( almost £ 400 @,@ 000 at 2012 value ) . Unlike the Holt tractor , which had a steerable tiller wheel in front of the tracks , the Hornsby crawler was steered by controlling power to each track .
When World War I broke out , with the problem of trench warfare and the difficulty of transporting supplies to the front , the pulling power of crawling @-@ type tractors drew the attention of the military . Company Vice @-@ President and general manager Pliny Holt had retired and traveled to Washington D.C. to offer his services , and was appointed by Gen. C. C. Williams , Chief of Ordnance , to serve as chairman of the board organized to handle the production of the " Caterpillar " Artillery program .
The British War Office ordered a Holt tractor and put it through trials at Aldershot . Although it was not as powerful as the 105 horsepower ( 78 kW ) Foster @-@ Daimler tractor , the 75 horsepower ( 56 kW ) Holt was better suited to haul heavy loads over uneven ground . Without a load , the Holt tractor managed a walking pace of 4 miles per hour ( 6 @.@ 4 km / h ) . Towing a load , it could manage 2 miles per hour ( 3 @.@ 2 km / h ) . Most importantly , Holt tractors were readily available in quantity . The War Office was suitably impressed and chose it as a gun @-@ tractor . Representatives of the French company Schneider were also present at the trial , and they ordered a number of Holt 's 45hp model , known as the " Baby , " which unlike the 75 and 110 hp models , was fully tracked , with no forward tiller wheel .
The Holt 75 model gasoline @-@ powered tractor was the first " standard " tractor adopted in quantity . Holt vice president Murray M. Baker reported that the tractors weighed about 18 @,@ 000 pounds ( 8 @,@ 200 kg ) and had 120 horsepower ( 89 kW ) . The company could not meet the demand for their tractors and licensed other manufacturers to build their design .
Over the next four years , they became a major artillery tractor , mainly used to haul medium guns like the 6 @-@ inch howitzer , the 60 @-@ pounder , and later the 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch howitzer .
= = = Hauled artillery and supplies = = =
The Allies frequently used crawler tractors in place of horses for hauling artillery and other supplies , the tracks often allowing them to negotiate terrain that was impassable to horse teams and wheeled vehicles . The British Army Service Corps also used them to haul long trains of freight wagons over the unimproved dirt tracks behind the front . They were particularly useful in October 1917 , when Britain and France each sent six divisions to assist the Italians . Holt tractors ferried the supplies and ammunition over the steep and twisting mountain roads in less than two weeks . Two companies of Holt tractors with the dual role of gun @-@ tractors and supply trains were also used in the Mesopotamia campaign
= = = Influence on development of tanks = = =
In Europe , Major Ernest Swinton , sent to France as an army war correspondent , very soon saw the potential of a track @-@ laying tractor . He proposed to Sir Maurice Hankey , Secretary of the Committee of Imperial Defence , that the British build a power @-@ driven , bullet @-@ proof , tracked vehicle that could destroy enemy machine @-@ guns . Holt tractors were " the inspiration for the development of the British tank . "
The British War Office carried out a rudimentary trial with a Holt tractor . Several key figures in tank development , including J.B.E. Estienne and Joseph Vollmer , were influenced by Holt tractors and investigated the possibilities of tracked fighting vehicles . They decided not to pursue production of the Holt design and instead independently developed the first British tanks . The French also purchased Holts from the USA and used them as the basis for their own early tanks , the Schneider and Saint @-@ Chamond . Later in the War , Holt tractors commandeered by the Austro @-@ Hungarian army and loaned to the Germans formed the basis of the German A7V tank .
By 1916 , about 1 @,@ 000 of Holt 's Caterpillar tractors were in use by the British in World War I. By the end of the war , the British War Office had received 2 @,@ 100 Holt tractors , about 1 @,@ 800 of the Holt Model 45 " Caterpillars " ; 1 @,@ 500 of the Holt Model 75 " Caterpillars " , and 90 of the Holt six @-@ cylinder Model 120 " Caterpillars " , about one @-@ eighth of approximately 5 @,@ 000 Holt vehicles used by all Allied forces .
= = = U.S. tank prototypes = = =
In Washington , Pliny Holt supervised the design and building of 10 Ton , 5 Ton , and 2 @.@ 5 Ton artillery tractors based on the Caterpillar crawler tractor design , at the request of the Naval Consulting board , which work was finally completed in conjunction with the engineers of the Westinghouse company . The first tank Holt built was the Holt Gas @-@ Electric , a prototype utilizing a combined gasoline @-@ electric propulsion . A Holt 90 horsepower ( 67 kW ) four cylinder engine produced power for a G.E.C. generator , which in its turn provided current to drive two electric motors , one motor for each track . It did not progress beyond the prototype stage .
Holt also produced tracked gun @-@ carriers . The first prototype was the " Caterpillar " Mark I Gun Mount , which carried an 8 inches ( 200 mm ) howitzer , weighed 58 @,@ 000 pounds ( 26 @,@ 000 kg ) and had a road speed of 1 mile per hour ( 1 @.@ 6 km / h ) to 4 miles per hour ( 6 @.@ 4 km / h ) . Additional prototypes were produced , including the " Mark II " and " Mark III " , and the " Mark IV " , which departed slightly from the prior models . Pliny completed a preliminary study of a one @-@ man tank which was later built by the Ford company . The prototypes were rejected after trials found that their size and maneuverability did not offer the relative agility required by a tank for cross @-@ country travel .
Holt also produced a 75mm self @-@ propelled gun that could travel at 28 miles per hour ( 45 km / h ) , exceeding the military requirement of 12 miles per hour ( 19 km / h ) , and climb a 45 @-@ degree slope . Before the work could be completed , the Armistice was signed and the war ended . Self @-@ propelled artillery however did not garner attention again until the end of the 1930s , just before World War II .
During 1919 , Pliny Holt returned to Stockton and the Holt company where the " Mark VII " was designed and built . It had a 75 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) gun mounted and ran at a top speed of 18 miles per hour ( 29 km / h ) . In 1921 , the company finished the " Mark VI " , which achieved speeds of up to 31 miles per hour ( 50 km / h ) on a test run from Stockton to San Francisco and back .
= = = British acknowledgement = = =
In April 1918 , British Colonel Ernest Dunlop Swinton , who had unsuccessfully advocated using the Holt 75 as the base for an armoured fighting vehicle , traveled to Stockton while on a tour of the USA , and publicly thanked Benjamin Holt and his workers for their contribution to the war effort , and relayed England 's gratitude to the developer of the track . A wooden , miniature mockup of an early British tank , powered by a motorcycle engine , was built especially for and showcased in pictures of Colonel Swinton 's visit .
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= Hurricane Dolores ( 1974 ) =
Hurricane Dolores was regarded as the worst hurricane to strike Acapulco since 1938 . Developing on June 13 , 1974 , the system rapidly organized into a tropical storm the next day off the southern coast of Mexico . Over the following day , Dolores developed an eye @-@ like feature and attained hurricane status . With peak winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , the storm made landfall near Acapulco . Once onshore , Dolores rapidly dissipated and was last noted on June 17 .
Across Southwestern Mexico , Hurricane Dolores produced heavy rains that triggered widespread flooding and mudslides . Numerous roads sustained damage , separating communities from surrounding areas . At least 18 people were killed and 32 others were injured by the storm . Additionally , an estimated 173 @,@ 000 people were affected across the country .
= = Meteorological history = =
On June 13 , 1974 , a tropical disturbance was identified several hundred miles south of Mexico . Tracking westward , rapid development ensued the following day and the system was classified a tropical depression around 12 UTC . Shortly thereafter , satellite intensity estimates indicated further strengthening and the storm was upgraded to Tropical Storm Dolores . Development temporarily slowed on June 15 as the structure gradually organized . Enhanced by the Intertropical Convergence Zone , a band of deep convection wrapped into the storm . A banding eye @-@ feature developed later that day , indicating Dolores to be near hurricane strength .
Late on June 15 , Dolores ' forward motion slowed as it turned almost due north towards the Mexican coastline . Around 00 UTC on June 16 , it is estimated that the storm intensified into a hurricane , with sustained winds peaking at 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Based on satellite imagery , Dolores is also estimated to have attained a barometric pressure of 973 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 73 inHg ) . Roughly 18 hours later , Dolores made landfall near Acapulco . Winds in the area were measured up to 77 mph ( 124 km / h ) . Once onshore , rapid dissipation ensued and Dolores was last noted early on June 17 .
= = Impact = =
Regarded as the worst hurricane since 1938 , Dolores brought torrential rains and high winds to much of Southwestern Mexico . Along the coast , near where Dolores made landfall , 30 homes were destroyed by winds estimated in excess of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Several rivers over @-@ topped their banks , inundating nearby communities . In the low @-@ lying suburbs of Acapulco , nearly 600 people were injured or left homeless . According to the Centro Nacional de Prevención de Desastres ( National Center for Prevention of Disasters ) , 18 people were killed in the states of Guerrero and Oaxaca ; media reports indicated a higher toll of 22 . Estimated losses from the storm exceeded $ 4 million . Nine people were killed by landslides in rural mountain communities surrounding Acapulco . The Costa Chica Highway , which runs from Acapulco to Pinotepa , sustained major damage and areas surrounding the roadway were declared disaster areas . Offshore , six people were listed as missing after their trawler , the Peregrine , was caught in the storm . In the storm 's wake , the Mexican Army was deployed in Oaxaca to distribute relief supplies , such as food , medicines , and blankets to an estimated 173 @,@ 000 people affected by the hurricane .
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= Bryozoa =
The Bryozoa , also known as the Polyzoa , Ectoprocta or commonly as moss animals , are a phylum of aquatic invertebrate animals . Typically about 0 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 020 in ) long , they are filter feeders that sieve food particles out of the water using a retractable lophophore , a " crown " of tentacles lined with cilia . Most marine species live in tropical waters , but a few occur in oceanic trenches , and others are found in polar waters . One class lives only in a variety of freshwater environments , and a few members of a mostly marine class prefer brackish water . Over 4 @,@ 000 living species are known . One genus is solitary and the rest are colonial .
The phylum was originally called " Polyzoa " , but this term was superseded by " Bryozoa " in 1831 . Another group of animals discovered subsequently , whose filtering mechanism looked similar , was also included in " Bryozoa " until 1869 , when the two groups were noted to be very different internally . The more recently discovered group was given the name Entoprocta , while the original " Bryozoa " were called " Ectoprocta " . However , " Bryozoa " has remained the more widely used term for the latter group .
Individuals in bryozoan ( ectoproct ) colonies are called zooids , since they are not fully independent animals . All colonies contain autozooids , which are responsible for feeding and excretion . Colonies of some classes have various types of non @-@ feeding specialist zooids , some of which are hatcheries for fertilized eggs , and some classes also have special zooids for defense of the colony . The class Cheilostomata have the largest number of species , possibly because they have the widest range of specialist zooids . A few species can creep very slowly by using spiny defensive zooids as legs . Autozooids supply nutrients to non @-@ feeding zooids by channels that vary between classes . All zooids , including those of the solitary species , consist of a cystid that provides the body wall and produces the exoskeleton and a polypide that contains the internal organs and the lophophore or other specialist extensions . Zooids have no special excretory organs , and the polypides of autozooids are scrapped when the polypides become overloaded by waste products ; usually the body wall then grows a replacement polypide . In autozooids the gut is U @-@ shaped , with the mouth inside the " crown " of tentacles and the anus outside it . Colonies take a variety of forms , including fans , bushes and sheets . The Cheilostomata produce mineralized exoskeletons and form single @-@ layered sheets which encrust over surfaces .
Zooids of all the freshwater species are simultaneous hermaphrodites . Although those of many marine species function first as males and then as females , their colonies always contain a combination of zooids that are in their male and female stages . All species emit sperm into the water . Some also release ova into the water , while others capture sperm via their tentacles to fertilize their ova internally . In some species the larvae have large yolks , go to feed , and quickly settle on a surface . Others produce larvae that have little yolk but swim and feed for a few days before settling . After settling , all larvae undergo a radical metamorphosis that destroys and rebuilds almost all the internal tissues . Freshwater species also produce statoblasts that lie dormant until conditions are favorable , which enables a colony 's lineage to survive even if severe conditions kill the mother colony .
Predators of marine bryozoans include nudibranchs ( sea slugs ) , fish , sea urchins , pycnogonids , crustaceans , mites and starfish . Freshwater bryozoans are preyed on by snails , insects , and fish . In Thailand , many populations of one freshwater species have been wiped out by an introduced species of snail . A fast @-@ growing invasive bryozoan off the northeast and northwest coasts of the USA has reduced kelp forests so much that it has affected local fish and invertebrate populations . Bryozoans have spread diseases to fish farms and fishermen . Chemicals extracted from a marine bryozoan species have been investigated for treatment of cancer and Alzheimer 's disease , but analyses have not been encouraging .
Mineralized skeletons of bryozoans first appear in rocks from Early Ordovician period , making it the last major phylum to appear in the fossil record . This has led researchers to suspect that bryozoans had arisen earlier but were initially unmineralized , and may have differed significantly from fossilized and modern forms . Early fossils are mainly of erect forms , but encrusting forms gradually became dominant . It is uncertain whether the phylum is monophyletic . Bryozoans ' evolutionary relationships to other phyla are also unclear , partly because scientists ' view of the family tree of animals is mainly influenced by better @-@ known phyla . Both morphological and molecular phylogeny analyses disagree over bryozoans ' relationships with entoprocts , about whether bryozoans should be grouped with brachiopods and phoronids in Lophophorata , and whether bryozoans should be considered protostomes or deuterostomes .
= = Description = =
= = = Distinguishing features = = =
Bryozoans , phoronids and brachiopods strain food out of the water by means of a lophophore , a " crown " of hollow tentacles . Bryozoans form colonies consisting of clones called zooids that are typically about 0 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 020 in ) long . Phoronids resemble bryozoan zooids but are 2 to 20 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 79 to 7 @.@ 87 in ) long and , although they often grow in clumps , do not form colonies consisting of clones . Brachiopods , generally thought to be closely related to bryozoans and phoronids , are distinguished by having shells rather like those of bivalves . All three of these phyla have a coelom , an internal cavity lined by mesothelium . Some encrusting bryozoan colonies with mineralized exoskeletons look very like small corals . However , bryozoan colonies are founded by an ancestrula , which is round rather than shaped like a normal zooid of that species . On the other hand , the founding polyp of a coral has a shape like that of its daughter polyps , and coral zooids have no coelom or lophophore .
Entoprocts , another phylum of filter @-@ feeders , look rather like bryozoans but their lophophore @-@ like feeding structure has solid tentacles , their anus lies inside rather than outside the base of the " crown " and they have no coelom .
= = = Types of zooid = = =
All bryozoans are colonial except for one genus , Monobryozoon . Individual members of a bryozoan colony are about 0 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 020 in ) long and are known as zooids , since they are not fully independent animals . All colonies contain feeding zooids , known as autozooids , and those of some groups also contain non @-@ feeding specialist heterozooids ; colony members are genetically identical and co @-@ operate , rather like the organs of larger animals . What type of zooid grows where in a colony is determined by chemical signals from the colony as a whole or sometimes in response to the scent of predators or rival colonies .
The bodies of all types have two main parts . The cystid consists of the body wall and whatever type of exoskeleton is secreted by the epidermis . The exoskeleton may be organic ( chitin , polysaccharide or protein ) or made of the mineral calcium carbonate . The body wall consists of the epidermis , basal lamina ( a mat of non @-@ cellular material ) , connective tissue , muscles , and the mesothelium which lines the coelom ( main body cavity ) – except that in one class , the mesothelium is split into two separate layers , the inner one forming a membranous sac that floats freely and contains the coelom , and the outer one attached to the body wall and enclosing the membranous sac in a pseudocoelom . The other main part of the bryozoan body , known as the polypide and situated almost entirely within the cystid , contains the nervous system , digestive system , some specialized muscles and the feeding apparatus or other specialized organs that take the place of the feeding apparatus .
The Bryozoa , known as " moss animals " , currently contain about 5 @,@ 000 known species . The different species can come together to form a colony that can attach to different kind of rock surfaces as well as shells and algae . Of the 5 @,@ 000 species the 125 that have the most abundant population are known to attach themselves to the bottom of boats , pilings , piers and docks . These species are thought to be nuisance to boaters because they slow down the ship if they are attached to the bottom of the hull . However , there are species which have chemical compounds that can be used for medicine . One common species of the bryozoan is used for a serious anti cancer drug that is currently being used for testing .
= = = = Feeding zooids = = = =
The most common type of zooid is the feeding autozooid , in which the polypide bears a " crown " of hollow tentacles called a lophophore , which captures food particles from the water . In all colonies a large percentage of zooids are autozooids , and some consist entirely of autozooids , some of which also engage in reproduction .
The basic shape of the " crown " is a full circle . In the class Phylactolaemata the crown appears U @-@ shaped , but this impression is created by a deep dent in the rim of the crown , which has no gap in the fringe of tentacles . The sides of the tentacles bear fine hairs called cilia , whose beating drives a water current from the tips of the tentacles to their bases , where it exits . Food particles that collide with the tentacles are trapped by mucus , and further cilia on the inner surfaces of the tentacles convey the particles towards the mouth , which lies in the center of the base of the " crown " . The method used by ectoprocts is known as " upstream collecting " , as food particles are captured before they pass through the field of cilia that creates the feeding current . This method is also used by phoronids , brachiopods and pterobranchs .
The lophophore and mouth are mounted on a flexible tube , called the " invert " because it can be turned inside @-@ out and withdrawn into the polypide , rather like the finger of a rubber glove ; in this position the lophophore lies inside the invert and is folded like the spokes of an umbrella . The invert is withdrawn , sometimes within 60 milliseconds , by a pair of retractor muscles that are anchored at the far end of the cystid . Sensors at the tips of the tentacles may check for signs of danger before the invert and lophophore are fully extended . Extension is driven by an increase in internal fluid pressure , which species with flexible exoskeletons produce by contracting circular muscles that lie just inside the body wall , while species with a membranous sac use circular muscles to squeeze this . Some species with rigid exoskeletons have a flexible membrane that replaces part of the exoskeleton , and transverse muscles anchored on the far side of the exoskeleton increase the fluid pressure by pulling the membrane inwards . In others there is no gap in the protective skeleton , and the transverse muscles pull on a flexible sac which is connected to the water outside by a small pore ; the expansion of the sac increases the pressure inside the body and pushes the invert and lophophore out . In some species the retracted invert and lophophore are protected by an operculum ( " lid " ) , which is closed by muscles and opened by fluid pressure . In one class , a hollow lobe called the " epistome " overhands the mouth .
The gut is U @-@ shaped , running from the mouth , in the center of the lophophore , down into the animal 's interior and then back to the anus , which is located on the invert , outside and usually below the lophophore . A network of strands of mesothelium called " funiculi " ( " little ropes " ) connects the mesothelium covering the gut with that lining the body wall . The wall of each strand is made of mesothelium , and surrounds a space filled with fluid , thought to be blood . A colony 's zooids are connected , enabling autozooids to share food with each other and with any non @-@ feeding heterozooids . The method of connection varies between the different classes of bryozoans , ranging from quite large gaps in the body walls to small pores through which nutrients are passed by funiculi .
There is a nerve ring round the pharynx ( throat ) and a ganglion that serves as a brain to one side of this . Nerves run from the ring and ganglion to the tentacles and to the rest of the body . Bryozoans have no specialized sense organs , but cilia on the tentacles act as sensors . Members of the genus Bugula grow towards the sun , and therefore must be able to detect light . In colonies of some species , signals are transmitted between zooids through nerves that pass through pores in the body walls , and coordinate activities such as feeding and the retraction of lophophores .
The solitary individuals of Monobryozoon are autozooids with pear @-@ shaped bodies . The wider ends have up to 15 short , muscular projections by which the animals anchor themselves to sand or gravel and pull themselves through the sediments .
= = = = Avicularia and vibracula = = = =
Some authorities use the term avicularia to refer to any type of zooid in which the lophophore is replaced by an extension that serves some protective function , while others restrict the term to those that defend the colony by snapping at invaders and small predators , killing some and biting the appendages of others . In some species the snapping zooids are mounted on a peduncle ( stalk ) , their bird @-@ like appearance responsible for the term – Charles Darwin described these as like " the head and beak of a vulture in miniature , seated on a neck and capable of movement " . Stalked avicularia are placed upside @-@ down on their stalks . The " lower jaws " are modified versions of the opercula that protect the retracted lophophores in autozooids of some species , and are snapped shut " like a mousetrap " by similar muscles , while the beak @-@ shaped upper jaw is the inverted body wall . In other species the avicularia are stationary box @-@ like zooids laid the normal way up , so that the modified operculum snaps down against the body wall . In both types the modified operculum is opened by other muscles that attach to it , or by internal muscles that raise the fluid pressure by pulling on a flexible membrane . The actions of these snapping zooids are controlled by small , highly modified polypides that are located inside the " mouth " and bear tufts of short sensory cilia . These zooids appear in various positions : some take the place of autozooids , some fit into small gaps between autozooids , and small avicularia may occur on the surfaces of other zooids .
In vibracula , regarded by some as a type of avicularia , the operculum is modified to form a long bristle that has a wide range of motion . They may function as defenses against predators and invaders , or as cleaners . In some species that form mobile colonies , vibracula around the edges are used as legs for burrowing and walking .
= = = = Other types of colonial zooid = = = =
Kenozooids ( from Greek κενος meaning " empty " ) consist only of the body wall and funicular strands crossing the interior , and no polypide . In some species they form the stems of branching structures , while in others they act as spacers that enable colonies to grow quickly in a new direction .
Spinozooids form defensive spines , and sometimes appear on top of autozooids . Gonozooids act as brood chambers for fertilized eggs . Some species have miniature nanozooids with small single @-@ tentacled polypides , and these may grow on other zooids or within the body walls of autozooids that have degenerated .
= = = Colony forms and composition = = =
Although zooids are microscopic , colonies range in size from 1 centimeter ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) to over 1 meter ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) . However , the majority are under 10 centimeters ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) across . The shapes of colonies vary widely , depend on the pattern of budding by which they grow , the variety of zooids present and the type and amount of skeletal material they secrete .
Some marine species are bush @-@ like or fan @-@ like , supported by " trunks " and " branches " formed by kenozooids , with feeding autozooids growing from these . Colonies of these types are generally unmineralized but may have exoskeletons made of chitin . Others look like small corals , producing heavy lime skeletons . Many species form colonies which consist of sheets of autozooids . These sheets may form leaves , tufts or , in the genus Thalmoporella , structures that resemble an open head of lettuce .
The most common marine form , however , is encrusting , in which a one @-@ layer sheet of zooids spreads over a hard surface or over seaweed . Some encrusting colonies may grow to over 50 centimeters ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) and contain about 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 zooids . These species generally have exoskeletons reinforced with calcium carbonate , and the openings through which the lophophores protrude are on the top or outer surface . The moss @-@ like appearance of encrusting colonies is responsible for the phylum 's name ( Ancient Greek words βρυος bryos meaning " moss " and ζωον zoon meaning " animal " ) . Large colonies of encrusting species often have " chimneys " , gaps in the canopy of lophophores , through which they swiftly expel water that has been sieved , and thus avoid re @-@ filtering water that is already exhausted . They are formed by patches of non @-@ feeding heterozooids . New chimneys appear near the edges of expanding colonies , at points where the speed of the outflow is already high , and do not change position if the water flow changes .
Some freshwater species secrete a mass of gelatinous material , up to 1 meter ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) in diameter , to which the zooids stick . Other freshwater species have plant @-@ like shapes with " trunks " and " branches " , which may stand erect or spread over the surface . A few species can creep at about 2 centimeters ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) per day .
Each colony grows by asexual budding from a single zooid known as the ancestrula , which is round rather than shaped like a normal zooid . This occurs at the tips of " trunks " or " branches " in forms that have this structure . Encrusting colonies grow round their edges . In species with calcareous exoskeletons , these do not mineralize until the zooids are fully grown . Colony lifespans range from one to about 12 years , and the short @-@ lived species pass though several generations in one season .
Species that produce defensive zooids do so only when threats have already appeared , and may do so within 48 hours . The theory of " induced defenses " suggests that production of defenses is expensive and that colonies which defend themselves too early or too heavily will have reduced growth rates and lifespans . This " last minute " approach to defense is feasible because the loss of zooids to a single attack is unlikely to be significant . Colonies of some encrusting species also produce special heterozooids to limit the expansion of other encrusting organisms , especially other bryozoans . In some cases this response is more belligerent if the opposition is smaller , which suggests that zooids on the edge of a colony can somehow sense the size of the opponent . Some species consistently prevail against certain others , but most turf wars are indecisive and the combatants soon turn to growing in uncontested areas . Bryozoans competing for territory do not use the sophisticated techniques employed by sponges or corals , possibly because the shortness of bryozoan lifespans makes heavy investment in turf wars unprofitable .
Bryozoans have contributed to carbonate sedimentation in marine life since the Ordovician period . Bryozoans take responsibility for many of the colony forms , which have evolved in different taxonomic groups and vary in sediment producing ability . The nine basic bryozoan colony @-@ forms include : encrusting , dome @-@ shaped , palmate , foliose , fenestrate , robust branching , delicate branching , articulated and free @-@ living . Most of these sediments come from two distinct groups of colonies : domal , delicate branching , robust branching and palmate ; and fenestrate . Fenestrate colonies generate rough particles both as sediment and components of stomatoporiods coral reefs . The delicate colonies however , create both coarse sediment and form the cores of deep @-@ water , subphotic biogenic mounds . Nearly all post- bryozoan sediments are made up of growth forms , with the addition to free @-@ living colonies which include significant numbers of various colonies . “ In contrast to the Palaeozoic , post @-@ Palaeozoic bryozoans generated sediment varying more widely with the size of their grains ; they grow as they moved from mud , to sand , to gravel . ”
= = Taxonomy = =
The phylum was originally called " Polyzoa " , but this name was soon replaced by Ehrenberg 's term " Bryozoa " . The name " Bryozoa " was originally applied only to the animals also known as " Ectoprocta " , in which the anus lies outside the " crown " of tentacles ( based on the Ancient Greek prefix ἐκτο meaning " outside " and word πρωκτος meaning " anus " ) . After the discovery of the Entoprocta , in which the anus lies within a " crown " of tentacles ( based on the Ancient Greek prefix ἐντο meaning " inside " and word πρωκτος meaning " anus " ) , the name " Bryozoa " was used at phylum level to include the two classes Ectoprocta and Entoprocta . However , in 1869 Hinrich Nitsche regarded the two groups as quite distinct for a variety of reasons , and coined the name " Ectoprocta " for Ehrenberg 's " Bryozoa " . Despite their apparently similar methods of feeding , they differed markedly anatomically ; in addition to the different positions of the anus , ectoprocts have hollow tentacles and a coelom , while entoprocts have solid tentacles and no coelom . Hence the two groups are now widely regarded as separate phyla , and the name " Bryozoa " is now synonymous with " Ectoprocta " . This has remained the majority view ever since , although most publications have preferred the name " Bryozoa " rather than " Ectoprocta " . Nevertheless , some notable scientists have continued to regard the " Ectoprocta " and Entoprocta as close relatives and group them under " Bryozoa " .
The ambiguity about the scope of the name " Bryozoa " led to proposals in the 1960s and 1970s that it should be avoided and the unambiguous term " Ectoprocta " should be used . However , the change would have made it harder to find older works about in which the phylum was called " Bryozoa " , and the desire to avoid ambiguity , if applied consistently to all classifications , would have necessitated renaming of several other phyla and many lower @-@ level groups . In practice , zoological naming of split or merged groups of animals is complex and not completely consistent . Works since 2000 have used various names to resolve the ambiguity , including : " Bryozoa " , " Ectoprocta " , " Bryozoa ( Ectoprocta ) " , and " Ectoprocta ( Bryozoa ) " . Some have used more than one approach in the same work .
The common name " moss animals " is based on the Greek βρυόν ( moss ) and ζῷα ( animals ) , and refers to the mossy appearance of encrusting species .
Up until recently ( 2008 ) there were " inadequately known and misunderstood type species belonging to the Cyclostome Bryozoan family Oncousoeciidae . " ( Taylor , Zaton 2008 ) Modern research and experiments have been done using low @-@ vacuum scanning electron microscopy of uncoated type material to critically examine and perhaps revise the taxonomy of three genera belonging to this family , including Oncousoecia , Microeciella , and Eurystrotos . This method permits data to be obtained that would be difficult to recognize with an optical microscope . The valid type species of Oncousoecia was found to be Oncousoecia lobulata . This interpretation stabilizes Oncousoecia by establishing a type species that corresponds to the general usage of the genus . Fellow Oncousoeciid Eurystrotos is now believed to be not conspecific with O. lobulata , as previously suggested , but shows enough similarities to be considered a junior synonym of Oncousoecia . Microeciella suborbicularus has also been recently distinguished from O. lobulata and O. dilatans , using this modern method of low vacuum scanning , with which it has been inaccurately synonymized with in the past . A new genus has also been recently discovered called Junerossia in the family Stomachetosellidae , along with 10 relatively new species of bryozoa such as Alderina flaventa , Corbulella extenuata , Puellina septemcryptica , Junerossia copiosa , Calyptotheca kapaaensis , Bryopesanser serratus , Cribellopora souleorum , Metacleidochasma verrucosa , Disporella compta , and Favosipora adunca .
= = = Classification and diversity = = =
Counts of formally described species range between 4 @,@ 000 and 4 @,@ 500 . The Gymnolaemata and especially Cheilostomata have the greatest numbers of species , possibly because of their wide range of specialist zooids . Under the Linnaean system of classification , which is still used as a convenient way to label groups of organisms , living members of the phylum Bryozoa are divided into :
= = = Fossil record = = =
Fossils of about 15 @,@ 000 bryozoan species have been found . Bryozoans are among the three dominant groups of Paleozoic fossils . The oldest species with a mineralized skeleton occurs in the Lower Ordovician . It is likely that the first bryozoans appeared much earlier and were entirely soft @-@ bodied , and the Ordovician fossils record the appearance of mineralized skeletons in this phylum . By the Arenigian stage of the Early Ordovician period , about 480 million years ago , all the modern orders of stenolaemates were present , and the ctenostome order of gymnolaemates had appeared by the Middle Ordovician , about 465 million years ago . The Early Ordovician fossils may also represent forms that had already become significantly different from the original members of the phylum . Ctenostomes with phosphatized soft tissue are known from the Devonian . Other types of filter feeders appeared around the same time , which suggests that some change made the environment more favorable for this lifestyle . Fossils of cheilostomates , another order of gymnolaemates , first appear in the Mid Jurassic , about 172 million years ago , and these have been the most abundant and diverse bryozoans from the Cretaceous to the present . Evidence compiled from the last 100 million years show that cheilostomates consistently grew over cyclostomates in territorial struggles , which may help to explain how cheilostomates replaced cyclostomates as the dominant marine bryozoans . Marine fossils from the Paleozoic era , which ended 251 million years ago , are mainly of erect forms , those from the Mesozoic are fairly equally divided by erect and encrusting forms , and more recent ones are predominantly encrusting . Fossils of the soft , freshwater phylactolaemates are very rare , appear in and after the Late Permian ( which began about 260 million years ago ) and consist entirely of their durable statoblasts . There are no known fossils of freshwater members of other classes .
= = = Evolutionary family tree = = =
Scientists are divided about whether the Bryozoa ( Ectoprocta ) are a monophyletic group ( whether they include all and only a single ancestor species and all its descendants ) , about what are the phylum 's closest relatives in the family tree of animals , and even about whether they should be regarded as members of the protostomes or deuterostomes , the two major groups that account for all moderately complex animals .
The traditional view is that the Bryozoa are a monophyletic group , in which the class Phylactolaemata is most closely related to Stenolaemata and Ctenostomata , the classes that appear earliest in the fossil record . However , in 2005 a molecular phylogeny study that focused on phylactolaemates concluded that these are more closely related to the phylum Phoronida , and especially to the only phoronid species that is colonial , than they are to the other ectoproct classes . That implies that the Entoprocta are not monophyletic , as the Phoronida are a sub @-@ group of ectoprocts but the standard definition of Entoprocta excludes the Phoronida . In 2009 another molecular phylogeny study , using a combination of genes from mitochondria and the cell nucleus , concluded that Bryozoa is a monophyletic phylum , in other words includes all the descendants of a common ancestor that is itself a bryozoan . The analysis also concluded that the classes Phylactolaemata , Stenolaemata and Gymnolaemata are also monophyletic , but could not determine whether Stenolaemata are more closely related to Phylactolaemata or Gymnolaemata . The Gymnolaemata are traditionally divided into the soft @-@ bodied Ctenostomata and mineralized Cheilostomata , but the 2009 analysis considered it more likely that neither of these orders is monophyletic and that mineralized skeletons probably evolved more than once within the early Gymnolaemata .
Bryozoans ' relationships with other phyla are uncertain and controversial . Traditional phylogeny , based on anatomy and on the development of the adult forms from embryos , has produced no enduring consensus about the position of ectoprocts . Attempts to reconstruct the family tree of animals have largely ignored ectoprocts and other " minor phyla " , which have received little scientific study because they are generally tiny , have relatively simple body plans , and have little impact on human economies – despite the fact that the " minor phyla " include most of the variety in the evolutionary history of animals . In the opinion of Ruth Dewel , Judith Winston and Frank McKinney , " Our standard interpretation of bryozoan morphology and embryology is a construct resulting from over 100 years of attempts to synthesize a single framework for all invertebrates , " and takes little account of some peculiar features of ectoprocts . In ectoprocts , all of the larva 's internal organs are destroyed during the metamorphosis to the adult form and the adult 's organs are built from the larva 's epidermis and mesoderm , while in other bilaterians some organs including the gut are built from endoderm . In most bilaterian embryos the blastopore , a dent in the outer wall , deepens to become the larva 's gut , but in ectoprocts the blastopore disappears and a new dent becomes the point from which the gut grows . The ectoproct coelom is formed by neither of the processes used by other bilaterians , enterocoely , in which pouches that form on the wall of the gut become separate cavities , nor schizocoely , in which the tissue between the gut and the body wall splits , forming paired cavities .
Molecular phylogeny , which attempts to work out the evolutionary family tree of organisms by comparing their biochemistry and especially their genes , has done much to clarify the relationships between the better @-@ known invertebrate phyla . However , the shortage of genetic data about " minor phyla " such as bryozoans and entoprocts has left their relationships to other groups unclear .
When entoprocts were discovered in the 19th century , they and bryozoans ( ectoprocts ) were regarded as classes within the phylum Bryozoa , because both groups were sessile animals that filter @-@ fed by means of a crown of tentacles that bore cilia . However , from 1869 onwards increasing awareness of differences , including the position of the entoproct anus inside the feeding structure and the difference in the early pattern of division of cells in their embryos , caused scientists to regard the two groups as separate phyla , and " Bryozoa " became just an alternative name for ectoprocts , in which the anus is outside the feeding organ . A series of molecular phylogeny studies from 1996 to 2006 have also concluded that bryozoans ( ectoprocts ) and entoprocts are not sister groups . However , two well @-@ known zoologists , Claus Nielsen and Thomas Cavalier @-@ Smith , maintain on anatomical and developmental grounds that bryozoans and entoprocts are member of the same phylum , Bryozoa . A molecular phylogeny study in 2007 also supported this old idea , while its conclusions about other phyla agreed with those of several other analyses .
By 1891 bryozoans ( ectoprocts ) were grouped with phoronids in a super @-@ phylum called " Tentaculata " . In the 1970s comparisons between phoronid larvae and the cyphonautes larva of some gymnolaete bryozoans produced suggestions that the bryozoans , most of which are colonial , evolved from a semi @-@ colonial species of phoronid . Brachiopods were also assigned to the " Tentaculata " , which were renamed Lophophorata as they all use a lophophore for filter feeding . Although the majority of scientists accept this , Claus Nielsen thinks these similarities are superficial . The Lophophorata are usually defined as animals with a lophophore , a three @-@ part coelom and a U @-@ shaped gut . In Nielsen 's opinion , phoronids ' and brachiopods ' lophophores are more like those of pterobranchs , which are members of the phylum Hemichordata . Bryozoan 's tentacles bear cells with multiple cilia , while the corresponding cells of phoronids ' , brachiopods ' and pterobranchs ' lophophores have one cilium per cell ; and bryozoan tentacles have no hemal canal ( " blood vessel " ) , which those of the other three phyla have .
If the grouping of bryozoans with phoronids and brachiopods into Lophophorata is correct , the next issue is whether the Lophophorata are protostomes , along with most invertebrate phyla , or deuterostomes , along with chordates , hemichordates and echinoderms . The traditional view was that lophophorates were a mix of protostome and deuterostome features . Research from the 1970s onwards suggested they were deuterostomes , because of some features that were thought characteristic of deuterostomes : a three @-@ part coelom ; radial rather than spiral cleavage in the development of the embryo ; and formation of the coelom by enterocoely . However the coelom of ectoproct larvae shows no sign of division into three sections , and that of adult ectoprocts is different from that of other coelomate phyla as it is built anew from epidermis and mesoderm after metamorphosis has destroyed the larval coelom .
Molecular phylogeny analyses from 1995 onwards , using a variety of biochemical evidence and analytical techniques , placed the lophophorates as protostomes and closely related to annelids and molluscs in a super @-@ phylum called Lophotrochozoa . " Total evidence " analyses , which used both morphological features and a relatively small set of genes , came to various conclusions , mostly favoring a close relationship between lophophorates and Lophotrochozoa . A study in 2008 , using a larger set of genes , concluded that the lophophorates were closer to the Lophotrochozoa than to deuterostomes , but also that the lophophorates were not monophyletic . Instead , it concluded that brachiopods and phoronids formed a monophyletic group , but bryozoans ( ectoprocts ) were closest to entoprocts , supporting the original definition of " Bryozoa " .
They are also the only major phylum of exclusively clonal animals and are all colonial . They are colonies of modular units known as zooids . Because they thrive in colonies , colonial growth allows them to develop unrestricted variations in form . Despite this , only a small number of basic growth forms have been found and have commonly reappeared throughout the history of the bryozoa .
The phylogenetic position of the ectoproct bryozoans remains uncertain , but it remains certain that they belong to the Protostomia and more specifically to the Lophoctrochozoa . This implies that the ectoproct larva is a trochophore with the corona being a homologue of the prototroch ; this is supported from the similarity between the coronate larvae and the Type 1 pericalymma larvae of some molluscs and sipunculans , where the prototroch zone is expanded to cover the hyposphere .
A study of the mitochondrial DNA sequence suggests that the Bryozoa may be related to the Chaetognatha .
= = Physiology = =
= = = Feeding and excretion = = =
Most species are filter feeders that sieve small particles , mainly phytoplankton ( microscopic floating plants ) , out of the water . The freshwater species Plumatella emarginata feeds on diatoms , green algae , cyanobacteria , non @-@ photosynthetic bacteria , dinoflagellates , rotifers , protozoa , small nematodes , and microscopic crustaceans . While the currents that bryozoans generate to draw food towards the mouth are well understood , the exact method of capture is still debated . All species also flick larger particles towards the mouth with a tentacle , and a few capture zooplankton ( planktonic animals ) by using their tentacles as cages . In addition the tentacles , whose surface area is increased by microvilli ( small hairs and pleats ) , absorb organic compounds dissolved in the water . Unwanted particles may be flicked away by tentacles or shut out by closing the mouth . A study in 2008 showed that both encrusting and erect colonies fed more quickly and grew faster in gentle than in strong currents .
In some species the first part of the stomach forms a muscular gizzard lined with chitinous teeth that crush armored prey such as diatoms . Wave @-@ like peristaltic contractions move the food through the stomach for digestion . The final section of the stomach is lined with cilia ( minute hairs ) that compress undigested solids , which then pass through the intestine and out through the anus .
There are no nephridia ( " little kidneys " ) or other excretory organs in bryozoa , and it is thought that ammonia diffuses out through the body wall and lophophore . More complex waste products are not excreted but accumulate in the polypide , which degenerates after a few weeks . Some of the old polypide is recycled , but much of it remains as a large mass of dying cells containing accumulated wastes , and this is compressed into a " brown body " . When the degeneration is complete , the cystid ( outer part of the animal ) produces a new polypide , and the brown body remains in the coelom , or in the stomach of the new polypide and is expelled next time the animal defecates .
= = = Respiration and circulation = = =
There are no respiratory organs , heart or blood vessels. instead zooids absorb oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide through diffusion . Bryozoa accomplish diffusion through the use of either a thin membrane ( in the case of anascans and some polyzoa ) or through psudopores located on the outer dermis of the zooid . The different bryozoan groups use various methods to share nutrients and oxygen between zooids : some have quite large gaps in the body walls , allowing the coelomic fluid to circulate freely ; in others the funiculi ( internal " little ropes " ) of adjacent zooids connect via small pores in the body wall .
= = = Reproduction and life cycles = = =
Zooids of all phylactolaemate species are simultaneous hermaphrodites . Although those of many marine species are protandric , in other words function first as males and then as females , their colonies contain a combination of zooids that are in their male and female stages . In all species the ovaries develop on the inside of the body wall , and the testes on the funiculus connecting the stomach to the body wall . Eggs and sperm are released into the coelom , and sperm exit into the water through pores in the tips of some of the tentacles , and then are captured by the feeding currents of zooids that are producing eggs . Some species ' eggs are fertilized externally after being released through a pore between two tentacles , which in some cases is at the tip of a small projection called the " intertentacular organ " in the base of a pair of tentacles . Others ' are fertilized internally , in the intertentacular organ or in the coelom . In ctenostomes the mother provides a brood chamber for the fertilized eggs , and her polypide disintegrates , providing nourishment to the embryo . Stenolaemates produce specialized zooids to serve as brood chambers , and their eggs divide within this to produce up to 100 identical embryos .
The cleavage of bryozoan eggs is biradial , in other words the early stages are bilaterally symmetrical . It is unknown how the coleom forms , since the metamorphosis from larva to adult destroys all of the larva 's internal tissues . In many animals the blastopore , an opening in the surface of the early embryo , tunnels through to form the gut . However , in bryozoans the blastopore closes , and a new opening develops to create the mouth .
Bryozoan larvae vary in form , but all have a band of cilia round the body which enables them to swim , a tuft of cilia at the top , and an adhesive sac that everts and anchors them when they settle on a surface . Some gymnolaemate species produce cyphonautes larvae which have little yolk but a well @-@ developed mouth and gut , and live as plankton for a considerable time before settling . These larvae have triangular shells of chitin , with one corner at the top and the base open , forming a hood round the downward @-@ facing mouth . In 2006 it was reported that the cilia of cyphonautes larvae use the same range of techniques as those of adults to capture food . Species that brood their embryos form larvae that are nourished by large yolks , have no gut and do not feed , and such larvae quickly settle on a surface . In all marine species the larvae produce cocoons in which they metamorphose completely after settling : the larva 's epidermis becomes the lining of the coelom , and the internal tissues are converted to a food reserve that nourishes the developing zooid until it is ready to feed . The larvae of phylactolaemates produce multiple polypides , so that each new colony starts with several zooids . In all species the founder zooids then grow the new colonies by budding clones of themselves . In phylactolaemates , zooids die after producing several clones , so that living zooids are found only round the edges of a colony .
Phylactolaemates also reproduce asexually by a method that enables a colony 's lineage to survive the variable and uncertain conditions of freshwater environments . Throughout summer and autumn they produce disc @-@ shaped statoblasts , masses of cells that function as " survival pods " rather like the gemmules of sponges . Statoblasts form on the funiculus connected to the parent 's gut , which nourishes them . As they grow , statoblasts develop protective bivalve @-@ like shells made of chitin . When they mature , some statoblasts stick to the parent colony , some fall to the bottom ( " sessoblasts " ) , some contain air spaces that enable them to float ( " floatoblasts " ) , and some remain in the parent 's cystid to re @-@ build the colony if it dies . Statoblasts can remain dormant for considerable periods , and while dormant can survive harsh conditions such as freezing and desiccation . They can be transported across long distances by animals , floating vegetation , currents and winds , and even in the guts of larger animals . When conditions improve , the valves of the shell separate and the cells inside develop into a zooid that tries to form a new colony . Plumatella emarginata produces both " sessoblasts " , which enable the lineage to control a good territory even if hard times decimate the parent colonies , and " floatoblasts " , which spread to new sites . New colonies of Plumatella repens produce mainly " sessoblasts " while mature ones switch to " floatoblasts " . A study estimated that one group of colonies in a patch measuring 1 square metre ( 11 sq ft ) produced 800 @,@ 000 statoblasts .
Cupuladriid Bryozoa are capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction . The sexually reproducing colonies ( aclonal ) are the result of a larval cupuladriid growing into an adult stage whereas the asexual colonies ( clonal ) are a result of a fragment of a colony of cupuladriids growing into its own colony . The different forms of reproduction in cupuladriids are achieved through a variety of methods depending on the morphology and classification of the zooid .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Habitats and distribution = = =
Most marine species live in tropical waters at depths less than 100 metres ( 330 ft ) . However , a few have been found in deep @-@ sea trenches , especially around cold seeps , and others near the poles . The great majority are sessile . Encrusting forms are much the commonest of these in shallow seas , but erect forms become more common as the depth increases . A few marine species can move , and an Antarctic species forms floating colonies .
In 2014 it was reported that the bryozoan Fenestrulina rugula had become a dominant species in parts of Antarctica . Global warming has increased the rate of scouring by icebergs , and this species is particularly adept at recolonizing scoured areas .
The phylactolaemates live in all types of freshwater environment – lakes and ponds , rivers and streams , and estuaries – and are among the most abundant sessile freshwater animals . Some ctenostomes are exclusively freshwater while others prefer brackish water but can survive in freshwater . Scientists ' knowledge of freshwater bryozoan populations in many parts of the world is incomplete , even in some parts of Europe . It was long thought that some freshwater species occurred worldwide , but since 2002 all of these have been split into more localized species .
Bryozoans are an immobile species typically residing on hard natural stone including , but not limited to : grains , shells , and rocks . Such sediment is customarily found in freshwater type marine niches , although a majority of Bryozoans develop in marine landscapes . It is not uncommon for colonies to grow on sediment and various other solid pseudo @-@ rock formations . They are native to all five oceans making them a more cosmopolitan species .
Bryozoans are generally associated with the term colonies . Once a Bryozoa settles on a hard substance , after its larval phase , it is physically capable of reproducing asexually through budding . The term colony literally stems from the word clones . These colonies can grow thousands of individual zooids in a relatively short period of time . Even though colonies of zooids grow through asexual reproduction , Bryozoans are hermaphrodites and colonies are started through sexual reproduction . When colonies grow too large , however , they can split in two . This is the only case where asexual reproduction results in a new colony separate from its predecessor . Most colonies are stationary . Indeed , these colonies tend to be settled on immobile substances such as sediment and coarse substances . There are , in fact , other colonies , that predominantly reside in freshwater , that are able to move to a new locale ; nevertheless , this movement is extremely slow , maximum 1 meter per hour , and demands energy .
= = = Interactions with non @-@ human organisms = = =
Marine species are common on coral reefs , but seldom a significant proportion of the total biomass . In temperate waters , the skeletons of dead colonies form a significant component of shell gravels , and live ones are abundant in these areas . The marine lace @-@ like bryozoan Membranipora membranacea produces spines in response to predation by several species of nudibranchs ( " sea slugs " ) . Other predators on marine bryozoans include fish , sea urchins , pycnogonids , crustaceans , mites and starfish . In general marine echinoderms and molluscs eat masses of zooids by gouging pieces of colonies , breaking their mineralized " houses " , while most arthropod predators on bryozoans eat individual zooids .
In freshwater , bryozoans are among the most important filter feeders , along with sponges and mussels . Freshwater bryozoans are attacked by many predators , including snails , insects , and fish .
In Thailand the introduced species Pomacea canaliculata ( golden apple snail ) , which is generally a destructive herbivore , has wiped out phylactolaemate populations wherever it has appeared . P. canaliculata also preys on a common freshwater gymnolaemate , but with less devastating effect . Indigenous snails do not feed on bryozoans .
Several species of the hydroid family Zancleidae have symbiotic relationships with bryozoans , some of which are beneficial to the hydroids while others are parasitic . Modifications appear in the shapes of some these hydroids , for example smaller tentacles or encrustation of the roots by bryozoans . The bryozoan Alcyonidium nodosum protects the whelk Burnupena papyracea against predation by the powerful and voracious rock lobster Jasus lalandii . While whelk shells encrusted by the bryozoans are stronger than those without this reinforcement , chemical defenses produced by the bryozoans are probably the more significant deterrent .
In the Banc d 'Arguin offshore Mauritania the species Acanthodesia commensale , which is generally growing attached to gravel and hard @-@ substrate , has formed a non @-@ obligate symbiotic relationship with hermit crabs of the species Pseudopagurus cf. granulimanus resulting in egg @-@ size structures known as bryoliths . Nucleating on an empty gastropod shell , the bryozoan colonies form multilamellar skeletal crusts that produce spherical encrustations and extend the living chamber of the hermit crab through helicospiral tubular growth .
Some phylactolaemate species are parasitized by a group of myxozoa that have also been found to cause Proliferative Kidney Disease , which is often fatal in salmonid fish , and has severely reduced wild fish populations in Europe and North America .
Membranipora membranacea , whose colonies feed and grow exceptionally fast in a wide range of current speeds , was first noticed in the Gulf of Maine in 1987 and quickly became the most abundant organism living on kelps . This invasion reduced the kelp population by breaking their fronds , so that its place as the dominant " vegetation " in some areas was taken by another invader , the large alga Codium fragile tomentosoides . These changes reduced the area of habitat available for local fish and invertebrates . M. membranacea has also invaded the northwest coast of the US A few freshwater species have been also found thousands of kilometers from their native ranges . Some may have been transported naturally as statoblasts . Others more probably were spread by humans , for example on imported water plants or as stowaways on ships .
= = = Interaction with humans = = =
Fish farms and hatcheries have lost stock to proliferative kidney disease , which is apparently caused by one or more myxozoans that also parasitize bryozoans .
Fishermen in the North Sea have had to find other work because of a form of eczema ( a skin disease ) known as " Dogger Bank itch " , caused by contact with bryozoans that have stuck to nets and lobster pots .
Marine bryozoans are often responsible for biofouling on ships ' hulls , on docks and marinas , and on offshore structures . They are among the first colonizers of new or recently cleaned structures . Freshwater species are occasional nuisances in water pipes , drinking water purification equipment , sewage treatment facilities , and the cooling pipes of power stations .
A group of chemicals called bryostatins can be extracted from the marine bryozoan Bugula neritina . In 2001 pharmaceutical company GPC Biotech licensed Bryostatin 1 from Arizona State University for commercial development as a treatment for cancer . GPC Biotech canceled development in 2003 , saying that Bryostatin 1 showed little effectiveness and some toxic side @-@ effects . In January 2008 a clinical trial was submitted to the United States National Institutes of Health to measure the safety and effectiveness of Bryostatin 1 in the treatment of Alzheimer 's Disease . However , no participants had been recruited by the end of December 2008 , when the study was scheduled for completion . About 1 tonne ( 160 st ) of bryozoans must processed to extract 1 gram ( 0 @.@ 035 oz ) of bryostatin . As a result , synthetic equivalents have been developed that are simpler to produce and apparently at least as effective .
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= Sonam Kapoor =
Sonam Kapoor ( pronounced [ soːnəm kəˈpuːr ] ; born 9 June 1985 ) is an Indian actress who appears in Bollywood films . Kapoor is one of the highest @-@ paid actresses in the industry . She has been nominated for four Filmfare Awards .
The daughter of actor Anil Kapoor , Kapoor studied theatre and arts at the United World College of South East Asia in Singapore . She was an assistant director to Sanjay Leela Bhansali on the 2005 film Black . Kapoor made her acting debut in Bhansali 's romantic drama Saawariya ( 2007 ) , for which she was nominated for a Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut . She had her first commercial success three years later in the romantic comedy I Hate Luv Storys ( 2010 ) .
After a series of commercial failures , the sleeper hit Raanjhanaa ( 2013 ) marked a turning point in her career , earning her several Best Actress nominations . She then featured in the 2014 romantic comedy Khoobsurat and the 2015 comedy drama Dolly Ki Doli , both of which earned her Filmfare Award for Best Actress nominations . Kapoor played a princess in the melodrama Prem Ratan Dhan Payo ( 2015 ) , one of the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood films of all time . She garnered critical acclaim for portraying the titular role in the biographical thriller Neerja ( 2016 ) , one of the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood films featuring a female protagonist .
Kapoor supports various charities and causes , such as raising awareness of breast cancer and LGBT rights . She is known in the media for her outspoken personality , and is a prominent celebrity endorser for brands and products .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life ( 1985 – 2006 ) = = =
Kapoor was born in the Mumbai suburb of Chembur on 9 June 1985 . Her father is actor and producer Anil Kapoor , the son of the late filmmaker Surinder Kapoor and the founder of the Anil Kapoor Films Company . Her mother , Sunita , is a former model and designer . Kapoor has two younger siblings : film producer Rhea and brother Harshvardhan . She is the niece of film producer Boney Kapoor and actor Sanjay Kapoor ; actress Sridevi and producer Mona Shourie ( Boney 's wives ) are her aunts . Kapoor 's paternal cousins are actors Arjun Kapoor and Mohit Marwah , and maternal cousin is actor Ranveer Singh .
The family moved to the suburb of Juhu when Kapoor was one month old . She was educated at the Arya Vidya Mandir school in Juhu , where she confessed to being a " naughty " and " carefree " child who would bully the boys . She excelled at sports such as rugby and basketball , and trained in Kathak , classical music and Latin dance . Kapoor , who practices Hinduism , states that she is " quite religious " , and that it is a way of " reminding myself that I need to be thankful for so much " .
Kapoor 's first job was as a waitress at age 15 , although it lasted only a week . As a teenager , she struggled with her weight : " I had every issue related to weight that I could have . I was unhealthy , I had bad skin , and I had hair growing on my face ! " Kapoor was diagnosed with insulin resistance and polycystic ovarian disease , and has since begun an initiative to increase awareness of diabetes . Kapoor enrolled at the United World College of South East Asia in Singapore for her pre @-@ university education , where she studied theatre and arts . She has said she later started courses in economics and political science through University of Mumbai correspondence programme , after returning from University of East London where she began her bachelor 's degree in the same subjects but returned to Mumbai soon after she began . The actress Rani Mukerji , a family friend , visited her family in Singapore on holiday while working on Black ( 2005 ) . Kapoor , who had originally wanted to be a director and writer , expressed a desire to work as a crew member on the film . On her father 's recommendation to director Sanjay Leela Bhansali , she was appointed as his assistant .
= = = Debut and career fluctuations ( 2007 – 12 ) = = =
During the production of Black , Kapoor developed an interest in acting when Bhansali professed that he wanted to cast her in the lead in his next film , Saawariya . She was advised to lose weight ; at the time , she weighed about 80 kilograms ( 180 lb ) . Motivated by Bhansali 's confidence in her , she lost 35 kilograms ( 77 lb ) in two years . Kapoor studied acting with Roshan Taneja , Jayati Bhatia and Feroz Abbas Khan , and has cited actresses Waheeda Rehman and Nutan as influences , admiring their " path @-@ breaking films … [ and ] quality of doing different things " .
Released in 2007 , Saawariya saw Kapoor play a Muslim woman awaiting the return of her lover opposite Mukerji and Ranbir Kapoor . It was the first Indian feature film produced by a Hollywood studio , Sony Pictures Entertainment . Saawariya proved to be a major critical and commercial failure . Writing for BBC , Jaspreet Pandohar called the film a " misfire on a massive scale " . Raja Sen of Rediff.com described her laugh as " almost as infectious as her father 's " , but wished that she had been " allowed to simper softly , instead of having a clearly overdubbed plastic giggle plastered onto her . " The film earned her a Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut nomination and the Stardust Award for Superstar of Tomorrow – Female .
In 2009 , Kapoor played an aspiring singer opposite Waheeda Rehman and Abhishek Bachchan in the Rakeysh Omprakash Mehra @-@ directed drama Delhi @-@ 6 . Despite critical acclaim , the film was not a box @-@ office success . CNN @-@ IBN 's Rajeev Masand referred to Kapoor as a " revelation " , writing that she was " a firecracker , instinctive and uninhibited in what isn 't even a conventional female lead " . Sonia Chopra of Sify described Kapoor as an " earnest and effortless performer " , and found her character likeable , despite the " typical Delhi @-@ girl recipe " .
Kapoor 's first release in 2010 was Punit Malhotra 's romantic comedy I Hate Luv Storys , opposite Imran Khan . She played an engaged woman who develops a one @-@ sided attraction to her commitment @-@ phobic co @-@ worker . Khan said about Kapoor 's craft , " We 'd be shooting a scene from multiple angles — for three or four hours you 're doing the same scene , the same lines — and here is this person [ Kapoor ] who brings consistency to her work , from the way she talks , to her accent . " Although Shubhra Gupta of The Indian Express called Kapoor 's performance " stiff and rehearsed " , Daily News and Analysis ' Johnson Thomas found her " likeable and believable " . I Hate Luv Storys was Kapoor 's first commercial success , earning ₹ 725 @.@ 2 million ( US $ 11 million ) worldwide .
Kapoor next played the eponymous role in Aisha , a romantic comedy adaptation of Jane Austen 's novel Emma , which was produced by her sister Rhea . She described her role opposite Abhay Deol , Ira Dubey and Amrita Puri as " a meddlesome busybody with a passion for matchmaking and playing Cupid " . An Indo @-@ Asian News Service reviewer thought that Kapoor had stood out with her performance , making " the best of a rather rare opportunity for an Indian leading lady to be part of a Bollywood film that salutes Victorian mores and Delhi 's elitist affectations in one clean cool sweep " .
In 2011 , Kapoor starred in Thank You , a comedy about three women who teach a lesson to their philandering husbands . The film , along with Kapoor 's performance , received poor reviews ; Nikhat Kazmi of The Times of India called her " terribly out of sync " . She then played the romantic interest of Shahid Kapoor in the Pankaj Kapur @-@ directed romantic drama , Mausam , which was also poorly received . Despite doubts about her acting ability , critic Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV thought Kapoor conveyed " the essential vulnerability of a girl forever under duress , bringing out just the right mix of feminine fragility and native resolve " . The following year , Kapoor played a computer hacker opposite Abhishek Bachchan and Bipasha Basu in the Abbas – Mustan @-@ directed action film , Players , a remake of 2003 's The Italian Job . Her role was originally written for Katrina Kaif , who was unavailable for the film . Although journalists had high expectations , it failed commercially , and Raja Sen of Rediff.com remarked derogatively that Kapoor " truly entertains with her childish attempt to pass off as a Gold @-@ medalist hacker " . Kapoor 's string of poorly @-@ received films began to hinder her career .
= = = Raanjhanaa and beyond ( 2013 – present ) = = =
Kapoor 's role in the Anand L. Rai @-@ directed romantic drama Raanjhanaa ( 2013 ) marked a turning point in her career ; Geety Sahgal called it her best performance to date in The Indian Express . Kapoor 's role was that of Zoya Haider , a young Muslim student from Varanasi who is drawn into politics after the murder of her Sikh lover . To prepare for her part , Kapoor interacted with students , attended workshops and practiced with theatre groups associated with Jawaharlal Nehru University . She also studied Jaya Bachchan 's work in Guddi ( 1971 ) , which she felt was " perfect " for her role . Discussing her character in the film , Kapoor described her approach to acting : " I have always tried to do different films and … I try to be different for every character . I like doing different things to challenge myself in every way and don 't like to repeat myself . " Although Raanjhanaa received mixed reviews , her performance was praised ; Rajeev Masand wrote that she " does some of her best work here , going smoothly from innocent to manipulative to cynical , without ever losing Zoya 's inherent vulnerability " . With worldwide earnings of over ₹ 1 billion ( US $ 15 million ) , Raanjhanaa was a commercial success and Kapoor received her first nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress .
Kapoor followed the success of Raanjhanaa with a brief appearance in Bhaag Milkha Bhaag ( 2013 ) , a biopic on athlete Milkha Singh . She received ₹ 11 ( 16 ¢ US ) for the film , made on a budget of ₹ 300 million ( US $ 4 @.@ 5 million ) , citing her admiration for director Rakeysh Omprakash Mehra and the film itself as reasons for her appearance . Critically praised , Bhaag Milkha Bhaag was one of the top @-@ grossing Bollywood films of the year . The critic Sarita A. Tanwar wrote in her review that despite her minor role , Kapoor proved to " be the perfect warm counterpart to Milkha " . Both Raanjhanaa and Bhaag Milkha Bhaag received Filmfare Award for Best Film nominations , the latter of which won .
In 2014 , Kapoor portrayed the banker Mayera opposite Ayushmann Khurrana and Rishi Kapoor in the Yash Raj Films comedy @-@ drama Bewakoofiyaan , in a role which Anupama Chopra found to be poorly written and an " uphill climb " . She next starred in the romantic comedy Khoobsurat , an adaptation of the 1980 film of the same name , playing the role which had originally been given to Rekha . Though she received a Filmfare Best Actress nomination for her performance , critics were divided in their response , with Shilpa Jamkhandikar of Reuters calling her " loud and exasperating " , and Andy Webster of The New York Times ' comparing her to a young Anne Hathaway and highlighting her " Julia Roberts @-@ like smile " . Later that year she met entrepreneur @-@ model Sahir Berry on a social media network , and began a romantic relationship with him , although they broke up a few months later .
In 2015 , Kapoor starred as a runaway bride in Dolly Ki Doli , a comedy co @-@ starring Pulkit Samrat , Rajkummar Rao and Varun Sharma . Mint 's Udita Jhunjhunwala criticised Kapoor 's performance in the film , writing that her " range is too limited to bring alive a character that may have had heaps of potential on paper " . Shubhra Gupta wrote : " Kapoor is in almost every frame , and should have filled them all . But the treatment of the character shows up her limitations . " Despite the negative reviews for her performance , she was nominated for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress . While filming Sooraj R. Barjatya 's Prem Ratan Dhan Payo with Salman Khan in Gondal , Gujarat in February 2015 , Kapoor was diagnosed with swine influenza , from which she recovered the following month . Kapoor portrayed Rajkumari Maithili Devi , a princess looking for love . The film became one of the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood films of all time . She was praised by Rachit Gupta for her credibility as a royal , and Komal Nahta thought that the role was significant enough to be a turning point in her career . However , she won a Golden Kela Award for Worst Actress .
Following an appearance in the music video of Coldplay 's " Hymn for the Weekend " ( featuring Beyoncé ) , Kapoor starred in Ram Madhvani 's biographical thriller Neerja ( 2016 ) . She was cast as the eponymous air hostess Neerja Bhanot , who died while saving the passengers of the hijacked Pan Am Flight 73 in 1986 . Kapoor added that she felt a " little more responsible towards the film as it is based on a real person " , and to prepare for her role , she met Bhanot 's family . The film garnered wide critical acclaim , and several commentators considered Kapoor 's performance to be her best to date . Raja Sen found her performance to be career @-@ defining , while Hindustan Times ' Rohit Vats wrote that " she carries [ the film ] entirely on her shoulder . She looks earnest , scared , benevolent and bold , all at the same time . " With a worldwide gross of ₹ 1 @.@ 47 billion ( US $ 22 million ) , the film emerged as one of the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood films featuring a female protagonist .
As of June 2016 , Kapoor has committed to play one of the lead roles in Shahanka Ghosh 's directorial debut film Veere Di Wedding , a romantic comedy co @-@ starring Kareena Kapoor , Swara Bhaskar and Shikha Talsania about four girls who embark on a trip from Delhi to Europe .
= = In the media = =
Born into a prominent actor family , Kapoor has appeared in the media from an early age , and is one of the highest @-@ paid actresses in Bollywood . After the success of Raanjhanaa and Bhaag Milkha Bhaag she was cited by Subhash K. Jha as one of the top actresses in India , though a commentator for Rediff.com notes that several of her films have been commercial failures . In 2009 she was the first Indian actress to appear on The Hollywood Reporter 's " Next Generation : Asia Class " , a list of newcomers in film . Outspoken publicly , Kapoor 's comments about contemporaries and others in the Indian film industry have occasionally caused controversy . In a 2015 interview , she acknowledged that her opinions often get her into trouble , but remarked that " I believe it pays to be honest in the longer run " .
Kapoor is a popular figure nationally , with a significant following on Twitter since 2009 and Facebook . She appeared on The Huffington Post 's list of " 100 most influential women on Twitter " in 2015 . She has been described by the media as a style icon , and featured on Rediff.com 's list of " Bollywood 's Best Dressed Actresses " in 2012 and 2013 . Though Kapoor has earned praise for her dress sense and style , she has faced some criticism for wearing traditional Indian dresses . She was ranked seventh on The Times of India 's 2010 " Most Desirable Woman " list , placing 14th , 28th and 14th the next three years , and was in the top ten of UK magazine Eastern Eye 's " World 's Sexiest Asian Women " list from 2011 to 2014 . In 2012 and 2013 she also held 48th and 45th place , respectively , on the Indian edition of Forbes ' " Celebrity 100 " lists , based on the income and popularity of Indian celebrities . In 2014 , Kapoor reached 31st place , with an estimated annual income of ₹ 112 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 7 million ) , and peaked at the 26th position the following year .
As well as endorsing brands such as Colgate , Electrolux , Lux , Mont Blanc , Oppo Mobile , Salvatore Ferragamo S.p.A. and Signature , Kapoor is the Indian ambassador for international cosmetics manufacturer L 'Oréal . Rediff.com reported in 2012 that she received ₹ 30 million ( US $ 450 @,@ 000 ) for each endorsement , making her one of the highest @-@ paid celebrity endorsers in India .
= = Philanthropy = =
Kapoor has supported charitable organisations for various causes . In 2009 , she participated in the International Indian Film Academy Awards fashion show , which supports widows and orphans of Indian film @-@ industry workers . On behalf of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA ) she wrote to Maharashtra Home Minister R. R. Patil , protesting against the use of glass @-@ coated manja ( used on fighter kites ) , which kills birds who become entangled in it . Kapoor is vocal in her support for LGBT rights in India . In 2012 , Kapoor asked fans to donate to the Ogaan Cancer Foundation for her birthday , and collaborated with the foundation to increase awareness of breast cancer . She is also the brand ambassador for the Elle Breast Cancer Campaign .
Kapoor auctioned some of her clothes on stylist Pernia Qureshi 's online fashion boutique , Pernia 's Pop @-@ Up Shop , in 2012 . The proceeds were donated to Smile Foundation , a child @-@ welfare organisation . In 2014 , she attended a charitable art exhibition organised by the Rouble Nagi Art Foundation , and donated clothing and accessories to a website raising funds for In Defense of Animals . Kapoor walked the ramp in a 2015 fashion show by Manish Malhotra for the Mijwan Welfare Society , a non @-@ profit organisation dedicated to empowering girls . The same year , she appeared with Hrithik Roshan in the music video for " Dheere Dheere " , whose profits were donated to charity .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = = Other honours = = =
2011 : NDTV Brand Ambassador of the Year
2013 : Hindustan Times ' Style Icon ( Reader 's Choice )
2013 : Indian GQ Woman of the Year
2013 : Indian Vogue Beauty Award Beauty of the Year
= = Filmography = =
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= Amir Blumenfeld =
Amir Shmuel Blumenfeld ( / əˈmir ʃmuːˈɛl ˈbluːmᵻnfɛld / ; Hebrew : אמיר שמואל בלומנפלד ; born January 18 , 1983 ) is an Israeli American comedian , actor , writer and television host . Born in Israel , he moved to Los Angeles when he was two , and was hired by the New York @-@ based CollegeHumor in 2005 . As well as contributing to its books and articles , he has written and starred in original videos for the comedy website — appearing in series such as Hardly Working and Very Mary @-@ Kate — and was a cast member on its short @-@ lived MTV program The CollegeHumor Show .
Amir first came to national prominence in 2004 when he was a semi @-@ finalist during Yahoo 's inaugural national IM Live contest , losing to the eventual champions . Now , he is best known for appearing in the web series Jake and Amir with Jake Hurwitz , in which he plays an annoying and exaggerated version of himself . Originally made by Hurwitz and Blumenfeld in their spare time , the series was then produced by CollegeHumor . Blumenfeld 's acting in the series gained him a Webby Award for Best Individual Performance in 2010 . In 2011 , CollegeHumor released Jake and Amir : Fired , a 30 @-@ minute special that is the company 's first paid content . Episodes of Jake and Amir average over 500 @,@ 000 views ; by 2012 , over 500 had been produced . The pair have also hosted numerous live shows , and started the advice podcast If I Were You in 2013 . In December 2013 , it was announced that Jake and Amir would be adapted into a TBS television comedy with Ed Helms as an executive producer . TBS never filmed the pilot , despite a fan @-@ created # GreenlightJakeAndAmir Twitter campaign that garnered tens of thousands of tweets . Instead , sister network truTV picked up the pilot and filmed it , though it was never aired .
The Prank War series , which depicts Blumenfeld and Streeter Seidell as they play a series of escalating practical jokes on each other , became popular and led to the two appearing on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! in 2009 . MTV later hired Seidell and Blumenfeld to host Pranked , a clip show featuring prank videos from the Internet . Outside of CollegeHumor , Blumenfeld has appeared in the short film The Old Man and the Seymour , the television series Louie and I Just Want My Pants Back , and the 2011 film A Very Harold & Kumar 3D Christmas . He also writes for ESPN The Magazine and Mental Floss .
= = Early life = =
Blumenfeld was born in Afula , Israel , and moved to Los Angeles , California at the age of two with his parents and two older brothers — his family is Reform Jewish . He has described how he became aware of his humor early on : " I realized I was funny at an early age , I realized I could make people laugh at a later age , and then by college time , I was trying to make jokes in terms of writing " .
He attended a Jewish kindergarten and elementary school , before going to Milken Community High School , a private Jewish high school . During the summer , he attended computer camp and mathematics camp , but has expressed regret that he did not go to a Jewish summer camp . He then went on to study under the Haas Undergraduate Business Program at the University of California , Berkeley , hoping to get a creative job in advertising or marketing while writing comedy on the side . He graduated , and says he now uses his Bachelor of Science degree " to make somewhat intelligent jokes about finance and accounting , but nothing much beyond that . "
= = Career = =
= = = CollegeHumor = = =
In 2003 , while a sophomore at Berkeley , Blumenfeld began writing articles for the comedy website CollegeHumor after he emailed its co @-@ founder Ricky Van Veen ideas , which Van Veen found funny and posted on the website . When Blumenfeld graduated in 2005 , CollegeHumor hired him and Streeter Seidell full @-@ time to write The CollegeHumor Guide to College — a humorous book presented as a guide to university education — and he moved to New York aged 22 . He later moved to writing original videos for CollegeHumor with Dan Gurewitch , and has acted in CH Originals , as well as the series Hardly Working . He has portrayed Woody Allen in episodes of Hardly Working and Very Mary @-@ Kate — MTV 's Guy Code Blog listed his among " The 8 Best Woody Allen Impressions We Found On The Internet " . His favorite sketch written for CollegeHumor is entitled " Moments Before Cup Chicks " , and involves a director briefing the participants of the viral scatological video 2 Girls 1 Cup .
Beginning in 2007 , he and Streeter Seidell have appeared in the Prank War series of videos , in which the two play a series of escalating practical jokes on each other . Seidell has described how some of the pranks " showed Amir 's true colors , his desire to be famous ... [ and ] cut deeper emotionally " , and how he thought Blumenfeld 's faking a marriage proposal from Seidell to his girlfriend went " too far " . After seven videos were posted over two years , there was an 18 @-@ month hiatus culminating in Seidell tricking Blumenfeld into thinking he had won USD $ 500 @,@ 000 after taking a blindfolded half @-@ court basketball shot . The pranks have led to Seidell and Blumenfeld being interviewed by Wired magazine and appearing on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! .
In 2009 , Blumenfeld starred in The CollegeHumor Show on MTV along with eight other CollegeHumor employees . The staff members wrote , filmed and starred in the show , which is set in the CollegeHumor offices and has a scripted reality premise . Structured as a half @-@ hour sitcom , it incorporates sketches that had alreadly been published online . However , the show was lambasted by critics — Pajiba 's Dustin Rowles called it " a series of atrocious sketches haphazardly strung together " ; GigaOM 's Liz Shannon Miller said the show was " deeply disappointing " , and that although Blumenfeld 's character is " the iconic face of the web site ... none of the other personalities on the show have been developed beyond the surface level " — only one season , consisting of six episodes , was made .
Since 2010 , Seidell and Blumenfeld have hosted Pranked , an MTV series featuring pranks recorded on video and posted online . The show has generally received poor reviews , with critics looking down on its clip show format and use of content from YouTube , and calling it inferior to the " prank war " that inspired it . The Michigan Daily 's Eric Chiu said " Hosts Blumenfeld and Seidell do what they can with their material , but their banter and commentary is mostly forgettable " , and " the Prank War series on CollegeHumor.com is a perfect example of discomforting gags done right ... It 's a shame that Pranked can 't muster up anything near the same level of ingenuity . "
= = = Jake and Amir = = =
Blumenfeld met his colleague Jake Hurwitz in 2006 , when the latter began an internship at CollegeHumor . The two were seated across from each other , and began to make short videos together , which they uploaded to the video @-@ sharing website Vimeo . Their first video was called " Quick Characters " : it was unscripted , and involved either Hurwitz or Blumenfeld spontaneously pointing a camera at the other and instructing them to act in a certain way .
The two later began the web series Jake and Amir , episodes of which they posted to jakeandamir.com. In it , Hurwitz plays Jake , a " normal guy " , and Blumenfeld plays Amir , his annoying and obsessive co @-@ worker , who craves Jake 's attention . Their videos began to be promoted on CollegeHumor , and the website later adopted the series . By 2012 , the duo had made over 500 episodes of Jake and Amir — two per week for five years . Each episode averages more than 500 @,@ 000 views . The series has featured guest appearances by Thomas Middleditch , Ben Schwartz , Allison Williams , Hoodie Allen and Rick Fox , among others .
Blumenfeld has described how his character " sort of evolved " from being " super needy [ and ] weird " to " a little crazier " , but that " the root of my character is still the same , the insecurity of it " . Regarding his similarity to his character , he said he is " hopefully very different but maybe at the root of it we 're the same person . I 'm probably a little smarter than the character though . Maybe the things that he thinks I also think but I 'm able to suppress them . "
In 2008 , PC Magazine listed the series among its " Top 100 Undiscovered Web Sites " , saying : " Considering it 's mainly a hobby they do after work , the webisodes at JakeAndAmir.com are better than some of the stuff they get paid to do for CollegeHumor . " At the 14th Webby Awards in 2010 , Jake and Amir won a People 's Voice award for Comedy : Long Form or Series , and Blumenfeld won one for Best Individual Performance . PC Magazine again featured Jake and Amir in 2011 , when it listed the series as one of its " 15 Best Web @-@ Only Shows " — Eric Griffith said " they show no sign of running out of very bizarre situations for this sometimes disturbing comedy . " Blumenfeld received a nomination for the 2013 Streamy Awards for Best Male Performance : Comedy because of his role in Jake and Amir .
On October 12 , 2011 , CollegeHumor released Jake and Amir : Fired , a 30 @-@ minute episode of Jake and Amir that the pair had produced and edited in the previous months , while continuing to release short episodes . Available to buy for $ 2 @.@ 99 on CollegeHumor and Facebook and for $ 13 on DVD , the special was the company 's first paid content . Its plot involves the fictitious new CEO of CollegeHumor , Alan Avery ( Matt Walton ) , promoting Jake and firing Amir ; Jake realizes this was a mistake , and the two try to get Amir 's job back . Sam Reich , CollegeHumor Media 's President of Original Content said " Fired is very much an extension of the Jake and Amir that people already know . ... That being said , it also expands the universe considerably by adding characters , locations , and something even newer to a Jake and Amir plot . "
He and Hurwitz have also hosted various live events as Jake and Amir , including CollegeHumor Live at various locations such as the UCB Theatre in New York and the University of California , Berkeley . They have also performed in Toronto , Canada and London 's Soho Theatre . The latter show was in June 2013 with Streeter Seidell , and although it sold out and extra dates were added , the performance was poorly received by local media : The Guardian 's Brian Logan said Hurwitz and Blumenfeld " cackle a lot , as they find various ways to repackage tales of puerile behaviour as comedy " . In June 2012 , at the International Student Film Festival in Tel Aviv , Israel , the pair gave a lecture at the New Media Conference . They have also appeared together on the MTV show Money from Strangers . On December 18 , 2013 , it was announced that Jake and Amir will be adapted into a television comedy for the network TBS , and that Blumenfeld will star in the series , as well as serve as a writer and executive producer ( alongside Hurwitz and Ed Helms , among others ) .
= = = = If I Were You = = = =
On May 13 , 2013 , Hurwitz and Blumenfeld announced their first new project since Jake and Amir : a comedy audio podcast called If I Were You , in which they give advice to listeners who submit questions . New episodes have been released every Monday since then , and the show has featured several guest stars , including Schwartz , Middleditch , Van Veen , Seidell and Williams . Kayla Culver of The Concordian lauded the podcast as " comfortable to listen to " and " genuinely funny " and said " It 's like listening to two best friends having a hilarious conversation on the couch next to you . " The Guardian 's Miranda Sawyer called If I Were You " a typical example of a comedy podcast " and " amiable enough " , but said it contained " far too much laughing " , commenting that " New Yorkers Jake and Amir laugh and laugh , giggle and chortle their way around a topic " and " if I wanted stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness waffle with the occasional funny line , I 'd listen to [ my small children ] . "
HeadGum
In 2015 , following the success of Hurwitz and Blumenfeld 's If I Were You podcast , the duo founded the HeadGum podcasting network . HeadGum includes 11 podcasts , many of which are hosted by comedians who were involved with CollegeHumor , including Streeter Seidell and Josh Ruben . Some of the notable program that can be found on the network includes Blumenfeld 's very own If I Were You podcast , The Talk of Shame , and Gilmore Guys .
Lonely and Horny
In 2016 , Hurwitz and Blumenfeld announced their newest show " Lonely and Horny " available exclusively on Vimeo on Demand .
= = = Other work = = =
Blumenfeld starred in the 2009 short film The Old Man and the Seymour alongside colleagues Streeter Seidell and Dan Gurewitch , as well as Shawn Harrison , Liz Cackowski and Jordan Carlos . It is about a growth @-@ hormone deficient man who is mistaken for a student at his nephew 's high school . The movie was chosen as a " Staff Pick " on Vimeo , and screened at the Austin Film Festival , the Sacramento Film and Music Festival , the LA Shorts Fest , the Friars Club Comedy Film Festival and the Portable Film Festival .
In 2011 , Blumenfeld appeared in comedian Louis C.K. ' s television series Louie , during the 10th episode of its second season , entitled " Halloween / Ellie " . He played a writer hired to improve a movie script in the second half of the episode . Better With Popcorn 's George Prax said that he played " the ' unfunny ' guy who actually ends up coming off as the funniest of all to the audience " , and that Blumenfeld " should be guesting and starring in many more things " . He also called Blumenfeld 's first sitcom appearance a " clearly momentous occasion " . Blumenfeld also had a part in I Just Want My Pants Back , an MTV show produced by Doug Liman .
He played Kumar Patel 's friend Adrian in the 2011 stoner comedy film A Very Harold & Kumar 3D Christmas , alongside Thomas Lennon as Harold Lee 's friend Todd . Reviews largely did not remark on his performance , although IGN 's Eric Goldman said " there isn 't much to the Todd and Adrian scenes " , and Pajiba 's Daniel Carlson thought the scriptwriters treated the characters as " living props " . T. J. Mulligan of Movies on Film commented that " anything Adrian says or does ... elicit [ s ] a slight chuckle at best " . However , Robert Zak of WhatCulture ! commended the film 's " strong supporting cast " , saying that Lennon and Blumenfeld " provid [ ed ] constant amusement " .
As a writer , Blumenfeld works freelance for ESPN The Magazine , and contributed to the ESPN Guide to Psycho Fan Behavior . He also has a section in Mental Floss called " The Curious Comedian " .
= = Influences = =
Speaking about the role his education had in shaping his humor , Blumenfeld said : " I went to Jewish schools growing up and that 's where my sense of humor was cultivated . Everybody was funny . " Blumenfeld has said he is influenced by television programs that he watched while growing up , including The Simpsons , Seinfeld , and Saturday Night Live , which he says " taught me how to think ... absurdly ... creatively and originally about jokes that people were making " and make " jokes on jokes " . He has cited Larry David as an influence , and also likes Louie and Curb Your Enthusiasm . Blumenfeld has compared the NBC series The Office and Parks and Recreation to Jake and Amir , saying they " have these office workplace dynamics and the situations are funny and the characters are very funny " .
= = Personal life = =
Blumenfeld is Jewish , although he has described himself as " not too religious " and does not attend Temple every Saturday , nor does he keep Kosher . He does , however , celebrate Jewish holidays with his family and speaks Hebrew . He is a basketball fan , and supports the Los Angeles Lakers — his favorite players are Kobe Bryant and Nick Van Exel .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Online video = = =
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= Italian cruiser Liguria =
Liguria was a protected cruiser built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) . She was the fourth of six Regioni @-@ class cruisers , all of which were named for regions of Italy . Liguria was built by the Ansaldo shipyard in Genoa ; her keel was laid in July 1899 , she was launched in June 1893 , and was commissioned into the fleet in December 1894 . The ship was equipped with a main armament of four 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) and six 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns , and she could steam at a speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
Liguria served in a variety of roles throughout her career . She frequently was assigned to the main fleet , but in 1904 she was deployed to the American Station . In 1906 , she conducted tests with coaling while at sea , and from 1908 to 1911 , she was fitted with an experimental observation balloon . She saw extensive action during the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1911 – 12 . She took part in the seizure of Benghazi , provided gunfire support to the defenders of Tripoli , and conducted bombardments of Ottoman ports in western Libya and the Red Sea coast of Arabia . She was still in service during World War I as a training ship , but she did not see action during the conflict . Liguria was eventually sold for scrap in May 1921 .
= = Design = =
Liguria was 84 @.@ 8 meters ( 278 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 12 @.@ 03 m ( 39 @.@ 5 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 67 m ( 15 @.@ 3 ft ) . She displaced up to 3 @,@ 110 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 060 long tons ; 3 @,@ 430 short tons ) at full load . Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of horizontal triple @-@ expansion engines , with steam supplied by four cylindrical water @-@ tube boilers . On her speed trials , she reached a maximum of 18 @.@ 1 knots ( 33 @.@ 5 km / h ; 20 @.@ 8 mph ) at 5 @,@ 536 indicated horsepower ( 4 @,@ 128 kW ) . The ship had a cruising radius of about 2 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 900 km ; 2 @,@ 400 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of between 213 – 278 .
Liguria was armed with a main battery of four 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) L / 40 guns mounted singly , with two side by side forward and two side by side aft . Six 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 40 guns were placed between them , with three on each broadside . Light armament included eight 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) guns two 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and a pair of machine guns . She was also equipped with two 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . Liguria was protected by a 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick deck , and her conning tower had 50 mm thick sides .
= = Service history = =
Liguria was built by the Ansaldo shipyard in Genoa ; her keel was laid on 1 July 1889 . Shortages of funding slowed the completion Liguria and her sister ships . Tight budgets forced the Navy to reduce the pace of construction so that the funds could be used to keep the active fleet in service . It took nearly four years to complete the hull , which was launched on 8 June 1893 . Fitting @-@ out work proceeded much more quickly , and the new cruiser was ready for service a year and a half later . She was commissioned into the fleet on 1 December 1894 . That year , Liguria was assigned to the Third Division of the Italian fleet , along with San Martino , an ancient center battery ironclad , which had been launched in 1862 .
In 1902 – 03 , Liguria was in the main Italian fleet ; while in their normal peacetime training routine , the ships of the main fleet were kept in commission for exercises for seven months of the year . For the remaining five months , they were kept in a partial state of readiness with reduced crews . The ship was assigned to the American Station in 1904 , the sole Italian warship in the region . In late 1906 , the ship took part in experiments with coaling while underway . She towed the collier SS Sterope at a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) while coal was transferred via the towing cable . An average of 60 t ( 59 long tons ; 66 short tons ) of coal was transferred per hour during the test . Starting in 1908 , Liguria was modified to operate an observation balloon . This service , which lasted until 1911 , involved towing a " draken " balloon — invented by the Germans August von Parseval and Rudolf von Sigsfeld — to spot naval mines for the fleet .
At the outbreak of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in September 1911 , Liguria was stationed in Italian Eritrea with four other cruisers . She was transferred to the Mediterranean Sea , and on 18 October she joined the escort for a troop convoy headed to Benghazi . The convoy was heavily protected against a possible Ottoman attack ; the escort comprised the four Regina Elena @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , two other cruisers , and five destroyers . The Italian fleet bombarded the city the next morning after the Ottoman garrison refused to surrender . During the bombardment , parties from the ships and the infantry from the troopships went ashore . The Italians quickly forced the Ottomans to withdraw into the city by evening . After a short siege , the Ottoman forces withdrew on 29 October , leaving the city to the Italians .
Liguria thereafter moved to Tripoli , where she supported the Italians who had taken the city against Turkish counterattacks . On 9 November , she , the armored cruiser Carlo Alberto , the minelayer Partenope , and the torpedo boat Cigno provided critical gunfire support that broke a series of Ottoman attacks on the city . A month later , Liguria joined Partenope and the torpedo boats Dardo and Euro for a series of bombardments on the ports of Zuwarah , Misrata , and Argub . Liguria then returned to Tripoli with Carlo Alberto , the torpedo cruiser Iride , and several torpedo boats while most of the Italian fleet returned to Italy for refitting . In January 1912 , Liguria and her sister Elba were transferred to the Red Sea , along with a pair of fast mail steamers . The cruiser fleet in the Red Sea then began a campaign of coastal bombardments of Ottoman ports in the area . A blockade was proclaimed of the Ottoman ports , which included the cities of Al Luḩayyah and Al Hudaydah . The Ottomans eventually agreed to surrender in October , ending the war .
By the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Liguria was assigned to the Third Division of the First Squadron as a training ship . Italy declared neutrality at the start of the war , but by July 1915 , the Triple Entente had convinced the Italians to enter the war against the Central Powers . The old cruiser nevertheless saw no action during the war . She was sold for scrap on 15 May 1921 and was subsequently broken up .
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= Birmingham Americans =
The Birmingham Americans were a professional American football team located in Birmingham , Alabama . They were members of the four @-@ team Central Division of the World Football League ( WFL ) . The Americans , founded in late December 1973 , played in the upstart league 's inaugural season in 1974 . The team was owned by William " Bill " Putnam , doing business as Alabama Football , Inc .
The club played all of their home games at Legion Field . The most successful of the World Football League franchises , the Americans led the league in attendance and won all 13 of their home games . Winning their first ten games in a row , they developed a reputation for come @-@ from @-@ behind victories and winning by narrow margins . The Americans finished the 1974 regular season at 15 – 5 and won the 1974 World Bowl by one point over the Florida Blazers .
Financially unstable due to investor reluctance and lavish signing bonuses paid to lure National Football League ( NFL ) players to the new league , the team folded after only one season . Most of the team 's assets were seized to pay back taxes ; failed lawsuits to recover the signing bonus money kept the team in the headlines long after the WFL was itself defunct . The Americans were replaced as the Birmingham WFL franchise for the 1975 season by a new team called the Birmingham Vulcans .
= = Franchise history = =
Atlanta businessman William R. " Bill " Putnam was awarded an expansion franchise for Birmingham in the upstart World Football League and secured a lease to play at Legion Field . The five original investors in Alabama Football , Inc . , all Atlanta businessmen , were majority owner Bill Putnam , Cecil Day , Lon Day , Jay Donnelly , and Erv Plesko . Between them they had already invested over $ 1 @.@ 5 million in the franchise and hoped to find ten investors in Birmingham to buy in for an additional $ 150 @,@ 000 each . Unable to find local investors for the team , Putnam threatened to move the Americans from Birmingham before the start of the 1974 season . However , with more than 10 @,@ 000 season tickets sold before the first game , the team 's position in Birmingham was secured for the year .
Vince Costello , an assistant coach with the Cincinnati Bengals , was chosen as head coach / general manager . A few days after the announcement , he turned down the job to become an assistant with the Miami Dolphins . Jack Gotta , head coach of the Ottawa Rough Riders of the Canadian Football League ( CFL ) , was hired . Gotta put together a solid squad , including veteran quarterback George Mira , rookie passer Matthew Reed , wide receiver Dennis Homan , running back Charley Harraway of the Redskins , and former St. Louis Cardinals and Auburn standout safety Larry Willingham . Johnny Musso , a former Alabama fullback with the CFL 's BC Lions , was the Americans ' first round pick in the WFL 's " pro draft " in March 1974 . Birmingham selected 42 @-@ year @-@ old retired professional basketball player and former Atlanta Hawks head coach Richie Guerin in the fortieth and last round of that draft , drawing laughter from the audience . Radio play @-@ by @-@ play duties were handled by Larry Matson with color commentary provided by a series of guest commentators .
= = 1974 season = =
Birmingham competed in the Central Division , along with the Chicago Fire , Memphis Southmen , and Detroit Wheels . The team began training camp on June 3 at the Marion Military Institute in Marion , Alabama , and broke camp during the first week in July . The Americans played a 20 @-@ game regular season with no pre @-@ season games . ( The team did however play one " controlled scrimmage " against the Jacksonville Sharks on Saturday , June 29 , 1974 . ) Most games were played on Wednesday nights with nationally televised games on Thursday nights . The Americans won their first ten games , finishing the regular season 15 – 5 , in second place in the Central Division behind Memphis . Midway through the season , the World Football League Players Association was formed and Americans fullback Charley Harraway was selected to serve as its first president . Alfred Jenkins was named the team 's Most Valuable Player for the 1974 season .
= = = First half = = =
The Americans ' first game was played on July 10 , 1974 , against the Southern California Sun in front of a crowd of 53 @,@ 231 at Legion Field . ( The 53 @,@ 231 figure is the official announced attendance , including free ticket distribution . The reported paid attendance figure was actually 43 @,@ 031 for the opening game . ) Held scoreless by the Sun for the first three quarters and trailing by a touchdown at the start of the fourth quarter , the Americans came back to win 11 – 7 . In their first road game , the Americans overcame a 26 @-@ point deficit at halftime to win 32 – 29 over the New York Stars in front of 17 @,@ 943 at Downing Stadium on July 17 , 1974 . The second home game , a 58 – 33 win over the Memphis Southmen on July 24 , drew 61 @,@ 319 fans .
In the first of back @-@ to @-@ back games against the Detroit Wheels , Birmingham quarterback Matthew Reed scored the game @-@ winning touchdown with 2 : 12 remaining in the fourth quarter to secure a 21 – 18 victory . The July 31 , 1974 , road win was witnessed by 14 @,@ 614 fans in Rynearson Stadium in Ypsilanti , Michigan . Reed led a four @-@ play touchdown drive in the last 26 seconds of the Americans ' third home game to give Birmingham another win , 28 – 22 over Detroit . A reported 40 @,@ 367 fans sat through rain and foul weather to see the victory on August 7 . Weather was also a factor in the Americans ' fourth home game as driving rain delayed the start of the August 14 game against The Hawaiians and reduced attendance to 43 @,@ 297 . Fans at Legion Field saw a halftime show featuring grass skirt @-@ clad hula dancers with music provided by the Tuscaloosa High School marching band in addition to the 39 – 0 victory by Birmingham .
The Americans travelled to Florida to face the Jacksonville Sharks , 27 @,@ 140 Jacksonville fans , and the Sharks ' new coach , Charlie Tate . Birmingham managed a 15 – 14 win with a touchdown by Charlie Harraway and action point by quarterback Matthew Reed with 19 seconds remaining in the August 21 game . The Americans then went north to face the Chicago Fire on Thursday , August 29 , 1974 , in their first nationally televised game . Birmingham won that match @-@ up 22 – 8 with 44 @,@ 732 fans in attendance at Soldier Field .
A quick turnaround found the Americans back home for a Labor Day game against the Eastern Division @-@ leading Florida Blazers on Monday , September 2 , 1974 , with 36 @,@ 529 fans in the stadium . A fourth quarter scoring drive kept Birmingham 's winning streak intact with a narrow 8 – 7 win over Florida . Another short week found the Americans in action on Saturday , September 7 , 1974 , at home against the Chicago Fire . Weather was again a factor as Hurricane Carmen pushed " torrential rains " into the Birmingham area , drenching the field , the players , and the 54 @,@ 872 fans in attendance . A 34 @-@ yard field goal by Earl Sark with less than one minute to go in the game was the difference in Birmingham 's 41 – 40 victory over Chicago .
= = = Second half = = =
Four games in just two weeks proved too much for the Americans as their ten @-@ game winning streak came to an end on September 11 with a loss to the Memphis Southmen . After rallying for seven fourth @-@ quarter comebacks in their first ten games , Birmingham lost 46 – 7 in front of a 30 @,@ 675 @-@ strong crowd at Liberty Bowl Memorial Stadium .
The Americans ' nationally televised September 19 home game against the Houston Texans proved to be the last WFL game for Houston as the following week the Texans were taken over by the league and relocated to Shreveport , Louisiana . Just 33 @,@ 619 fans at Legion Field saw the 42 – 14 win for Birmingham , the beginning of a slow , downward trend in attendance figures that coincided with the start of college football season . The Americans who , in the words of UPI sportswriter Joe Carnicelli , " made the last @-@ minute score almost their trademark , " were upset 26 – 21 by the Portland Storm with 14 @,@ 273 in the stands at Portland 's Civic Stadium . The Storm scored the game @-@ winning touchdown with 35 seconds left in the September 25 road contest .
The long flight across the Pacific Ocean did not help Birmingham for their October 2 game in Honolulu . The Americans lost 14 – 8 to The Hawaiians in front of 12 @,@ 039 fans at Honolulu Stadium ( demolished in 1976 ) . Birmingham trailed after the first quarter but rallied to defeat the Portland Storm 30 – 8 in front of a below @-@ average 25 @,@ 621 hometown fans at Legion Field on October 9 . The following week , on October 16 , the Americans lost their third game in four weeks , falling 29 – 25 to the Southern California Sun before a crowd of 25 @,@ 247 in Anaheim .
In mid @-@ October , Americans team president Carol Stallworth announced that the team 's remaining home games would start at 7 p.m. to " make it easier for our early @-@ rising fans " than the original 8 p.m. kickoffs . Also , the Americans ' game schedule was adjusted to accommodate the league 's shifting and struggling franchises . The October 23 game against the Shreveport Steamer scheduled for Birmingham would be played on the road in Shreveport instead and , in return , their November 13 match @-@ up was relocated from Shreveport 's State Fair Stadium to Birmingham 's Legion Field . On the road unexpectedly , the Americans suffered their only shutout of the season , falling to the Steamer 31 – 0 in front of 24 @,@ 617 fans .
The October 30 game with the Florida Blazers was moved from Orlando to Birmingham , giving the Americans 11 home games in their 20 @-@ game regular season . This was one of two home games relocated out of Orlando as part of a legal settlement between the WFL and Blazers ownership to sell the financially troubled team , pay off debts , and get checks to players who had not been paid since mid @-@ September . Not included in the Americans ' season ticket package , this extra home game tallied the lowest home attendance to date for the Americans with 21 @,@ 872 present at Legion Field . In that game , quarterback George Mira injured his shoulder in the second quarter and rookie Matthew Reed came off the bench to lead the Americans to a 26 – 18 victory .
Birmingham scored all of their points in the first half of their November 6 home game against the Philadelphia Bell then fought off a second @-@ half comeback attempt by Philadelphia to win 26 – 23 before 22 @,@ 963 at Legion Field . With this victory , the team clinched a spot in the WFL playoffs but the Birmingham franchise 's increasing financial woes put the playing of the final regular season game in doubt . A deal with tax officials was worked out and the Americans wrapped up the regular season on November 13 with a 40 – 7 win over the Shreveport Steamer , marking three consecutive home game victories . With doubts as to whether this game would be played persisting until the day of the contest , ticket sales were poor ; only 14 @,@ 794 fans saw the final regular season game the Americans would play . Although they slumped to a .500 record in the second half , it was enough to finish second , behind Central Division @-@ winning Memphis , at 15 – 5 and take the wild card slot in the six @-@ team playoff series and earn a bye in the first round .
= = = Post @-@ season = = =
After receiving a bye from the quarterfinal playoff games , Birmingham beat the Western Division @-@ winning The Hawaiians in the semifinals , 22 – 19 , in front of a sparse 15 @,@ 379 at Legion Field . The Americans advanced to host the World Bowl , the WFL 's championship game , on Thursday , December 5 . Unpaid since early October , the Americans players staged a walkout on the Monday before the title game demanding back pay . The players returned when team ownership promised to buy each player a championship ring . The game went forward and Birmingham beat the Florida Blazers by a point , 22 – 21 . This game was played with 32 @,@ 376 fans in the stands , over 20 @,@ 000 fewer than had witnessed the Americans ' first game just five months before . This was the only championship game ever held by the WFL , as it folded 12 games into the 1975 regular season .
= = Schedule and results = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= = Financial fallout = =
In early November 1974 , Alabama Attorney General Bill Baxley filed suit in Jefferson County Circuit Court for a tax lien against the team 's property . The suit sought to recover the $ 30 @,@ 000 in state income withholding taxes and more than $ 57 @,@ 000 in sales taxes for August and September 1974 ( plus a then @-@ undetermined amount due for October 1974 ) due to the state of Alabama . The judge ordered Jefferson County 's sheriff to " attach the property , real , personal and mixed , of the defendant , wherever it may be in Jefferson County . " The team also admitted it owed roughly US $ 14 @,@ 000 in back sales taxes to both Jefferson County and to the city of Birmingham .
The Birmingham motel where the coaching staff had its offices evicted the team for non @-@ payment on November 14 . At that time , the Americans had not paid their players for five weeks , nor their staff and coaches for two weeks . On November 18 , 1974 , the Internal Revenue Service filed its own tax liens of about $ 237 @,@ 000 against the Americans and $ 160 @,@ 000 against team owner Bill Putnam .
Putnam announced at a press conference that he was trying to raise the funds to pay the team 's debts . He reported that the team had taken in about $ 2 @.@ 3 million in gate receipts to that point , which left him " only $ 300 @,@ 000 short of operating the club " , but revealed that the team had also " paid out over $ 1 @.@ 2 million in bonuses to future players . " He asserted that the team would not be in such dire financial straits if that bonus money had not been paid . Putnam said that he would need to raise $ 750 @,@ 000 by November 28 so the team could pay back taxes due to the state , county , and city as well as the salaries of players who had not been paid in four weeks . He said " If the money comes from Birmingham , we 'll stay here but if the money comes from people in Timbuktu who want the team in Timbuktu , them we 'll move there . " Putnam said a group from New York was interested in purchasing the Americans . Putnam speculated that one reason he had been unable to secure " local money " to invest in the franchise was that local interests were still hoping to bring an NFL franchise to the city .
= = = Loss of property = = =
To attempt to pay back the debt and to allow the World Bowl to be played , the teams negotiated a deal with creditors to accept a portion of the gate receipts . After paying fixed costs associated with the game , the IRS and others due money would split 30 percent of the revenue with the teams receiving the remaining 70 percent to pay long @-@ overdue player salaries . This revenue was split by the Americans and Blazers on a 60 / 40 basis with the World Bowl winners receiving the larger share . Based on gate receipts , each Americans player was to be paid about US $ 1 @,@ 400 for their World Bowl play with each Blazers player taking home about US $ 1 @,@ 000 .
Hibbett Sporting Goods had provided uniforms and football equipment to the Americans but still had not been paid US $ 38 @,@ 800 by the end of the season . Immediately after the championship victory , members of the Jefferson County Sheriff 's Department seized the team 's equipment and uniforms from the locker room . One week later , Hibbett Sporting Goods began selling the reclaimed gear as souvenirs and Christmas presents in their retail stores .
= = = Loss of players = = =
Oakland Raiders quarterback Kenny Stabler signed a contract with Birmingham in 1974 . In January 1975 , a circuit court judge found that the team was in arrears on payment of the remaining US $ 30 @,@ 000 due to Stabler of the US $ 100 @,@ 000 he was guaranteed for 1974 and so ruled that the Americans were in breach of contract and thus Stabler was released . The three @-@ year deal was to have paid Stabler US $ 100 @,@ 000 in both 1974 and 1975 while he played out his contract option with the Raiders and US $ 135 @,@ 000 for the 1976 season when he would have been playing for the Americans . The judge ruled Stabler released from his contract and voided any debt to him by the then @-@ struggling Americans franchise .
While the successor to the Americans , the Vulcans were a different organization and ownership from the Americans and did not assume any of their debts or obligations , including any of the Americans ' player contracts . The Internal Revenue Service seized the Americans player contracts and placed them up for auction in March 1975 to pay the team 's US $ 236 @,@ 691 in overdue taxes but a judge ruled all of these player contracts breached and of no value . In any case , the auction was cancelled when a judge ruled that Birmingham Trust National Bank had a valid prior claim to the contracts .
= = = Loss of franchise = = =
Newly elected WFL president Chris Hemmeter was determined to impose a measure of financial sanity on the league . Among other things , he insisted that all potential owners establish a $ 650 @,@ 000 line of credit with the league . Putnam tried to find more local investors to meet this requirement , but there were few takers .
In late January 1975 , Hemmeter revoked the Americans ' franchise due to the team 's chronic financial woes . Hemmeter stated that the Americans owed a total of $ 2 million in bills , taxes and missed player salaries . However , the league said it had every intention of placing a new team in Birmingham . Putnam responded by suing the league , demanding to be compensated with the rights to New York City . However , the suit went nowhere .
On March 7 , 1975 , Ferd Weil , as president of the board of directors of a new WFL franchise for Birmingham , announced that the Birmingham WFL team for 1975 would be called the Birmingham Vulcans , a name previously registered by a group of Birmingham businessmen who had been trying to secure an NFL franchise for Birmingham . The Vulcans began selling shares of stock to the general public . Priced at US $ 10 per share and sold only in blocks of 10 shares , the team hoped to raise $ 1 @.@ 5 million with this offering . The Vulcans officially secured the Birmingham franchise in April 1975 . When the WFL folded for good 12 games into the ill @-@ fated 1975 season , the Vulcans had the best record .
= = = Legal pursuits = = =
Kenny Stabler was not the only NFL player that the Americans signed to contracts but who never played for the WFL team . Detroit Lions wide receiver Ron Jessie was paid a $ 45 @,@ 000 signing bonus in early 1974 , to begin playing for the Americans in the 1975 season after completing his option year with the Lions . Dallas Cowboys defensive tackle Jethro Pugh and offensive tackle Rayfield Wright each received a $ 75 @,@ 000 signing bonus , with Pugh set to start playing for the Americans in 1976 and Wright in 1977 . Pittsburgh Steelers defensive end L. C. Greenwood received a $ 50 @,@ 000 signing bonus to play from 1975 . However , when the team folded both the WFL commissioner and a federal judge ruled that the player contracts had all been voided . These players remained in the NFL , playing neither for the Americans nor the successor Birmingham Vulcans team . Bill Putnam and his Alabama Football , Inc . , still the legal owners of what little remained of the Americans ' assets , made headlines through the late 1970s when he sued these NFL players claiming " breach of contract " to recover the signing bonus money . The players were ultimately able to keep the money after the 5th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled in their favor .
= = Legacy = =
Financially devastated , former Americans team president Carol Stallworth became a bartender in a downtown Birmingham sports bar in early 1975 . Most of the former Americans players signed on with the Birmingham Vulcans for the 1975 WFL season . Notable exceptions included star players Charlie Harraway , Alfred Jenkins , Paul Robinson , and veteran quarterback George Mira . The Birmingham Bulls of the World Hockey Association held " Jack Gotta Night " on December 26 , 1976 , in honor of the former Americans head coach .
By July 1976 , Americans owner Bill Putnam was working to buy a World Hockey Association franchise and relocate it to Hollywood , Florida , as the " Florida Breakers " . The team was planned to start play in October 1976 with the Hollywood Sportatorium as its home ice . In August 1976 , Putnam announced that his plan had " collapsed " but he would continue his attempts to bring a hockey franchise to south Florida .
Fans of the team organized a reunion celebration held July 9 – 10 , 2004 , in honor of the 30th anniversary of the Americans ' first game played on July 10 , 1974 , against the Southern California Sun . One reason for the festivities was to help pay for the promised World Bowl championship rings that many players did not receive from the financial failing franchise . Dayton Daily News sportswriter Chick Ludwig discovered the omission while doing research for a book . He used his investigative skills to find that Jonsil Manufacturing in El Paso , Texas , made the original rings and could create replacement rings for $ 809 each . The story received national attention which prompted Nestlé and the AF2 Birmingham Steeldogs to help sponsor the reunion at the Alabama Sports Hall of Fame in Birmingham .
As of April 2010 , three former Birmingham Americans players have been inducted into the Alabama Sports Hall of Fame . Muscle Shoals native Dennis Homan , who also played in Super Bowl V for the Dallas Cowboys , was inducted in the Class of 1999 . Oxford native Terry Henley , who also played pro football for the Atlanta Falcons , Washington Redskins , and New England Patriots , was inducted in the Class of 2000 . Cullman native Larry Willingham , who played for the St. Louis Cardinals and retired for medical reasons in 1973 but made a comeback in 1974 with the Americans , was inducted in the Class of 2003 . Willingham and Henley were also elected to the Auburn Tigers football " 1970s Team of the Decade " .
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= Edge of Tomorrow =
Edge of Tomorrow ( alternatively known by its tagline Live . Die . Repeat. and marketed as such on home release ) is a 2014 American science fiction action film starring Tom Cruise and Emily Blunt . Doug Liman directed the film based on a screenplay adapted from the 2004 Japanese light novel All You Need Is Kill by Hiroshi Sakurazaka . The film takes place in a future where Earth is invaded by an alien race . Cruise plays Bill Cage , a public relations officer with no combat experience , who is ordered by his superior to film the first wave of a crucial landing operation against the aliens . Though Cage is killed in combat , he finds himself in a time loop that sends him back to the day preceding the battle every time he dies . Cage teams up with Special Forces warrior Rita Vrataski ( Blunt ) in seeking a way to defeat the extraterrestrials .
In late 2009 , 3 Arts Productions purchased the rights to the novel and sold a spec script to the American studio Warner Bros .. The studio produced the film with the involvement of 3 Arts , the novel 's publisher Viz Media , and Australian production company Village Roadshow . Filming began in late 2012 , taking place in England at Leavesden Studios outside London , and other locations such as Trafalgar Square and Saunton Sands . Nine companies handled the visual effects .
The film was released in theaters on the weekend of May 30 , 2014 in 28 territories , including the United Kingdom , Brazil , Germany , Spain , and Indonesia . On the weekend of June 6 , 2014 it was released in 36 additional territories , including North America ( United States and Canada ) , Australia , China , and Russia . The film grossed over $ 370 million in theaters worldwide and received largely positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
An extraterrestrial race called Mimics have taken over continental Europe . NATO allies form the United Defense Force to combat the invasion , but have only won one victory at Verdun . However , humanity has managed to hold the Mimics at the English Channel . In England , General Brigham , head of the UDF , orders Major William Cage , a public affairs officer with no combat experience , to cover Operation Downfall , the next day 's massive amphibious assault on France . Cage objects to the dangerous assignment and threatens to put the blame on Brigham if the landing fails . In response , Brigham orders the arrest of Cage , who is tasered when he attempts to escape . He awakes in handcuffs at a forward operating base at Heathrow Airport ; he has been demoted to private , identified as a deserter , and assigned to J Squad under the command of Master Sergeant Farell .
The invasion proves to be disastrous ; instead of a surprise attack , the humans walk right into a Mimic trap . Cage , despite his inexperience and incompetence , kills an unusually large Mimic , but dies covered with its blood . He wakes up finding himself back at Heathrow the previous morning ; no one believes his story that the invasion is a trap . Cage repeats the loop of dying on the beach and waking at Heathrow over and over again . Finally , he encounters the famous Sergeant Rita Vrataski ( the " Angel of Verdun " ) during the invasion . She deduces his ability and tells him to locate her the next time he " wakes up " ; they both perish in an explosion .
When Cage next awakens at Heathrow , he finds Vrataski and explains what 's going on . Cage is introduced by Vrataski to Dr. Carter , a former government scientist and expert in Mimic biology . Carter explains that the Mimics are a hive mind : if an " Alpha " is killed , the Mimic hive queen , the " Omega " , responds by turning time back a day , thus giving the Mimics a seemingly unbeatable advantage . Cage acquired this ability after being doused in Alpha blood . Vrataski had herself gained this ability in Verdun , explaining her heroics in winning the battle , but lost it after receiving a blood transfusion , having been being wounded but not killed . She tells Cage that they must hunt and destroy the Omega .
Over many time loops , Vrataski trains Cage to become a more formidable soldier . Frustrated by his continued failures , he retreats to London , but discovers the Mimics will attack there after defeating the invasion force . After having a vision of the Omega in a dam in Switzerland , Cage and Vrataski spend many loops getting to the mainland and to the dam . Over the iterations , Cage comes to know Vrataski , who is humorless and only interested in killing Mimics . Upon reaching a point where she dies regardless , Cage decides to hunt the Omega alone . When he finally reaches the dam , he discovers that the Omega is not there . Realizing that the vision was a trap , Cage kills himself before an Alpha can bleed him out and remove his ability to reset the day .
After devising an alternative plan , Cage and Vrataski infiltrate the UK Ministry of Defence to obtain a prototype built by Carter that would allow Cage to see the Omega 's true location . Cage finally persuades General Brigham to give him the device , though his men then try to capture them . During the pursuit Cage uses the prototype and they discover that the Omega is under the Louvre Pyramid in Paris . However , both are captured and seriously injured . Cage wakes up in a hospital and discovered he has been given a blood transfusion , destroying his ability to reset time .
Vrataski frees Cage , and they go to Heathrow and recruit J Squad to help destroy the Omega before the invasion begins . They fly to Paris , where the other soldiers sacrifice themselves so Cage and Vrataski can get beneath the Louvre . Just before luring away an Alpha standing between them and the submerged Omega , Vrataski kisses Cage . The Alpha kills Vrataski and mortally wounds Cage , but he manages to drop a belt of grenades , destroying the Omega and neutralizing all Mimics .
The dying Cage floats down through the water into the Omega 's blood . He awakens en route to his first meeting with Brigham . Brigham announces on TV that Mimic activity has ceased following a mysterious energy surge in Paris . Cage travels to Heathrow on his own , where others treat him with respect due to his officer rank . He finds Vrataski , who is as curt to him as in previous loops , in response to which he laughs .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
Edge of Tomorrow was co @-@ produced by Warner Bros. and Village Roadshow Pictures , with the involvement of production companies 3 Arts Entertainment and Viz Productions , on a budget of $ 178 million . The screenplay is adapted from the 2004 Japanese light novel All You Need Is Kill by Hiroshi Sakurazaka .
= = = Development and writing = = =
Viz Media published the novel in North America in 2009 . After drawing the interest of producer Erwin Stoff , his company 3 Arts Entertainment optioned the novel that same year . 3 Arts collaborated with the publisher 's filmmaking subsidiary Viz Productions , headed by Jason Hoffs . Viz Media president Hidemi Fukuhara served as executive producer . Instead of making a pitch to a major studio to purchase the property and proceed with writing and producing a film adaptation , the company developed a spec script to show the studios . Stoff approached writer Dante Harper and sent him a copy of the novel . Harper found the book " too complex " to properly adapt , but , despite the prospect of not getting paid , he chose to " risk it " and accepted the job , taking eight months to write the script . Upon completion , Warner Bros. purchased it in a $ 3 million deal in April 2010 . The studio hired Doug Liman to direct the film the following August . Harper 's screenplay was listed in the 2010 edition of The Black List , a survey of most @-@ liked unproduced screenplays .
In June 2011 , Joby Harold was hired to rework the screenplay . By September , Warner approached Brad Pitt to star ; after he declined , the studio then approached Tom Cruise . Once Cruise accepted , the script changed the age of the leading role to fit the actor 's . In December 2011 , Cruise officially joined the film . Emily Blunt entered negotiations to star opposite Cruise in April 2012 . Screenwriting duo Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman also delivered a draft of their own .
Six months before filming started , Liman discarded two @-@ thirds of Harper 's original script . Jez Butterworth and John @-@ Henry Butterworth were hired to rewrite the script . Screenwriter Simon Kinberg took over from the Butterworths , and eight weeks before the start of filming , he was replaced by Christopher McQuarrie . McQuarrie was introduced to the project while directing Cruise in Jack Reacher . While reading the earlier script McQuarrie " understood very clearly what the premise of the story was and what they were looking for in terms of characters " . Even if the previous scripts were darker , Cruise stressed the importance of the story 's humor to McQuarrie . The actor compared Cage 's violent demises to Wile E. Coyote and The Road Runner , declaring , " It 's fun coming up with new ways to kill yourself . "
The screenplay did not yet have a satisfactory ending , and , despite the producers and studio executives worried about starting filming without a set conclusion , Liman opted to finish the script during principal photography . McQuarrie at one point suggested adding a twist involving the Mimics figuring out Cage 's attack on Paris and resetting time during his strike , but discarded it as " you were so exhausted by the time you got to that point . " Eventually , McQuarrie considered that focusing on the comedic aspects meant " it needed to end in a way that wasn 't harsh " , and thus opted to end the plot where it started , on the helicopter bringing Cage to London , fulfilling the notion that " comedies generally have to go back to the way things were " .
= = = Filming = = =
Production began at Leavesden Studios near London . Warner Bros. purchased Leavesden as a permanent studio site after previously renting space there for its production of the Harry Potter films . Though Liman intended to film the beach battle on location , the studio instead had a beach set built at the studio site . The set was surrounded by chroma key green screens , which the visual effects artists later used to extend the beach with plates shot at Saunton Sands in North Devon . It was intended for the battle scenes to be reminiscent of coastal battles during World War II such as the Invasion of Normandy and the Battle of Dunkirk .
Principal photography began at Leavesden on October 1 , 2012 . The Los Angeles Times said on the second day , Liman " demanded a total reshoot of everything filmed on Day 1 " , which concerned producers . Filming on the beach set was scheduled to last two weeks , but extended to nearly three months due to what the Los Angeles Times called " the director 's self @-@ described ' workshop @-@ y ' filming style " . Filming also took place in Trafalgar Square in London on November 24 , 2012 . The square was closed to the public , and tanks were brought in to film the action scenes . A former army base in the village of Barton Stacey in Hampshire , was also used as a filming location for two weeks .
Liman said filming took place seven days a week using two crews to film 20 days in addition to what had originally been scheduled . The crew struggled with changeable British weather since the film was supposed to be set in one day and had to maintain the same weather . The indoor beach set also became muddy , requiring the effects artists to enhance the environment with digital sand and surf . Though filming concluded by August 2013 , actor Jeremy Piven was added to the cast and extra scenes including him were filmed ; ultimately , however , Piven did not appear in the finished film . Cinematographer Dion Beebe made his first feature film with Liman , with whom he had worked previously on commercials . Beebe 's approach was to develop " a world under siege , but not a bleak , dark , post @-@ apocalyptic landscape " ; Beebe preferred to avoid the saturated bleach bypass look . 35mm film was used instead of digital cameras to evoke the World War II footage that provided inspiration for the battle scenes .
= = = Battle suits = = =
Production designer Oliver Scholl and his team worked with lead builder Pierre Bohanna to develop concept art for several battle suit options based on contemporary , real @-@ world powered exoskeleton initiatives , such as those supported by DARPA . When director Doug Liman chose a design , the team built an aluminum prototype frame that had pivot points and hinges . Costume designer Kate Hawley contributed a gritty aesthetic design for the color palettes and surface treatments . While the design was meant to be utilitarian , it was also created so the actors could be seen in the suits and also run in them . The team created a foam mock @-@ up of Tom Cruise so the frame could be tailored for him . The team handcrafted 70 hard material and 50 soft material battle suits in the course of almost five months . There were three versions of the battle suits : " grunts , dogs , and tanks " . The battle suit for Blunt 's character had red slash marks sprayed on to reflect a Joan of Arc quality .
Cruise , known for performing his own film stunts , also did so in Edge of Tomorrow . Both he and Blunt wore the heavy metal suits . The battle suits weighed 85 pounds ( 39 kg ) on average . One of the heavier versions was around 130 pounds ( 59 kg ) due to it being equipped with a mock sniper rifle and rocket launcher . Blunt trained three months for her role , " focusing on everything from weights to sprints to yoga , aerial wire work and gymnastics " , and studying the Israeli combat system Krav Maga .
Each actor needed four people to help put on the battle suit . Initially , Cruise needed 30 minutes to put on the suit and another 30 minutes to remove it . Ultimately , the time was reduced to 30 seconds . Between takes , the actors would be suspended by chains from iron frames to take the weight of the suits off their shoulders .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Nine companies handled the visual effects for Edge of Tomorrow under VFX supervisor Nick Davis . Davis worked with the crew of The Third Floor on the film 's previsualization process . Sony Pictures Imageworks ( SPI ) worked on the first two acts of the film and created over 400 shots , including photorealistic environments , battle scenes , and computer @-@ generated creatures and characters . One major shot involved covering London Heathrow Airport with military troops , vehicles , and aircraft ; SPI split some of the work with RodeoFX . Cinesite joined late in the production and developed 221 shots for ten key sequences , with 189 appearing in the final cut .
Designers created the alien Mimics to look different from any terrestrial animal . Davis and Liman favored an early model composed primarily of tentacles . SPI 's Dan Kramer described its appearance as " heavy black spaghetti " and noted that the modelers faced a challenge creating the tentacled creatures . A technical animator created an Autodesk Maya plugin that made the movement of each tentacle independent . Since Liman did not want the Mimics to look " too organic or terrestrial " , Imageworks ' artists devised the idea of making the aliens out of an obsidian @-@ like material , " basically a glass that could cut " . Various debris was incorporated within the tentacles to give the creature a sense of weight and fast movement . The Alphas were given a definable head area to show their status as more sentient , while receiving a different color and a bigger size compared to the Mimic grunts . Cinesite created the mechanical Mimics used in the training areas , while MPC created the Omega in a digital environment into which the effects artists composited underwater footage filmed at Leavesden 's water tank .
Animators created digital versions of the battle suits , at times with the soldiers inside them . On the set a 3D scanner booth digitized the actors , while hand scanners captured the textures of the practical suits . Imageworks received pieces of the suits for reference . The company 's library of reflection data on various materials helped enhance the armor 's shading . SPI 's crew created the base at Heathrow by merging the set at Leavesden with digitally altered footage from the airport ; the film 's drop ships , barracks and mess halls , replaced the existing aircraft . Framestore created the digital Paris and recreated it with photomodeling from three days of visits . Given that the city is a no @-@ fly zone , Framestore 's artists obtained their aerial images by climbing an 80 @-@ meter crane parked in the Louvre courtyard . The quadcopter dropships were based on the Bell Boeing V @-@ 22 Osprey that can tilt its rotors to fly as either planes or helicopters , while having a design closer to the Quad TiltRotor . Aside from the crashed ship on the beachhead and a gimbal set to depict the plane used by Cage 's squad , the film used digital models for most ships . The computer @-@ generated dropships had some of Imageworks ' heaviest detail given the proximity of the actors to the aircraft in the camp scenes ; the effects artists wanted to make sure the ships broke apart in a realistic way during the crashes .
Prime Focus World converted the film into 3D in post @-@ production using the same tools for the stereoscopy in World War Z and Gravity . The company made use of scans of the cast 's faces from film production while vendor Nvizible helped the company convert the hologram table used by Dr. Carter .
= = = Music = = =
Composer Christophe Beck was a late addition to the film , taking over from Ramin Djawadi , who was Liman 's first choice to replace his frequent collaborator John Powell , as Powell was on sabbatical . Edge of Tomorrow marked Beck 's first science fiction film score . To prepare , Beck watched the film with temp tracks , including one from the 2012 film Battleship . He experimented with repeating the music with the scenes , but because this approach did not frequently fit the events on the screen , Beck used minimal repetition in the film . " The day is reset dozens of times in the film and it would get very repetitive to approach that musically the same way every time " , Beck recalled . He initially tried for " traditional heroic themes " that involved horns and trumpets , but he said Liman " preferred a non @-@ traditional approach , driven by percussion and distorted orchestra " . To that end , Beck used the pizzicato playing technique , " not in the traditional , plinky @-@ plinky @-@ isn 't @-@ this @-@ funny way , but a little darker , and always accompanied by some higher concept synth colors " . The distorted orchestral samples enhanced the comedic tone of the extended sequences where Cage recurrently dies in battle , as the director felt it was important for the audience to find humor in this sequence . With Liman 's approach , the composer said there were " only a couple of traditional themes " in the film , including one for Emily Blunt 's character Rita .
= = Release = =
= = = Marketing = = =
Warner Bros. invested over $ 100 million in a marketing campaign for Edge of Tomorrow . The film was initially titled All You Need Is Kill after the light novel . In July 2013 , Warner Bros. changed the title to Edge of Tomorrow ; Warner Bros. president Sue Kroll said the title was changed partly due to " negative chatter " about the word " kill " in the title . The film was promoted at Comic @-@ Con in San Diego , California in July 2013 , and at WonderCon in Anaheim , California in April 2014 . Turner Broadcasting , a subsidiary of Time Warner like the studio Warner Bros. , promoted the film across its TV properties , including CNN , TNT , TBS , Adult Swim , TruTV , and Funny or Die . Variety said the move " put forth the notion that buying bigger packages of advertisements across a TV company 's holdings is a viable option in an increasingly fragmented TV @-@ viewing landscape " . Turner also launched a website which would unlock film @-@ related content like " a 3D game , back stories and artwork " if its promotional hashtag was circulated enough through the social media website Twitter .
Viz Media released a new edition of the light novel on April 29 , 2014 , retitled Edge of Tomorrow . It also published a graphic novel adaptation of the light novel on May 5 , 2014 .
For the film 's release on home media , Warner Bros. formed two teams for a September 28 , 2014 , Tough Mudder endurance event series in Black Diamond , Washington . The teams included YouTube personalities and participants from the TV series American Ninja Warrior . Warner Bros. based the teams on the soldiers from " J Squad " in the film . To promote teamwork , the two teams competed in a Tough Mudder obstacle course .
= = = Box office forecast = = =
Weeks before the film 's release , reports in early May 2014 predicted an underwhelming performance in the North American ( United States and Canada ) box office for Edge of Tomorrow . Variety noted a " worrisome lack of buzz " leading up to the film 's release . Initial box office tracking at the start of the month for the film estimated a gross between $ 25 million and $ 30 million on its opening weekend . Several weeks later , the estimate decreased by $ 5 million . The film planned to compete with The Fault in Our Stars in the same opening weekend with an equivalent estimated gross around $ 25 million . The Wrap predicted that this competition could potentially impact the opening weekend gross of Edge of Tomorrow . In contrast , Variety said Edge of Tomorrow could serve as counterprogramming to The Fault in Our Stars since that film 's demographic is women under 25 years old .
With its budget of over $ 175 million , The Hollywood Reporter called Edge of Tomorrow , one of the " biggest box @-@ office risks " in North America for mid @-@ 2014 . The trade paper said the film was similar to Oblivion , a 2013 science fiction film that also starred Tom Cruise , and that like Oblivion , it would likely perform better outside North America . Box Office Mojo reported that four of Cruise 's films with original material — Valkyrie ( 2008 ) , Knight and Day ( 2010 ) , Jack Reacher ( 2012 ) , and Oblivion ( 2013 ) — failed to gross more than $ 100 million in North America . The website forecast that Edge of Tomorrow would gross $ 90 million in North America and $ 220 million in other territories . TheWrap said that the studio focused on theatrical releases in other territories where Cruise " remains a major force " in drawing audiences . Variety , writing from the US perspective , said , " Media reports have been quick to speculate that Edge of Tomorrow may be one of the summer 's first big bombs based on the lack of enthusiasm by U.S. audiences . That may come to pass , but these reports downplay the centrality of foreign markets in today 's globalized movie industry . "
In the week prior to the release of Edge of Tomorrow in North America , its estimated opening @-@ weekend gross increased from the mid- $ 20 million range to $ 27 million .
= = = Theatrical run = = =
Edge of Tomorrow initiated its theatrical run in several territories on May 28 , 2014 , and rolled out to a total of 28 territories for its opening weekend of May 30 – June 1 , 2014 . It grossed $ 20 @.@ 1 million on its opening weekend . For the second weekend of June 6 – 8 , 2014 , it was released in 36 additional territories . Edge of Tomorrow grossed $ 100 @.@ 2 million in North America and $ 270 @.@ 3 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $ 370 @.@ 5 million . After the film 's theatrical run , Entertainment Weekly said it had a " lukewarm box @-@ office reception " despite praise from critics .
= = = = Opening weekend = = = =
The film had premiere screenings in London , Paris , and New York City on May 28 , 2014 . The cast and the crew mimicked the film 's time loop premise by attending the premieres in a single day , traveling westward to attend them on a staggered schedule . The film was screened in New York City at 11 : 59 pm , the time chosen to refer to the film title . The film was released in theaters in 28 territories — including the United Kingdom , Brazil , Germany , Spain , and Indonesia — on the weekend of May 30 , 2014 . Certain territories with strong association football followings were chosen so the film could screen to audiences before the month @-@ long 2014 FIFA World Cup began on June 12 , 2014 . Edge of Tomorrow competed against Maleficent starring Angelina Jolie , which opened the same weekend in 46 territories .
On its opening weekend in 5 @,@ 018 screens across 28 territories , Edge of Tomorrow grossed $ 20 @.@ 1 million . The Hollywood Reporter called the film 's debut a " soft " opening . In many territories , Edge of Tomorrow ranked third behind fellow new release Maleficent and holdover X @-@ Men : Days of Future Past . These included the United Kingdom , where the film ranked third and grossed $ 3 @.@ 1 million , where Cruise 's 2013 film Oblivion had opened with $ 7 @.@ 6 million , and Germany , with an income of $ 2 @.@ 1 million compared to Oblivion 's $ 2 @.@ 6 million . Edge of Tomorrow ranked first in Indonesia and Taiwan , grossing $ 2 million and $ 1 @.@ 9 million , respectively . Its opening weekend in 286 screens in Indonesia was Tom Cruise 's biggest opening to date in the country . The film also grossed $ 1 @.@ 5 million in Italy and $ 1 @.@ 5 million in Spain . Deadline.com said the film had good word of mouth , citing significant increases in Saturday grosses compared to the Friday grosses in the United Kingdom , Germany , and Spain . Bloomberg Businessweek reported that $ 110 million was grossed in the first week of release and summarized its debut , " While it did solid business in Asia , its reception in Germany , France , and the U.K. has been tepid . "
= = = = Second weekend = = = =
In the first week of June 2014 , Edge of Tomorrow opened in 36 additional markets , including North America , China , Russia , South Korea and France . The film was now showing in 63 countries and 19 @,@ 000 screens . The film led the global weekend box office with $ 28 @.@ 8 million in North America and $ 82 million elsewhere . The debut in China occurred on Monday , June 2 , to take advantage of the Dragon Boat Festival holiday . Edge of Tomorrow topped the Chinese box office with $ 26 @.@ 7 million , encompassing 4 @.@ 06 million admissions in 99 @,@ 768 screenings . Edge of Tomorrow 's debut in both Russia ( $ 8 @.@ 6 million ) and South Korea ( $ 3 @.@ 8 million , taking advantage of a five @-@ day holiday ) marked Tom Cruise 's highest opening weekend in both countries .
Edge of Tomorrow was released in 3 @,@ 490 theaters in North America on June 6 , 2014 . The ticket service Fandango reported advance tickets surpassed Tom Cruise 's previous film Oblivion , but were being overcome by the competing film The Fault in Our Stars . Edge of Tomorrow grossed $ 28 @.@ 8 million on the opening weekend , ranking it third below The Fault in Our Stars ( $ 48 million ) and Maleficent ( $ 34 @.@ 3 million ) . Polling firm CinemaScore said 61 % of the opening weekend audiences were male . It reported that audiences overall gave Edge of Tomorrow a " B + " grade , where younger filmgoers gave " A " and " A – " grades . The Los Angeles Times said the disappointing box office performances of non @-@ franchise films Edge of Tomorrow and Blended , both produced and distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures , indicated risky investments by the studio , which had better success earlier in the year with franchise films The Lego Movie and Godzilla ( 2014 ) .
= = = = Subsequent weekends = = = =
In its second weekend of release in North America ( June 13 – 15 , 2014 ) , Edge of Tomorrow had a " light " second @-@ weekend drop of 43 % due to word of mouth and grossed $ 16 @.@ 5 million on the second weekend . In the same weekend in territories outside North America , the film was on 14 @,@ 725 screens . With approximately 5 @.@ 1 million admissions , it grossed $ 37 @.@ 3 million . China , Russia , and South Korea respectively had the film 's largest weekend grosses among the territories . In South Korea , the film ranked first at the box office for two consecutive weekends , grossing a total of $ 25 @.@ 65 million by June 17 , 2014 .
In Japan , Edge of Tomorrow was released on July 4 , 2014 , under the light novel 's title All You Need Is Kill . The film opened second in the weekend rankings behind Maleficent , with an intake of $ 4 @.@ 5 million . As of November 30 , 2014 , with $ 15 @.@ 3 million , Edge of Tomorrow is the sixth highest @-@ grossing foreign movie of the year in Japan , and the 21st overall .
= = = Home media = = =
Edge of Tomorrow was released on DVD , Blu @-@ ray Disc , and video on demand in the United States on October 7 , 2014 . The Blu @-@ ray disc includes over 90 minutes of bonus features . The home release 's packaging downplays the original Edge of Tomorrow title in favor of placing more prominence on the film 's original tagline , " Live . Die . Repeat . " Media critics believed that the re @-@ branding was an attempt by Warner Bros. to re @-@ launch the film 's marketing following its lackluster U.S. box office performance . Posters for the film 's theatrical release had similarly placed a larger emphasis on the " Live . Die . Repeat . " tagline than the actual title of the film . Similarly , some digital retailers listed the film under the title Live Die Repeat : Edge of Tomorrow . The film ranked first in home media sales for the week beginning October 7 , with 62 % of sales coming from the Blu @-@ ray version .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Edge of Tomorrow received largely positive reviews from critics . Critics praised the humor , the aliens ' design , the performances of Cruise and Blunt , and the time @-@ loop premise 's ability to remain fresh . However , some critics had issues with the film 's conclusion . Based on 279 reviews , review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 90 % of critics gave the film a positive review , with a rating average of 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 . The website 's critical consensus reads : " Gripping , well @-@ acted , funny , and clever , Edge of Tomorrow offers entertaining proof that Tom Cruise is still more than capable of shouldering the weight of a blockbuster action thriller . " Another aggregator Metacritic surveyed 43 critics and assessed 35 reviews as positive and eight as mixed , with none negative . Based on the reviews , it gave the film a score of 71 out of 100 , which it said indicated " generally favorable reviews " .
Justin Chang of Variety called Edge of Tomorrow " a cleverly crafted and propulsively executed sci @-@ fi thriller " , saying that the film was director Doug Liman 's best since The Bourne Identity ( 2002 ) . Chang said that the screenwriters , with the assistance of the editors , " tell their story in a breezy narrative shorthand ( and at times , sleight @-@ of @-@ hand ) , transforming what must surely be an unbelievably tedious gauntlet for our hero into a deft , playful and continually involving viewing experience " . Regarding the relationship between Cruise and Blunt 's characters , Chang said " Liman handles it with a pleasing lightness of touch that extends to the proceedings as a whole . " He also commended the visual effects of the " expertly designed Mimics " as well as Dion Beebe 's cinematography .
Todd McCarthy , writing for The Hollywood Reporter , said the film was " a narratively ambitious sci @-@ fi actioner " that " takes a relatively playful attitude toward the familiar battle tropes " . McCarthy said that , despite the humor , he found the time loop premise " tedious " and that " the final stretch becomes dramatically unconvincing and visually murky " . However , he also called the effects " exciting , convincing and gritty " and applauded Gleeson and Paxton in their supporting roles . Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times gave the film a positive review , considering the film " a star @-@ driven mass @-@ market entertainment that 's smart , exciting and unexpected while not stinting on genre satisfactions " that broke a string of " cookie @-@ cutter , been @-@ there blockbusters " .
Edge of Tomorrow was listed on 23 critics ' top ten lists ( out of 201 evaluated ) .
= = = Accolades = = =
The theatrical trailer for Edge of Tomorrow was nominated at the 15th Annual Golden Trailer Awards for Best Action and for Best Summer 2014 Blockbuster Trailer , but lost to The Hunger Games : Catching Fire and Godzilla , respectively . The film also received nominations at the 2014 Teen Choice Awards for Best Action Film , Best Action Actor ( Tom Cruise ) , and Best Action Actress ( Emily Blunt ) , but lost to Divergent . The Japanese government gave director Doug Liman the Annual Japan Cool Content Contribution Award , an accolade that recognizes creatives who popularize Japanese media for worldwide audiences .
Edge of Tomorrow was nominated for Critics ' Choice Movie Awards in the following categories : Best Visual Effects , Best Action Movie , Best Actor in an Action Movie , and Best Actress in an Action Movie , with Blunt winning the latter .
= = Social commentary = =
= = = Gender roles = = =
Emily Blunt plays Sergeant Rita Vrataski , a veteran who guides and trains Tom Cruise 's character , Major William Cage . Blunt said of her role , " In these male @-@ fueled genres , it 's usually the woman who 's holding the hand of the guy and he 's running through explosions leading her , and I wanted to be doing the leading . " Chris Nashawaty , reviewing the film for Entertainment Weekly , called it " the most feminist summer action flick in years " . Bustle 's Alicia Lutes described Rita as " ruthless and exacting in her takedown ... of a bunch of aliens " and said : " This is very much counter to the age @-@ old ideals about ladies being the constant , delicate flowers of emotional heartstring @-@ pulling . " Lutes noted how Cage 's strength depended on Rita 's guidance , as " she trains him , aids him , and protects him ( and in turn the fate of humanity ) time and time again . " Tasha Robinson , writing a piece in The Dissolve about " strong female characters " that lack real purpose in films , said that Rita in Edge of Tomorrow was an exception . Robinson acknowledged that Rita existed to support Cage in his trials , but believed that " the story doesn 't degrade , devalue , weaken , or dismiss her " .
In contrast , The Wire 's Esther Zuckerman criticized the inclusion of a romantic relationship in the film , and said of the two characters ' kiss : " There 's a case to be made that the kiss is simply an acceptance of their fate , but everything we know about Rita up until this point implies that she 's a dedicated soldier , and making her a sudden romantic betrays her character . " Zuckerman added : " That 's not to say she can 't soften up a bit as humans do , but the moment reads less like she 's accepting her humanity and more like the filmmakers had to acknowledge two attractive leads ... who should lock lips because that 's what men and women do in movies . " Writing in The Week , Monika Bartyzel also criticized the romance in the film , stating that Rita is the one who kisses Cage , despite knowing him for only a day where he had known her for multiple days via time loop . Bartyzel said that Rita 's portrayal was part of a commonly seen motif in which a female character helps a male " Chosen One " character , and that this was " the new normal because it allows Hollywood to appeal to feminist concerns while continuing to feed male wish fulfillment " . Bartyzel said that Rita " at her most powerful " ultimately serves " to make the male hero into a fighter like herself " .
= = = Comparison to video games = = =
Liman said that the film 's repeated scenes intentionally paralleled the respawning feature in video games , where players have to start over on a level when their character dies . In the afterword of All You Need Is Kill , author Hiroshi Sakurazaka notes his experience playing video games as a source of inspiration while writing the novel . Salon 's Ryan Leas said analyses of the film noted that it " steals from the video game genre " . Leas called Edge of Tomorrow 's looped action " a meta @-@ commentary on the blockbuster genre " , saying : " It 's a blockbuster interested in the question of how mind @-@ numbing its genre has become to its viewers . " Comparing Edge of Tomorrow to film adaptations of video games , Wired 's Angela Watercutter said Liman 's film was more successful for basing itself around the medium 's narrative structure , and for its " ability to continue after ' Game Over ' and discover something new " .
= = Sequel = =
McQuarrie told Collider that Cruise had an idea for a sequel , and that the concept is " locked and loaded " . In April 2016 Doug Liman had signed on to direct the sequel , while screenwriters of Race , Joe Shrapnel and Anna Waterhouse will write the script for the film .
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= Thomas the Slav =
Thomas the Slav ( c . 760 – October 823 AD ) was a 9th @-@ century Byzantine military commander , most notable for leading a wide @-@ scale revolt in 821 – 23 against Emperor Michael II the Amorian ( ruled 820 – 29 ) .
An army officer of Slavic origin from the Pontus region ( now north @-@ eastern Turkey ) , Thomas rose to prominence , along with the future emperors Michael II and Leo V the Armenian ( r . 813 – 820 ) , under the protection of general Bardanes Tourkos . After Bardanes 's failed rebellion in 803 , Thomas fell into obscurity until Leo V 's rise to the throne , when Thomas was raised to a senior military command in central Asia Minor . After the murder of Leo and usurpation of the throne by Michael the Amorian , Thomas revolted , claiming the throne for himself . Thomas quickly secured support from most of the themes ( provinces ) and troops in Asia Minor , defeated Michael 's initial counter @-@ attack and concluded an alliance with the Abbasid Caliphate . After winning over the maritime themes and their ships as well , he crossed with his army to Europe and laid siege to Constantinople . The imperial capital withstood Thomas 's attacks by land and sea , while Michael II called for help from the Bulgarian ruler Omurtag . Omurtag attacked Thomas 's army , but although repelled , the Bulgarians inflicted heavy casualties on Thomas 's men , who broke and fled when Michael took to the field a few months later . Thomas and his supporters sought refuge in Arcadiopolis , where he was soon blockaded by Michael 's troops . In the end , Thomas 's supporters surrendered him in exchange for a pardon , and he was executed .
Thomas 's rebellion was one of the largest in the Byzantine Empire 's history , but its precise circumstances are unclear due to competing historical narratives , which have come to include claims fabricated by Michael to blacken his opponent 's name . Consequently , various motives and driving forces have been attributed to Thomas and his followers . As summarized by the Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium , " Thomas 's revolt has been variously attributed to a reaction against Iconoclasm , a social revolution and popular uprising , a revolt by the Empire 's non @-@ Greek ethnic groups , Thomas 's personal ambitions , and his desire to avenge Leo V. " Its effects on the military position of the Empire , particularly vis @-@ à @-@ vis the Arabs , are also disputed .
= = Early life and career = =
The 11th @-@ century Theophanes Continuatus states that Thomas was descended from South Slavs resettled in Asia Minor by successive Byzantine emperors , while the 10th @-@ century chronicler Genesios calls him " Thomas from Lake Gouzourou , of Armenian race " . Most modern scholars support his Slavic descent and believe his birthplace to have been near Gaziura in the Pontus . Hence his epithet of " the Slav " , which has been applied to him only in modern times . Nothing is known about his family and early life , except that his parents were poor and that Thomas himself had received no education . Given that he was between 50 and 60 years old at the time of the rebellion , he was probably born around 760 .
Two different accounts of Thomas 's life are recounted in both Genesios and Theophanes Continuatus . According to the first account , Thomas first appeared in 803 accompanying general Bardanes Tourkos , and pursued a military career until launching his revolt in late 820 . In the second version , he came to Constantinople as a poor youth and entered the service of a man with the high court rank of patrikios . Then , discovered trying to commit adultery with his master 's wife , Thomas fled to the Arabs in Syria , where he remained for 25 years . Pretending to be the murdered emperor Constantine VI ( r . 780 – 797 ) , he then led an Arab @-@ sponsored invasion of Asia Minor , but was defeated and punished . Classical and Byzantine scholar J.B. Bury tried to reconcile the two narratives , placing Thomas 's flight to the Abbasid Caliphate at around 788 and then having him return to Byzantine service before 803 , while the Russian scholar Alexander Vasiliev interpreted the sources as implying that Thomas fled to the Caliphate at Constantine VI 's deposition in 797 , and that his participation in Bardanes 's revolt must be discounted entirely . The second version of Thomas 's story is explicitly preferred by Genesios and Theophanes Continuatus , and is the only one recorded in 9th @-@ century sources , namely the chronicle of George the Monk and the Life of Saints David , Symeon , and George of Lesbos . Nevertheless , the French Byzantinist Paul Lemerle came to consider it an unreliable later tradition created by his rival Michael II to discredit Thomas , and rejected it altogether , preferring to rely on the first account alone . Most modern scholars follow him in this interpretation .
The first tradition relates that Thomas served as a spatharios ( staff officer ) to Bardanes Tourkos , the monostrategos ( " single @-@ general " , i.e. commander @-@ in @-@ chief ) of the eastern themes , who in 803 rose in rebellion against Emperor Nikephoros I ( r . 802 – 811 ) . Alongside Thomas were two other young spatharioi in Bardanes 's retinue , who formed a fraternal association : Leo the Armenian , the future Leo V , and Michael the Amorian , the future Michael II . According to a later hagiographic tradition , before launching his revolt , Bardanes , in the company of his three young protégés , is said to have visited a monk near Philomelion who was reputed to foresee the future . The monk predicted what would indeed happen : that Bardanes 's revolt would fail , that Leo and Michael would both become emperors , and that Thomas would be acclaimed emperor and killed . When Bardanes did in fact rise up , he failed to win any widespread support . Leo and Michael soon abandoned him and defected to the imperial camp and were rewarded with senior military posts . Thomas alone remained loyal to Bardanes until his surrender . In the aftermath of Bardanes 's failure , Thomas disappears from the sources for ten years . Bury suggests that he fled ( for a second time according to his interpretation ) to the Arabs , a view accepted by a number of other scholars , such as Romilly James Heald Jenkins . The historian Warren Treadgold , however , argues that Thomas stayed in the empire and that may have even remained in active military service , and explains his obscurity by Thomas 's association with Bardanes , which hampered his career .
In July 813 , Leo the Armenian became emperor and quickly rewarded his old companions , giving them command over elite military forces . Michael received the tagma of the Excubitors ( one of the professional guard cavalry regiments stationed around Constantinople ) , and Thomas the tourma ( division ) of the Foederati , stationed in the Anatolic Theme .
= = Rebellion = =
= = = Background and motives = = =
On Christmas Day 820 , Leo was murdered in the palace chapel by officials under the direction of Michael the Amorian , who was quickly crowned emperor . At about the same time , Thomas launched a rebellion in the Anatolic Theme . Sources are divided on the exact chronology and motives of the revolt . George the Monk , the hagiographic sources , and a letter from Michael II to the western emperor Louis the Pious claim that Thomas had risen up against Leo before Michael 's usurpation . This chronology is followed by almost all later Byzantine chroniclers like Genesios , Theophanes Continuatus , and Skylitzes , as well as a number of modern scholars like John B. Bury and Alexander Kazhdan . In his study of Thomas and the revolt , Paul Lemerle dismisses this timeline as a later attempt by Michael to justify his revolt as a response to Leo 's failure to suppress the rebellion , and to exculpate himself of the early defeats suffered by the imperial forces . Some recent studies follow Lemerle and prefer the account of Symeon Logothetes — generally considered the most accurate of the 10th @-@ century sources — according to which Thomas rebelled a few days after the murder of Leo and in reaction to it .
Consequently , the empire became divided in a struggle that was less a rebellion against the established government and more a contest for the throne between equal contenders . Michael held Constantinople and the European provinces , controlled the imperial bureaucracy , and had been properly crowned by the Patriarch , but he had come to the throne through murder , while Thomas gained support and legitimacy through his claim to avenge the fallen Leo , and he won the backing of themes both in Asia and later in Europe . Thomas was a well @-@ known , popular , and respected figure in Asia Minor , where Leo V had enjoyed considerable support . Michael , on the other hand , was virtually unknown outside the capital ; his military record was unremarkable , he was uneducated and coarse of manner , his stutter earned him ridicule , and he was reputed to sympathize with the heretical religious sect of the Athinganoi , to which his family had belonged .
Byzantine accounts of Thomas 's rebellion state that he did not in fact claim the throne under his own name but assumed the identity of Emperor Constantine VI , who had been deposed and murdered by his mother , Irene of Athens , in 797 . Most modern scholars follow Lemerle , who dismisses this as yet another later fabrication . If it contains any truth , it is possible that this story may originate from Thomas choosing to be crowned under the regnal name of " Constantine " , but there is no evidence for such an act . The possible appropriation of Constantine VI 's identity is linked in some Byzantine sources with the statement that Thomas was a rumoured supporter of iconolatry , as opposed to Michael 's support for iconoclasm : it was under Constantine VI that veneration of the icons was restored . Nevertheless , the ambiguous phrasing of the sources , the iconoclast leanings of many themes in Asia Minor , and Thomas 's alliance with the Arabs seem to speak against any open commitment to icon worship on his part . However , given Michael II 's conciliatory approach during his early reign , the icon worship controversy does not seem to have been a major issue at the time , and in the view of modern scholars most probably did not play a major role in Thomas 's revolt . The image of Thomas as an iconophile champion opposed to the iconoclast Michael II in later , Macedonian @-@ era sources was probably the result of their own anti @-@ iconoclast bias . Warren Treadgold furthermore suggests that if true , Thomas 's claim to be Constantine VI may have been little more than a tale circulated to win support , and that Thomas pursued a " studied ambiguity " towards icons , designed to attract support from iconophiles . In Treadgold 's words , " Thomas could be all things to all men until he had conquered the whole empire , and then he would have time enough to disappoint some of his followers " .
The account of Theophanes Continuatus on Thomas 's revolt states that in this time , " the servant raised his hand against his master , the soldier against his officer , the captain against his general " . This has led some scholars , chiefly Alexander Vasiliev and George Ostrogorsky , to regard Thomas 's revolt as an expression of widespread discontent among the rural population , which suffered under heavy taxation . Other Byzantinists , notably Lemerle , dismiss rural discontent as a primary factor during the revolt .
Genesios and other chroniclers further state that Thomas won the support of " Hagarenes , Indians , Egyptians , Assyrians , Medians , Abasgians , Zichs , Iberians , Kabirs , Slavs , Huns , Vandals , Getae , the sectarians of Manes , Laz , Alanians , Chaldians , Armenians and every kind of other peoples " . This has led to modern claims that Thomas 's rebellion represented an uprising of the empire 's non @-@ Greek ethnic groups , but according to Lemerle , this exaggerated account is yet another piece of hostile disinformation . It is almost certain , however , that Thomas could count on support among the empire 's Caucasian neighbours , for the presence of Abasgians , Armenians , and Iberians in his army is mentioned in the near @-@ contemporary letter of Michael II to Louis the Pious . The reasons for this support are unclear ; Thomas may have made unspecified promises to their rulers , but Lemerle suggests that the Armenians might have in part been motivated by revenge for Leo , their murdered kinsman .
= = = Outbreak and spread of the revolt in Asia Minor = = =
As commander of the Foederati , Thomas was based at Amorion , the capital of the Anatolic Theme . Although junior to the theme 's strategos ( military governor ) , his proclamation received widespread support throughout Asia Minor . Within a short time , all the Asian themes supported Thomas , except for the Opsician Theme under the patrician Katakylas , a nephew of Michael II , and the Armeniac Theme , under its strategos , Olbianos . The Thracesian Theme wavered between the two rivals , but finally threw its support behind Thomas . More than two @-@ thirds of the empire 's Asian army eventually aligned with Thomas , while the defection of the provincial tax officials provided him with much @-@ needed revenue .
Michael 's first response was to order the Armeniac army to attack Thomas . The Armeniacs were easily defeated in battle and Thomas proceeded through the eastern parts of the Armeniac Theme to occupy the frontier region of Chaldia . His conquest of the Armeniac province was left incomplete because the Abbasids , taking advantage of the Byzantine civil war , launched raids by land and sea against southern Asia Minor , where Thomas had left few troops . Instead of returning to face these raids , Thomas launched a large @-@ scale invasion of his own against Abbasid territory in spring 821 , either in Syria ( according to Bury and others ) or in Arab @-@ held Armenia ( according to Treadgold ) . Thomas then sent an emissary to the Caliph al @-@ Ma 'mun , who was sufficiently impressed by Thomas 's show of force to receive his proposals , especially in view of the Caliphate 's own problems with the rebellion of the Khurramites under Babak Khorramdin . Thomas and Ma 'mun concluded a treaty of peace and mutual alliance . The Caliph allowed Thomas to recruit men from Arab @-@ ruled territories , and gave leave for him to cross the border and travel to Arab @-@ held Antioch , where he was crowned emperor by the iconophile Patriarch of Antioch , Job . In exchange , Thomas is said to have promised to cede unspecified territories and become a tributary vassal of the Caliph , though the agreement 's exact terms are left unclear in the sources . At about the same time , Thomas adopted a young man of obscure origin , whom he named Constantius and made his co @-@ emperor .
Meanwhile , Michael II tried to win support among the iconophiles by appointing a relative of his as Archbishop of Ephesus , but his plan failed when the latter refused to be consecrated by the avowedly iconoclast Patriarch Antony I Kassimates . In an effort to consolidate his hold on the provinces , and especially the two Asian themes still loyal to him , Michael proclaimed a 25 percent reduction in taxes for 821 – 822 .
By summer 821 , Thomas had consolidated his position in the East , though the Opsician and Armeniac themes still eluded his control . He set his sights on the ultimate prize , Constantinople , the possession of which alone conferred full legitimacy to an emperor . Thomas assembled troops , gathered supplies , and built siege machines . To counter the powerful Imperial Fleet stationed in the capital , he built new ships to augment his existing fleet , which came from the Cibyrrhaeot and Aegean Sea naval themes , and possibly included task forces from the theme of Hellas . Thomas recalled Gregory Pterotos , a general and nephew of Leo V whom Michael had exiled to the island of Skyros , and gave him command of the fleet . By October , the thematic fleets loyal to Thomas had finished assembling at Lesbos , and Thomas 's army began marching from the Thracesian Theme towards Abydos , where he intended to cross over into Europe .
At this point , Thomas suffered his first reversal of fortune : before his departure for Abydos , he had sent an army under his adoptive son Constantius against the Armeniacs . Constantius was ambushed by strategos Olbianos and killed , although the army was able to withdraw with relatively few casualties . Constantius 's severed head was sent to Michael , who dispatched it to Thomas at Abydos . Thomas was undaunted by this relatively minor setback , and crossed over into Europe some time in late October or early November . There , Constantius was soon replaced as co @-@ emperor by another obscure individual , a former monk whom Thomas also adopted and named Anastasius .
= = = Siege of Constantinople = = =
Anticipating Thomas 's move , Michael had gone out at the head of an army to the themes of Thrace and Macedonia in Constantinople 's European hinterland and strengthened the garrisons of several fortresses there to secure the loyalty of their populace . When Thomas landed , the people of the European themes welcomed him with enthusiasm , and Michael was forced to withdraw to Constantinople . Volunteers , including many Slavs , flocked to Thomas 's banner . As he set out towards Constantinople , chroniclers recount that his army swelled to some 80 @,@ 000 men . The capital was defended by the imperial tagmata , augmented by reinforcements from the Opsician and Armeniac themes . Michael had ordered the city walls to be repaired , and chained off the entrance to the Golden Horn , while the Imperial Fleet further guarded the capital from the sea . Nevertheless , judging from Michael 's passive stance , his forces were inferior to Thomas 's ; Warren Treadgold estimates Michael 's army to have numbered approximately 35 @,@ 000 men .
Thomas 's fleet arrived at the capital first . Facing no opposition from the Imperial Fleet , the rebels broke or unfastened the chain and entered the Golden Horn , taking station near the mouths of the Barbysos river , where they awaited the arrival of Thomas and his army . Thomas arrived in early December . The sight of his huge force did not cow the capital 's inhabitants : unlike the provinces , the capital 's citizens and garrison stood firmly behind Michael . To further encourage his troops , Michael had his young son Theophilos lead a procession along the walls , carrying a piece of the True Cross and the mantle of the Virgin Mary , while a large standard was hoisted on top of the Church of St. Mary at Blachernae , in full view of both armies .
After subduing the cities around the capital , Thomas resolved to attack Constantinople from three sides , perhaps hoping his assault would impress its inhabitants or lead to defections . His deputies Anastasius and Gregory Pterotos would attack the Theodosian land and sea walls , respectively , while he would lead the main attack against the less formidable defenses protecting Blachernae . All of Thomas 's forces were amply supplied with siege engines and catapults , and his fleet fielded quantities of Greek fire in addition to large shipborne catapults . Each of Thomas 's attacks failed : the defenders ' artillery proved superior and kept Thomas 's engines away from the land walls , while adverse winds hindered the fleet from taking any meaningful action . Deciding that operations in the midst of winter were hazardous and unlikely to succeed , Thomas suspended all further attacks until spring and withdrew his army to winter quarters .
Michael used the respite to ferry in additional reinforcements from Asia Minor and repair the walls of Blachernae . When Thomas returned in spring , he decided to focus his attack on the Blachernae sector . Before the offensive , Michael himself ascended the walls and addressed Thomas 's troops , exhorting them to abandon their commander and promising amnesty if they would defect . Thomas 's army viewed the plea as a sign of weakness , and advanced confidently to begin the assault , but as they neared the wall , the defenders opened the gates and attacked . The sudden onslaught drove back Thomas 's army ; at the same time , the Imperial Fleet defeated Thomas 's ships , whose crews broke and fled to the shore in panic . This defeat diminished Thomas 's naval strength , and although he continued blockading the capital by land , the loss demoralized his supporters , who began defecting . Gregory Pterotos , whose family was in Michael 's hands , resolved to desert Thomas , followed by a small band of men loyal to him . He departed the rebel camp , headed west , and sent a monk to inform Michael of his defection , but the monk failed to circumvent the blockade and reach the capital . Upon learning of this defection , Thomas reacted quickly : with a select detachment , he followed Gregory , defeated his troops and killed the deserter .
Thomas exploited this small victory for all it was worth , widely proclaiming that he had defeated Michael 's troops " by land and sea " . He sent messages to the themes of Greece , whose support had been lukewarm until that point , demanding additional ships . The themes responded forcefully , sending their squadrons , allegedly numbering 350 vessels , to join him . Thus reinforced , Thomas decided to launch a two @-@ pronged assault against Constantinople 's sea walls , with his original fleet attacking the wall of the Golden Horn , and the new fleet attacking the south coast , looking towards the Sea of Marmara . Michael , however , did not remain idle : his own fleet attacked the thematic force soon after it arrived at its anchorage in Byrida . Using Greek fire , the Imperial Fleet destroyed many of the rebel vessels and captured most of the remaining ships . Only a few managed to escape and rejoin Thomas 's forces .
Through this victory , Michael secured control of the sea , but Thomas 's army remained superior on land and continued its blockade of Constantinople . Minor skirmishes ensued for the remainder of the year , with Michael 's forces sallying forth from the city to attack Thomas 's forces . Although both sides claimed minor successes in these clashes , neither was able to gain a decisive advantage .
Michael turned to the empire 's northern neighbour , Bulgaria , for help . The two states were bound by a 30 @-@ year treaty signed under Leo V , and the Bulgarian ruler , khan Omurtag ( r . 814 – 831 ) , was happy to respond to Michael 's request for assistance . A later tradition , reported by Genesios and Theophanes Continuatus , holds that Omurtag acted of his own accord and against Michael 's will , but this is almost universally rejected as a version started or at least encouraged by Michael , who did not wish to be seen encouraging " barbarians " to invade the empire . The Bulgarian army invaded Thrace , probably in November 822 ( Bury believes that the Bulgarian attack occurred in spring 823 ) , and advanced towards Constantinople . Thomas raised the siege , and marched to meet them with his army . The two armies met at the plain of Kedouktos near Heraclea ( hence known as the Battle of Kedouktos in the Byzantine sources ) . The accounts of the subsequent battle differ : the later sources state that Thomas lost the battle , but the near @-@ contemporary George the Monk states that Thomas " killed many Bulgarians " . Given the lack of Bulgarian activity after the battle , most modern scholars ( with the notable exception of Bury ) believe that Thomas won the battle .
= = = Defeat and death of Thomas , end of the revolt = = =
Thomas was unable to resume the siege : aside from the heavy casualties his army likely suffered , his fleet , which he had left behind in the Golden Horn , surrendered to Michael during his absence . Thomas set up camp at the plain of Diabasis , spending winter and early spring some 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) west of Constantinople . While a few of his men deserted , the bulk remained loyal . Finally , in late April or early May 823 , Michael marched with his troops against Thomas , accompanied by the generals Olbianos and Katakylas with new troops from Asia Minor . Thomas marched to meet them and planned to use a stratagem to outwit his opponents : his men , ostensibly demoralized , would pretend to flee , and when the imperial army broke ranks to pursue them , they would turn back and attack . However , Thomas 's troops were by now weary of the prolonged conflict , and their submission was unfeigned . Many surrendered to Michael , while others fled to nearby fortified cities . Thomas sought refuge in Arcadiopolis with a large group ; his adopted son Anastasius went with some of Thomas 's men to Bizye , and others fled to Panium and Heraclea .
Michael blockaded Thomas 's cities of refuge but organized no assaults , instead aiming to capture them peacefully by wearing out their defenders . His strategy was motivated by the political and propaganda expedient of appearing merciful — " in order to spare Christian blood " , as Michael himself put it in his letter to Louis the Pious — but also , according to the chroniclers , by fear of demonstrating to the Bulgarians that the Byzantine cities ' fortifications could fall to attack . In Asia Minor , Thomas 's partisans hoped to lure Michael away by allowing the Arabs free passage to raid the provinces of Opsikion and Optimaton , which were loyal to the emperor . Michael was unmoved and continued the blockade . His troops barred access to Arcadiopolis with a ditch . To conserve supplies , the blockaded troops sent away women and children , followed by those too old , wounded , or otherwise incapable of bearing arms . After five months of blockade , Thomas 's loyalists were eventually forced to eat starved horses and their hides . Some began deserting by lowering themselves with ropes over the city walls or jumping from them . Thomas sent messengers to Bizye , where the blockade was less close , to arrange a relief attempt by Anastasius . Before anything could be done , however , the exhausted troops at Arcadiopolis surrendered their leader in exchange for an imperial pardon . Thomas was delivered to Michael seated on a donkey and bound in chains . He was prostrated before the emperor , who placed his foot on his defeated rival 's neck and ordered his hands and feet cut off and his corpse impaled . Thomas pleaded for clemency with the words " Have mercy on me , oh True Emperor ! " Michael only asked his captive to reveal whether any of his own senior officials had had dealings with Thomas . Before Thomas could respond , the Logothete of the Course , John Hexaboulios , advised against hearing whatever claims a defeated rebel might make . Michael agreed , and Thomas 's sentence was carried out immediately .
When the inhabitants of Bizye heard of Thomas 's fate , they surrendered Anastasius , who suffered the same fate as Thomas . In Panium and Heraclea , Thomas 's men held out until an earthquake struck in February 824 . The tremor severely damaged the wall of Panium , and the city surrendered . The damage at Heraclea was less severe , but after Michael landed troops at its seaward side , it too was forced to surrender . In Asia Minor , Thomas 's loyalists mostly submitted peacefully , but in the Cibyrrhaeot Theme , resistance lingered until suppressed by strategos John Echimos . In the Thracesian theme , Thomas 's soldiers turned to brigandage . The most serious opposition was offered in central Asia Minor by two officers , who had possibly served Thomas as strategoi : Choireus , with his base at Kaballa northwest of Iconium , and Gazarenos Koloneiates , based at Saniana , southeast of Ancyra . From their strongholds , they spurned Michael 's offer of a pardon and the high title of magistros and raided the provinces that had gone over to him . Soon , however , Michael 's agents persuaded the inhabitants of the two forts to shut their gates against the officers . Choireus and Koloneiates then tried to seek refuge in Arab territory but were attacked en route by loyalist troops , captured , and crucified .
= = = Aftermath and effects = = =
The end of Thomas the Slav 's great rebellion was marked by Michael II 's triumph , held in May 824 in Constantinople . While he executed Thomas 's volunteers from the Caliphate and perhaps also the Slavs , the sheer number of individuals involved , the necessity of appearing clement and sparing with Christian lives , and the need to restore internal tranquillity to his realm compelled Michael to treat Thomas 's defeated partisans with leniency : most were released after being paraded in the Hippodrome during his celebration , and only the most dangerous were exiled to remote corners of the empire . In an effort to discredit his opponent , Michael authorized an " official " and heavily distorted version of Thomas 's life and revolt . The document was written by the deacon Ignatios and published in 824 as Against Thomas . This report quickly became the commonly accepted version of events .
Thomas failed in spite of his qualities and the widespread support he had gained , which brought him control of most of the empire . Lemerle holds that several factors played a role in his defeat : the Asian themes he did not subdue supplied reinforcements to Michael ; Thomas 's fleet performed badly ; and the Bulgarian offensive diverted him away from the capital and weakened his army . But the most decisive obstacles were the impregnable walls of Constantinople , which ensured that an emperor who controlled Constantinople could only be overthrown from within the city .
Thomas 's rebellion was the " central domestic event " of Michael II 's reign , but it was not very destructive in material terms : except for Thrace , which had suffered from the prolonged presence of the rival armies and the battles fought there , the larger part of the empire was spared the ravages of war . The Byzantine navy suffered great losses , with the thematic fleets in particular being devastated , while the land forces suffered comparatively few casualties . This is traditionally held to have resulted in a military weakness and internal disorder which was swiftly exploited by the Muslims : in the years after Thomas 's rebellion , Andalusian exiles captured Crete and the Tunisian Aghlabids began their conquest of Sicily , while in the East , the Byzantines were forced to maintain a generally defensive stance towards the Caliphate . More recent scholarship has disputed the degree to which the civil war was responsible for Byzantine military failures during these years , citing other reasons to explain them : Warren Treadgold opines that the empire 's military forces recovered fairly quickly , and that incompetent military leadership coupled with " the remoteness of Sicily , the absence of regular troops on Crete , the simultaneity of the attacks on both islands , and the government 's long @-@ standing lack of interest in sea @-@ power " were far more responsible for the loss of the islands .
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= Shojo Beat =
Shojo Beat is a shōjo manga magazine formerly published in North America by Viz Media . Released in June 2005 as a sister magazine to Shonen Jump , it featured serialized chapters from six manga series , as well as articles on Japanese culture , manga , anime , fashion and beauty . After its initial launch , Shojo Beat underwent two redesigns , becoming the first English anthology to use the cyan and magenta ink tones common to Japanese manga anthologies . Viz launched related " Shojo Beat " imprints in its manga , Japanese light novel , and anime divisions to coordinate with the magazine 's contents .
Targeted at women ages 16 – 18 , the first issue of Shojo Beat launched with a circulation of 20 @,@ 000 . By 2007 , the average circulation was approximately 38 @,@ 000 copies , with half coming from subscriptions rather than store sales . It was well received by critics , who praised its mix of manga series and the inclusion of articles on Japanese culture , though some critics found the early issues boring and poorly written . In May 2009 , Viz announced that it was discontinuing the magazine ; the July 2009 issue was the last released . Fans were disappointed at the sudden news . Industry experts felt its loss would leave female comic fans without a magazine of their own , but praised Viz for its choice to continue using the " Shojo Beat " imprint and branding for its shōjo manga and anime releases .
= = History = =
In February 2005 , Viz Media announced the creation of a new manga anthology , Shojo Beat . Marketed as a sister publication of Viz 's existing Shonen Jump , the magazine started with six manga titles : Crimson Hero , Kaze Hikaru , Baby & Me , Godchild , Nana , and Absolute Boyfriend . Of the six titles , two each came from Japanese publishers Shueisha , Shogakukan , and Hakusensha . The first issue , released in June 2005 , featured Nana Komatsu of Nana on its July cover .
Yumi Hoashi was the publication 's original editor @-@ in @-@ chief . In November 2006 , Hoashi left Viz , and Marc Weidenbaum replaced him as the magazine 's editor @-@ in @-@ chief . Weidenbaum remained the magazine 's editor until February 13 , 2009 , when Viz announced that he had left the company , though the magazine continued to list his name in the role through the May 2009 issue . Starting with the June 2009 issue , publisher Hyoe Narita was listed as the editor @-@ in @-@ chief .
The magazine 's panda mascot , Moko , was first introduced in the October 2005 issue , though he remained nameless until the July 2006 issue . He later was given his own MySpace account run by Viz . With the July 2007 issue , a new mascot , Beat Girl , was introduced . Included in each issue on the " Editor 's Letter " page as the magazine 's " illustrated spokesperson , " she was drawn by different artists each time . A third mascot , a star @-@ shaped figure named Hoshiko , was introduced with the March 2008 issue as a friend for Moko .
With the magazine 's first anniversary issue , dated July 2006 , Shojo Beat switched to using cyan and magenta ink tones for the manga pages rather than black @-@ and @-@ white . Though this mirrors the format of Japanese manga anthologies , it was a first for manga anthologies published in North America . Shojo Beat launched another redesign with the January 2007 issue . The new design included more vivid color schemes and fonts and introduced a new " Girl Hero " column to spotlight women Viz felt were charitable and selfless and who would inspire readers . The existing columns were also expanded .
In May 2009 , the magazine stopped accepting new subscriptions and ceased publication with the release of the July issue . Existing Shojo Beat subscriptions were transferred to Viz 's Shonen Jump magazine . With the first copy of Shonen Jump sent to former subscribers , a letter informed them of the transfer and how to request a refund for the unfilled portion of their subscriptions if they would prefer . In a press release , Viz stated that the " difficult economic climate " was behind the magazine 's cancellation .
= = Features = =
As a manga anthology , the bulk of Shojo Beat 's content was its manga chapters . Additional features included a letter from the editor , manga related news , a preview chapter from another Viz manga title being published under the " Shojo Beat " imprint , and articles on Japanese culture , current trends in Japan , and fashion and beauty . Sections toward the back of the magazine featured fan @-@ related material , including fan art , letters from readers , manga drawing lessons , and cosplay how @-@ to guides and highlights . The magazine 's official website included additional articles , downloads of templates for dressing up the magazine 's panda mascot " Moko " , and online previews of many of the manga series being published under the " Shojo Beat " label .
= = = Series = = =
Shojo Beat contained chapters from six Japanese manga series licensed and translated to English by Viz . During its run , the magazine featured fourteen series , of which seven ended their runs and were replaced by other series . Only four of those replacements remained in the magazine until all of their chapters had been published . Each title serialized in the magazine was also published in tankōbon volumes under Viz 's " Shojo Beat " label . Viz noted that it periodically removed incomplete series from the magazine to help " keep the magazine fresh " and to allow it to speed up publication of the individual volumes .
This is a complete list of all titles that were serialized in Shojo Beat . It does not include preview chapters . The titles that were running in the magazine when it was discontinued are highlighted .
= = = Imprints = = =
With the launch of the Shojo Beat magazine , Viz Media created new imprints for its manga and fiction lines . The " Shojo Beat " imprint included series featured in the magazine as well as other shōjo manga titles licensed by Viz after the magazine 's conception . Viz began releasing a few Japanese light novels under a " Shojo Beat Fiction " imprint that were related to its " Shojo Beat " manga titles . In February 2006 , Viz launched the " Shojo Beat Home Video " line for releasing anime titles primarily designed for female viewers . The first title under the new imprint was Full Moon o Sagashite , the anime adaptation of the same titled manga that was also released by Viz . To promote the new anime line , Viz included a preview disc of the first volume of Full Moon in the June 2006 issue of Shojo Beat . Though the magazine itself has been canceled , Viz stated in May 2009 that it will continue releasing both existing and new series under the " Shojo Beat " manga and anime imprints .
= = Circulation and audience = =
When Shojo Beat launched , it had a circulation of 20 @,@ 000 . In 2006 , its average circulation had increased to 35 @,@ 000 , of which 41 % were distributed through subscriptions , and the rest sold in newsstands and stores . In 2007 , the circulation grew to 38 @,@ 000 , and subscriptions increased to 51 % . The magazine 's audience was overwhelmingly female , comprising 91 % of its readers . Targeted towards " young women " , Shojo Beat 's " core audience " was between the ages of 13 and 19 and made up 61 % of its readers ; 47 % of readers were 12 – 17 and 45 % were 18 – 34 .
= = Reception = =
Shojo Beat was nominated for a 2008 Society for the Promotion of Japanese Animation Award in the category of " Best Publication " , but lost to Japan 's Newtype .
In reviewing the premiere release of Shojo Beat , IGN 's Jessica Chobot sharply criticized the magazine . She felt it looked and read " like a teenie @-@ bopper magazine " and referred to the issue 's cover as a " bright , hot @-@ pink , migraine @-@ inducing , bubble @-@ lettered spectacle " . She considered the contents boring , and disagreed with Viz 's selection of series , noting , " it 's as if Viz had taken everything from their backed @-@ up reject pile and tried to pull one over on the female populace . 90 % of what I was reading was either poorly drawn or poorly written ( more often than not , it was both ) . " Comic World News ' David Welsh disagreed , as he felt that the magazine had several good series , and he praised Nana , Absolute Boyfriend and Crimson Hero as the top three series of the initial issue . Greg McElhatton , co @-@ founder of Wizard : The Guide to Comics and former reviewer for iComics.com , praised the magazine 's mainstream appearance , calling it a " smart " decision , as it would draw in its target audience by visually showing them that it 's a magazine for teenage girls . While he felt that two of the manga titles in the premiere issue had weak openings , he found that the magazine was " off to a good , if not great start " .
After its cancellation , Publishers Weekly 's Heidi MacDonald reported that the common response she saw from fans was that " everyone liked it but nobody paid for it " . She noted that many fans expressed sorrow over the magazine 's demise while indicating that they did not subscribe to it . Katherine Dacey , the former senior manga editor for PopCultureShock , remarked that the magazine had offered " just the right mixture of new stories , continuing series , and articles " and praised it for having a " funky , DIY vibe " . The staff of the School Library Journal called the magazine " one of a kind " and felt that its loss would leave a void for female fans , a generally under @-@ acknowledged group of comic and manga readers . Staff member Brigid Alverson felt Shojo Beat was a great overall package that " featured intelligent articles that allowed the reader to be enthusiastic about Japanese pop culture without being geeky " making it distinct from other magazines for girls that were normally " filled with brainless celebrity stories or service articles tied to commercial products " . Other participants praised the magazine 's fashion articles for its educational articles on Japanese culture and for featuring girls of a variety of body types wearing affordable fashions . Two staffers questioned Viz 's decision to drop the magazine and wondered if the company had unrealistically expected the magazine to have the same circulation numbers as Shonen Jump .
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= Intelligent design =
Intelligent design ( ID ) is the pseudoscientific view that " certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause , not an undirected process such as natural selection . " Educators , philosophers , and the scientific community have demonstrated that ID is a religious argument , a form of creationism which lacks empirical support and offers no testable or tenable hypotheses . Proponents argue that it is " an evidence @-@ based scientific theory about life 's origins " that challenges the methodological naturalism inherent in modern science , while conceding that they have yet to produce a scientific theory . The leading proponents of ID are associated with the Discovery Institute , a politically conservative think tank based in the United States . Although they state that ID is not creationism and deliberately avoid assigning a personality to the designer , many of these proponents express belief that the designer is the Christian deity .
ID presents negative arguments against evolutionary explanations , and its positive argument is an analogy between natural systems and human artifacts , a version of the theological argument from design for the existence of God . Both irreducible complexity and specified complexity present detailed negative assertions that certain features ( biological and informational , respectively ) are too complex to be the result of natural processes . Proponents then conclude by analogy that these features are evidence of design . Detailed scientific examination has rebutted the claims that evolutionary explanations are inadequate , and this premise of intelligent design — that evidence against evolution constitutes evidence for design — has been criticized as a false dichotomy .
Though the phrase " intelligent design " had featured previously in theological discussions of the design argument , the first publication of the term intelligent design in its present use as an alternative term for creationism was in Of Pandas and People , a 1989 textbook intended for high school biology classes . The term was substituted into drafts of the book after the 1987 United States Supreme Court 's Edwards v. Aguillard decision , which barred the teaching of creation science in public schools on constitutional grounds . From the mid @-@ 1990s , the intelligent design movement ( IDM ) , supported by the Discovery Institute , advocated inclusion of intelligent design in public school biology curricula . This led to the 2005 Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial in which U.S. District Judge John E. Jones III ruled that intelligent design is not science , that it " cannot uncouple itself from its creationist , and thus religious , antecedents , " and that the school district 's promotion of it therefore violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution , often described as the " wall of separation between church and state " .
= = History = =
= = = Origin of the concept = = =
By 1910 evolution was not a topic of major religious controversy in America , but in the 1920s the Fundamentalist – Modernist Controversy in theology resulted in Fundamentalist Christian opposition to teaching evolution , and the origins of modern creationism . Teaching of evolution was effectively suspended in U.S. public schools until the 1960s , and when evolution was then reintroduced into the curriculum , there was a series of court cases in which attempts were made to get creationism taught alongside evolution in science classes . Young Earth creationists ( YEC ) promoted creation science as " an alternative scientific explanation of the world in which we live . " This frequently invoked the argument from design to explain complexity in nature as demonstrating the existence of God .
The argument from design , the teleological argument or " argument from intelligent design , " has been advanced in theology for centuries . It can be summarised briefly as " Wherever complex design exists , there must have been a designer ; nature is complex ; therefore nature must have had an intelligent designer . " Thomas Aquinas presented it in his fifth proof of God 's existence as a syllogism . In 1802 , William Paley 's Natural Theology presented examples of intricate purpose in organisms . His version of the watchmaker analogy argued that , in the same way that a watch has evidently been designed by a craftsman , complexity and adaptation seen in nature must have been designed , and the perfection and diversity of these designs shows the designer to be omnipotent , the Christian God . Like creation science , intelligent design centers on Paley 's religious argument from design , but while Paley 's natural theology was open to deistic design through God @-@ given laws , intelligent design seeks scientific confirmation of repeated miraculous interventions in the history of life . Creation science prefigured the intelligent design arguments of irreducible complexity , even featuring the bacterial flagellum . In the United States , attempts to introduce creation science in schools led to court rulings that it is religious in nature , and thus cannot be taught in public school science classrooms . Intelligent design is also presented as science , and shares other arguments with creation science but avoids literal Biblical references to such things as the Flood story from the Book of Genesis or using Bible verses to age the Earth .
Barbara Forrest writes that the intelligent design movement began in 1984 with the book The Mystery of Life 's Origin : Reassessing Current Theories , co @-@ written by creationist Charles B. Thaxton , a chemist , with two other authors , and published by Jon A. Buell 's Foundation for Thought and Ethics . Thaxton held a conference in 1988 , " Sources of Information Content in DNA , " which attracted creationists such as Stephen C. Meyer .
In March 1986 , a review by Meyer used information theory to suggest that messages transmitted by DNA in the cell show " specified complexity " specified by intelligence , and must have originated with an intelligent agent . In November of that year , Thaxton described his reasoning as a more sophisticated form of Paley 's argument from design . At the " Sources of Information Content in DNA " conference in 1988 , he said that his intelligent cause view was compatible with both metaphysical naturalism and supernaturalism .
Intelligent design avoids identifying or naming the intelligent designer — it merely states that one ( or more ) must exist — but leaders of the movement have said the designer is the Christian God . Whether this lack of specificity about the designer 's identity in public discussions is a genuine feature of the concept , or just a posture taken to avoid alienating those who would separate religion from the teaching of science , has been a matter of great debate between supporters and critics of intelligent design . The Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District court ruling held the latter to be the case .
= = = Origin of the term = = =
Since the Middle Ages , discussion of the religious " argument from design " or " teleological argument " in theology , with its concept of " intelligent design , " has persistently referred to the theistic Creator God . Although ID proponents chose this provocative label for their proposed alternative to evolutionary explanations , they have de @-@ emphasized their religious antecedents and denied that ID is natural theology , while still presenting ID as supporting the argument for the existence of God .
While intelligent design proponents have pointed out past examples of the phrase intelligent design which they said were not creationist and faith @-@ based , they have failed to show that these usages had any influence on those who introduced the label in the intelligent design movement .
Variations on the phrase appeared in YEC publications : a 1967 book co @-@ written by Percival Davis referred to " design according to which basic organisms were created . " In 1970 , A. E. Wilder @-@ Smith published The Creation of Life : A Cybernetic Approach to Evolution which defended Paley 's design argument with computer calculations of the improbability of genetic sequences , which he said could not be explained by evolution but required " the abhorred necessity of divine intelligent activity behind nature , " and that " the same problem would be expected to beset the relationship between the designer behind nature and the intelligently designed part of nature known as man . " In a 1984 article as well as in his affidavit to Edwards v. Aguillard , Dean H. Kenyon defended creation science by stating that " biomolecular systems require intelligent design and engineering know @-@ how , " citing Wilder @-@ Smith . Creationist Richard B. Bliss used the phrase " creative design " in Origins : Two Models : Evolution , Creation ( 1976 ) , and in Origins : Creation or Evolution ( 1988 ) wrote that " while evolutionists are trying to find non @-@ intelligent ways for life to occur , the creationist insists that an intelligent design must have been there in the first place . " The first systematic use of the term , defined in a glossary and claimed to be other than creationism , was in Of Pandas and People , co @-@ authored by Davis and Kenyon .
= = = = Of Pandas and People = = = =
The most common modern use of the words " intelligent design " as a term intended to describe a field of inquiry began after the United States Supreme Court ruled in 1987 in the case of Edwards v. Aguillard that creationism is unconstitutional in public school science curricula .
A Discovery Institute report says that Charles B. Thaxton , editor of Pandas , had picked the phrase up from a NASA scientist , and thought " That 's just what I need , it 's a good engineering term . " In drafts of the book , over one hundred uses of the root word " creation , " such as " creationism " and " Creation Science , " were changed , almost without exception , to " intelligent design , " while " creationists " was changed to " design proponents " or , in one instance , " cdesign proponentsists " [ sic ] . In June 1988 , Thaxton held a conference titled " Sources of Information Content in DNA " in Tacoma , Washington , and in December decided to use the label " intelligent design " for his new creationist movement . Stephen C. Meyer was at the conference , and later recalled that " The term intelligent design came up ... "
Of Pandas and People was published in 1989 , and in addition to including all the current arguments for ID , was the first book to make systematic use of the terms " intelligent design " and " design proponents " as well as the phrase " design theory , " defining the term intelligent design in a glossary and representing it as not being creationism . It thus represents the start of the modern intelligent design movement . " Intelligent design " was the most prominent of around fifteen new terms it introduced as a new lexicon of creationist terminology to oppose evolution without using religious language . It was the first place where the phrase " intelligent design " appeared in its primary present use , as stated both by its publisher Jon A. Buell , and by William A. Dembski in his expert witness report for Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District .
The National Center for Science Education ( NCSE ) has criticized the book for presenting all of the basic arguments of intelligent design proponents and being actively promoted for use in public schools before any research had been done to support these arguments . Although presented as a scientific textbook , philosopher of science Michael Ruse considers the contents " worthless and dishonest . " An American Civil Liberties Union lawyer described it as a political tool aimed at students who did not " know science or understand the controversy over evolution and creationism . " One of the authors of the science framework used by California schools , Kevin Padian , condemned it for its " sub @-@ text , " " intolerance for honest science " and " incompetence . "
= = Concepts = =
= = = Irreducible complexity = = =
The term " irreducible complexity " was introduced by biochemist Michael Behe in his 1996 book Darwin 's Black Box , though he had already described the concept in his contributions to the 1993 revised edition of Of Pandas and People . Behe defines it as " a single system which is composed of several well @-@ matched interacting parts that contribute to the basic function , wherein the removal of any one of the parts causes the system to effectively cease functioning . "
Behe uses the analogy of a mousetrap to illustrate this concept . A mousetrap consists of several interacting pieces — the base , the catch , the spring and the hammer — all of which must be in place for the mousetrap to work . Removal of any one piece destroys the function of the mousetrap . Intelligent design advocates assert that natural selection could not create irreducibly complex systems , because the selectable function is present only when all parts are assembled . Behe argued that irreducibly complex biological mechanisms include the bacterial flagellum of E. coli , the blood clotting cascade , cilia , and the adaptive immune system .
Critics point out that the irreducible complexity argument assumes that the necessary parts of a system have always been necessary and therefore could not have been added sequentially . They argue that something that is at first merely advantageous can later become necessary as other components change . Furthermore , they argue , evolution often proceeds by altering preexisting parts or by removing them from a system , rather than by adding them . This is sometimes called the " scaffolding objection " by an analogy with scaffolding , which can support an " irreducibly complex " building until it is complete and able to stand on its own . Behe has acknowledged using " sloppy prose , " and that his " argument against Darwinism does not add up to a logical proof . " Irreducible complexity has remained a popular argument among advocates of intelligent design ; in the Dover trial , the court held that " Professor Behe 's claim for irreducible complexity has been refuted in peer @-@ reviewed research papers and has been rejected by the scientific community at large . "
= = = Specified complexity = = =
In 1986 , Charles B. Thaxton , a physical chemist and creationist , used the term " specified complexity " from information theory when claiming that messages transmitted by DNA in the cell were specified by intelligence , and must have originated with an intelligent agent . The intelligent design concept of " specified complexity " was developed in the 1990s by mathematician , philosopher , and theologian William A. Dembski . Dembski states that when something exhibits specified complexity ( i.e. , is both complex and " specified , " simultaneously ) , one can infer that it was produced by an intelligent cause ( i.e. , that it was designed ) rather than being the result of natural processes . He provides the following examples : " A single letter of the alphabet is specified without being complex . A long sentence of random letters is complex without being specified . A Shakespearean sonnet is both complex and specified . " He states that details of living things can be similarly characterized , especially the " patterns " of molecular sequences in functional biological molecules such as DNA .
Dembski defines complex specified information ( CSI ) as anything with a less than 1 in 10150 chance of occurring by ( natural ) chance . Critics say that this renders the argument a tautology : complex specified information cannot occur naturally because Dembski has defined it thus , so the real question becomes whether or not CSI actually exists in nature .
The conceptual soundness of Dembski 's specified complexity / CSI argument has been discredited in the scientific and mathematical communities . Specified complexity has yet to be shown to have wide applications in other fields , as Dembski asserts . John Wilkins and Wesley R. Elsberry characterize Dembski 's " explanatory filter " as eliminative because it eliminates explanations sequentially : first regularity , then chance , finally defaulting to design . They argue that this procedure is flawed as a model for scientific inference because the asymmetric way it treats the different possible explanations renders it prone to making false conclusions .
Richard Dawkins , another critic of intelligent design , argues in The God Delusion ( 2006 ) that allowing for an intelligent designer to account for unlikely complexity only postpones the problem , as such a designer would need to be at least as complex . Other scientists have argued that evolution through selection is better able to explain the observed complexity , as is evident from the use of selective evolution to design certain electronic , aeronautic and automotive systems that are considered problems too complex for human " intelligent designers . "
= = = Fine @-@ tuned Universe = = =
Intelligent design proponents have also occasionally appealed to broader teleological arguments outside of biology , most notably an argument based on the fine @-@ tuning of universal constants that make matter and life possible and which are argued not to be solely attributable to chance . These include the values of fundamental physical constants , the relative strength of nuclear forces , electromagnetism , and gravity between fundamental particles , as well as the ratios of masses of such particles . Intelligent design proponent and Center for Science and Culture fellow Guillermo Gonzalez argues that if any of these values were even slightly different , the universe would be dramatically different , making it impossible for many chemical elements and features of the Universe , such as galaxies , to form . Thus , proponents argue , an intelligent designer of life was needed to ensure that the requisite features were present to achieve that particular outcome .
Scientists have generally responded that these arguments are poorly supported by existing evidence . Victor J. Stenger and other critics say both intelligent design and the weak form of the anthropic principle are essentially a tautology ; in his view , these arguments amount to the claim that life is able to exist because the Universe is able to support life . The claim of the improbability of a life @-@ supporting universe has also been criticized as an argument by lack of imagination for assuming no other forms of life are possible . Life as we know it might not exist if things were different , but a different sort of life might exist in its place . A number of critics also suggest that many of the stated variables appear to be interconnected and that calculations made by mathematicians and physicists suggest that the emergence of a universe similar to ours is quite probable .
= = = Intelligent designer = = =
The contemporary intelligent design movement formulates its arguments in secular terms and intentionally avoids identifying the intelligent agent ( or agents ) they posit . Although they do not state that God is the designer , the designer is often implicitly hypothesized to have intervened in a way that only a god could intervene . Dembski , in The Design Inference ( 1998 ) , speculates that an alien culture could fulfill these requirements . Of Pandas and People proposes that SETI illustrates an appeal to intelligent design in science . In 2000 , philosopher of science Robert T. Pennock suggested the Raëlian UFO religion as a real @-@ life example of an extraterrestrial intelligent designer view that " make [ s ] many of the same bad arguments against evolutionary theory as creationists " . The authoritative description of intelligent design , however , explicitly states that the Universe displays features of having been designed . Acknowledging the paradox , Dembski concludes that " no intelligent agent who is strictly physical could have presided over the origin of the universe or the origin of life . " The leading proponents have made statements to their supporters that they believe the designer to be the Christian God , to the exclusion of all other religions .
Beyond the debate over whether intelligent design is scientific , a number of critics argue that existing evidence makes the design hypothesis appear unlikely , irrespective of its status in the world of science . For example , Jerry Coyne asks why a designer would " give us a pathway for making vitamin C , but then destroy it by disabling one of its enzymes " ( see pseudogene ) and why a designer would not " stock oceanic islands with reptiles , mammals , amphibians , and freshwater fish , despite the suitability of such islands for these species " . Coyne also points to the fact that " the flora and fauna on those islands resemble that of the nearest mainland , even when the environments are very different " as evidence that species were not placed there by a designer . Previously , in Darwin 's Black Box , Behe had argued that we are simply incapable of understanding the designer 's motives , so such questions cannot be answered definitively . Odd designs could , for example , " ... have been placed there by the designer for a reason — for artistic reasons , for variety , to show off , for some as @-@ yet @-@ undetected practical purpose , or for some unguessable reason — or they might not . " Coyne responds that in light of the evidence , " either life resulted not from intelligent design , but from evolution ; or the intelligent designer is a cosmic prankster who designed everything to make it look as though it had evolved . "
Intelligent design proponents such as Paul Nelson avoid the problem of poor design in nature by insisting that we have simply failed to understand the perfection of the design . Behe cites Paley as his inspiration , but he differs from Paley 's expectation of a perfect Creation and proposes that designers do not necessarily produce the best design they can . Behe suggests that , like a parent not wanting to spoil a child with extravagant toys , the designer can have multiple motives for not giving priority to excellence in engineering . He says that " Another problem with the argument from imperfection is that it critically depends on a psychoanalysis of the unidentified designer . Yet the reasons that a designer would or would not do anything are virtually impossible to know unless the designer tells you specifically what those reasons are . " This reliance on inexplicable motives of the designer makes intelligent design scientifically untestable . Retired UC Berkeley law professor , author and intelligent design advocate Phillip E. Johnson puts forward a core definition that the designer creates for a purpose , giving the example that in his view AIDS was created to punish immorality and is not caused by HIV , but such motives cannot be tested by scientific methods .
Asserting the need for a designer of complexity also raises the question " What designed the designer ? " Intelligent design proponents say that the question is irrelevant to or outside the scope of intelligent design . Richard Wein counters that " ... scientific explanations often create new unanswered questions . But , in assessing the value of an explanation , these questions are not irrelevant . They must be balanced against the improvements in our understanding which the explanation provides . Invoking an unexplained being to explain the origin of other beings ( ourselves ) is little more than question @-@ begging . The new question raised by the explanation is as problematic as the question which the explanation purports to answer . " Richard Dawkins sees the assertion that the designer does not need to be explained as a thought @-@ terminating cliché . In the absence of observable , measurable evidence , the very question " What designed the designer ? " leads to an infinite regression from which intelligent design proponents can only escape by resorting to religious creationism or logical contradiction .
= = Movement = =
The intelligent design movement is a direct outgrowth of the creationism of the 1980s . The scientific and academic communities , along with a U.S. federal court , view intelligent design as either a form of creationism or as a direct descendant that is closely intertwined with traditional creationism ; and several authors explicitly refer to it as " intelligent design creationism . "
The movement is headquartered in the Center for Science and Culture , established in 1996 as the creationist wing of the Discovery Institute to promote a religious agenda calling for broad social , academic and political changes . The Discovery Institute 's intelligent design campaigns have been staged primarily in the United States , although efforts have been made in other countries to promote intelligent design . Leaders of the movement say intelligent design exposes the limitations of scientific orthodoxy and of the secular philosophy of naturalism . Intelligent design proponents allege that science should not be limited to naturalism and should not demand the adoption of a naturalistic philosophy that dismisses out @-@ of @-@ hand any explanation that includes a supernatural cause . The overall goal of the movement is to " reverse the stifling dominance of the materialist worldview " represented by the theory of evolution in favor of " a science consonant with Christian and theistic convictions . "
Phillip E. Johnson stated that the goal of intelligent design is to cast creationism as a scientific concept . All leading intelligent design proponents are fellows or staff of the Discovery Institute and its Center for Science and Culture . Nearly all intelligent design concepts and the associated movement are the products of the Discovery Institute , which guides the movement and follows its wedge strategy while conducting its " Teach the Controversy " campaign and their other related programs .
Leading intelligent design proponents have made conflicting statements regarding intelligent design . In statements directed at the general public , they say intelligent design is not religious ; when addressing conservative Christian supporters , they state that intelligent design has its foundation in the Bible . Recognizing the need for support , the Institute affirms its Christian , evangelistic orientation :
Alongside a focus on influential opinion @-@ makers , we also seek to build up a popular base of support among our natural constituency , namely , Christians . We will do this primarily through apologetics seminars . We intend these to encourage and equip believers with new scientific evidences that support the faith , as well as to " popularize " our ideas in the broader culture .
Barbara Forrest , an expert who has written extensively on the movement , describes this as being due to the Discovery Institute 's obfuscating its agenda as a matter of policy . She has written that the movement 's " activities betray an aggressive , systematic agenda for promoting not only intelligent design creationism , but the religious worldview that undergirds it . "
= = = Religion and leading proponents = = =
Although arguments for intelligent design by the intelligent design movement are formulated in secular terms and intentionally avoid positing the identity of the designer , the majority of principal intelligent design advocates are publicly religious Christians who have stated that , in their view , the designer proposed in intelligent design is the Christian conception of God . Stuart Burgess , Phillip E. Johnson , William A. Dembski , and Stephen C. Meyer are evangelical Protestants ; Michael Behe is a Roman Catholic ; and Jonathan Wells is a member of the Unification Church . Non @-@ Christian proponents include David Klinghoffer , who is Jewish , Michael Denton and David Berlinski , who are agnostic , and Muzaffar Iqbal , a Pakistani @-@ Canadian Muslim . Phillip E. Johnson has stated that cultivating ambiguity by employing secular language in arguments that are carefully crafted to avoid overtones of theistic creationism is a necessary first step for ultimately reintroducing the Christian concept of God as the designer . Johnson explicitly calls for intelligent design proponents to obfuscate their religious motivations so as to avoid having intelligent design identified " as just another way of packaging the Christian evangelical message . " Johnson emphasizes that " ... the first thing that has to be done is to get the Bible out of the discussion . ... This is not to say that the biblical issues are unimportant ; the point is rather that the time to address them will be after we have separated materialist prejudice from scientific fact . "
The strategy of deliberately disguising the religious intent of intelligent design has been described by William A. Dembski in The Design Inference . In this work , Dembski lists a god or an " alien life force " as two possible options for the identity of the designer ; however , in his book Intelligent Design : The Bridge Between Science and Theology ( 1999 ) , Dembski states :
Christ is indispensable to any scientific theory , even if its practitioners don 't have a clue about him . The pragmatics of a scientific theory can , to be sure , be pursued without recourse to Christ . But the conceptual soundness of the theory can in the end only be located in Christ .
Dembski also stated , " ID is part of God 's general revelation [ ... ] Not only does intelligent design rid us of this ideology [ materialism ] , which suffocates the human spirit , but , in my personal experience , I 've found that it opens the path for people to come to Christ . " Both Johnson and Dembski cite the Bible 's Gospel of John as the foundation of intelligent design .
Barbara Forrest contends such statements reveal that leading proponents see intelligent design as essentially religious in nature , not merely a scientific concept that has implications with which their personal religious beliefs happen to coincide . She writes that the leading proponents of intelligent design are closely allied with the ultra @-@ conservative Christian Reconstructionism movement . She lists connections of ( current and former ) Discovery Institute Fellows Phillip E. Johnson , Charles B. Thaxton , Michael Behe , Richard Weikart , Jonathan Wells and Francis J. Beckwith to leading Christian Reconstructionist organizations , and the extent of the funding provided the Institute by Howard Ahmanson , Jr . , a leading figure in the Reconstructionist movement .
= = = Reaction from other creationist groups = = =
Not all creationist organizations have embraced the intelligent design movement . According to Thomas Dixon , " Religious leaders have come out against ID too . An open letter affirming the compatibility of Christian faith and the teaching of evolution , first produced in response to controversies in Wisconsin in 2004 , has now been signed by over ten thousand clergy from different Christian denominations across America . In 2006 , the director of the Vatican Observatory , the Jesuit astronomer George Coyne , condemned ID as a kind of ' crude creationism ' which reduced God to a mere engineer . " Hugh Ross of Reasons to Believe , a proponent of Old Earth creationism , believes that the efforts of intelligent design proponents to divorce the concept from Biblical Christianity make its hypothesis too vague . In 2002 , he wrote : " Winning the argument for design without identifying the designer yields , at best , a sketchy origins model . Such a model makes little if any positive impact on the community of scientists and other scholars . [ ... ] ... the time is right for a direct approach , a single leap into the origins fray . Introducing a biblically based , scientifically verifiable creation model represents such a leap . "
Likewise , two of the most prominent YEC organizations in the world have attempted to distinguish their views from those of the intelligent design movement . Henry M. Morris of the Institute for Creation Research ( ICR ) wrote , in 1999 , that ID , " even if well @-@ meaning and effectively articulated , will not work ! It has often been tried in the past and has failed , and it will fail today . The reason it won 't work is because it is not the Biblical method . " According to Morris : " The evidence of intelligent design … must be either followed by or accompanied by a sound presentation of true Biblical creationism if it is to be meaningful and lasting . " In 2002 , Carl Wieland , then of Answers in Genesis ( AiG ) , criticized design advocates who , though well @-@ intentioned , " ' left the Bible out of it ' " and thereby unwittingly aided and abetted the modern rejection of the Bible . Wieland explained that " AiG 's major ' strategy ' is to boldly , but humbly , call the church back to its Biblical foundations … [ so ] we neither count ourselves a part of this movement nor campaign against it . "
= = = Reaction from the scientific community = = =
The unequivocal consensus in the scientific community is that intelligent design is not science and has no place in a science curriculum . The U.S. National Academy of Sciences has stated that " creationism , intelligent design , and other claims of supernatural intervention in the origin of life or of species are not science because they are not testable by the methods of science . " The U.S. National Science Teachers Association and the American Association for the Advancement of Science have termed it pseudoscience . Others in the scientific community have denounced its tactics , accusing the ID movement of manufacturing false attacks against evolution , of engaging in misinformation and misrepresentation about science , and marginalizing those who teach it . More recently , in September 2012 , Bill Nye warned that creationist views threaten science education and innovations in the United States .
In 2001 , the Discovery Institute published advertisements under the heading A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism , with the claim that listed scientists had signed this statement expressing skepticism :
We are skeptical of claims for the ability of random mutation and natural selection to account for the complexity of life . Careful examination of the evidence for Darwinian theory should be encouraged .
The ambiguous statement did not exclude other known evolutionary mechanisms , and most signatories were not scientists in relevant fields , but starting in 2004 the Institute claimed the increasing number of signatures indicated mounting doubts about evolution among scientists . The statement formed a key component of Discovery Institute campaigns to present intelligent design as scientifically valid by claiming that evolution lacks broad scientific support , with Institute members continued to cite the list through at least 2011 . As part of a strategy to counter these claims , scientists organised Project Steve which gained more signatories named Steve ( or variants ) than the Institute 's petition , and a counter @-@ petition , A Scientific Support for Darwinism , which quickly gained similar numbers of signatories .
= = = Polls = = =
Several surveys were conducted prior to the December 2005 decision in Kitzmiller v. Dover School District , which sought to determine the level of support for intelligent design among certain groups . According to a 2005 Harris poll , 10 % of adults in the United States viewed human beings as " so complex that they required a powerful force or intelligent being to help create them . " Although Zogby polls commissioned by the Discovery Institute show more support , these polls suffer from considerable flaws , such as having a very low response rate ( 248 out of 16 @,@ 000 ) , being conducted on behalf of an organization with an expressed interest in the outcome of the poll , and containing leading questions .
A series of Gallup polls in the United States from 1982 through 2014 on " Evolution , Creationism , Intelligent Design " found support for " human beings have developed over millions of years from less advanced formed of life , but God guided the process " of between 31 % and 40 % , support for " God created human beings in pretty much their present form at one time within the last 10 @,@ 000 years or so " varied from 40 % to 47 % , and support for " human beings have developed over millions of years from less advanced forms of life , but God had no part in the process " varied from 9 % to 19 % . The polls also noted answers to a series of more detailed questions .
= = = Allegations of discrimination against ID proponents = = =
There have been allegations that ID proponents have met discrimination , such as being refused tenure or being harshly criticized on the Internet . In the documentary film Expelled : No Intelligence Allowed , released in 2008 , host Ben Stein presents five such cases . The film contends that the mainstream science establishment , in a " scientific conspiracy to keep God out of the nation 's laboratories and classrooms , " suppresses academics who believe they see evidence of intelligent design in nature or criticize evidence of evolution . Investigation into these allegations turned up alternative explanations for perceived persecution .
The film portrays intelligent design as motivated by science , rather than religion , though it does not give a detailed definition of the phrase or attempt to explain it on a scientific level . Other than briefly addressing issues of irreducible complexity , Expelled examines it as a political issue . The scientific theory of evolution is portrayed by the film as contributing to fascism , the Holocaust , communism , atheism , and eugenics .
Expelled has been used in private screenings to legislators as part of the Discovery Institute intelligent design campaign for Academic Freedom bills . Review screenings were restricted to churches and Christian groups , and at a special pre @-@ release showing , one of the interviewees , PZ Myers , was refused admission . The American Association for the Advancement of Science describes the film as dishonest and divisive propaganda aimed at introducing religious ideas into public school science classrooms , and the Anti @-@ Defamation League has denounced the film 's allegation that evolutionary theory influenced the Holocaust . The film includes interviews with scientists and academics who were misled into taking part by misrepresentation of the topic and title of the film . Skeptic Michael Shermer describes his experience of being repeatedly asked the same question without context as " surreal . "
= = Criticism = =
= = = Scientific criticism = = =
Advocates of intelligent design seek to keep God and the Bible out of the discussion , and present intelligent design in the language of science as though it were a scientific hypothesis . For a theory to qualify as scientific , it is expected to be :
Consistent
Parsimonious ( sparing in its proposed entities or explanations ; see Occam 's razor )
Useful ( describes and explains observed phenomena , and can be used in a predictive manner )
Empirically testable and falsifiable ( potentially confirmable or disprovable by experiment or observation )
Based on multiple observations ( often in the form of controlled , repeated experiments )
Correctable and dynamic ( modified in the light of observations that do not support it )
Progressive ( refines previous theories )
Provisional or tentative ( is open to experimental checking , and does not assert certainty )
For any theory , hypothesis or conjecture to be considered scientific , it must meet most , and ideally all , of these criteria . The fewer criteria are met , the less scientific it is ; and if it meets only a few or none at all , then it cannot be treated as scientific in any meaningful sense of the word . Typical objections to defining intelligent design as science are that it lacks consistency , violates the principle of parsimony , is not scientifically useful , is not falsifiable , is not empirically testable , and is not correctable , dynamic , progressive or provisional .
Intelligent design proponents seek to change this fundamental basis of science by eliminating " methodological naturalism " from science and replacing it with what the leader of the intelligent design movement , Phillip E. Johnson , calls " theistic realism . " Intelligent design proponents argue that naturalistic explanations fail to explain certain phenomena and that supernatural explanations provide a very simple and intuitive explanation for the origins of life and the universe . Many intelligent design followers believe that " scientism " is itself a religion that promotes secularism and materialism in an attempt to erase theism from public life , and they view their work in the promotion of intelligent design as a way to return religion to a central role in education and other public spheres .
The failure to follow the procedures of scientific discourse and the failure to submit work to the scientific community that withstands scrutiny have weighed against intelligent design being accepted as valid science . The intelligent design movement has not published a properly peer @-@ reviewed article supporting ID in a scientific journal , and has failed to publish supporting peer @-@ reviewed research or data . The only article published in a peer @-@ reviewed scientific journal that made a case for intelligent design was quickly withdrawn by the publisher for having circumvented the journal 's peer @-@ review standards . The Discovery Institute says that a number of intelligent design articles have been published in peer @-@ reviewed journals , but critics , largely members of the scientific community , reject this claim and state intelligent design proponents have set up their own journals with peer review that lack impartiality and rigor , consisting entirely of intelligent design supporters .
Further criticism stems from the fact that the phrase intelligent design makes use of an assumption of the quality of an observable intelligence , a concept that has no scientific consensus definition . The characteristics of intelligence are assumed by intelligent design proponents to be observable without specifying what the criteria for the measurement of intelligence should be . Critics say that the design detection methods proposed by intelligent design proponents are radically different from conventional design detection , undermining the key elements that make it possible as legitimate science . Intelligent design proponents , they say , are proposing both searching for a designer without knowing anything about that designer 's abilities , parameters , or intentions ( which scientists do know when searching for the results of human intelligence ) , as well as denying the very distinction between natural / artificial design that allows scientists to compare complex designed artifacts against the background of the sorts of complexity found in nature .
Among a significant proportion of the general public in the United States , the major concern is whether conventional evolutionary biology is compatible with belief in God and in the Bible , and how this issue is taught in schools . The Discovery Institute 's " Teach the Controversy " campaign promotes intelligent design while attempting to discredit evolution in United States public high school science courses . The scientific community and science education organizations have replied that there is no scientific controversy regarding the validity of evolution and that the controversy exists solely in terms of religion and politics .
= = = Arguments from ignorance = = =
Eugenie C. Scott , along with Glenn Branch and other critics , has argued that many points raised by intelligent design proponents are arguments from ignorance . In the argument from ignorance , a lack of evidence for one view is erroneously argued to constitute proof of the correctness of another view . Scott and Branch say that intelligent design is an argument from ignorance because it relies on a lack of knowledge for its conclusion : lacking a natural explanation for certain specific aspects of evolution , we assume intelligent cause . They contend most scientists would reply that the unexplained is not unexplainable , and that " we don 't know yet " is a more appropriate response than invoking a cause outside science . Particularly , Michael Behe 's demands for ever more detailed explanations of the historical evolution of molecular systems seem to assume a false dichotomy , where either evolution or design is the proper explanation , and any perceived failure of evolution becomes a victory for design . Scott and Branch also contend that the supposedly novel contributions proposed by intelligent design proponents have not served as the basis for any productive scientific research .
In his conclusion to the Kitzmiller trial , Judge John E. Jones III wrote that " ID is at bottom premised upon a false dichotomy , namely , that to the extent evolutionary theory is discredited , ID is confirmed . " This same argument had been put forward to support creation science at the McLean v. Arkansas ( 1982 ) trial which found it was " contrived dualism , " the false premise of a " two model approach . " Behe 's argument of irreducible complexity puts forward negative arguments against evolution but does not make any positive scientific case for intelligent design . It fails to allow for scientific explanations continuing to be found , as has been the case with several examples previously put forward as supposed cases of irreducible complexity .
= = = Possible theological implications = = =
Intelligent design proponents often insist that their claims do not require a religious component . However , various philosophical and theological issues are naturally raised by the claims of intelligent design .
Intelligent design proponents attempt to demonstrate scientifically that features such as irreducible complexity and specified complexity could not arise through natural processes , and therefore required repeated direct miraculous interventions by a Designer ( often a Christian concept of God ) . They reject the possibility of a Designer who works merely through setting natural laws in motion at the outset , in contrast to theistic evolution ( to which even Charles Darwin was open ) . Intelligent design is distinct because it asserts repeated miraculous interventions in addition to designed laws . This contrasts with other major religious traditions of a created world in which God 's interactions and influences do not work in the same way as physical causes . The Roman Catholic tradition makes a careful distinction between ultimate metaphysical explanations and secondary , natural causes .
The concept of direct miraculous intervention raises other potential theological implications . If such a Designer does not intervene to alleviate suffering even though capable of intervening for other reasons , some imply the designer is not omnibenevolent ( see problem of evil and related theodicy ) .
Further , repeated interventions imply that the original design was not perfect and final , and thus pose a problem for any who believe that the Creator 's work had been both perfect and final . Intelligent design proponents seek to explain the problem of poor design in nature by insisting that we have simply failed to understand the perfection of the design ( for example , proposing that vestigial organs have unknown purposes ) , or by proposing that designers do not necessarily produce the best design they can , and may have unknowable motives for their actions .
= = = God of the gaps = = =
Intelligent design has also been characterized as a God @-@ of @-@ the @-@ gaps argument , which has the following form :
There is a gap in scientific knowledge .
The gap is filled with acts of God ( or intelligent designer ) and therefore proves the existence of God ( or intelligent designer ) .
A God @-@ of @-@ the @-@ gaps argument is the theological version of an argument from ignorance . A key feature of this type of argument is that it merely answers outstanding questions with explanations ( often supernatural ) that are unverifiable and ultimately themselves subject to unanswerable questions . Historians of science observe that the astronomy of the earliest civilizations , although astonishing and incorporating mathematical constructions far in excess of any practical value , proved to be misdirected and of little importance to the development of science because they failed to inquire more carefully into the mechanisms that drove the heavenly bodies across the sky . It was the Greek civilization that first practiced science , although not yet as a formally defined experimental science , but nevertheless an attempt to rationalize the world of natural experience without recourse to divine intervention . In this historically motivated definition of science any appeal to an intelligent creator is explicitly excluded for the paralysing effect it may have on scientific progress .
= = Kitzmiller trial = =
Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District was the first direct challenge brought in the United States federal courts against a public school district that required the presentation of intelligent design as an alternative to evolution . The plaintiffs successfully argued that intelligent design is a form of creationism , and that the school board policy thus violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution .
Eleven parents of students in Dover , Pennsylvania , sued the Dover Area School District over a statement that the school board required be read aloud in ninth @-@ grade science classes when evolution was taught . The plaintiffs were represented by the American Civil Liberties Union ( ACLU ) , Americans United for Separation of Church and State ( AU ) and Pepper Hamilton LLP . The National Center for Science Education acted as consultants for the plaintiffs . The defendants were represented by the Thomas More Law Center . The suit was tried in a bench trial from September 26 to November 4 , 2005 , before Judge John E. Jones III . Kenneth R. Miller , Kevin Padian , Brian Alters , Robert T. Pennock , Barbara Forrest and John F. Haught served as expert witnesses for the plaintiffs . Michael Behe , Steve Fuller and Scott Minnich served as expert witnesses for the defense .
On December 20 , 2005 , Judge Jones issued his 139 @-@ page findings of fact and decision , ruling that the Dover mandate was unconstitutional , and barring intelligent design from being taught in Pennsylvania 's Middle District public school science classrooms . The eight Dover school board members who voted for the intelligent design requirement were all defeated in a November 8 , 2005 , election by challengers who opposed the teaching of intelligent design in a science class , and the current school board president stated that the board does not intend to appeal the ruling .
In his finding of facts , Judge Jones made the following condemnation of the " Teach the Controversy " strategy :
Moreover , ID 's backers have sought to avoid the scientific scrutiny which we have now determined that it cannot withstand by advocating that the controversy , but not ID itself , should be taught in science class . This tactic is at best disingenuous , and at worst a canard . The goal of the IDM is not to encourage critical thought , but to foment a revolution which would supplant evolutionary theory with ID .
= = = Reaction = = =
Judge Jones himself anticipated that his ruling would be criticized , saying in his decision that :
Those who disagree with our holding will likely mark it as the product of an activist judge . If so , they will have erred as this is manifestly not an activist Court .
Rather , this case came to us as the result of the activism of an ill @-@ informed faction on a school board , aided by a national public interest law firm eager to find a constitutional test case on ID , who in combination drove the Board to adopt an imprudent and ultimately unconstitutional policy . The breathtaking inanity of the Board 's decision is evident when considered against the factual backdrop which has now been fully revealed through this trial . The students , parents , and teachers of the Dover Area School District deserved better than to be dragged into this legal maelstrom , with its resulting utter waste of monetary and personal resources .
As Jones had predicted , John G. West , Associate Director of the Center for Science and Culture , said :
The Dover decision is an attempt by an activist federal judge to stop the spread of a scientific idea and even to prevent criticism of Darwinian evolution through government @-@ imposed censorship rather than open debate , and it won 't work . He has conflated Discovery Institute 's position with that of the Dover school board , and he totally misrepresents intelligent design and the motivations of the scientists who research it .
Newspapers have noted with interest that the judge is " a Republican and a churchgoer . "
Subsequently , the decision has been examined in a search for flaws and conclusions , partly by intelligent design supporters aiming to avoid future defeats in court . In the Winter of 2007 , the Montana Law Review published three articles . In the first , David K. DeWolf , John G. West and Casey Luskin , all of the Discovery Institute , argued that intelligent design is a valid scientific theory , the Jones court should not have addressed the question of whether it was a scientific theory , and that the Kitzmiller decision will have no effect at all on the development and adoption of intelligent design as an alternative to standard evolutionary theory . In the second Peter H. Irons responded , arguing that the decision was extremely well reasoned and spells the death knell for the intelligent design efforts to introduce creationism in public schools , while in the third , DeWolf , et al . , answer the points made by Irons . However , fear of a similar lawsuit has resulted in other school boards abandoning intelligent design " teach the controversy " proposals .
In April 2010 , the American Academy of Religion issued Guidelines for Teaching About Religion in K ‐ 12 Public Schools in the United States , which included guidance that creation science or intelligent design should not be taught in science classes , as " Creation science and intelligent design represent worldviews that fall outside of the realm of science that is defined as ( and limited to ) a method of inquiry based on gathering observable and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning . " However , these worldviews as well as others " that focus on speculation regarding the origins of life represent another important and relevant form of human inquiry that is appropriately studied in literature or social sciences courses . Such study , however , must include a diversity of worldviews representing a variety of religious and philosophical perspectives and must avoid privileging one view as more legitimate than others . "
= = Status outside the United States = =
= = = Europe = = =
In June 2007 , the Council of Europe 's Committee on Culture , Science and Education issued a report , The dangers of creationism in education , which states " Creationism in any of its forms , such as ' intelligent design ' , is not based on facts , does not use any scientific reasoning and its contents are pathetically inadequate for science classes . " In describing the dangers posed to education by teaching creationism , it described intelligent design as " anti @-@ science " and involving " blatant scientific fraud " and " intellectual deception " that " blurs the nature , objectives and limits of science " and links it and other forms of creationism to denialism . On October 4 , 2007 , the Council of Europe 's Parliamentary Assembly approved a resolution stating that schools should " resist presentation of creationist ideas in any discipline other than religion , " including " intelligent design , " which it described as " the latest , more refined version of creationism , " " presented in a more subtle way . " The resolution emphasises that the aim of the report is not to question or to fight a belief , but to " warn against certain tendencies to pass off a belief as science . "
In the United Kingdom , public education includes religious education as a compulsory subject , and there are many faith schools that teach the ethos of particular denominations . When it was revealed that a group called Truth in Science had distributed DVDs produced by Illustra Media featuring Discovery Institute fellows making the case for design in nature , and claimed they were being used by 59 schools , the Department for Education and Skills ( DfES ) stated that " Neither creationism nor intelligent design are taught as a subject in schools , and are not specified in the science curriculum " ( part of the National Curriculum , which does not apply to independent schools or to education in Scotland ) . The DfES subsequently stated that " Intelligent design is not a recognised scientific theory ; therefore , it is not included in the science curriculum , " but left the way open for it to be explored in religious education in relation to different beliefs , as part of a syllabus set by a local Standing Advisory Council on Religious Education . In 2006 , the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority produced a " Religious Education " model unit in which pupils can learn about religious and nonreligious views about creationism , intelligent design and evolution by natural selection .
On June 25 , 2007 , the UK Government responded to an e @-@ petition by saying that creationism and intelligent design should not be taught as science , though teachers would be expected to answer pupils ' questions within the standard framework of established scientific theories . Detailed government " Creationism teaching guidance " for schools in England was published on September 18 , 2007 . It states that " Intelligent design lies wholly outside of science , " has no underpinning scientific principles , or explanations , and is not accepted by the science community as a whole . Though it should not be taught as science , " Any questions about creationism and intelligent design which arise in science lessons , for example as a result of media coverage , could provide the opportunity to explain or explore why they are not considered to be scientific theories and , in the right context , why evolution is considered to be a scientific theory . " However , " Teachers of subjects such as RE , history or citizenship may deal with creationism and intelligent design in their lessons . "
The British Centre for Science Education lobbying group has the goal of " countering creationism within the UK " and has been involved in government lobbying in the UK in this regard . Northern Ireland 's Department for Education says that the curriculum provides an opportunity for alternative theories to be taught . The Democratic Unionist Party ( DUP ) — which has links to fundamentalist Christianity — has been campaigning to have intelligent design taught in science classes . A DUP former Member of Parliament , David Simpson , has sought assurances from the education minister that pupils will not lose marks if they give creationist or intelligent design answers to science questions . In 2007 , Lisburn city council voted in favor of a DUP recommendation to write to post @-@ primary schools asking what their plans are to develop teaching material in relation to " creation , intelligent design and other theories of origin . "
Plans by Dutch Education Minister Maria van der Hoeven to " stimulate an academic debate " on the subject in 2005 caused a severe public backlash . After the 2006 elections , she was succeeded by Ronald Plasterk , described as a " molecular geneticist , staunch atheist and opponent of intelligent design . " As a reaction on this situation in the Netherlands , the Director General of the Flemish Secretariat of Catholic Education ( VSKO ) in Belgium , Mieke Van Hecke , declared that : " Catholic scientists already accepted the theory of evolution for a long time and that intelligent design and creationism doesn 't belong in Flemish Catholic schools . It 's not the tasks of the politics to introduce new ideas , that 's task and goal of science . "
= = = Relation to Islam = = =
Muzaffar Iqbal , a notable Pakistani @-@ Canadian Muslim , signed the A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism petition of the Discovery Institute . Ideas similar to intelligent design have been considered respected intellectual options among Muslims , and in Turkey many intelligent design books have been translated . In Istanbul in 2007 , public meetings promoting intelligent design were sponsored by the local government , and David Berlinski of the Discovery Institute was the keynote speaker at a meeting in May 2007 .
= = = Relation to ISKCON = = =
In 2011 , the International Society for Krishna Consciousness ( ISKCON ) Bhaktivedanta Book Trust published an intelligent design book titled Rethinking Darwin : A Vedic Study of Darwinism and Intelligent Design . The book included contributions from intelligent design advocates William A. Dembski , Jonathan Wells and Michael Behe as well as from Hindu creationists Leif A. Jensen and Michael Cremo .
= = = Australia = = =
The status of intelligent design in Australia is somewhat similar to that in the UK ( see Education in Australia ) . In 2005 , the Australian Minister for Education , Science and Training , Brendan Nelson , raised the notion of intelligent design being taught in science classes . The public outcry caused the minister to quickly concede that the correct forum for intelligent design , if it were to be taught , is in religion or philosophy classes . The Australian chapter of Campus Crusade for Christ distributed a DVD of the Discovery Institute 's documentary Unlocking the Mystery of Life ( 2002 ) to Australian secondary schools . The head of one of Australia 's leading private schools supported use of the DVD in the classroom at the discretion of teachers and principals .
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= Montreal =
Montreal ( / ˌmʌntriːˈɒl / ; pronounced : [ mɔ ̃ ʁeal ] ; French : Montréal ) is the most populous city in Quebec and the second most populous municipality in Canada . Originally called Ville @-@ Marie , or " City of Mary , " it is named after Mount Royal , the triple @-@ peaked hill in the heart of the city . The city is on the Island of Montreal , which took its name from the same source as the city , and a few much smaller peripheral islands , the largest of which is Île Bizard . It has a distinct four @-@ season continental climate with warm to hot summers and cold snowy winters .
In 2011 the city had a population of 1 @,@ 649 @,@ 519 . Montreal 's metropolitan area had a population of 3 @,@ 824 @,@ 221 and a population of 1 @,@ 886 @,@ 481 in the urban agglomeration , with all of the municipalities on the Island of Montreal included . The 2014 estimate of the population of the metropolitan area of Montreal is 4 @.@ 1 million . French is the city 's official language and is the language spoken at home by 56 @.@ 9 % of the population of the city , followed by English at 18 @.@ 6 % and 19 @.@ 8 % other languages ( in the 2006 census ) . In the larger Montreal Census Metropolitan Area , 67 @.@ 9 % of the population speaks French at home , compared to 16 @.@ 5 % who speak English . Montreal is one of the most bilingual cities in Quebec and Canada with 56 % of the population able to speak both English and French . Montreal is the second largest primarily French @-@ speaking city in the world , after Paris .
Historically the commercial capital of Canada , it was surpassed in population and economic strength by Toronto in the 1970s . It remains an important centre of commerce , aerospace , finance , pharmaceuticals , technology , design , education , culture , tourism , gaming , film and world affairs . Being the location of the headquarters of the International Civil Aviation Organization , Montreal is one of three North American cities home to organizations of the United Nations ( along with Washington , D.C. and New York ) and also has the second @-@ highest number of consulates in the continent . Montreal was also named a UNESCO City of Design . In 2009 , Montreal was named North America 's leading host city for international association events , according to the 2009 preliminary rankings of the International Congress and Convention Association ( ICCA ) . The 2016 edition of QS Best Student Cities ranked Montreal the 7th @-@ best city in the world to be a university student . According to the 2015 Global Liveability Ranking by the Economist Intelligence Unit , Montreal ranked 14th out of 140 cities .
Montreal has hosted multiple international conferences and events throughout its history , including the 1967 International and Universal Exposition and the 1976 Summer Olympic Games . It is the only Canadian city to have held the Summer Olympics . Currently , the city hosts the Canadian Grand Prix of Formula One , the Montreal International Jazz Festival and the Just for Laughs festival . In 2012 , Montreal was ranked as a Beta + world city .
= = Name = =
In Kanien ’ kéha , or Mohawk language , the island is called Tiohtià : ke Tsi ( a name referring to the Lachine Rapids to the island 's southwest ) or Ka @-@ wé @-@ no @-@ te . In Anishinaabemowin , or Ojibwe language , the land is called Mooniyaang ( a name meaning " the first stopping place " and part of the seven fires prophecy ) .
Though the city was first named by European settlers Ville Marie , or " City of Mary , " its current name comes from Mount Royal , the triple @-@ peaked hill in the heart of the city . According to one theory , the name derives from mont Réal , ( Mont Royal in modern French ) , but Cartier 's 1535 diary entry , naming the mountain , refers to " le mont Royal " . Another possibility mentioned by the Government of Canada on its web site concerning Canadian place names , is that the name was adopted as it is written nowadays because an early map of 1556 used the Italian name of the mountain , " Monte Real " .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ European contact = = =
Archaeological evidence demonstrates that First Nations native people occupied the island of Montreal as early as 4 @,@ 000 years ago . By the year AD 1000 , they had started to cultivate maize . Within a few hundred years , they had built fortified villages . The Saint Lawrence Iroquoians , an ethnicity distinct from the Iroquois nations of the Haudenosaunee then based in present @-@ day New York , established the village of Hochelaga at the foot of Mount Royal two centuries before the French arrived . Archeologists have found evidence of their habitation there and at other locations in the valley since at least the 14th century . The French explorer Jacques Cartier visited Hochelaga on October 2 , 1535 , and estimated the population of the native people at Hochelaga to be " over a thousand people " .
= = = La Place Royale = = =
Seventy years later , the French explorer Samuel de Champlain reported that the St Lawrence Iroquoians and their settlements had disappeared altogether from the St Lawrence valley . This is believed to be due to outmigration , epidemics of European diseases , or intertribal wars . In 1611 Champlain established a fur trading post on the Island of Montreal , on a site initially named La Place Royale . At the confluence of Petite Riviere and St. Lawrence River , it is where present @-@ day Pointe @-@ à @-@ Callière stands . On his 1616 map , Samuel de Champlain named the island Lille de Villemenon , in honour of the sieur de Villemenon , a French dignitary who was seeking the viceroyship of New France . In 1639 Jérôme Le Royer de La Dauversière obtained the Seigneurial title to the Island of Montreal in the name of the Notre Dame Society of Montreal to establish a Roman Catholic mission to evangelize natives .
= = = Ville Marie = = =
Dauversiere hired Paul Chomedey de Maisonneuve , then 30 , to lead a group of colonists to build a mission on his new seigneury . The colonists left France in 1641 for Quebec , and arrived on the island the following year . On May 17 , 1642 , Ville @-@ Marie was founded on the southern shore of Montreal island , with Maisonneuve as its first governor . The settlement included a chapel and a hospital , under the command of Jeanne Mance . By 1643 , Ville @-@ Marie had already been attacked by Iroquois raids . In the spring of 1651 , the Iroquois attacks became so frequent and so violent that Ville Marie thought its end had come . Maisonneuve made all the settlers take refuge in the fort . By 1652 , the colony at Montreal had been so reduced that he was forced to return to France to raise 100 volunteers to go with him to the colony the following year . If the effort had failed , Montreal was to be abandoned and the survivors re @-@ located downriver to Quebec City . Before these 100 arrived in the fall of 1653 , the population of Montreal was barely 50 people .
By 1685 , Ville Marie was home to some 600 colonists , most of them living in modest wooden houses . Ville Marie became a centre for the fur trade and a base for further exploration . In 1689 , the English @-@ allied Iroquois attacked Lachine on the Island of Montreal , committing the worst massacre in the history of New France . By the early 18th century , the Sulpician Order was established there . To encourage French settlement , they wanted the Mohawk to move away from the fur trading post at Ville Marie . They had a mission village , known as Kahnewake , south of the St Lawrence River . The fathers persuaded some Mohawk to make a new settlement at their former hunting grounds north of the Ottawa River . This became Kanesatake . In 1745 several Mohawk families moved upriver to create another settlement , known as Akwesasne . All three are now Mohawk reserves in Canada . The Canadian territory was ruled as a French colony until 1760 , when it was surrendered to Great Britain after the Seven Years ' War .
Ville Marie was the name for the settlement that appeared in all official documents until 1705 , when Montreal appeared for the first time , although people referred to the " Island of Montreal " long before then .
= = = Modern history = = =
Montreal was incorporated as a city in 1832 . The opening of the Lachine Canal permitted ships to bypass the unnavigable Lachine Rapids , while the construction of the Victoria Bridge established Montreal as a major railway hub . The leaders of Montreal 's business community had started to build their homes in the Golden Square Mile ( ~ 2 @.@ 6 km2 ) from about 1850 . By 1860 , it was the largest municipality in British North America and the undisputed economic and cultural centre of Canada .
In the 19th century maintaining Montreal ’ s drinking water became increasingly difficult with the rapid increase in population . A majority of the drinking water was still coming from the city 's harbor , which was busy and heavily trafficked leading to the deterioration of the water within . In the mid 1840s the City of Montreal installed a water system that would pump water from the St. Lawrence and into cisterns . The cisterns would then be transported to the desired location . This was not the first water system of its type in Montreal as there had been one in private ownership since 1801 . In the middle of the 19th century water distribution was carried out by “ fontainiers . ” The fountainiers would open and close water valves outside of buildings , as directed , all over the city . As they lacked modern plumbing systems it was impossible to connect all buildings at once and it also acted as a conservation method . The population was not finished rising yet however , from 58 @,@ 000 in 1852 it rose to 267 @,@ 000 by 1901 .
Montreal was the capital of the Province of Canada from 1844 to 1849 , but lost its status when a Tory mob burnt down the Parliament building to protest the passage of the Rebellion Losses Bill . For strategic reasons , Queen Victoria herself established Ottawa as the capital . The reasons were twofold ; as it was located more in the interior of the nation , it was less susceptible to US attack . Perhaps more importantly , as it lay on the border between French and English Canada , the then small town of Ottawa was seen as a compromise between Montreal , Toronto , Kingston and Quebec City , who were all vying to become the young nation 's official capital .
An internment camp was set up at Immigration Hall in Montreal from August 1914 to November 1918 .
After World War I , the prohibition movement in the United States led to Montreal becoming a destination for Americans looking for alcohol . Unemployment remained high in the city , and was exacerbated by the Stock Market Crash of 1929 and the Great Depression .
During World War II , Mayor Camillien Houde protested against conscription and urged Montrealers to disobey the federal government 's registry of all men and women . The Government , part of the Allied forces , was furious over Houde 's stand and held him at a prison camp until 1944 . That year the government decided to institute conscription to expand the armed forces and fight the Nazis . ( See Conscription Crisis of 1944 . )
Montreal was the official residence of the Luxembourg royal family in exile during World War II .
By 1951 , Montreal 's population had surpassed one million . However , Toronto 's growth had begun challenging Montreal 's status as the economic capital of Canada . Indeed , the volume of stocks traded at the Toronto Stock Exchange had already surpassed that traded at the Montreal Stock Exchange in the 1940s . The Saint Lawrence Seaway opened in 1959 , allowing vessels to bypass Montreal . In time this development led to the end of the city 's economic dominance as businesses moved to other areas . During the 1960s there was continued growth , including the World 's Fair known as Expo 67 , and the construction of Canada 's tallest skyscrapers , new expressways and the subway system known as the Montreal Metro .
The 1970s ushered in a period of wide @-@ ranging social and political changes , stemming largely from the concerns of the French speaking majority about the conservation of their culture and language , given the traditional predominance of the English Canadian minority in the business arena . The October Crisis and the 1976 election of the Parti Québécois , supporting sovereign status for Quebec , resulted in the departure of many businesses and people from the city . In 1976 , Montreal was the host of the Olympics . During the 1980s and early 1990s , Montreal experienced a slower rate of economic growth than many other major Canadian cities .
Montreal was merged with the 27 surrounding municipalities on the Island of Montreal on January 1 , 2002 , creating a unified city covering the entire island . There was great resistance from the suburbs to the merger , with the perception being that it was forced on the mostly English suburbs by the Parti Québécois . As expected , this move proved unpopular and several mergers were later rescinded . Several former municipalities , totalling 13 % of the population of the island , voted to leave the unified city in separate referendums in June 2004 . The demerger took place on January 1 , 2006 , leaving 15 municipalities on the island , including Montreal . De @-@ merged municipalities remain affiliated with the city through an agglomeration council that collects taxes from them to pay for numerous shared services . The 2002 mergers were not the first in the city 's history . Montreal annexed 27 other cities , towns , and villages beginning with Hochelaga in 1883 with the last prior to 2002 being Pointe @-@ aux @-@ Trembles in 1982 .
The 21st century has brought with it a revival of the city 's economic and cultural landscape . The construction of new residential skyscrapers , two super @-@ hospitals ( the Centre hospitalier de l 'Université de Montreal and McGill University Health Centre ) , the creation of the Quartier des Spectacles , reconstruction of the Turcot Interchange , reconfiguration of the Decarie and Dorval interchanges , construction of the new Réseau électrique métropolitain , gentrification of Griffintown , subway line extensions and the purchase of new subway cars , the complete revitalization and expansion of Trudeau International Airport , the completion of Quebec Autoroute 30 , the reconstruction of the Champlain Bridge , and the construction of a new toll bridge to Laval are helping Montreal continue to grow .
= = Geography = =
Montreal is in the southwest of the province of Quebec . The city covers most of the Island of Montreal at the confluence of the Saint Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers . The port of Montreal lies at one end of the Saint Lawrence Seaway , the river gateway that stretches from the Great Lakes to the Atlantic . Montreal is defined by its location between the Saint Lawrence river to its south and the Rivière des Prairies to its north . The city is named after the most prominent geographical feature on the island , a three @-@ head hill called Mount Royal , topped at 232 m above sea level .
Montreal is at the centre of the Montreal Metropolitan Community , and is bordered by the city of Laval to the north ; Longueuil , Saint @-@ Lambert , Brossard , and other municipalities to the south ; Repentigny to the east and the West Island municipalities to the west . The anglophone enclaves of Westmount , Montreal West , Hampstead , Côte Saint @-@ Luc , the Town of Mount Royal and the francophone enclave Montreal East are all surrounded by Montreal .
= = = Climate = = =
Montreal is classified as a humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification : Dfb ) .
Summers are , on the whole , warm and humid with a daily maximum average of 26 to 27 ° C ( 79 to 81 ° F ) in July ; temperatures in excess of 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) are common . Conversely , cold fronts can bring crisp , drier and windy weather in the early and later parts of summer .
Winter brings cold , snowy , windy , and , at times , icy weather , with a daily average ranging from − 9 to − 10 @.@ 5 ° C ( 16 to 13 ° F ) in January . However , some winter days rise above freezing , allowing for rain on an average of 4 days in January and February each . Usually , snow covering some or all bare ground lasts on average from the first or second week of December until the last week of March . While the air temperature does not fall below − 30 ° C ( − 22 ° F ) every year , the wind chill often makes the temperature feel this low to exposed skin .
Spring and fall are pleasantly mild but prone to drastic temperature changes ; spring even more so than fall . Late season heat waves as well as " Indian summers " are possible . Early and late season snow storms can occur in November and March , and more rarely in April . Montreal is generally snow free from April 15 to November 15 .
The lowest temperature in Environment Canada 's books was − 37 @.@ 8 ° C ( − 36 ° F ) on January 15 , 1957 , and the highest temperature was 37 @.@ 6 ° C ( 100 ° F ) on August 1 , 1975 , both at Dorval International Airport .
Before modern weather record keeping ( which dates back to 1871 for McGill ) , a minimum temperature almost 5 degrees lower was recorded at 7 a.m. on January 10 , 1859 , where it registered at − 42 ° C ( − 44 ° F ) .
Annual precipitation is around 1 @,@ 000 mm ( 39 in ) , including an average of about 210 cm ( 83 in ) of snowfall , which occurs from November through March . Thunderstorms are common in the period beginning in late spring through summer to early fall ; additionally , tropical storms or their remnants can cause heavy rains and gales . Montreal averages 2 @,@ 050 hours of sunshine annually , with summer being the sunniest season , though slightly wetter than the others in terms of total precipitation — mostly from thunderstorms .
= = Architecture = =
For over a century and a half , Montreal was the industrial and financial centre of Canada . This legacy has left a variety of buildings including factories , elevators , warehouses , mills , and refineries , that today provide an invaluable insight into the city 's history , especially in the downtown area and the Old Port area . There are 50 National Historic Sites of Canada , more than any other city .
Some of the city 's earliest still @-@ standing buildings date back to the late 16th and early 17th centuries . Although most are clustered around the Old Montreal area , such as the Sulpician Seminary adjacent to Notre Dame Basilica that dates back to 1687 , and Chateau Ramezay , which was built in 1705 , you can find important examples of early colonial architecture dotted throughout the city . Situated in Lachine , the Le Ber @-@ Le Moyne House is the oldest complete building in the city . In Point St. Charles visitors can see the Maison Saint @-@ Gabriel , which can trace its history back to 1698 . There are many historic buildings in Old Montreal in their original form : Notre Dame of Montreal Basilica , Bonsecours Market , and the impressive 19th ‑ century headquarters of all major Canadian banks on St. James Street ( French : Rue Saint Jacques ) . Montreal 's earliest buildings are characterized by their uniquely French influence and grey stone construction .
Saint Joseph 's Oratory , completed in 1967 , Ernest Cormier 's Art Deco Université de Montréal main building , the landmark Place Ville Marie office tower , the controversial Olympic Stadium and surrounding structures , are but a few notable examples of the city 's 20th @-@ century architecture . Pavilions designed for the 1967 International and Universal Exposition , popularly known as Expo 67 , featured a wide range of architectural designs . Though most pavilions were temporary structures , several have become landmarks , including Buckminster Fuller 's geodesic dome U.S. Pavilion , now the Montreal Biosphere , and Moshe Safdie 's striking Habitat 67 apartment complex .
The Montreal Metro has public artwork by some of the biggest names in Quebec culture .
In 2006 Montreal was named a UNESCO City of Design , only one of three design capitals of the world ( the others being Berlin and Buenos Aires ) . This distinguished title recognizes Montreal 's design community . Since 2005 the city has been home for the International Council of Graphic Design Associations ( Icograda ) ; the International Design Alliance ( IDA ) .
The Underground City ( officially RESO ) is the set of interconnected complexes ( both above and below ground ) in and around Downtown .
= = Neighbourhoods = =
The city is composed of 19 large boroughs , subdivided into neighbourhoods . The boroughs are : Côte @-@ des @-@ Neiges – Notre @-@ Dame @-@ de @-@ Grace , The Plateau Mount Royal , Outremont and Ville Marie in the centre ; Mercier – Hochelaga @-@ Maisonneuve , Rosemont – La Petite @-@ Patrie and Villeray – Saint @-@ Michel – Parc @-@ Extension in the east ; Anjou , Montréal @-@ Nord , Rivière @-@ des @-@ Prairies – Pointe @-@ aux @-@ Trembles and Saint @-@ Leonard in the northeast ; Ahuntsic @-@ Cartierville , L 'Île @-@ Bizard – Sainte @-@ Geneviève , Pierrefonds @-@ Roxboro and Saint @-@ Laurent in the northwest ; and Lachine , LaSalle , The South West and Verdun in the south .
Many of these boroughs were independent cities that were forced to be merged with Montreal in January 2002 following the 2002 Municipal Reorganization of Montreal .
The borough with the most neighbourhoods is Ville Marie , which includes downtown , the historical district of Old Montreal , Chinatown , the Gay Village , the Latin Quarter , the gentrified Quartier international and Cité Multimédia as well as the Quartier des Spectacles which is under development . Other neighbourhoods of interest in the borough include the affluent Golden Square Mile neighbourhood at the foot of Mount Royal and the Shaughnessy Village / Concordia U area home to thousands of students at Concordia University . The borough also comprises most of Mount Royal Park , Saint Helen 's Island , and Notre @-@ Dame Island .
The Plateau Mount Royal borough was a working class francophone area . The largest neighbourhood is the Plateau ( not to be confused with the whole borough ) , which is undergoing considerable gentrification , and a 2001 study deemed it as Canada 's most creative neighbourhood because artists comprise 8 % of its labour force . The neighbourhood of Mile End in the northwestern part of the borough , has been a very multicultural area of the city , and features two of Montreal 's well @-@ known bagel establishments , St @-@ Viateur Bagel and Fairmount Bagel . The McGill Ghetto is in the extreme southwestern portion of the borough , its name being derived from the fact that it is home to thousands of McGill University students and faculty members .
The South West borough was home to much of the city 's industry during the late 19th and early @-@ to @-@ mid 20th century . The borough included Goose Village and is home to the traditionally working @-@ class Irish neighbourhoods of Griffintown and Point Saint Charles as well as the low @-@ income neighbourhoods of Saint Henri and Little Burgundy .
Other notable neighbourhoods include the multicultural areas of Notre @-@ Dame @-@ de @-@ Grâce and Côte @-@ des @-@ Neiges in the Côte @-@ des @-@ Neiges – Notre @-@ Dame @-@ de @-@ Grace borough , and Little Italy in the borough of Rosemont – La Petite @-@ Patrie and Hochelaga @-@ Maisonneuve , home of the Olympic Stadium in the borough of Mercier – Hochelaga @-@ Maisonneuve .
= = = Old Montreal = = =
Old Montreal is a historic area southeast of downtown containing many attractions such as the Old Port of Montreal , Place Jacques @-@ Cartier , Montreal City Hall , the Bonsecours Market , Place d 'Armes , Pointe @-@ à @-@ Callière Museum , the Notre @-@ Dame de Montreal Basilica , and the Montreal Science Centre .
Architecture and cobbled streets in Old Montreal have been maintained or restored and are frequented by horse @-@ drawn buggies carrying tourists . Old Montreal is accessible from the downtown core via the underground city and is served by several STM bus routes and Metro stations , ferries to the South Shore and a network of bicycle paths .
The riverside area adjacent to Old Montreal is known as the Old Port . The Old Port was the site of the Port of Montreal , but its shipping operations have been moved further east to a larger site , leaving the former location as a recreational and historical area maintained by Parks Canada . The new Port of Montreal is Canada 's largest container port and the largest inland port on Earth .
= = = Mount Royal = = =
The mountain is the site of Mount Royal Park , one of Montreal 's largest greenspaces . The park , most of which is wooded , was designed by Frederick Law Olmsted , who also designed New York 's Central Park , and was inaugurated in 1876 .
The park contains two belvederes , the more prominent of which is the Kondiaronk Belvedere , a semicircular plaza with a chalet , overlooking Downtown Montreal . Other features of the park are Beaver Lake , a small man @-@ made lake , a short ski slope , a sculpture garden , Smith House , an interpretive centre , and a well @-@ known monument to Sir George Etienne Cartier . The park hosts athletic , tourist and cultural activities .
The mountain is home to two major cemeteries , Notre @-@ Dame @-@ des @-@ Neiges ( founded in 1854 ) and Mount Royal ( 1852 ) . Mount Royal Cemetery is a 165 acres ( 67 ha ) terraced cemetery on the north slope of Mount Royal in the borough of Outremont . Notre Dame des Neiges Cemetery is much larger , predominantly French @-@ Canadian and officially Catholic . More than 900 @,@ 000 people are buried there .
Mount Royal Cemetery contains more than 162 @,@ 000 graves and is the final resting place for a number of notable Canadians . It includes a veterans section with several soldiers who were awarded the British Empire 's highest military honour , the Victoria Cross . In 1901 the Mount Royal Cemetery Company established the first crematorium in Canada .
The first cross on the mountain was placed there in 1643 by Paul Chomedey de Maisonneuve , the founder of the city , in fulfilment of a vow he made to the Virgin Mary when praying to her to stop a disastrous flood . Today , the mountain is crowned by a 31 @.@ 4 m @-@ high ( 103 ft ) illuminated cross , installed in 1924 by the John the Baptist Society and now owned by the city . It was converted to fibre optic light in 1992 . The new system can turn the lights red , blue , or purple , the last of which is used as a sign of mourning between the death of the Pope and the election of the next .
= = Demographics = =
According to Statistics Canada , at the 2006 Canadian census the city had 1 @,@ 620 @,@ 693 inhabitants . A total of 3 @,@ 635 @,@ 571 lived in the Montreal Census Metropolitan Area ( CMA ) at the same 2006 census , up from 3 @,@ 451 @,@ 027 at the 2001 census ( within 2006 CMA boundaries ) , which means a population growth of + 1 @.@ 05 % per year between 2001 and 2006 . In the 2006 census , children under 14 years of age ( 621 @,@ 695 ) constituted 17 @.@ 1 % , while inhabitants over 65 years of age ( 495 @,@ 685 ) numbered 13 @.@ 6 % of the total population .
People of European ethnicities formed the largest cluster of ethnic groups . The largest reported European ethnicities in the 2006 census were French 23 % , Italians 10 % , Irish 5 % , English 4 % , Scottish 3 % , and Spanish 2 % . Some 26 % of the population of Montreal and 16 @.@ 5 % that of Greater Montreal , are members of a visible minority ( non @-@ white ) group , up from 5 @.@ 2 % in 1981 .
Visible minorities comprised 31 @.@ 7 % of the population in the 2011 census . The five most numerous visible minorities are Blacks ( 9 @.@ 1 % ) , Arabs ( 6 @.@ 4 % ) , Latin Americans ( 4 @.@ 2 % ) , South Asians ( 3 @.@ 3 % ) , and Chinese ( 2 @.@ 9 % ) . Visible minorities are defined by the Canadian Employment Equity Act as " persons , other than Aboriginals , who are non @-@ white in colour " .
According to a report published by the city , the population of the island was expected to number 1 @,@ 991 @,@ 200 by 2012 , with 3 @.@ 9 million in the Greater Montreal Area , an increase of 15 @.@ 8 % over 2001 . However , in 2009 , the Greater Montreal Area was estimated to number 3 @.@ 86 million people , suggesting that the area would surpass the four million threshold by 2012 . According to StatsCan , by 2030 , the Greater Montreal Area is expected to number 5 @,@ 275 @,@ 000 with 1 @,@ 722 @,@ 000 being visible minorities .
In terms of mother language ( first language learned ) , the 2006 census reported that in the Greater Montreal Area , 66 @.@ 5 % spoke French as a first language , followed by English at 13 @.@ 2 % , while 0 @.@ 8 % spoke both as a first language . The remaining 22 @.@ 5 % of Montreal @-@ area residents are allophones , speaking languages including Italian ( 3 @.@ 5 % ) , Arabic ( 3 @.@ 1 % ) , Spanish ( 2 @.@ 6 % ) , Creole ( 1 @.@ 3 % ) , Chinese ( 1 @.@ 2 % ) , Greek ( 1 @.@ 2 % ) , Portuguese ( 0 @.@ 8 % ) , Romanian ( 0 @.@ 7 % ) , Vietnamese ( 0 @.@ 7 % ) , and Russian ( 0 @.@ 5 % ) . In terms of additional languages spoken , a unique feature of Montreal among Canadian cities , noted by Statistics Canada , is the working knowledge of both French and English possessed by most of its residents .
The Greater Montreal Area is predominantly Roman Catholic ; however , weekly attendance in Quebec is among the lowest in Canada . Historically Montreal has been a centre of Catholicism in North America with its numerous seminaries and churches , including the Notre @-@ Dame Basilica , the Cathédrale Marie @-@ Reine @-@ du @-@ Monde , and Saint Joseph 's Oratory . Some 65 @.@ 8 % of the total population is Christian , largely Roman Catholic ( 52 @.@ 8 % ) , primarily because of descendants of original French settlers , and others of Italian and Irish origins . Protestants which include Anglican Church in Canada , United Church of Canada , Lutheran , owing to British and German immigration , and other denominations number 5 @.@ 90 % , with a further 3 @.@ 7 % consisting mostly of Orthodox Christians , fuelled by a large Greek population . There is also a number of Russian and Ukrainian Orthodox parishes . Islam is the largest non @-@ Christian religious group , with 154 @,@ 540 members , the second @-@ largest concentration of Muslims in Canada at 9 @.@ 6 % . The Jewish community in Montreal has a population of 90 @,@ 780 . In cities such as Côte Saint @-@ Luc and Hampstead , Jewish people constitute the majority , or a substantial part of the population . As recently as 1971 the Jewish community in Greater Montreal was as high as 109 @,@ 480 . Political and economic uncertainties led many to leave Montreal and the province of Quebec .
The religious breakdown of the population of Montreal is :
Christian : 65 @.@ 8 %
No religion : 18 @.@ 14 %
Muslim : 9 @.@ 6 %
Jewish : 2 @.@ 2 %
Buddhist : 2 @.@ 0 %
Hindu : 1 @.@ 4 %
Sikh : 0 @.@ 03 %
Other religions : 0 @.@ 3 %
= = Economy = =
Montreal has the second @-@ largest economy of Canadian cities based on GDP and the largest in Quebec . The city is today an important centre of commerce , finance , industry , technology , culture , world affairs and is the headquarters of the Montreal Exchange .
Industries include aerospace , electronic goods , pharmaceuticals , printed goods , software engineering , telecommunications , textile and apparel manufacturing , tobacco , petrochemicals , and transportation . The service sector is also strong and includes civil , mechanical and process engineering , finance , higher education , and research and development . In 2002 , Montreal was the fourth @-@ largest centre in North America in terms of aerospace jobs .
The Port of Montreal is one of the largest inland ports in the world handling 26 million tonnes of cargo annually . As one of the most important ports in Canada , it remains a trans @-@ shipment point for grain , sugar , petroleum products , machinery , and consumer goods . For this reason , Montreal is the railway hub of Canada and has always been an extremely important rail city ; it is home to the headquarters of the Canadian National Railway , and was home to the headquarters of the Canadian Pacific Railway until 1995 .
The headquarters of the Canadian Space Agency is in Longueuil , southeast of Montreal . Montreal also hosts the headquarters of the International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO , a United Nations body ) ; the World Anti @-@ Doping Agency ( an Olympic body ) ; the Airports Council International ( the association of the world 's airports – ACI World ) ; the International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) , IATA Operational Safety Audit and the International Gay and Lesbian Chamber of Commerce ( IGLCC ) , as well as some other international organizations in various fields .
Montreal is a centre of film and television production . The headquarters of Alliance Films and five studios of the Academy Award @-@ winning documentary producer National Film Board of Canada are in the city , as well as the head offices of Telefilm Canada , the national feature @-@ length film and television funding agency and Télévision de Radio @-@ Canada . Given its eclectic architecture and broad availability of film services and crew members , Montreal is a popular filming location for feature @-@ length films , and sometimes stands in for European locations . The city is also home to many recognized cultural , film and music festivals ( Just For Laughs , Just For Laughs Gags , Montreal International Jazz Festival , Montreal World Film Festival , and others ) , which contribute significantly to its economy . It is also home to one of the world 's largest cultural enterprises , the Cirque du Soleil .
The video game industry has been booming in Montreal since 1997 , coinciding with the opening of Ubisoft Montreal . Recently , the city has attracted world leading game developers and publishers studios such as Ubisoft Montreal , EA , Eidos Interactive , Bioware , Artificial Mind and Movement , Strategy First , THQ , Gameloft mainly because of the quality of local specialized labor , and tax credits offered to the corporations . Recently , Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment , a division of Warner Bros. , announced that it would open a video game studio . Relatively new to the video game industry , it will be Warner Bros. first studio opened , not purchased , and will develop games for such Warner Bros. franchises as Batman and other games from their DC Comics portfolio . The studio will create 300 jobs .
Montreal plays an important role in the finance industry . The sector employs approximately 100 @,@ 000 people in the Greater Montreal Area . As of March 2016 , Montreal is ranked in the 21st position in the Global Financial Centres Index , a ranking of the competitiveness of financial centres around the world . The city is home to the Montreal Exchange , the oldest stock exchange in Canada and the only financial derivatives exchange in the country . The corporate headquarters of the Bank of Montreal and Royal Bank of Canada , two of the biggest banks in Canada , were in Montreal . While both banks moved their headquarters to Toronto , Ontario , their legal corporate offices remain in Montreal . The city is home to head offices of two smaller banks , National Bank of Canada and Laurentian Bank of Canada . The Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec , an instutitonal investor managing assets totalling $ 248 billion CAD , has its main business office in Montreal . Many foreign subsidiaries operating in the financial sector also have offices in Montreal , including HSBC , Aon , Société Générale , BNP Paribas and AXA .
Several companies are headquartered in Greater Montreal Area including Rio Tinto Alcan , Bombardier Inc . , Canadian National Railway , CGI Group , Air Canada , Air Transat , CAE , Saputo , Cirque du Soleil , Quebecor , Ultramar , Kruger Inc . , Jean Coutu Group , Uniprix , Proxim , Domtar , Le Chateau , Power Corporation , Cellcom Communications , Bell Canada . Standard Life , Hydro @-@ Québec , AbitibiBowater , Pratt and Whitney Canada , Molson , Tembec , Canada Steamship Lines , Fednav , Alimentation Couche @-@ Tard , SNC @-@ Lavalin , MEGA Brands , Aeroplan , Agropur , Metro Inc . , Laurentian Bank of Canada , National Bank of Canada , Transat A.T. , VIA Rail , Novacam Technologies , Dollarama , Rona and the Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec . Montreal had a GDP of C $ 145 billion ( US $ 148 billion ) in 2008 , placing it 41st city in the world .
The Montreal Oil Refining Centre is the largest refining centre in Canada , with companies like Petro @-@ Canada , Ultramar , Gulf Oil , Petromont , Ashland Canada , Parachem Petrochemical , Coastal Petrochemical , Interquisa ( Cepsa ) Petrochemical , Nova Chemicals , and more . Shell decided to close the refining centre in 2010 , throwing hundreds out of work and causing an increased dependence on foreign refineries for eastern Canada .
= = Culture = =
Montreal was referred to as " Canada 's Cultural Capital " by Monocle magazine . The city is Canada 's centre for French @-@ language television productions , radio , theatre , film , multimedia , and print publishing . Montreal 's many cultural communities have given it a distinct local culture .
As a North American city , Montreal shares many cultural characteristics with the rest of the continent . It has a tradition of producing both jazz and rock music . The city has also produced much talent in the fields of visual arts , theatre , music , and dance . Yet , being at the confluence of the French and the English traditions , Montreal has developed a unique and distinguished cultural face . Another distinctive characteristic of cultural life is the animation of its downtown , particularly during summer , prompted by cultural and social events , particularly festivals . The city 's largest festival is the Montreal International Jazz Festival , which is the largest jazz festival in the world . Other popular festivals include the Just for Laughs ( largest comedy festival in the world ) , Montreal World Film Festival , Les FrancoFolies de Montréal , Nuits d 'Afrique , Pop Montreal , Divers / Cité , Fierté Montréal and the Montreal Fireworks Festival . There are many smaller festivals , totalling over 100 each year in Montreal .
A cultural heart of classical art and the venue for many summer festivals , the Place des Arts is a complex of different concert and theatre halls surrounding a large square in the eastern portion of downtown . Place des Arts has the headquarters of one of the world 's foremost orchestras , the Montreal Symphony Orchestra . The Orchestre Métropolitain du Grand Montréal and the chamber orchestra I Musici de Montréal are two other well @-@ regarded Montreal orchestras . Also performing at Place des Arts are the Opéra de Montréal and the city 's chief ballet company Les Grands Ballets Canadiens . Internationally recognized avant @-@ garde dance troupes such as Compagnie Marie Chouinard , La La La Human Steps , O Vertigo , and the Fondation Jean @-@ Pierre Perreault have toured the world and worked with international popular artists on videos and concerts . The unique choreography of these troupes has paved the way for the success of the world @-@ renowned Cirque du Soleil .
Nicknamed la ville aux cent clochers ( the city of a hundred steeples ) , Montreal is renowned for its churches . As Mark Twain noted , " This is the first time I was ever in a city where you couldn 't throw a brick without breaking a church window . " The city has four Roman Catholic basilicas : Mary , Queen of the World Cathedral , the aforementioned Notre @-@ Dame Basilica , St Patrick 's Basilica , and Saint Joseph 's Oratory . The Oratory is the largest church in Canada , with the second largest copper dome in the world , after Saint Peter 's Basilica in Rome .
= = Sports = =
The most popular sport is ice hockey . The professional hockey team , the Montreal Canadiens , is one of the Original Six teams of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) , and has won an NHL @-@ record 24 Stanley Cup championships . The Canadiens ' most recent Stanley Cup victory came in 1993 . They have major rivalries with the Toronto Maple Leafs and Boston Bruins both of which are also Original Six hockey teams . The Canadiens have played at the Bell Centre since 1996 . Prior to that they played at the Montreal Forum .
The Montreal Alouettes of the Canadian Football League ( CFL ) play at Molson Stadium on the campus of McGill University for their regular @-@ season games . Late season and playoff games are played at the much larger , enclosed Olympic Stadium , which also played host to the 2008 Grey Cup . The Alouettes have won the Grey Cup seven times , most recently in 2010 . The Alouettes has had two periods on hiatus . During the second one , the Montreal Machine played in the World League of American Football in 1991 and 1992 . The McGill Redmen , Concordia Stingers , and Université de Montréal Carabins play in the CIS university football league .
Montreal has a storied baseball history . The city was the home of the minor @-@ league Montreal Royals of the International League until 1960 . In 1946 , Jackie Robinson broke the baseball colour barrier with the Royals in an emotionally difficult year ; Robinson was forever grateful for the local fans ' fervent support . Major League Baseball came to town in the form of the Montreal Expos in 1969 . They played their games at Jarry Park until moving into Olympic Stadium in 1977 . After 36 years in Montreal , the team relocated to Washington , D.C. in 2005 and re @-@ branded themselves as the Washington Nationals .
The Montreal Impact are the city 's professional soccer team . They play at a soccer @-@ specific stadium called Saputo Stadium . They joined North America 's biggest soccer league , Major League Soccer in 2012 . The Montreal games of the 2007 FIFA U @-@ 20 World Cup and 2014 FIFA U @-@ 20 Women 's World Cup were held at Olympic Stadium , and the venue hosted Montreal games in the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup .
Montreal is the site of a high @-@ profile auto racing event each year : the Canadian Grand Prix of Formula One ( F1 ) racing . This race takes place on the famous Circuit Gilles Villeneuve on Île Notre @-@ Dame . In 2009 , the race was dropped from the Formula One calendar , to the chagrin of some fans , but the Canadian Grand Prix returned to the Formula 1 calendar in 2010 . The Circuit Gilles Villeneuve also hosted a round of the Champ Car World Series from 2002 – 2007 , and was home to the NAPA Auto Parts 200 , a NASCAR Nationwide Series race , and the Montréal 200 , a Grand Am Rolex Sports Car Series race .
Uniprix Stadium , built in 1993 on the site of Jarry Park , is used for the Rogers Cup men 's and women 's tennis tournaments . The men 's tournament is a Masters 1000 event on the ATP Tour , and the women 's tournament is a Premier tournament on the WTA Tour . The men 's and women 's tournaments alternate between Montreal and Toronto every year .
Montreal was the host of the 1976 Summer Olympic Games . The stadium cost $ 1 @.@ 5 billion ; with interest that figure ballooned to nearly $ 3 billion , and was only paid off in December 2006 . Montreal also hosted the first ever World Outgames in the summer of 2006 , attracting over 16 @,@ 000 participants engaged in 35 sporting activities .
Montreal was the host city for the 17th unicycling world championship and convention ( UNICON ) in August 2014 .
Montreal and the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) have been in early discussions for an expansion franchise located in the city .
= = Media = =
Montreal is Canada 's second @-@ largest media market , and the centre of francophone Canada 's media industry .
There are four over @-@ the @-@ air English @-@ language television stations : CBMT @-@ DT ( CBC Television ) , CFCF @-@ DT ( CTV ) , CKMI @-@ DT ( Global ) and CJNT @-@ DT ( City ) . There are also five over @-@ the @-@ air French @-@ language television stations : CBFT @-@ DT ( Radio @-@ Canada ) , CFTM @-@ DT ( TVA ) , CFJP @-@ DT ( V ) , CIVM @-@ DT ( Télé @-@ Québec ) , and CFTU @-@ DT ( Canal Savoir ) .
Montreal has four daily newspapers , the English @-@ language Montreal Gazette and the French @-@ language La Presse , Le Journal de Montréal , and Le Devoir . There are two free French dailies , Métro and 24 Heures . Montreal has numerous weekly tabloids and community newspapers serving various neighbourhoods , ethnic groups and schools .
= = Government = =
The head of the city government in Montreal is the mayor , who is first among equals in the city council . Gérald Tremblay , who is a member of the Union Montreal party , resigned as mayor on November 5 , 2012 . The office of acting mayor was held by city councillor Jane Cowell @-@ Poitras until November 16 , when Michael Applebaum was selected as the new mayor . Applebaum resigned on June 18 , 2013 and Cowell @-@ Poitras again assumed the office of acting mayor until the selection of Laurent Blanchard . The November 3rd , 2013 elections were won by Denis Coderre . Coderre was sworn in on November 14 .
The city council is a democratically elected institution and is the final decision @-@ making authority in the city , although much power is centralized in the executive committee . The Council consists of 65 members from all boroughs . The Council has jurisdiction over many matters , including public security , agreements with other governments , subsidy programs , the environment , urban planning , and a three @-@ year capital expenditure program . The Council is required to supervise , standardize or approve certain decisions made by the borough councils .
Reporting directly to the council , the executive committee exercises decision @-@ making powers similar to those of the cabinet in a parliamentary system and is responsible for preparing various documents including budgets and by @-@ laws , submitted to the council for approval . The decision @-@ making powers of the executive committee cover , in particular , the awarding of contracts or grants , the management of human and financial resources , supplies and buildings . It may also be assigned further powers by the city council .
Standing committees are the prime instruments for public consultation . They are responsible for the public study of pending matters and for making the appropriate recommendations to the council . They also review the annual budget forecasts for departments under their jurisdiction . A public notice of meeting is published in both French and English daily newspapers at least seven days before each meeting . All meetings include a public question period . The standing committees , of which there are seven , have terms lasting two years . In addition , the City Council may decide to create special committees at any time . Each standing committee is made up of seven to nine members , including a chairman and a vice @-@ chairman . The members are all elected municipal officers , with the exception of a representative of the government of Quebec on the public security committee .
The city is only one component of the larger Montreal Metropolitan Community ( Communauté Métropolitaine de Montréal ] , CMM ) , which is in charge of planning , coordinating , and financing economic development , public transportation , garbage collection and waste management , etc . , across the metropolitan area . The president of the CMM is the mayor of Montreal . The CMM covers 4 @,@ 360 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 680 sq mi ) , with 3 @.@ 6 million inhabitants in 2006 .
Montreal is the seat of the judicial district of Montreal , which includes the City and the other communities on the island .
= = Education = =
With four universities , seven other degree @-@ awarding institutions , and 12 CEGEPs in an 8 @-@ kilometre ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) radius , Montreal has the highest concentration of post @-@ secondary students of all major cities in North America ( 4 @.@ 38 students per 100 residents , followed by Boston at 4 @.@ 37 students per 100 residents ) .
Higher education ( English )
McGill University is one of Canada 's leading post @-@ secondary institutions , and widely regarded as a world @-@ class institution . In 2015 , McGill was ranked as the top University in Canada for the eleventh consecutive year by Macleans , and as the best University in Canada ; 24th best University in the world , by the QS World University Rankings .
Concordia University was created from the merger of Sir George Williams University and Loyola College in 1974 .
Higher education ( French )
Université de Montréal ( UdeM ) is the second largest research university in Canada and ranked as one of the top universities in Canada . Two separate institutions are affiliated to the university : the École Polytechnique de Montréal ( School of Engineering ) and HEC Montréal ( School of Business ) . HEC Montreal was founded in 1907 and is considered as one of the best business schools in Canada .
Université du Québec à Montréal ( UQaM ) is the Montreal campus of Université du Québec . UQaM generally specializes in liberal @-@ arts , although many programs related to the sciences are available .
The Université du Québec network also has three separately run schools in Montréal , notably the École de technologie supérieure ( ETS ) , the École nationale d 'administration publique ( ÉNAP ) and the Institut national de la recherche scientifique ( INRS ) .
L 'Institut de formation théologique de Montréal des Prêtres de Saint @-@ Sulpice ( IFTM ) specializes in theology and philosophy .
Le Conservatoire de musique de Montréal offers both a Bachelor and a Master program in classical music .
Additionally , two French @-@ language universities , Université de Sherbrooke and Université Laval have campuses in the nearby suburb of Longueuil on Montreal 's south shore . Also , l 'Institut pastorale des Dominicains is Montreal 's university center of Ottawa 's Collège Universitaire Dominicain / Dominican University College . The Faculté de théologie évangélique is Nova Scotia 's Acadia University Montreal based serving French Protestant community in Canada by offering both a Bachelor and a Master program in theology
The education system in Quebec is different from other systems in North America . Between high school ( which ends at grade 11 ) and university students must go through an additional school called CEGEP . CEGEPs offer pre @-@ university ( 2 @-@ years ) and technical ( 3 @-@ years ) programs . In Montreal , seventeen CEGEPs offer courses in French and five in English .
English @-@ language elementary and secondary public schools on Montreal Island are operated by the English Montreal School Board and the Lester B. Pearson School Board . French @-@ language elementary and secondary public schools in Montreal are operated by the Commission scolaire de Montréal ( CSDM ) , Commission scolaire Marguerite @-@ Bourgeoys ( CSMB ) and the Commission scolaire Pointe @-@ de @-@ l 'Île ( CSPI ) .
= = Transportation = =
Like many major cities , Montreal has a problem with vehicular traffic congestion . Commuting traffic from the cities and towns in the West Island ( such as Dollard @-@ des @-@ Ormeaux and Pointe @-@ Claire ) is compounded by commuters entering the city that use twenty @-@ four road crossings from numerous off @-@ island suburbs on the North and South Shores . The width of the Saint Lawrence River has made the construction of fixed links to the south shore expensive and difficult . There are presently four road bridges ( including two of the country 's busiest ) along with one bridge @-@ tunnel , two railway bridges , and a Metro line . The far narrower Rivière des Prairies to the city 's north , separating Montreal from Laval , is spanned by eight road bridges ( six to the city of Laval and two that span directly to the north shore ) and a Metro line .
The island of Montreal is a hub for the Quebec Autoroute system , and is served by Quebec Autoroutes A @-@ 10 ( known as the Bonaventure Expressway on the island of Montreal ) , A @-@ 15 ( aka the Decarie Expressway south of the A @-@ 40 and the Laurentian Autoroute to the north of it ) , A @-@ 13 ( aka Chomedey Autoroute ) , A @-@ 20 , A @-@ 25 , A @-@ 40 ( part of the Trans @-@ Canada Highway system , and known as " The Metropolitan " or simply " The Met " in its elevated mid @-@ town section ) , A @-@ 520 , and A @-@ 720 ( aka the Ville @-@ Marie Autoroute ) . Many of these Autoroutes are frequently congested at rush hour . However , in recent years , the government has acknowledged this problem and is working on long @-@ term solutions to alleviate the congestion . One such example is the extension of Quebec Autoroute 30 on Montreal 's south shore , which will serve as a bypass .
= = = Société de transport de Montréal = = =
Public local transport is served by a network of buses , subways , and commuter trains that extend across and off the island . The subway and bus system are operated by the Société de transport de Montréal ( STM ) . The STM bus network consists of 197 daytime and 20 nighttime routes . STM bus routes serve 1 @,@ 347 @,@ 900 passengers on an average weekday in 2010 . It also provides adapted transport and wheelchair @-@ accessible buses . The STM won the award of Outstanding Public Transit System in North America by the APTA in 2010 . It was the first time a Canadian company won this prize .
The Metro was inaugurated in 1966 and has 68 stations on four lines . It is Canada 's busiest subway system in total daily passenger usage , serving 1 @,@ 050 @,@ 800 passengers on an average weekday ( as of Q1 2010 ) . Each station was designed by different architects with individual themes and features original artwork , and the trains run on rubber tires , making the system quieter than most . The project was initiated by Montreal Mayor Jean Drapeau , who later brought the Summer Olympic Games to Montreal in 1976 . The Metro system has long had a station on the South Shore in Longueuil , and in 2007 was extended to the city of Laval , north of Montreal , with three new stations .
The commuter rail system is managed and operated by the Agence métropolitaine de transport , and reaches the outlying areas of Greater Montreal with six lines . It carried an average of 79 @,@ 000 daily passengers in 2014 , making it the sixth busiest in North America following New York , Chicago , Boston , Philadelphia , and Toronto .
On April 22 , 2016 , a new planned automated rapid transit system , the Réseau électrique métropolitain , was unveiled . The 67 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 42 mi ) network , consisting of four branches and 24 stations , is planned to be completed by late 2020 and will be the third largest automated rapid transit network , after the Dubai Metro and the Vancouver Skytrain . Most of it will be financed by pension fund manager Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec .
= = = Air = = =
Montreal has two international airports , one for passengers only , the other for cargo . Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport ( also known as Dorval Airport ) in the City of Dorval serves all commercial passenger traffic and is the headquarters of Air Canada and Air Transat . To the north of the city is Montreal Mirabel International Airport in Mirabel , which was envisioned as Montreal 's primary airport but which now serves cargo flights along with MEDEVACs and general aviation and some passenger services . In 2015 , Trudeau was the third busiest airport in Canada by passenger traffic and fourth by aircraft movements , handling 15 @.@ 5 million passengers , and 232 @,@ 648 aircraft movements . With 60 @.@ 8 % of its passengers being on non domestic flights it has the largest percentage of international flights of any Canadian airport . Trudeau airport is served by 40 carriers to over 100 destinations worldwide .
Airlines serving Trudeau offer flights to Europe , the United States , Western Asia , the Middle East , Central America , the Caribbean , Africa , Mexico and other destinations within Canada and it contains the largest duty @-@ free shop in North America .
= = = Rail = = =
Montreal @-@ based VIA Rail provides rail service to other cities in Canada , particularly to Quebec City and Toronto along the Quebec City – Windsor Corridor . Amtrak , the U.S. national passenger rail system , operates its Adirondack daily to New York . All intercity trains and most commuter trains operate out of Central Station .
Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) , headquartered in Calgary , Alberta , was founded here in 1881 . Its corporate headquarters occupied Windsor Station at 910 Peel Street until 1995 . With the Port of Montreal kept open year round by icebreakers , lines to Eastern Canada became surplus , and now Montreal is the railway 's eastern and intermodal freight terminus . CPR connects at Montreal with the Port of Montreal , the Delaware and Hudson Railway to New York , the Quebec Gatineau Railway to Quebec City and Buckingham , the Montreal , Maine and Atlantic Railway to Halifax , and CN Rail . The CPR 's flagship train , The Canadian , ran daily from Windsor Station to Vancouver , but all passenger services have since been transferred to VIA Rail Canada and the Canadian terminates in Toronto .
Montreal @-@ based Canadian National Railways ( CN ) was formed during in 1919 by the Canadian government following a series of country @-@ wide rail bankruptcies . It was formed from the Grand Trunk , Midland and Canadian Northern Railways , and has risen to become CPR 's chief rival in freight carriage in Canada . Like the CPR , CN has divested itself of passenger services in favour of Via Rail Canada . CN 's flagship train , the Super Continental , ran daily from Central Station to Vancouver , but after it was transferred to Via it was eliminated in 1990 .
= = Notable people = =
= = International relations = =
= = = Twin towns and sister cities = = =
Montreal has sister cities :
Friendship cities :
Paris , France – 2006
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= The Rage Against God =
The Rage Against God ( subtitle in US editions : How Atheism Led Me to Faith ) is the fifth book by Peter Hitchens , first published in 2010 . The book describes Hitchens 's journey from atheism , far left politics , and bohemianism , to Christianity and conservatism , detailing the influences on him that led to his conversion . The book is partly intended as a response to God Is Not Great , a book written by his brother Christopher Hitchens in 2007 .
Peter Hitchens , with particular reference to events which occurred in the Soviet Union , argues that his brother 's verdict on religion is misguided , and that faith in God is both a safeguard against the collapse of civilisation into moral chaos and the best antidote to what he views as the dangerous idea of earthly perfection through utopianism . The Rage Against God received a mostly favourable reception in the media . Hitchens was praised for making a forceful and intelligent case , in particular with respect to questions concerning morality and God . Some critics contended that the author was misguided in claiming that state atheism would lead to totalitarianism .
= = Background = =
In May 2009 The Rage Against God was anticipated by Michael Gove , who wrote in The Times :
I long to see [ Peter Hitchens ] take the next stage in his writer 's journey and examine , with his unsparing honesty , the rich human reality of the division he believes is now more important than the split between Left and Right — the deeper gulf between the restless progressive and the Christian pessimist . This division , the difference between Prometheus and St Paul , the chasm that divides Shelley from T. S. Eliot , Lloyd George from Lord Salisbury , is nowhere better encapsulated than in the contrast between Hitchens major and minor .
Hitchens first referred to The Rage Against God in August 2009 , in one of his weekly columns : " Above all , I seek to counter the assertion , central to my brother 's case ... that the Soviet regime was in fact religious in character . This profound misunderstanding of the nature of the USSR is the key to finding another significant flaw in what is in general his circular argument " . Then , a week before the book 's publication , Hitchens wrote : " ... it is obvious much of what I say [ in The Rage Against God ] arises out of my attempt to debate religion with him [ Christopher Hitchens ] , it would be absurd to pretend that much of what I say here is not intended to counter or undermine arguments he presented in his book , God Is Not Great ... " .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Part One : A Personal Journey Through Atheism = = =
In Chapter 1 Hitchens describes abandoning religion in his youth , and promoting " cruel revolutionary rubbish " as a Trotskyist activist . He claims his generation had become intellectually aloof from religion , rebellious and disillusioned and in Chapter 2 explores further reasons for this disillusion , including the Suez Crisis and the Profumo Affair . In Chapter 3 , Hitchens recounts how he embraced scientific inquiry and adopted liberal positions on issues such as marriage , abortion , homosexuality , and patriotism . Chapter 4 is a lament for the " noble austerity " of his childhood in Britain . Chapter 5 explores what Hitchens views as the pseudo @-@ religion surrounding Churchill and World War II heroes – a " great cult of noble , patriotic death " whose only equivalent , he claims , was in the Soviet Union . Hitchens then asserts that , " The Christian Church has been powerfully damaged by letting itself be confused with love of country and the making of great wars " . In Chapter 6 Hitchens recalls being a foreign correspondent in the Soviet Union and a trip to Mogadishu , and how these experiences convinced him that , " his own civilisation was infinitely precious and utterly vulnerable " . In Chapter 7 Hitchens charts his return to Christianity , and makes particular reference to the experience of seeing the Rogier van der Weyden painting The Last Judgement : " I gaped , my mouth actually hanging open . These people did not appear remote or from the ancient past ; they were my own generation ... I had absolutely no doubt I was among the damned " . In Chapter 8 Hitchens examines the diminishing of Christianity in Britain and its potential causes .
= = = Part Two : Addressing Atheism : Three Failed Arguments = = =
In Chapter 9 , Hitchens contends that the claim that religion is a source of conflict is a " cruel factual misunderstanding " , and that a number of conflicts , including The Troubles and the Arab – Israeli conflict , were not motivated by religion but tribal in nature and disputes over territory . Chapter 10 discusses whether morality can be determined without the concept of God . Hitchens asserts that atheists " have a fundamental inability to concede that to be effectively absolute , a moral code needs to be beyond human power to alter " . He also describes as flawed his brother 's assertion in God is Not Great that " the order to love thy neighbour ' as thyself ' is too extreme and too strenuous to be obeyed " . Hitchens ends the chapter by stating , " in all my experience in life , I have seldom seen a more powerful argument for the fallen nature of man , and his inability to achieve perfection , than those countries in which man sets himself up to replace God with the State " . Hitchens begins Chapter 11 by asserting , " those who reject God 's absolute authority , preferring their own , are far more ready to persecute than Christians have been ... Each revolutionary generation reliably repeats the savagery " . He cites as examples the French revolutionary terror ; the Bolshevik revolution ; the Holodomor and the Soviet famine of 1932 – 33 ; the barbarity surrounding Joseph Stalin 's five @-@ year plans , repeated in the Great Leap Forward in China ; atrocities committed by the Khmer Rouge ; and human rights abuses in Cuba under Fidel Castro . Hitchens then quotes a number of prominent communist thinkers ' pronouncements on morality , including George Lukacs stating , " Communist ethics make it the highest duty to accept the necessity of acting wickedly . This is the greatest sacrifice the revolution asks from us " , and Leon Trotsky 's claiming that " morality , more than any other form of ideology , has a class character " .
= = = Part Three : The League of the Militant Godless = = =
Hitchens writes " the biggest fake miracle staged in human history was the claim that the Soviet Union was a new civilisation of equality , peace , love , truth , science and progress . Everyone knows that it was a prison , a slum , a return to primitive barbarism , a kingdom of lies where scientists and doctors feared offending the secret police , and that its elite were corrupt and lived in secret luxury " . He then cites Walter Duranty 's denying the existence of the great Ukrainian famine , and Sidney and Beatrice Webb 's acceptance that the 1937 Moscow show trials were " genuine criminal prosecutions " . Hitchens then examines Lenin 's suppression of religion in the Soviet Union , which included making the teaching of religion to children punishable by the death penalty and the creation of an antireligious organisation of Soviet workers . Hitchens begins Chapter 13 by quoting William Henry Chamberlin : " In Russia , the world is witnessing the first effort to destroy completely any belief in supernatural interpretation of life " , and then examines some consequences of this , including intolerance of religion , terror , and the persecution of priests and bishops at the Solovetsky concentration camp . Hitchens asserts that in the Soviet Union " the regime 's institutional loathing for the teaching of religion , and its desire to eradicate it , survived every doctrinal detour and swerve " . In the final chapter , Hitchens analyses a number of his brother 's arguments , and contends that " the coincidence in instinct , taste , and thought between my brother and the Bolsheviks and their sympathisers is striking and undeniable " . He then records how his brother nominated the " apostle of revolutionary terror " Leon Trotsky for an edition of the BBC radio series Great Lives ; praised Trotsky for his " moral courage " ; and declared that one of Lenin 's great achievements was " to create a secular Russia " . Hitchens speculates that his brother remained sympathetic towards Bolshevism and is still hostile towards the things it extirpated , including monarchy , tradition , and faith . He ends the chapter by claiming a form of militant secularism is becoming established in Britain , and that " The Rage Against God is loose " .
= = = Epilogue = = =
In the epilogue , Hitchens describes how after a 2008 debate with Christopher Hitchens " the longest quarrel of my life seemed to be unexpectedly over " and that he held no hope of converting his brother , who had " bricked himself up high in his atheist tower , with slits instead of windows from which to shoot arrows at the faithful " .
= = Critical reception = =
After its UK publication in March 2010 the book received a number of mostly favourable reviews in British newspapers .
In The Daily Telegraph Christopher Howse concentrated on the moral arguments in the book , and agreed with Hitchens that " to determine what is right and what is wrong without God , is difficult " . Also in The Daily Telegraph , Charles Moore wrote that the book " tries to do two things at once . One is to bash up modern militant atheism with all the author 's polemical skill . The other is to give an autobiographical account of how , in our time , an intelligent man 's faith may recover " . In a positive review in Standpoint magazine , Michael Nazir Ali wrote , " One of the abiding canards nailed by Peter Hitchens is that religion causes conflict . He does this by showing that so @-@ called " religious " wars had many other elements to them , such as greed for territory , political ambition and nationalism . His repeated references to Soviet brutality reveal that secular ideologies have caused more suffering in recent times than any conflict associated with religion . " In a more critical review in the New Statesman Sholto Byrnes wrote , " Hitchens makes his case forcefully , passionately and intelligently " , but " makes too much connection between the ill deeds of atheists and their atheism " . Byrnes also reviewed the book in The Independent , where he questioned the validity of a number of Hitchens 's conclusions , including that " atheists ' actively wish for disorder and meaninglessness ' " . In a sympathetic review in The Guardian , Rupert Shortt wrote , " Hitchens does not seek to mount a comprehensive defence of Christianity . He is wise to avoid deeper philosophical and theological waters , because his strengths lie elsewhere . His more manageable aim is to expose what he holds to be three major fallacies underlying God Is Not Great : that conflict fought in the name of religion is really always about faith ; that " it is ultimately possible to know with confidence what is right and what is wrong without acknowledging the existence of God " ; and that " atheist states are not actually atheist " . In The Spectator , Quentin Letts reviewed the book very positively , describing it as " a magnificent , sustained cry against the aggressive secularism taking control of our weakened culture " .
Reviews of the book in North American publications subsequent to its stateside release were more mixed .
In The New York Times , Mark Oppenheimer commented , " American readers will notice a lack of enthusiasm in Peter 's Christian apologetics . He proceeds largely from historical , rather than personal , evidence : here are the fruits of Christianity , and here is what one finds in its absence " . In a negative review in the Winnipeg Free Press , Ted St. Godard wrote , " What Hitchens can 't seem to appreciate is that , even if ' Soviet Communism is organically linked to atheism , something his brother and others argue against ( if somewhat feebly ) , and even if one accepts that Soviet tyranny was horrible , this says little about the existence of God " . In a The Washington Times review entitled " Cain and Abel : The sequel ? " , Jeremy Lott wrote , " Hitchens refuses to make a full @-@ throated case for faith . He explains that ' those who choose to argue in prose ... are unlikely to be receptive to a case that is most effectively couched in poetry ' ... Peter does hope that Christopher might one day arrive at some sort of acceptance that belief in God is not necessarily a character fault — and that religion does not poison everything " .
One mix of the two audiences is the British writer , Theodore Dalrymple , reviewing The Rage Against God and Christopher Hitchens ' Hitch @-@ 22 for the American journal , First Things . Dalrymple writes , Peter Hitchens " has discovered that it is he , and not just the world , that was and is imperfect and that therefore humility is a virtue , even if one does not always live up to it . The first sentence of his first chapter reads , “ I set fire to my Bible on the playing fields of my Cambridge boarding school one bright , windy spring afternoon in 1967 . ” One senses the deep — and , in my view , healthy — feeling of self @-@ disgust with which he wrote this , for indeed it describes an act of wickedness . Peter ’ s memoir ... is more personally searching . "
= = Release details = =
The book was first published in the UK on 15 March 2010 by Continuum Publishing Corporation , and was released in the US in June 2010 by Zondervan , with the additional subtitle How Atheism Led Me to Faith .
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= So Far , So Good ... So What ! =
So Far , So Good ... So What ! is the third studio album by American thrash metal band Megadeth . It was released on January 19 , 1988 through Capitol Records ; a remixed and remastered edition including several bonus tracks was reissued in August 2004 . It is the band 's only album recorded with drummer Chuck Behler and guitarist Jeff Young , both of whom were fired immediately after the subsequent tour . So Far , So Good ... So What ! features music performed at very fast tempos with technical ability ; lyrically , frontman and guitarist Dave Mustaine addresses a variety of topics , including nuclear holocaust and freedom of speech .
The record was well received among contemporary music critics , although retrospective analysis has been less favorable . It managed to enter the top 30 on the Billboard 200 with no commercial radio play ; it charted in several other countries as well . The album was eventually certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and indicated Megadeth 's forthcoming emergence from the underground scene .
= = Background and production = =
Guitarist Chris Poland and drummer Gar Samuelson had been expelled from the band following the conclusion of the Peace Sells tour for disruptive behavior , including Poland 's habit of pawning band equipment to pay for drugs . Samuelson was immediately replaced by his drum technician , Chuck Behler . However , a new guitarist would take longer to emerge . At first , the band hired guitarist Jay Reynolds from the band Malice , but Reynolds was not up to the task of recording , and was subsequently replaced by his guitar teacher , Jeff Young . Dave Mustaine has since stated his regret for the way he handled Reynolds 's firing .
Work on the album started while Reynolds was in the band , but continued after the induction of Young . To mix the album , the label turned to Paul Lani , who previously had remixed the band 's previous album , Peace Sells ... but Who 's Buying ? . Mustaine was initially skeptical , but later became very irate with Lani 's " eccentricities " and his way of handling things . To mix the album , Lani relocated himself and Mustaine to Bearsville Studios , near Woodstock , New York , ostensibly for the purpose of inspiration . Mustaine decided he had had enough when he , having just awakened and made coffee , noticed Lani outside in his underwear feeding an apple to a deer . Mustaine flew back to Los Angeles later that day and fired Lani , who was replaced by Michael Wagener . Mustaine has since criticized Wagener 's " pedestrian " mixing efforts , citing the album 's " muddy feel " , in particular . Mustaine was able to recruit Sex Pistols guitarist Steve Jones to perform guitar parts on " Anarchy in the UK " .
= = Music and lyrics = =
According to music critic J. D. Considine of Spin , So Far , So Good ... So What ! displays music performed at " volumes approaching the threshold of pain " . The album features fast guitar solos , multiple tempo changes and technical dexterity . Mike Stagno of Sputnikmusic observed that the album offers the classic " take no prisoners " style which is commonly associated with Megadeth ; however , he noted that the sound does not differ much from the other underground metal bands from that period . Jim Farber of Rolling Stone called Mustaine 's vocals " bloodthirsty " and praised the musicianship for keeping rhythmic pace even at the " most anarchic moments " . Los Angeles Times journalist Dennis Hunt noted that the music was filled with extensive and " torrid " instrumentals and described Mustaine 's singing as a combination of extreme shrieking and screaming . Despite the positive overview , " Anarchy in the U.K. " received some negative criticism , partially because it was perceived to lack the rebelliousness of the original version .
The lyrical themes on the album explore a variety of subjects , from nuclear holocaust ( " Set the World Afire " ) to revisionism and censorship ( " Hook in Mouth " ) . Still , the majority of the songs are accompanied by the same sentiment of disillusion and nihilism as their previous two albums . Unlike traditional topics related to heavy metal music , the song " In My Darkest Hour " contains emotional lyrics which deal with loneliness and isolation . Dave Mustaine revealed that he tried to write about subject matters that were in touch with reality , including social issues and taboo topics . The lyrics on Megadeth 's cover of " Anarchy in the U.K. " were slightly mistaken because Mustaine claimed he had heard them incorrectly .
= = Songs = =
The album 's first track , " Into the Lungs of Hell " , is an instrumental composition which features synthesized horns , winds and percussion . " Set the World Afire " is the first song Dave Mustaine wrote for Megadeth after being fired from Metallica . He was a member of Metallica from 1982 – 83 , and was dismissed just before Metallica recorded its debut album Kill ' Em All . He later said that he wrote the lyrics during his journey home from the departure . Inspiration for the song came from a newspaper he read while on the bus back to California . Originally intended to be titled " Megadeath " , Mustaine later decided to use the name , minus the " a " in " death , " for the band instead . " Anarchy in the U.K. " is a Sex Pistols cover , which quickly became a staple of the band 's live set . Over the years , the song was dropped from the set list because of its anti @-@ Christian viewpoint . " Mary Jane " tells a story about a young witch buried alive by her father near the Loon Lake cemetery in Minnesota . According to the legend , anyone who dared to disturb her grave was doomed to a prompt death . The song features descending guitar lines and begins with Mustaine summoning her spirit during the introduction .
" 502 " is about driving fast cars . " In My Darkest Hour " was written by Mustaine shortly after the death of Metallica bassist Cliff Burton . Mustaine had found out through word of mouth , as his former band mates never contacted him about the tragic event that occurred in Europe . He later recalled that he was extremely unhappy that day and wrote the song in one sitting . " Liar " is a rant directed at past member Chris Poland . " Hook in Mouth " declaims censorship and the Parents Music Resource Center ( PMRC ) . Mustaine elaborated that the lyrics were aimed at those who were " f * * * ing around with our constitutional rights and trying to take away our freedom of speech " .
= = Critical reception = =
The album received positive feedback from music critics at the time of its release . In a contemporary review , Holger Stratmann from Rock Hard hailed the album as " the new masterpiece of Megadeth " and asserted that the band had created a great follow @-@ up to their highly acclaimed Peace Sells ... but Who 's Buying ? Jim Farber of Rolling Stone also gave the album a favorable review , saying it propelled the group " right at the top of the thrash @-@ rock heap " . He concluded his review by saying , " amid today 's narcoleptic pop scene , albums like So Far , So Good ... So What ! offer a disruptive noise that 's welcome indeed " . Writing for Spin , J. D. Considine felt that the record showed a " genuine maturity " for the band . Robert Christgau reacted enthusiastically towards the album and wrote that Megadeth garnered " its modest portions of profit and respect " with their latest studio release . He gave special praise to " Anarchy in the U.K. " , commenting that Mustaine covers the Sex Pistols " like a champ " .
Retrospective reviews , however , tend to be more critical of the album . AllMusic 's Steve Huey criticized the album for lacking " the conceptual unity and musical bite " of its predecessor . According to him , the album " wants to sound threatening but mostly comes off as forced and somewhat juvenile " , citing the cover track as an example . Mike Stagno of Sputnikmusic opined that the record is " a fairly decent album , but not a great one " . He felt that apart from " Set the World Afire " and " Mary Jane " , the rest of the album " feels somewhat uninspired " . Conversely , Adrien Begrand from MSN Music opined that the record was " somehow ignored " in the band 's discography .
= = Touring = =
The tour that followed the album 's release was the first to feature new band members Chuck Behler and Jeff Young . Bassist David Ellefson said that previous members Gar Samuelson and Chris Poland were tired of constantly being on the road and their departure was inevitable . He further revealed that drummer Behler was appointed shortly before because the band feared that Samuelson would not be able to continue touring . However , some problems occurred during the Australian leg of the tour . The band was forced to cancel some of these shows because of drug issues . Mustaine claimed that the group returned home because guitarist Young " ran out of heroin " , which Young denied , stating that it was Mustaine who wanted to go back to Los Angeles and seek rehabilitation . Both Young and Behler were fired immediately after the end of the tour , in August 1988 .
Megadeth started performing the album 's songs live before the record was released . During 1987 they toured with other thrash metal bands such as Kreator and Overkill at a number of European venues . The following year Megadeth appeared with more established heavy metal acts such as Ronnie James Dio for some shows in North America . Later in 1988 the group made an appearance at the Monsters of Rock festival , but were dropped from the line @-@ up after one show . Dave Mustaine explained that the band toured quite often because they were not receiving much media exposure : " We do a lot of shows and sell records by word @-@ of @-@ mouth " . Los Angeles Times reported that So Far , So Good ... So What ! sold 400 @,@ 000 copies one month after its release , becoming Megadeth 's fastest selling album at that point . The record eventually went platinum and indicated Megadeth 's forthcoming emergence from the underground scene .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Dave Mustaine , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
Production and performance credits are adapted from the album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Barnstokkr =
In Norse mythology , Barnstokkr ( Old Norse , literally " child @-@ trunk " ) is a tree that stands in the center of King Völsung 's hall . Barnstokkr is attested in chapters 2 and 3 of the Völsunga saga , written in the 13th century from earlier tradition , partially based on events from the 5th century and the 6th century , where , during a banquet , a one @-@ eyed stranger appears and thrusts a sword into the tree which only Sigmund is able to pull free . Scholarly theories have been put forth about the implications of Barnstokkr and its relation to other trees in Germanic paganism .
= = Völsunga saga = =
Barnstokkr is introduced in chapter 2 of Völsunga saga where King Völsung is described as having " had an excellent palace built in this fashion : a huge tree stood with its trunk in the hall and its branches , with fair blossoms , stretched out through the roof . They called the tree Barnstokk [ r ] " .
In chapter 3 , King Völsung is holding a marriage feast for his daughter Signy and King Siggeir at King Völsung 's hall . At the hall , large fires are kindled in long hearths running the length of the hall , while in the middle of the hall stands the great tree Barnstokkr . That evening , while those attending the feast are sitting by the flaming hearths , they are visited by a one @-@ eyed , very tall man whom they do not recognize . The stranger is wearing a hooded , mottled cape , linen breeches tied around his legs , and is barefooted . Sword in hand , the man walks towards Barnstokkr and his hood hangs low over his head , gray with age . The man brandishes the sword and thrusts it into the trunk of the tree , and the blade sinks to its hilt . Words of welcome fail the crowd .
The tall stranger says that he who draws the sword from the trunk shall receive it as a gift , and he who is able to pull free the sword shall never carry a better sword than it . The old man leaves the hall , and nobody knows who he was , or where he went . Everyone stands , trying their hand at pulling free the sword from the trunk of Barnstokkr . The noblest attempt to pull free the sword first followed by those ranked after them . Sigmund , son of King Völsung , takes his turn , and — as if the sword had lay loose for him — he draws it from the trunk . The saga then continues .
= = Theories = =
Hilda Ellis Davidson draws links to the sword placed in Barnstokkr to marriage oaths performed with a sword in pre @-@ Christian Germanic societies , noting a potential connection between the carrying of the sword by a young man before the bride at a wedding as a phallic symbol , indicating an association with fertility . Davidson cites records of wedding ceremonies and games in rural districts in Sweden involving trees or " stocks " as late as the 17th century , and cites a custom in Norway " surviving into recent times " for " the bridegroom to plunge his sword into the roof beam , to test the ' luck ' of the marriage by the depth of the scar he made " .
Davidson points out a potential connection between the descriptor apaldr ( Old Norse " apple tree " ) and the birth of King Völsung , which is described earlier in the Völsunga saga as having occurred after Völsung 's father Rerir sits atop a burial mound and prays for a son , after which the goddess Frigg has an apple sent to Rerir . Rerir shares the apple with his wife , resulting in his wife 's long pregnancy . Davidson states that this mound is presumably the family burial mound , and proposes a link between the tree , fruit , mound , and the birth of a child .
Davidson opines that Siggeir 's anger at his inability to gain the sword that Odin has plunged into Barnstokkr at first sight appears excessive , and states that there may be an underlying reason for Siggeir 's passionate desire for the sword . Davidson notes that the gift of the sword was made at a wedding feast , and states that Barnstokkr likely represents the ' guardian tree ' , " such as those that used to stand beside many a house in Sweden and Denmark , and which was associated with the ' luck ' of the family " , and that the ' guardian tree ' also had a connection with the birth of children . Davidson cites Jan de Vries in that the name barnstokkr " used in this story was the name given to the trunk of such a tree because it used to be invoked and even clasped by the women of the family at the time of childbirth . "
Providing examples of historical structures built around trees , or with ' guardian trees ' around or in the structure in Germanic areas , Davidson states that the " ' luck ' of a family must largely depend on the successful bearing and rearing of sons , and there is a general belief that when a guardian tree is destroyed , the family will die out . " In connection with this , Davidson theorizes that at the bridal feast , it should have been Siggeir , the bridegroom , who drew the sword from the tree , " and that its possession would symbolize the ' luck ' which would come to him with his bride , and the successful continuation of his own line in the sons to be born of the marriage " . The sword having been refused to him , Davidson theorizes that this may well have been intended as a deadly insult , and that this lends a tragic air to the scene in the hall .
Jesse Byock ( 1990 ) states that the name Barnstokkr may not conceivably be the original name of the tree , and instead that it is possible that it may have originally been bran ( d ) stokkr , the first part of the compound potentially having been brandr , ( meaning brand or firebrand ) , a word sometimes synonymous with " hearth " , and pointing to a potential connection to the fire burning within the hall . Byock notes that the tree is called an eik ( Old Norse " oak " ) , which has an unclear meaning as the Icelanders often employed the word as a general word for " tree " , and the tree is also referred to as apaldr , which is also a general term used to refer to trees . Byock theorizes that the latter reference to an apple tree may imply a further symbolic meaning pointing to the apple tree of the goddess Iðunn , and that the Barnstokkr may be further identified with the world tree Yggdrasil .
Andy Orchard ( 1997 ) states that the role and placement of Barnstokkr as a " mighty tree , supporting and sprouting through the roof of Völsung 's hall " has clear parallels in Norse mythology with the world tree Yggdrasil , particularly in relation to Yggdrasil 's position to the hall of Valhalla . Orchard further points out parallels between Sigurd 's ability to solely remove the sword from the trunk and King Arthur 's drawing of the sword Excalibur .
= = Modern influence = =
In Richard Wagner 's Der Ring des Nibelungen opera cycle , the tree appears as Barnstock , when the hero Siegmund , with a great tug , pulls from it a sword that he names Nothung . The tree however is in the house of Hunding , who takes the place of Siggeir as husband of Sieglinde and enemy of Siegmund . Barnstokkr has been theorized as English author and philologist J. R. R. Tolkien 's immediate source for a scene in his 1954 work The Lord of the Rings depicting the fictional character of Frodo Baggins and his acceptance of the weapon Sting after it has been thrust " deep into a wooden beam " . Some of the structures described in Tolkien 's Lord of the Rings have been described as " recalling " the position and placement of Barnstokkr in Völsunga saga , which Tolkien was well familiar with .
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= Ontario Highway 405 =
King 's Highway 405 , also known as Highway 405 and the General Brock Parkway , is a 400 @-@ Series Highway in the Canadian province of Ontario connecting the Queen Elizabeth Way ( QEW ) near St. Catharines with the Lewiston – Queenston Bridge in the village of Queenston . It then crosses the Niagara River , where it encounters the international border with the United States and continues into New York as Interstate 190 ( I @-@ 190 ) .
Designated and under construction by 1960 , the short freeway was opened to traffic on September 11 , 1963 . Since that time , an interchange was added in 1969 and another removed in 2004 . On August 13 , 2006 , Highway 405 was dedicated the General Brock Parkway . The entire length of Highway 405 is patrolled by the Ontario Provincial Police ( OPP ) .
= = Route description = =
Highway 405 serves to connect the northern end of I @-@ 190 in New York at the Lewiston – Queenston Bridge with the QEW , and as such it follows a somewhat direct path between the two . Throughout its length , the highway gently climbs the Niagara Escarpment , reaching the top east of Stanley Avenue before crossing the Niagara Gorge . The highway is surrounded by forest to either side for most of its length , and the only settlement near it is the village of Queenston .
Highway 405 begins by diverging from the QEW at St. Catharines . It continues north @-@ east for 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) , then gently curves south @-@ easterly . The opposing lanes , initially separated by a wide gap , converge towards each other to form a 15 @-@ metre ( 49 ft ) grass median . The highway dips into a shallow gully , widens to five lanes ( three eastbound , two westbound ) , and then curves northeast to pass north of a hydroelectric reservoir . The opposing lanes converge , with an Ontario Tall Wall separating them , and pass beneath Niagara Regional Road 102 ( Stanley Avenue ) . The freeway 's lone interchange is with Stanley Avenue , and traffic continuing east must cross the Lewiston – Queenston Bridge into the United States . The additional eastbound lane provided along this section is for the queueing of trucks . After passing the reservoir , the highway reaches the Canadian border plaza . It then passes over the Niagara Parkway and heads onto the Lewiston – Queenston Bridge over the Niagara River . The Highway 405 designation ends at the border with the United States , where it continues as I @-@ 190 towards Buffalo , New York . As Highway 405 entirely lies within the Province of Ontario and is not subject to federal administration , its entire length is patrolled by the OPP .
= = History = =
Highway 405 was part of a network of divided highways envisioned by Thomas McQuesten in the mid @-@ 1930s to connect New York with Ontario . Though the Queen Elizabeth Way would cross the Niagara River by 1942 in Niagara Falls , Highway 405 and the Lewiston – Queenston Bridge would form the first direct freeway link between the neighbouring countries . Planning for both was underway by 1958 , and construction began in 1960 . The bridge was built at the same time as the freeway , though it opened several months earlier on November 1 , 1962 . Highway 405 was completed in August 1963 and officially opened to the public on September 11 , 1963 .
In 1969 , an interchange with Stanley Avenue was built and opened to traffic . In 2004 , the eastern end of the freeway was modified to permit the queueing of trucks at the border . This included the addition of one lane to the eastbound carriageway beginning at Stanley Avenue , as well as the gradual removal of the interchange with the Niagara Parkway ; the westbound on @-@ ramp from the Parkway remained open to traffic until December 4 , 2006 . The highway was named the General Brock Parkway on October 13 , 2006 in honour of the War of 1812 hero , Major General Sir Isaac Brock , who died at the Battle of Queenston Heights .
= = Exit list = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 405 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario . The entire route is located in the Regional Municipality of Niagara . All exits are unnumbered .
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= Operation Backstop =
Operation Backstop was a United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) military plan designed to guard a portion of the United Nations Protected Areas ( UNPAs ) against attack by the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska – HV ) during the Croatian War of Independence . The operation , developed by the UNPROFOR staff in charge of the UNPA Western Slavonia ( Sector West ) in 1992 , was scheduled to be implemented by two mechanised companies of the Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry ( PPCLI ) battalion deployed in the area .
Although no HV attack occurred in the area during the UNPROFOR mandate , elements of the plan were used by the 3rd Battalion of the PPCLI as the HV clashed with the Army of the Republic of Serb Krajina ( ARSK ) in the January 1993 Operation Maslenica . The 2nd Battalion of the PPCLI implemented the plan in March 1993 to demonstrate UNPROFOR resolve . The UNPROFOR Sector West deputy commander considered the plan impractical except for deterrence , due to security concerns .
= = Background = =
In November 1991 Croatia , Serbia and the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) agreed upon the Vance plan , designed to halt combat operations in the Croatian War of Independence and allow the negotiation of a political settlement . In addition to the ceasefire , the plan protected civilians in specific areas — designated as United Nations Protected Areas ( UNPAs ) — and UN peacekeepers in Croatia . The ceasefire went into effect on 3 January 1992 . Shortly after the Vance plan was accepted the European Community announced its decision to grant diplomatic recognition to Croatia on 15 January 1992 , and the Serb- and JNA @-@ held areas of Croatia were organised as the Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) .
Despite the Vance plan 's requirement for the immediate withdrawal of JNA personnel and equipment from Croatia , the JNA stayed behind for seven to eight months . When its troops eventually pulled out , the JNA transferred their equipment to the RSK . Because of organisational problems and breaches of the ceasefire , the UNPROFOR did not begin to deploy until 8 March and took two months to fully assemble in the UNPAs . The UNPROFOR was tasked with demilitarising the UNPAs , maintaining the ceasefire , monitoring local police and creating conditions for the return of internally displaced persons and refugees . These comprised more than 300 @,@ 000 Croats who were exiled from RSK @-@ controlled territory and 20 @,@ 000 Serbs who fled areas of western Slavonia captured by the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska – HV ) in Operations Swath @-@ 10 , Papuk @-@ 91 and Hurricane @-@ 91 in late 1991 .
A portion of western Slavonia , encompassing an area approximately 90 by 45 kilometres ( 56 by 28 miles ) , was designated as the UNPA Western Slavonia ( or Sector West ) by the peace plan . Although unlike other UNPAs , the RSK controlled only about one @-@ third of the area — in the south , centred on the town of Okučani — the RSK @-@ held area included a section of the Zagreb – Belgrade motorway . Sector West was divided into four areas of responsibility ( AORs ) . The western portion of the motorway section and its surroundings were assigned to a Jordanian battalion of the UNPROFOR ( JORDBAT ) , and the area to the east ( containing the rest of the motorway within the UNPA and the town of Okučani ) was the AOR of a Nepalese battalion ( NEPBAT ) . To the north of the JORDBAT and NEPBAT AORs , a Canadian battalion ( CANBAT 1 ) AOR was established . The northernmost portion of Sector West became the AOR of an Argentine battalion ( ARGBAT ) . Unlike the Canadians , who had at their disposal 83 armoured personnel carriers , the Jordanian and Nepalese troops were equipped with small arms only . Sector West was commanded by Argentine Brigadier General Carlos Maria Zabala , and most of the staff work was assigned to the Canadians . The UNPROFOR established two storage depots for Army of the RSK ( ARSK ) heavy weapons , near Pakrac and in Stara Gradiška , and the HV moved its heavy weapons 30 kilometres ( 19 miles ) away from Sector West . Although the storage facilities were guarded by the UNPROFOR , the RSK was allowed access to maintain the weapons .
= = = Canadian order of battle = = =
CANBAT 1 initially included elements from the 1st Battalion of the Royal 22nd Regiment , the 3rd Battalion of the Royal Canadian Regiment ( RCR ) and the 8th Canadian Hussars under Lieutenant Colonel Michel Jones . Although lead elements of the unit reached Croatia on 8 April , it took two weeks for all the CANBAT 1 troops to arrive . In September 1992 , the CANBAT 1 troops were replaced by the 3rd Battalion of the Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry ( PPCLI ) . CANBAT 1 was headquartered in Polom Barracks , between the towns of Pakrac and Daruvar .
= = Plan = =
The UNPROFOR operations staff in Sector West developed several defensive plans , assigning top priority to the plan codenamed Operation Backstop . It envisaged an active defence against the HV , assuming that the attack 's main axis would be the Zagreb – Belgrade motorway . CANBAT 1 ( supported by General Zabala ) thought the HV would attack Sector West to control the Zagreb – Belgrade motorway , and the UN would not object to such a move . Any Croatian attack in the area was likely to employ substantially larger forces than those earmarked for Operation Backstop .
CANBAT 1 was expected to deploy one mechanised company each to the JORDBAT and the NEPBAT AORs to position themselves defensively . The forces would attempt to deter the HV from advancing , demonstrate its resolve to defend Sector West , engage the HV with antitank weapons and mortars , protect the Jordanian and Nepalese withdrawal and withdraw under the protection of CANBAT 1 . The two companies required eight hours notice of the HV advance to reach their designated positions in time . Presumably , the ARSK would retrieve its heavy weapons from the UNPROFOR storage by force and resist the HV .
= = = Reaction to Operation Maslenica = = =
In January 1993 , when the HV launched Operation Maslenica ( which aimed to capture the Maslenica Bridge ) , Canadian troops acted in accordance with part of Operation Backstop . They dug in their positions , reinforcing the Nepalese troops for 72 hours and expecting an HV attack in Sector West . No reinforcements were deployed to the JORDBAT AOR , and the UNPROFOR prepared to blow up the only bridge across the Sava River ( linking Sector West and Bosnian Serb @-@ held territory in Bosnia and Herzegovina ) to prevent the Army of Republika Srpska from advancing into the area .
In response to Operation Maslenica , RSK president Goran Hadžić ordered the ARSK to retrieve its tanks from UN storage in Sector West and attack Nova Gradiška and Novska . When local RSK authorities ( led by Veljko Džakula in Sector West ) demanded an explanation of the order from Hadžić , he said that the Croatian forces were about to attack Okučani . On 26 January Zabala met with Džakula in Okučani and reassured him that the UNPROFOR would protect Sector West from a Croatian attack , agreeing to provide the RSK with a written guarantee to that effect . Although Hadžić accepted the assurance and cancelled the attack , the orders were reinstated and cancelled three more times over the next two days . On 7 February , Canadian troops drilled the deck of the bridge spanning the Strug Channel ( north of Stara Gradiška ) to place demolition charges . The move was protested by RSK authorities , who saw the route ( the only link between Okučani and Serb @-@ controlled territory in Bosnia and Herzegovina ) as crucial to an evacuation in the event of an anticipated Croatian attack . The situation calmed down by mid @-@ February , and the HV did not attack Sector West .
= = = Exercise = = =
The 2nd Battalion of the PPCLI replaced the 3rd Battalion in April as CANBAT 1 . The commander of the 2nd Battalion , Lieutenant Colonel Jim Calvin , instructed his troops to approach their tasks differently than the 3rd Battalion had . Calvin ( unlike his predecessor ) did not want the RSK forces or the HV to be aware of CANBAT 1 operations , ordering the battalion to observe radio silence . According to Canadian journalist Carol Off , Calvin was eager to fight and instructed his troops to return fire if necessary . The situation in Sector West deteriorated when Jordanian General Shabshough replaced Zabala in March . A major contribution to the deterioration was Shabshough 's minimal involvement with local authorities , in contrast to Zabala 's cooperative approach .
To reassure the Sector West Croatian Serb population , CANBAT 1 performed an Operation Backstop exercise and the tasks needed to evacuate NEPBAT in March or April 1993 . Afterwards , Canadian Sector West deputy commander Colonel K. C. Hague recommended that the plan be redesigned primarily as a means of deterrence . Hague felt that if Operation Backstop triggered an armed clash with the HV the UNPROFOR would be forced to withdraw through Croatia , exposing the peacekeepers to grave danger .
= = Aftermath = =
According to Croatian political scientist Vladimir Filipović , it is unclear whether the limited resources earmarked for the operation and the unclear motivation of CANBAT 1 troops would stop several HV brigades ; according to Hague , the plan did not indicate how CANBAT 1 or the other elements of the UNPROFOR would retreat through Croatia after such a clash . Hague questioned the feasibility of Operation Backstop , because the advance @-@ warning requirement was considered impossible to meet . The UNPROFOR had no reliable military intelligence on HV movements outside the UNPAs , or beyond 30 @-@ kilometre ( 19 mi ) -wide zones around the UNPAs ( where only United Nations Military Observers were present ) . However , Hague considered Operation Backstop a deterrent .
Although Operation Backstop was within the UNPROFOR mandate ( since the peacekeepers were authorised to use force to prevent armed incursions into the UNPAs ) , Croatian authorities resented the operation . Croatia considered the UNPROFOR overzealous in defending the UNPAs and protecting the Serbs while failing to ensure the fulfilment of other aspects of the Vance plan , such as the return of refugees to their homes .
By September 1993 , CANBAT 1 was relocated from Sector West to Sector South ( northern Dalmatia and Lika ) . The UNPFROFOR mandate in Croatia expired on 31 March 1995 , and the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 981 establishing the United Nations Confidence Restoration Operation in Croatia ( UNCRO ) instead . Sector West was captured by the HV in Operation Flash in early May 1995 , with no resistance from UN peacekeepers . The main axis of the first day 's HV advance was the Zagreb – Belgrade motorway , as anticipated by the planners of Operation Backstop .
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= Hurricane Marty ( 2003 ) =
Hurricane Marty was the deadliest tropical cyclone of the 2003 Pacific hurricane season . Forming on September 18 , it became the 13th tropical storm and fourth hurricane of the year . The storm moved generally northwestward and steadily intensified despite only a marginally favorable environment for development , and became a Category 2 hurricane before making two landfalls on the Baja California peninsula and mainland Mexico .
The hurricane was responsible for significant flooding and storm surges that caused $ 100 million ( 2003 USD ) in damage mostly on the peninsula of Baja California , and resulted in the deaths of 12 people . Marty affected many of the same areas that had been affected by Hurricane Ignacio a month earlier .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved into the Pacific Ocean from Central America on September 10 . Convection along the wave became better organized as it moved westward , and a tropical depression developed on September 18 . The depression moved generally west @-@ northwestward before strengthening into Tropical Storm Marty on September 19 . The storm entrained dry air into its circulation as it curved toward the northwest , disrupting the storm 's convective structure and inhibiting further intensification for the next two days . Eventually , Marty fought off the dry air and intensified , reaching hurricane strength on September 21 .
Marty began moving north @-@ northwestward in response to a high pressure ridge to the west , and continued to strengthen , reaching a peak intensity of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) early on September 22 . Marty then moved northward at an increased speed before making landfall 10 mi ( 15 km ) northeast of Cabo San Lucas in Baja California Sur later that day . After making landfall , Marty turned back to the north @-@ northwest , moving parallel to the eastern coast of the peninsula , and weakening to a tropical storm on September 23 . Marty then stalled over the Gulf of California after encountering a high pressure system over the U.S. state of Nevada , and further weakened to a tropical depression before making a second landfall near Puerto Peñasco , Sonora , on September 24 . Marty became a remnant low pressure area on September 25 , and moved erratically over the northern Gulf of California for the next two days before drifting southwestward and dissipating over the northern Baja California Peninsula on September 26 .
= = Preparations = =
Fearing a repeat of the damage left by Hurricane Ignacio a month earlier , many residents stocked up on supplies , secured their homes and evacuated to emergency shelters . The government of Mexico issued hurricane warnings for areas of the eastern coast of the Baja California Peninsula and the west coast of the mainland on September 21 . Tropical storm warnings were issued for the Mexican coastline to the Colorado River on September 23 , but were discontinued later that day . Forecasters also predicted that the hurricane might cause 4 – 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 8 m ) of storm surge , 8 inches ( 20 @.@ 3 cm ) of rain , serious flash flooding , and mudslides . Many schools and tourist destinations were used as emergency shelters and most seaports and airports were closed down . Across the Gulf of California , in the state of Sonora , authorities of the municipality of Empalme monitored the status of the Punta de Agua dam , located 20 mi ( 30 km ) upstream of the municipal seat , which threatened to overtop and flood the city . As a result , 300 residents were evacuated to shelters on higher ground .
= = Impact = =
= = = Baja California Peninsula = = =
About 8 to 11 inches ( 200 – 280 mm ) of rain fell in areas of the Baja California Peninsula , with the largest 24 @-@ hour rainfall total occurring at Todos Santos , Baja California Sur , where 7 @.@ 77 in ( 197 @.@ 5 mm ) of rain fell . Numerous ships offshore reported tropical storm and hurricane @-@ force winds , and an automated weather station in Cabo San Lucas , Baja California Sur reported sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) with gusts to 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . Santa Rosalía , Baja California Sur , reported 7 @.@ 8 inches ( 198 mm ) of rain .
Five people drowned after their cars were swept away by floodwaters while trying to cross a flooded stream . The floods also damaged 4 @,@ 000 @-@ 6 @,@ 000 homes and buildings and significantly disrupted water and communications for an extended period of time . The hurricane 's storm surge damaged many boats and yachts in ports along the peninsula 's coast , most of them beyond repair . Minor beach erosion was reported at San Felipe , Baja California . As a result , the Baja California Sur municipalities of La Paz , Los Cabos , Loreto , Comondú , and Mulegé were declared national disaster areas . 6 @,@ 000 people were affected and total damage from the storm was $ 100 million .
Filming for the 2004 film Troy was interrupted when this hurricane moved through Baja California .
= = = Mainland Mexico = = =
On the mainland , the largest daily rainfall total occurred on Sebampo , Sonora , which recorded 6 @.@ 73 in ( 171 @.@ 0 mm ) of rain . Five fishermen drowned when their fishing boat sank in the Gulf of California , off the coast of Sonora . Also in that state , the University of Sonora suspended operations in its Navojoa campus . Two more people died when a tree fell on a car in Sinaloa . Heavy rainfall caused moderate to severe flash flooding in Sonora and Sinaloa , although damage was not as severe or as extensive as on the Baja California peninsula . Los Mochis , Sinaloa , reported sustained winds of 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) on September 22 .
= = = Southwestern United States = = =
The outer bands of Marty brought locally heavy rains to extreme southwestern Arizona , but there were no reports of flooding . The highest rain total was 2 @.@ 25 inches ( 57 mm ) at Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument in Arizona . Rainfall extended eastward into Texas , where a storm peak of 3 @.@ 09 inches ( 78 mm ) of rain occurred in Tankersly .
Because the damage caused by Marty was not extreme , the name of the storm was not retired from the rotating Pacific hurricane name lists , and was used again in the 2009 season .
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= 2016 E3 Harelbeke =
The 2016 E3 Harelbeke ( officially the Record Bank E3 Harelbeke ) was a one @-@ day cycling classic that took place on Friday 25 March 2016 . It was the 59th edition of the E3 Harelbeke ; it was the second one @-@ day race of the 2016 UCI World Tour and the first of the cobbled classics .
The race started and finished in Harelbeke , covering a distance of 206 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 128 @.@ 3 mi ) . The principal difficulty in the race came from the fifteen climbs of hills in the Flemish Ardennes . These mainly came in the second half of the race . The principal favourites for victory were Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff ) and Fabian Cancellara ( Trek – Segafredo ) .
The race was won by Michał Kwiatkowski ( Team Sky ) . He formed a breakaway 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) from the finish with Sagan and , despite hard work from the Etixx – Quick @-@ Step team and from Cancellara , they came to the finish together . Kwiatkowski comfortably won the sprint and Sagan took second place . Kwiatkowski 's teammate Ian Stannard won the group sprint for third place , eleven seconds behind .
= = Route = =
The E3 Harelbeke starts and finishes in the city of Harelbeke in West Flanders . The principal difficulty in the race comes from the climbs – many of them cobbled – that appear in the 205 @-@ kilometre ( 127 mi ) route ; many of these climbs also appear in the Tour of Flanders , including the Oude Kwaremont and Paterberg . In 2016 , there were several changes to the route from previous years , with a shorter distance and fewer climbs ; Cycling Weekly suggested that these could make the race slightly easier than previous editions .
The route left Harelbeke to the southeast , crossing the Scheldt river at Kluisbergen and proceeding through the outskirts of Oudenaarde . The first climb was the Katteberg after 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) ; there was then a flat section of cobbled road – the Paddestraat – before the roads turned to the east . The route passed to the north @-@ east of Zottegem , then further east as far as Ninove with 65 kilometres ( 40 mi ) completed . Here the roads turned back to the west into the Flemish Ardennes . The second climb of the day was La Houppe , which came after 115 kilometres ( 71 mi ) ; the riders then continued into Ronse , the half @-@ way point of the race , for the cobbled climb of the Oude Kruisberg . There were then seven climbs in the following 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) : the Knokteberg , the Hotondberg , the Kortekeer , the Taaienberg ( cobbled ) , the Boigneberg , the Eikenberg ( cobbled ) and the Stationsberg ( cobbled ) . At this point there were 57 kilometres ( 35 mi ) and five classified climbs remaining .
The next climb , the Kapelberg came 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) later and was immediately followed by the Paterberg , the steepest climb of the day with 700 metres ( 770 yd ) of cobbled road at an average gradient of 12 % and sections of 20 % . This was then followed after 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) by the partially cobbled , 2 @.@ 2 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 4 mi ) climb of the Oude Kwaremont . The penultimate climb of the day was the Karnemelkbeekstraat , 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) from the finish . At this point , the route crossed back over the Scheldt and returned north @-@ west towards Harelbeke . The final climb , the Tiegemberg , came with 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) remaining . The last part of the race was flat , with the final 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) a final loop through Harelbeke to the finish line .
= = Participating teams = =
There were 25 teams selected to start the race . All 18 UCI WorldTeams were automatically invited ; the race organisers also gave wildcard invitations to seven UCI Professional Continental teams . These included two Belgian teams ( Wanty – Groupe Gobert and Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) , two French teams ( Fortuneo – Vital Concept and Direct Énergie ) , an Italian team ( Wilier Triestina – Southeast ) , a Dutch team ( Roompot – Oranje Peloton ) and a German team ( Bora – Argon 18 ) . Each team was permitted to enter eight riders . Orica – BikeExchange and Team Dimension Data each entered seven riders and BMC Racing Team 's Greg Van Avermaet withdrew through illness , so 197 riders started the race .
= = Pre @-@ race favourites = =
The 2015 champion , Team Sky 's Geraint Thomas , was not present to defend his title ; he was riding the 2016 Volta a Catalunya instead . Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff ) , who won the 2014 race , did start , as did Fabian Cancellara ( Trek – Segafredo ) , who had won the race on three occasions in the past , and Tom Boonen ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) , who held the record for the most victories with five . Cancellara was riding the race for the final time , having announced that the 2016 season would be his last as a professional , and was in strong form with victories in the Strade Bianche and a time @-@ trial stage of the 2016 Tirreno – Adriatico . Sagan , the reigning world champion , had also been performing strongly , but did not have any victories so far in 2016 . Boonen had not demonstrated any strong form .
Although Boonen had not shown strong form , he came to the race with a strong team . His teammates included Niki Terpstra , Zdeněk Štybar , Stijn Vandenbergh and Matteo Trentin , all of whom were possible winners of the race . Despite Thomas 's absence , Sky also brought a strong team : they had Ian Stannard , Luke Rowe and the former world champion Michał Kwiatkowski . Other possible victors included Sep Vanmarcke ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) , Alexander Kristoff ( Team Katusha ) , Edvald Boasson Hagen ( Dimension Data ) , Jürgen Roelandts ( Lotto – Soudal ) and Lars Boom ( Astana ) . Greg Van Avermaet would also have been among the favourites , but he was ruled out of the race due to illness .
= = Race summary = =
After 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) of racing , an eight @-@ man breakaway formed . The riders involved were Bert De Backer ( Giant – Alpecin ) , Antoine Demoitié ( Wanty – Groupe Gobert ) , Nico Denz ( AG2R La Mondiale ) , Tony Hurel ( Direct Energie ) , Sjoerd van Ginneken ( Roompot – Oranje Peloton ) , Reto Hollenstein ( IAM Cycling ) , Jay Thomson ( Dimension Data ) , and Wouter Wippert ( Cannondale – Drapac ) . They extended their lead to five minutes with 55 kilometres ( 34 mi ) completed , but their advantage was reduced to less than four minutes by the efforts of Etixx – Quick @-@ Step in the peloton . It was reduced to less than two minutes by the time the riders reached the Taaienberg with 73 kilometres ( 45 mi ) remaining , as Trek put an effort into bringing the lead group back .
On the Taaienberg , Tiesj Benoot ( Lotto – Soudal ) led the peloton , with Boonen right behind him . A ten @-@ rider group broke away from the peloton over the climb , with Benoot and Boonen joined by Roelandts , Cancellara , Boom , Vanmarcke , Daniel Oss ( BMC ) and three other Etixx – Quick @-@ Step riders ( Terpstra , Štybar and Trentin ) . On the next climb , the Boigneberg , Cancellara 's rear derailleur failed and it took more than a minute for his team to bring him a replacement bike , putting him a long way behind the other favourites . Shortly afterwards , the breakaway was caught by the chasing group ; the combined group was then caught by another group that contained Sagan and Kwiatkowski to create a 20 @-@ man lead group , although Štybar soon suffered a puncture and fell out of the group . Cancellara , meanwhile , was in a group led by his teammates Yaroslav Popovych and Markel Irizar around two minutes behind .
By the time the race reached the Paterberg , the gap was around half a minute . On the climb , Cancellara attacked from the chasing group , with Štybar on his wheel ; meanwhile , a ten @-@ man group broke away from the leaders . After the Paterberg and the subsequent Oude Kwaremont , Cancellara and Štybar eventually reached this group . On the next hill , the Karnemelkbeekstraat , Sagan and Kwiatkowski attacked ; over the next 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) they extended their lead to over 20 seconds . This extended to 30 seconds on the Tiegemberg and reached 36 seconds on the final stretch to Harelbeke . The Etixx – Quick @-@ Step riders were forced to do all the work in the chasing group , as none of the other riders in the group would collaborate with them .
After a long effort from Terpstra , Boonen took up the effort on the front of the chasing group and the gap to Sagan and Kwiatkowski began to reduce . The gap fell to under 11 seconds with 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) remaining , but the leading pair were not caught . After going under the flamme rouge , Kwiatkowski manoeuvred Sagan to the front and surprised him by opening up his sprint with 300 metres ( 330 yd ) remaining . Sagan was unable to respond and Kwiatkowski took the race victory , with Sagan four seconds behind . The chasing group finished 11 seconds behind , with Stannard beating Cancellara in the sprint for third place .
= = Results = =
= = Post @-@ race analysis = =
= = = Reactions = = =
Kwiatkowski 's victory was his first since joining Team Sky at the beginning of 2016 . He said after the race that his main target was still the Ardennes classics rather than the remainder of the cobbled classics season , but that there was no reason why he could not succeed in both . He pointed out that he was glad to have escaped with Sagan as they worked well together – they had arrived at the finish of the 2014 Strade Bianche in a similar situation , with Kwiatkowski the winner there as well . He said that he thought he had surprised Sagan by sprinting first , rather than waiting for Sagan 's sprint . He also acknowledged that he knew from his own experience a year before that it was " very difficult " to race with the pressure of the world champion 's rainbow jersey .
Sagan revealed that he had been told on the radio that he had to ride hard to stay away from the chasing group , but that he had no power left in the final part of the race as he had done the majority of the work in the breakaway . Nevertheless , he said that he was happy with the race . Cancellara , meanwhile , said that , although he was disappointed with the result in itself , he had pride in the way he had performed in coming back from his mechanical failure . After his long pursuit , with the help of several teammates in different groups , he had barely been able to follow the other riders in the group on the Tiegemberg .
= = = UCI World Tour standings = = =
In the season @-@ long UCI World Tour competition , Kwiatkowski moved into the top ten thanks to the points won in the race . Sagan , meanwhile , moved from seventh to third , just ten points behind the leader , BMC 's Richie Porte . Poland moved into the top ten of the nations ' rankings , while Sky remained top in the teams ' rankings .
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= Venom ( comic book ) =
Venom is the title of several American comic book series published by Marvel Comics focusing on the various heroic and villainous incarnations of the character Venom , which have usually consisting of a human host and amorphous alien being called a symbiote . The first incarnation of the character was the one created by the first human host to the symbiote , Eddie Brock , and — since 2011 — its current host , Flash Thompson ) . Beginning with Venom : Lethal Protector , eighteen limited series following Brock 's adventures were published monthly between February 1993 and January 1998 . A monthly Venom series began publication in 2003 , following a new character , Patricia Robertson , and a clone of the original symbiote . The series concluded in 2004 after 18 issues . In 2011 another monthly series , following the adventures of Flash Thompson , was launched . The series concluded in October 2013 with its forty @-@ second issue .
= = Publication history = =
The first Venom title , Venom : Lethal Protector , was published in January 1993 and written by Venom co @-@ creator David Michelinie . The story began the character 's transition from unambiguous villain to anti @-@ hero and introduced the symbiote offspring ( Scream , Phage , Riot , Lasher and Agony ) , who would recur in Marvel comics until the 2011 Carnage , U.S.A. limited series . Seventeen other series were printed between August 1993 and January 1998 , including 1994 's Venom : Separation Anxiety ( which continued the story of Venom 's offspring and spawned the 1995 " Planet of the Symbiotes " cross @-@ series story arc ) , 1996 's Along Came a Spider ( which introduced symbiote anti @-@ hero Hybrid ) and 1997 's Venom : On Trial ( which saw Eddie Brock tried for his crimes as Venom ) . Larry Hama wrote the most individual series ( eight in total ) , including the 1997 final installment ( Venom : The Finale , which saw the symbiote apparently killed ) . According to editor Tom Brevoort , the series was cancelled because " The return on the book had declined to the point where any immediate financial reward was overshadowed by [ then editor @-@ in @-@ chief Bob Harras 's ] discomfort with the character starring in his own title . " The limited @-@ series run consisted of 60 issues .
A new Venom series began in June 2003 , written by Daniel Way . This series followed a new character , Patricia Robertson , and a clone of the Venom symbiote . Eighteen issues were produced by Way through November 2004 , comprising the story arcs " Shiver " ( # 1 @-@ 5 ) , " Run " ( # 6 @-@ 10 ) , " Patterns " ( # 11 @-@ 13 ) , and " Twist " ( # 14 @-@ 18 ) .
In 2011 , an ongoing Venom series began under writer Rick Remender with Spider @-@ Man supporting character Flash Thompson in a leading role . The character regained the use of his legs while using the symbiote following their loss during his service in the Iraq War ( as shown in The Amazing Spider @-@ Man # 574 ) . The first issue introduced new versions of the villains Crime Master and Jack O 'Lantern , who became recurring antagonists for Thompson . Issue # 18 featured the return of Brock , who killed Hybrid and Scream in his crusade against the symbiotes and eventually bonded to the Toxin symbiote . The series was born after Thompson was first unveiled as the new Venom by writer Dan Slott in The Amazing Spider @-@ Man # 654 . Remender was unsure how to develop the Thompson narrative until he realized that he was a tragic hero : a violent man , haunted by a drinking problem and physical abuse suffered at the hands of his father .
Slott suggested that the new Crime Master 's secret identity would be Bennett Brant , the thought @-@ dead brother of Thompson 's then @-@ girlfriend Betty . Remender and his co @-@ writer Cullen Bunn developed the new character , with Bunn developing the idea of multiple Crime Masters existing throughout history . Thompson found an arch @-@ rival in the new Jack O 'Lantern , developed by Remender and artist Tony Moore . Remender decided that making him a parallel of Thompson would create a stronger nemesis ; therefore , Jack was also given a traumatic childhood in which he was exploited by Crime Master . Venom # 13 saw the first mini @-@ event of the series : a crossover with the Red Hulk , X @-@ 23 and the new Ghost Rider . The event was initially conceived as a reunion of New Fantastic Four members Hulk , Wolverine , Ghost Rider and Spider @-@ Man as part of a Venom @-@ Wolverine crossover . As the idea developed with writer Jason Aaron , it was decided to incorporate those characters ' legacy characters into the Red Hulk , X @-@ 23 , the new female Ghost Rider and Thompson 's Venom . Following the event , Thompson joined another Remender @-@ written book ( Secret Avengers ) .
Remender stopped writing Venom in August 2012 ( after issue # 22 ) to work on Captain America and the launch of Uncanny Avengers . He was replaced by Cullen Bunn , who had periodically worked as co @-@ writer during Remender 's term . The Venom character remained a member of the Secret Avengers , a series still written by Remender . In September 2012 , Bunn said that Thompson would be moved from New York to Philadelphia from Venom # 28 . This relocation would allow the introduction of a new love interest , the superhero Valkyrie . Editor Tom Brennan explained " His superhero career almost cost him everything ... this is a good man with a troubled past who needed a fresh start ... to take his next steps in becoming the hero he was born to be . " Marvel editor Stephen Wacker said the location change reflected Marvel 's desire to expand the Marvel universe beyond New York City . Bunn 's run introduced the new character Mania , one of Thompson 's students who is empowered by part of the Venom symbiote . In August 2013 , Marvel announced that Venom would end with issue # 42 in October 2013 . Bunn was informed of the decision while writing Venom # 31- # 38 , which he stated gave him time to bring some plot threads to a conclusion , but having originally outlined thirty issues worth of stories , there would be some ideas left to be told .
= = Limited series ( 1993 – 1998 ) = =
= = = Venom : Lethal Protector ( 1993 ) = = =
Writer : David Michelinie
Penciler : Mark Bagley ( # 1 – 3 ) , Ron Lim ( # 4 – 6 )
Inker : Al Milgrom ( # 1 – 4 ) , Sam de la Rosa ( # 1 – 6 )
The initial six @-@ part series was published between February and July 1993 . The story follows former reporter Eddie Brock , first introduced in The Amazing Spider @-@ Man # 300 ( May 1988 ) , as a villain and enemy of the superhero Spider @-@ Man . In his appearances in The Amazing Spider @-@ Man , Brock blames Spider @-@ Man for ending his career by debunking one of his stories . He bonds with the Venom symbiote , a sentient alien that had previously bonded with ( and been rejected by ) Spider @-@ Man . Together , Brock and the symbiote become Venom . In The Amazing Spider @-@ Man # 375 , Brock makes peace with Spider @-@ Man after he saves Brock 's wife ( Ann Weying ) from death . Brock then moves back to his home city of San Francisco for a fresh start , starting the events of Venom : Lethal Protector .
Venom : Lethal Protector initiated the character 's transition from unambiguous villain to anti @-@ hero , and introduced several new characters ( including Venom 's symbiote offspring Scream , Phage , Riot , Lasher and Agony , who would recur in Marvel comics until the 2011 Carnage , U.S.A. limited series , vigilante group The Jury , its creator General Orwell Taylor , the Sentry , Bomblast , Ramshot , Screech and Firearm ) .
According to North American comic distributor Diamond Comic Distributors ( DCD ) and former distributor Capital City Distribution , Venom : Lethal Protector # 1 was the bestselling issue of December 1992 and DCD 's overall third @-@ bestselling issue of DCD 's bestselling 300 titles of 1992 . On DCD 's 1993 list , subsequent issues gradually dropped in sales : Venom : Lethal Protector # 2 ( placed at number 44 ) , # 3 ( 45 ) , # 4 ( 56 ) , # 5 ( 90 ) and # 6 ( 120 ) .
= = = Venom : Deathtrap - The Vault ( 1993 ) = = =
Writer : Danny Fingeroth
Penciler : Ron Lim
Inker : Jim Sanders , Fred Fredericks
This one @-@ shot issue was published in March 1993 . The story was originally published in graphic @-@ novel form in 1991 as Avengers @-@ Deathtrap : The Vault ( 1991 ) , but was later reprinted under the Venom label . As a result , the fictional events precede those of Venom : Lethal Protector and are referenced in that series . The issue follows a supervillain prison outbreak at The Vault , led by Brock , that allows the inmates to overrun the prison and take its staff hostage . The Avengers and Freedom Force attempt to defeat the villains in a race against time because the prison 's final fail @-@ safe , a powerful explosive device , has been activated by Vault warden Truman Marsh . DCD estimated that the comic was their 13th @-@ bestselling trade paperback of 1993 .
= = = Venom : Funeral Pyre ( 1993 ) = = =
Writer : Carl Potts
Penciler : Tom Lyle
Inker : Scott Hanna , Al Milgrom and Joe Rubinstein
This was a three @-@ part series published between August and October 1993 . The story continued Brock 's adventures in San Francisco , dealing with street gangs in an uneasy alliance with the Punisher , and saw the creation of the villain Pyre . According to DCD 's 300 bestselling issues of 1993 , Venom : Funeral Pyre # 1 was number 72 ; sales declined for Funeral Pyre # 2 and # 3 , which appeared at numbers 238 and 295 respectively .
= = = Venom : The Madness ( 1993 – 1994 ) = = =
Writer : Ann Nocenti
Penciler : Kelley Jones
Inker : John Beatty ( # 1 – 3 ) , Al Milgrom ( # 3 ) , Keith Williams ( # 3 )
A three @-@ part series published between November 1993 and January 1994 , the series introduces attorney Beck as a love interest for Brock . When Beck pursues a lawsuit against Scarmore Industries for employees poisoned by a sentient liquid @-@ mercury virus , Venom is injured trying to protect her from the Juggernaut 's kidnap attempt . The symbiote is submerged and infected with the sentient virus ( which heals Brock ) , bonding with the pair and introducing a third mind into their relationship . The virus drives Brock insane ( causing him to murder a cleaning lady ) , and he is physically transported to the realm of insanity to confront its avatars : Paranoia , Dusk and the Necromancer . The symbiote overcomes the virus ; Brock regains his senses , and Venom is returned to earth . Beck later insists on only being Brock 's friend , because his romantic feelings for her make him more violent . Among DCD 's 300 bestselling issues of 1993 Venom : The Madness # 1 was number 173 ; the remaining issues did not chart .
= = = Venom : Enemy Within ( 1994 ) = = =
Writer : Bruce Jones
Penciler : Bob McLeod
Inker : Bob McLeod ( # 1 – 2 ) , Harry Candelario ( # 3 )
In a three @-@ part series published between February and May 1994 , Brock attempts to save San Francisco as it is besieged by an army of goblins . Morbius the Living Vampire and the Demogoblin are magically transported from New York ; Morbius joins Brock to defeat the goblins , led by criminal @-@ turned @-@ politician Charles Palentine ( who wears a magic necklace which controls the goblins ) . Palentine uses fear of the goblin attacks to seize control of the city and convince its citizens to burn it down . Demogoblin takes the necklace , and the liberated goblins attack Palentine . Demogoblin then leads the goblins across the Golden Gate Bridge , ordering them to leap to their deaths . Demogoblin and Morbius then leave for New York . Of DCD 's 300 bestselling issues of 1994 , Venom : Enemy Within # 2 was number 286 ; the remaining issues did not chart .
= = = Venom : The Mace ( 1994 ) = = =
Writer : Carl Potts
Penciler : Liam Sharp
Inker : Bill Reinhold
A three @-@ part series published between May and July 1994 , this series introduces the superhuman hit man Mace and the secretive Sunrise Society that created him . Continuing Brock 's adventures in San Francisco , Venom : The Mace sees him confront ( and later join forces with ) Mace to defeat a squadron of Sunrise Society soldiers sent to capture Mace . A subplot involves some people Brock protects , who steal from the needy . When he learns what they have done , Brock promises Beck he will banish them from the community ; he kills them instead , concealing the truth from her . According to DCD 's 300 bestselling issues of 1994 , Venom : The Mace # 1 was number 255 ; the remaining issues did not chart .
= = = Venom : Nights of Vengeance ( 1994 ) = = =
Writer : Howard Mackie
Penciler : Ron Lim
Inker : Al Milgrom
In a four @-@ part series published between August and November 1994 , Brock teams up with the anti @-@ hero Vengeance to fight the Stalkers , a group of alien @-@ technology @-@ enhanced humans who have kidnapped Beck ( and others ) with Venom 's protection . This series also introduces another romantic interest for Brock ( Elizabeth , a doctor ) in addition to Beck . It also begins a plot thread in which Brock is informed that there are other symbiotic hosts like himself .
= = = Venom : Separation Anxiety ( 1994 – 1995 ) = = =
Writer : Howard Mackie
Penciler : Ron Randall
Inker : Sam de la Rosa
A four @-@ part series published between December 1994 and March 1995 , the story covers the return of Venom 's offspring ( Scream , Lasher , Phage , Riot , and Agony ) , who are seeking aid to control their symbiotes , and the murder of Lasher , Phage , Riot and Agony 's hosts by Scream ( who has become insane ) . The storyline also raised the question of whether Brock or the Venom symbiote was in control , leading into the five @-@ part crossover story " Planet of the Symbiotes " in 1995 .
= = = Venom : Carnage Unleashed ( 1995 ) = = =
Writer : Larry Hama
Penciler : Andrew Wildman ( # 1 @-@ 4 ) , Art Nichols ( # 1 - Finishes )
Inker : Joe Rubinstein
In a four @-@ part series published between April and August 1995 , Brock returns to New York City in prusuit of supervillain Carnage after learning about Carnage Unleashed , a video game based on Carnage 's rampage in Maximum Carnage ( 1993 ) . Carnage discovers a method of transporting his symbiote through phone lines , which he uses to hack computers and attack people playing the game . He escapes from the Ravencroft asylum and kidnaps his caregiver , Dr. Pazzo . Venom confronts Carnage in cyberspace , before Pazzo douses Carnage in flammable liquid and sets him ablaze . Venom saves Carnage from dying , reasoning that death is what he wants . A subplot has Brock meeting Kirstin , a young musician . When Brock accidentally paralyzes her boyfriend Clive , Kirstin asks her mother to avenge him ; this storyline continues in Venom : Sinner Takes All .
= = = Venom : Sinner Takes All ( 1995 ) = = =
Writer : Larry Hama
Penciler : Greg Luzniak ( # 1 – 4 ) , Ted Halsted ( # 5 )
Inker : Scott Koblish ( # 1 – 2 ) , Jimmy Palmiotti ( # 3 , # 5 ) Ken Branch ( # 3 ) , Keith Aiken ( # 4 ) , Jeff Albrecht ( # 4 ) , Ralph Cabrera ( # 5 )
A five @-@ part series published between August and December 1995 , it marks the first appearance of She @-@ Venom after the symbiote bonds with Brock 's wife Ann to save her from gunshot wounds . It also features the debut of a new Sin @-@ Eater , Michael Engelschwert , following the death of the original . The story concludes the plotline begun in Venom : Carnage Unleashed with Kirstin 's mother , a skilled assassin , trying to kill Venom and killing the Sin @-@ Eater .
Each issue also contained an installment ( or backup story ) of the four @-@ part " Tour of Jury Duty " , detailing the initiation of former Vault guard Jennifer Stewart into the Jury as Wysper . She fights ( and kills ) the second Tarantula , a supervillain who murdered Wysper 's husband during the riot in Venom : Deathtrap @-@ The Vault . The series also features the return of the vigilante , Sentry .
= = = Venom : Along Came A Spider ( 1996 ) = = =
Writer : Larry Hama
Penciler : Joe St. Pierre ( # 2 – 4 ) , Tom Grindberg ( # 2 )
Inker : Randy Emberlin ( # 2 , # 4 ) , Mark McKenna ( # 2 – 4 ) , Rodney Ramos ( # 2 ) , Greg Adams ( # 2 )
A four @-@ part series published between January and April 1996 , the story begins with the New York Police Department using Brock 's wife , Ann , to trap him . Brock sends the symbiote to Ann , turning her into She @-@ Venom again and letting her escape . In issue # 3 , Ann is afraid of the symbiote 's influence and refuses to have anything to do with Brock while he wears it . This plotline is resolved in The Amazing Spider @-@ Man Vol.2 # 19 ( 2000 ) , in which Ann 's experience with the symbiote triggers her suicide . The story includes contemporary Spider @-@ Man Ben Reilly trying to bring Venom to justice .
The series also contained the four @-@ part backup story , " Hybrid " , with the Phage , Riot , Lasher and Agony symbiotes combining into a new symbiote which joins with former Vault guard Scott Washington to create the anti @-@ hero Hybrid . The events of " Planet of the Symbiotes " take place during " Hybrid " , with the defeat of the symbiotes in that story creating the Hybrid .
= = = Venom : The Hunted ( 1996 ) = = =
Writer : Larry Hama
Penciler : Duncan Rouleau
Inker : John Stageland
A three @-@ part series published between May and July 1996 , it references the symbiote invasion in Planet of the Symbiotes as a symbiote @-@ eating alien ( the Xenophage ) arrives on earth to hunt the remaining symbiotes . Scream returns as an anti @-@ hero after the events of Venom : Separation Anxiety to protect the hosts of the invasion symbiotes . Venom is hunted by the police , who blame it for the murders committed by the Xenophage . Venom and Scream kill the Xenophage and escape their police pursuit .
The series contained a three @-@ part backup story featuring Hybrid . He is captured by the Jury , now under the command of Orwell 's son Maxwell and dealing with criminals through the legal process . Washington and his symbiote are put on trial as criminals . The Jury 's guards include many of Hybrid 's former co @-@ workers , including Sentry . The New Warriors try to free Hybrid , who is ultimately released .
= = = Venom : The Hunger ( 1996 ) = = =
Writer : Len Kaminski
Penciler : Ted Halsted
Inker : Scott Koblish
A four @-@ part series published between August and November 1996 , Venom : The Hunger introduces the Venom symbiote 's reliance on phenethylamine for survival ( which requires it to eat human brains after depleting Brock 's supply of the chemical ) and reveals that chocolate is a source of the chemical . Brock refuses to eat human brains ; the symbiote abandons him , and he is locked in an asylum under the care of the deranged Dr. Paine . Brock escapes to hunt the symbiote , which has gone on a killing spree to obtain brains . He reunites with the symbiote ( after finding an alternative source of the chemical ) , but Paine steals the symbiote for himself . Brock frees the symbiote , and again becomes Venom .
= = = Venom : Tooth and Claw ( 1996 @-@ 1997 ) = = =
Writer : Larry Hama
Penciler : Josh Hood
Inker : Derek Fisher
A three @-@ part series published between December 1996 and February 1997 , this marks the return of Scream ; Wolverine and Venom collaborate against the villains Dirt Nap and Chimera . In the final issue , Scream and Venom begin hunting Carnage .
= = = Venom : On Trial ( 1997 ) = = =
Writer : Larry Hama
Penciler : Joe St. Pierre
Inker : Al Milgrom
A three @-@ part series , published between March and May 1997 , which follows Brock as he is captured and tried for his crimes as Venom . Brock is represented by Matt Murdock ( Daredevil ) , with Cletus Kasady ( Carnage ) testifying against him . After Kasady bonds again with his symbiote , Brock , Daredevil and Spider @-@ Man unite to stop him . Before Brock can be judged , agent Daryll Smith ( from an unknown agency ) offers Brock amnesty in exchange for becoming an agent .
= = = Venom : License to Kill ( 1997 ) = = =
Writer : Larry Hama
Penciler : Derek Aucoin ( # 1 – 3 ) , Josh Hood ( # 3 )
Inker : Rich Faber ( # 1 – 2 ) , Ralph Cabrera ( # 1 ) , Eric Cannon ( # 3 ) , Scott Koblish ( # 3 )
In a three @-@ part series published between June and August 1997 , the story continues with Venom as a government agent controlled by a bomb implanted in his chest . He is tasked with neutralizing biological @-@ weapons expert Dr. Sergei Yesenofsky before he can release a deadly toxin . Yesenofsky 's son Kostya sacrifices his life to divert a nuclear missile heading for Yesenofsky 's base , and uses the explosion to destroy the toxin . Yesenofsky survives , swearing to avenge Kostya .
= = = Venom : Sign of the Boss ( 1997 ) = = =
Writer : Ivan Velez , Jr .
Penciler : Tom Derenick
Inker : Chris Ivy
In a two @-@ part series published between September and October 1997 . Venom continues his career as a government agent , working as a bodyguard for foreign president Franco Santera . He confronts ( and later joins forces with ) Danny Ketch , the Ghost Rider .
= = = Venom : The Finale ( 1997 – 1998 ) = = =
Writer : Larry Hama
Penciler : Mark Pajarillo
Inker : Robert Jones ( # 1 – 3 ) , Pam Eklund ( # 3 )
This three @-@ part finale to the Venom series was published between November 1997 and January 1998 . The Overreach Committee ( the organization in charge of Brock 's clandestine agency ) decides to terminate him because of his brutal methods . Brock cuts the bomb from his chest , and uses it to escape . His escape brings him into a confrontation with Spider @-@ Man . After a fight with Spider @-@ Man and an injection of dopamine blockers by Agent Smith , Brock is separated from the symbiote ( which is apparently killed when Brock is re @-@ arrested ) . The final issue sees Brock recover some memory of his history with Spider @-@ Man ; he had lost his knowledge of the hero 's secret identity in the Spider @-@ Man / Venom single issue ( December 1997 ) .
= = Venom ( 2003 – 2004 ) = =
Writer : Daniel Way
Penciler : Francisco Herrera ( # 1 – 5 , # 11 – 13 ) , Paco Medina ( # 6 – 10 ) , Sean Galloway ( # 13 ) , Skottie Young ( # 14 – 18 )
Inker : Carlos Cuevas ( # 1 – 5 , # 11 – 13 ) , Juan Vlasco ( # 6 – 10 ) , Wayne Faucher ( # 13 ) , Rick Ketcham ( # 14 – 18 )
An eighteen @-@ issue monthly series , published between June 2003 and November 2004 , follows U.S. Army communications specialist Patricia Robertson . During a supply run to an outpost owned by the Ararat Corporation , she discovers that all the scientists except one have been killed . The Ararat Corporation is run by an alien colony of miniature spider robots ( led by an entity named Bob ) that have infiltrated the U.S. government . The Ararat Corporation has cloned Venom to facilitate the extermination of humanity ; however , the clone ravages its hosts and kills the outpost crew .
Robertson finds an ally in the Suit , a mysterious individual made of the same miniature robots as Bob ( which were accidentally brought to earth by Reed Richards ) . The Suit modifies Robertson while she is unconscious , allowing her to control the clone if it bonds with her . The Suit sabotages Wolverine ( the clone 's preferred host ) , forcing it to bond with Robertson . One of Bob 's agents convinces Robertson to kill the real Venom to save humanity , and she frees the incarcerated Venom . She and Venom fight , but Venom escapes . Bob remotely deactivates the technology allowing Robertson to control the clone , forcing her to rely on willpower to maintain control . Robertson and Venom again fight , and Venom absorbs the clone . Venom decides to carry out the mission given to the clone by the Ararat Corporation .
= = Venom ( 2011 – 2013 ) = =
= = = Project Rebirth 2 @.@ 0 ( # 1 – 22 ) = = =
Writer : Rick Remender
Penciler : Tony Moore , Tom Fowler , Lan Medina
Inker : Crimelab ! Studios , Nelson Decastro
Published by Marvel Comics since 2011 , the series follows Spider @-@ Man supporting character Flash Thompson ( who debuted as the latest Venom , an agent of the United States military bonded with the symbiote , in the February 2011 The Amazing Spider @-@ Man # 654 ) . Recurring enemies Crime Master and Jack O 'Lantern are introduced in Venom # 1 and learn Thompson 's secret identity in Venom # 2 , enabling them to threaten his loved ones in exchange for his cooperation . After Jack is disfigured by a grenade placed in his mask by Thompson , he considers himself Thompson 's nemesis . The series ' tie @-@ in with the 2011 " Spider @-@ Island " covered the death of Thompson 's abusive father , Thompson facing the symbiote 's former host Eddie Brock ( Anti @-@ Venom ) , the symbiote choosing Thompson over Brock and Thompson helping Captain America and Spider @-@ Man defeat The Queen . The 2012 six @-@ part story " Circle of Four " saw Thompson end his long @-@ term relationship with Betty Brant for her safety ; Venom joined the Red Hulk , Ghost Rider and X @-@ 23 to defeat Blackheart and the forces of hell ( which are encroaching on earth ) . His performance results in Captain America recruiting him for the Secret Avengers in Secret Avengers # 23 ( April 2012 ) ( also written by Remender ) . In Venom # 15 ( June 2012 ) , Thompson had bonded with the symbiote to the point of lying for greater access to it .
The 2012 story " The Savage Six " sees the return of a symbiote @-@ less Eddie Brock , who is intent on exterminating all of the symbiotes ( resulting in the deaths of Scream and Hybrid ) . Crime Master forms the Savage Six : a team including Jack O 'Lantern , Death Adder , Megatak and the Human Fly . Brock is involuntarily recruited onto the team after being possessed by the Toxin symbiote which Thompson stole for Crime Master in Venom # 12 . The Savage Six is sent after Thompson and his loved ones after he tries to murder Crime Master , resulting in Betty 's learning Thompson 's secret identity . Crime Master is ultimately unmasked as Betty 's brother , Bennett Brant . Venom immolates Toxin and Brock , defeating Crime Master 's remaining forces ; Betty shoots Crime Master dead to save Venom . Venom later confesses his covert actions to the Secret Avengers . Jack O 'Lantern escapes and goes on a killing spree to torment Venom , abusing his father 's body ; he is eventually defeated and incarcerated by Venom .
According to DCD , Remender 's Venom # 1 was the 128th @-@ bestselling single issue of 2011 ( based on an estimated 65 @,@ 600 issues shipped ) . Venom # 2 was number 389 ; sales dropped for each successive issue for the year , finishing at number 802 with Venom # 11 ( based on an estimated 28 @,@ 700 issues shipped ) . Venom # 22 ( October 2012 ) , Remender 's final issue , sold an estimated 26 @,@ 734 issues . The trade paperback Venom Volume 1 ( Venom # 1 @-@ 5 ) was the 134th @-@ bestselling trade paperback of 2012 , followed by Circle of Four at number 359 and Savage Six at number 407 . Venom # 6 @-@ 9 appeared in the Spider @-@ Island trade paperback , which was listed at number 466 .
= = = Monsters of Evil ( # 23 – 42 ) = = =
Writer : Cullen Bunn
Penciler : Thony Silas
Inker : Nelson Decastro
Following Remender 's departure from the series , co @-@ writer Cullen Bunn took over beginning with issue # 23 . Bunn 's tenure began with the " Monsters of Evil " arc explaining a villainous turn by Daimon Hellstrom in Bunn 's Fear Itself : The Fearless , and continued a plot thread from Remender 's " Circle of Four " arc which saw Venom , Hulk , X @-@ 23 and Ghost Rider unknowingly branded with Mephisto 's mystical symbol ( marking them as Mephisto 's potential heirs ) . The mark gives Venom control over demons ; after a demon tries to possess him it becomes trapped in Thompson 's body , unable to leave or control him . Venom must contend with Hellstrom , who is possessing monsters with demons ( creating an army to help him become Mephisto 's chosen heir ) . Venom # 23 ( November 2012 ) introduced a new supporting character in journalist Kate Kiernan . The 2012 story " Minimum Carnage " saw the series cross with Scarlet Spider to feature Venom and Scarlet Spider against an escaped Carnage in the Microverse . The story concludes with Carnage defeated and lobotomized by Scarlet Spider , leaving the Carnage symbiote in control of his body and Venom able to sense Carnage 's presence . The events of " Monsters of Evil " , " Minimum Carnage " and his fear of the symbiote controlling him prompt Thompson to move to Philadelphia in Venom # 27 @.@ 1 . Thompson is possessed by the demon inside him while he sleeps , and terrorizes people as Venom .
In Philadelphia , Thompson gains employment as a high school gym coach , while as Venom he comes into conflict with the U @-@ Foes , who kidnap and experiment on victims with alien technology . When the U @-@ Foes knock Venom , the demon takes control of his body and uses the alien technology to teleport the villains to their apparent death in space . Kiernan and Thompson 's lover Valkyrie later return home , leaving Venom alone . Brock returns as Toxin in Venom # 30 , to pursue Thompson while he himself is hunting the result of one of the U @-@ Foes experiments : an alien @-@ lifeform infested human turned into a cannibal . Thompson and Brock 's fight liberates the aliens who begin infecting and transforming other humans to target their new enemies : Venom and Toxin . Together , Thompson and Brock defeat the aliens , and afterwards Brock calls a truce with Thompson , promising that the Venom symbiote will inevitably take over Thompson , and that he will return to kill him when that happens . Venom # 39 sees the return of Jack , and the introduction of the new symbiote character Mania — Thompson 's teenage student Andi who bonds with a spawn of the Venom symbiote when Thompson uses it to protect her from Jack . Jack kills Mania 's father , and is revealed to be merely a man who was brainwashed by some of Jack 's technology into believing he is the real Jack . According to Bunn , when he envisioned a new symbiote character Andi was not intended to be the host , but as the series progressed his plans changed . It is revealed that Mania 's symbiote is the cloned symbiote from Way 's 2003 Venom series . The symbiote expelled the clone , and the demonic brand along with it , passing it to Mania . When a team led by Crossbones starts killing the brand bearers and taking the brands for themselves , Venom and Mania manage to fight them off with assistance from Mephisto . Mephisto then departs after telling Thompson that the deal he made in exchange for the brand was with the symbiote , not Thompson . The series ends with Thompson admitting that despite his issues with his father , he had always wanted to be a dad , and that he will now take responsibility for Mania .
= = Collected editions = =
The series has been collected into trade paperbacks :
= = = Venom ( limited series ) = = =
= = = Venom ( 2003 ) = = =
= = = Venom ( 2011 ) = = =
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= Billy Boys =
" Billy Boys " , also titled " The Billy Boys " , is a loyalist song from Glasgow , sung to the tune of " Marching Through Georgia . " It originated in the 1930s as the signature song of one of the Glasgow razor gangs led by Billy Fullerton and later became viewed to reflect the long running sectarian divide in the city . It is associated in particular with Rangers F.C ..
= = Origins = =
Billy Boys originated in the 1920s as the signature tune of the Brigton Boys , also called The Billy Boys of Brigton Cross , who were a Protestant street gang in Glasgow led by Billy Fullerton . The gang often clashed with Catholic gangs such as the Norman Conks . Fullerton was a former member of the British Fascists who was awarded a medal for strike @-@ breaking during the 1926 General Strike and formed a Glasgow branch of the British Union of Fascists with the onset of World War II . The song 's geographic roots relate to Bridgeton Cross in Bridgeton , an area of Glasgow historically associated with the city 's Protestant population , and with Scottish unionism . Brigton is the Scots form of Bridgeton . The Billy Boys song was often sung loudly when the gang performed it . They regularly sang it when they marched through primarily Catholic areas of Glasgow on Catholic holy days . This often led to the Brigton Boys being attacked by members of the Norman Conks as a result . Despite being primarily based in Glasgow , in the 1930s the Brigton Boys were invited to march in Belfast and sang Billy Boys while they were there as part of The Twelfth celebrations .
The Brigton Boys and their youth wing , the Derry Boys , started to attend association football matches in the late 1920s and early 1930s . During this time , they attended Rangers matches and Rangers fans started to sing the Billy Boys song as part of a perceived affiliation with the Brigton Boys .
Despite Percy Sillitoe , the Chief Constable of Glasgow , eradicating the razor gangs in Glasgow and most young Protestants joining the Orange Order instead of the remaining gangs , Rangers fans continued to sing the Billy Boys in tribute to Fullerton as he still retained a prominent position among Glasgow Protestants even after the gangs had disbanded . The Orange Order then adopted the " Billy Boys " song and changed the lyrics to be played on Orange walks , with the references to Billy being altered to refer to King William III of England , Scotland and Ireland .
= = Football song = =
= = = Rangers = = =
Even after Fullerton 's death , Rangers fans continued to sing " Billy Boys " to commemorate Fullerton and the Brigton Boys . In later years , attempts were made to portray the song as being against Irish republicanism rather than Catholics . In 1999 , the Scotland national football team manager Craig Brown was filmed singing " Billy Boys " and faced calls to step down from his position in charge of the Scotland national football team . However the Scottish Football Association ( SFA ) gave him their backing .
The song was at the centre of a controversy surrounding " ninety @-@ minute bigots " , an expression allegedly coined by former Rangers chairman Sir David Murray : " Ninety @-@ minute Bigots do not hold beliefs but nonetheless sing songs at football matches which are sectarian , simply to join in with the rest of the crowd . " Rangers have adopted several measures to tackle this behaviour including attempts to bring older Rangers songs back into popular use , with Murray speaking out against the singing of the " Billy Boys " on many occasions . In 2006 , Rangers were charged by UEFA for discriminatory chanting over the singing of " Billy Boys " during a UEFA Champions League game against Villarreal . Rangers were found not guilty due to " Billy Boys " having been sung for years without the SFA or the Scottish government intervening against it and ruled that it was tolerated as a social and historic song . However after an appeal where they were warned , Rangers were ordered by UEFA to make a public announcement at all home games , prohibiting the singing of the song despite UEFA admitting they were unable to do anything about it because it was a Scottish social issue . In 2011 , " Billy Boys " was included in a list of chants that had been banned from Scottish football grounds as part of new legislation from the Scottish government . It was specifically banned because of its " Up to our knees in Fenian blood " line . It was banned because it was decided by the Scottish government that " Fenian " in the context of the song meant Roman Catholics and was thus sectarian despite Rangers fans stating that it meant Irish republicans or fans of their Old Firm rivals , Celtic .
Despite the ban , " Billy Boys " has still been sung at Rangers matches , including their match against Queen 's Park at Hampden Park . It is sometimes sung without the " Fenian " line but has also been sung in its original form . Other Scottish football clubs , among them Heart of Midlothian and Kilmarnock , use versions of " Billy Boys " adapted to support their own clubs .
= = = Northern Ireland = = =
The Billy Boys song has also been used in Northern Ireland , which may have arisen as a result of the Brigton Boys ' march in Belfast . It is often used by supporters of Belfast club Linfield due to historic links with Rangers as " Blues Brothers " .
The song was sung in 2013 by supporters of the Northern Ireland national football team during their match against Luxembourg at Stade Josy Barthel in protest against the Northern Ireland team anthem , God Save the Queen , not being played at the Irish Cup final . In April 2014 , the Irish Football Association ( IFA ) introduced punishments for " any ... song or chant that is undeniably sectarian or offensive " . Linfield advised their supporters that this included all variations of Billy Boys , including the Marching Through Georgia tune . The IFA based their decision on the precedent from the UEFA decision regarding Billy Boys and Rangers in 2006 . There was doubt expressed by fans as to how the IFA would enforce the ban on the Marching Through Georgia tune if it was used in a song other than Billy Boys .
= = Lyrics = =
Hello , Hello
We are the Billy Boys
Hello , Hello
You 'll know us by our noise
We 're up to our knees in Fenian blood
Surrender or you 'll die
For we are
The Brigton Derry Boys
An alternative Rangers @-@ specific version was later written .
Hello , Hello
We are the Rangers Boys
Hello , Hello
You 'll know us by our noise
We 'll give anything to see our team
At Ibrox or away
For we are
The Glasgow Rangers Boys
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= Washington State Route 4 =
State Route 4 ( SR 4 ) is a 62 @.@ 27 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 100 @.@ 21 km ) state highway , serving the southwestern region of the U.S. state of Washington . The highway , officially known as the Ocean Beach Highway , travels east along the Columbia River from U.S. Route 101 ( US 101 ) at Johnston 's Landing through Pacific , Wahkiakum and Cowlitz counties to an interchange with Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) in Kelso . SR 4 is designated as part of the Lewis and Clark Trail Scenic Byway , a state scenic byway , as well as part of the National Highway System . The highway , along with I @-@ 5 and SR 14 , forms the former route of US 830 , which ran along the Columbia River from Johnston 's Landing to Maryhill from the creation of the United States Numbered Highways in 1926 until 1968 . US 830 was co @-@ signed with Primary State Highway 12 ( PSH 12 ) from Johnston 's Landing to Kelso and was created in 1937 as the successor to various unsigned state highways .
= = Route description = =
SR 4 begins at an intersection with US 101 at Johnston 's Landing , located on the Naselle River in rural Pacific County . The highway , designated as the Lewis and Clark Trail Scenic Byway , travels southeast along the Naselle River and serves as the northern terminus of SR 401 in the census @-@ designated place of Naselle before leaving the Naselle River . SR 4 continues east along Salmon Creek and the Deep River into Wahkiakum County before it intersects the former route of SR 403 in Rosburg . The highway travels upstream along the Grays River and turns southeast towards Skamokawa , passing east of the Julia Butler Hansen Refuge for the Columbian White @-@ Tailed Deer on the shores of the Columbia River . SR 4 continues east through the county seat of Cathlamet and intersects the former terminus of SR 407 and the northern terminus of SR 409 . The highway travels into Cowlitz County and intersects the western terminus of SR 432 , which serves the Port of Longview , in West Longview . SR 4 continues through the northern part of Longview and passes the campus of the Lower Columbia College before traveling onto Cowlitz Way . Cowlitz Way intersects the former spur route of SR 411 and crosses over SR 411 and the Cowlitz River into Kelso before SR 4 splits into a one @-@ way pair traveling south through downtown Kelso . SR 4 turns east onto Allen Street and continues to its eastern terminus , a diamond interchange with I @-@ 5 north of the Three Rivers Mall .
Every year , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2011 , WSDOT calculated that the busiest section of SR 4 was the intersection with Catlin Street in Kelso west of the Cowlitz Way Bridge , serving 34 @,@ 000 vehicles , while the least busy section was between Rosburg and Cathlamet in rural Wahkiakum County , serving 1 @,@ 000 vehicles . The entire route of SR 4 is designated as part of the National Highway System , a highway system that includes roadways important to the national economy , defense , and mobility ; and as a Highway of Statewide Significance by WSDOT from US 101 at Johnston 's Landing to SR 432 in West Longview , which includes highways that connect major communities in the state of Washington .
= = History = =
The present route of SR 4 was codified into the state highway system in 1915 as State Road 19 , connecting Naselle , Cathlamet , Longview , and Kelso along the Columbia River . The highway was built by Pacific County in the Naselle area and Cowlitz County between Stella and Kelso , while the Department of Highways built a road connecting Cathlamet to Skamokawa by 1915 . State Road 19 was officially designated as the Ocean Beach Highway in 1919 and renumbered to State Road 12 in 1923 . The highway was incorporated into US 830 during the creation of the United States Numbered Highways in 1926 , traveling east along the Columbia River from US 101 at Johnston 's Landing to US 97 in Maryhill . The highway was paved with the macadam method between Johnston 's Landing and Grays River and between Skamokawa and Kelso by 1931 . The remaining gap was constructed of gravel by 1933 and the entire highway was paved by 1939 . State Road 12 was replaced by PSH 12 in 1937 , traveling west from PSH 1 and US 99 in Chehalis to PSH 13 in Raymond , south on US 101 to Johnston 's Landing , and east on US 830 to PSH 1 and US 99 in Kelso . During the 1964 highway renumbering , US 830 replaced PSH 12 between Johnston 's Landing and Kelso and was designated as part of the Lewis and Clark Trail Scenic Byway during the creation of the state scenic highway system in 1967 . US 830 was decommissioned in 1968 and was replaced with SR 4 ; however , the highway was proposed as a route for US 12 before it was extended west via White Pass to Aberdeen .
= = Major intersections = =
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= George Boyd ( footballer ) =
George Jan Boyd ( born 2 October 1985 ) is a professional footballer who plays as a winger for Burnley .
Boyd started his career in the Charlton Athletic youth system , joining Stevenage Borough of the Conference National in 2001 and making his first @-@ team debut in 2002 . Boyd spent five seasons at Stevenage , scoring over thirty goals from midfield in all competitions . He left in January 2007 to join League Two side Peterborough United for a fee of £ 260 @,@ 000 , and won two successive promotions in the 2007 – 08 and 2008 – 09 seasons . In March 2010 , Boyd joined Nottingham Forest on loan until the end of the 2009 – 10 season . On return to his parent club in July 2010 , Boyd signed a new three @-@ year contract at Peterborough . In February 2013 , Boyd joined Hull City on loan for the remainder of the 2012 – 13 season , and he helped the club earn promotion back to the Premier League during his time there . Shortly after the end of the season , he signed for the club on a permanent basis .
He also played for the England National Game XI team , who represent England at non @-@ League level , from 2005 to 2006 , earning six caps and scoring one goal . Boyd was born and raised in England , and also qualified to play for Scotland through his maternal grandfather . After playing for the Scotland B team in 2009 , he earned his first cap at senior level in 2013 .
= = Club career = =
= = = Stevenage Borough = = =
Born in Chatham , Kent , Boyd started his career as a part of Charlton Athletic 's youth system at the age of 15 . A year later he was released by Charlton , and opted to join Conference National side Stevenage Borough in 2001 . Boyd made his Stevenage debut at just 17 years of age during the 2002 – 03 season , featuring in a 3 – 1 defeat against Margate at Broadhall Way , although he was substituted at half – time . Despite appearing on the bench frequently , Boyd did not play again in the first @-@ team the same season . The following season , Boyd played eleven times during the second half of the season under new manager Graham Westley , after impressing him during Boyd 's involvement in the FA Youth Cup . Boyd made a big impact despite appearing as a substitute in the majority of games , assisting all three of Stevenage 's goals in a 3 – 1 victory over Tamworth , and scoring his first Stevenage goal in a 2 – 1 win against Northwich Victoria in April 2004 .
As a result of his form towards the latter stages of the 2003 – 04 , Boyd was a regular in the first team the following season , playing 37 games and scoring three times as Stevenage made the play @-@ offs . His first goal of the club 's 2004 – 05 campaign came in a 4 – 1 victory against Northwich Victoria , netting Stevenage 's second just before half – time . Boyd 's second goal of the season came in Stevenage 's 5 – 0 win against Hendon , and scored his final goal of the 2004 – 05 campaign as Stevenage came from a goal down to beat Carlisle United at Broadhall Way . Boyd was also sent – off for the first time in his career in a game against Canvey Island , receiving a straight red . During the side 's 2005 – 06 campaign , Boyd found his goalscoring form , starting the season with three goals in five games , scoring twice against Woking in a 3 – 2 defeat , and once against Tamworth . Boyd also scored in games against Dagenham & Redbridge and Exeter City respectively , as well as scoring a goal from 25 yards in Stevenage 's 2 – 0 win against Gravesend & Northfleet at Stonebridge Road . He also impressed in Stevenage 's FA Cup run the same season , scoring a 30 @-@ yard effort away at Kettering Town in Paul Gascoigne 's first game as manager of the Northamptonshire outfit , and netted in the following round in a 2 – 2 draw against Northampton Town . He signed a new three @-@ year contract at the club in November 2005 . Throughout the season , Boyd scored 12 times in 47 games from midfield in all competitions .
Under the new management of Mark Stimson ahead of the 2006 – 07 season , Boyd was deployed as a striker for the first time in a 2 – 1 defeat away at Tamworth , a game in which he scored Stevenage 's solitary goal . The following game , he scored his first competitive hat @-@ trick in a 6 – 0 win against Stafford Rangers . Boyd scored four goals in a 7 – 0 victory over Merthyr Tydfil in the FA Trophy . He also scored in victories against Halifax Town and Kidderminster Harriers , as well as netting in Stevenage 's 3 – 2 win against St Albans City . He also provided the assist for the only goal of the game in Stevenage 's 1 – 0 win against Weymouth . In December 2006 , Stevenage turned down an initial offer from Peterborough United for Boyd , but on 31 December both parties agreed a deal for the player and it was announced that Boyd would officially sign for Peterborough on 8 January 2007 for a record Football Conference transfer fee of £ 260 @,@ 000 . Subsequently , he played his last game for Stevenage a day later in a 3 – 2 win over Aldershot Town , scoring twice . During the first half of the 2006 – 07 season , Boyd scored 15 goals in 27 games in all competitions . During his time at Stevenage , Boyd earned the nickname " The White Pelé " – a nickname that has been used by fans and media since .
= = = Peterborough United = = =
Boyd made his debut for Peterborough in a 3 – 1 defeat away at Darlington in January 2007 , and scored his first goal for the club a month later in a 3 – 0 win against Wrexham . He came off the bench to score Peterborough 's equaliser in a 1 – 1 draw at home to Boston United , scoring a " superb 35 @-@ yard volley " . He netted once more in a 2 – 0 win against Notts County , as well as creating Peterborough 's second for Craig Morgan . Boyd scored his fourth goal of the season , scoring from just inside the area to give the lead away at Grimsby Town in March 2007 . He scored a total of six times for the club during the second half of the 2006 – 07 season , playing 20 games – including two goals on the final day of the season in a 3 – 3 draw with Rochdale . The following year , Boyd was instrumental in helping Peterborough to promotion to League One , scoring 15 times in 53 games . During the season , he scored his second professional hat – trick in an 8 – 2 win against Accrington Stanley . As a result , he was named in the League Two 2008 PFA Team of the Year .
Boyd scored his first goal of the 2008 – 09 season in Peterborough 's 2 – 1 loss at Bristol City . He scored again two weeks later against Hartlepool United in another 2 – 1 defeat , scoring Peterborough 's consolation goal with a " smart finish " . Boyd 's third goal of the campaign came in a 1 – 1 draw away at Northampton Town , " finishing superbly " to give Peterborough the lead after fifteen minutes . In October 2008 , Boyd netted his fourth goal of the 2008 – 09 season , scoring just after half @-@ time in a 2 – 0 victory against Leeds United . He scored one and assisted two other goals in Peterborough 's 4 – 0 win against Huddersfield Town , as well as providing the assist for Craig Mackail @-@ Smith 's goal against Hereford United . His sixth goal of the season came in Peterborough 's 2 – 1 home win against Colchester United , Boyd scoring " clinically into the bottom corner from 12 yards " . In the same game , he " carved open the defence on a number of occasions " , and once again provided the assist for Mackail @-@ Smith 's goal . Boyd scored one and set @-@ up another as Peterborough beat Cheltenham Town at Whaddon Road in December 2008 , Boyd 's goal came in the third minute of the match . A month later , he scored twice in a 4 – 2 win against Crewe Alexandra , and was described as " the two @-@ goal hero " following the match – as Boyd 's two goals proved to be the difference . He provided assists in games against Yeovil Town and Hereford United respectively , and scored his last goal of the season in a 2 – 1 away win at Hartlepool United . Boyd ended the season by providing two assists in Peterborough 's final two games of the campaign . He scored ten times in 53 games in all competitions , ensuring the club earned back – to – back promotions . Boyd was named in the League One 2009 PFA Team of the Year for the second successive year .
Boyd played in Peterborough 's first game of the 2009 – 10 season , scoring from the penalty spot in a 2 – 1 defeat to Derby County at Pride Park . Three days later , Boyd netted Peterborough 's third in the club 's 4 – 0 away win at Wycombe Wanderers . He scored his third goal of the campaign in a 2 – 1 home win against Ipswich Town , as well as scoring in the club 's 1 – 1 draw at Leicester City . His sixth of the season came in Peterborough 's 3 – 2 home victory over Reading , with Boyd scoring the club 's third goal with a backheel in injury @-@ time . In October 2009 , Boyd made a club record @-@ equalling 124th consecutive appearance , scoring a last minute equaliser against Bristol City at Ashton Gate . He subsequently broke the record three days later in a match against Doncaster Rovers , before scoring twice in the following match against Scunthorpe United . He continued his goalscoring form throughout October with a goal at Ewood Park , scoring his third goal in Peterborough 's League Cup campaign in a 5 – 2 defeat against Premier League team Blackburn Rovers . The following week , Boyd scored in a 2 – 1 defeat at home to Barnsley , as well as netting in a 2 – 2 draw against Middlesbrough shortly after . He assisted both of Peterborough 's goals in a 2 – 1 victory at home to Watford . Boyd also scored in Peterborough 's 4 – 4 draw against Cardiff City , scoring Peterborough 's third goal as the club came back from four goals down to earn a point . Upon Mark Cooper 's arrival as manager , Boyd was made team captain in January 2010 . In February 2010 , it was announced that Peterborough rejected a bid for Boyd from fellow Championship side Middlesbrough in the January transfer window . The following day , Peterborough United director of football Barry Fry confirmed that Middlesbrough were in talks over Boyd , although talks broke down after the two clubs failed to agree a fee for the player . Boyd scored a total of 12 times in 37 appearances during the 2009 – 10 season .
= = = Nottingham Forest loan = = =
In March 2010 , Boyd joined Championship side Nottingham Forest on loan until the end of the 2009 – 10 season , despite initially saying he was happy to stay at Peterborough . Peterborough chairman Darragh MacAnthony described the transfer as " one of the worst moments in his time at London Road " . Boyd made his debut for Forest in a 1 – 0 victory over Swansea City , playing the whole match . He struggled for first @-@ team appearances during his loan spell at Forest , and although it was expected that Boyd 's move to Forest was to be made permanent in the summer , new Peterborough United manager Gary Johnson suggested " there 's every chance " that Boyd could return to his parent club . Boyd made Forest 's starting eleven for the first time in almost a month on the last day of the club 's regular season ; playing in a 2 – 2 draw away at Scunthorpe United and scoring Forest 's second goal . It was to be Boyd 's last appearance of the season for Forest , as he did not play in the club 's unsuccessful play @-@ off campaign . In total , Boyd only made six appearances during his time at the club , scoring one goal .
= = = Return to Peterborough = = =
Boyd returned to his parent club ahead of the 2010 – 11 season , with Peterborough plying their trade in League One following the club 's relegation from the Championship the previous season . In July 2010 it was announced that Boyd had agreed a new three – year contract with Peterborough . On agreeing the new contract , Boyd said " I firmly believe this club is going places and I want to be a part of that " . He scored in Peterborough 's first game of the 2010 – 11 season , a 3 – 0 win against Bristol Rovers . He scored his second goal of the season in the club 's following game , netting Peterborough 's second in a 4 – 1 League Cup first round victory against Rotherham United . Boyd scored his third goal in four games in the club 's win against Huddersfield Town , as Peterborough came from two goals down to win 4 – 2 . Three days later , Boyd scored the winner in Peterborough 's 2 – 1 League Cup win against Cardiff City , as well as providing the assist for the first goal . He scored his fifth goal of the season in a 5 – 2 win against Oldham Athletic , scoring Peterborough 's third as the club came from two goals down to record three points .
Boyd scored his sixth goal of the 2010 – 11 campaign in Peterborough 's 5 – 4 win against Swindon Town in October 2010 . Two weeks later , Boyd was sent @-@ off for violent conduct in a 3 – 0 home loss to league leaders Brighton & Hove Albion , only the second time he had been red carded in his career . He returned to first @-@ team action on 16 November 2010 , playing in the club 's 4 – 1 FA Cup win over Stockport County . Boyd had to wait four months for his next goal , scoring twice against Sheffield Wednesday on 1 February 2011 . He went on to score five goals in five games throughout February and March , scoring once against Colchester United . This goal was followed by braces against Exeter City and Carlisle United respectively , although Boyd missed the chance to complete his hat @-@ trick in the latter game when he missed a 90th @-@ minute penalty . Three days later , on 15 March 2011 , Boyd scored twice against Sheffield Wednesday in a 4 – 1 victory at Hillsborough . He made it eight goals in eight games when he scored in Peterborough 's 2 – 2 away draw at Bristol Rovers . He took his goal tally to 17 for the season when he scored Peterborough 's third goal in a 5 – 0 home win against Dagenham & Redbridge on 7 May 2011 . Boyd played in all three of Peterborough 's play @-@ off fixtures , playing the whole game in the 2011 League One play @-@ off Final at Old Trafford as Peterborough beat Huddersfield Town 3 – 0 to earn promotion back to the Championship . During the club 's successful 2010 – 11 campaign , Boyd scored 17 goals in 51 appearances .
In the summer of 2011 , Peterborough rejected two bids for Boyd from Burnley . He played in the club 's first game of the 2011 – 12 season , playing the whole match as Peterborough secured a 2 – 1 victory over Crystal Palace on their return to the second tier of English football . Boyd scored his first goal of the new season just three days later , on 9 August 2011 , netting a curling free @-@ kick in extra @-@ time in an eventual 4 – 3 League Cup victory against his former club , Stevenage . This was followed by two further goals away from London Road , in games against Blackpool and Bristol City respectively . Boyd scored a rare headed goal in Peterborough 's 4 – 3 home victory against Cardiff City in October 2011 , a game in which they scored twice late @-@ on to win the match . He added a fifth to his goal tally for the season in a home loss to Barnsley on 3 December , scoring Peterborough 's first goal as they came from three goals down to tie the match at three @-@ all , although ultimately went on to lose 4 – 3 . His sixth goal of the campaign came in a 1 – 0 away win against Nottingham Forest , where Boyd had previously spent time on loan at , netting with a curling effort from 18 @-@ yards . He went on to score two further goals during the campaign , taking his end goal tally for the season to eight , making 48 appearances in all competitions as Peterborough consolidated their place in the Championship .
In April 2012 , Boyd rejected a contract extension at Peterborough with only a year to go on his current deal . Consequently , manager Darren Ferguson placed Boyd on the transfer list as part of the club 's new policy . Boyd remained transfer @-@ listed for the remainder of his time at Peterborough . Despite this , he continued to play regularly , opening the 2012 – 13 season by scoring two goals in his first three appearances . In October 2012 , Boyd scored his fourth and fifth goals of the season in a 3 – 1 home win over Huddersfield Town . His second goal during the match was a dipping volley from just inside the Huddersfield half , a goal that was described as " world @-@ class " .
In January 2013 , Peterborough rejected a bid from Nottingham Forest for Boyd , an offer that club chairman Darragh MacAnthony described as " derisory " . MacAnthony also stated that Premier League club Reading , as well as Championship rivals Crystal Palace and Millwall had " made enquiries " . He later stated that eight clubs had enquired about the player . Towards the end of the 2013 January transfer window , on 29 January , it was announced that Peterborough had accepted an offer for Boyd from fellow Championship side Crystal Palace . A day later , several other Championship sides had improved bids accepted for the player , including Nottingham Forest , who had already had bids rejected for the player earlier in the month and eventually met Peterborough 's £ 500 @,@ 000 valuation . Boyd opted to speak to Forest and agreed terms with them on 31 January , only for Forest to pull out of the deal two hours before the transfer deadline , saying that Boyd had failed a medical due to an " inconclusive eye test " .
Peterborough 's Director of football Barry Fry criticised Nottingham Forest 's owners for pulling out of the deal to sign Boyd , and chairman MacAnthony said , " I 'm devastated for George . I got a phone call off him in bits ... He said that he passed the medical then they made him do an eye test . He 's played 300 games and scored from the halfway line the other month , but Forest say he has an eyesight problem . The whole thing stinks . Alex McLeish wanted to sign him . It 's the most ridiculous thing that 's happened to me . " Peterborough subsequently said that with Boyd 's contract expiring in the summer , they would be prepared to offer him a new contract or let him leave on loan when the emergency loan window opened , with at least one club having signalled their interest in doing so .
= = = Hull City = = =
In February 2013 , Boyd joined Championship side Hull City on loan until the end of the 2012 – 13 season , with a view to a permanent move . He made his debut two days after signing , on 23 February , coming on as a second @-@ half substitute for Robert Koren in a 4 – 1 away defeat to Bolton Wanderers . Boyd 's full debut came at home in the following match a week later , as he scored twice in a 5 – 2 victory over Birmingham City . After the performance , Hull manager Steve Bruce stated — " It was a wonder show . His work @-@ rate and intelligence – he looked the real deal . I 've always been a big admirer , but I didn 't know he was that good . If he can keep performing like that then we 've got some player on our hands " . He scored in Hull 's next match at the KC Stadium later that month , in a 2 – 1 loss to Nottingham Forest , who he failed a medical at in January , netting just before half @-@ time when he flicked the ball over his shoulder with his back to goal . Boyd 's fourth goal in six games came on 30 March , scoring the only goal of the game as Hull secured a 1 – 0 away victory over Huddersfield Town , an inch perfect ball played through by Jay Simpson found Boyd on the edge of the box , who clinically fired a first time strike into the keepers ' top left corner . He played regularly for the remainder of the campaign , including in Hull 's 2 – 2 home draw with Cardiff City on the last day of the season , the game that ultimately secured the club 's promotion back to the Premier League . During his loan spell , Boyd made thirteen appearances and scored four times .
He signed for Hull on a permanent basis on 28 May 2013 , joining on a two @-@ year contract . He made his debut on the first day of the 2013 – 14 season when he came off the bench in a 2 – 0 loss away at Chelsea . On 17 May 2014 he played as a substitute in the 2014 FA Cup Final against Arsenal . This resulted in Hull qualifying for the 2014 – 15 UEFA Europa League , in their first major European competition . Boyd made his European début in the first leg of the play @-@ off round match against K.S.C. Lokeren Oost @-@ Vlaanderen .
= = = Burnley = = =
On 1 September 2014 , Burnley signed Boyd on a three @-@ year deal . On 18 October Boyd scored his first Premier League goal in a losing effort against West Ham United F.C. in a 3 – 1 defeat for the clarets . On 2 December Boyd scored his second league goal of the season in a 1 – 1 draw with Newcastle . On 28 December Boyd scored the opening goal for Burnley in a 2 – 2 draw over Manchester City . On 1 January 2015 Boyd scored the equaliser in the 86th minute in a 3 – 3 draw over Newcastle . On 14 March Boyd scored the winner against Manchester City in the 61st minute .
= = International career = =
= = = England C = = =
Boyd was called up for the England C team in October 2005 and played in a European Challenge Trophy game against Belgium U23 . He subsequently played in two more games in the same competition . He played against Italy in February 2006 . He then scored his first goal for England C in a 4 – 1 win against a Holland XI in November 2006 in the final game of the competition . Boyd made a further four appearances for Paul Fairclough 's side at the end of the 2006 – 07 campaign , before his subsequent move to Peterborough made him ineligible to play in England C matches .
= = = Scotland = = =
In April 2009 , Boyd was called up for the Scotland B side , after obtaining documentary proof that his maternal grandfather was born in Glasgow . Boyd started and subsequently scored in a 3 – 0 victory against a Northern Ireland B side , scoring the second goal of the game , giving a performance described as containing " flair and commitment " .
Boyd received his first call @-@ up to the senior side in March 2013 , when he was named in manager Gordon Strachan 's squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifiers against Wales and Serbia . Although he did not make the substitutes ' bench in Scotland 's 2 – 1 home loss to Wales , he earned his first senior cap just four days later in a 2 – 0 away defeat to Serbia on 26 March 2013 . Boyd started the match , playing the whole match at the Karađorđe Stadium in Novi Sad .
= = Style of play = =
Boyd is generally deployed as a winger , and has been used on the left @-@ wing throughout the majority of his career . He has described himself as a winger , but has stated that he prefers to play " in the hole " because the position allows him to get more time on the ball . He has expressed his willingness to " play anywhere " to help the team , believing his versatility across the midfield and attacking areas to be one of his main strong @-@ points . He said " I have played on both sides of the park and will always try my best to do a good job regardless of where the manager plays me " . Under former Peterborough United manager , Jim Gannon , Boyd was given a " free @-@ role " , essentially playing across the midfield and behind the strikers . Gannon said " if we can get him free in attacking areas he can be a great creative force " . Gannon believes that Boyd is at his best when he " is saved from doing defensive work that wingers may have to do " , and as a result , during Gannon 's short spell at Peterborough , was deployed just behind the strikers as part of a 3 – 4 – 1 – 2 formation . Boyd has also been used as a striker by manager Mark Stimson during the first @-@ half of Stevenage 's 2006 – 07 campaign . He is predominantly left @-@ footed , and scores the majority of his goals with his left @-@ foot , but is also comfortable using his right . Kieran Trippier , Boyd 's team @-@ mate at Burnley , said of Boyd : " He 's great to play with , with a good left foot and a great engine " .
During his time at Stevenage , Boyd earned the nickname " The White Pelé " – this was down to his use of tricks , as well as the amount of flair Boyd brought to the team at such a young age . Stevenage manager Graham Westley , who gave Boyd his first run of games in the first @-@ team , described Boyd as a " special talent " following his two goals away at Woking in August 2005 . Westley proceeded to call Boyd " gifted " , and a player with " fantastic technical ability " . He has been labelled a creative and flamboyant midfielder , and described as " a player who will create goalscoring opportunities all game long " . Boyd has stated that he considers assisting goals a " big part of his game " , and says " I try to create chances for other players and that gives me just as much pleasure as scoring " . Boyd 's creative nature is emphasised by the fact that he has assisted over 50 goals for Peterborough during his time at London Road . Peterborough United manager Darren Ferguson has said that Boyd " has the tendency , and ability , to score goals from long distance " , talking after Boyd 's 35 @-@ yard volley against Boston United . This was further highlighted when Boyd scored from just inside the opposition 's half in a win against Huddersfield Town in October 2012 . Boyd collected a Saido Berahino knock @-@ down , before hitting a dipping volley from the edge of the centre circle . Manager Darren Ferguson stated — " If Lionel Messi had done it you 'd be seeing it over again . For vision and execution it was one of the best I have seen " . Boyd also scored several long range goals during his time at Stevenage , scoring from outside the area on seven different occasions ; most notably on the half @-@ volley from 30 yards in a game against Cambridge United in January 2006 .
Boyd believes that he needs to work on his turn of pace and also improve his heading ability , and considers these as his main weaknesses . Former manager Darren Ferguson said " there might be those who say he lacks a little bit of pace but what he does not have in his legs he has in his head " . In his career , Boyd has only ever scored three headed goals , and says that he is much more comfortable with the ball at his feet .
= = Personal life = =
Boyd grew up in Kent , and was " first interested in becoming a footballer when he used to play football with his Dad at the local park " . After being rejected by Charlton Athletic at the age of 15 , Boyd moved to Stevenage , combining a course at North Hertfordshire College with playing football at the Hertfordshire club . During this time , Boyd worked in a sweet shop at Hitchin railway station to earn the money for his train fare to training . Boyd supports Crystal Palace , who he used to watch regularly , and states that former Palace striker Chris Armstrong was a player he aspired to play like . Boyd has a daughter , Ava , whom his partner gave birth to in March 2011 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of match played 7 May 2016 .
= = = International = = =
As of match played 28 May 2014 .
= = Honours = =
Peterborough United
Runners @-@ up ( promotion )
League Two ( 1 ) : 2007 – 08
League One ( 1 ) : 2008 – 09
Play @-@ off winner
League One ( 1 ) : 2010 – 11
Hull City
Runners @-@ up ( promotion )
Championship ( 1 ) : 2012 – 13
Individual
PFA Team of the Year ( 2 ) : 2007 – 08 , 2008 – 09
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= Hair ( Lady Gaga song ) =
" Hair " is a song recorded by American singer Lady Gaga for her second studio album , Born This Way ( 2011 ) . Written and produced by Gaga and RedOne , " Hair " was released worldwide digitally on May 16 , 2011 , as a promotional single from the album , as part of the iTunes Store 's " Countdown to Born This Way " release . This was after the previous promotional release , " The Edge of Glory " , was made the third single from the album . Nevertheless , Gaga explained that " Hair " was not planned to be a single , but may be released as one if it sells well at the iTunes Store , like " The Edge of Glory " .
According to Lady Gaga , the melody of " Hair " resembles the work of metal bands Kiss and Iron Maiden , and is also influenced by Bruce Springsteen . The song is an uptempo club record inspired by Gaga 's experience as a teenager , when her parents forced her to dress in a certain way . Gaga found that the only way to express herself was through her hair , and she described it as a song about liberation and her ability to change her ways . The lyrics talk about embracing one 's hairstyle as their ultimate expression of freedom . " Hair " was recorded while Gaga was on tour with The Monster Ball throughout Europe . The song features a saxophone solo performed by saxophonist Clarence Clemons , a prominent member of The E Street Band . She personally wanted Clemons to play saxophone on the song , which he did by recording his part at a Manhattan studio at midnight , after he had just flown there from his home in Florida .
" Hair " has been critically appreciated for its message of self @-@ liberation , individualism and empowerment , though some felt that the usage of the term hair to express these messages was not particularly new . " Hair " charted in most musical markets , reaching the top @-@ ten in New Zealand and Scotland , while in other nations , it charted within the top @-@ twenty , including the Billboard Hot 100 of the United States . Gaga performed the song on Good Morning America as part of their " Summer Concert Series " , on Paul O 'Grady Live in the United Kingdom , and on The Howard Stern Show . Later the song was added to the set list of Gaga 's second worldwide tour Born This Way Ball .
= = Background and release = =
" Hair " was written and produced by Gaga and RedOne , and the name of the song was revealed through an interview with Vogue magazine in February 2011 . On The Graham Norton Show , Gaga explained the origin of the song , which involves the analogy of her hair with freedom , and how that is the only part of her body she can change without anyone judging her . According to a press listening in February , " Hair " draws inspiration from Pat Benatar 's ' 80s classic " We Belong " , while thematically focusing on empowering lyrics similar to those of " Born This Way " . Gaga elaborated on the song 's inspiration further with a video posted on her Twitter account : " When I was a kid , I used to always come down the stairs of my parents ' house , and they would say , ' Go back upstairs and brush your hair , change your clothes , you can 't go out wearing that ' , and I felt like it was stifling my identity ... My hair was my glory . It was the only thing that I could change about myself . "
Initially " Hair " was supposed to be released as the second promotional single from Born This Way , following " The Edge of Glory " , on May 16 , 2011 . However , after its release to the digital stores , " The Edge of Glory " started selling considerable amount of digital downloads , prompting Gaga to make it the third single from Born This Way . Hence , " Hair " became the first promotional release from the album . Gaga noted that although " Hair " was not planned to be an official single , it could be released as such , if it was to sell well at the digital outlets like " The Edge of Glory " . Gaga also revealed her artwork for " Hair " on May 13 , 2011 , on her Twitter account . The black and white cover features a pink @-@ haired Gaga lying upside down on the floor in a sharp @-@ edged leather outfit , which consists of protruding nipple spikes . It was photographed by her longtime collaborator and friend Nick Knight . Later on in the same day , Gaga tweeted the line : " The Born This Way Itunes Countdown will release my song HAIR 2moro 1pm PST . " She also tweeted the line " I 'll dye living just as free as my Hair ! " , then adding that the correct word in the line should be " die " , instead of " dye " .
= = Recording and composition = =
During an interview with Ryan Seacrest on his radio program On Air With Ryan Seacrest , Gaga described " Hair " as an up @-@ tempo club record , with Bruce Springsteen overtones to it . She also revealed the involvement of Clarence Clemons playing sax on the record . Other influences included metal bands like Kiss and Iron Maiden on the melody . She revealed some of the lines of the song on Seacrest 's show , " This is my prayer , that I 'll die living just as free as my hair " , adding that the composition of " Hair " was interesting since it was juxtaposing saxophone with a dance record . In an interview with radio station Z @-@ 100 she added , " Some of those themes are explored more on this album . To put my money where my mouth is . " Gaga 's references for the saxophone solo was the music of E Street Band and Bruce Springsteen ; to her they represented a different genre of music , at the same time encompassing all the different elements of it . She ultimately decided to ask Clemons from E Street Band to play the instrument .
With Rolling Stone , Clemons described how he recorded the saxophone solo with Gaga . In January 2011 , Clemons was putting together an exercise machine in his Florida house when his wife told him that Gaga 's representatives were on the phone , and they wanted him to play on her upcoming album . Since the call was on a Friday , Clemons replied that he would be able to record it on the coming week , but Gaga was adamant to have him at the New York recording studio on that day itself . After accepting her request , Clemons went to New York and reached the recording studio in Manhattan at midnight . Gaga wanted him to play saxophone on multiple tracks , one of them being " Hair " . Before Clemons started work on the song , she explained the lyrics to him . " It made so much sense , " he said . " It 's a story about growing up . " She gave him few instructions about how to play on the song , saying " ' We 'll put the tape on and you just play . Play from your heart . Play what you feel . ' " . The recording was finished by 3 : 00 am , after a few takes . Clemons added that he was surprised for " getting paid for this . I would have done it for free . I can never believe something that feels so good earns me money . " According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , the song is written in the time signature of common time . It is composed in the key of F major , with a tempo of 135 beats per minute . Gaga 's vocals span from F3 to F5 , and the song follows a basic sequence of F – C – Dm – B ♭ as its chord progression .
" Hair " was recorded mostly while Gaga was on tour in Europe , but the mixing was done by Gene Grimaldi at Oasis Mastering in Burbank , California . It is a Hi @-@ NRG song and begins with Gaga singing the line " Whenever I dress cool , my parents put up a fight / And if I 'm a hot shot , Mom will cut my hair at night / And in the morning I 'm short of my identity / I scream , ' Mom and Dad , why can 't I be who I want to be ? " As the music grows louder , Gaga sings the sing along chorus of the song , gradually moving towards the breakdown — which is inspired by retro music — talking about the different hairstyles she has had . Jocelyn Vena from MTV described the track as a " fist @-@ pumping , defiant disco track all about having a good time . " Matthew Perpetua from Rolling Stone called it a mixture of yearning romantic melodrama of " We Belong " with the hard industrial metal edge of Broken @-@ era Nine Inch Nails . Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune felt that Gaga 's vocals are Auto @-@ Tuned throughout the song . The lyrics of " Hair " talk about embracing one 's hairstyle as the ultimate expression of their identity , hence it ends with Gaga triumphantly declaring " I am my hair ! " at the end of the final chorus .
= = Critical reception = =
" Hair " has received mostly positive reviews . An hour before starting the final leg of The Monster Ball Tour , Gaga sent four tracks to Rolling Stone , including " Scheiße " , " You and I " , and " The Edge of Glory " , for a preview . Matthew Perpetua wrote a positive review of " Hair " , describing it as another inspirational song in the mold of " Born This Way " , but felt that it was a bit weirder . Perpetua concluded the review by jokingly adding that the song will become " [ a ] n anthem for salons everywhere . " Jody Rosen from the same publication felt that " although Gaga is not the first singer to create a connection between self @-@ esteem and liberation to free @-@ flowing coiffure , she seems to be the most committed to the idea . " Dan Martin from NME classified " Hair " as an empowerment anthem , using the " simple image of the wind blowing through a person ’ s hair to illuminate the album ’ s Love @-@ Yourself @-@ And @-@ Let @-@ It @-@ All @-@ Hang @-@ Out message way more effectively than the title track . It trumps it once again by being quite the gayest thing you will ever hear for a long time . " Tim Jonze from The Guardian felt that the message of " Hair " was not particularly a new one , since the 60 's musical Hair also preached the same message . Although he described some of the lyrics as " trite " , Jonze opined that " these weaknesses can also be strengths , and there 's something admirable about the way the [ track ] address confused teenagers in search of their identity . " Writing for The Vancouver Sun , Leah Collins described the song as " a pumping anthem designed to pump up your follicles with pride . " She added that the overall feel of the song was that of retro dance music .
Natalie Finn from E ! Online was disappointed with the track , feeling that although the releases from Born This Way were not that " catchy " , all of them were about the same subject of " the importance of being ourselves . Oh well , maybe we 're just waiting for the next ' Bad Romance ' to sweep us off our feet . Or the next ' Speechless ' to make us cry . Or even the next ' Just Dance ' to really make us want to dance . " Jason Lipshultz from Billboard felt that the track was another anthem for individualism , with Gaga 's hair used as a metaphor for her wild personality . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine gave a mixed review stating that the song is a " derivative but perfectly serviceable club track about highlights that 's turned into a dumping ground for every bad idea Gaga 's had in the last 12 months : schmaltzy piano @-@ woman melodies , overwrought choruses , inexplicable sax solos . " Rick Fulton , while writing in the Daily Record , called " Hair " a " great tune " and an " Europop high @-@ energy epic " , while giving it four out of five points . Ian Hope from BBC Online described " Hair " as an " empowering freeway rocker about self expression . " The Independent writer Andy Gill compared the song to those by guitarist David Crosby , and described it as a statement of rebellious individuality . According to Los Angeles Times ' Randall Roberts , Gaga " celebrates her follicles " in the song .
= = Chart performance = =
" Hair " charted in most musical markets and its debut became its peak position ; the song was present for a maximum of two weeks . In the United Kingdom , " Hair " debuted at number 13 on the UK Singles Chart . Along with the song , Gaga 's other singles — " The Edge of Glory " , " Judas " and " Born This Way " — were all within the top twenty on the chart , making Gaga the first female artist since Ruby Murray in 1955 , to have four songs simultaneously within the top twenty . In Australia , " Hair " debuted at number 20 on the ARIA Singles Chart and was present for two weeks in the top @-@ fifty . In the Netherlands , " Hair " debuted at number 15 on the Single Top 100 chart , and at number 14 on the Irish Singles Chart .
In the United States , " Hair " debuted at number five on the Hot Digital Songs chart with first @-@ week sales of 147 @,@ 000 copies . Consequently it entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 12 , becoming the highest debuting single of the week . According to Nielsen SoundScan , " Hair " has sold 174 @,@ 000 copies of digital downloads as of January 2012 . In Canada , the song sold 15 @,@ 000 digital downloads , and entered the Canadian Hot 100 at number 11 , as the highest debut of the week . " Hair " also reached the top ten in the charts of Italy , New Zealand , Norway , Scotland and Spain , and top twenty in Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia region ) and France . Its lowest position was on the Danish Singles Chart at number 29 , and in the Gaon International download chart of South Korea , it reached a peak position of number 21 .
= = Live performances = =
On May 27 , 2011 , Gaga performed the song on Good Morning America as a part of their " Summer Concert Series " . She was dressed in purple horns and a black and blond ponytail , and was placed atop a black staircase , with her leg perched on top of a black unicorn shaped piano . Dedicating the song to her mother , Gaga sang an acoustic version of " Hair " , which Sheila Marikar from ABC News reviewed positively , saying that it " really brought the house down . " Christian Blauvelt from Entertainment Weekly was also impressed with the acoustic version , saying that " at a keyboard , Gaga 's never better at injecting enough passion and commitment to sell even the corniest lyrics about follicular empowerment . "
Gaga performed " Hair " on The Paul O 'Grady Show on June 17 , 2011 . The song was the first of the four performances planned , and Gaga opened the show with her sitting on the piano . She appeared bald but wore a teal colored fringed dress , and sang an acoustic version of " Hair " , while staring at a teal colored wig placed in front of her . The piano on which she sang was covered with brown , curly hair and she was surrounded by flames . Halfway through the performance , Gaga took the wig and placed it on her head . Ryan Love of Digital Spy had a preview of the recording of the show , and commented that when " it 's just GaGa [ sic ] on the piano , you can 't help but be impressed . " Cynthia Robinson from The Huffington Post theorized that Gaga pretending to be bald was not a " fashion statement " , instead she was " saying something about shedding that skin , that costume , that barrier that she created with all of her vaunted costumes — at least so that people know what she is inside before putting it back on . "
At French television show Taratata Gaga appeared while hanging out of the window of her limousine . She later went on the show to perform " Hair " , but changed her outfit once more . The recorded performance was released to her YouTube channel by Gaga . Air Productions , which produces the program Taratata , detected the posting of the video and notified YouTube of supposed copyright infringement on Gaga 's part . YouTube was forced to close Gaga 's official channel with the statement : " YouTube ladygagaofficial account was closed , because we have received , several instances , third @-@ party notifications informing us that many people , including the following , filed a claim for infringement of copyright : Air Productions . " Later , Air Productions issued a statement that the notification was sent in error , and they had asked Google and YouTube to rectify this ; Gaga 's account was re @-@ opened , and Taratata apologized to the singer : " Really sorry for the problem with YouTube . Everything works again ! " During her promotional performances of the songs from Born This Way in Taiwan , Gaga sang " Hair " and played the piano in a black bra , against the backdrop of many red lanterns and a red arch , a set created specially for the Taiwan show . She later explained in a press conference the inspiration behind the performance : " Like the gentleman [ the host ] just mentioned , that lantern means prosperity and it 's about the future . I 'm always thinking about the future of my generation and the voice of my generation when I write music . "
At the iHeartRadio Music Festival in Las Vegas on September 24 , 2011 , Gaga dedicated a performance of " Hair " to deceased teenager Jamey Rodemeyer , who had committed suicide after being constantly bullied by his peers at school for being gay . An image of Rodemeyer was shown on the backdrop as Gaga announced : " We lost a Little Monster this week . I wrote this record about how your identity is really all you 've got when you 're in school ... so tonight , Jamey , I know you 're up there looking at us , and you 're not a victim ... you 're a lesson to all of us . I know it 's a bit of a downer , but sometimes the right thing is more important than the music " , after which she sang a piano version of " Hair " .
The song is also included in the set list of her the 2012 Born This Way Ball Tour . To Kwaak Je @-@ yup of The Korea Times was positive about the performance of the song during the tour saying that , " The highlight of the night was her first slow jam ' Hair , ' which she introduced as her favorite track on the ' Born This Way ' album ... Playing the guitar @-@ shaped keyboard , she flubbed her line once and admitted it right away — ' I 'm getting too excited ( that ) I forgot my lines , ' she said — but the moment made the experience personal . " On the second night of Gaga 's show in the Philippines , she addressed the controversy directly before a slow @-@ tempo version of " Hair " . While playing the piano she stated that she is aware of the issues around her image and music , she emphasized that she respects all kinds of religion , people and culture – including Filipino culture . She also said that she respects that everyone is entitled to their own opinion , but stressed " What I don ’ t respect is homophobia and hatred … I reject intolerance to the gay community . " This drew cheers from the audience . She went on to say that she is aware some are using her name to spread hatred but intended to counter this by continuing to spread " positivity " in her own way .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Hair " – 5 : 08
= = Credits and personnel = =
Lady Gaga – vocals , songwriter and producer
RedOne – songwriter , producer , vocal editing , vocal arrangement , background vocals , audio engineering , instrumentation , programming and recording at Tour Bus in Europe
Trevor Muzzy – guitar , recording , vocal editing , audio engineering , audio mixing at Larrabee , North Hollywood , Los Angeles , California
Dave Russell – recording and audio engineering
Clarence Clemons – saxophone
Gene Grimaldi – audio mastering at Oasis Mastering , Burbank , California
Credits adapted from Born This Way album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
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= CD @-@ i games from The Legend of Zelda series =
Link : The Faces of Evil , Zelda : The Wand of Gamelon and Zelda 's Adventure are three action @-@ adventure games produced by Philips for the CD @-@ i as part of Nintendo 's The Legend of Zelda video game series . Not designed for Nintendo platforms , the games owe their existence to negotiations related to Nintendo 's decision not to have Philips create a CD add @-@ on to the Super NES . During these negotiations , Philips secured the rights to use Nintendo characters in CD @-@ i third @-@ party developer games . The Faces of Evil and The Wand of Gamelon were developed by Animation Magic and were both released in North America on October 10 , 1993 , and Zelda 's Adventure was developed by Viridis and was released in North America on June 5 , 1994 . The games were given little funding or time for completion , and Nintendo provided only cursory input .
The Philips CD @-@ i did not sell well and the games saw relatively small sales figures . Critical reception for all three Zelda CD @-@ i titles is unusual in that while largely positive at the time of the games ' release , they have seen nearly universal negative criticism since the mid @-@ 2000s . This is attributable to the reaction of many gamers to the obscure games ' full motion video cutscenes when they first became widely available through video @-@ sharing websites like YouTube . The cutscenes are perceived to be of poor quality . Because the aging early 1990s visual effects of the titles failed to live up to the graphic effects of the 2000s , and because for many fans this was their first experience of the games , the CD @-@ i Zelda titles have developed a critical reputation as particularly poor games in the Zelda franchise based largely on animation quality and to an extent on awkward controls . In the eyes of devout hardcore gamers , according to Edge magazine , these games are now considered " tantamount to blasphemy " .
Faces of Evil and Wand of Gamelon are played using the side @-@ scrolling view introduced in Zelda II : The Adventure of Link , while Zelda 's Adventure has a top @-@ down view reminiscent of the original The Legend of Zelda . All the CD @-@ i Zelda games begin with animated FMVs to illustrate the capabilities of the CD @-@ ROM format , save Zelda 's Adventure , which begins with live @-@ action video .
= = History = =
In 1989 , Nintendo signed a deal with Sony to begin development of a CD @-@ ROM @-@ based system known as the SNES @-@ CD ( also known as the " Nintendo PlayStation " ) to be an add @-@ on to the Super Nintendo Entertainment System that would allow for FMV and larger games . However , Nintendo broke the agreement and instead signed with Philips to make the add @-@ on , which caused Sony to spin off their add @-@ on into its own console called the PlayStation . Witnessing the poor reception of the Sega Mega @-@ CD , Nintendo scrapped the idea of making an add @-@ on entirely . As part of dissolving the agreement with Philips , Nintendo gave them the license to use five of their characters , including Link , Princess Zelda , and Ganon , for games on Philips 's console called the CD @-@ i , after the partnership 's dissolution .
Contracting out to independent studios , Philips subsequently used the characters to create three games for the CD @-@ i , with Nintendo taking no part in their development except to give input on the look of the characters based on the artwork from Nintendo 's original two titles and that of their respective instruction booklets . Philips insisted that the development studios utilize all aspects of the CD @-@ i 's capabilities including FMV , high @-@ resolution graphics , and CD @-@ quality music . Because the system had not been designed as a dedicated video game console , there were several technical limitations , such as laggy controls ( especially for the standard infrared controller ) , and numerous problems in streaming @-@ audio , memory , disc access , and graphics .
The first two games were showcased at the 1993 CES and surprised audiences with their degree of animation .
= = Video games = =
= = = Link : The Faces of Evil = = =
Paired with Zelda : Wand of Gamelon in a simultaneous release , Link : The Faces of Evil represents the first of the Zelda games to be released by Philips for the CD @-@ i . Following the traditional Link @-@ saves @-@ Zelda plotline , Faces of Evil was patterned most closely upon Nintendo 's previous side @-@ scroller , Zelda II : The Adventure of Link . The game broke new ground in the video game industry by using outsourced Russian animation to create all cutscenes , and the game received largely positive contemporary reception . Modern criticism is almost universal in its harsh negativity toward the game and the animated cutscenes have become particular targets of derision .
= = = Zelda : The Wand of Gamelon = = =
Reversing the traditional Link @-@ saves @-@ Zelda plotline , Wand of Gamelon stars Zelda as she adventures to rescue Link and her father the king who have not returned from their quest . As with Faces of Evil , the game was patterned most closely upon Nintendo 's previous side @-@ scroller , Zelda II : The Adventure of Link , and again features outsourced Russian animation for all cutscenes . Despite the game 's similarly positive contemporary reception along with Faces of Evil , modern critics have almost unanimously derided and ridiculed the game for its inability to live up to modern expectations with the animated cutscenes again having become a particular target of negative reception .
= = = Zelda 's Adventure = = =
Released nearly 8 months after the first two Zelda CD @-@ i games , Zelda 's Adventure was created by a different third @-@ party developer , Viridis . The game again follows a nontraditional Zelda @-@ saves @-@ Link plotline , but it uses a different game engine than Faces of Evil and Wand of Gamelon . Whereas the first two CD @-@ i games were patterned on the side @-@ scrolling Zelda II : The Adventure of Link , Zelda 's Adventure took the top @-@ down The Legend of Zelda as its model . Zelda 's Adventure featured FMV cutscenes , but rather than using drawn animation , the game used live @-@ action scenes . Reception for the game was poor , and whereas some modern critics have given more nuanced reviews of the first two games , modern criticism for Zelda 's Adventure is unanimously negative .
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= Flem D. Sampson =
Flemon Davis " Flem " Sampson ( January 23 , 1875 – May 25 , 1967 ) was the 42nd Governor of Kentucky , serving from 1927 to 1931 . He graduated from Valparaiso University in 1894 , and opened a law practice in Barbourville , Kentucky . He formed a political alliance with future congressmen Caleb Powers and John Robsion , both prominent Republicans in the eastern part of the state . By 1916 , he was serving on the Kentucky Court of Appeals — the state 's highest court — having previously served as a county judge and circuit court judge . In 1923 , he was elevated to chief justice of the Court of Appeals . He served until 1927 , when he became the Republican gubernatorial nominee .
The Democrats nominated former governor and senator J. C. W. Beckham to challenge Sampson . The primary issue in the campaign was whether to outlaw parimutuel betting at the state 's racetracks . Beckham favored the ban , while Sampson opposed it . A political machine known as the Jockey Club backed Sampson , and several key Democrats bolted the party after Beckham 's nomination . Sampson won the governorship by over 32 @,@ 000 votes , but every other Republican on the ticket lost by small majorities . The results suggested that some carefully coordinated vote swapping had occurred to ensure Beckham 's defeat , but none was ever proven .
Sampson 's term in office was a tumultuous one . The 1928 legislature was dominated by Democrats and was not particularly responsive to Sampson 's proposals . After the session , Sampson was indicted for accepting gifts from textbook companies , but the charges were later dropped . In 1929 , Sampson removed Democratic political boss Ben Johnson from his post as highway commissioner . When legislators reconvened in 1930 , they retaliated by stripping Sampson of many of his appointment powers and reinstalling Johnson to his post . Later in the session , Sampson proposed to allow Samuel Insull to dam the Cumberland Falls to generate hydroelectric power . The General Assembly instead voted to accept an offer from T. Coleman du Pont to purchase the falls and turn them into a state park . The Assembly voted to further restrict Sampson 's powers in 1930 . The end of Sampson 's term was complicated by the economic realities of the Great Depression . He called out the Kentucky National Guard to quell a violent mine strike in Harlan County known as the Battle of Evarts . Following his term , Sampson returned to Barbourville and was re @-@ elected as a circuit court judge . He died May 25 , 1967 and was buried in Barbourville Cemetery .
= = Early life = =
Flem Sampson was born in a log cabin near London , Kentucky in Laurel County , the ninth of ten children born to Joseph and Emoline ( Kellam ) [ a ] Sampson . He was educated in the county 's public schools and the John T. Hays school . The family moved to Barbourville , Kentucky when Sampson was thirteen .
By age sixteen , Sampson was teaching at Indian Creek School in Laurel County . He attended Union College in Barbourville , then enrolled at Valparaiso University . He was class president for three years , and earned an A.B. in 1894 . Per university policy , he was also awarded and an LL.B. because , prior to graduation , he had studied for at least one year in a law office . He returned to Kentucky and was admitted to the bar in June 1895 .
Sampson established his legal practice in Barbourville , where he became the city attorney . Caleb Powers , who had been Sampson 's college roommate , now joined him as a partner in his law firm . Powers would later be accused of complicity to the assassination of Governor William Goebel . Because Powers was convicted by a partisan jury , he became a political martyr to many Republicans , and Sampson 's connection to him became a boon in heavily Republican eastern Kentucky .
Sampson later served as president of Barbourville 's First National Bank ; he was the youngest person ever to hold the position . He also served as president of the Barbourville Water @-@ works Company . On September 20 , 1897 , [ b ] he married Susie Steele ; the couple had three daughters — Pauline , Emolyn , and Helen Katherine .
= = Political career = =
Sampson 's political career began in 1906 when he was elected county judge of Knox County , Kentucky , a position he held for four years . In 1911 , he was elected to the circuit court of the 34th Judicial District . He was re @-@ elected to this post in 1916 , but later that year , he was elected to the Kentucky Court of Appeals , then the court of last resort in Kentucky . He represented Kentucky 's Seventh Appellate District , and was elevated to chief justice on January 1 , 1923 . He was re @-@ elected to the court in 1924 .
= = = Governor of Kentucky = = =
Sampson and Congressman John M. Robsion organized a formidable Republican faction in the eastern part of Kentucky . In 1927 , Sampson was a candidate for the Republican gubernatorial nomination . His opponent was Robert H. Lucas , a tax collector for the Internal Revenue Service . Lucas secured the support of Kentucky senators Frederic M. Sackett and Richard P. Ernst , while Sampson was backed by longtime supporter John M. Robsion and the Jockey Club , a coalition of leaders who supported parimutuel betting on horse races . Sampson won the primary by a margin of 39 @,@ 375 .
The Democratic party was badly divided over the parimutuel betting issue as well as prohibition , and a severance tax on coal . The prohibitionist and anti @-@ gambling faction of the Democratic Party — with the help of Louisville Courier @-@ Journal editor Robert Worth Bingham — united to make former governor and senator J. C. W. Beckham the party 's gubernatorial nominee . Following Beckham 's nomination , many pro @-@ gambling and anti @-@ prohibition Democrats hurried to the support of Sampson . Sitting Democratic governor William J. Fields , who had been elected with help from the Jockey Club , was very passive in the campaign and refused to support Beckham .
The campaign was particularly contentious . Sampson contrasted his humble roots with Beckham 's aristocratic ones , declaring " I 'm just plain old Flem . When I 'm elected governor of Kentucky , come into my office and sit down and say ' Howdy Flem ' . " He also trumpeted his own moral purity , claiming he " never smoked , chewed , drank , gambled – not even bet on an election . " He promised , however , to protect horse racing in the Commonwealth . In response , Sampson 's opponents dubbed him " Flem @-@ Flam Flem " .
Sampson won the election by a majority of over 32 @,@ 000 votes , although every other Republican candidate lost by small margins . In the lieutenant governor 's race , Democrat James Breathitt , Jr. defeated Sampson 's running mate , E. E. Nelson , by 159 votes out of more than 700 @,@ 000 cast . It was estimated that the Jockey Club spent half a million dollars to defeat Beckham and the large majority for Sampson versus the close defeat of all other Republican candidates suggested some type of fraud , although none was ever proven .
During the 1928 legislative session , it became clear that the bipartisan support shown for Sampson had been one of political convenience rather than true conviction . Among the minor accomplishments of the session were the creation of the Kentucky Progress Commission ( the forerunner of the State Department of Commerce ) and the adoption of " My Old Kentucky Home " as the state song . The Democratic General Assembly sanctioned Sampson 's plan for free textbooks , but did not fund it . Proposals to ban parimutuel betting and the teaching of evolution in the state 's schools were both defeated . Kentucky historian James C. Klotter called the 1928 legislative session " almost a ' do @-@ nothing ' session " . Following the session , a grand jury indicted Sampson for accepting gifts from the textbook companies , but the indictment was eventually dismissed .
The first major controversy of Sampson 's administration was over the selection of the state 's highway commissioner . The Highway Department employed over ten thousand people and spent nearly 45 % of the state 's budget . Legislators ' votes could often be bought with promises of new road construction in their districts . Thus , the department became a primary vehicle for dispensing patronage to political supporters . Sampson 's predecessor , Governor Fields , had chosen retired congressman and Democratic political boss Ben Johnson to head the department , and Sampson had agreed to retain him in exchange for his support against Beckham . However , Sampson felt that such a powerful position could not be left in the hands of a Democrat , and he removed Johnson from office in December 1929 .
Democrats in the General Assembly were outraged . When the 1930 legislative session convened , they immediately passed a bill that stripped Sampson of his power to appoint a highway commissioner , giving it to a three @-@ person commission composed of the governor , lieutenant governor , and attorney general . The Republican Sampson would be outnumbered and outvoted in this group . Confident that the Democrats would not lose another gubernatorial election , Democratic legislators stipulated in the bill that the appointment power would return to the governor in 1931 , the end of Sampson 's term . The law passed the House by a vote of 53 — 42 and the Senate by a vote of 22 — 15 . Sampson vetoed the bill , but the veto was overridden , and Johnson was returned to his former position .
Sampson also made enemies when he backed Samuel Insull 's plan to dam the Cumberland Falls to generate hydroelectric power . An ally of the traditional southern power groups — the utility companies and textbook manufacturers — Sampson cited the jobs to be gained from the plan . The plan was opposed conservationists in the state and by most of the state 's newspapers . An alternate plan was proposed by Louisville @-@ born millionaire and Delaware senator T. Coleman du Pont , who offered to purchase the falls for $ 230 @,@ 000 and turn it into a state park . The General Assembly passed legislation giving the state park commission the right of eminent domain over the falls , then voted to accept the du Pont 's offer . Sampson vetoed the Assembly 's action , but his veto was overridden .
Sampson 's agenda for the 1930 session was lost in the fights over Ben Johnson and Cumberland Falls . His calls for funding the free textbook program , compulsory sterilization of the mentally ill , and restrictions on chain stores were ignored . Instead , the legislature continued eroding his gubernatorial powers , including the power to appoint members of the textbook commission . With nearly all of the governor 's powers stripped away and given to a three @-@ person commission , Lieutenant Governor James Breathitt , Jr. became the de facto governor for the remainder of Sampson 's term . The General Assembly pursued its own agenda , passing a mandatory driver 's license law , a revised election law , and a sales tax on retail stores . They also allocated funding for the purchase of what would become Mammoth Cave National Park . Sampson vetoed 12 bills during the 1930 session , but the legislature overrode 11 of them .
With the onset of the Great Depression , Sampson worked to control government costs , but endorsed highway progression . A severe drought in 1930 left 86 of Kentucky 's counties applying for federal aid . As unemployment in the eastern coal fields climbed to 40 percent , the United Mine Workers made their first inroads in the region . In 1931 , mine owners began firing workers who joined the union . Many of these workers gathered in Evarts , Kentucky . The local sheriff added 26 deputies to his staff , helping enforce the blacklisting of these miners and discourage further organization . Union leaders petitioned Sampson to remove the sheriff and the county judge from office . Violent squabbles between striking union miners and local authorities began as early as mid @-@ April 1931 . On May 5 , 1931 , three guards and a miner were killed in a shootout that became known as the Battle of Evarts . Two days later , Sampson called in the National Guard to disarm both the mine guards and the union miners . All of the union 's leaders were arrested , and the strike ultimately failed .
= = = Later political career = = =
Following his term as governor , Sampson returned to his legal practice in Barbourville , and was elected as a circuit court judge . In 1940 , he once again sought election to the Kentucky Court of Appeals , but was defeated in the Republican primary by Eugene Siler . In 1957 , he was appointed to the Citizens ' Advisory Highway Committee , and was awarded the Governor 's Medallion for distinguished public service in 1959 .
At the age of ninety @-@ one , Sampson served on the State Constitutional Revision Committee . He died in Pewee Valley , Kentucky on May 25 , 1967 , and was buried at the Barbourville Cemetery .
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= Mark Hatfield =
Mark Odom Hatfield ( July 12 , 1922 – August 7 , 2011 ) was an American politician and educator from the state of Oregon . A Republican , he served for 30 years as a United States Senator from Oregon , and also as chairman of the Senate Appropriations Committee . A native Oregonian , he served in the United States Navy in the Pacific Theater during World War II after graduating from Willamette University . After the war he earned a graduate degree from Stanford University before returning to Oregon and Willamette as a professor .
While still teaching , Hatfield served in both houses of the Oregon Legislative Assembly . He won election to the Oregon Secretary of State 's office at the age of 34 and two years later was elected as the 29th Governor of Oregon . He was the youngest person to ever serve in either of those offices , and served two terms as governor before election to the United States Senate . In the Senate he served for 30 years , and now holds the record for longest tenure of any Senator from Oregon . At the time of his retirement , he was 7th most senior Senator as well as second most senior Republican . In 1968 , he was considered a candidate to be Richard Nixon 's running mate for the Republican Party presidential ticket .
Hatfield served as Chairman of the Senate Committee on Appropriations on two different occasions . With this role , he was able to direct funding to Oregon and research @-@ related projects . Several Oregon institutions , buildings and facilities are named in his honor , including the Mark O. Hatfield United States Courthouse in Portland , the Mark O. Hatfield Library at Willamette University ( his alma mater ) , the Hatfield Government Center light @-@ rail station in Hillsboro , the Mark O. Hatfield School of Government in the College of Urban and Public Affairs at Portland State University , and the Hatfield Marine Science Center in Newport . Outside of Oregon , a research center at the National Institutes of Health is also named in his honor for his support of medical research while in the Senate . Hatfield died in Portland on August 7 , 2011 , after a long illness .
= = Early life = =
Hatfield was born in Dallas , Oregon , on July 12 , 1922 , the only son of Dovie E. ( Odom ) Hatfield , a schoolteacher , and Charles Dolen Hatfield , a blacksmith for the Southern Pacific Railroad . Mark 's father was from California and his mother from Tennessee . When Mark was five years old , his maternal grandmother took over the household while his mother , Dovie attended Oregon State College ( now Oregon State University ) and graduated with a teaching degree after four years . Dovie taught school in Dallas for two years before the family moved to Salem , where she taught junior high school .
Encouraged by his mother , Hatfield 's first experience with politics came at the age of 10 , when he campaigned in his neighborhood for President Herbert Hoover 's 1932 re @-@ election campaign . In the late 1930s Hatfield worked as a tour guide at the new Oregon State Capitol Building in Salem , using his key to enter the governor 's office , where he sat in the governor 's chair .
On June 10 , 1940 , the 17 @-@ year @-@ old Hatfield , driving his mother 's car , struck and killed a pedestrian , Alice Marie Lane , as she crossed the street . Hatfield was not held criminally liable for the crash , but was found civilly liable to the family . The case made its way to the Oregon Supreme Court in 1943 , with the court affirming the trial court 's decision .
Hatfield graduated from Salem High School ( now North Salem High School ) in 1940 and then enrolled at Willamette University , also in Salem . While attending Willamette , Hatfield became a brother of Alpha Phi Omega and Kappa Gamma Rho , which he later helped become a chapter of Beta Theta Pi . In college he also worked part @-@ time for then Oregon Secretary of State Earl Snell , where he learned how to build a political base by sending out messages to potential voters after reading about life changes posted in newspapers , such as deaths and graduations . He also sketched out a political career path beginning with the state legislature and culminating in a spot in the United States Senate , with a blank for any position beyond the Senate . Hatfield graduated from Willamette in 1943 with a Bachelor of Arts degree after three years at the school . While at the school he lost his only election , for student body president .
Hatfield joined the U.S. Navy after graduation , taking part in the World War II battles at Iwo Jima and Okinawa as a landing craft officer where he witnessed the carnage of the war . A lieutenant , he also witnessed the effects of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima , as one of the first Americans to see the ruins of the city ( later , as Senator , Hatfield opposed arms proliferation and the Vietnam War ) . After Japan , he served in French Indochina , where he witnessed firsthand the wealth divide between the peasant Vietnamese and the colonial French bourgeoisie . After his discharge , he spent one year at Willamette ’ s law school , but decided politics or teaching better suited him .
Hatfield then enrolled at Stanford University , where he obtained a master 's degree in political science in 1948 . He returned to Salem and Willamette after Stanford and began working as an assistant professor in political science . During his tenure as professor , he built a political base by sending out messages and speaking at any public forum where he could get an invitation .
= = Political career = =
Mark Hatfield 's career in public office spanned five decades as he held office in both the legislative and executive branches of Oregon 's state government , including two terms as governor . On the national stage he became the longest serving U.S. Senator from Oregon and a candidate for the Republican Vice Presidential nomination in 1968 . In the U.S. Senate he would twice serve as chairman of the Appropriations Committee , and twice be investigated for possible ethics violations .
= = = Oregon = = =
In 1950 while teaching political science and serving as dean of students at Willamette , Hatfield began his political career by winning election to the Oregon House of Representatives as a Republican . He defeated six others for the seat at a time when state assembly elections were still determined by county @-@ wide votes . He served for two terms representing Marion County and Salem in the lower chamber of the Oregon Legislative Assembly . At the time he was the youngest legislator in Oregon and still lived at his parents ' home . Hatfield would teach early @-@ morning classes and then walk across the street to the Capitol to legislate .
In 1952 he won re @-@ election to his seat in the Oregon House . He also received national attention for his early support for coaxing Dwight D. Eisenhower to run for President of the United States as a Republican . This earned him a spot as a delegate at the Republican National Convention that year .
While in college he saw firsthand the discrimination against African Americans in Salem when he was tasked by his fraternity after a dinner with driving their guest , Black artist Paul Robeson back to Portland , as African Americans were prohibited from staying in hotels in Salem . In 1953 , he introduced and passed legislation in the House that prohibited discrimination based on race in public accommodations before federal legislation and court decisions did so on a national level . In 1954 , Hatfield ran and won a seat in the Oregon State Senate representing Marion County . While in the legislature , he continued to apply the grassroots strategy he learned from Earl Snell , but expanded it to cover the entire state to increase his political base .
After serving in the state senate , he became the youngest secretary of state in Oregon history after winning election in 1956 at age 34 . Hatfield defeated fellow state senator Monroe Sweetland for the office , receiving 51 @.@ 3 % of the vote in the November general election . He took office on January 7 , 1957 , and remained until he resigned on January 12 , 1959 .
For his first run for Governor of Oregon in 1958 , the Republican Party opposed his candidacy going into the primary election . The large political base he had cultivated allowed him to win the party 's primary despite the party 's opposition . In the primary he defeated Oregon State Treasurer Sig Unander for the Republican nomination . In July 1958 , after the primary election , Hatfield married Antoinette Kuzmanich , a counselor at Portland State College ( now Portland State University ) . The marriage during the campaign drew some attention as the Catholic Kuzmanich converted to Hatfield 's Baptist religion . The couple would have four children : Elizabeth , Mark Jr . , Theresa and Vincent ( " Visko " ) . He continued his campaign for the governor 's office after the wedding , but avoided most public appearances with fellow Republican candidates for office and did not mention them during his campaign , despite requests by other Republicans for joint appearances .
In the November general election Hatfield faced Democratic incumbent Robert D. Holmes . In the final days of the campaign U.S. Senator Wayne Morse , a Democrat , implied Hatfield lied in his trial regarding the deadly car accident when he was 17 . This tactic backfired as the press denounced the comments , as did Holmes and other Democrats . Hatfield defeated Holmes , winning 55 @.@ 3 % of the vote in the election . That same election saw the Democratic Party gain a majority in both chambers of the state legislature for the first time since 1878 . Holmes ' defeat was attributed in part to the image and charisma portrayed by Hatfield and in part due to the campaign issues such as the declining economy , increased taxation , capital punishment , labor , and education . After the election , Holmes attempted to appoint David O 'Hara as Secretary of State to replace Hatfield , who would have to resign to become governor . Hatfield appointed Howell Appling , Jr. to the office , and O 'Hara challenged the appointment in state court . The Oregon Supreme Court ruled in favor of Hatfield on the constitutional issue , with the appointment of Appling confirmed . He was the youngest governor in the history of Oregon at that point in time at the age of 36 .
In 1962 Hatfield had been considered a possible candidate to run against Morse for his Senate seat , but Hatfield instead ran for re @-@ election . He faced Oregon Attorney General Robert Y. Thornton in the general election , winning with 345 @,@ 497 votes to Thorton 's 265 @,@ 359 . He became the state 's first two @-@ term governor in the 20th century when he was re @-@ elected in 1962 , and later became only the second governor up to that point in the state 's history to serve two full @-@ terms .
Hatfield gave the keynote speech at the 1964 Republican National Convention in San Francisco that nominated Barry Goldwater and served as temporary chairman of the party during the convention . He advocated a moderate approach for the party and opposed the extreme conservatism associated with Goldwater and his supporters . He also was the only governor to vote against a resolution by the National Governors ' Conference supporting the Johnson Administration 's policy on the Vietnam War , as Hatfield opposed the war , but pledged " unqualified and complete support " for the troops . He preferred the use of economic sanctions to end the war .
Hatfield was a popular Governor who supported Oregon 's traditional industries of timber and agriculture , but felt that in the postwar era expansion of industry and funding for transportation and education needed to be priorities . While governor he worked to begin the diversification of the state 's economy , such as recruiting industrial development and holding trade missions . As part of the initiative , he helped to found the Oregon Graduate Center in what is now the Silicon Forest in Washington County in 1963 . A graduate level school in the Portland area ( Portland State was still a college with no graduate programs at this time ) was seen by business leaders as essential to attracting new industries and by Tektronix as needed to retain highly skilled workers . In lieu of the standard portrait for former governors , Hatfield is represented by a marble bust at the Oregon State Capitol .
= = = National = = =
Limited to two terms as governor , Hatfield announced his candidacy in the 1966 U.S. Senate election for the seat vacated by the retiring Maurine Neuberger . During the Vietnam War , and during an election year , he was the only person to vote against a resolution by a governors ' conference that expressed support for the U.S. involvement in the war in 1966 . At that time the war was supported by 75 percent of the public , and was also supported by Hatfield 's opponent in the November election . He won the primary election with 178 @,@ 782 votes compared to a combined 56 @,@ 760 votes for three opponents . Hatfield then defeated Democratic Congressman Robert Duncan in the election . In order to finish his term as governor , which ended on January 9 , 1967 , he delayed taking his oath of office in the Senate until January 10 instead of the usual January 3 .
Hatfield 's re @-@ election victory for governor in 1962 and successful Senate campaign in 1966 made him something of a national figure . In 1968 , Hatfield was on Richard Nixon 's short list for vice president , and received the strong backing of his friend , the Rev. Billy Graham . Hatfield was considered too liberal by many conservatives and Southern moderates , and Nixon chose the more centrist Maryland Governor Spiro Agnew . Hatfield would later find himself at odds with Nixon over Vietnam and other issues , including a threat by Hatfield to reduce funding for the White House 's legal department in 1973 during the Watergate Scandal , after Nixon had failed to use funds appropriated for renovating dams on the Columbia River .
As a senator Hatfield took positions that made him hard to classify politically . In the Summer of 1969 , he had told Murray Rothbard that he had " committed himself to the cause of libertarianism . " Rothbard remarked concerning Hatfield , " obviously his voting record is not particularly libertarian — it 's very good on foreign policy and the draft , but it 's not too great on other things " , adding that " in the abstract , at least , he is very favorable to libertarianism . " Hatfield was pro @-@ life on the issues of abortion and the death penalty , though as governor he chose not to commute the sentence of a convicted murderer and allowed that execution to go forward . As a prominent evangelical Christian , he opposed government @-@ sponsored school prayer and supported civil rights for minorities .
In 1970 , with Senator George McGovern ( D @-@ South Dakota ) , he co @-@ sponsored the McGovern @-@ Hatfield Amendment , which called for a complete withdrawal of U.S. troops from Vietnam . In 1973 he explained to the Eugene Register @-@ Guard his " Neighborhood Government Act " which he repeatedly introduced in congress . It would have permitted Americans to divert their personal federal tax money from Washington to their local community . He explained that his long @-@ term goal was to have all social services provided at the neighborhood level .
In 1981 , Hatfield served as the chairman of the Congressional Joint Committee on Presidential Inaugurations , overseeing the first inauguration of Ronald Reagan in January of that year .
In the 1980s , Hatfield co @-@ sponsored nuclear freeze legislation with Senator Edward M. Kennedy , as well as co @-@ authoring a book on the topic . He also advocated for the closure of the N @-@ Reactor at the Hanford Nuclear Site in the 1980s , though he was a supporter of nuclear fusion programs . The N @-@ Reactor was used for producing weapons grade plutonium while producing electricity .
Hatfield frequently broke with his party on issues of national defense and foreign policy , such as military spending and the ban on travel to Cuba , while often siding with them on environmental and conservation issues . Senator Hatfield supported increased logging on federal lands . He was the lone Republican to vote against the 1981 fiscal year 's appropriations bill for the Department of Defense . He was rated as the sixth most respected senator in a 1987 survey by fellow senators . In 1990 , Hatfield voted against authorizing military action against Iraq in the Gulf War , one of only two members of his party to do so in the Senate .
Sometimes referred to as " Saint Mark " , Hatfield enjoyed warm relations with members of both Republican and Democratic parties . In 1984 , columnist Jack Anderson revealed that Mrs. Hatfield , a realtor , had been paid $ 50 @,@ 000 in fees by Greek arms dealer Basil Tsakos . Tsakos had been lobbying Senator Hatfield , then Appropriations Chairman , for funding for a $ 6 billion trans @-@ African pipeline . The Hatfields apologized and donated the money to a Portland hospital . In 1991 , it was revealed that Hatfield had failed to report a number of expensive gifts from the president of the University of South Carolina , James B. Holderman . Again , he apologized . The Senate 's Ethics Committee rebuked Hatfield for the latter , but cleared him of any wrongdoing for the 1984 incident . Hatfield received a rebuke from the Senate after the Ethics Committee investigated two gifts that he had received in the form of forgiven loans from a former congressman and a California businessman .
His final re @-@ election campaign came in 1990 against businessman Harry Lonsdale . Lonsdale aggressively went after Hatfield with television attack ads that attacked Hatfield as out of touch on issues such as abortion and timber management and accused the incumbent of being too closely allied with special interest groups in Washington . Lonsdale 's tactics moved him even with , and then ahead of Hatfield in some polls . Hatfield , who had typically stayed above the fray of campaigning , was forced to respond in kind with attack ads of his own . He raised $ 1 million in a single month after trailing Lonsdale in the polls before the November election . He defeated the Democrat with 590 @,@ 095 ( 53 @.@ 7 percent ) votes to 507 @,@ 743 ( 46 @.@ 2 percent ) votes .
In 1993 , he became the longest @-@ serving senator from Oregon , surpassing the record of 9 @,@ 726 days in office previously held by Charles McNary . In 1995 , Hatfield was the only Republican in the Senate to vote against the proposed balanced budget amendment , and was the deciding vote that prevented the passage of the bill . In 1996 the National Historical Publications and Records Commission , a group he served on previously , granted him their Distinguished Service Award .
Senator Hatfield retired in 1996 after more than 46 years of political service , having won all eleven political campaigns he entered . During his tenure he gained billions of dollars in the form of federal appropriations for projects in Oregon . This included funding for transportation projects , environmental protection of wilderness areas and scenic rivers , research facilities , and health care facilities .
= = Later years and legacy = =
After retiring from political office , he returned to Oregon and teaching , joining the faculty of George Fox University in Newberg , Oregon . As of 2006 , he was the Herbert Hoover Emeritus Distinguished Professor of Politics at the school . Additionally , he taught at the Hatfield School of Government at Portland State University , which is named in his honor , and lectured at Willamette University and Lewis & Clark College while living in Portland .
In July 1999 , Hatfield and his wife were passengers on a tour bus when a car collided with the bus . He and his wife received minor injuries , but began advocating for buses to be required to have seat belts .
The Mark O. Hatfield Library at Willamette is dedicated to him , along with Oregon State University 's Hatfield Marine Science Center . Other namesakes include the Mark O. Hatfield Clinical Research Center at the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda , Maryland ; Hatfield Research Center at Oregon Health & Science University ( OHSU ) ; the Mark O. Hatfield Wilderness , Mark O. Hatfield Institute for International Understanding at Southwestern Oregon Community College ; Hatfield Government Center station at the western terminus of the MAX Blue Line light rail ; Mark O. Hatfield United States Courthouse in Portland ; the Mark Hatfield trailhead at the western end of the Historic Columbia River Highway State Trail in the Columbia River Gorge ; and the Mark Hatfield Award for clinical research in Alzheimer 's disease . Work is underway to start a Mark O. Hatfield Memorial Trail in the Columbia River Gorge , a 60 @-@ mile trail through much of the Mark O. Hatfield Wilderness area .
From February 2000 to May 2008 Hatfield served on the board of directors for Oregon Health & Science University . His papers and book collection are stored in the Willamette University Archives and Special Collections , inside the Mark O. Hatfield Library . Senator Hatfield merited his own chapter in Tom Brokaw 's The Greatest Generation .
In 2010 , a group of filmmakers began production on a documentary film about Hatfield 's public service .
Hatfield was admitted to the Mark O. Hatfield Clinical Research hospital at the National Institutes of Health in Maryland in November 2010 for observation after his health began to decline . Mark Hatfield died at a care facility in Portland on August 7 , 2011 , after several years of illness . A specific cause of death was not immediately given .
= = Works authored = =
A selection of items Hatfield authored or contributed to :
= = = Author = = =
Not Quite So Simple ( 1968 ) , OCLC 439212
Conflict and Conscience ( 1971 ) , ISBN 0 @-@ 87680 @-@ 811 @-@ 9
Between a Rock and a Hard Place ( 1976 ) , ISBN 0 @-@ 87680 @-@ 427 @-@ X
Against the Grain : Reflections of a Rebel Republican ( 2000 ) , ISBN 1 @-@ 883991 @-@ 36 @-@ 6
= = = Contributor = = =
Amnesty ? : The Unsettled Question of Vietnam ( 1973 ) , ISBN 0 @-@ 8467 @-@ 0000 @-@ X
Social Power and Political Freedom ( 1980 ) , ISBN 0 @-@ 87558 @-@ 093 @-@ 9 ( introduction )
Freeze ! How You Can Help Prevent Nuclear War ( 1982 ) , ISBN 0 @-@ 553 @-@ 14077 @-@ 9 ( with Edward Kennedy )
Real Christianity ( 1982 ) , ISBN 1 @-@ 55661 @-@ 832 @-@ 8 ( introduction )
What About the Russians : A Christian Approach to US @-@ Soviet Conflict ( 1984 ) , ISBN 0 @-@ 87178 @-@ 751 @-@ 2
Vice Presidents of the United States : 1789 – 1993 ( 1997 ) , ISBN 0 @-@ 614 @-@ 31201 @-@ 9 ( editor )
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= Andrei Kirilenko ( politician ) =
Andrei Pavlovich Kirilenko ( Russian : Андре ́ й Па ́ влович Кириле ́ нко ; IPA : [ ɐnˈdrʲej ˈpavləvʲɪtɕ kʲɪrʲɪˈlʲɛnkə ] ; 8 September [ O.S. 26 August ] 1906 – 12 May 1990 ) was a Soviet statesman from the start to the end of the Cold War . In 1906 , Kirilenko was born at Alexeyevka in Belgorod Oblast to a Ukrainian working @-@ class family . He graduated in the 1920s from a local vocational school , and again in the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1930s from the Rybinsk Aviation Technology Institute . He became a member of the All @-@ Union Communist Party ( bolsheviks ) in 1930 . As many like him , Kirilenko climbed up the Soviet hierarchy through the " industrial ladder " ; by the 1960s , he was Vice @-@ Chairman of the Bureau of the Central Committee of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic ( RSFSR ) . After Nikita Khrushchev 's forced resignation , Kirilenko became Leonid Brezhnev 's " chief lieutenant " within the Central Committee .
His main objective was to ensure Brezhnev 's power base and , if possible , to strengthen Brezhnev 's position within the Party . He was the first organisational secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ( CPSU ) from Khrushchev 's ouster to the death of Leonid Brezhnev . Kirilenko was responsible for personnel selection and detailed supervision of the economic planning of the CPSU during most of the Brezhnev Era . In 1976 , Brezhnev appointed Konstantin Chernenko to be his " counterweight " in the Central Committee ( CC ) . He became a member of the Political Bureau ( Politburo ) in 1965 . He was forced to resign from active politics due to health reasons and because Yuri Andropov was appointed to the General Secretaryship . When Andropov became General Secretary in 1982 , Kirilenko was pushed aside . He died on 12 May 1990 in Moscow .
= = Early life and career = =
Andrei Kirilenko was born on 8 September 1906 in the village of Alexeyevka , Belgorod Oblast , in the Russian Empire , to a working @-@ class family . As a young boy , he worked as an electrician and a locksmith . In 1920 , Kirilenko graduated from one of the local schools ; five years later , he graduated from the Alekseevskii vocational technical school . In the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1920s , Kirilenko started working for a mining enterprise located in the Voronezh Oblast . He became an active member of Komsomol in 1929 and , two years later , became a member of the All @-@ Union Communist Party . In 1936 , he graduated from the Rybinsk Aviation Technology Institute . He started working as a design engineer for the aircraft factory , Zaporizhia Engine Plant . In 1938 , Kirilenko became an active participant in party politics and was eventually selected to the position of Second Secretary of the Voroshilov District Party Committee in Zaporozhye Oblast . The following year , he was voted in as First Secretary . Later that year he was appointed to Second Secretary of the Zaporizhzhya Regional Party Committee of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic . In this role , Kirilenko made significant contributions to the development of metallurgical and electrical engineering , but also other sorts of industry .
During the Great Patriotic War , Kirilenko was directly involved with evacuating industry to safe zones . From 1941 to 1943 , he was a member of the Military Soviet of the 18th Army of the Southern Front . He contributed by improving discipline among soldiers as well as improving the materiel support for the troops . In 1943 , Kirilenko was relocated to Moscow , and during his stay there the production of advanced aircraft increased rapidly . By the end of the war , in 1944 , Kirilenko was made First Secretary of the Zaporizhzhya Regional Party . He succeeded Leonid Brezhnev , future Soviet leader , as First Secretary of the Dnepropetrovsk Regional Party Committee . From 1955 to 1962 , he was First Secretary of the Sverdlovsk Regional Party Committee ; he was appointed by Nikita Khrushchev himself to take charge of economic planning and personnel selection in urban areas of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic ( RSFSR ) . Kirilenko was later promoted to Khrushchev 's Vice @-@ Chairman of the Bureau of the Central Committee . Brezhnev benefited from Kirilenko 's position , Brezhnev used him to win over supporters of his conspiracy against Khrushchev .
= = Brezhnev era = =
= = = Rise to prominence = = =
Immediately after Khrushchev 's ouster , a " collective leadership " had been formed with Brezhnev as First Secretary , Alexei Kosygin as head of government and Anastas Mikoyan ( replaced in 1965 by Nikolai Podgorny ) as head of state . Central Committee Secretaries Mikhail Suslov and Kirilenko were also a part of the collective leadership . In 1962 , Kirilenko became a voting member of the Political Bureau ( Politburo ) . In 1966 , the Bureau of the Central Committee of the RSFSR was abolished , and Kirilenko became Brezhnev 's chief lieutenant . Vadim Medvedev , a Soviet official , said Kirilenko 's chief concern was maintaining and strengthening Brezhnev 's position within the Party . Men who were loyal to Brezhnev were also loyal to Kirilenko .
Konstantin Chernenko , another old Brezhnev protégé , became a " counterweight " to Kirilenko 's power within the Central Committee ( CC ) . Before Chernenko 's rise in the Soviet hierarchy , Kirilenko provided detailed supervision of new party personnel and the economy . When Chernenko came on board in 1976 , Kirilenko supervised the economy . By the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1970s , Kirilenko 's health was beginning to decline , and his memory weakened . Despite his failing health , he was still a high @-@ standing member , and he usually presided over the meetings of the Secretariat when Suslov was not around . First World representatives treated Kirilenko as Second Secretary of the Communist Party because most of his duties as organisational secretary had been associated with that office in the past . He was never Second Secretary , though Suslov was . During most of his term , Kirilenko was one of four who had both a seat in the Secretariat and Politburo ; the three others were Brezhnev , Suslov and Fyodor Kulakov .
By 1976 Kirilenko 's position within the Soviet leadership had grown to such an extent that leading officials , such as Brezhnev and Suslov , were beginning to worry about his " organisational tail " in the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic ( RSFSR ) . His supervisory responsibilities led many of his colleagues to view him as a threat to the Party Organisational Work Department of the Central Committee – the Central Committee department overseeing the civilian economy and the military @-@ industrial complex . His position was weakened drastically by the end of the year , his weakened position did not lead to a strengthening of the Collective leadership but to the weakening of it .
= = = Later career and resignation = = =
As with Kosygin , Kirilenko 's leading position in the Soviet leadership was in " limbo " due to his support for economic reform to countenance the country 's stagnating economy . Kirilenko grew increasingly estranged with Brezhnev in 1977 , some believe that it was due to the growing economic hardship that faced the Soviet Union . It is said that the two argued over resource allocation and on how to modernise the ailing economy . However , the most common explanation is that Kirilenko grew estranged was because of his weakened position within the Collective leadership .
Kirilenko led the Soviet delegation to the December 1977 MPLA Party Congress . At this congress , MPLA officially subscribed to the doctrine of Marxist @-@ Leninism . This congress was important to the Soviet Union , and Kirilenko compared Angola 's development with that of Vietnam . Kirilenko , along with Premier Kosygin , had been one of the most vocal opponents to a Soviet intervention in Afghanistan . He blamed the Afghan Party leadership for the rebellion against them , claiming that the Soviets " gave them everything . " He also disliked it when the Afghan leadership tried to justify their murderous actions on the grounds that Vladimir Lenin also did it .
Kirilenko was seen as a possible candidate for the post of First Deputy Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet in 1977 , however , First World observers tended to overrate the significance of the office , and because of it , their observation were completely off the mark . Vasili Kuznetsov , a 76 @-@ year @-@ old man , was chosen to the office of First Deputy Chairman instead . During Brezhnev 's later rule , KGB chairman Yuri Andropov gradually took over the functions and , eventually , Kirilenko 's position within the Soviet leadership . In 1979 , Kirilenko lost his unofficial office as supervisor of the defence industry over to Pavel Finogenov , a protegë of Dmitriy Ustinov . Kirilenko was seen as a key candidate by the West to replace Brezhnev as Soviet leader in 1982 . After Brezhnev 's death , Kirilenko was removed from the ruling Politburo by the new General Secretary Andropov . With his deteriorating health , having a disease known as arteriosclerosis , Kirilenko was disabled from ensuing active politics or protecting himself from Andropov 's attacks . After Brezhnev 's death and funeral , Kirilenko 's mental condition deteriorated to where he could not remember the names of several leading Politburo members . He was unable to write properly during his later life ; when asked by Andropov to write a letter of resignation in 1982 , he was unable to do so . The decision to remove Kirilenko was taken before Andropov rose to power , so in the event Brezhnev had died later , Kirilenko would still have been forced to resign . The reason for the decision was that Kirilenko 's son had tried to defect to the United Kingdom .
= = Later life , death and recognition = =
When compared to other Soviet politicians who shared the same fate , Kirilenko 's downfall was , according to historian R. Judson Mitchell , a " relatively easy " fall from power . At Brezhnev 's lying @-@ in @-@ state and subsequent funeral , he was allowed to stand next besides Brezhnev 's family even if he wasn 't a member of the Soviet leadership at the time . Kirilenko made his last public appearance in 1983 , and was given an honorary retirement the same year . Mitchell believes that Andropov gave Kirilenko the honorary retirement so that he could win over Kirilenko 's " organisational tail " , literally Kirilenko 's appointees to top @-@ ranking offices during his years in service . He lived the rest of his life in Moscow and died on 12 May 1990 . He was buried at the Troyekurovskoye Cemetery . During his lifetime , he was awarded the Hero of Socialist Labour twice , and he received six Orders of Lenin and one Order of the October Revolution .
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= Cockroach =
Cockroaches are insects of the order Blattodea , which also includes termites . About 30 cockroach species out of 4 @,@ 600 are associated with human habitats . About four species are well known as pests .
The cockroaches are an ancient group , dating back at least as far as the Carboniferous period , some 320 million years ago . Those early ancestors however lacked the internal ovipositors of modern roaches . Cockroaches are somewhat generalized insects without special adaptations like the sucking mouthparts of Hemiptera ; they have chewing mouthparts and are likely among the most primitive of living neopteran insects . They are common and hardy insects , and can tolerate a wide range of environments from Arctic cold to tropical heat . Tropical cockroaches are often much bigger than temperate species , and , contrary to popular belief , extinct cockroach relatives and ' roachoids ' such as the Carboniferous Archimylacris and the Permian Apthoroblattina were not as large as the biggest modern species .
Some species , such as the gregarious German cockroach , have an elaborate social structure involving common shelter , social dependence , information transfer and kin recognition . Cockroaches have appeared in human culture since classical antiquity . They are popularly depicted as dirty pests , though the great majority of species are inoffensive and live in a wide range of habitats around the world .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
Cockroaches are members of the order Blattodea , which includes the termites , a group of insects once thought to be separate from cockroaches . Currently , 4 @,@ 600 species and over 460 genera are described worldwide . The name " cockroach " comes from the Spanish word for cockroach , cucaracha , transformed by 1620s English folk etymology into " cock " and " roach " . The scientific name derives from the Latin blatta , " an insect that shuns the light " , which in classical Latin was applied not only to cockroaches , but also to mantids .
Historically , the name Blattaria was used largely interchangeably with the name Blattodea , but whilst the former name was used to refer to ' true ' cockroaches exclusively , the latter also includes the termites . The current catalogue of world cockroach species uses the name Blattodea for the group . Another name , Blattoptera , is also sometimes used . The earliest cockroach @-@ like fossils ( " blattopterans " or " roachids " ) are from the Carboniferous period 320 million years ago , as are fossil roachoid nymphs .
Since the 19th century , scientists believed that cockroaches were an ancient group of insects that had a Devonian origin , according to one hypothesis . Fossil roachoids that lived during that time differ from modern cockroaches in having long external ovipositors and are the ancestors of mantises , as well as modern blattodeans . As the body , hind wings and mouthparts are not preserved in fossils frequently , the relationship of these roachoids and modern cockroaches remains disputed . The first fossils of modern cockroaches with internal ovipositors appeared in the early Cretaceous . A recent phylogenetic analysis suggests that cockroaches originated at least in the Jurassic .
The evolutionary relationships of the Blattodea ( cockroaches and termites ) shown in the cladogram are based on Eggleton , Beccaloni & Inward ( 2007 ) . The cockroach families Lamproblattidae and Tryonicidae are not shown but are placed within the superfamily Blattoidea . The cockroach families Corydiidae and Ectobiidae were previously known as the Polyphagidae and Blattellidae .
Termites were previously regarded as a separate order Isoptera to cockroaches . However , recent genetic evidence strongly suggests that they evolved directly from ' true ' cockroaches , and many authors now place them as an " epifamily " of Blattodea . This evidence supported a hypothesis suggested in 1934 that termites are closely related to the wood @-@ eating cockroaches ( genus Cryptocercus ) . This hypothesis was originally based on similarity of the symbiotic gut flagellates in termites regarded as living fossils and wood @-@ eating cockroaches . Additional evidence emerged when F. A. McKittrick ( 1965 ) noted similar morphological characteristics between some termites and cockroach nymphs . The similarities among these cockroaches and termites have led some scientists to reclassify termites as a single family , the Termitidae , within the order Blattodea . Other scientists have taken a more conservative approach , proposing to retain the termites as the Termitoidae , an epifamily within the order . Such measure preserves the classification of termites at family level and below .
= = Description = =
Most species of cockroach are about the size of a thumbnail , but several species are bigger . The world 's heaviest cockroach is the Australian giant burrowing cockroach Macropanesthia rhinoceros , which can reach 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) in length and weigh more than 30 g ( 1 @.@ 1 oz ) . Comparable in size is the Central American giant cockroach Blaberus giganteus , which grows to a similar length . The longest cockroach species is Megaloblatta longipennis , which can reach 97 mm ( 3 @.@ 8 in ) in length and 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) across . A Central and South American species , Megaloblatta blaberoides , has the largest wingspan of up to 185 mm ( 7 @.@ 3 in ) .
Cockroaches are generalized insects , with few special adaptations , and may be among the most primitive living neopteran insects . They have a relatively small head and a broad , flattened body , and most species are reddish @-@ brown to dark brown . They have large compound eyes , two ocelli , and long , flexible antennae . The mouthparts are on the underside of the head and include generalized chewing mandibles , salivary glands and various touch and taste receptors .
The body is divided into a thorax of three segments and a ten @-@ segmented abdomen . The external surface has a tough exoskeleton which contains calcium carbonate and protects the inner organs and provides attachment to muscles . It is coated with wax to repel water . The wings are attached to the second and third thoracic segments . The tegmina , or first pair of wings , are tough and protective , lying as a shield on top of the membranous hind wings , which are used in flight . All four wings have branching longitudinal veins , and multiple cross @-@ veins .
The three pairs of legs are sturdy , with large coxae and five claws each . They are attached to each of the three thoracic segments . The front legs are the shortest and the hind legs the longest , providing the main propulsive power when the insect runs . The spines on the legs were earlier considered to be sensory , but observations of the insect 's gait on sand and wire meshes have demonstrated that they help in locomotion on difficult terrain . The structures have been used as inspiration for robotic legs .
The abdomen has ten segments , each with a pair of spiracles for respiration . Segment ten bears a pair of cerci , a pair of anal styles , the anus and the external genitalia . Males have an aedeagus through which they secrete sperm during copulation and females have spermathecae for storing sperm and an ovipositor through which the ootheca is laid .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Cockroaches are abundant throughout the world and live in a wide range of environments , especially in the tropics and subtropics . Cockroaches can withstand extremely cold temperatures , allowing them to live in the Arctic . Some species are capable of surviving temperatures of − 188 ° F ( − 122 ° C ) by manufacturing an antifreeze made out of glycerol . In North America , 50 species separated into five families are found throughout the continent . 450 species are found in Australia . Only about four widespread species are commonly regarded as pests .
Cockroaches occupy a wide range of habitats . Many live in leaf litter , among the stems of matted vegetation , in rotting wood , in holes in stumps , in cavities under bark , under log piles and among debris . Some live in arid regions and have developed mechanisms to survive without access to water sources . Others are aquatic , living near the surface of water bodies , including bromeliad phytotelmata , and diving to forage for food . Most of these respire by piercing the water surface with the tip of the abdomen which acts as a snorkel , but some carry a bubble of air under their thoracic shield when they submerge . Others live in the forest canopy where they may be one of the main types of invertebrate present . Here they may hide during the day in crevices , among dead leaves , in bird and insect nests or among epiphytes , emerging at night to feed .
= = Behavior = =
Cockroaches are social insects ; a large number of species are either gregarious or inclined to aggregate , and a slightly smaller number exhibit parental care . It used to be thought that cockroaches aggregated because they were reacting to environmental cues , but it is now believed that pheromones are involved in these behaviors . Some species secrete these in their feces with gut microbial symbionts being involved , while others use glands located on their mandibles . Pheromones produced by the cuticle may enable cockroaches to distinguish between different populations of cockroach by odor . The behaviors involved have only been studied in a few species , but German cockroaches leave fecal trails with an odor gradient . Other cockroaches follow such trails to discover sources of food and water , and where other cockroaches are hiding . Thus , cockroaches have emergent behavior , in which group or swarm behavior emerges from a simple set of individual interactions .
Daily rhythms may also be regulated by a complex set of hormonal controls of which only a small subset have been understood . In 2005 , the role of one of these proteins , pigment dispersing factor ( PDF ) , was isolated and found to be a key mediator in the circadian rhythms of the cockroach .
Pest species adapt readily to a variety of environments , but prefer warm conditions found within buildings . Many tropical species prefer even warmer environments . Cockroaches are mainly nocturnal and run away when exposed to light . An exception to this is the Asian cockroach , which flies mostly at night but is attracted to brightly @-@ lit surfaces and pale colors .
= = = Collective decision @-@ making = = =
Gregarious cockroaches display collective decision @-@ making when choosing food sources . When a sufficient number of individuals ( a " quorum " ) exploits a food source , this signals to newcomer cockroaches that they should stay there longer rather than leave for elsewhere . Other mathematical models have been developed to explain aggregation dynamics and conspecific recognition .
Group @-@ based decision @-@ making is responsible for complex behaviors such as resource allocation . In a study where 50 cockroaches were placed in a dish with three shelters with a capacity for 40 insects in each , the insects arranged themselves in two shelters with 25 insects in each , leaving the third shelter empty . When the capacity of the shelters was increased to more than 50 insects per shelter , all of the cockroaches arranged themselves in one shelter . Cooperation and competition are balanced in cockroach group decision @-@ making behavior .
Cockroaches appear to use just two pieces of information to decide where to go , namely how dark it is and how many other cockroaches there are . A study used specially @-@ scented roach @-@ sized robots that appear to the roaches as real to demonstrate that once there are enough insects in a place to form a critical mass , the roaches accepted the collective decision on where to hide , even if this was an unusually light place .
= = = Social behavior = = =
Gregarious German cockroaches show different behavior when reared in isolation from when reared in a group . In one study , isolated cockroaches were less likely to leave their shelters and explore , spent less time eating , interacted less with conspecifics when exposed to them , and took longer to recognize receptive females . Because these changes occurred in many contexts , the authors suggested them as constituting a behavioral syndrome . These effects might have been due either to reduced metabolic and developmental rates in isolated individuals or the fact that the isolated individuals hadn 't had a training period to learn about what others were like via their antennae .
Individual American cockroaches appear to have consistently different " personalities " regarding how they seek shelter . In addition , group personality is not simply the sum of individual choices , but reflects conformity and collective decision @-@ making .
The gregarious German and American cockroaches have elaborate social structure , chemical signalling , and " social herd " characteristics . Lihoreau and his fellow researchers stated :
= = = Sounds = = =
Some species make a hissing noise while other cockroaches make a chirping noise . The Madagascar hissing cockroach produces its sound through the modified spiracles on the fourth abdominal segment . Several different hisses are produced , including disturbance sounds , produced by adults and larger nymphs , and aggressive , courtship and copulatory sounds produced by adult males . Henschoutedenia epilamproides has a stridulatory organ between its thorax and abdomen , but the purpose of the sound produced is unclear .
Several Australian species practice acoustic and vibration behavior as an aspect of courtship . They have been observed producing hisses and whistles from air forced through the spiracles . Furthermore , in the presence of a potential mate , some cockroaches tap the substrate in a rhythmic , repetitive manner . Acoustic signals may be of greater prevalence amongst perching species , particularly those that live on low vegetation in Australia 's tropics .
= = Biology = =
= = = Digestive tract = = =
Cockroaches are generally omnivorous ; the American cockroach ( Periplaneta americana ) , for example , feeds on a great variety of foodstuffs including bread , fruit , leather , starch in book bindings , paper , glue , skin flakes , hair , dead insects and soiled clothing . Many species of cockroach harbor symbiotic protozoans and bacteria in their gut which are able to digest cellulose . In many species , these symbionts may be essential if the insect is to utilize cellulose , however some species secrete cellulase in their saliva , and the wood @-@ eating cockroach , Panesthia cribrata , is able to survive indefinitely on a diet of crystallized cellulose while being free of micro @-@ organisms .
The similarity of these symbionts in the genus Cryptocercus to those in termites are such that these cockroaches have been suggested to be more closely related to termites than to other cockroaches , and current research strongly supports this hypothesis about their relationships . All species studied so far carry the obligate mutualistic endosymbiont bacterium Blattabacterium , with the exception of Nocticola australiensise , an Australian cave @-@ dwelling species without eyes , pigment or wings , which recent genetic studies indicate is a very primitive cockroach . It had previously been thought that all five families of cockroach were descended from a common ancestor that was infected with B. cuenoti . It may be that N. australiensise subsequently lost its symbionts , or alternatively this hypothesis will need to be re @-@ examined .
= = = Tracheae and breathing = = =
Like other insects , cockroaches breathe through a system of tubes called tracheae which are attached to openings called spiracles on all body segments . When the carbon dioxide level in the insect rises high enough , valves on the spiracles open and carbon dioxide diffuses out and oxygen diffuses in . The tracheal system branches repeatedly , the finest tracheoles bringing air directly to each cell , allowing gaseous exchange to take place .
While cockroaches do not have lungs as do vertebrates , and can continue to respire if their heads are removed , in some very large species , the body musculature may contract rhythmically to forcibly move air in and out of the spiracles ; this may be considered a form of breathing .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Cockroaches use pheromones to attract mates , and the males practice courtship rituals , such as posturing and stridulation . Like many insects , cockroaches mate facing away from each other with their genitalia in contact , and copulation can be prolonged . A few species are known to be parthenogenetic , reproducing without the need for males .
Female cockroaches are sometimes seen carrying egg cases on the end of their abdomens ; the German cockroach holds about 30 to 40 long , thin eggs in a case called an ootheca . She drops the capsule prior to hatching , though live births do occur in rare instances . The egg capsule may take more than five hours to lay and is initially bright white in color . The eggs are hatched from the combined pressure of the hatchlings gulping air . The hatchlings are initially bright white nymphs and continue inflating themselves with air , becoming harder and darker within about four hours . Their transient white stage while hatching and later while molting has led to claims of albino cockroaches . Development from eggs to adults takes three to four months . Cockroaches live up to a year , and the female may produce up to eight egg cases in a lifetime ; in favorable conditions , she can produce 300 to 400 offspring . Other species of cockroaches , however , can produce far more eggs ; in some cases a female needs to be impregnated only once to be able to lay eggs for the rest of her life .
The female usually attaches the egg case to a substrate , inserts it into a suitably protective crevice , or carries it about until just before the eggs hatch . Some species , however , are ovoviviparous , keeping the eggs inside their body , with or without an egg case , until they hatch . At least one genus , Diploptera , is fully viviparous .
Cockroaches have incomplete metamorphosis , meaning that the nymphs are generally similar to the adults , except for undeveloped wings and genitalia . Development is generally slow , and may take a few months to over a year . The adults are also long @-@ lived , and have survived for as much as four years in the laboratory .
= = = Hardiness = = =
Cockroaches are among the hardiest insects . Some species are capable of remaining active for a month without food and are able to survive on limited resources , such as the glue from the back of postage stamps . Some can go without air for 45 minutes . Japanese cockroach ( Periplaneta japonica ) nymphs , which hibernate in cold winters , survived twelve hours at − 5 ° C to − 8 ° C in laboratory experiments .
Experiments on decapitated specimens of several species of cockroach found a variety of behavioral functionality remained , including shock avoidance and escape behavior , although many insects other than cockroaches are also able to survive decapitation , and popular claims of the longevity of headless cockroaches do not appear to be based on published research . The severed head is able to survive and wave its antennae for several hours , or longer when refrigerated and given nutrients .
It is popularly suggested that cockroaches will " inherit the earth " if humanity destroys itself in a nuclear war . Cockroaches do indeed have a much higher radiation resistance than vertebrates , with the lethal dose perhaps six to 15 times that for humans . However , they are not exceptionally radiation @-@ resistant compared to other insects , such as the fruit fly .
The cockroach 's ability to withstand radiation better than human beings can be explained through the cell cycle . Cells are most vulnerable to the effects of radiation when they are dividing . A cockroach 's cells divide only once each time it molts , which is weekly at most in a juvenile roach . Since not all cockroaches would be molting at the same time , many would be unaffected by an acute burst of radiation , but lingering radioactive fallout would still be harmful .
= = Relationship with humans = =
= = = In research and education = = =
Because of their ease of rearing and resilience , cockroaches have been used as insect models in the laboratory , particularly in the fields of neurobiology , reproductive physiology and social behavior .
The cockroach is a convenient insect to study as it is large and simple to raise in a laboratory environment . This makes it suitable both for research and for school and undergraduate biology studies . It can be used in experiments on topics such as learning , sexual pheromones , spatial orientation , aggression , activity rhythms and the biological clock , and behavioral ecology .
= = = As pests = = =
The Blattodea include some thirty species of cockroaches associated with humans ; these species are atypical of the thousands of species in the order . They feed on human and pet food and can leave an offensive odor . They can passively transport pathogenic microbes on their body surfaces , particularly in environments such as hospitals . Cockroaches are linked with allergic reactions in humans . One of the proteins that triggers allergic reactions is tropomyosin . These allergens are also linked with asthma .
= = = = Control = = = =
Many remedies have been tried in the search for control of the major pest species of cockroaches , which are resilient and fast @-@ breeding . Household chemicals like sodium bicarbonate ( baking soda ) have been suggested , without evidence for their effectiveness . Garden herbs including bay , catnip , mint , cucumber , and garlic have been proposed as repellents . Poisoned bait containing hydramethylnon or fipronil , and boric acid powder is effective on adults . Baits with egg killers are also quite effective at reducing the cockroach population . Alternatively , insecticides containing deltamethrin or pyrethrin are very effective . In Singapore and Malaysia , taxi drivers use pandan leaves to repel cockroaches in their vehicles .
Few parasites and predators are effective for biological control of cockroaches . Parasitoidal wasps such as Ampulex wasps sting nerve ganglia in the cockroach 's thorax , temporarily paralyzing the victim , allowing the wasp to deliver a second sting into the cockroach 's brain . The wasp clips the antennae with its mandibles and drinks some hemolymph before dragging the prey to a burrow , where an egg is laid on it . The wasp larva feeds on the subdued living cockroach .
Cockroaches can be trapped in a deep , smooth @-@ walled jar baited with food inside , placed so that cockroaches can reach the opening , for example with a ramp of card or twigs on the outside . An inch or so of water or stale beer ( by itself a cockroach attractant ) in the jar can be used to drown any insects thus captured . The method works well with the American cockroach , but less so with the German cockroach .
= = = Conservation = = =
While a small minority of cockroaches are associated with human habitats and viewed as repugnant by many people , a few species are of conservation concern . The Lord Howe Island wood @-@ feeding cockroach ( Panesthia lata ) is listed as endangered by the New South Wales Scientific Committee , but the cockroach may be extinct on Lord Howe Island itself . The introduction of rats , the spread of Rhodes grass ( Chloris gayana ) and fires are possible reasons for their scarcity . Two species are currently listed as endangered and critically endangered by the IUCN Red List , Delosia ornata and Nocticola gerlachi . Both cockroaches have a restricted distribution and are threatened by habitat loss and rising sea levels . Only 600 Delosia ornata adults and 300 nymphs are known to exist , and these are threatened by a hotel development . No action has been taken to save the two cockroach species , but protecting their natural habitats may prevent their extinction . In the former Soviet Union , cockroach populations have been declining at an alarming rate ; this may be exaggerated , or the phenomenon may be temporary or cyclic .
= = = In culture = = =
Cockroaches were known and considered repellent but useful in medicines in Classical times . An insect named in Greek " σίλφη " ( " Silphe " ) has been identified with the cockroach . It is mentioned by Aristotle , saying that it sheds its skin ; it is described as foul @-@ smelling in Aristophanes ' play Peace ; Euenus called it a pest of book collections , being " page @-@ eating , destructive , black @-@ bodied " in his Analect . Virgil named the cockroach " Lucifuga " ( " one that avoids light " ) . Pliny the Elder recorded the use of " Blatta " in various medicines ; he describes the insect as disgusting , and as seeking out dark corners to avoid the light . Dioscorides recorded the use of the " Silphe " , ground up with oil , as a remedy for earache .
Lafcadio Hearn ( 1850 – 1904 ) asserted that " For tetanus cockroach tea is given . I do not know how many cockroaches go to make up the cup ; but I find that faith in this remedy is strong among many of the American population of New Orleans . A poultice of boiled cockroaches is placed over the wound . " He adds that cockroaches are eaten , fried with garlic , for indigestion .
Several cockroach species , such as Blaptica dubia , are raised as food for insectivorous pets . A few cockroach species are raised as pets , most commonly the giant Madagascar hissing cockroach , Gromphadorhina portentosa .
Cockroaches have been used for space tests . A cockroach given the name Nadezhda was sent into space by Russian scientists during Foton @-@ M test , becoming the first terrestrial animal to " give birth " in space .
Because of their long association with humans , cockroaches are frequently referred to in popular culture . In Western culture , cockroaches are often depicted as dirty pests . In a 1750 – 1752 journal , Peter Osbeck noted that cockroaches were frequently seen and found their way to the bakeries , after the sailing ship Gothenburg ran aground and was destroyed by rocks .
Donald Harington 's satirical novel The Cockroaches of Stay More ( Harcourt , 1989 ) imagines a community of " roosterroaches " in a mythical Ozark town where the insects are named after their human counterparts . Madonna has famously quoted , " I am a survivor . I am like a cockroach , you just can 't get rid of me . " An urban legend maintains that cockroaches are immortal .
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= One ( Ed Sheeran song ) =
" One " is a song recorded by English recording artist Ed Sheeran for his second studio album , x ( 2014 ) . Sheeran wrote the song immediately after releasing his debut album , + ( 2011 ) . It marked the last occasion wherein Sheeran wrote about his former girlfriend , who inspired all the romantic compositions on + . " One " was produced by frequent collaborator Jake Gosling and its music was based primarily on acoustic guitar . Critics were generally positive toward the song ; it was noted for its guitar @-@ driven sound and Sheeran 's use of falsetto . An accompanying video for " One " was shot in an empty Wembley Stadium and preceded the song 's release on 16 May 2014 . It was the first promotional single from x and its release was meant to counterbalance " Sing " , the album 's lead single issued to create hype although it was feared would alienate Sheeran 's fan base . In Europe , the song appeared in several charts ; it reached number 18 in the United Kingdom , where it was certified silver for sales of at least 200 @,@ 000 units on 30 June 2014 .
= = Background and release = =
Shortly after the release of his debut album , + , Sheeran wrote " One " in November 2011 while he was on tour in Perth , Australia . Inside his dressing room , he composed the song on a guitar made of a whiskey barrel . " One " was the first song Sheeran wrote for his second studio album , x . The song was produced by Jake Gosling , who contributed to the majority of tracks featured on Sheeran 's debut album . Gosling owned Sticky Studios , located in the small Surrey village of Windlesham , where Sheeran recorded " One " .
Sheeran wrote " One " as the last song about Alice , his former girlfriend who inspired all the romantic songs on + . It is the only song on x that refers to that particular relationship , while the rest was about " moving on and the [ ... ] experiences [ Sheeran ] had since then " . According to Sheeran , the song " is a good way to end both that period and that relationship " . In " One " , Sheeran finds himself bidding farewell to a former love interest . Sheeran takes a minimal approach on this ballad , which is characterised with softly strummed acoustic guitar .
" One " was released on 16 May 2014 as the first promotional single from x . It was made available as an " instant great " download for those who pre @-@ ordered the album on iTunes Store . The promotional release of " One " was meant to counterbalance " Sing " , the album 's lead single . " Sing " was intended to create hype over the album release , but was feared would alienate Sheeran 's fan base . Preceding the song 's release , an official video premiered on Sheeran 's YouTube channel on 2 May 2014 . The black @-@ and @-@ white video was shot in an empty Wembley Stadium in London , England . It features Sheeran performing live an acoustic version of the song . Sheeran performed " One " on his x Tour , which ran from 2014 to 2015 .
= = Reception = =
Upon the release of x , " One " received positive reviews . Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph described Sheeran 's style in " One " alongside " Photograph " a " soulful balladry " . Luiza Lodder of No Ripcord believed that the " strumming and melodies " are " heartfelt " . On another note , The Guardian 's Alexis Petridis suggested that the " striking and beautiful " ballads in the album " evince a certain new @-@ found maturity " . Petridis felt that " One " is a " haunting , falsetto @-@ powered " ballad . Annie Zaleski of the The A.V. Club noted Sheeran 's " weak @-@ kneed " falsetto in the " fragile acoustic pop " . Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe noted similarities between " One " and Sheeran 's 2011 single " The A Team " for their tunefulness ; she described the former as " burbling " . Dave Hanratty of Drowned in Sound had the same opinion : " ' One ' [ was ] cut from the exact same cloth as ' The A Team ' " , although he favored " One " as better . Jim Beviglia of American Songwriter stated that the song " [ did ] a nice job mixing drunken regret with romantic dedication " . In a cover interview with Sheeran for Billboard , Chris Willman opined that on " One " , Sheeran took his " minimalist live approach to its furthest degree " .
" One " , and the rest of the tracks from x , entered the UK Singles Chart due to high streaming rates . It debuted at number 20 on the chart week ending 24 May 2014 , it peaked at number 18 on the following week , and has appeared on the chart for 20 weeks . On 30 June 2015 , the British Phonographic Industry certified the song silver , denoting sales of 200 @,@ 000 units . The song appeared once on the main US chart ; it debuted at number 87 on the Billboard Hot 100 .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of x
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Meerkat Manor =
Meerkat Manor is a British television programme produced by Oxford Scientific Films for Animal Planet International that premiered in September 2005 and ran for four series until its cancellation in August 2008 . Blending more traditional animal documentary style footage with dramatic narration , the series told the story of the Whiskers , one of more than a dozen families of meerkats in the Kalahari Desert being studied as part of the Kalahari Meerkat Project , a long @-@ term field study into the ecological causes and evolutionary consequences of the cooperative nature of meerkats . The original programme was narrated by Bill Nighy , with the narration redubbed by Mike Goldman for the Australian airings and Sean Astin for the American broadcasts . The fourth series , subtitled The Next Generation , saw Stockard Channing replacing Astin as the narrator in the American dubbing .
Meerkat Manor premiered in the United Kingdom on 12 September 2005 , and the first 13 @-@ episode series concluded on 24 October 2005 . With the success of the programme in the United Kingdom , Animal Planet started broadcasting it on its national channels in Australia , Canada , and the US . It has since been rebroadcast in more than 160 other countries . The fourth , and final , series aired initially in the United States from 6 June 2008 to 22 August 2008 . In August 2009 , it was reported that the programme had been cancelled .
Although the show faced criticism from viewers for not intervening when a meerkat was injured and faced death , as a whole , Meerkat Manor enjoyed considerable success and was Animal Planet 's top series in October 2007 , both on the cable channel and through its video @-@ on @-@ demand service . The show 's experimental format broke new ground in animal documentary filming techniques and allowed viewers a long term , intimate look into the lives of its meerkat stars , breaking the traditional wall between viewer and subject found with most documentaries . In 2007 , Meerkat Manor was nominated for two Primetime Emmy Awards . It has won three awards at the 2006 Omni Awards , and at the 2006 and 2007 New York Festivals Award Galas . The first three series of the programme have been released to DVD in both Region 1 and Region 2 . In 2007 , a book entitled Meerkat Manor – The Story of Flower of the Kalahari was released in the UK , detailing the life of Flower and the Whiskers before the series ' filming began . A television film , Meerkat Manor : The Story Begins , documenting Flower 's birth and rise to matriarch of the Whiskers aired on Animal Planet on 25 May 2008 .
= = Production details = =
Meerkat Manor was created by Caroline Hawkins , executive producer and series editor at Oxford Scientific Films , and commissioned for Animal Planet International by executive producer and commissioning editor Mark Wild . Filming for a 13 @-@ episode series took seven to eight months , and was limited to the Kalahari spring and summer seasons , as meerkats are less active during winter . Series three was filmed from November 2006 through April 2007 , and Series four began filming in October 2007 . Most scenes were filmed on location at the Kuruman River Reserve , where the Kalahari Meerkat Project that the meerkats are a part of is based . However , the meerkats seen in commercials and on the show 's website were not the same animals portrayed in Meerkat Manor . Instead , tamer @-@ rescued meerkats from the Fellow Earthlings ' Wildlife Center were filmed against a green screen .
The show was primarily filmed using Sony DSR @-@ 570 cameras , although special equipment was needed for some unique footage . For scenes inside the animals ' burrows , mini fibre @-@ optic infra @-@ red cameras were employed ; wide @-@ angle shots were filmed with a seven @-@ metre crane and a remote @-@ controlled camera platform . An off @-@ camera wireless microphone was also used to record many meerkat vocalizations , only partially audible to cameras ' on @-@ board systems . Most filming was done by a single cameraman and a single sound engineer ; researchers have required a minimal human presence to avoid stressing the animals . Eye @-@ level shots were difficult to achieve at times , due to the meerkats ' small size and the limited height of even the smallest tripods .
For tracking purposes by the researchers , the dominant female of each group is fitted with a radio collar , as are some dominant and roaming males . The meerkats – especially younger animals – are marked with dye to differentiate them . As the meerkats are habituated , they would tend to ignore the camera crew as long as their " personal space " was respected .
= = = National variations = = =
The UK and US versions of the show have the same content for most episodes ; however , the latter was sometimes edited for length to allow for more commercial breaks . Content was also sometimes altered ; mating scenes in particular were often removed from the US version . Animal Planet US occasionally changed the names of meerkats and episode titles . Two of Flower 's pups were renamed from Ren and Stumpy to Len and Squiggy ; the title of the episode was also changed . De la Soul ( named for the rap group of the same name ) , one of the sisters who started the Starsky group , was renamed Whoopi in the US as a tribute to actress Whoopi Goldberg , an early fan of the series . Animal Planet US has also renamed some of Flower 's pups born in season three to honour two other famous fans of the show , Elizabeth Taylor and Denis Leary . Several episodes were renamed : the title of the final episode of the second series was changed from " The Killing Fields " to " The Quiet Fields " . During the third series , the third episode 's title was changed from " Something 's Got to Give " to " Sister Act " ( another Goldberg reference ) , while the sixth episode 's title changed from " The House of Zappa " to " Sibling Rivalry " .
= = Narrative = =
The show follows several groups of meerkats , who act communally for the benefit of the groups in which they live . These groups are typically led by a dominant female and male , who maintain almost exclusive rights to have offspring . The group followed most closely is known as the Whiskers family . This group was chosen because of its matriarch Flower , an unusually successful dominant female who led the group for five years . During series three , Flower died from a snake bite and was succeeded by her daughter Rocket Dog .
Animals in neighbouring groups were highlighted in each series as well . In the first series , a group called the Lazuli were shown frequently in competition with the Whiskers family , and the opening credits referred to them as the " neighbours from hell " . Although their dominant male Big Si died between series , the Lazuli appeared in the second series , mostly as a source of roving males . Another group called the Commandoes , led by a one @-@ eyed male named Hannibal , introduced themselves by attacking the Lazuli burrow , killing a pup and badly wounding the babysitting adult . The Commandoes became the new major rivals in the area , killing the pups of evicted Whiskers female Mozart and taking over some of the Whiskers ' territory .
The Whiskers ' new neighbours were the Zappa and the Starsky . Although smaller than the Whiskers , the Zappa attacked frequently , and when they fled after one attack , the Whiskers – in a rare occurrence – adopted an abandoned Zappa pup . The Starsky group , on the other hand , was no threat to the Whiskers . Formed by a trio of Flower 's daughters permanently evicted from the Whiskers , the small group was ravaged by illness , predators , and a lack of new pups . The constantly struggling Starsky succumbed in the penultimate episode , with the death of the last survivor , Mozart , who was killed by a jackal . Former Whiskers female Maybelline broke away from the group at the end of the third series , forming a new group called the Aztecs which became the Whiskers ' rivals in the fourth series .
= = = Changes in representation = = =
While the show portrays real events among the Kalahari Meerkats , it also removes repetitive elements of the animals ' lives . Because many days are filled with behaviour related to grooming and foraging , these routines were often left out of the show in favour of more unusual events .
The meerkats are all named by Kalahari Meerkat volunteers ; the individual who first sees a new litter emerge from the burrow is awarded naming rights . This has produced a variety of names , frequently drawn from volunteers ' favourite books , movies , musical groups , family and friends , historical figures and geographical locations . Animal Planet sometimes renamed the meerkats for narration , arguing that researchers ' names were too limited , often relating to spices and food condiments . Because of these changes , fans of the series who seek information on the Friends of the Kalahari Meerkat Project website sometimes have trouble locating particular animals . The project has created a list of alterations to help viewers connect the animals on the show to their real @-@ life counterparts , and to match episodes to the monthly KMP Life History reports . The list , however , is only available to paying members of their website .
Two of the major Whiskers family rivals were composites , created with footage and blended stories from multiple groups . For example , the Commandoes group on the show uses some of events from the real Commandoes group , but was primarily shown with footage from the Vivian research group – including its dominant couple . Similarly , the show 's Zappa group was mostly presented using footage from a group called " The Young Ones " ( named after the British television show ) ; however , the actual story and dominant pair were from the real Zappa Group . Axel , the abandoned pup from series three , has a research number that indicates he was probably a Young Ones pup , rather than being a Zappa as the show claims .
= = Reception = =
Meerkat Manor has been well received by viewers and critics alike . In October 2007 , it was Animal Planet 's top series , with an audience of more than four million in the United States alone . In the United States , its first episode was viewed by one million viewers , and the second and third series premieres were watched by approximately 800 @,@ 000 viewers each . The fourth series premiere did not fare as well , with fewer than 500 @,@ 000 viewers . The viewership of the on @-@ demand video offerings for Meerkat Manor grew 20 % in September 2007 , when Discovery offered each third series episode , video capsules of series one and two , top ten moments from the show , and a memorial sequence for Flower . Building on the success of Meerkat Manor 's unique format , Animal Planet commissioned two similarly formatted programmes : Orangutan Island , which focuses on a group of orphaned orangutans at the Nyaru Menteng Orangutan Rescue and Rehabilitation Center , and Lemur Street , which looks at the lives of two rival gangs of ring @-@ tailed lemurs in Madagascar .
Some fans have criticized the show for its non @-@ interference policy with regard to the meerkats , asking why the film crew and researchers do not give anti @-@ venom to snake @-@ bitten meerkats , or euthanize those dying and suffering . US Executive Producer Mick Kaczorowski pointed out that Meerkat Manor was a show about the real lives and deaths of the meerkats . The research group has a policy against film crews interceding in natural events " because they don 't want to have an effect on the gene pool by saving a weaker meerkat [ or ] affecting the outcome of what 's natural in the Kalahari . " As the research project is monitoring " ... the breeding success and survival of individuals and ... the factors that affect reproduction and survival " interfering in the natural processes would render the research results invalid . There is one exception to this rule : researchers will euthanize meerkats that contract tuberculosis , to prevent outbreaks that would threaten both the meerkat population and nearby cattle .
= = = Awards = = =
Meerkat Manor was nominated for a 2005 Jackson Hole Wildlife Film Festival Award in the " Animal Behaviour " category , and in 2007 for " Best Original Score " . At the 2006 Wildscreen Festival , the series was a finalist in three categories : " Animal Behaviour " , " Innovation " , and " Popular Broadcast " . The series won Gold Statues in " Natural History " and " Cinematography " , and a Silver Statue for " Writing " , at the 2006 Omni Awards . The eighth episode of series three , " Journey 's End " which depicts the death of Whiskers matriarch Flower , was awarded the 2008 Wildscreen Festival Panda Award in the " Five Award for Popular Broadcast Programme " category . Meerkat Manor was a two @-@ time Gold Medal winner in the " Nature & Wildlife " category at the New York Festivals Award Gala , in 2006 for series one , and again in 2007 for series one and two . The series was nominated for two Primetime Emmy Awards in 2007 : one for " Outstanding Cinematography for Nonfiction Programming " and one for " Outstanding Picture Editing for Nonfiction Programming " . In 2009 the series was awarded the Grand Award at the New York Festivals International Television Programming and Promotion Awards in the " Family Programmes " category .
= = = Impact on the genre = = =
Meerkat Manor 's innovative new methods of filming allowed the Kalahari Project scientists a chance to uncover aspects of meerkat life never before seen , including life within the burrows . The film crew was also the first to capture meerkat infanticide on film .
While many documentaries maintain an emotional distance from their subjects , Meerkat Manor – due to its extended length , soap opera @-@ like narration , romanticization of the animals ' lives , and close @-@ up filming techniques , provides a closer , more personal view of the meerkats . Viewers describe being emotionally involved in the animals ' lives , sometimes forgetting they are watching a documentary . The meerkats ' frequently short lives and brutal deaths become surprising and disturbing to some audiences . This experimental format was seen as expanding the boundaries of both the nature documentary genre and the nature of reality TV .
Like the meerkats , Manor is an odd beast . The crew is forbidden to intervene , and the producers don 't sugarcoat the animals ' less cuddly habits ( infidelity , abandonment of young , occasional cannibalism ) . But the meerkats are named and given human traits ( " courageous , " " caring , " " bully [ ing ] " ) , and their antics and tragedies take place over a sound track . Manor is both brutal and melodramatic and thus more devastating than most documentary or scripted drama .
= = Merchandise = =
A book written by Professor Tim Clutton @-@ Brock entitled Meerkat Manor : The Story of Flower of the Kalahari ( ISBN 0 @-@ 297 @-@ 84484 @-@ 9 ) was released in the UK in a hardback edition on 4 October 2007 . The book focuses on Flower 's life and the story of the Whiskers , tracing how the group started , providing a timeline of Flower 's life , and detailing all of the pups she had over her lifetime , as well as their current locations . The book also gives more background on how the Kalahari Meerkat Project started , the research goals and results , and researchers ' personal lives . A paperback edition of the book was announced for release in the United States by Simon & Schuster through their Touchstone imprint on 15 April 2008 . The US release was titled Meerkat Manor : Flower of the Kalahari ( ISBN 1 @-@ 4165 @-@ 8767 @-@ 5 ) . In November 2007 , Discovery Communications announced that it was partnering with Activision to make a video game based on Meerkat Manor as the first in a new series of nature @-@ based games . The announcement stated the game would be released to multiple platforms in late 2008 , but no game was ever released .
= = = Film = = =
Oxford Scientific Films produced a feature film for Discovery Films that acts as a prequel to the Meerkat Manor series . Originally announced as Flower : Queen of the Kalahari , Meerkat Manor : The Story Begins was directed by Chris Barker and Mike Slee and narrated by Whoopi Goldberg . The film documents Flower 's early life as she grows from a young meerkat to become one of the most successful leaders of the Whiskers clan . The film was introduced at the 2008 Tribeca Film Festival in the Spotlight section , and then aired in the United States on Animal Planet on 25 May 2008 as a lead @-@ in to a thirty @-@ minute Making of Meerkat Manor : the Story Begins special . It was released to Region 1 DVD in North America on 3 June 2008 , with the Making of Meerkat Manor special , and another special , The Science of Meerkat Manor , included as extras .
The film included re @-@ edited footage and a new musical score . The Whiskers story was simplified , with the Lazuli being the only rival group to appear in the film . Unlike with the Meerkat Manor series , the film does not actually depict any of the real Whiskers meerkats . Untrained " meerkat actors " play the role of Flower and her family , with the camera crew searching out appropriately @-@ aged meerkats , then following them until the meerkats acted in a way that was needed for the film . Flower herself was depicted by approximately eight female meerkats .
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= Bradley Joseph =
Bradley Joseph ( born 1965 ) is an American composer , arranger , and producer of contemporary instrumental music . His compositions include works for orchestra , quartet , and solo piano , while his musical style ranges from " quietly pensive mood music to a rich orchestration of classical depth and breadth " .
Active since 1983 , Joseph has performed in front of more than a half million people around the world . He played various instruments in rock bands throughout the Midwest until 1989 when Greek composer Yanni hired him for his core band after hearing a tape of his original compositions . He was a featured concert keyboardist with Yanni through six major tours , most recently in 2003 for the 60 @-@ city Ethnicity tour . He appears in the multi @-@ platinum album and concert film , Live at the Acropolis . Joseph also spent four years as musical director and lead keyboardist for Sheena Easton , including a 1995 performance on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno .
Joseph is the founder of the Robbins Island Music label . His solo career began when he independently released Hear the Masses , featuring many of his Yanni bandmates . This debut was followed by Rapture , an instrumental album recorded with a 50 @-@ piece orchestra in which Joseph wrote and conducted all of the scores . It was released on the Narada label and reached ZMR Airwaves Top 30 . A number of subsequent recordings including Christmas Around the World and One Deep Breath also held positions on ZMR 's Top 100 radio chart , with the most recent being Paint the Sky which debuted at # 15 in April 2013 . Paint the Sky was nominated for Best Neo @-@ Classical Album in the 10th annual ZMR Music Awards . He has produced numerous CDs / DVDs and piano books . His music is included in multiple various @-@ artist compilation albums including the 2008 release of The Weather Channel Presents : Smooth Jazz II .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Bradley Joseph was born in Bird Island , Minnesota and raised in Willmar , Minnesota , graduating from Willmar Senior High School in 1983 . He learned how to play piano from a how @-@ to piano book he found in the piano bench . One morning his father taught him how to play a boogie @-@ woogie blues tune and by nightfall he could play the entire piece . He started playing classical piano at age eight , taking lessons for a year and a half but was self @-@ taught thereafter . While in junior high , he took a concert field trip where he saw Buddy Rich perform . He recalls , " I sat in the first row and when Buddy 's sax player stood up to take his first solo something just clicked — the world closed in around me . I felt the power of music and knew that it was something special , a gift to be shared . " Joseph played piano for the jazz band and choir in high school , and trombone through high school and college . When he picked up the horn , he got a whole new perspective on music , gaining insight into all the different timbres available , which was invaluable to him when he started working with orchestras . The first band he was in was a wedding dance band which allowed him to gain experience in every different style of music from polkas to rock and roll to jazz classics . After attending Moorhead State University as a music major , he led some of his own bands around the area that toured Midwest nightclubs . He played sax and guitar in some of these earlier bands but left them to concentrate on just the piano / keyboards . Later , he started performing with guitarist Dugan McNeill , whose U2 @-@ like group was signed to Polygram . McNeill and Yanni had once played together in the technopop band Chameleon in the late 1970s and early 1980s .
= = = Yanni = = =
In 1989 , Joseph recorded his first demo tape and sent it off to Greek composer Yanni , who was looking for someone to replace keyboardist John Tesh , as Tesh was launching his own solo career . When Yanni heard Joseph 's compositions and arrangements , he was hired over the phone to join his core band , without ever meeting .
After moving to Los Angeles at age 23 , he composed , arranged , and performed alongside Yanni for more than six years , performing in @-@ concert with a number of notable symphony orchestras , touring throughout the U.S. and abroad as Yanni gained worldwide fame . His first show was at the Starplex in Dallas with the Dallas Symphony Orchestra filming a video project . " It was a real trial by fire for me " , said Joseph . " First show + 10 @,@ 000 people + TV cameras equals NERVOUS . " He told Jane Fredericksen of the St. Croix Valley Press that " It was a big jump , you don 't really realize it at the time , but there 's no in @-@ between — going from playing nightclubs to arenas . " Some of these early tours included the Reflections of Passion , Revolution in Sound , Dare to Dream , Yanni Live , The Symphony Concerts 1993 and 1994 concert tours , as well as a performance in Germany that was broadcast throughout Europe and seen by 30 to 40 million viewers . Joseph appears on the 1994 multi @-@ platinum album and video , Live at the Acropolis . He recounts , " When I reflect back over the years , one of the high points that stand out include performing at the Acropolis with Yanni . Imagine all these different cultures coming together with the challenges of language , equipment , travel , and weather problems . I still picture the police running their dogs through the dressing rooms to sniff out any bomb possibilities right before the show . People still come up to me and comment how that show has affected their lives . "
In the band , Joseph covered a lot of the keyboard parts that Yanni could not for lack of hands in the shows . He assisted with the task of managing the 30 or more synthesizers onstage , and helped layer with the orchestra to create a " full @-@ bodied , live @-@ effect sound " . He did have to adjust some parts that did not work well in a live situation and worked extensively on programming sounds for all keyboardists . Joseph said that " Yanni gave us musicians a great deal of freedom to expand the music as well . If you listen to the original recordings he did and what we ended up with in our live recordings , you can really hear the musician 's input . " He readily credits Yanni 's role in his professional development , and for five years of irreplaceable experiences and memories .
Between tours , Joseph worked extensively in recording studios on music ranging from rock and pop to rhythm and blues and orchestration with numerous artists from RCA , Epic , Warner Brothers , and Polygram Records , in addition to performing in an elaborate national keyboard show tour with various musicians . In 2003 , he returned for the 60 @-@ city Ethnicity tour .
= = = Sheena Easton = = =
Joseph also performed with Sheena Easton for four years as her co @-@ musical director and lead keyboardist . He went from Yanni to Easton and back to Yanni in a few years . " It was a great transition from Yanni because it made me musically aware again " , he said in reference to Easton 's R & B style . " I went back to where I started but it felt like a new invention . "
Wheeler questioned how he got hooked up with Easton ; Joseph answered that he was recommended by a former road manager . He was included in a try @-@ out with four others , rehearsed with the band , they then cut it down to two , and rehearsed with Sheena for the final cut . Joseph anticipated they would ask him to do a solo on at least one of the songs he was asked to play during the audition , so he wrote a solo for all three songs , which was ultimately the reason he was hired for the job .
In a 1995 interview , he said that after five years of touring with Yanni and working on his own debut album , he needed a break . Yanni was still building his career and maintained a hectic concert schedule . Working with Easton , on the other hand , was " the best of both worlds " . " She just adopted a baby and is pretty settled in " , said Joseph . Tour venues with her included Japan , Indonesia , Puerto Rico , and the United States , as well as routine appearances in Las Vegas and Atlantic City . In March 1995 , he appeared with her on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno when she performed her new single at the time , " My Cherie " .
= = = Solo career = = =
= = = = More Core Records = = = =
In 1994 , between world tours , Joseph released his debut album , Hear the Masses , a self @-@ produced , self @-@ published release under the More Core Records label consisting of 10 original compositions . He invited most of the Yanni band to contribute . They include Charlie Adams ( drums , percussion ) ; Ric Fierabracci ( fretless bass ) ; Jeanette Clinger ( vocals ) ; and Grammy @-@ winning violinist Charlie Bisharat . Other guest artists include Larry Preston ( guitar ) ; and Terry Brau — featured on numerous Bradley Joseph recordings — playing trumpet , saxophone , and fluegelhorn .
= = = = Narada = = = =
Joseph 's style attracted the attention of Narada Productions , a Virgin Records subsidiary , via the World Wide Web . A representative for Narada came across his website and downloaded some music . This sparked their interest and resulted in signing Joseph to a multi @-@ record deal , according to Peter Spellman of the Berklee College of Music . The outcome was Rapture , containing intimate piano pieces , quartets , and full orchestral works . It reached ZMR 's " Airwaves Top 30 " at No. 15 in July 1997 . This album was recorded at a number of different studios including Captain and Tennille 's studio in Los Angeles , and Pachyderm Studio in Cannon Falls , Minnesota . In addition to a core band including Charlie Adams on percussion , Charlie Bisharat on violin , and Steven Trochlil on clarinet , Joseph brought in a 50 @-@ piece orchestra , and conducted and wrote all the scores . Ken Moore of the Naples Daily News cites , " Joseph 's music is backed by 15 talented musicians , some playing three or more different instruments , that make up a symphony of sounds ranging from quietly pensive mood music to a rich orchestration of classical depth and breadth . " Wind and Wire Magazine contributor , Michael Debbage , recalls , " It was the year 1997 and New Age music had already peaked commercially as the interest and exposure seemed to lag . The genres main labels – Narada , Windham Music , and Higher Octave – were beginning to explore worldly themes versus the warm , earthly , acoustic themes that prior artists had established . It appeared that the abundance of new artists was becoming a dying breed . An exception to the rule was Bradley Joseph , who released his first mainstream album Rapture to glorious reviews , and to this day it remains his tour de force . " One of Joseph 's compositions , " The Glen " , was written solely for the album Stories , a Narada Artist Collection , and is now also featured on 20 Years of Narada Piano . His works are included in other Narada compilation projects as well .
= = = = Robbins Island Music = = = =
Although Joseph said that working with Narada was a great experience music @-@ wise , he did not like the lack of control over the end product , and asked to be released from his contract . He started Robbins Island Music in 1998 , composing , producing , and distributing his own recordings . Solo Journey was released and consists of eleven soft piano compositions that are based on mood and not on melody . It is characterized by Debbage as being a " scaled down introspective , ... and while simplistic was still breath @-@ taking " .
Later releases include Christmas Around the World reaching ZMR 's Top 100 Radio Playlist ; and One Deep Breath also holding a position on ZMR 's Top 100 Radio Chart for over six months . Bill Binkelman writes that while he doubts fans of Liquid Mind or other mainly electronic new age music artists would wholly embrace the overt romanticism of piano @-@ led tracks like ' Dancers Waltz ' or ' Dreamer 's Lullaby ' , there is definite appeal on the album for fans of adult contemporary piano pieces , as well as for lovers of the more minimal approach to new age music . " Reviewing for Allmusic , Jim Brenholts describes One Deep Breath as a set of smooth adult contemporary pieces in which Joseph adds " world music flair and inspirational touches " . " The vocal expressions by Clystie Whang and Joseph have devotional qualities that weave through the atmospheres and soundscapes smoothly . "
Joseph returned as a featured instrumentalist during Yanni 's 2003 Ethnicity world tour , and wrote his sixth album on stage after sound checks . The Journey Continues , a sequel to Solo Journey , features Joseph on solo piano . Debbage writes , " The magical world of movies has a knack for exploring sequels . There is the beauty and beast effect when taking this pathway . The creative beauty allows the viewers to see the continued growth of its characters . The beastly aspect of this exploration is the Hollywood exploitation of an almost guaranteed return on its investment with no regard for its creative progression that usually sees diminishing returns . Bradley Joseph has decided to walk this tightrope by following up with Solo Journey that was released back in 2000 . I am glad to report that The Journey Continues is entrenched in beauty , holding up well to its predecessor . "
Subsequent releases include For the Love of It , Piano Love Songs , and Hymns and Spiritual Songs . On these albums , Joseph arranges piano , orchestra , and soft rhythms to cover melodies such as " I 'll Never Fall in Love Again " ( Burt Bacharach ) , " Fields of Gold " ( Sting ) , and " Ave Maria " ( Schubert ) . He has produced numerous CD and DVD projects designed for pets in a Music Pets Love series . He has also produced a four @-@ CD set of Nature Sounds and has published many of his compositions in sheet music form . His music is used throughout the DVD , Isle Royale Impressions Volume II , containing video footage by Carl TerHaar of scenery and wildlife from the Isle Royale National Park in Michigan .
In April 2013 , Joseph released his first album of original compositions in 10 years entitled Paint the Sky which debuted at # 15 on ZMR 's Top 100 Radio Chart . It is self @-@ described as " piano instrumentals with a cinematic feel " . He received requests from listeners to do another CD with original compositions that incorporate lush orchestration along with the piano , similar to Hear The Masses and Rapture . Kathy Parsons of MainlyPiano states that " Joseph is obviously a very versatile musician , and there are a lot of influences and musical styles that meld together to make Paint the Sky an exceptional musical experience . " Michael Debbage of MainlyPiano writes that Paint the Sky represents Joseph ’ s most complete recording since his landmark album Rapture . He goes on to say that " whether you have enjoyed Joseph ’ s more spatial recordings or his deeper embellished adventures , Paint the Sky essential is a musical rainbow of where Joseph has been and where he can potential go . "
= = = = Accolades and achievements = = = =
Joseph was named one of the " Ten Outstanding Young Minnesotans " ( TOYM ) of 2004 by the Minnesota Jaycees . In April 2008 he was presented the " WPS Foundation Arts and Academics Hallmarks of Pride " award for outstanding achievements by an alumnus . His music has been on Billboard charts , # 1 on Amazon.com , # 1 on ITunes , and top 40 for Sirius satellite radio .
Joseph 's music has been heard in regular rotation in the United States and Canada by more than 160 major radio networks including XM and Sirius satellite radio , DMX ; in the United Kingdom including RTÉ lyric fm ; as well as airwaves in Japan , Spain , China , South @-@ East Asia , Thailand , Germany , Switzerland , and Russia . Airlines such as Aeroméxico , AirTran , Frontier , JetBlue , and ExpressJet feature his music in their in @-@ flight music programs . The Weather Channel also utilizes his compositions during the " Local on the 8s " segments , and the song " Friday 's Child " is included in their 2008 compilation release , The Weather Channel Presents : Smooth Jazz II .
Paint the Sky ( 2013 ) was nominated for Best Neo @-@ Classical Album in the 10th annual ZMR Music Awards .
= = = = Thoughts on success as an independent artist = = = =
Having experienced both avenues of recording on a major label and later choosing to be an independent artist , a combination of musicianship with business know @-@ how has helped give Joseph staying power in the notoriously competitive world of music . He spends most of his time writing songs , composing arrangements , making recordings , and publishing and distributing his works . " I 'm my own boss . I can do what I want . I can change directions " , he told West Central Tribune 's Anne Polta . As an independent , business is a prime concern and can take over if not controlled , Joseph said . " A lot of musicians don 't learn the business . You just have to be well @-@ rounded in both areas . You have to understand publishing . You have to understand how you make money , what 's in demand , what helps you make the most out of your talent . " " I couldn 't license my music if it wasn 't mine " , he said . " It has allowed me to create CDs . It separates you from the million other great players . "
In an interview with author Cicily Janus , Joseph commented that his perspective has changed a great deal from when he was younger . He said , " Everything I did was focused on making good music and being a great musician , not running a business . Yet it takes a businessperson to bring music to the masses . " But some artists just want to be involved in the music and do not like the added problems or have the personality to work with both . Joseph suggests newer artists read and study both courses and pick one that best suits their needs and wants . He advises , " ... to keep your eyes and ears open all the time . All the information you need is available to you to have a successful career in music , if you 're paying attention , and not closed off to anything . " He explains , " Time and persistence has shown me that I can succeed at sharing my art with others as a musician while running my own music business . And that kind of success is as good as I could have ever wished for . "
When asked by Wheeler what brought him back to Minnesota after living in Los Angeles and traveling around the world , Joseph replied , " The first thing business people say is ' First and foremost , if you want to be successful , live where you want to live ' . " He grew up there and family were important to him . When he decided to become a solo artist he wanted to be comfortable in his environment and moved back .
= = Composition and musical style = =
= = = On composing = = =
In an interview with Indie Journal , Joseph said that when writing music he prefers to concentrate on the melody first , stating , " Basically , I write from a two @-@ person standpoint . First , I let the song take hold and I put down the idea as a raw emotional statement . Then I let it breathe and come back , approaching from more of an objective point of view . This allows me to rediscover the true meaning I intended in the beginning , shedding new light on how I can best represent that to the listener . " This same concept is explained again in a taped interview with the Government Television Network with Joseph explaining that a lot of times he may only come up with part of a melody . Then he would let it rest and come back to it and see if it feels right . Then he would start " building around it " , like putting a car together - start with a frame and then start building things around it . Musically , he tries to connect a common bridge between such exhilarating feelings as performing at the Acropolis , to the emotions each and every one feels every day . " In the end , a good melody will always stand the test of time " , says Joseph .
Debbage comments , " One strength of Bradley Joseph as an artist has been his keen ability to write inspiring music with appropriately titled songs that express that thought non @-@ verbally " . Joseph explained to Janus that , " Through instrumental music , I 'm allowed to come up with musical ideas that allow the listener to create their own impression of my song . If you add lyrics about a girl in the song , the listener doesn 't have a choice of what the song is about , it 's told to them . My musical writings allow me to express anything . It 's easier for me to tell a story of something I 've encountered this way than to verbalize it . And my feelings are explored more in my compositions compared to what I could ever say in a few sentences . " He believes that " music allows a person to express their deepest thoughts , thoughts that cannot be expressed with just words . " He also believes that the spiritual aspect of creating is to " find something deep within yourself that can only be created by you " ... " Your spiritual self cannot be copied and that 's why it 's so significant in life and music " , he says . Parsons goes on to say , " The influence of years of touring with Yanni is apparent in the richness of Joseph 's sound , but his musical voice is his own . " Yanni once said , " Bradley , your extreme sensitivity is your greatest gift " . Joseph later realized what Yanni meant was that he needed that as a composer , that it was a crucial component " to be sensitive to what you see and to be able to apply that to music " .
Polta reports that he often references the past when he names his songs and his music is frequently reminiscent of his rural Minnesota roots . " Wind Farmer " was inspired by childhood visits to a relative 's farm near Olivia , and his company , Robbins Island Music , is named after a city park in Willmar .
Joseph employs a variety of instruments to compose including the Korg Triton music workstation , Korg SG @-@ 1 piano , and occasionally Korg M1 . Rack units have included Roland JD @-@ 800 , and Roland JV @-@ 1080 which he says is " great for string layers " . The Alesis D4 , Yamaha SY22 , and Yamaha TG77 which has " some nice ethereal textures " have been utilized ; working also with E @-@ mu Systems Proteus 1 , Proteus 2 , and the E @-@ 5000 sampler because it is " easy to use and has a great library " . Acoustic pianos vary , Yamaha and Bösendorfer were used for the 1997 album , Rapture .
= = = Musical style = = =
Joseph 's musical style and direction have varied over time , having released more than two hundred original compositions and arrangements since 1994 . " When I write it , it just kind of moves , because where I am in life is different " , Joseph said . " So as I get older , it kind of changes . "
= = = = Hear the Masses and Rapture = = = =
Joseph 's recordings can offer full orchestrations such as in Hear the Masses and Rapture that combine smooth jazz with contemporary instrumental themes . A review of Rapture from New Age Voice states Joseph " paints romantic pictures in sound with voices and instruments that escalate from quiet , intimate passages to big , energetic movements " . " The arrangements are structured so that the trumpet can lead a line out on ' Be Still ' signaling an introspective sort of mood ; yet the strings swell on ' The Passage ' engulfing the listener in an ocean of sound . " " Even cuts that start quiet , such as ' Healing the Hollow Man ' or ' Blue Rock Road ' ebb and flow between quiet moments and crescendos . "
= = = = Solo Journey and The Journey Continues = = = =
In contrast , albums such as Solo Journey and The Journey Continues are considered to be " stripped back and basic " by Debbage , with the latter featuring " Joseph and his piano with no additional clutter " . " There is color in the songs via their understated melodies . " As examples , Debbage describes Joseph as using a chord progression that translates into a strolling rhythm in the song " The Road Ahead " . Solo Piano Publications contributor , Kathy Parsons , writes , " ... ' The Long , Last Mile ' starts out with a bittersweet melody , and then builds in intensity and complexity with cello , winds , and ethereal sounds intertwining around the piano . Then it breaks off , and the opening melody returns . "
= = = = One Deep Breath = = = =
For the 2002 album One Deep Breath , Joseph combines " structured melodic pieces and free @-@ form ambient compositions " , which " departs dramatically from the previous more explosive and dynamic music on his first two recordings , Hear the Masses and Rapture " . Binkelman writes , " It is an album with two distinct ' feels ' to it : the more serene new age / ambient soundscapes that bookend the inner tracks and the more radio @-@ friendly and mainstream music in @-@ between . " For instance , the song " Dance of Life " was inspired by Antonín Dvořák 's opera , " Rusalka " . It is a bit more straightforward in its piano presentation , and will probably appeal the most to hardcore fans of solo instrumental music , says Instrumental Weekly . Then the album closes with its title track , " One Deep Breath " , that " floats and meanders for more than ten minutes , bringing in ocean sounds " . It is " far and away the most ambient of everything else to be found here " , and is " stunning , both in its execution and how radical a change it is from what has come before " .
= = = = Christmas Around the World and Classic Christmas = = = =
Debbage depicts " A Minnesota Snowfall " from Christmas Around the World as taking " a more naked , bare @-@ boned ballad approach " . While discussing Classic Christmas , Gerry Grzyb , chairman of the University of Wisconsin – Oshkosh sociology department , states that Joseph 's usual approach is to play the carol straight , and then add his own twists . " ... he 's very effective at that — he doesn 't stray as far as a jazz or classical organ improviser might , but he does keep the interest up . " Grzyb says that the same applies to Joseph 's earlier Christmas Around the World CD , which he found even more interesting because of the use of other instrumental sounds .
= = = = Suites & Sweets = = = =
Joseph has also produced numerous CDs that include cover arrangements for piano and orchestra . The 2009 release of Suites & Sweets features compositions by Beethoven , Mozart , Bach , and other classical composers . Joseph told Fredericksen that he , " took the best parts and movements out of those classical songs … and made it soft and calm all the way through . "
= = = = Paint the Sky = = = =
After requests from listeners for Joseph to do another CD with original compositions that incorporate lush orchestration along with the piano , similar to Hear The Masses and Rapture , Joseph released Paint the Sky in April 2013 . It is self @-@ described as " piano instrumentals with a cinematic feel " . John P. Olsen of New Age Music World writes that " Paint The Sky ... is best expressed by the near even number of songs with upbeat melodies and lively rhythms , with the balance centered by a light , casual relaxed atmosphere ... with importance given to melodic rhythm and phrasing . " In another review of Paint the Sky , Bill Binkelman of Wind and Wire says that " Joseph is one of the very best artists when it comes to crafting piano instrumentals augmented by the spot @-@ on application of an assortment of keyboard embellishments , from standard orchestral accompaniment to more textural / new age elements " . Kathy Parsons of MainlyPiano states " The thirteen pieces ... range from tender to majestic . Several pieces are solo piano and others are orchestrated with keyboards to give a vibrant , cinematic effect . "
About this album , Binkelman describes the song " Inside the Stars " as " an uptempo , joyous lead piano melody accented by bouncy rhythms played on kit drums , thumping bass , and tambourine plus superlative orchestral strings " . Michael Debagge of MainlyPiano states that " the optimism of this album is felt immediately courtesy of the buoyancy of ' Inside The Stars ' , filled with Joseph ’ s nifty piano work more in the vein of Bruce Hornsby , then layered in strings and percussion work " .
In an in @-@ depth analysis of the composition " In Dreams Awake " , Binkelman opines that this song bears a strong contemporary classical influence and that some people might even hear strains of Philip Glass ’ music . He says there is an exultant feel to the melody , but because Joseph maintains absolute control of nuance and shading the song never descends into overblown melodrama or bombast . As the track progresses , the mood and style shifts into a more identifiable new age motif , with more textural synths , bell tones and bell trees , and a more pronounced sweeping sensation of subdued grandeur . The Glass @-@ like motif returns for the song ’ s finale . Parsons characterizes this same song as " a concept piece that begins with an intense and intriguing theme for cello or viola and strings . Building as it evolves , it never takes a breath until near the end of the theme . From there , the piece becomes dreamy and ambient , " floating effortlessly " on keyboard sounds until the original strings re @-@ enter , increasing to the intensity of the first theme " . At the same time , Debbage notes " ... the multi @-@ movements found on the challenging ' In Dreams Awake ' ... " and says that it " ... opens with an extended piece of strings that almost appear to be battling against each other , only to move into a beautiful dreamy midsection to once again return to the more chaotic strings , much like our nonsensical dreams " .
Binkleman goes on to say that the song " Into the Big Blue " should instantly call Aaron Copland to mind – it has the same BIG orchestral / cinematic sound to it , along with Copland @-@ esque western rhythm and melodic motifs . Similarly , Debbage states that this song brings to mind the musical opening theme of that old western television show The Big Valley .
In reference to the song " Secrets of the Sun " , Binkelman describes " lush strings and gorgeous new age synths with the piano melody here brimming with a blend of the ethereal and the romantic with a dash of wistfulness besides " . The synth sounds remind him a little of Ray Lynch . Parsons details this as " much calmer and more graceful with a piano melody and keyboard enhancements " . Debbage writes that " the remainder of the album is filled with Joseph ’ s uncanny ability to compose elegant and emotive ballads . Back track to ' Secrets Of The Sun ' that gently sways in the piano and string arrangements with similar results found on ' The Edge Of My Heart ' .
= = = Genres and radio formats = = =
Generally , Joseph 's music gets airplay in the adult contemporary , smooth jazz , easy listening , and beautiful music radio formats , and while some is classified in the new age genre , he considers contemporary instrumental to fit his style of playing the best . In discussing Rapture , John Blake of The Atlanta Journal notes that often new age music sounds as if it should be played in a supermarket . The songs can sound like musical cotton candy — soft , airy and ultimately uninteresting . " For the most part , Bradley 's music doesn 't make that mistake . " " The music is cinematic , filled with introspective piano solos , swelling violins , and a hypnotic song pacing that allows the listener to daydream . " Along the same line , Michael Debbage of Mainly Piano says that Rapture almost single @-@ handedly gave a sense of hope that there was much more that the New Age genre could offer . Cicily Janus remarks that , " Although Bradley has been , at times , pigeon holed into an offshoot of jazz , his message through his music is universal in its appeal and soothing qualities . "
= = Discography = =
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= Cherish ( Madonna song ) =
" Cherish " is a song by American singer Madonna from her fourth studio album Like a Prayer ( 1989 ) . It was written and produced by Madonna and Patrick Leonard , and was released by Sire Records as the album 's third single on August 1 , 1989 . " Cherish " was built around the themes of love and relationship , with William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet being one of the major inspirations . The track also included a line from " Cherish " by the 1960s band The Association . Musically constructed as a doo @-@ wop style pop song , it is regarded as a light @-@ hearted track by critics and includes instruments such as drum machine , percussions , keyboards and a saxophone . Lyrically , it speaks of Madonna 's devotion to her lover , and her promise to be always by his side . " Cherish " was included on Madonna 's greatest hits compilations The Immaculate Collection ( 1990 ) and the two @-@ disc edition of Celebration ( 2009 ) .
After its release , the song received positive feedback from reviewers , who were surprised by the change of content and the lighter image of Madonna 's music , unlike her previous singles from Like a Prayer which incorporated themes such as religion and sexuality . They compared the lyrics of the song to words spoken by Juliet , in William Shakespeare 's play , Romeo and Juliet . " Cherish " was a commercial success , reaching the top @-@ ten of the charts in Australia , Belgium , Canada , Ireland , Italy , United Kingdom and the combined European chart . On the Billboard Hot 100 , " Cherish " became Madonna 's 16th consecutive top @-@ five single , setting a record in the history of the Billboard Hot 100 chart .
A black @-@ and @-@ white music video of the song was directed by photographer Herb Ritts at the Paradise Cove Beach in Malibu , California . In the video , Madonna plays herself , while three co @-@ actors dressed as Mermen swam in and out of the sea . Academics noted that the Mermen became symbols for the homosexual community and the oppression it faced . Madonna performed " Cherish " on her Blond Ambition World Tour ( 1990 ) , where the performance included her dancers dressed up as Mermen . Its symbolism was seen to de @-@ sexualize men , relegating them to objects of desire .
= = Background = =
" Cherish " was written and produced by Madonna and Patrick Leonard , and released as the third single from Like a Prayer ( 1989 ) . The song is built around the themes of love and relationships , with William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet one of its major inspirations . Madonna was reading Romeo and Juliet during the breaks during rehearsals for Speed the Plow , a Broadway show in which she was starring in 1988 . On the third day of the Like a Prayer recording sessions , she presented Leonard with the lyrics of " Cherish " , and explained that she had written the song " one sunny afternoon by the beach " , but later confessed that it was actually written in her make @-@ up room . Leonard introduced one line from the similar titled song by the 1960s band The Association , " Cherish is the word I use " , after which Madonna decided to include it on Like a Prayer . The B @-@ side of the single release of " Cherish " was a previously unreleased track called " Supernatural " , composed during the recording sessions of her third studio album , True Blue ( 1986 ) . In 2009 , during an interview with Rolling Stone , Madonna confessed that she had never been able to predict if her songs would be successful , irrespective of her personal opinion of them . As an example , she cited " Cherish " as one of the most " retarded " songs she had written , but noted it became a commercial success . The song was also included on the 1990 compilation album The Immaculate Collection and the two @-@ disc edition of her 2009 compilation Celebration .
= = Composition = =
" Cherish " is a doo @-@ wop style pop shuffle song and opened the second side of Like a Prayer . It begins with the sound of synths and keyboard and Madonna repeatedly singing the words " cherish , cherish " . This is followed by the sound from drum machine , as percussion and guitars accompany her voice . During the bridge , Madonna sings the line " Cupid please take your aim at me " , as the keyboard sound becomes pronounced . The drum changes its rhythm and Madonna moves into the chorus , " Cherish the joy , of always having you here by my side " , accompanied by background vocals and a bass guitar . The second verse continues in the same way , with Madonna singing the line " Romeo and Juliet , they never felt this way I bet , So don 't underestimate my point of view . "
As the second chorus ends , a saxophone starts playing as Madonna softly asks the listener , " Who ? You ! Can 't get away , won 't let you " , followed by Leonard 's The Association inspired line . Background vocals continue repeating words over a horn , playing in B ♭ minor . The drums and the percussion start again and the chorus is sung twice , before fading out . According to the sheet music published by Alfred Publishing Co . Inc . , " Cherish " is composed in the time signature of common time , with a moderately fast tempo of 130 beats per minute . Set in the key of D major , " Cherish " has Madonna singing between the tonal nodes of A3 to D5 . The song follows the sequence of G / D – D – Em7 – D in the beginning as its chord progression , which changes to D – Dm – C – Em7 during the verses and shifts to G – D / G – A – D / F ♯ in the chorus .
The lyrics of " Cherish " makes it a simple love song , where Madonna talks about devotion and having her lover by her side , whom she would never leave . According to semiotician Thomas Sebeok , the backbone of " Cherish " is constructed by incorporating titles of previous romantic pop hits . Songs such as " Cupid " ( Sam Cooke ) , " You Are My Destiny " ( Paul Anka ) and " I Can 't Let Go " ( The Hollies ) are used within the first verse , while other verses use the words of such song titles as " Burning Love " ( Elvis Presley ) and " Two Hearts " ( Bruce Springsteen ) . Other instances include The Association song reference and Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet . Richard Burt , author of Shakespeare After Mass Media , deduced that the lines on Romeo and Juliet and " I Can 't Let Go " makes the speaker alternate between assertiveness and dependency . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine felt that although " Cherish " was a " radiant " song invoking the pop music of the 60s , " in the grand pop scheme , [ it ] pales only in comparison to their glorious counterparts , making Like a Prayer one of the quintessential pop albums of all time . "
= = Critical reception = =
Wayne Robins from Newsday believed that the song exemplified the " kind of random pop we 'd get if [ postmodern author ] William Burroughs were the program director of a Top 40 radio station . " Burt compared the song and Madonna 's delivery of the lyrics with the dialogues spoken by Shakespeare 's Juliet , and found similarity in the , " Sweet so would I , Yet I should kill thee with much cherishing " from the play , with the lyrics of " Cherish " . Allen Metz , one of the authors of The Madonna Companion , felt that " Cherish " as the opening song of the B @-@ side of Like a Prayer , reaffirmed the sweet and happy romanticism that was missing from the A @-@ side of the album . " As much a child of pop " he says , " as of the church , Madonna is restored by music 's healing power , in this case with a mixture of classic sweet soul and L.A. pop moderne . " Lucy O 'Brien , author of Madonna : Like an Icon , felt that the song was typical of Madonna 's previous musical endeavors , and would have been more suitable for her third studio album , True Blue , whose songs mainly dealt with romance and relationships . Music critic J. D. Considine , while reviewing the Like a Prayer album for Rolling Stone complimented the song for creating an effective balance , contrasting its lighthearted nature with the trauma of " Oh Father " , the next song . Considine also found retro @-@ rock references in the song .
Freya Jarman @-@ Ivens , one of the authors of Madonna 's Drowned Worlds , felt that the song was one of the last works on pure romanticism by Madonna . " She should come back to the formula from time to time , but I guess she has moved beyond all of that " , Jarman @-@ Ivens added . Carol Clerk , author of Madonnastyle noted that the " refreshing " nature of the song was particularly noticeable if one follows Madonna 's catalog chronologically , especially embedded between the anthem like nature of the previous release , " Express Yourself " , and the lament of the succeeding release , " Oh Father " . Scholar Maria Raha wrote in her book Cinderella 's Big Score : Women of the Punk and Indie Underground that the song was full of " trite " lyrics . Andy Goldberg from The Jerusalem Post said that " Cherish " took " Madonna back to her old stomping grounds , the lively bass line and lilting melodies of hit albums past . " Kevin Phinney from Austin American @-@ Statesman was surprised by Madonna 's contribution to the song and confessed that he " [ found ] it difficult to be believe that she even wrote this ? " Phinney continued that he wanted Madonna to go in a more mature direction and compose songs musically similar to " Cherish " . Writing for The Washington Post , Richard Harrington explained that " while songs on Like a Prayer dealt with matters opening her heart , with ' Cherish ' Madonna dealt with matters which were close to her heart . " This view was also shared by Ian Blair from Chicago Tribune who categorized the song as being sung for the " happy @-@ go @-@ lucky lovers and dreamers " . The Dallas Morning News ' Lennox Samuels appreciated the light @-@ hearted theme of the song and complimented Madonna and Leonard for not sticking with personal subject matters only on the album . Dale Anderson from The Buffalo News opined that the song would become one of Madonna 's most forgettable releases , but was also hopeful that it would not . This opinion was shared by Don McCleese of Chicago Sun @-@ Times , who added that " Cherish " was not something expected from Madonna at that point of time . McCleese was disappointed that Madonna went back to the " happy @-@ go @-@ lucky , lovey @-@ dovey " kind of songs , which did not match her self @-@ image . Dan DeLuca from The Philadelphia Inquirer , while reviewing Madonna 's Drowned World Tour in 2001 , compared " Cherish " with songs by Chris Robinson , humorously adding that " only if he was gay he would sing something like that . "
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Cherish " debuted at number 37 on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart . The next week it moved to number 28 on the chart , becoming the week 's " greatest gainer " song . After three weeks , as " Cherish " entered the top @-@ five of Billboard Hot 100 , music industry prognosticators theorized that the song would become Madonna 's eighth number @-@ one song on the Hot 100 . However , the song started facing competition from fellow singer Janet Jackson 's single " Miss You Much " , which also moved into the top @-@ ten the same week . The popular media pitted the two women against each other and tried to create rivalry between them . The song eventually peaked at number two on October 7 , 1989 , the same week " Miss You Much " topped the Hot 100 . " Cherish " became Madonna 's sixteenth consecutive top @-@ five single , a record in Hot 100 chart history . It was present on the Hot 100 for a total of 15 weeks . Unlike previous Madonna singles , " Cherish " was not a dance hit and did not make an appearance on the Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart , but was able to top the Hot Adult Contemporary chart , her third after " Live to Tell " and " La Isla Bonita " . " Cherish " also helped Madonna to win the " Top Adult Contemporary Artist " trophy at the 1989 Billboard Music Awards . On the year @-@ end charts of Billboard , " Cherish " ranked at number 59 on the Hot 100 and number 31 on the Adult Contemporary chart . In Canada , " Cherish " debuted at number 80 on the RPM Singles Chart on August 14 , 1989 . In its ninth week on the chart , the song reached number one , staying there for two weeks . The song was present on the chart for 17 weeks and was the ninth best @-@ selling Canadian single for 1989 .
On September 1 , 1989 , " Cherish " was released in the United Kingdom and entered the UK Singles Chart at number 16 . The next week , the song moved to its peak position of number three , becoming Madonna 's 21st top ten single in the United Kingdom . According to the Official Charts Company , the song has sold 200 @,@ 000 copies there . " Cherish " entered the Australian Singles Chart at number 17 on September 17 , 1989 , and reached a peak of number four , staying on the chart for 16 weeks . In the Netherlands , " Cherish " debuted at number 24 on the Dutch Top 40 chart , and reached a peak of number 15 , the next week .
= = Music video = =
" Cherish " was accompanied by a black @-@ and @-@ white music video that was directed by Herb Ritts and was filmed on July 22 , 1989 at Paradise Cove Beach in Malibu , California . Its world @-@ premiere took place on MTV on August 28 , 1989 . Ritts was one of Madonna 's preferred photographers at that time and so she asked him to direct the " Cherish " video . Ritts reportedly tried to talk her out of it saying , " But I 'm a still photographer . I don 't know anything about film . " Undaunted , Madonna replied simply , " Well you have a few weeks to learn . " The video was conceptualized by Ritts , who wanted to portray Mermen in their natural habitat , but Madonna baulked at the idea since she wanted to be portrayed as herself , but keep the Mermen also . Four male performers were signed for this , one of them being Tony Ward , who would become Madonna 's boyfriend later , with the other three being water polo players from nearby Pepperdine University . There were four Merman tails created by Global Effects in North Hollywood , California , for the video . Three full size tails for the mermen were cast in a solid highly flexible rubber , each weighing around 40 lbs . This was necessary to make them neutrally buoyant in water as lighter tails would have floated , causing the swimmers to be head down in the sea . Once in these tails , the polo players needed to be carried to and from the water and once inside , they had tremendous swimming power and agility . This was partly due to a plastic spring like armature cast into the flipper of each tail . One of the reasons that this video was shot in black and white was because the water was very cold , causing Madonna 's already pale complexion to look even whiter .
Fouz deduced a relationship between the music and the images in the video for " Cherish " , saying that they complement each other ; the author felt that this in turn encouraged the viewer to watch the video repeatedly . Fouz talked about the balancing of height and depth occurring in the video . The visual depictions of the Mermen and the lighting used in the video was influenced by Ritts ' still photography known as " The Male Nude Bubble " , which showed nude male models inside a giant water tank , with a white cloth entwined around them . Many of the qualities in the photos , including the floating nature of the models , were used in the swimming and the posing of the Mermen . Carol Vernallis , author of Experiencing Music Video , found homoerotic connotations between Madonna and the Mermen . The Mermen in the video exist in a self @-@ contained world of their own , where they procreate with their own kind , both biologically and socially . The fact that the Mermen did not seem to possess genitalia led Vernallis to believe that it associated them with Ritts ' other works , homoerotic sculptural images without penis . Their tails drew different meanings , including sexual ones and Christian symbolism . Since in contemporary art , the images of Mermen are rare and Mermaids are prominent , they are sometimes called fairies partly because it is not known how they came to be . Vernallis believed that the mysteriousness and the elusiveness of the mermen in the video played a crucial role . They never address the camera directly and are often shown disappearing from view . Vernallis believed that since invisibility is a central theme in the homosexual community , this actually portrayed oppression and also the desire to watch but never be seen .
= = Live performance and covers = =
Madonna has performed " Cherish " live only during one tour , on her 1990 Blond Ambition World Tour . Onstage , the performance mirrored the sequence from the music video , with the appearance of three of Madonna 's dancers , dressed as mermen . Author Carol Clerk noted in her book Madonnastyle that the outfit worn by the singer during this sequence was the simplest and the softest costume of the show . It consisted of a black mini @-@ dress trimmed and stitched with a stuffed West African stork , called the marabou . Madonna gyrated around her dancers , while playing with a harp . During the chorus , the dancers lifted their prosthetic fish @-@ tails and joined them with each other . Guilbert felt that the performance de @-@ sexualizes men , since they are relegated to objects of adoration , like the three mermen dancers . This view was shared by Mark Bego , author of Madonna : Blonde Ambition , who said that " Madonna and her girls go into a very girlish mode , but they give the feeling that they are in charge , be it playing with the mermen , or teasing them . " Two different performances were taped and released on video , the Blond Ambition Japan Tour 90 , taped in Yokohama , Japan , on April 27 , 1990 , and the Blond Ambition World Tour Live , taped in Nice , France , on August 5 , 1990 .
The late Brazilian singer Renato Russo included an acoustic cover of the song on his 1994 album The Stonewall Celebration Concert . His version was appreciated by Alvaro Neder of Allmusic . The 2000 compilation album Virgin Voices : A Tribute To Madonna , Vol . 2 contains a cover by worldbeat group Loop Guru . An alternative rock cover of the song by The Prayers was included on the 2007 Madonna tribute compilation Through the Wilderness .
= = Track listing and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – songwriter , producer
Patrick Leonard – songwriter , producer , remixer , arranger
James Guthrie – mixing
Herb Ritts – cover art photographer
Jeri Heiden – calligraphy , artwork design
Credits and personnel adapted from Like a Prayer album liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Agkistrodon piscivorus =
Agkistrodon piscivorus is a venomous snake , a species of pit viper , found in the southeastern United States . Adults are large and capable of delivering a painful and potentially fatal bite . When antagonized , they will stand their ground by coiling their bodies and displaying their fangs . Although their aggression has been exaggerated , individuals may bite when feeling threatened or being handled . This is the world 's only semiaquatic viper , usually found in or near water , particularly in slow @-@ moving and shallow lakes , streams , and marshes . The snake is a strong swimmer and will even enter the sea . It has successfully colonized islands off both the Atlantic and Gulf coasts .
The generic name is derived from the Greek words ancistro ( hooked ) and odon ( tooth ) , and the specific name comes from the Latin piscis ( fish ) and voro ( to eat ) ; thus , the scientific name translates into “ hooked @-@ tooth fish @-@ eater ” . Common names include variants on water moccasin , swamp moccasin , black moccasin , cottonmouth , gapper , or simply viper . Many of the common names refer to the threat display , where this species will often stand its ground and gape at an intruder , exposing the white lining of its mouth . Three subspecies are currently recognized , including the nominate subspecies described here .
= = Description = =
This is the largest species of the genus Agkistrodon . Adults commonly exceed 80 cm ( 31 in ) in length , females grow up to be smaller than males . Total length , per one study of adults , was 65 to 90 cm ( 26 to 35 in ) . Average body mass has been found to be 292 @.@ 5 to 579 @.@ 6 g ( 10 @.@ 32 to 20 @.@ 44 oz ) in males and 201 @.@ 1 to 254 @.@ 1 g ( 7 @.@ 09 to 8 @.@ 96 oz ) in females . Occasionally , individuals may exceed 180 cm ( 71 in ) in length , especially in the eastern part of the range . According to Gloyd and Conant ( 1990 ) , the largest recorded specimen of A. p. piscivorus was 188 cm ( 74 in ) in length , based on a specimen caught in the Dismal Swamp region and given to the Philadelphia Zoological Garden . It should be noted , however , that this snake had apparently been injured during capture , died several days later and was measured when straight and relaxed . Large specimens can be extremely bulky , with the mass of a specimen of approximately 180 cm ( 71 in ) in length known to attain 4 @.@ 6 kg ( 10 lb ) .
The broad head is distinct from the neck , and the snout is blunt in profile with the rim of the top of the head extending forwards slightly further than the mouth . Substantial cranial plates are present , although the parietal plates are often fragmented , especially towards the rear . A loreal scale is absent . There are six to 9 supralabials and eight to 12 infralabials . At midbody , there are 23 – 27 rows of dorsal scales . All dorsal scale rows have keels , although those on the lowermost scale rows are weak . In males / females , the ventral scales number 130 @-@ 145 / 128 @-@ 144 and the subcaudals 38 @-@ 54 / 36 @-@ 50 . Many of the latter may be divided .
Though the majority of specimens are almost or even totally black , ( with the exception of head and facial markings ) , the color pattern may consist of a brown , gray , tan , yellowish @-@ olive or blackish ground color , which is overlaid with a series of 10 – 17 dark brown to almost black crossbands . These crossbands , which usually have black edges , are sometimes broken along the dorsal midline to form a series of staggered halfbands on either side of the body . These crossbands are visibly lighter in the center , almost matching the ground color , often contain irregular dark markings , and extend well down onto the ventral scales . The dorsal banding pattern fades with age , so older individuals are an almost uniform olive @-@ brown , grayish @-@ brown or black . The belly is white , yellowish @-@ white or tan , marked with dark spots , and becomes darker posteriorly . The amount of dark pigment on the belly varies from virtually nothing to almost completely black . The head is a more or less uniform brown color , especially in A. p. piscivorus . Subadult specimens may exhibit the same kind of dark , parietal spots characteristic of A. contortrix , but sometimes these are still visible in adults . Eastern populations have a broad , dark , postocular stripe , bordered with pale pigment above and below , that is faint or absent in western populations . The underside of the head is generally whitish , cream or tan .
Juvenile and subadult specimens generally have a more contrasting color pattern , with dark crossbands on a lighter ground color . The ground color is then tan , brown or reddish brown . The tip of the tail is usually yellowish , becoming greenish yellow or greenish in subadults , and then black in adults . On some juveniles , the banding pattern can also be seen on the tail . Young snakes wiggle the tip of their tail to lure prey animals .
This species is often confused with the copperhead , A. contortrix . This is especially true for juveniles , but there are differences . A. piscivorus has broad , dark stripes on the sides of its head that extend back from the eye , whereas A. contortrix has only a thin dark line that divides the pale supralabials from the somewhat darker color of the head . The watersnakes of the genus Nerodia are also similar in appearance , being thick @-@ bodied with large heads , but they have round pupils , no loreal pit , a single anal plate , subcaudal scales that are divided throughout and a distinctive overall color pattern .
= = Common names = =
This is a list of common names for Agkistrodon piscivorus , some of which also refer to other species :
cottonmouth
black water viper
black snake
water pitviper
worm @-@ tailed pitviper
water copperhead
cotton @-@ mouthed snake
mangrove rattler
moccasin snake
water moccasin
North American water viper
water rattlesnake
= = Geographic range = =
This species is found in the eastern US from the Dismal Swamp in southeast Virginia , south through the Florida peninsula and west to Arkansas , eastern and southern Oklahoma , and western and southern Georgia ( excluding Lake Lanier and Lake Allatoona ) . A few records exist of the species being found along the Rio Grande in Texas , but these are thought to represent disjunct populations , now possibly eradicated . The type locality given is " Carolina " , although Schmidt ( 1953 ) proposed this be restricted to the area around Charleston , South Carolina .
Campbell and Lamar ( 2004 ) mentioned this species as being found in Alabama , Arkansas , Florida , Georgia , Illinois , Indiana , Kentucky , Louisiana , Mississippi , Missouri , North Carolina , Oklahoma , South Carolina , Texas , and Virginia . Maps provided by Campbell and Lamar ( 2004 ) and Wright and Wright ( 1957 ) also indicate its presence in Western and Middle Tennessee and extreme southeastern Kansas , and limit it to the western part of Kentucky .
In Georgia , it is found in the southern half of the state up to a few kilometers north of the fall line with few exceptions . Its range also includes the Ohio River Valley as far north as southern Illinois , and it inhabits many barrier islands off the coasts of the states where it is found .
= = Conservation status = =
This species is classified as Least Concern ( LC ) on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species ( v3.1 , 2007 ) . Species are listed as such due to their wide distribution , presumed large population , or because they are unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category . When last assessed in 2007 , the population trend was stable .
Constant persecution of the species and drainage of wetland habitat prior to development has taken a heavy toll on local populations . Despite this , it remains a common species in many areas .
In Indiana , the cottonmouth is listed as an endangered species .
= = Habitat = =
This is the most aquatic species of the genus Agkistrodon , and is usually associated with bodies of water , such as creeks , streams , marshes , swamps and the shores of ponds and lakes . The U.S. Navy ( 1991 ) describes it as inhabiting swamps , shallow lakes and sluggish streams , but it is usually not found in swift , deep , cool water . Behler and King ( 1979 ) list its habitats as including lowland swamps , lakes , rivers , bayheads , sloughs , irrigation ditches , canals , rice fields and small , clear , rocky , mountain streams .
It is also found in brackish water habitats and is sometimes seen swimming in saltwater . It has been much more successful at colonizing Atlantic and Gulf coast barrier islands than the copperhead , A. contortrix . However , even on these islands , it tends to favor freshwater marshes . A study by Dunson and Freda ( 1985 ) describes it as not being particularly salt @-@ tolerant .
The snake is not limited to aquatic habitats , however , as Gloyd and Conant ( 1990 ) mentioned large specimens have been found more than a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from water . In various locations , the species is well @-@ adapted to less moist environments , such as palmetto thickets , pine @-@ palmetto forest , pine woods in East Texas , pine flatwoods in Florida , eastern deciduous dune forest , dune and beach areas , riparian forest and prairies .
= = Behavior = =
The aggressiveness of these snakes has been greatly exaggerated . In tests designed to measure the various behavioral responses by wild specimens to encounters with people , 23 of 45 ( 51 % ) tried to escape , while 28 of 36 ( 78 % ) resorted to threat displays and other defensive tactics . Only when they were picked up with a mechanical hand were they likely to bite .
When sufficiently stressed or threatened , this species engages in a characteristic threat display that includes vibrating its tail and throwing its head back with its mouth open to display the startling white interior , often making a loud hiss while the neck and front part of the body are pulled into an S @-@ shaped position . Many of its common names , including " cottonmouth " and " gaper " , refer to this behavior , while its habit of snapping its jaws shut when anything touches its mouth has earned it the name " trap @-@ jaw " in some areas . Other defensive responses can include flattening the body and emitting a strong , pungent secretion from the anal glands located at the base of the tail . This musk may be ejected in thin jets if the snake is sufficiently agitated or restrained . The smell has been likened to that of a billy goat , as well as to a genus of common flood plain weeds , Pluchea , that also have a penetrating odor .
Harmless watersnakes of the genus Nerodia are often mistaken for it . These are also semiaquatic , thick @-@ bodied snakes with large heads that can be aggressive when provoked , but they behave differently . For example , watersnakes usually flee quickly into the water , while A. piscivorus often stands its ground with its threat display . In addition , watersnakes do not vibrate their tails when excited . A. piscivorus usually holds its head at an angle of about 45 ° when swimming or crawling .
Brown ( 1973 ) considered their heavy muscular bodies to be a striking characteristic , stating this made it difficult to hold them for venom extraction owing to their strength .
This species may be active during the day , as well as at night . However , on bright , sunny days , they are usually found coiled or stretched out somewhere in the shade . In the morning and on cool days , they can often be seen basking in the sunlight . They often emerge at sunset to warm themselves on warm ground ( i.e. , sidewalks , roads ) and then become very active throughout the night , when they are usually found swimming or crawling . Contrary to popular belief , they are capable of biting while underwater .
In the north , they hibernate during the winter months . Niell ( 1947 , 1948 ) made observations in Georgia and noted they were one of the last species to seek shelter , often being found active until the first heavy frosts . At this point , they moved to higher ground and could be found in rotting pine stumps by tearing away the bark . These snakes could be quite active upon discovery and would then attempt to burrow more deeply into the soft wood or escape to the nearest water . In southeastern Virginia , Wood ( 1954 ) reported seeing migratory behavior in late October and early November . During a period of three or four days , as many as 50 individuals could be seen swimming across Back Bay from the bayside swamps of the barrier islands to the mainland . He suggested this might have something to do with hibernating habits . In the southern parts of its range , hibernation may be short or omitted altogether .
= = Feeding = =
Raymond Ditmars ( 1912 ) described this species as " omnicarnivorous " . Its diet includes mammals , birds , amphibians , fish , snakes , small turtles and small alligators . Cannibalism has also been reported . Normally , though , the bulk of its diet consists of fish and frogs . On occasion , juvenile specimens feed on invertebrates . Catfish are often eaten , although the sharp spines sometimes cause injuries . Toads of the genus Bufo are apparently avoided .
Many authors have described the prey items taken under natural circumstances . Although fish and frogs are their most common prey , they will eat almost any small vertebrate . Campbell and Lamar ( 2004 ) provided an exhaustive list of species that have reportedly been preyed upon by A. piscivorus , including cicadas , caterpillars , land snails ( Euglandina rosea ) , catfish ( Ictalurus furcatus ) , pike ( Esox ssp . ) , sunfishes ( Lepomis ssp . ) , bass ( Micropterus ssp . ) , sirens ( Siren spp . ) , eastern newts ( Notophthalmus viridescens ) , brook salamanders ( Eurycea spp . ) , Ouachita dusky salamanders ( Desmognathus brimleyorum ) , spadefoot toads ( Scaphiopus ) , eastern narrowmouth toads ( Gastrophryne carolinensis ) , northern cricket frogs ( Acris crepitans ) , West Indian treefrogs ( Osteopilus septentrionalis ) , treefrogs ( Hyla spp . ) , true frogs ( Rana spp . ) , green anoles ( Anolis carolinensis ) , skinks ( Eumeces spp . ) , eastern glass lizards ( Ophisaurus ventralis ) , ground skinks ( Scincella lateralis ) , mudsnakes ( Farancia abacura ) , hog @-@ nosed snakes ( Heterodon platirhinos ) , kingsnakes ( Lampropeltis spp . ) , watersnakes ( Nerodia spp . ) , crayfish snakes ( Regina spp . ) , brown snakes ( Storeria dekayi ) , gartersnakes and ribbonsnakes ( Thamnophis spp . ) , other cottonmouths ( A. piscivorus ) , rattlesnakes ( Crotalus spp . ) , common snapping turtles ( Chelydra serpentina ) , mud turtles ( Kinosternon spp . ) , common musk turtles ( Sternotherus odoratus ) , Florida cooters ( Pseudemys floridana ) , sliders ( Trachemys scripta ) , eastern box turtles ( Terrapene carolina ) , Florida softshell turtles ( Apalone ferox ) , baby American alligators ( Alligator mississippiensis ) , wood thrushes ( Hylocichla mustelina ) , chickadees ( Parus spp . ) , cardinals ( Cardinalis cardinalis ) , unidentified passerines , small ducks , juvenile anhingas ( Anhinga anhinga ) , common egrets ( Ardea alba ) , egrets , glossy ibises and their eggs ( Plegadis falcinellus ) , tricolor herons ( Egretta tricolor ) , herons and their eggs , pied @-@ billed grebes ( Podilymbus podiceps ) , short @-@ tailed shrews ( Blarina brevicauda ) , least shrews ( Cryptotis parva ) , southeastern shrews ( Sorex longirostris ) , eastern moles ( Scalopus aquaticus ) , muskrats ( Ondatra zibethicus ) , rice rats ( Oryzomys palustris ) , hispid pocket mice ( Perognathus hispidus ) , black rats ( Rattus rattus ) , squirrels ( Sciurus spp . ) , rabbits ( Sylvilagus spp . ) and bats .
Fish are captured by cornering them in shallow water , usually against the bank or under logs . They take advantage when bodies of water begin to dry up in the summer or early fall and gorge themselves on the resulting high concentrations of fish and tadpoles . A study by Savitsky ( 1992 ) found they were surprisingly unsuccessful at seizing either live or dead fish underwater .
They are opportunistic feeders and will sometimes eat carrion . Campbell and Lamar ( 2004 ) described having seen them feeding on fish heads and viscera that had been thrown into the water from a dock . Heinrich and Studenroth ( 1996 ) reported an occasion in which an individual was seen feeding on the butchered remains of a feral hog ( Sus scrofa ) that had been thrown into Cypress Creek .
Conant ( 1929 ) gave a detailed account of the feeding behavior of a captive specimen from South Carolina . When prey was introduced , the snake quickly became attentive and made an attack . Frogs and small birds were seized and held until movement stopped . Larger prey was approached in a more cautious manner ; a rapid strike was executed after which the snake would withdraw . In 2 @.@ 5 years , the snake had accepted three species of frogs , including a large bullfrog ; a spotted salamander , water snakes , garter snakes , sparrows , young rats and three species of mice . Brimley ( 1944 ) described a captive specimen that ate copperheads ( A. contortrix ) , as well as members of its own species , keeping its fangs embedded in its victims until they had been immobilized .
Young individuals have yellowish or greenish tail tips and engage in caudal luring . The tail tip is wriggled to lure prey , such as frogs and lizards , within striking distance . Wharton ( 1960 ) observed captive specimens exhibiting this behavior between 07 : 20 and 19 : 40 hours , which suggests it is a daytime activity .
= = Predators = =
These snakes are preyed upon by snapping turtles ( Chelydra serpentina ) , American alligators ( Alligator mississippiensis ) , horned owls ( Bubo virginianus ) , eagles , red @-@ shouldered hawks ( Buteo lineatus ) , loggerhead shrikes ( Lanius ludovicianus ) , and large wading birds , such as herons , cranes and egrets .
They are also preyed upon by ophiophagous snakes , including their own species . Humphreys ( 1881 ) described how a 34 @-@ inch ( 860 mm ) specimen was killed and eaten by a 42 @-@ inch ( 1 @,@ 100 mm ) captive kingsnake . On the other hand , Neill ( 1947 ) reported captive kingsnakes ( Lampropeltis getula ) were loath to attack them , being successfully repelled with " body blows " . Also called body @-@ bridging , this is a specific defensive behavior against ophiophagous snakes , first observed in certain rattlesnake ( Crotalus ) species by Klauber ( 1927 ) , that involves raising a section of the middle of the body above the ground to varying heights . This raised loop may then be held in this position for varying amounts of time , shifted in position , or moved towards the attacker . In the latter case , it is often flipped or thrown vigorously in the direction of the assailant . In A. piscivorus , the loop is raised laterally , with the belly facing towards the attacker .
= = Reproduction = =
This species is ovoviviparous , with females giving birth to one to 16 live young and possibly as many as 20 . However , litters of six to eight are the most common . Neonates are 22 – 35 cm in length ( excluding runts ) , with the largest being A. p. conanti and A. p. leucostoma the smallest . If weather conditions are favorable and food is readily available , growth is rapid and females may reproduce at less than three years of age and a total length of as little as 60 cm . The young are born in August or September , while mating may occur during any of the warmer months of the year , at least in certain parts of its range .
Regarding A. p. piscivorus , an early account by Stejneger ( 1895 ) described a pair in the Berlin Zoological Garden that mated on January 21 , 1873 , after which eight neonates were discovered in the cage on July 16 of that year . The young were each 26 cm in length and 1 @.@ 5 cm thick . They shed for the first time within two weeks , after which they accepted small frogs , but not fish .
Combat behavior between males has been reported on a number of occasions , and is very similar in form to that seen in many other viperid species . An important factor in sexual selection , it allows for the establishment and recognition of dominance as males compete for access to sexually active females .
A few accounts exist that describe females defending their newly born litters . Wharten ( 1960 , 1966 ) reported several cases where females found near their young stood their ground and considered these to be examples of guarding behavior . Another case was described by Walters and Card ( 1996 ) in which a female was found at the entrance of a chamber with seven neonates crawling on or around her . When one of the young was moved a short distance from the chamber , she seemed to be agitated and faced the intruder . Eventually , all of her offspring retreated into the chamber , but the female remained at the entrance , ready to strike .
= = = Facultative parthenogenesis = = =
Parthenogenesis is a natural form of reproduction in which growth and development of embryos occur without fertilization . A. piscivorus can reproduce by facultative parthenogenesis , that is , they are capable of switching from a sexual mode of reproduction to an asexual mode . The type of parthenogenesis that likely occurs is “ automixis with terminal fusion ” , a process in which two terminal products from the same meiosis fuse to form a diploid zygote ( see Figure ) . This process leads to genome wide homozygosity , expression of deleterious recessive alleles and often to developmental failure ( inbreeding depression ) . Both captive @-@ born and wild @-@ born A. piscivorus appear to be capable of this form of parthenogenesis .
= = Venom = =
A. piscivorus venom is more toxic than that of A. contortrix ( the copperhead ) and is rich with tissue @-@ destructive enzymes . It is a powerful cytotoxic venom that destroys tissue . Although deaths are rare , the bite could leave scars and , on occasion , require amputation . Absent an anaphylactic reaction in a bitten individual , however , the venom does not cause systemic reactions in victims and does not contain neurotoxic components that are present in numerous rattlesnake species . Bites can be effectively treated with CroFab antivenom ; this serum is derived using venom components from four species of American pit vipers ( the eastern and western diamondback rattlesnakes , the Mojave rattlesnake , and the cottonmouth ) .
Bites from the cottonmouth are relatively frequent in the lower Mississippi River Valley and along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico , although fatalities are rare . Allen and Swindell ( 1948 ) compiled a record of A. piscivorus bites in the state of Florida from newspaper accounts and data from the Bureau of Vital Statistics : 1934 , eight bites and three fatalities ( no further fatalities were recorded after this year ) ; 1935 , 10 ; 1936 , 16 ; 1937 , 7 ; 1938 , 6 ; 1939 , 5 ; 1940 , 3 ; 1941 , 6 ; 1942 , 3 ; 1943 , 1 ; 1944 , 3 , 1998 ; 1 . Wright and Wright ( 1957 ) report having encountered these snakes on countless occasions , often almost stepping on them , but never being bitten . In addition , they heard of no reports of any bites among 400 cypress cutters in the Okefenokee Swamp during the entire summer of 1921 . These accounts suggest that the species is not particularly aggressive .
Brown ( 1973 ) gave an average venom yield ( dried ) of 125 mg , with a range of 80 – 237 mg , along with LD50 values of 4 @.@ 0 , 2 @.@ 2 , 2 @.@ 7 , 3 @.@ 5 , 2 @.@ 0 mg / kg IV , 4 @.@ 8 , 5 @.@ 1 , 4 @.@ 0 , 5 @.@ 5 , 3 @.@ 8 , 6 @.@ 8 mg / kg IP and 25 @.@ 8 mg / kg SC for toxicity . Wolff and Githens ( 1939 ) described a 152 cm ( 60 in ) specimen that yielded 3 @.@ 5 ml of venom during the first extraction and 4 @.@ 0 ml five weeks later ( 1 @.@ 094 grams of dried venom ) .
Symptoms commonly include ecchymosis and swelling . The pain is generally more severe than bites from the copperhead ( A. contortrix ) but less so than those from rattlesnakes ( Crotalus spp . ) . The formation of vesicles and bullae is less common than with rattlesnake bites , although necrosis can occur . Myokymia is sometimes reported . On the other hand , the US Navy ( 1991 ) states the venom has strong proteolytic activity that can lead to severe tissue destruction .
= = Subspecies = =
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= New York State Route 273 =
New York State Route 273 ( NY 273 ) was a state highway in northern Washington County , New York , in the United States . It began at an intersection with U.S. Route 4 ( US 4 ) east of the village of Whitehall and ended at the Vermont state line in the town of Hampton , just east of a junction with NY 22A . The route passed through largely rural areas and entered only one community , the small hamlet of East Whitehall .
NY 273 followed part of the former routing of the Hampton and Whitehall Turnpike , a privately maintained highway that linked the village of Whitehall to a bridge over the Poultney River near the hamlet of Hampton , where it continued to Poultney , Vermont , in the 19th century . The portion of the turnpike west of East Whitehall became part of US 4 in 1927 ; however , US 4 was realigned in the mid @-@ 1940s to follow a new , more direct highway between Whitehall and the Vermont state line at Fair Haven , Vermont . NY 273 was assigned in 1949 to the path of old turnpike ; however , the NY 273 designation was eliminated in 1980 as part of a highway maintenance swap between the state of New York and Washington County . The former routing of NY 273 west of NY 22A became County Route 18 ( CR 18 ) .
= = Route description = =
NY 273 began at an intersection with US 4 east of the village of Whitehall in the town of Whitehall . After the intersection , the route passed the Our Lady of Angels Cemetery , where it turned to the southeast . NY 273 ran along the base of Ore Red Hill , outside of Whitehall . Near Ore Red Hill , the highway intersected with a local road , which connected to US 4 . The route progressed to the southeast , entering the hamlet of East Whitehall , where it intersected with another local road .
NY 273 passed Bartholomew Hill and entered the town of Hampton , where it passed two mountains , Morris Hill , and the larger Thorn Hill . The highway then passed north of Crystal Lake , and entered the hamlet of Hampton . NY 273 intersected NY 22A in the small community before ending at the Vermont state line on a bridge over the Poultney River .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
On April 11 , 1820 , the New York State Legislature created the Hampton and Whitehall Turnpike Road Company , a privately owned tasked with building the Hampton and Whitehall Turnpike . According to the act incorporating the company , the highway would begin at a bridge in the town of Hampton ( at the Poultney River ) and follow " the most convenient route " to the community of Whitehall Landing on Wood Creek ( the modern village of Whitehall ) in the town of Whitehall .
The Hampton and Whitehall Turnpike Road Company was initially financed through 800 shares of stock valued at $ 20 each . Under the text of the act establishing the entity , only one toll gate was permitted on the turnpike . The toll charged at the gate varied by person ; the exact amount was based on the vehicle used and the number of livestock and horses that were brought onto the roadway . By 1920 , the turnpike company ceased to exist and the state of New York had plans in place to improve the portion of the turnpike west of the hamlet of East Whitehall . The improved road would be part of a state highway extending from the village of Whitehall to the Vermont state line at Fair Haven , Vermont . The contract for the project was awarded on April 5 , 1921 , and the highway was completed by 1926 .
= = = Designations = = =
When the Whitehall – Fair Haven highway first opened , it did not have a designation . However , the road was part of the proposed routing of US 4 , a route in the new U.S. Highway System . It officially became part of US 4 when the system was officially approved in November of that year . In the early 1940s , construction began on a new highway between Whitehall and Fair Haven that bypassed East Whitehall to the northwest . It was completed by 1946 , at which time it became a realignment of US 4 . On January 1 , 1949 , the old Hampton and Whitehall Turnpike was designated as NY 273 , a new route connecting US 4 east of Whitehall to the Vermont state line in Hampton .
In 1980 , NY 273 was removed from the state highway system as part of a highway maintenance swap between the state of New York and Washington County . On April 1 , 1980 , ownership and maintenance of NY 273 was transferred from the state of New York to Washington County ; however , the NY 273 designation had officially ceased to exist one week earlier on March 24 , 1980 . Following the swap , the former routing of NY 273 was redesignated as CR 18 while the short connector to Vermont became part of CR 18A , then a loop route off NY 22A . CR 18A has since been reconfigured to follow a new highway leading directly from NY 22A to the Poultney River bridge .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was in Washington County .
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= Cyclone Kathy =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Kathy was a powerful tropical cyclone that devastated the Sir Edward Pellew Group of Islands in March 1984 . Originating from a tropical low off the southern coast of Papua New Guinea . Tracking westward , the system attained gale @-@ force winds by 18 March before striking the Cape York Peninsula . After crossing the area , Kathy entered the Gulf of Carpentaria where environmental conditions favoured significant development . On 22 March , the storm attained its peak intensity as a Category 5 severe tropical cyclone ( Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale ) with ten @-@ minute sustained winds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) . By this time , the storm had been tracking towards the southwest and struck the Sir Edward Pellew Group of Islands later on 22 March before moving over the Australian mainland as a slightly weaker system . Once over land , Kathy rapidly degraded , losing gale @-@ force winds within 24 hours ; the storm dissipated over the Northern Territory on 24 March .
Moving through the Pellew Islands as a powerful cyclone , Kathy generated a maximum storm surge of 4 @.@ 2 metres ( 14 ft ) and winds exceeding 232 km / h ( 144 mph ) . Offshore , 20 vessels were affected , one of which sank and resulted in the death of its captain . In mainland Australia , the system struck a relatively sparsely populated area , with only Borroloola being significantly impacted by the cyclone . Additionally , mangroves at along the McArthur River sustained substantial damage . Overall , losses from the storm were placed at A $ 12 million ( A $ 30 @.@ 5 million 2011 AUD ; US $ 24 @.@ 1 million 2011 USD ) . Following its usage , the name Kathy was retired and will never be used again to name an Australian cyclone .
= = Meteorological history = =
On 16 March 1984 , the Bureau of Meteorology began monitoring a tropical low off the southern coast of Papua New Guinea for possible development into a tropical cyclone . Over the following day , the system quickly developed and attained gale @-@ force winds as it neared the Cape York Peninsula . Attaining a pressure of 990 hPa ( mbar ; 29 @.@ 23 inHg ) , the weak system made landfall just north of Weipa , Queensland on 19 March before losing strength . Though already considered a tropical cyclone for two days by the Bureau , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued their first advisory on the system just prior to its landfall ; however , they considered it to be a tropical depression rather than a storm . After roughly 12 hours over land , a weakened Kathy emerged over the warm waters of the Gulf of Carpentaria on 20 March . Once over water , the JTWC classified the system as a tropical storm . Turning southwestward , the storm entered a region favoring significant development and soon began a period of rapid intensification .
Intensification took place through 22 March as convection deepened around Kathy 's centre and a well @-@ defined eye formed . The system reached its peak strength as a Category 5 severe tropical cyclone on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale with ten @-@ minute sustained winds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) . Operational analysis of the storm indicated a minimum pressure of 920 hPa ( mbar ; 27 @.@ 17 inHg ) ; however , a reassessment in 2009 concluded that Kathy 's pressure had been slightly lower , bottoming out at 916 hPa ( mbar ; 27 @.@ 05 inHg ) . Additionally , the JTWC assessed the system to have been slightly stronger , estimating peak one @-@ minute sustained winds at 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) . At this time , the storm was estimated to have a Dvorak technique rating of 7 @.@ 0 , equivalent to a Category 5 on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale ;
As Cyclone Kathy neared the Australia coastline later on 22 March , it began to weaken as it interacted with land . Radar imagery depicted the system as having an eye 10 @.@ 8 km ( 6 @.@ 7 mi ) in diameter . Roughly 5 hours after peaking , the storm passed directly over the Sir Edward Pellew Group of Islands , resulting in a degrading structure . Near midnight , the system weakened to a Category 4 cyclone and made landfall in a remote region near Borroloola . Based on a wind gust to sustained ratio of 1 @.@ 4 , Kathy was estimated to have moved onshore with winds between 165 and 185 km / h ( 105 and 115 mph ) . In the hours after landfall , Kathy rapid weakened , no longer retaining gale @-@ force winds once 200 km ( 120 mi ) away from the Gulf on 23 March . Later that day , the system turned south @-@ westward and persisted for another 24 hours before dissipating .
= = Impact = =
In Far North Queensland , Kathy brought moderate rainfall and strong winds to much of the region . No measurements from the centre of the storm were made , although a wind gust of 60 km / h ( 37 mph ) was recorded in Batavia Downs , Queensland , about 55 km ( 34 mi ) south @-@ southeast of the cyclone . Between 18 and 21 March , a total of 126 @.@ 7 mm ( 4 @.@ 99 in ) of rain fell near Batavia Downs . Due to the relatively low intensity of the storm , damage was minimal and mainly confined to trees .
Striking the Sir Edward Pellew Group of Islands as a high @-@ end Category 4 cyclone , Kathy wrought significant damage in the region . A storm surge of 4 @.@ 2 m ( 14 ft ) struck Vanderlin Island , destroying much of the nesting ground for sea turtles . Winds were recorded up to 232 km / h ( 144 mph ) before the station 's anemometer failed . Several camps across the islands were destroyed . Offshore , 20 vessels were caught in the storm , one of which sank and three others ran aground . One person perished on board the ship that sank during the storm . Losses sustained by the ships were placed at A $ 5 million ( A $ 12 @.@ 7 million 2011 AUD ; US $ 10 million 2011 USD ) .
Though a powerful storm , only light to moderate rains fell along the cyclone 's path with totals generally less than 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) . The remnants , however , triggered thunderstorms near Tennant Creek that produced 325 mm ( 12 @.@ 8 in ) of rain in 24 hours . Reports indicate that several sea turtles and dugongs were washed up to 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) inland by Kathy 's surge . The only population center significantly affected by the storm was Borroloola , where moderate to severe damage took place . At least one home was destroyed and many more were damaged in the town . Along the mouth of the McArthur River , near where Kathy struck the mainland , the combination of severe winds and storm surge killed 80 % ( ± 20 % ) of the Rhizophoraceae mangrove trees in the region . Along the entire length of the river , 45 % ( ± 15 @.@ 3 % ) of the Rhizophoraceae , Bruguiera and Ceriops as well as 18 @.@ 5 % ( ± 11 @.@ 4 % ) of the Exoecaria agallocha , Lumnitzera racemosa and Avicennia marina perished . In all , losses from the storm were placed at A $ 12 , million ( A $ 30 @.@ 5 million 2011 AUD ; US $ 24 @.@ 1 million 2011 USD ) .
In the wake of the storm , Australian Prime Minister Bob Hawke promised residents of Borroloola that they would receive all possible help from the government . About 400 people in the town were left homeless by Cyclone Kathy . By 25 March , a Royal Australian Air Force aircraft was sent to the region carrying emergency supplies for sheltering displaced persons . Two patrol boats from the Royal Australian Navy were also sent to assist in relief efforts . One brought fuel and medical supplies and the other assisted trawlers set adrift or grounded by the storm . Following its usage , the name Kathy was retired from Brisbane 's list of cyclone names and will never be used again .
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= Just a Kiss ( song ) =
" Just a Kiss " is a song recorded by American country music group Lady Antebellum . It was released on May 2 , 2011 as the lead single from the band 's album Own the Night ( 2011 ) . Dallas Davidson collaborated with band members Hillary Scott , Charles Kelley and Dave Haywood to write the song , taking inspiration from the members ' personal experiences . Produced by Paul Worley , " Just a Kiss " was among the last songs recorded for the album , and is a mid @-@ tempo country ballad with lyrics that speak of a romantic relationship between two new couples . Professional reviews for " Just a Kiss " have been mostly positive , commending on the song 's theme and musical arrangement and also praising Lady Antebellum 's performance .
In the United States , the song debuted at number 28 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart and appeared at number seven on the Billboard Hot 100 . It later topped the Country chart and was certified 2 × Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . The song peaked at number 13 in Canada , 22 in Japan and reached the top 80 in Australia and Slovakia . Shaun Silva directed a well @-@ received music video for the song . It portrays the story of two young lovers against a backdrop of scenery of Europe . The band first performed the song on their Houston Rodeo show on March 11 , 2011 , and later at the Divas Nashvegas benefit show . Following the single 's release , they performed it on US reality television show American Idol and at the Billboard Music Awards . The group 's live performances have been praised by critics . The song was featured in the season 2 finale of Pretty Little Liars and in the season 1 , episode 17 of Hart of Dixie .
= = Background and writing = =
After the 53rd Grammy Awards , held in February 2011 , band members Charles Kelley and Dave Haywood said in a backstage interview that work on the group 's third album was almost complete . On May 2 , 2011 , the band digitally released " Just a Kiss " , the lead single from the new project . In a blog entry on their website , the group said that " Just a Kiss " was among the last songs that were written for the album . Haywood commented , " We were about six songs into recording and someone had this idea , so we sat down to write it . " Hillary Scott , Kelley and Haywood wrote the song with Dallas Davidson . Davidson discussed the conception of the song with country music blog Taste of Country : " I went out on the road with them , and we wrote a couple of things . We recorded one song called ' We Own the Night ' . Charles called me as they were about done with the record . He said , ' Man , we want to write again . ' So the band came over [ to my office ] one morning . We started writing this other song . We were trying to find Hillary a little uptempo girl song . We wrote this cool thing . "
The next day , Davidson found Haywood in his office , playing the keyboard part which was later revived for the song 's riff . " When we got done with the other song , I kept going back , saying , ' Man , there 's something about what you were playing earlier ... let 's mess with that before we leave . ' So he started playing it again , " Davidson recalled . After the keyboard elements were completed , Scott and Kelley finished the song 's music and lyrics at the studio . They discussed ideas for the song ; Kelley put forward the basic melody and Scott followed up with her own contribution . After they wrote the lyrics , Davidson proposed that the song 's title be " Just a Kiss Goodnight " . It was later changed to " Just a Kiss " after Scott felt that " it 's cool to have ' just a kiss ' goodnight rather than going all the way . " Kelley told Country Weekly that the song was inspired by the band members ' experiences : " I remembered being out the first night with Cassie and thinking , ' This is different , and I don 't want to give any wrong impression . I don 't want to make the wrong move because this feels like something special . ' We started talking about that and going back and forth with different experiences when we wrote the song . " The song was recorded and mixed by Clarke Schleicher , with assistance from Joe Martino and Andrew Bazinet . The B @-@ side track , " Bottle Up Lightning " , was written by Kelley , Haywood , Tony Martin and Wendell Lee Mobley .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" Just a Kiss " was produced by Paul Worley and lasts for three minutes and 41 seconds . The mid @-@ tempo country power ballad opens with piano chords , played by Haywood . The melody builds up as the track progresses , exhibiting elements of pop music and incorporating acoustic guitars . As the " soaring chorus " — sung in three @-@ part harmony by Scott and Kelley and backed by Haywood — starts , beats of " overly dramatic drums " are also heard , as described by music critic Matthew Wilkening . According to Tris McCall from The Star @-@ Ledger , " Just a Kiss " contains the " specific structure " found in Lady Antebellum 's previous songs . This was echoed by John Hill of About.com and Nadine Cheung of AOL Radio , both of whom compared the song 's arrangement to that of " Need You Now " ( 2009 ) . According to the sheet music published by Alfred Publishing Company , " Just a Kiss " is set in common time with a moderately slow tempo of 72 beats per minute . Written in the key of B ♭ minor , it follows a chord progression of B ♭ m7 – A ♭ / C – D ♭ – G ♭ major9 , and Scott 's vocals range from the note of A ♭ 3 to F5 .
The lyrics of the song describe a " tortured romantic scenario " of a newly formed couple 's relationship , which , according to McCall , is enhanced by the piano and guitar arrangements . Kelley and Scott alternate on lead vocals . It speaks of the couple who prefer not to take their romantic relationship further anytime soon , want to take things slow , and are satisfied with " just a goodnight kiss " . McCall also noted that the lyrics portray how the female character 's lines , sung by Scott , attempt to fight back her lustful feelings , and precariously sighs the line " I don 't want to mess this thing up . " Scott told Billboard that " there is so much excitement at the beginning of a new relationship ... all the butterflies and that optimistic feeling that this person could be ' the one ' . This song is about one of those times when your brain kicks in and tells your heart ' good things are worth waiting for . ' " Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe wrote that the song 's production is " emblematic of the album 's midtempo complacency . " Melinda Newman of HitFix noted that the strings " give a nice lift at the end . "
= = Critical reception = =
Bobby Peacock of Roughstock gave " Just a Kiss " a rating of four stars out of five and called it " another excellent song that plays up all of the band 's strengths . " Erik Ernst of Milwaukee Journal Sentinel observed that the track 's " lush melody " shows " new confidence for these musicians who have become bona fide stars . " A Washington Post editor also gave a positive review , declaring " Just a Kiss " as " one of the group 's finest " . Daryl Addison , writing for Great American Country , commended the group 's vocal chemistry in the song , adding that " [ t ] he group 's dynamic allows them to explore a wide range of emotions as they each add their own voice . " Melinda Newman of HitFix suggested that " Just a Kiss " is " a good summer song for young lovers . " Robbie Daw of music website Idolator commented that the song " deftly captures " the state of nervousness that lovers experience during the early stages of the romance . Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly also praised " Just a Kiss " and noted that Lady Antebellum sing the song " like they mean it " . He suggested that the song is " classy and very sincere " . Stephen Hyden of The A.V. Club wrote that the song was " painfully chaste " .
Matthew Wilkening , writing for Taste of Country , gave the song a score of 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 , writing that the song is " surprisingly serious and dour " in contrast to its subject matter , but he praised the " catchy melody " . It also received 3 @.@ 5 stars out of five from John Hill of About.com , who found it " lyrically lacking " but a " solid contribution to the power ballad genre " . Jonathan Keefe of Slant Magazine found the song to be repetitive in its lyrical theme , and said that the group was " sticking to the blandly pleasant , cliché @-@ driven songwriting of Need You Now , not taking a single risk . " Tris McCall of The Star @-@ Ledger criticized the song for bearing a close resemblance to " Need You Now " and concluded that " if you swooned for ' Need You Now ' , chances are you won 't be able to resist the tidal pull of this one , either . " Shahryar Rizvi of Dallas Observer was also less enthusiastic about the song , writing that it " seems kinda old @-@ fashioned amongst all the outspoken and steamy acts in the Top 40 . " Rizvi concluded by noting that " maybe the music industry 's just covering their bases by serving the demographic that appreciates sugar @-@ coated love ballads over brash statements ... If not , well , then " Just A Kiss " will probably appear in sappy , modest teenage romantic comedies . If those types of movies still exist . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Just a Kiss " debuted on the US Billboard Hot Country Songs chart at number 28 on May 21 , 2011 . According to Nielsen BDS , the song opened with a first week audience of 6 million across 85 radio stations , becoming the group 's highest debut to date . It marked the third highest debut on the chart among groups at the time , after Rascal Flatts 's " Take Me There " and Sugarland 's " All I Want to Do " . The following week , the song ascended to number 20 on the chart , with the Greatest Gainer mark and soon became the band 's fifth number @-@ one hit . On the Billboard Hot 100 , " Just a Kiss " debuted and peaked at number seven , setting a record for the highest debut on the chart for a country group . The song debuted at number three on the Hot Digital Songs chart due to sales of 211 @,@ 000 downloads .
" Just a Kiss " stayed on the Hot 100 for 42 weeks and was certified 2 × Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for sales of two million digital units . The song also experienced pop crossover success , peaking at number 21 on the Pop Songs chart , number one on the Adult Contemporary chart and number six on the Adult Pop Songs chart . In Canada , the song debuted and peaked on the Canadian Hot 100 at number thirteen , selling 15 @,@ 000 units in its first week . It has stayed on the chart for 24 weeks and was certified Platinum by Music Canada for downloads of 80 @,@ 000 units . The song reached number one on the Canada Country airplay chart , number 11 on the Canada AC chart , and number 23 on the Canada Hot AC chart as tracked by Nielsen BDS . In Slovakia , " Just a Kiss " charted for three weeks on the Singles chart and peaked at number 73 . In Japan , it peaked at number 21 on the Japan Hot 100 . The song also charted and peaked in the United Kingdom and Australia , at number 78 and number 72 , respectively , for one week , and at number 91 in the Netherlands .
= = Music video = =
The music video , directed by Shaun Silva , was filmed in Paris , London , and Murfreesboro , Tennessee . The Union Station hotel is featured as a train station in the video . Kelley explained that the director decided to shoot parts of the music video in Europe because he wanted the video to be " as authentic as possible " . The video begins with a young woman , Joy , entering a train and discovering an iPad in her backpack . The iPad has a video of her lover with a sign written in French words that mean " Don 't forget about me , " and also some videos of the couple 's travels throughout London , Paris , and Berlin , after which the couple bid each other farewell . A subsequent scene shows Joy 's boyfriend finding her sitting on a train seat and they share a kiss . Joy is then seen awoken from sleep as a man named Brady , who looks exactly like the boyfriend in Joy 's dream , sits next to her . Brady apologizes for waking her and asks if she minds if he sits next to her . The two make introductions , and Joy mentions her dream . Brady then takes out his iPad case ( exactly the same case as the one Joy had in her dream ) , and smiles at her . Joy smiles back , having experienced this deja vu moment . The group members are seen singing at a Tennessee train station , and on the train itself .
The band released teaser trailers first , and the full video premiered on June 27 , 2011 , 1 pm ( Eastern Time ) , on the band 's website . Jon Blistein of Billboard commented that the video " is sweet and will probably make you smile . " AOL 's The Boot also liked the video , writing , " If the storyline itself doesn 't make you fall head over heels , the gorgeous scenery surely will , as the clip was shot in various picturesque places around the world . " Amy Sciarretto of Taste of Country noted that the video was " heart @-@ pinching " . The Tennessean wrote that the " sweet sentimentality should score with fans of ... ' Need You Now ' . " However , Melinda Newman of HitFix deemed the video " sugary " . Robbie Daw of Idolator wrote , " Lady A 's [ ... ] " Just A Kiss " video got us choked up after one viewing . Clearly we need to get out more . "
= = Live performances = =
Lady Antebellum sang a portion of " Just a Kiss " on their Houston Rodeo show , on March 11 , 2011 , performing it after " Love 's Lookin ' Good on You " . The whole band stepped down , and Kelley and Scott sat on bar stools , singing the track to each other . They were accompanied by Haywood on a piano . Matthew Keever of Houston Express called " Just a Kiss " " the most intimate song of the evening " , and Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle wrote that the song could become " another pop smash . " They later performed at the Divas Nashvegas benefit show for the Oasis Center in April 2011 . The same month , Lady Antebellum posted a Twitter message , saying that they would debut the whole song on the tenth season of the US reality television show American Idol . The performance aired on May 5 , 2011 . Natasha Mullan of TV Guide Canada wrote that the group sang the song on American Idol " in perfect harmony . "
Lady Antebellum was tapped to perform " Just a Kiss " at the 2011 Billboard Music Awards , held in Las Vegas . The show aired on May 22 , 2011 , on ABC . Scott , Kelley and Haywood , dressed all in black , performed the song as Haywood played piano with their full band behind them . Scott Shetler of Taste of Country commended the performance , writing that the members were " harmonized beautifully , particularly on the song 's hook . " In June 2011 , the group performed the song on the 2011 CMT Music Awards , where they were presented with the Award for Group Video of the Year ( for " Hello World " ) . The band , dressed in black , sang " Just a Kiss " and a few lines of the song " Kiss " by Prince . The trio also performed the song on CBS 's Late Show with David Letterman . Robbie Daw of Idolator wrote that the performance was " pitch @-@ perfect " . Lady Antebellum appeared as the musical guest on Saturday Night Live on October 1 , 2011 . They performed " We Owned the Night " , followed by " Just a Kiss " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for " Just a Kiss " are adapted from the Own the Night liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Abrahams Creek =
Abrahams Creek ( also known as Abraham Creek , Abraham 's Creek , Abram Creek , or Abrams Creek ) is a tributary of the Susquehanna River in Luzerne County , Pennsylvania , in the United States . It is approximately 10 @.@ 7 miles ( 17 @.@ 2 km ) long and flows through Franklin Township , Dallas Township , Kingston Township , West Wyoming , Wyoming , and Forty Fort . The watershed of the creek has an area of 17 @.@ 4 square miles ( 45 km2 ) and occupies portions of nine municipalities in northeastern Luzerne County . The watershed is divided into the upper Abraham Creek watershed and the lower Abraham Creek watershed , which are joined by a canyon known as The Hollow . The upper part of the watershed is mostly rural , but the lower part is heavily urbanized . The creek 's channel has been heavily modified in many places . Its drainage basin is designated as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery .
Abrahams Creek is a perennial stream with relatively poor water quality . However , it is not considered to be impaired . Its pH ranges from slightly acidic to slightly alkaline and has a daily sediment load of nearly 14 million pounds ( 31 million kilograms ) per day . The main rock formations in the watershed include the Catskill Formation , the Llewellyn Formation , the Pottsville Group , the Mauch Chunk Formation , and the Pocono Formation . The main soils include the Chenango @-@ Pope @-@ Holly soil , the Lackawanna @-@ Arnot @-@ Morris soil , the Udorthents @-@ Urban Land @-@ Volusia soil , and the Volusia @-@ Mardin @-@ Lordstown soil .
Abrahams Creek is named after a historic Mohican chief of a village in the area . The creek 's watershed was historically heavily logged and farmed and a sediment retention structure was built in the watershed in the 1970s . Numerous bridges have been built over the creek since 1925 . The Abrahams Creek Watershed Association operates in the watershed . A 500 @-@ million @-@ gallon reservoir known as Frances Slocum Lake was built on the creek in 1965 .
= = Course = =
Abrahams Creek begins in Franklin Township . It flows south @-@ southwest for a short distance before turning south for several tenths of a mile , passing through the border between Dallas Township , Franklin Township , and Kingston Township , and entering Kingston Township . The creek then continues south for more than a mile before turning southeast and eventually entering Frances Slocum Lake . On the southeastern end of the lake , the creek turns east @-@ northeast for more than a mile , entering a deep valley . It then turns south @-@ southeast for a few miles , entering West Wyoming flowing through a water gap . The creek then turns southeast for some distance before turning southwest and entering Wyoming . It then turns west @-@ southwest for a few miles before turning south and then west . The creek then turns south again , crossing US Route 11 . It then turns southwest for more than a mile , entering Forty Fort and reaching its confluence with the Susquehanna River .
Abrahams Creek joins the Susquehanna River 192 @.@ 14 miles ( 309 @.@ 22 km ) upstream of its mouth .
= = = Tributaries = = =
Hicks Creek was historically a tributary of Abrahams Creek . However , it was diverted to the northeast by strip mining in the 1940s and 1950s . It currently flows into the Susquehanna River . At present , Abrahams Creek has no officially named tributaries . However , it has six unnamed tributaries , two of which enter it from the left and four of which enter it from the right .
= = Hydrology and climate = =
Abrahams Creek likely has relatively poor water quality , especially in its lower reaches . However , it is not considered by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection to be impaired . The creek is a perennial stream . It has experienced erosion in some places . The creek 's discharge was in its upper reaches was measured to be 2 @.@ 2 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 062 m3 / s ) on May 12 , 1970 and 0 @.@ 1 to 0 @.@ 2 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 0028 to 0 @.@ 0057 m3 / s ) on September 17 , 1970 . Further downstream , at West Wyoming , the discharge was measured twice in the 1960s . The values were 3 @.@ 26 to 15 @.@ 8 cubic feet per second ( 0 @.@ 092 to 0 @.@ 447 m3 / s ) .
The daily load of sediment in Abrahams Creek is 13 @,@ 733 @,@ 711 pounds ( 6 @,@ 229 @,@ 507 kg ) , which equates to a unit area loading of 1 @,@ 267 @.@ 75 pounds ( 575 @.@ 04 kg ) per acre per day . A total of 5 @,@ 597 @,@ 060 pounds ( 2 @,@ 538 @,@ 780 kg ) comes from " transitional " land , 5 @,@ 256 @,@ 620 pounds ( 2 @,@ 384 @,@ 360 kg ) comes from cropland , and 1 @,@ 741 @,@ 891 pounds ( 790 @,@ 108 kg ) comes from stream banks . A total of 599 @,@ 240 pounds ( 271 @,@ 810 kg ) comes from hay and pastures and 330 @,@ 880 pounds ( 150 @,@ 080 kg ) come from forested land . Low @-@ intensity development contributes 93 @,@ 440 pounds ( 42 @,@ 380 kg ) of sediment per day , unpaved roads contribute 63 @,@ 620 pounds ( 28 @,@ 860 kg ) , and coal mines contribute 18 @,@ 420 pounds ( 8 @,@ 360 kg ) . 3 @,@ 980 pounds ( 1 @,@ 810 kg ) comes from high @-@ intensity development , 360 pounds ( 160 kg ) comes from wetlands , and 20 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) comes from turf grass .
In the early 1970s , the concentration of dissolved oxygen in Abrahams Creek near Dallas was measured to be 9 @.@ 8 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 0098 oz / cu ft ) and the concentration of carbon dioxide ranged from 2 @.@ 5 to 5 @.@ 8 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 0025 to 0 @.@ 0058 oz / cu ft ) .
In the early 1970s , the concentration of magnesium in the waters of Abrahams Creek near Dallas ranged from 2 @.@ 00 to 3 @.@ 70 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 00200 to 0 @.@ 00370 oz / cu ft ) and the concentration of calcium ranged from 11 @.@ 00 to 15 @.@ 00 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 01099 to 0 @.@ 01498 oz / cu ft ) . The concentration of recoverable iron was once measured to be 160 micrograms per liter ( 0 @.@ 00016 oz / cu ft ) . The concentration of chloride ranged form 8 @.@ 3 to 17 @.@ 0 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 0083 to 0 @.@ 0170 oz / cu ft ) and the concentration of sulfate ranged from 14 @.@ 0 to 22 @.@ 0 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 0140 to 0 @.@ 0220 oz / cu ft ) .
The peak annual discharge of Abrahams Creek at US Route 11 has a 10 percent chance of reaching 1 @,@ 200 cubic feet per second ( 34 m3 / s ) . It has a 2 percent chance of reaching 2 @,@ 250 cubic feet per second ( 64 m3 / s ) and a 1 percent chance of reaching 2 @,@ 900 cubic feet per second ( 82 m3 / s ) . The peak annual discharge has a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of reaching 5 @,@ 050 cubic feet per second ( 143 m3 / s ) .
The peak annual discharge of Abrahams Creek 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) upstream of US Route 11 has a 10 percent chance of reaching 980 cubic feet per second ( 28 m3 / s ) . It has a 2 percent chance of reaching 1 @,@ 850 cubic feet per second ( 52 m3 / s ) and a 1 percent chance of reaching 2 @,@ 400 cubic feet per second ( 68 m3 / s ) . The peak annual discharge has a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of reaching 4 @,@ 200 cubic feet per second ( 120 m3 / s ) . The peak annual discharge of Abrahams Creek at its mouth has a 10 percent chance of reaching 950 cubic feet per second ( 27 m3 / s ) . It has a 2 percent chance of reaching 1 @,@ 650 cubic feet per second ( 47 m3 / s ) and a 1 percent chance of reaching 1 @,@ 950 cubic feet per second ( 55 m3 / s ) . The peak annual discharge has a 0 @.@ 2 percent chance of reaching 2 @,@ 600 cubic feet per second ( 74 m3 / s ) .
The specific conductance of Abrahams Creek near Dallas ranged from 83 to 185 micro @-@ siemens per centimeter at 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) in the early 1970s . The creek 's pH was close to neutral , ranging from 6 @.@ 6 to 7 @.@ 3 . The concentration of water hardness ranged from 36 to 53 milligrams per liter ( 0 @.@ 036 to 0 @.@ 053 oz / cu ft ) .
As of 2007 , the 20 @-@ year average annual precipitation rate is 41 @.@ 63 inches ( 105 @.@ 7 cm ) per year . The 20 @-@ year average annual runoff rate is 3 @.@ 46 inches ( 8 @.@ 8 cm ) per year . In the early 1970s , the water temperature of the creek near Dallas in several measurements ranged from 8 to 22 ° C ( 46 to 72 ° F ) .
= = Geography and geology = =
The elevation near the mouth of Abrahams Creek is 522 feet ( 159 m ) above sea level . The elevation of the creek 's source is between 1 @,@ 140 and 1 @,@ 160 feet ( 350 and 350 m ) above sea level . The highest point in the watershed is on Bunker Hill , at slightly over 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 460 m ) above sea level . The lowest point in the watershed is at the creek 's mouth .
There are plains to the north of Abrahams Creek . Wetlands known as the Abrahams Creek Wetlands are in the vicinity of the creek . They consist of several ponds along the side of the creek in Franklin Township , Kingston Township , and Dallas Township . The wetlands are listed on the Luzerne County Natural Areas Inventory . The creek is in entirely in the ridge and valley physiographic province , specifically , the Anthracite Valley Section . The Bunker Hill @-@ Mount Lookout Ridge crosses the watershed and divides it into two drainage basins : the upper Abrahams Creek watershed , which consists of rolling hills , and the lower Abrahams Creek watershed , which is on a natural debris fan and the old floodplain of the Susquehanna River . Between the two is " The Hollow " , a narrow canyon flowing through the ridge .
The course of Abrahams Creek has been altered by flood control projects . There is a sediment retention structure on the creek at the lower end of " The Hollow " . Large portions of the creek , especially in its lower reaches , have undergone full stream channelization , with the stream channel being hardened by concrete or rock . In West Wyoming , a nearly mile @-@ long stretch is lined with concrete . In the early 20th century , part of the creek above The Hollow had grouted stone walls , which were completed in the 1930s .
In the Abrahams Creek watershed , 94 percent of the rock is interbedded sedimentary rock . The remaining 6 percent is sandstone . The main rock formations in the watershed of Abrahams Creek include the Catskill Formation , the Llwellyn Formation , the Pottsville Group , the Mauch Chunk Formation , and the Pocono Formation . These formations mainly consist of coal , limestone , sandstone , shale , and siltstone . The Catskill Formation mainly occurs in the watershed 's upper reaches . The Mauch Chunk Formation , the Pocono Formation , and the Pottsville Group occur under the Bunker Hill @-@ Mount Lookout Ridge . The Llwellyn Formation also occurs there , in addition to underlying the floodplain in the watershed . A considerable area in the watershed has been strip mined .
The main soils in the watershed of Abrahams Creek include the Chenango @-@ Pope @-@ Holly soil , the Lackawanna @-@ Arnot @-@ Morris soil , the Udorthents @-@ Urban Land @-@ Volusia soil , and the Volusia @-@ Mardin @-@ Lordstown soil . The watershed 's soils are in mostly the hydrologic soil groups B and C. However , the hydrological soil group D is also present .
= = Watershed = =
The watershed of Abrahams Creek has an area of 17 @.@ 4 square miles ( 45 km2 ) . The creek 's mouth is in the United States Geological Survey quadrangle of Pittston . However , its source is in the quadrangle of Kingston . There are approximately 25 miles ( 40 km ) of open stream channels in the watershed . The creek 's watershed is situated in the northeastern part of Luzerne County and occupies portions of nine municipalities : Exeter , Forty Fort , Swoersville , West Wyoming , Wyoming , Dallas Township , Exeter Township , Franklin Township , and Kingston Township . The watershed is described as being hourglass @-@ shaped in the Abrahams Creek Watershed Assessment and Project Prioritization .
A total of 80 percent of the Abrahams Creek watershed is rural and 20 percent is urbanized . The lower reaches of the watershed contain most of the urbanization . Its upper reaches contain second @-@ growth forest , small patches of residential land , linear hedgerows , and agricultural land such as hay pastures , pastures , and farmland . The Bunker Hill @-@ Mount Lookout Ridge is too steep to be developed , but many other areas of the watershed could easily be urbanized . The mining @-@ affected land in the watershed is in West Wyoming .
A total of 51 percent of the watershed of Abrahams Creek consists of forested land . A total of 26 percent of the watershed consists of agricultural land and 18 percent is developed . The remaining 2 percent consists of " disturbed " land .
Abrahams Creek is the main source of flooding in West Wyoming , Forty Fort , and Swoyersville . Sheet flooding can occur when the creek floods over Eighth Street . There is a flood protection project for the creek in West Wyoming . This protection is capable of withstanding 100 year floods . The Slocum Dam , which is upstream of West Wyoming , also helps to reduce flooding on the creek . However , localized flooding and ponding frequently affect its lower reaches . The creek has been experienced extensive modifications , such as narrowing and riprap installation , in The Hollow to accommodate West Eighth Street .
Abrahams Creek flows through Frances Slocum State Park and passes through Frances Slocum Lake , a flood @-@ control lake with a volume of half a billion gallons . Most of the upper reaches of the watershed drain into the lake . The creek is also dammed in this location . The lake was created in 1965 by the construction of an earthen dam across the creek . A pond known as Burketts Pond is on a tributary of the creek . It is partially filled and has a decaying stone dam . If the dam collapsed , damage could potentially reach up to 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) downstream . There are numerous other dammed ponds in the watershed 's upper reaches . Historically , wetlands formed the sources of many headwater streams in the area , but many have been drained or flooded by imoundments .
The watershed of Abrahams Creek is continuing to become more developed , but at a slower rate than it has in the past . The lower reaches of the watershed are the most heavily urbanized , while the upper reaches are still largely rural . This has been the case as early 1893 . The upper reaches of the watershed have a dendritic drainage system .
Abrahams Creek is one of 19 streams in Luzerne County to be designated for stormwater management .
= = History , name , and etymology = =
Abrahams Creek was entered into the Geographic Names Information System on August 2 , 1979 . Its identifier in the Geographic Names Information System is 1200061 . The creek is also known as Abraham Creek , Abraham 's Creek , Abram Creek , or Abrams Creek . The name " Abraham 's Creek " was once the official name of the creek . It was also referred to by this name in an 1860 map .
Historically , the Mohicans had a settlement on the banks of Abrahams Creek . The creek is named after Abraham , a chief of that village .
Extensive logging and intense agriculture were historically done in the watershed of Abrahams Creek . The area was already beginning to experience road encroachment as early as 1893 .
Several bridges have been built over Abrahams Creek . A concrete slab bridge carrying State Route 1021 / East Eighth Street was built in 1925 . It is 38 @.@ 1 feet ( 11 @.@ 6 m ) long and is situated in West Wyoming . A concrete stringer bridge carrying State Route 1010 was constructed over the creek in 1929 . This bridge is 30 @.@ 8 feet ( 9 @.@ 4 m ) long and is also situated in West Wyoming . A concrete tee beam carrying US Route 11 was built in 1939 . It is 39 @.@ 0 feet ( 11 @.@ 9 m ) long and is situated in Forty Fort . Another bridge carrying US Route 11 was built in Wyoming in 1953 . It is a 14 @-@ span steel culvert bridge with a length of 112 @.@ 9 feet ( 34 @.@ 4 m ) . A 2 @-@ span concrete tee beam bridge was constructed over the creek in 1962 in Wyoming . It is 76 @.@ 1 feet ( 23 @.@ 2 m ) long and carries State Route 1021 . A steel culvert bridge carrying State Route 1044 was built in 1965 . It is 22 @.@ 0 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) long and situated in Kingston Township . A prestressed box beam bridge carrying State Route 1036 / Carverton Road was constructed over the creek in 1976 . This bridge is 42 @.@ 0 feet ( 12 @.@ 8 m ) long and is situated in Kingston Township . Four bridges over the creek are classified as being structurally deficient , as of 2007 .
The entire watershed of Abrahams Creek , including all of the streams and wetlands , has been significantly modified by both historical and modern land uses in the area . The natural surface water hydrology of the watershed was substantially modified by projects of the United States Army Corps of Engineers and the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection from the 1950s until the 1990s . The sediment retention structure in The Hollow was constructed in the 1970s .
Abrahams Creek has a watershed association known as the Abrahams Creek Watershed Association . It was awarded the Watershed Stewardship Award by the Luzerne Conservation District in 2009 . The organization also received a $ 5000 grand from American Water for improving water quality , adding riparian buffers , and other projects . Damaging flooding in 2006 caused the Abrahams Creek Watershed Assessment and Project Prioritization to be created . The creek was used as a reference watershed by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection when developing a total maximum daily load for the nearby Solomon Creek .
= = Biology = =
Nearly all of the watershed of Abrahams Creek is biologically degraded , with the only exceptions being several headwater streams . However , the upper part of the watershed is less severely degraded than the lower reaches .
The drainage basin of Abrahams Creek is designated as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery . Wild trout naturally reproduce in a section of a tributary of the creek in West Wyoming . This stretch is 1 @.@ 87 miles ( 3 @.@ 01 km ) long .
There is an herbaceous wetland along Abrahams Creek just upstream of where it enters Frances Slocum Lake . Further to the north , there is a flooded forested wetland . The creek has a substantial riparian buffer upstream of Frances Slocum Lake . The plant species Carex disperma inhabits the area . Bird species such as Virginia rail and Sora inhabit the area as well .
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= No Game No Life =
No Game No Life ( Japanese : ノーゲーム ・ ノーライフ , Hepburn : Nōgēmu Nōraifu ) is a light novel series by Yū Kamiya . It is published under the MF Bunko J imprint with eight novels released between April 25 , 2012 and December 25 , 2015 . The author and his wife , Mashiro Hiiragi , adapted the novels into a manga series for Monthly Comic Alive in 2013 . Later that year , an anime adaptation of No Game No Life by Madhouse was announced . It premiered on AT @-@ X between April and July 2014 , and was simulcast outside Japan by Crunchyroll . An anime film adaptation of the sixth volume is currently in production . The No Game No Life franchise was localized in North America by several companies : Seven Seas Entertainment licensed the manga , Sentai Filmworks the anime , and Yen Press the light novel series .
The series follows Sora and his younger stepsister Shiro , two hikikomori who make up the identity of Blank , an undefeated group of gamers . One day , they are challenged by the god of games to chess and are victorious . As a result , the god summons them to Disboard , a reality which revolves around games . Intent on maintaining their reputation as the undefeated gamers , Sora and Shiro plan to conquer the sixteen ruling species and to usurp the god of games .
The series began receiving recognition in 2014 where it appeared in Kono Light Novel ga Sugoi ! and had its volumes placed as one of the top thirty selling novels in Japan . It was reported in April 2014 that 1 @.@ 1 million copies are in circulation . The English localization of the manga and anime were also well received : the manga adaption appeared on The New York Times Manga Best Sellers ; meanwhile , English reviewers were generally turned away by the first episode of the anime , though reviewers who have completed the series generally praised the character dynamics , game strategies , and animation , while disliking the fan service featuring the underage Shiro .
= = Plot = =
Sora and Shiro are two hikikomori step @-@ siblings who are known in the online gaming world as Blank , an undefeated group of gamers . One day , they are challenged to a game of chess by Tet , a god from another reality . The two are victorious and are offered to live in a world that centers around games . They accept , believing it to be a joke , and are summoned to a reality known as Disboard . There , a spell known as the Ten Pledges prevents the citizens of Disboard from inflicting harm on one another , forcing them to resolve their differences by gambling with games whose rules and rewards are magically enforced . In @-@ game , rule enforcement only occurs when the method of cheating is acknowledged and outed by the opponent , allowing players to cheat through discreet methods . Sora and Shiro traverse to Elkia , the nation inhabited by humans , and befriend the duchess Stephanie Dola . Learning about Elkia 's decline , the two participate in a tournament to determine the next ruler ; after winning the crown , they earn the right to challenge the Disboard 's other species as humanity 's representative.LN 1 @.@ 4 Their next goal is to conquer all sixteen species in order to challenge Tet to a game ; as of the sixth volume , five of the sixteen are under their control .
= = = Characters = = =
Sora ( 空 ) and Shiro ( 白 )
Sora is an eighteen @-@ year @-@ old male who excels at strategies and cold readings while his eleven @-@ year @-@ old stepsister , Shiro , excels at calculations and logic.LN 3 @.@ 0 Together , the two form the undefeated gaming identity Blank ( 空白 , Kūhaku , stylized as 『 』 ) due to their trademark of using only spaces as their in @-@ game names . After their parents died , the two no longer had emotional ties to society , and eventually became agoraphobic and hikikomori.LN 1 @.@ 0 When the two are separated from each other , they begin to suffer panic attacks.LN 1 @.@ 1 After Sora and Shiro are summoned to Disboard , they decide to uphold their undefeated reputation as Blank by defeating Tet . Sora is voiced by Yoshitsugu Matsuoka and Shiro by Ai Kayano . In Sentai Filmworks ' English localization , Sora and Shiro are dubbed by Scott Gibbs and Caitlynn French respectively . A 2014 poll by Charapedia ranked Shiro and Sora as two of the most intelligent anime characters of all time .
Stephanie Dola ( ステファニー ・ ドーラ , Sutefanī Dōra )
Stephanie is a teenage girl and granddaughter to the previous king of Elkia , the nation inhabited by humans . She has a lot of explicit knowledge but lacks the intuition to win games.LN 2 @.@ 1 Her grandfather was infamously known for losing games and giving up Elkia 's land . As a result , Stephanie strives to restore the honor of her grandfather and humanity . When Sora and Shiro are crowned , she becomes their assistant and deals with Elkia 's economics and politics . They discover her grandfather kept hidden records on the other species which becomes an asset to their victories ; LN 2 @.@ 3 her experience with Sora and Shiro improves her skill to the point that she can win against normal humans.LN 4 @.@ 1 She is voiced by Yōko Hikasa and English dubbed by Sara Ornelas .
Jibril ( ジブリール , Jiburīru )
Jibril is a flügel , a powerful angelic race known for their ruthlessness.LN 2 @.@ 1 Jibril is over 6000 @-@ years old and is the youngest and most powerful of her species.LN 5 @.@ 2 She won Elkia 's library from Stephanie 's grandfather in order to store her books and use it as a home.LN 2 @.@ 2 After losing to Sora and Shiro in a game of Shiritori , she becomes their slave , but is treated as an equal.LN 2 @.@ 2 She often provides magic or transportation necessities for the protagonists . Later on , she begins publishing novels based on Sora and Shiro which makes them famous among the flügels.LN 5 @.@ 1 She is voiced by Yukari Tamura and English dubbed by Amelia Fischer .
Warbeast
The warbeasts are kemonomimis with high physical abilities ; their nation is known as the Eastern Federation . They are ruled by a nameless Miko , a logical woman who helped the Eastern Federation flourish for the past fifty years.LN 3 @.@ 4 She possesses a rare ability called Blood Destruction which augments her physical abilities by taxing her body . She allies herself with Sora and Shiro who promises benefits for humanity and warbeasts.LN 3 @.@ 4 She is voiced by Naomi Shindo and English dubbed by Suzelle Palacios .
Meanwhile , the warbeast embassy in Elkia is represented by Izuna Hatsuse ( 初瀬 いづな , Hatsuse Izuna ) , an eight @-@ year @-@ old child and ambassador of the warbeast.LN 2 @.@ 4 She has a childlike demeanor and uses the copula desu , but also possesses high intellect and Blood Destruction.LN 3 @.@ 3 Following the alliance between humans and warbeasts , she is a constant companion to Sora and Shiro whom she adores and trusts . She is voiced by Miyuki Sawashiro and English dubbed by Kira Vincent @-@ Davis . Alongside her is her grandfather , Ino Hatsuse ( 初瀬 いの , Hatsuse Ino ) .LN 2 @.@ 4 He believes Sora has selfish ulterior motives and dislikes him . After the alliance between humans and warbeasts , he works alongside Stephanie to formalize the union.LN 4 @.@ 1 He is voiced by Mugihito and English dubbed by John Swasey .
Kurami Zell and Fil Nilvalen
Kurami Zell ( クラミー ・ ツェル , Kuramī Tseru ) is an eighteen @-@ year @-@ old girl and considered the slave of the elf Fil Nilvalen ( フィール ・ ニルヴァレン , Fīru Niruvaren ) . Though Kurami 's family were the Nilvalen family 's slaves for generations , her relationship with Fil is similar to daughter and mother.LN 3 @.@ 2 Meanwhile , Fil is considered a failure of a magician but is secretly highly skilled.LN 5 @.@ 0 She is willing to betray Elven Garde , the nation inhabited by elves , for Kurami 's sake ; the two conspire to have Fil obtain a political position of power in order to abolish slavery.LN 3 @.@ 2 Sora manages to convince Kurami to be his ally by sharing his memories with her.LN 3 @.@ 1 Kurami is voiced by Yuka Iguchi and Fil by Mamiko Noto ; they are English dubbed by Kara Greenberg and Christina Stroup respectively .
Dhampirs and sirens
Dhampirs are a species with similar characteristics to vampires : they drink body fluids from other species for nourishment ; excel at transformation , illusion , and dream magic ; and are weak to sunlight . Their weakness to sunlight can be spread through bites which deters the other species from sharing blood with them.LN 4 @.@ 0 Meanwhile , sirens are an all female species with the body of a mermaid . They require the life of a male from another species in order to reproduce ; their magic allows them to seduce anyone of their choosing . Both species live in a nation called Oceando . Centuries ago , the dhampirs and sirens used the Ten Pledges to create a mutualistic relationship between the two ; the dhampirs were allowed to feed on the sirens and in return , a male dhampir is to mate with the siren 's empress who can reproduce without killing . Eight hundred years prior , the empress went into hibernation and the mating rituals killed all but a single male dhampir.LN 4 @.@ 1
Plum ( プラム , Puramu ) is the last male dhampir and as a result , disguises himself as a female ; LN 5 @.@ 4 his magic skills are considered above average within his species.LN 5 @.@ 2 After consuming Sora and Shiro 's sweat , he becomes fond of their taste . He makes a deal with the sirens to lure Sora and Shiro in an attempt to have one of the two races enslave humanity . Sora and Shiro deduce his deception but decide to save both races regardless.LN 5 @.@ 4 Since then , Sora and Shiro have Plum accompany them on their adventures .
The empress of the sirens , Leila Lorelei ( ライラ ・ ローレライ , Raira Rōrerai ) , used the Ten Pledges to put herself to sleep without revealing the requirements to wake her up . While she slept , Amira ( アミラ ) takes her place in leading the sirens.LN 4 @.@ 2 Realizing the empress is a masochist who desires a la douleur exquise , Sora 's immunity to the sirens ' seduction magic allows him to awaken her.LN 5 @.@ 4 Subsequently , the empress used Sora 's hair to create a siren daughter.LN 5 @.@ 5
Other characters
Tet ( テト , Teto ) is an old deus , a magical entity born from wishes and prayers . During the era when the sixteen species were at war with each other , a human named Riku Dola and his Ex Machina wife , Shuvi Dola , imagined the existence of a god of games ; this resulted in Tet 's birth . Due to Riku 's efforts , Tet comes into possession of an object known as the Star Grail , allowing him to become the god of Disboard . Using its power , Tet cast the Ten Pledges on the world , ending the war and making the world center around games.LN 6 @.@ 5 He is voiced by Rie Kugimiya and English dubbed by Shannon Emerick .
Azrael ( アズリール , Azurīru ) is the first flügel and their leader following the death of Artosh , the old deus who created them . Since then , Azrael has become despondent towards life and tries to give meaning to the flügel 's existence to prevent their suicide.LN 5 @.@ 2 She is able to converse with the flügel 's homeland , a sentient floating island called Avant Heim which is part of a species called the phantasma.LN 5 @.@ 1 Following her loss against Sora and Shiro , her powers are reduced to the levels of a human which gives her a new perspective on life.LN 5 @.@ 3
= = Publication and conception = =
No Game No Life is a light novel series written and illustrated by Yū Kamiya . It is published under the MF Bunko J imprint ; eight volumes were published by Media Factory between April 25 , 2012 and December 25 , 2015 . In August 2014 , Yen Press announced No Game No Life will be one of its titles published under its newly launched imprint , Yen On , in 2015 . Non @-@ English localization include Brazil , Taiwan and Russia ; distribution in China was banned due to the government viewing the series as a threat to communism .
No Game No Life was conceived during the serialization of A Dark Rabbit Has Seven Lives.LN 1.A Kamiya 's original idea was a fantasy setting with battles ; since he disliked drawing battles , he replaced it with games . He had intended to turn the idea into a manga series , but an unspecified illness made him unfit to handle the workload . While hospitalized for treatment , the author imagined how his idea would work as a light novel , and settled for that medium instead.LN 1.A Kamiya began writing the first volume and was advised to break it into three parts due to its length.LN 2.A In the middle of writing the second volume , Kamiya moved to his home country , Brazil , for further treatment for his ailment ; in order to meet the volume 's deadline , his wife drew some of the illustrations in the novel.LN 2.A
After the third volume , a new editor was assigned to the series.LN 3.A Kamiya noted the third volume contained a lot of plot progression , and was going to balance it out in the fourth volume with more lighthearted and carefree events.LN 3.A. Volumes four and five were written as a single volume ; since volume four lacked a climatic ending , Kamiya had to restructure the story.LN 4.A This , along with communication problems with his new editor , and other problems in Kamiya 's life caused a month delay in volume four 's release.LN 4.A After completing volume five , Kamiya was asked to submit volume six 's manuscript before 2014 for the anime adaptation , and to complete the volume before the anime 's premiere.LN 5.A , 6.A
= = = Volume list = = =
= = Manga adaptation = =
After reviewing the drawings made by Yuu Kamiya 's wife , Mashiro Hiiragi , in second light novel volume , his editor suggested the two collaborate on a manga adaptation of No Game No Life for Monthly Comic Alive.LN 2.A Due to Kamiya 's work on the third light novel volume , the manga serialization was delayed by a volume ; the volume it was supposed to premiere in contained an apology page illustrated by Hiiragi.LN 3.A The series premiered in the March 2013 volume of Monthly Comic Alive and since then , is published irregularly in the magazine . Media Factory collected the individual chapters for the tankōbon release ; there is currently a single volume which was released on November 22 , 2013 . In March 2014 , Seven Seas Entertainment announced its licensing of the manga series and released the first tankōbon volume in October 2014 ; the title is stylized as No Game , No Life . The series has also been localized in Brazil and Taiwan .
A side series , titled No Game No Life Desu ! , by Yuizaki Kazuya , began serialization in the July 2015 issue of Monthly Comic Alive . It focuses on Izuna Hatsuse and her daily life .
= = Anime adaptation = =
On July 27 , 2013 , Monthly Comic Alive announced the anime adaptation for No Game No Life was green lit . It is directed by Atsuko Ishizuka and animated by Madhouse . The series premiered on April 9 , 2014 on AT @-@ X ; it was later broadcast on five other broadcast stations and several streaming networks . The final episode premiered on June 25 , 2014 . Media Factory released the series in six DVD and Blu ‑ ray volumes between June 25 and November 26 , 2014 . The opening theme for the series was " This Game " by Konomi Suzuki and the ending theme is " Oracion " by Shiro 's voice actress , Ai Kayano .
Crunchyroll simulcasted No Game No Life and made it accessible to several regions . In North America , Anime Network broadcast the series on their cable network and made it available on their website , while Sentai Filmworks is set to release the series for home media in July 2015 . In the United Kingdom , MVM Entertainment licensed the series for distribution and in Australasia , Hanabee Entertainment licensed the series for its video on demand website . In France , the series was also simulcasted on Anime Digital Network and is broadcast on Viacom International Media Networks ' J @-@ one channel . In China , the series is made available on PPTV .
Yoshitsugu Matsuoka and Ai Kayano , the voice actors for Sora and Shiro respectively , hosted an internet radio show on Hibiki Radio called No Radio No Life . It was broadcast weekly between April 8 and July 29 , 2014 and switched to a biweekly schedule since then . Twenty @-@ six segments are planned and three CDs were released between July 2014 and February 2015 . A special cross over featuring No Radio No Life and the radio series from Bladedance of Elementalers and Lord Marksman and Vanadis was broadcast by Hibiki Radio on January 1 , 2015 and released on DVD on May 13 .
An anime movie adaptation of the light novel series was announced on July 17 , 2016 at the MF Bunko J Summer School Festival 2016 event .
= = = Episode list = = =
= = Reception = =
It was reported in April 2014 , that 1 @.@ 1 million copies of the light novel were in circulation . That same year , No Game No Life was the top ten selling light novel series with several of its books appearing in the top thirty selling volumes list . Starting in its 2014 pool , the yearly magazine Kono Light Novel ga Sugoi ! , listed the light novel and the protagonists of No Game No Life beginning in its polls ; in addition , the series ranked fourth in Sugoi Japan 2015 polls . Seven Seas Entertainment 's localization of the manga was able to reach The New York Times Manga Best Sellers and ICv2 's charts . The anime series saw similar success and its home media made appearances on Oricon 's weekly selling charts . In April 2014 , No Game No Life was one of the top recorded anime series on Sony 's Torne ; a poll by AT @-@ X ranked the series as one of 2014 's top anime series .
Anime News Network had four editors review the first episode of the anime : Carl Kimlinger expressed doubts about the premise of the show , but liked the over @-@ saturated visuals and the concept of the protagonists cheating against cheaters ; Rebecca Silverman called the characters unlikeable and criticized the expositions for lacking in action , but noted her issues may be resolved in further episodes ; and Theron Martin described the plot as wish @-@ fulfilment , noted Sora has too much character for a hikikomori , called Sora 's relationship with Shiro creepy , and concluded the series may turn out well if Sora is not an indomitable character . The fourth reviewer , Hope Chapman , expressed absolute disdain towards the series . She expressed hatred towards Sora 's character , noting the misunderstood nerd turned respected genius aspect is lazy wish @-@ fulfillment and how he thrives in a world for " misanthropic Shut @-@ ins " . Chapman likened the over @-@ saturated colors to vomit , called the character designs hideous , and concluded her review with " nothing has made me roll my eyes , gag , or feel more irrationally angry this season than this insulting self @-@ insert pandering trash heap " .
Anime News Network 's Carl Kimlinger published a positive review for the complete anime series . He wrote that the premise presented many flaws but were balanced out by other aspects : Sora and Shiro 's " over @-@ powered hero " archetype is balanced out by their flawed lifestyles , motives , and their " visible delight in crushing their enemies " ; Stephanie Dola 's mistreatment with gags and Sora and Shiro 's growing respect towards her ; and the harem aspect with Sora 's apathy and interesting female characters . Regardless , Kimlinger praised the plot 's " big games " , calling them the reason to watch the series and described them as " steeped in trickery and strategy " ; he added that despite knowing the protagonists would win , the fun is seeing how they do it . Kimlinger wrote the over @-@ saturation art style will be an acquired taste for most viewers and praised how the animation really shines during the " big games " , calling it an impressive display of fluidity and timing . Kotaku 's Richard Eisenbeis was also positive towards the series , praising the protagonists ' dynamic , echoed Kimlinger 's sentiments about the games , liked the animation , but noted his dislike for fan service featuring Shiro . He also ranked the series as one of the top five anime series of 2014 , and recommended it for viewers who like smart characters and gamer humor . Similarly , TAY Kotaku also praised the dynamics , references to other anime and video games , and the art style ; the reviewer had mixed feelings towards the harem aspect and sexual humor , and agreed with Kotaku 's dislike for the fan service featuring Shiro . IGN echoed previous opinions , praising the character dynamics , and also questioned the amount of unnecessary fanservice .
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= Billy Talent =
Billy Talent is a Canadian rock band from Mississauga , Ontario . They formed in 1993 with Benjamin Kowalewicz as the lead vocalist , Ian D 'Sa on guitar , bassist Jon Gallant and drummer Aaron Solowoniuk . There have been no lineup changes , although Aaron is currently taking a hiatus from the band due to an MS relapse , Jordan Hastings from Alexisonfire , Cunter and Say Yes is currently filling in for him .
The band existed for almost a decade before mainstream success . The members met and played in Our Lady of Mount Carmel Secondary School under the name Pezz and remained underground in Toronto 's indie music scene until 2001 . The band renamed itself Billy Talent after running into legal trouble with the old name . It was then that Kowalewicz 's connection with an employee of Warner Music Canada 's A & R department landed the band a record deal and launched them into mainstream success . Since then , Billy Talent has made three multi @-@ platinum records in Canada , and continues to expand their success overseas , this included touring for 20 months supporting their second album . They released their third album , entitled Billy Talent III , on July 14 , 2009 , and their fourth album , entitled Dead Silence , on September 4 , 2012 . Dead Silence was followed up by a full UK tour over the course of October and November 2012 . To commemorate the longevity since the release of their first studio album , the band has released a greatest hits album entitled " Hits " on November 4 , 2014 .
= = History = =
= = = Origins as Pezz ( 1993 – 1999 ) = = =
The band got together during a high school talent contest . Pezz began writing , performing songs , and gaining attention and credibility at first locally , and soon in Toronto 's broader indie music scene . Their first recording was a cheap 4 @-@ track demo . It was recorded in Ian D 'Sa 's basement in July 1994 , and was named Demoluca , after a friend of the band named Jason Deluca had stopped by the house , banging on a basement window while the band was recording . Soon after , in January 1995 , they all put in money to record another demo of better quality with engineer / producer Dave Tedesco at the " Signal to Noise " studio which they called Dudebox . Originally , two tracks from Demoluca and four newly recorded tracks were compiled onto it , but a year later the band recorded four more tunes live in the studio and re @-@ released it . After these releases and their continued performances in the immediate area , Pezz was gaining a following in Mississauga and it continued to spread .
D 'Sa studied classical animation at Sheridan College , and even worked on Angela Anaconda as an animator . Gallant almost finished a business degree . Kowalewicz was in between jobs , one which included working at 102 @.@ 1 the edge . Solowoniuk worked at Chrysler Canada . But during this , each member found the time and finances to max @-@ out their credit cards , and record their first full @-@ length album in 1999 . They laid down twelve tracks at a studio called " Great Big Music " , collaborating with Juno @-@ nominated music producer Brad Nelson . Kowalewicz started singing in melody with D 'Sa . The music began to transform from a " raw rap @-@ rock " songs into " catchy and angst @-@ ridden pop punk anthems " . With that , Watoosh ! was born and independently released . While popular within Toronto 's indie scene , it did not reach large mainstream sales levels .
= = = Billy Talent and success ( 1999 – 2004 ) = = =
In 1999 , the Canadian Pezz received documentation from an American band named Pezz proving that the latter had held the name internationally since 1989 . The Canadian band had no legal claim to their old name and thus changed it to Billy Talent , inspired by the guitarist " Billy Tallent " from Michael Turner 's novel Hard Core Logo . The film adaptation by Bruce McDonald would be the inspirational medium for the band . However , this still led to fans mistaking Kowalewicz as being named Billy Talent .
Now known as Billy Talent , their sound began to move in a more aggressive , punk rock direction . During this time , Kowalewicz ran into Jen Hirst , at 102 @.@ 1 the edge , the Toronto radio station he worked at . She had seen the band perform as Pezz , and he asked her to check out the band 's performance at a club . This would prove to pay off , as Hirst was later hired by Warner Music Canada to work in A & R. This connection would get the band their producer Gavin Brown , and a demo deal with the label . Before the demos were recorded , a local manager called Atlantic Records A & R executives , who were already in Toronto , to see the band perform in its tiny rehearsal space .
In 2002 , the band met with record executives , and ended up signing a co @-@ venture agreement with Atlantic Records and Warner Music Canada . In the fall of 2003 , the band released their full @-@ length self @-@ titled album , Billy Talent . The album found considerable sales success . " Try Honesty " was a successful first single , and was followed by other singles " The Ex " , " River Below " , and " Nothing to Lose " into late 2003 and 2004 . The band played sold @-@ out shows in Canada and the United States and had success in Europe . The band received Juno , ( They won two Junos , Best Album of the Year , and Best Band of the Year ) and MuchMusic Video Award nominations and awards , and spent late 2004 and most of 2005 touring . Billy Talent went on to be certified 3x platinum in Canada .
A track from the album titled " This Is How It Goes " was about Aaron Solowoniuk 's fight with multiple sclerosis . On March 17 , 2006 , Aaron Solowoniuk revealed in a personal letter to fans that he was the friend in that song . Solowoniuk was confirmed to have the disease , which causes anything from numbness in the limbs to paralysis or loss of vision , in January 1999 . His neurologist prescribed him medication that he would have to self inject three times a week , possibly for the rest of his life . Although it was a struggle for Solowoniuk to come to terms with the reality of the disease , going to numerous doctor appointments and touring with a mini @-@ fridge in their van has become normal routine . The medication has let him continue drumming with the band , as it eliminated his symptoms , and he has stated that " this changes nothing about my band or me . "
= = = Billy Talent II ( 2005 @-@ 2007 ) = = =
Billy Talent 's second album was mostly recorded at The Warehouse Studio in Vancouver , British Columbia , which was produced by Gavin Brown again with Ian D 'Sa co @-@ producing for the first time , and mixed by Chris Lord @-@ Alge .
Billy Talent II hit the shelves on June 27 , 2006 . It fared very well in Canada in its debut week , landing in at number 1 on the Canadian charts . It also enjoyed significant success in Germany , where it also debuted at number 1 in the album charts in its debut week , and was one of the top 10 selling albums in the country . As of June 15 , 2007 , the album has sold almost 700 @,@ 000 units worldwide , 215 @,@ 000 of them in Canada making it certified 2x Platinum , and 200 @,@ 000 shipped units in Germany achieved it platinum status there . However , the success did not duplicate itself in the U.S. The band has expressed that they know they are a new band there , and they are choosing to concentrate their attention on Canada , Europe , and other places overseas instead .
The album contains less anger and profanity than their previous self @-@ titled album , as they had mellowed out and matured as men and as a band . More of the songs dealt with real @-@ life issues , to the praise of fans and critics .
We wanted to do something completely different from the first record because we had changed dramatically and had learned a lot from personal relationships . Everyone in the band is partnering up and dealing with those issues . The general theme of this record is trust , the lack thereof or breaking up . That seemed to fuel the record .
The band ventured off on another UK tour in support of Billy Talent II , but this one would include more shows in countries they had not performed in before . During this tour leg , the gigs at London and Manchester , on September 8 and 16 , respectively , were recorded live . Limited edition CDs were released as the band 's only live album to date , Live from the UK Sept . / 2006 . Also during the tour , the band had to miss their Southampton show " due to a death in the family " . The whole band returned the following month to play the show .
The band started their first Canadian arena tour with the bands Rise Against , Anti @-@ Flag , and Moneen , performing in British Columbia , Alberta , Saskatchewan , Manitoba , Quebec and ending in Ontario . Following the Canadian tour , the band ventured onto their first US club tour .
The band went on a large overseas tour , beginning on June 1 , 2007 . They temporarily came back in mid June to play shows at the MuchMusic Video Awards , the Molson Amphitheatre in Toronto with good friends Alexisonfire , Cancer Bats , and Attack In Black . Plus the Festival d 'été de Québec with Alexisonfire in Quebec City . They returned overseas , selling out multiple venues in Australia and performing at the MTV Australia Video Music Awards . They had planned to end their tour on September 3 , but the band played shows in St. John 's , Newfoundland , Saint John , New Brunswick and Halifax , Nova Scotia on September 5 , 7 and 8 , respectively . As of September 11 , 2007 , the band has indicated that their 18 @-@ month tour has officially ended , and they are " home for a while to catch [ their ] breath a little before [ they ] start writing the next record . " In the meantime , a live DVD album called 666 was released on November 27 , 2007 , featuring footage and audio from the band 's performances at London 's Brixton Academy , Düsseldorf 's Philipshalle , and Germany 's Rock am Ring festival ( at the Nürburgring ) .
In 2008 they opened for American group My Chemical Romance in the US with smaller group Drive By and attended several festivals and held concerts in Canada and Europe later on . Vocalist Benjamin Kowalewicz stated on July 1 , on Billy Talent 's official forum , that they are staying put in Canada until the album is finished , and that their promotional tour for II has come to an end . Their song " Red Flag " was featured in Burnout : Revenge , SSX on tour , and NHL 06 .
= = = Billy Talent III ( 2008 @-@ 2011 ) = = =
The single for " Turn Your Back " ( jälllaboration form with the band Anti @-@ Flag ) was released on September 15 in the UK and most of Europe , on September 16 in the U.S. and Canada and September 20 in Australia and was also featured in the video game NHL 09 .
The band entered the studio in November with Brendan O 'Brien , who has previously worked with Rage Against The Machine , Incubus , Stone Temple Pilots , Soundgarden , Pearl Jam and the Red Hot Chili Peppers . The band embarked on a supporting tour for the fourth album , starting in Australia in the Soundwave Festival in February . Also , they played two sidewaves , one in Sydney , and one in Melbourne , with Emery and Face to Face opening for them . After Australia , the band headed to North America , where they played the three @-@ day Coachella Festival . Ian revealed that the new album is to be called Billy Talent III .
During summer 2009 , Billy Talent toured North America with Rise Against and Rancid . On February 26 , the band was announced for Download festival in the U.K. They also played in Columbus , Ohio at Rock on the Range in May 2009 . During the Melbourne Soundwave show , Kowalewicz announced they would tour Australia again in August . Billy Talent also played at Reading and Leeds Festivals 2009 . Following the twin festivals the band toured the U.K. in late October / early November before moving on to tour the U.S. in support of their new album . In an interview with UpVenue , bassist Jonathan Gallant announced that the Canadian tour would begin in winter 2010 but would be an extensive one .
Their fourth album , Billy Talent III was released on July 14 , 2009 . On September 22 , 2009 , it was released in the United States , through Roadrunner Records .
Billy Talent kicked off their 2009 European tour on October 19 , commenting before the tour that they " can 't wait to come over to Europe and the U.K. " . They followed the European tour with a Canadian tour in March 2010 , with Against Me ! , Alexisonfire and Cancer Bats supporting . On February 1 , " Saint Veronika " was released as the third single from Billy Talent III .
On February 16 , 2010 , Billy Talent released iTunes Session , over iTunes , a 7 @-@ track EP with songs from all three of the Billy Talent Albums .
In August 2010 , Billy Talent played 3 tour dates in South Africa , one in Cape Town , Durban and at Oppikoppi along with other local bands such as Taxi Violence , Zebra and Giraffe and Jack Parow . The band then played the main stage at the Reading and Leeds Festivals in the summer , along with bands such as Blink @-@ 182 , Guns N ' Roses , Arcade Fire , Paramore , Weezer , Green Day , Lostprophets & Young Guns . This was the band 's last performances on the Billy Talent III Tour , and it was announced by Kowalewicz that the band were going to take a break before beginning work on their next album .
= = = Dead Silence ( 2012 @-@ 2014 ) = = =
In April 2011 , Kowalewicz stated that " At this point there is no time frame for touring , as our main priority is finishing writing and recording this new record " . Kowalewicz also stated " the songs this far are unlike anything we 've ever done before yet it still seems to capture the urgency of our first record " . Kowalewicz stated , in an interview , that the first three albums would form a trilogy and that the new album would not be named Billy Talent IV . In August 2011 it was announced in an interview with the band that their new album will be recorded in November . The album was produced by Ian D 'Sa and engineered by Eric Ratz and Kenny Luong who worked on Billy Talent II . The album 's first single " Viking Death March " was digitally released on May 25 , 2012 . The music video for the track was recorded at Germany 's Rock am Ring Festival and at Melkweg Amsterdam . , . The album 's second single " Surprise Surprise " was released on August 7 , 2012 on iTunes . The band released the album Dead Silence on September 4 , 2012 on their SoundCloud account .
The band embarked on a Canadian tour with Sum 41 , Hollerado and Indian Handcrafts .
= = = Hits ( 2014 ) = = =
On August 22 , 2014 , the band announced a release of Hits , a " greatest hits " album including two new songs .
On September 25 , 2014 , Billy Talent released " Kingdom of Zod , " one of the two new songs on the band 's " Hits " album .
On November 4 , 2014 , the band released their first compilation album Hits .
= = = Afraid Of Heights ( 2015 @-@ Present ) = = =
On May 9 , 2015 , the band announced at SiriusXM Indies that they have been in the studio for the past few months working on their new record . Also announced that the album will be released in 2016
On November 26 , 2015 , Ben announced that they will be entering the studio to start recording Jan 4th , 2016 and should release their new album before Summer 2016
On January 15 , 2016 , Aaron announced via the Billy Talent YouTube channel that he would be taking a hiatus from the band due to an MS relapse . Jordan Hastings , from Alexisonfire , Cunter and Say Yes was announced to be filling in and doing the drum work on the new album in his place . Official band photographs in promotion of the new album feature both drummers .
On May 12 , 2016 , the band announced their new album Afraid Of Heights set for release on July 29 , 2016 . On the same day the band aired their first single from the new album called " Afraid Of Heights " .
= = Musical style = =
Watoosh ! saw the band mixing multiple genres and making diverse songs on the same album , stretching from hip hop to indie and ska punk . However , this evolved into a more collected sound that was a mix of fewer genres on their second album , Billy Talent . The result of this has not been described by the band as their defining sound and that it was something that appeared to them after experimenting with different styles . On Billy Talent II , the band altered their sound yet again , based on more mid @-@ tempo and emotional compositions ; a bit more collected than their previous work . It was also based on far less angst and aggression behind the production , things that were known factors behind their debut . In their music there are raw and frequent backup vocals heavily collaborated by main vocals , quick changes between loud and quiet , and Kowalewicz 's characteristic vocals which are the key elements that emphasize that assertion .
= = Band members = =
Benjamin Kowalewicz – lead vocals ( 1993 – present )
Ian D 'Sa – guitar , vocals ( 1993 – present )
Jonathan Gallant – bass guitar , backing vocals ( 1993 – present )
Aaron Solowoniuk - drums , percussion ( 1993 – present ; on hiatus 2016 @-@ present )
= = = Session / Touring members = = =
Jordan Hastings – drums , percussion ( 2016 – present )
= = Awards = =
Billy Talent has received a significant amount of recognition in Canada , winning 10 awards from 32 nominations at the MuchMusic Video Awards and 7 awards from 20 nominations at the Juno Awards . The band has also been nominated at the MuchMusic Video Awards every year since 2004 . Overall , Billy Talent has received 21 awards from 56 nominations in Canada . The band also had the number 1 rock song of 2009 " Devil on My Shoulder " on Much Music 's holiday wrap , along with the number five song " Fallen Leaves " for much music 's 99 best music videos . They are also the most nominated band in Much Music Video Award history .
= = Discography = =
Studio albums as Pezz
Watoosh ! ( 1999 )
Studio albums as Billy Talent
Billy Talent ( 2003 )
Billy Talent II ( 2006 )
Billy Talent III ( 2009 )
Dead Silence ( 2012 )
Afraid Of Heights ( 2016 )
= = Tours = =
Billy Talent Tour ( 2003 – 2004 )
Billy Talent II Tour ( 2006 – 2008 )
Billy Talent III Tour ( 2009 – 2010 )
Dead Silence Tour ( 2012 @-@ 2013 )
BT1 Turns 10 Tour ( 2013 )
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= Food power =
In international politics , food power is the use of agriculture as a means of political control whereby one nation or group of nations offers or withholds commodities from another nation or group of nations in order to manipulate behavior . Its potential use as a weapon was recognised after OPEC ’ s earlier use of oil as a political weapon . Food has a major influence on political actions of a nation . In response to acts of food power , a nation usually acts in the interest of its citizens to provide food .
Food power is an integral part of the politics of food . The idea of food power is used in embargoes , employment , and food politics . In order for a nation to utilize food power effectively , the nation must effectively apply and display scarcity , supply concentration , demand dispersion , and action independence . The four main nations that export enough agriculture to be able to exert food power are the United States , Canada , Australia , and New Zealand . On the smaller scale , particularly in some African countries , food power has been used as a weapon by opposing sides in internal wars and conflicts against their own people .
= = Historical background = =
There are four nations in the world that export enough agriculture to exert this hypothetical food power : the United States , Canada , Australia , and New Zealand . Forced to rely on these nations in times of shortage , food @-@ importing countries may face food crises if needed supplies are withheld . But while political leaders in food @-@ importing countries have expressed misgivings over their dependence , food @-@ exporting nations generally do not withhold food , as agricultural producers in these nations press their governments to continue to export .
= = Policy = =
Food politics are the political aspects of the production , control , regulation , inspection and distribution of food . The politics can be affected by the ethical , cultural , medical and environmental disputes concerning proper farming , agricultural and retailing methods and regulations . Food power is an integral part of the politics of food .
“ Food is a weapon ” , stated Earl Butz , the United States Secretary of Agriculture , in 1974 . OPEC 's use of oil as a political weapon brought on the possibility for America to use food as a tool against other states and to further the US 's goals . There are alternative uses of food power as well . An importer can refuse to continue import unless political concessions are made . This would have the same effects that an exporter refusing to export would have . An example of this would be American reduction of the Cuban sugar quota . In simple terms , the demand concentration ( one importer being the dominant buyer ) and supply dispersion ( several exporters competing to sell the same product ) an importer can try to use this exchange politically to their favor ; this is especially effective if the exporter has little else so export ( low action independence ) .
= = = Food power and food security = = =
Food security and food power are not the same thing . However , they are often directly related . Food security is when all people of a region at all times have enough food for an active , healthy life . Food power is related when a government , company , leader , country etc. takes this security away in order to get something in return . Many countries employ the exploit of food power to threaten another country 's food security . A country 's welfare correlates directly with the welfare of its people therefore each country wants to have an appropriate supply of food for its citizens . This want , however , can easily be used as leverage in the politics of food , demonstrating food power .
= = = Food power and embargoes = = =
An embargo is not the same as Food Power , however , food power can be used in an embargo . In fact , embargoes that do not involve food in their list of restricted items often fail . For example , on August 20 , 1914 the Allied Powers began an embargo on important items that were normally shipped to Germany . However , the embargo was not complete nor effective until food was added to the list of restricted materials . Food has the real power . After food was introduced the blockade began to strangle Germany 's economy because they were dependent on imports for food . Because the Allied Powers used the power of food in their embargo , Germany was forced to resort to desperate measures and eventually failed despite them .
In the early 1980s , the United States posed a grain embargo upon the Soviet Union . This was an attempt by the U.S. utilize food power , however , it was not confirmed . The Soviets thus imported grain from different suppliers , leading to an increase in grain imports during that time period , only at a higher cost . Another unsuccessful embargo food power attempt was imposed by the UN Security Council in 1990 with Iraq .
Another example of an embargo is the United States embargo against Cuba . This is still an ongoing embargo , and , due to the declining situation and health of Cuba 's people , the embargo has been subject to much protest .
= = Employment = =
= = = Structural conditions = = =
Food power can only be used effectively if certain structural conditions apply :
Scarcity : If demand is high and supply is limited the value of a given commodity increases . The price often reflects the potential of the goods as a weapon ; as it indicates the importance attached to it . Example : If a consumer is prepared to pay a high price for monetary terms he may also be willing to pay a high price in political concessions .
Supply Concentration : Supply should only be in the hands of few producers / sellers , as this makes possible for limited competition , price fixes , or potentially a monopoly .
Demand Dispersion : Allows sellers to play the consumers against each other as well as increase prices or make terms conditional . This favors the use of economic goods food as a weapon .
Action Independence : In order to ensure affectivity the seller / producer most control his own assets . Either the seller / producer must be able to control the production process , perhaps through governmental control over companies carrying out the production ) , or he must have access to means on the other dimensions to ensure that he can maintain or extend control over his assets .
The four conditions listed above MUST be simultaneously present in order to turn an economic asset food into a political instrument . This does not necessarily mean that the asset will be used whenever the four conditions above are present . Such a decision would be considered only if there were further conditions , for example , the nature of a given conflict and judgment , goals , alternative means , and judgment of utility .
= = = Employment as an economic weapon = = =
There are several uses for employing economic weapons against one country or another . One use for using economic weapons would concern the seller / buyer bargaining on the conditions of a business contract . This would include price , transportation , timetable for consignment and payment , etc . Although this is an example of the successful application of food power , it is not a political objective . Another use concerns the economic objectives other than these relating to the transaction of goods ; to the general economic policy of the buyer . This would be balance of payments , general problems , such as inflation or taxation and land holding . What distinguishes this from the first is the fact that there is no link between the conditions laid down and the transfer of product . The conditions refer to the economic realm of life . A political use would be one concerning the buyer ’ s foreign and defense policies . Many believe there is a moral threshold between economy and politics , making the use of economic means for political gains questionable . Examples of the use of economic weapons for political aims are boycotts against certain countries as well as the buying of votes in the UN . A fourth purpose pertains to the basic assumption of the third category : the governments no longer accept each other as legitimate . The economic goals are no longer seen as a means of influencing an opposite government but rather to stimulate opposition and achieve the overthrow or capitulation of the government .
= = = United States = = =
During the time the United States was the most dominant in all areas like military , energy , exports , etc . Food Power was not really thought about . However , since some of those powers have since diminished , the power of food has come to the surface . In the realm of food , The United States remains at the top , unchallenged . The United States has the position of being the largest producer and exporter of food . While others nations , predominantly developing nations but even some of the richest oil @-@ exporting nations , are beginning to have food shortages and becoming more and more dependent on imported food from the United States , giving it more and more power . This allows the United States to expect friendly behavior from the countries that import American food . It is also likely that the United States would have some form of influence over these countries . Even some of the poorest OPEC countries have become dependent on U.S. wheat . Therefore , there is a possibility that the United States could restrict its food exports for political purposes . The United States could use this Food power as a means of exerting pressure on OPEC countries . Food power will be most effective in times of food shortage or famine because this is when those countries that have some dependence on the United States are most desperate .
The U.S. frequently uses its economic power in order to punish other countries . One of the ways the U.S. does this is by holding back on exporting food . Reasons for the punishment of another country vary ; however , they can be broken down into two main groups : Foreign containment objective and market development / humanitarian objectives . The foreign containment objective tends to punish those countries who are threatening to the U.S. An example of such a threat would be countries under other forms of government . More examples related to the containment objective would be no aid to communist countries , socialist governments , countries who support radical regimes , regimes with an inadequate democracy who are too weak to be anti @-@ communist ( effectively ) , and countries who will not accept U.S. agreements . An example of market development and humanitarian objectives would fall under a category of countries that are trying to compete with the U.S. economically . The U.S. will execute foreign aid punishments to countries trying to nationalize property of U.S. companies , countries who want to take over functions by U.S. companies , and countries trying to initiate nationalistic economic policies .
The U.S. has modified its stance since the 1970s , when the State Department and the CIA issued reports exploring the potential of food embargoes . Congressional Bill H.R. 5426 , the Trade Sanctions Reform and Export Enhancement Act of 2000 , removed agricultural export sanctions applied to Libya , Sudan , and North Korea ( agricultural trade with Cuba remained under some restrictions ) and gave Congress veto power over unilateral presidential actions in this regard .
= = = Africa = = =
Food politics in Africa differs from the cases in North America and Europe in that there is a case of small scale food power in Africa , particularly in Sudan . Some experts say that the cases of famine and food insecurity in Africa are due to inconsistent output of food production and the downward spiral of the interaction between population growth and environmental sustainability . But upon closer inspection , it is revealed that nature is not the only catalyst for Africa ’ s numerous food insecurity issues .
= = = = Sudan = = = =
Famine is shaped by generally two theories . The first is FAD , Food Availability Decline . This is the result of a drought , a war , or some other drastic change to the agricultural system . This is the natural cause for famine . The other theory deals primarily with the population ’ s ability to access or become entitled to food . In this case , food power makes itself known on a small scale , as opposing political forces in Sudan compete for the votes of the people by instigating or encouraging the famine .
For example , Sudan ’ s famine in the 1980s was completely intentional , and was only a pawn for a varied collection of different elites to improve their political and economic statuses . These political parties weren ’ t the only beneficiaries , though . Merchants were also known to hoard grain and buy livestock at inappropriately low prices when the famines shifted the terms of trade . Western Sudanese merchants during the famine of 1987 were described as heartless because they refused to sell grain to needy villages in Darfur at reasonable prices . Ergo , the Sudanese Famine was another example of food power in which food was and used as a policy , and which completely ignored the needs of the people and fostered the political and power @-@ hungry intentions of opposite warring forces in the country .
The famine in Sudan in 1998 was a humanitarian disaster caused mainly by human rights abuses , as well as drought and the failure of the international community to react to the famine risk with adequate speed . The worst affected area was Bahr El Ghazal in southwestern Sudan . In this region over 70 @,@ 000 people died during the famine .
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= Gaylussacia brachycera =
Gaylussacia brachycera , commonly known as box huckleberry or box @-@ leaved whortleberry , is a low North American shrub related to the blueberry and the other huckleberries . It is native to the east @-@ central United States ( Pennsylvania , Delaware , Maryland , Virginia , West Virginia , North Carolina , Kentucky , and Tennessee ) .
Gaylussacia brachycera is easily distinguished from other members of its genus by its leaves : they resemble those of boxwood ( hence its name ) and lack the resin glands typical of huckleberries . Like its relatives , it bears white urn @-@ shaped flowers in the early summer , which develop to blue , edible berries in late summer . It is mostly found in Appalachia ; many of its stations there were known to natives , who picked and ate the berries , before botanists became aware of them in the 1920s .
A relict species nearly exterminated by the last ice age , box huckleberry is self @-@ sterile , and is found in isolated colonies which reproduce clonally by extending roots . One colony in Pennsylvania was once estimated to be as many as 13 @,@ 000 years old ; more recent estimates have an upper bound of about 8 @,@ 000 years , which would make it the oldest woody plant east of the Rocky Mountains . Another colony in Pennsylvania , about 1 @,@ 300 years old , has been protected by the Hoverter and Sholl Box Huckleberry Natural Area .
= = Description = =
Box huckleberry is a low shrub , 6 to 8 inches ( 150 to 200 mm ) tall . Its leaves resemble those of boxwood ( hence its name ) . About 1 inch ( 2 @.@ 5 cm ) long and oval @-@ shaped , they are glossy and minutely toothed , turning red in winter . The evergreen leaves , lacking resin glands , are in sharp contrast to other species of Gaylussacia . Box huckleberry flowers in May and June . The flowers are urn @-@ shaped and white , sometimes tinged with pink . Like other huckleberries , the flowers appear on a raceme springing from the leaf axils . Its fruits , which appear in July and August , are blue berries borne on short pedicels .
= = Taxonomy = =
Box huckleberry was first collected and described in 1796 near Winchester , Virginia ( probably in what is now West Virginia ) by the botanist André Michaux . Michaux named it Vaccinium brachycerum in his Flora Boreali @-@ Americana , published in 1803 . Matthias Kinn , in about 1800 , and Frederick Pursh , in 1805 , also obtained specimens in West Virginia . R. A. Salisbury referred to it as V. buxifolium in 1805 , and this remained the prevailing name for the next forty years ; the common name " box @-@ leaved whortle @-@ berry " was used for the species at the time .
No further specimens were collected until 1845 , when Spencer Baird , a professor at Dickinson College , discovered a colony near New Bloomfield , Pennsylvania . It was redesignated G. brachycera in 1846 by Asa Gray on the basis of Baird 's specimens . ( Gaylussacia was not recognized as a genus separate from Vaccinium until 1819 . ) The discovery brought about a friendship between Gray and Baird that ultimately resulted in the latter 's appointment as secretary of the Smithsonian Institution .
John Kunkel Small assigned the species , as Buxella brachycera , to a monospecific genus in 1933 . However , this was not widely accepted , and was rejected by other authors on the grounds of both nomenclatural and " phyletic unsoundness " . More recently , phylogenetic studies in 2002 suggested that the monophyly of G. brachycera with the remainder of Gaylussacia is " equivocal " , and further analysis of Vaccinium might result in G. brachycera being returned to that genus .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
About 100 separate stations for box huckleberry have been documented in the scientific literature . By the time of Baird 's collection in 1845 , the West Virginia stations of the plant had been lost to science , and his Pennsylvania colony was the only one known for some time . Specimens of box huckleberry were subsequently identified in Delaware in 1870 , by William M. Canby .
In 1919 , Frederick V. Coville called attention to the threatened state of the plant in an article in Science . While investigating the species for horticultural purposes , he only found two herbarium specimens , those of Baird and Canby . ( Coville apparently did not locate Kinn 's West Virginia specimen , preserved at the Muhlenberg Herbarium . ) Upon examination of the New Bloomfield site in 1918 , he discovered the entire colony , except for one patch cut off by cultivation , was connected by roots , and that no seedlings were in evidence anywhere around the margins of the colony . Coville concluded that the plant was self @-@ sterile and reproduced by extending rootstocks . After commercial nurserymen removed a truckload of box huckleberry from the New Bloomfield site in 1918 , Coville was particularly anxious to preserve the species , as the New Bloomfield site was the only one then thought extant . ( It was protected by the state from 1929 , becoming the Hoverter and Sholl Box Huckleberry Natural Area . ) However , Edgar T. Wherry was able to locate the Delaware colony , thought lost , in 1919 , and send specimens for cross @-@ pollination with specimens from the Pennsylvania colony .
This report stimulated considerable interest in the species . Additional colonies were located in Pennsylvania and Delaware , one in Maryland , several in Virginia , three in Tennessee ( 1920 – 1930 ) , two in Kentucky ( 1927 – 1932 ) , and many in West Virginia ( 1921 ) . In summarizing these discoveries in 1932 , Wherry noted that many of the colonies were already known to local residents , who picked the berries for food , under names such as " juniper @-@ berry " , " ground @-@ huckleberry " , and " bear @-@ huckleberry " . He called for more intensive effort on the part of the scientific community to make use of such local knowledge in determining plant geography . More recently , a colony of box huckleberry was discovered in Durham County , North Carolina , the first report from that state , in 2003 .
Most of the reported stations for box huckleberry fall within the Appalachian Mountains , ranging from central Pennsylvania in the north to eastern Tennessee in the south . However , the specimens located in Maryland and Delaware were found on the Atlantic Coastal Plain , and the single North Carolina station is in the Piedmont . Its scattered distribution suggests that the species once spread more broadly across North America , but was almost eradicated by glacial advances , surviving only where it escaped the ice in protected refugia .
Box huckleberry prefers dry , acidic soils , including duff , and partial shade . Locations on wooded slopes tend to face north ; however , the New Bloomfield site faces west . At one of the Delaware sites , a small portion of the colony extended to the wet margin of a marsh , but most was located on dry , sandy soil upslope .
= = Ecology and human use = =
Box huckleberry is self @-@ sterile , so single plants cannot reproduce sexually . Instead , they form colonies which spread by vegetative reproduction along rootstocks . A colony of G. brachycera at Losh Run , Pennsylvania was found to be 6 @,@ 500 feet ( 2 @,@ 000 m ) long when surveyed . If this colony grew clonally from a seed deposited along the Juniata River at the rate of 15 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) per year , it would be about 13 @,@ 000 years old , the oldest living organism in the United States and second oldest in the world , eclipsed only by Lomatia tasmanica . However , this is believed now to be an overestimate on climatic grounds . At that time , the site was covered by a boreal forest thought to be too cold for the box huckleberry to survive ; the current forest did not begin to appear at the site until about 8 @,@ 000 years ago . This age would still make it the oldest woody plant in North America east of the Rocky Mountains . Recent studies have attempted to determine whether , in fact , the reproduction of the colony ( since heavily damaged by a forest fire in 1963 and road construction in the 1970s ) has been entirely clonal . Two genotypes were found in samples taken from the colony , but they are thought to have arisen through somatic mutation rather than sexual reproduction . Unfortunately , the destruction of about 80 % of the colony by fire and construction makes it impossible to definitively settle the question .
The caterpillar of the moth Dichomeris juncidella has been reported to feed on the leaves . The berries are eaten by wild turkeys and ruffed grouse . They have been harvested for food by humans in West Virginia , Kentucky , and Tennessee . Rev. Frederick W. Gray , who documented many of the box huckleberry colonies in West Virginia in the 1920s , first took an interest in the plant when served a " juniper " pie , " juniper " being the local name for box huckleberry . However , they are reportedly tasteless .
With the cooperation of the United States Department of Agriculture , efforts are under way to promote G. brachycera as a groundcover for use in landscaping . Box huckleberry is commercially available from at least one source but it is difficult to propagate , making it unprofitable for many nurseries to carry . In New Bloomfield , PA , the box huckleberry has become part of the local New Year 's celebrations , as a papier @-@ mâché replica of a huckleberry is dropped , instead of a ball , to mark the new year .
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= Stargate SG @-@ 1 ( season 1 ) =
The first season of the military science fiction television series Stargate SG @-@ 1 commenced airing on the Showtime channel in the United States on July 27 , 1997 , concluded on the same channel on March 6 , 1998 , and contained 22 episodes . The show itself is a spin off from the 1994 hit movie , Stargate written by Dean Devlin and Roland Emmerich . Stargate SG @-@ 1 re @-@ introduced supporting characters from the film universe , such as Jonathan " Jack " O 'Neill and Daniel Jackson and included new characters such as Teal 'c , George Hammond and Samantha " Sam " Carter . The first season was about a military @-@ science expedition team discovering how to use the ancient device , named the Stargate , to explore the galaxy . However , they encountered a powerful enemy in the film named the Goa 'uld , which is bent on destroying Earth and all that oppose them .
= = Ratings Success = =
The 100 @-@ minute premiere " Children of the Gods " , which aired on July 27 , 1997 at 8 p.m , received Showtime 's highest @-@ ever ratings for a series premiere and ranked as the highest @-@ rated original movie to premiere on Showtime in 3 @-@ 1 / 2 years at the time . The show got a 10 @.@ 5 rating in Showtime 's approximately 12 million U.S. households , which equaled approximately 1 @.@ 5 million homes in total . Season one regular cast members included Richard Dean Anderson , Amanda Tapping , Michael Shanks , Christopher Judge and Don S. Davis .
The series was a ratings success for Showtime . Although it received little critical response from major media publishers , Stargate SG @-@ 1 was honored with numerous awards and award nominations in its first @-@ season run . What was originally planned to be a two season long series lasted for ten seasons and became the second longest @-@ running science fiction series of all time after the original series of Doctor Who ( 1963 – 1989 ) .
= = Development = =
= = = Production = = =
Brad Wright and Jonathan Glassner had worked together on the Metro – Goldwyn – Mayer ( MGM ) television series The Outer Limits since 1995 . Wright saw a wide range of possible science fiction storylines in the original Stargate ( 1994 ) film that could take place in the present day . Meanwhile , Glassner was interested in the feature film 's theme that Ancient Egypt had been partially or completely built by aliens . Upon hearing of MGM 's plan to create a television spin @-@ off series of the film , Wright and Glassner independently and unbeknownst to each other approached MGM and proposed their concept for the television series . MGM president John Symes greenlit the project on the condition that Wright and Glassner worked together as executive producers of the new show . The show was eventually given the name Stargate SG @-@ 1 after Wright flightily agreed to Symes 's pitch question if the team should be called " SG @-@ 1 " . MGM released posters titled Stargate SG @-@ 1 within the next week without the knowledge of Wright and Glassner .
John Symes approached Michael Greenburg and Richard Dean Anderson of MacGyver fame . Although Anderson was never a real fan of the science fiction genre , he believed the original concept of a " Stargate " was a good vehicle for a series . Anderson agreed to become involved with the project if his character Jack O 'Neill was allowed significantly more comedic leeway than Kurt Russell 's character in the feature film . He also requested Stargate SG @-@ 1 to be more of an ensemble show , so that he would not be carrying the plot alone as on MacGyver . The American subscription channel Showtime made a two @-@ season commitment for 44 episodes in 1996 . Principal photography began in Vancouver in February 1997 .
" The First Commandment " was the first Stargate SG @-@ 1 episode written by Robert C. Cooper , who would later become an executive producer and co @-@ creator of the spin @-@ off series Stargate Atlantis . Paul McGillion , who played young Ernest Littlefield in " Torment of Tantalus " , would go on to play the recurring and later main character Dr. Carson Beckett in Stargate Atlantis . The outside scenes of " Solitudes " were filmed at Pemberton Icefield . The rest of the episode was filmed in the studio , which was filled with fake snow and ice and kept at a low temperature .
= = = Production design = = =
Lead production designer Richard Hudolin flew to Los Angeles , 1996 to gather material from Stargate for reference and found the original film prop stored outside in the Californian desert . Although the prop had severely disintegrated , he could take a detailed mould for Stargate SG @-@ 1 production to build its own prop . The new Stargate was engineered to turn , lock the chevrons , and be computer @-@ controlled to dial specific gate addresses . A portable Stargate prop was built for on @-@ location shoots and required six workers and one full day to set up . Since visual effects are sometimes faster and cheaper , a computer @-@ generated Stargate was occasionally used in on @-@ location shoots in later seasons .
The design of the Stargate Command ( SGC ) base was supposed to match the real Cheyenne Mountain complex as much as possible . The set had to be twice as high for shooting as the 22 feet tall Stargate prop , but one of Hudolin 's original plans of a three @-@ level SGC set was rejected in favor of a two @-@ level set . The gateroom was the biggest room on set and could be redesigned for other scenes . Two multi @-@ purpose rooms were frequently redecorated into the infirmary , Daniel 's lab , the cafeteria or the gym . The SGC set and all other sets from the pilot episode were constructed within six weeks in January and February 1997 , incorporating some original set pieces from the feature film .
= = = Cast and characters = = =
The initial season had five main characters getting star billing . Richard Dean Anderson portrayed formerly suicidal United States Air Force Colonel Jonathan " Jack " O 'Neill . Michael Shanks played the American Egyptologist Daniel Jackson . Both O 'Neill and Jackson appeared in the 1994 film Stargate . Amanda Tapping played astrophysicist and United States Air Force officer Samantha " Sam " Carter . Christopher Judge portrayed Teal 'c , a Jaffa from Chulak and former First Prime of Apophis . Don S. Davis played George Hammond , the new leader of the Stargate program , taking over after General W.O. West . Numerous supporting characters have been given expansive and recurring appearances in the progressive storyline , including : Teryl Rothery as Janet Fraiser , Gary Jones as Chevron Guy ( later identified as Walter Harriman ) , Jay Acovone as Charles Kawalsky ( portrayed by John Diehl in the 1994 feature film ) , Tom McBeath as Harry Maybourne , and Ronny Cox as Robert Kinsey , among others .
= = Main cast = =
Richard Dean Anderson as Colonel Jack O 'Neill
Michael Shanks as Dr. Daniel Jackson
Amanda Tapping as Captain Samantha Carter
Christopher Judge as Teal 'c
Don S. Davis as Major General George Hammond
= = Release and reception = =
The original airing of " Children of the Gods " on Showtime featured full frontal nudity during the scene showing the possession of Sha 're ( Vaitiare Bandera ) by Amonet . While this has never been repeated on network television and subsequent airings have had the nudity cut out for syndication ; it was rated R by the MPAA . According to Brad Wright , the Showtime network had insisted on the full frontal nudity despite Wright 's vocal opposition ; Wright told fan site GateWorld that he would cut the nudity scene from the 2009 direct @-@ to @-@ DVD recut of the pilot episode . The DVD version , in fact , only retains a portion of this scene , with full frontal nudity being cut and a partial syndicate friendly back nudity version used . Likely because of the nudity , the original version of this episode as well as the next two episodes of the series are the first and only ones in the series to be rated by the MPAA ( it is rated R ) , while in the UK the episode is rated 18 by the BBFC ( all other episodes have generally been rated PG , or 12 , very occasionally 15 ) . It is rated M in Australia , recommended for ( but not restricted to ) viewers 15 and older . The version available online through streaming is the uncut , original version of the episode .
" Hathor " was heavily criticized , and the series ' writers themselves acknowledged the episode 's weakness . Later , in the Season 7 episode " Heroes ( Part 1 ) " , Dr. Fraiser is discussing Jack with the film crew and mentions " the whole Hathor incident , which we were never supposed to speak of again " . " Politics " , was the series ' first clip show , it is widely regarded as one of Stargate SG @-@ 1 's weakest episodes .
" Children of the Gods " was nominated for a Golden Reel Award in the category " Best Sound Editing – Television Movies of the Week " and the music for " Best Sound Editing – Television Episodic – Music " . " The Nox " was nominated for an Emmy in the category " Outstanding Music Composition for a Series ( Dramatic Underscore ) " . " Within the Serpent 's Grasp " was nominated for a Gemini Award in the category " Best Visual Effects " . Richard Dean Anderson won a Saturn Award for Best Genre TV Actor .
= = = Cultural references = = =
During the production of " Solitudes " , a joke was played on Richard Dean Anderson . Whilst filming , when O 'Neill asks how Carter is getting along with unearthing the Stargate 's DHD , Carter starts ranting at O 'Neill for being completely " MacUseless " even though he spent seven years on MacGyver , referring to Richard Dean Anderson 's role in both shows . The prank was organized by Tapping in cooperation with the director . Similarly , in the first episode , " Children of the Gods " Carter speaks of " MacGyvering " the Stargate into operation while O 'Neill rolls his eyes . The 2009 DVD version of this episode does not contain the MacGyver reference . " Politics " contains a scene that references uploading a virus to an alien mothership , alluding that the solution to the movie Independence Day will not work in this situation . " Within the Serpent 's Grasp " contains the only scene produced especially for Showtime , not shown on the syndicated versions . When seeing a floating metal ball , Teal 'c explains " It is a Goa 'uld long @-@ range visual communication device , somewhat like your television , only much further advanced . " In the Showtime version , O 'Neill says " Think it gets Showtime ? " While this scene remains in the DVD versions of the episode , syndication runs have O 'Neill instead saying , " Hmm .... Goa 'uld TV ... " ( in a manner similar to that of Homer Simpson )
= = Episodes = =
In the United States the series broadcaster , Showtime , aired episodes 7 through 19 , except 14 and 17 out of order .
This is the list of episodes in order as they appear on the DVD .
Episodes in bold are part of a two , three or four parter
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= Paul Palaiologos Tagaris =
Paul Palaiologos Tagaris ( Greek : Παῦλος Παλαιολόγος Τάγαρις , ca . 1320 / 40 – after 1394 ) was a Byzantine Greek monk and impostor . A scion of the Tagaris family , Paul also claimed a connection with the imperial Palaiologos dynasty . He fled his marriage as a teenager and became a monk , but soon his fraudulent practices embroiled him in scandal . Fleeing Constantinople , he travelled widely , from Palestine to Persia and Georgia and eventually , via Ukraine and Hungary to Italy , Latin Greece , Cyprus and France . During his long and tumultuous career he was appointed an Orthodox bishop , sold ordinations to ecclesiastical offices , pretended to be the Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem , switched from Greek Orthodoxy to Roman Catholicism and back again , supported both the See of Rome and the Avignon anti @-@ popes in the Western Schism , and finally managed to be named Latin Patriarch of Constantinople . In the end , his deceptions unmasked , he returned to Constantinople , where he repented and confessed his sins before a synod in 1394 .
= = Early life and family = =
The main source on Paul 's life is the document of his confession before the patriarchal synod in Constantinople in 1394 , complemented by an account of his visit to Paris , written by a monk of the Abbey of Saint @-@ Denis .
Paul Tagaris was apparently a scion the Tagaris family , a lineage which first appears in the 14th century . His father is unnamed , but is described by Paul as a valiant and famous soldier , so that he is possibly identifiable either with the megas stratopedarches Manuel Tagaris , or with the latter 's son , George Tagaris . Tagaris himself also claimed to be related to the ruling imperial dynasty of the Palaiologoi and adopted the surname for himself . Manuel Tagaris was indeed married to Theodora Asenina Palaiologina , a niece of Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos , but even if Paul was Manuel 's son , Theodora was , according to the Byzantinist Donald Nicol , " almost certainly not the mother of Paul " .
Tagaris was probably born in the 1320s , or at the latest around the year 1340 . His parents arranged his marriage at the age of 14 , but soon he abandoned his wife and went to become a monk in Palestine . After a while he returned to Constantinople , where , in the words of Alice @-@ Mary Talbot , " his greed led him into scandal and corruption " : he claimed that an icon in his possession had miraculous properties , and made money out of gullible believers . This affair scandalized his family , but Patriarch Kallistos I declined to take action against him . It was not until the patriarch went to a visit to Serbia in 1363 that his locum tenens , the hieromonk Dorotheos , confiscated the icon and forced Paul to return to Palestine .
= = Career in the East = =
In Palestine , Paul managed to be ordained a deacon by the Patriarch of Jerusalem Lazaros , who took him under his protection . Shortly after , however , Lazaros left for Constantinople , and his locum tenens Damianos brought charges against Paul , forcing the latter to abandon Jerusalem for Antioch . In Antioch , Paul once again managed to befriend the newly elected ( 1368 ) Patriarch Michael , who not only ordained him a priest , but eventually made him patriarchal exarch and administrator of the Patriarchate 's affairs . It was not long before Paul began abusing his authority : he sacked serving bishops and put their sees up for sale , threatening to report those who complained to the Turkish authorities . Soon he claimed the title of Patriarch of Jerusalem for himself and began to ordain bishops , even in territories subject to the Patriarchate of Constantinople . In 1370 , he went to Iconium and thence to Persia and Georgia , where , according to his own recollection — no such dispute is recorded in Georgian sources at this time — he adjudicated a dispute among three rival claimants of the throne , finding in favour of the highest bidder .
At this point , again according to his own account , he felt remorse and considered returning to Constantinople , where he would give the fortune he had amassed to the poor , but he was forestalled by the Bishop of Tyre and Sidon , who found him and delivered an offer by the Patriarch of Antioch to name him bishop of Taurezion ( an unidentified location , variously suggested as being either in the Taurus Mountains or in the Tauric peninsula , i.e. the Crimea ) . Paul accepted , and was apparently consecrated by the Bishop of Tyre and Sidon ( ca . 1375 ) . At the same time , however , the Patriarch of Constantinople Philotheos I Kokkinos heard about his dealings in the east , and at Trebizond Paul was met by a messenger from the Patriarch who demanded his immediate return to Constantinople to stand trial .
= = Latin Patriarch of Constantinople = =
Reluctant to face the Patriarch 's wrath , Paul once more decided to flee and try his luck in Rome . As Nicol points out , such a move would be highly unusual for an Orthodox priest , but may be explained by the links of his family with pro @-@ Catholic circles in the Byzantine capital : George Tagaris , his putative brother or father , was among those who supported the Union of the Churches and had received letters of encouragement from Pope Innocent VI . To avoid passing near Constantinople , Paul was forced to make a broad detour . He took ship , probably from Trebizond , to the Crimea , where he presented the local governor of the Golden Horde with jewels from the treasure he had amassed . In exchange he secured an escort through the Horde lands for the Kingdom of Hungary , from where he went on to Rome . There he secured an audience with Pope Urban VI , claiming to be the Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem . Paul presented himself to the Pope as a penitent , offering a — probably partial — confession of his errors , and to embrace the Catholic faith . Impressed by Paul 's humble demeanour , the Pope named him ( late 1379 or early 1380 ) to the titular post of Latin Patriarch of Constantinople , which had been vacant since September 1378 , when its incumbent , Giacomo da Itri , had declared his allegiance to the Avignon anti @-@ pope Clement VII . In addition , Urban named Paul apostolic legate for all countries " east of Durazzo " .
Paul 's new office — in effect " a second Pope " , as he called it — quickly caused him to become conceited . He abandoned his simple monastic habit and adopted magnificent vestments to suit his new rank , wore ostentatious jewellery , and , according to the chronicler of Saint @-@ Denis , went about on horseback surrounded by a magnificently outfitted entourage . An example of Paul 's splendid vestments and accoutrements at this time is probably the richly embroidered altar cloth , featuring a Byzantine double @-@ headed eagle with a monogram on its breast and the legend " Paul , Patriarch of Constantinople and New Rome " in Greek , now in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City .
Constantinople having been recovered by the Byzantines in 1261 , since 1314 the seat of the Latin Patriarch of Constantinople had been at Negroponte , which still remained in Latin hands . Soon after his investment , Paul made for Ancona , from where he would take ship for Greece . He remained in the city for several weeks , fêted by the locals , and on 4 March 1380 presented to them the head of James the Just , followed on 17 April by further relics , among them the foot of Saint Anne and a nail from the True Cross , although , as Nicol comments , " one may be tempted to question the authenticity , and still more the provenance , of his donation " . The documents of grant , preserved in the cathedral of Ancona , are signed by Paul and a certain " Alexios Palaiologos the Despot " , allegedly a son of the Byzantine emperor but in reality , according to Nicol , probably " another figment of Paul 's fertile imagination " .
From 1380 until 1384 , Paul remained at his see in Negroponte . A relative of his , George Tagaris — probably a different person than Manuel Tagaris ' son — was called in to help with the administration of the patriarchal domains . His tenure was troubled : the local Orthodox clergy appealed to the Venetian authorities for protection against his exactions , the Latin Archbishop of Athens , Antonio Ballester , complained of the Patriarch 's interference in his diocese , and his lease of some of the Church lands in 1383 to a Venetian from Crete , Giacomo Grimani , proved a source of protracted legal trouble since Grimani , in the words of Raymond @-@ Joseph Loenertz , " revealed himself as much a scoundrel as the Patriarch " . In 1384 , Paul was once again denounced as an impostor to the Pope , possibly by Ballester , who was named vicar @-@ general of the Patriarchate in the same year , and who had held the same office during the 1378 – 79 vacancy . Paul had apparently left his diocese before his denunciation , and resumed his wanderings . In 1385 , he was in Cyprus , where he crowned James of Lusignan as King of Cyprus in exchange for 30 @,@ 000 gold coins , and continued granting ecclesiastical appointments on the island as if he were still patriarch .
In 1388 he decided to return to Rome , possibly hoping that the accusations against him had been forgotten in the meanwhile . In the event , he was arrested , tried and imprisoned , but was released after Urban VI 's death in October 1389 and the general amnesty granted by the new pope , Boniface IX . Leaving Rome , Paul went to the court of Amadeus VII of Savoy . There he presented himself as a distant relative to the Count — a claim likely relying on his tenuous links to the Palaiologoi , who in turn were remotely linked to the House of Savoy via Empress Anna of Savoy , Amadeus VII 's great @-@ aunt — and as a victim of papal persecution on account of his support for the Avignon papacy . While Amadeus probably did not put much store in Paul 's dubious claims of kinship , he was moved by the plight of a fellow Avignon supporter , and accepted him as the legitimate Latin Patriarch of Constantinople . He provided Paul with money and an escort of twelve horses and twelve servants , and sent him on to the papal court of Avignon .
Paul received a magnificent welcome at Avignon , where he was fêted by Clement VII and his cardinals . Clement , moved by his guest 's tales of suffering at the hands of the Roman popes , loaded him with gifts and honours and sent him north to Paris . There , King Charles VI of France likewise prepared a triumphal welcome for his illustrious guest . Paul was an exotic and popular sight in the French capital , and was lavishly hosted and entertained . He obviously enjoyed his long sojourn there , " safe in a place where his past was unknown and his deception was unlikely to be discovered " , according to Nicol . For additional safety , he communicated only via an interpreter in his employ . On his visit to the Abbey of Saint @-@ Denis , he claimed that there were several relics of the abbey 's patron saint — commonly confused with the Athenian saint Dionysius the Areopagite — to be found back in Greece , and promised to help the monks bring them to France . His proposal was enthusiastically taken up , and two monks received permission and funds from the king to accompany Paul back to Greece . When the party arrived in the port in Italy from which they would sail for Greece , however , Paul bribed the captain of the ship to pretend that bad weather would delay their departure . In the same night , he and his servants set sail at night with their entire baggage , leaving the two monks behind . It was only in Rome , where they went in search of answers for Paul 's behaviour , that they learned the true identity of their travelling companion , and from where the chronicler of the abbey later received his information .
= = Return to Constantinople = =
According to Donald Nicol , the achievement of the " accomplished sinner " Paul was without parallel : " No @-@ one ever made such a profitable business out of changing sides , first in the schism between the Greek and Latin Churches , and then in the schism between the pope in Rome and the pope in Avignon . It is no mean feat to arrive in Rome as orthodox patriarch of Jerusalem and then to be received in Avignon as catholic patriarch of Constantinople . "
Now , however , having irreparably destroyed his reputation and ties with both papal courts , Paul was left with no option other than to return to Constantinople , perhaps motivated , in view of his advancing old age , by confessing his sins and receiving absolution . In 1394 , he was back in the Byzantine capital , where he appeared before Patriarch Antony IV , to whom he confessed his sins , abjured his conversion to Catholicism , and pleaded for mercy . As Nicol writes , " Only on one point did he protest that he had been wrongfully accused ; for , despite rumours and tales contrived against him , he had never indulged in fornication , miracle @-@ mongering , or the practice of magic " . The Patriarch passed Paul 's case on to the full patriarchal synod , before which Paul was obliged to repeat his confession twice , and then once more before an assembly of the people . The records of these sessions , kept by the patriarchal scribe Perdikes , are the main source on Paul 's life . The final portion of the manuscript , containing the final verdict , is missing , but both the synod and the people had recommended a pardon , so that it is likely that he was forgiven . Nothing further is known of him after that .
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= 2006 – 07 Bristol Rovers F.C. season =
The 2006 – 07 season was the 124th year of football played by Bristol Rovers , and their 80th season in The Football League , and covers the period from 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 01 to 2007 @-@ 06 @-@ 30 . After finishing sixth in Football League Two , Rovers won the playoff final for the first time in their history , and won promotion for only the fourth time since joining The Football League . The previous promotions were all automatic , and came in the 1952 – 53 , 1973 – 74 and 1989 – 90 seasons .
The season began with a subdued atmosphere among fans , caused by six previous seasons of poor performances and a bitter boardroom split , resulting in four directors leaving the club . However , as the season progressed the team gradually climbed up the league and reached the fourth round of the FA Cup , and the final of the Football League Trophy .
= = Review and events = =
The pre @-@ season period was a turbulent one , with a potential take @-@ over of the club by Mike Turl being rejected by then @-@ chairman Geoff Dunford . Directors Kevin Spencer and Colin Williams left the club in protest at the rejection , followed shortly after by the Bristol Rovers Supporters Club representative on the football club 's board , Kim Stuckey .
Ryan Green had signed for the club from Hereford United at the end of the previous season , and he was joined by three more new players before the start of the 2006 @-@ 07 season . Sammy Igoe , who had been on loan at Rovers from Millwall the previous season , joined on a full @-@ time basis , young defender Byron Anthony , who had yet to make an appearance in the Football League , joined from Cardiff City , and experienced goalkeeper Steve Phillips crossed the city to join from local rivals Bristol City .
A number of players left the club following the end of the 2005 – 06 season . Senior players John Anderson , who had been assistant manager to Paul Trollope during his spell as caretaker manager the previous year , Ali Gibb , Jon Bass and Christian Edwards were released , while Jamie Forrester moved to Lincoln City on a free transfer . Also leaving the club were a number of younger players who had failed to earn extensions to their contracts . These were Mark Preece , Matt Thorne , Ben Willshire and goalkeepers Ryan Clarke and Martin Horsell .
The first game of the season was away to Peterborough United in League Two , and ended in a 4 – 1 defeat , resulting in the lowest league position , 23rd , that Rovers would occupy all season . As the season progressed , Rovers gradually climbed the league table , eventually clinching a playoff spot after winning their final league match 2 – 1 against Hartlepool United .
The playoff campaign was a high @-@ scoring one , with there being an average of 4 ⅔ goals per game in the three matches played . The semi @-@ final was against Lincoln City , and was played over two legs . The first leg at the Memorial Stadium was won 2 – 1 by Rovers , thanks to goals by Craig Disley and Richard Walker . The second leg was played at Sincil Bank and ended 5 – 3 , with Stuart Campbell , Rickie Lambert , Richard Walker , Sammy Igoe and Sean Rigg scoring the goals . This gave Rovers a 7 – 4 aggregate win and a place in the final at Wembley Stadium . A record attendance for a League Two playoff final of 61 @,@ 589 watched the game , and saw Rovers win the match 3 – 1 and gain promotion for only the fourth time in the club 's history . Richard Walker scored two of the goals and Sammy Igoe scored the other .
The League Cup campaign was a brief one . Rovers were knocked out in the first round by Luton Town on penalty kicks after drawing the match 1 – 1 . The FA Cup was more successful , with the team reaching the fourth round where they were beaten 1 – 0 by Derby County . The best cup run of the season was in the Football League Trophy , where they reached the final after beating rivals Bristol City 1 – 0 in the southern area final . The game was played at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff , but resulted in a 3 – 2 defeat after extra time , the score being 2 – 2 after 90 minutes .
= = = Chronological list of events = = =
This is a list of the significant events to occur at the club during the 2006 – 07 season , presented in chronological order . This list does not include transfers , which are listed in the transfers section below , or match results , which are in the results section .
28 July : Played a pre @-@ season friendly against Plymouth Argyle wearing pink shirts .
22 August : Knocked out of the League Cup at the first round by Luton Town on penalties , having drawn the match 1 – 1 .
15 September : The club submit plans for a new 18 @,@ 000 @-@ seat stadium to Bristol City Council .
27 September : Rovers record their first win in a home midweek evening game for almost two years . The 2 – 1 win over Hereford United was the first since beating Chester City 4 – 1 on 7 December 2004 . This was also the first game this season where Rovers scored more than one goal in the match .
6 October : Chairman Geoff Dunford announces that he will step down from his position at the end of April 2007 , but intends to remain as a director of the club .
7 October : Back to back home wins recorded for the first time since May 2005 , thanks to a 1 – 0 win over Boston United following on from the victory over Hereford United the previous week .
9 October : Kevin Hodges is appointed as head of youth football . He also takes charge of the reserve team as part of his duties .
16 October : Rod King is appointed to the club 's board of directors .
17 October : Former player Carl Saunders is appointed as the club 's Community Liaison Officer .
11 November : Sean Rigg suffers a broken jaw after being punched by James Cotterill during an FA Cup first round match at Barrow .
10 January : Rovers receive £ 50 @,@ 000 as part of the deal taking Scott Sinclair to Chelsea after he makes his debut for the London club .
17 January : Bristol City Council grant planning permission for a new 18 @,@ 000 capacity all @-@ seater stadium to be built on the site of the Memorial Stadium .
27 January : Rovers knocked out of the FA Cup in the fourth round by Derby County .
27 February : Rovers reach the final of the Football League Trophy by beating rivals Bristol City 1 – 0 on aggregate over the two legs of the southern area final .
29 March : Rovers announce that Ron Craig will succeed Geoff Dunford as chairman of the club from 2 April 2007 .
1 April : Rovers are beaten 3 – 2 ( after extra time ) by Doncaster Rovers in the final of the Football League Trophy at Cardiff 's Millennium Stadium .
21 April : Byron Anthony signed a new 2 @-@ year contract with Rovers , tying him to the club until the end of the 2008 @-@ 09 season .
30 April : Steve Phillips signs a two @-@ year extension to his contract , which was due to expire in summer 2008 . This keeps him at the club until 2010 .
5 May : Rovers finish the season in 6th place , earning a spot in the playoffs .
11 May : Mike Green and James Palmer were offered new contracts .
16 May : Stuart Campbell signs a new two @-@ year contract .
17 May : Rovers beat Lincoln City 5 – 3 at Sincil Bank to win 7 – 4 on aggregate and reach their second major final of the season , the League Two play @-@ off final . It was their first appearance at the new Wembley Stadium . Rovers became only the second club to play at both the Millennium Stadium and Wembley in one season behind Chelsea who played the League Cup final at the Millennium Stadium on 25 February 2007 and played the FA Cup final on 19 May 2007 .
26 May : Rovers beat Shrewsbury Town 3 – 1 in the Football League Two play @-@ off final at Wembley Stadium to clinch promotion to League One . Richard Walker scored two goals and Sammy Igoe one after having gone 1 – 0 down . A record crowd for a League Two playoff final of 61 @,@ 589 watched the game .
5 June : The club announce that the first team will play their home games at Whaddon Road in Cheltenham while the Memorial Stadium is being redeveloped . The move is due to happen in December 2007 .
21 June : Steve Elliott signs a new three @-@ year contract , running until June 2010 .
= = Match results = =
Bristol Rovers played a total of 62 competitive matches during the 2006 – 07 season , as well as nine pre @-@ season friendlies , making a total of 71 games played . The team finished sixth in Football League Two , reaching the play @-@ offs for the first time since the 1997 @-@ 98 season .
In the cup competitions , Rovers were knocked out of the League Cup at the first round stage in a penalty shootout , having drawn 1 – 1 with Championship side Luton Town after extra time . They fared better in the FA Cup however , reaching the fourth round stage where they lost again to a Championship team ; this time Derby County . The most successful cup competition for Rovers was the Football League Trophy , in which they reached the final for the first time since the 1989 – 90 competition . They were beaten by Doncaster Rovers after extra time at the Millennium Stadium .
= = = Legend = = =
= = = Football League Two = = =
= = = Football League Two Playoffs = = =
= = = FA Cup = = =
= = = League Cup = = =
= = = Football League Trophy = = =
= = League progress = =
This chart shows the league position of Bristol Rovers F.C. over the course of the season . The green area represents the automatic promotion positions ( positions 1 to 3 ) , the yellow area represents the play @-@ off positions ( positions 4 to 7 ) and the red area represents the relegation places ( positions 23 and 24 ) . The lowest position in the league that Bristol Rovers reached during the course of the season was 23rd , after the first game , and their highest placing was 6th , after the final game .
= = Player details = =
During the 2006 – 07 season , Rovers used 24 different players , and there were nine squad members who did not make an appearance on the pitch . The table below shows the number of appearances and goals scored by each player . Play @-@ off appearances are included in the league appearances column .
= = Transfers = =
= = = In = = =
Five players were signed during the 2006 – 07 season , with a total transfer cost of £ 200 @,@ 000 , all of which was spent on Rickie Lambert . The remainder of the transfers were free . In addition to this , five players were loaned in over the course of the season , with Stuart Nicholson having two loan spells at the club , and seven scholars from the Bristol Academy of Sport were awarded their first professional contracts at the end of the season .
The players that joined Bristol Rovers during the 2006 – 07 season , along with their previous club , are listed below .
= = = Out = = =
Six players were loaned out during the 2006 – 07 season , and seven left the club permanently . The club received a transfer fee for one player only , Junior Agogo , but the amount received was not made public .
Listed below are the players that were transferred out , loaned out or released during the season , along with the club that they joined . For players that were transferred or loaned , this is the club that they joined from Rovers . For players that were released by the club , the next team that they joined after leaving Bristol Rovers is listed , even if they did not join that club immediately .
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= Landing at Jacquinot Bay =
The Landing at Jacquinot Bay was an Allied amphibious operation undertaken on 4 November 1944 during the New Britain Campaign of World War II . The landing was conducted as part of a change in responsibility for Allied operations on New Britain with the Australian 5th Division , under Major General Alan Ramsay , taking over from the US 40th Infantry Division , which was needed for operations in the Philippines . The purpose of the operation was to establish a logistics base at Jacquinot Bay on the south coast of New Britain to support the 5th Division 's planned operations near the major Japanese garrison at Rabaul .
As part of the first stage of the Australian take over , Brigadier Raymond Sandover 's 6th Brigade was directed to secure the Jacquinot Bay area . While the region was believed to be undefended , the initial landing was conducted by a combat @-@ ready force comprising the reinforced Australian 14th / 32nd Battalion protected by warships and with aircraft on standby . As expected , there was no opposition to the landing on 4 November and work soon began on logistics facilities .
Once a base was established at Jacquinot Bay it was used to support Australian operations near Rabaul which were conducted in early 1945 in conjunction with advances on the northern side of New Britain . The campaign was effectively one of containment as the larger Japanese force was isolated while the Allies conducted further operations elsewhere .
= = Background = =
During December 1943 and early 1944 United States Army and United States Marine Corps units landed in western New Britain with the goal of securing the area so it could not be used to launch attacks against the flank of the main Allied offensive along the north coast of New Guinea . The American forces defeated the Japanese garrison of western New Britain during the Battle of Arawe , Battle of Cape Gloucester and Battle of Talasea . In late April 1944 the US Army 's 40th Infantry Division assumed responsibility for garrisoning the Allied positions in New Britain . The division subsequently maintained positions around Talasea – Cape Hoskins , Arawe and Cape Gloucester and did not conduct offensive operations against the Japanese forces in the east of the island . As a result , the fighting on New Britain devolved largely into what Peter Dennis has called a " tacit truce " with the US and Japanese troops being separated by a " no man 's land " , in which Australian @-@ led native troops from the Allied Intelligence Bureau ( AIB ) conducted a small scale guerilla campaign .
In mid @-@ 1944 , the Australian Government agreed to take on responsibility for the military operations in the northern Solomon Islands and Australian New Guinea , including New Britain . The Australian Army 's 5th Division , under Major General Alan Ramsay , was selected to replace the 40th Infantry Division on New Britain in August , with the unit to assume responsibility for the island on 1 November . Instead of maintaining the American bases in western New Britain the Australians planned to operate closer to the Japanese forces which were positioned around the Gazelle Peninsula in the north @-@ east of the island . By the time of the Australian take @-@ over , Allied intelligence estimated that the Japanese forces on New Britain amounted to 38 @,@ 000 personnel , but in actuality there were 93 @,@ 000 Japanese on the island , forming part of General Hitoshi Imamura 's Eighth Area Army . The Japanese personnel were focused upon sustaining themselves , with rice @-@ growing and gardening being undertaken to supplement the limited supplies that were arriving . Japanese supporting elements were limited , with only two aircraft capable of action and no ships other than 150 barges that could move up to 90 personnel or 15 tons of stores .
As of April 1944 , small Japanese observation posts were located along the south coast of New Britain as far west as the village of Awul near Cape Dampier ( approximately 100 miles [ 160 km ] east of Arawe ) . A larger force was also stationed at Henry Reid Bay in the Wide Bay area to the south of the main force stationed around Rabaul . During that month the AIB force responsible for the south coast of New Britain was ordered to destroy all the Japanese posts to the west of Henry Reid Bay . This unit comprised about 140 native troops led by five Australian officers and ten non @-@ commissioned officers .
Operations against the Japanese observation posts began in June . On the fifth of the month a patrol of American troops attacked the position at Awul , causing its garrison to retreat into the centre of the island . Other attacks by the AIB force followed , and by early September all of the Japanese observation posts west of Wide Bay had been destroyed . Japanese troops conducted small scale reprisals against the native population of the Wide Bay hinterland , and the AIB officers attempted to persuade the population of this area to move inland before more severe reprisals were conducted .
During the operations along the south coast of New Britain the AIB officers sought to discourage the Japanese from moving west of the Wide Bay area by circulating rumours among the local population that a large Australian base had been established at Jacquinot Bay . In reality no such base existed at this time . The AIB force continued to make guerilla attacks on Japanese positions until early October , when it was ordered to cease offensive operations and concentrate on intelligence gathering ahead of the landing of Australian infantry and support units at Jacquinot Bay . The AIB 's operations from June to October were assisted by occasional air attacks and naval bombardments conducted by elements of the Allied air forces and navies .
= = Preparations = =
To support the 5th Division 's planned offensive operations the Australian high command in the New Guinea area , New Guinea Force , determined that a logistics base needed to established closer to Rabaul than those used by the US Army forces on New Britain . At a conference held on 24 August involving the commanders of New Guinea Force and the 5th Division , it was decided to investigate whether the Talasea @-@ Hoskins area on the north coast of New Britain and the Jacquinot Bay area on the south coast of the island could accommodate bases for the 5th Division .
On 5 September a party of 105 personnel from the 5th Division , New Guinea Force and Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) was landed at Jacquinot Bay from the corvette HMAS Kiama . They investigated the area for two days , assisted by AIB personnel , while Kiama surveyed the bay . It was concluded that the region was suitable for a base as the bay could accommodate up to six liberty ships and an airstrip could be built nearby . The party which visited the Talasea – Hoskins area ( which already housed an American base ) made a less favourable report . M Special Unit also reported that no Japanese personnel remained in the Jacquinot Bay area . On 15 September the commander of the Australian Army 's combat forces , General Thomas Blamey , approved a proposal to establish a base at Jacquinot Bay . He also agreed for two battalions of the 6th Brigade to be landed at Jacquinot Bay , with the formation 's third battalion being sent to Talasea – Hoskins .
At this time the 6th Brigade – consisting of the 19th , 36th and 14th / 32nd Battalions – was led by Brigadier Raymond Sandover . A Militia formation , it had not previously seen combat as a whole , though one of its infantry battalions – the 36th – had fought in the Battle of Buna – Gona during late 1942 and early 1943 . Nevertheless , Sandover and his three battalion commanders were all Australian Imperial Force veterans who had taken part in the fighting against the Germans and Italians in North Africa , Greece and Syria during 1941 and 1942 . The 36th Battalion was dispatched to Cape Hoskins in early October , and relieved a battalion of the US 158th Infantry Regiment .
The RAAF conducted three attacks on Rabaul as part of the preparations for the landing at Jacquinot Bay . On the night of 26 October a force of 18 Bristol Beaufort light bombers drawn from No. 6 , No. 8 and No. 100 Squadrons attacked Japanese stores dumps and anti @-@ aircraft positions at Rabaul . The results of this mission were unclear , however . The next raid by the three squadrons was conducted against stores dumps to the north of Rabaul on the evening of 27 October , and most of the bombs which were dropped landed in the target area . The third raid took place on 29 October , and involved 20 Beauforts from the three squadrons striking stores dumps to the west of Rabaul .
= = Landing = =
While AIB patrols continued to report that no Japanese troops were located in the Jacquinot Bay area , the Australian command decided that the landing there would be made by a combat @-@ ready force protected by naval vessels . This was intended both as a precaution against a sudden Japanese offensive and to provide useful experience for the units involved . The landing was designated Operation Battleaxe .
The initial landing force for the Jacquinot Bay operation comprised the 14th / 32nd Battalion Group , ' B ' Company of the 1st New Guinea Infantry Battalion , and an advance party from the 5th Base Sub Area . The combat troops and base personnel embarked on the transport Cape Alexander at Lae on 2 November . The transport sailed that afternoon under the escort of three Royal Australian Navy warships : the destroyer HMAS Vendetta , frigate HMAS Barcoo and sloop HMAS Swan . The other Australian forces involved in the landing were the transport Frances Peat which was escorted by RAN motor launch ML 827 , and the tugboat HMAS Tancred which towed a workshop barge to Jacquinot Bay under the escort of ML 802 . In addition , ' B ' Company of the US Army 's 594th Engineer Boat and Shore Regiment was attached to the force ; this unit was equipped with landing craft and sailed to Jacquinot Bay with Tancred . The 14th / 32nd Battalion had been raised in the state of Victoria during 1942 , and was still mainly made up of Victorian soldiers .
Elements of the RAAF were also available to support the landing . The plan for the operation specified that , if required , No. 6 Squadron , reinforced with Beauforts from No. 8 and No. 100 Squadrons , would attack the landing area before 6 am on 4 November . An additional two Beauforts could also observe for any bombardments made by the warships . Prior to the landing , the air strike was cancelled by the RAAF officer who was attached to the landing force to coordinate air support as no opposition was expected .
Cape Alexander and her escorts arrived at Jacquinot Bay at 6 : 35 am on 4 November , and were joined by the other Allied vessels shortly thereafter . While the voyage from Lae had been uneventful , the 14th / 32nd Battalion 's war diary records that the unit 's accommodation on board the transport was " VERY POOR " as it was " very cramped , dirty and wet " and sanitary facilities were greatly insufficient .
The landing of the 14th / 32nd Battalion commenced at 9 : 30 am , with ' A ' Company making up the first wave . All elements of the battalion were ashore by 11 : 30 am . No opposition was encountered , and the 14th / 32nd Battalion began to establish defensive and living positions . In addition , personnel from the battalion were detailed to unload stores . Sandover regarded the lack of opposition as fortunate , as the landing craft which were to carry the soldiers from the ships to the shore arrived late and he perceived that the RAAF had failed to provide adequate support . However , he was pleased with his brigade 's performance during operations in New Britain up to that time , and expressed pleasure at having " nearly reached the war " . The 180 man @-@ strong advanced party of the 5th Base Sub Area was landed on 5 November , and began work on establishing logistics facilities .
After covering the landing force for two days , HMAS Vendetta , Barcoo and Swan proceeded to Wide Bay and bombarded Japanese positions there before departing the New Britain area . The motor launches ML 802 and ML 827 remained at Jacquinot Bay and conducted patrols along the south coast of the island in search of Japanese barges . ML 827 ran aground during a patrol on 17 November , and sank three days later while under tow to an Allied base ; all of her crew survived . A Japanese air raid was conducted against Jacquinot Bay on 23 November .
During the days after the landing , the ground forces secured the Jacquinot Bay area . AIB personnel manned an outpost to warn of the approach of Japanese forces , while the combat troops patrolled and established positions near the main landing area . On 6 November the company from the 1st New Guinea Infantry Battalion was moved by landing craft to the northern shore of Jacquinot Bay , and subsequently guarded the tracks leading to this area . This unit later relieved the AIB of responsibility for maintaining some of its positions to the east of Jacquinot Bay . During this period the 14th / 32nd Battalion remained near the landing area , though one of its companies gradually established an outpost between 8 and 12 November .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Base construction = = =
The remainder of the 5th Base Sub Area arrived at Jacquinot Bay on 11 and 12 November , accompanied by a party of 670 native labourers . By this time the advance party had erected a pontoon jetty in the bay and unloaded 3 @,@ 400 cubic metres ( 4 @,@ 400 cu yd ) of stores and equipment . Major base construction works began on the second week after the landing , though the completion of some buildings was delayed by shortages of engineer stores . The 2 / 3rd Railway Construction Company reinforced the logistics units on 21 November , and worked on building roads . The headquarters of the 5th Division opened at Jacquinot Bay on 27 November .
Work on major facilities at Jacquinot Bay began in December . These were to include a large dock , an airstrip , buildings to be used by 2 / 8th General Hospital and stores depots . By this time it had been decided to stockpile sufficient stores at Jacquinot Bay to support 13 @,@ 000 soldiers for 60 days . Work on the airstrip was completed in May 1945 . Two squadrons of Corsair fighter aircraft from the Royal New Zealand Air Force were later based there .
The 6th Brigade , less the 36th Battalion , was gradually brought into the Jacquinot Bay area , with its final elements arriving on 16 December . Due to shipping shortages and the low priority given to building up forces on New Britain , it was not until April 1945 that all elements of the 5th Division had been brought forward to Jacquinot Bay . The company from the 594th Engineer Boat and Shore Regiment remained at Jacquinot Bay until it was replaced by the 41st Australian Landing Craft Company on 15 February 1945 .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
As Allied intelligence regarding the Japanese was still uncertain , Ramsay , who officially assumed command of the forces on New Britain on 27 November , adopted a cautious approach . Jacquinot Bay was built up as a base of operations and the Australians began sending out patrols to fight for information and harass the Japanese , with limited advances taking place on both the northern and southern coasts of the island , pushing east towards the Japanese strong hold around the Gazelle Peninsula . The AIB also continued to operate in the area , passing information to the 5th Division . The Japanese lacked information on the movements of Allied forces in New Britain , and only learned of the change in command from Australian radio broadcasts .
The Australian advance was hampered by shortages of shipping , aircraft and communications , which limited operations to brigade @-@ strength only . In January 1945 the 36th Battalion was dispatched from Cape Hoskins to Ea Ea on the north coast of New Britain by barge , and began sending out company @-@ sized patrols ; they subsequently reached Watu Point , in Open Bay , at the base of the Gazelle Peninsula by April . The Australian forces also advanced along the south coast of the island , and began securing the Waitavalo – Tol area in late February , with engineer support enabling the crossing of the Wulwut River . Several clashes followed around Mount Sugi as the Australians fought to gain control of several heavily defended ridges overlooking Henry Reid Bay . Heavy rain and flooding hampered their efforts , but by April the Australians had secured Wide Bay and had effectively hemmed the Japanese into the Gazelle Peninsula , where they were able to be contained for the remainder of the campaign . This enabled the Allies to focus their attention elsewhere , such as Borneo .
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= Pontiac 's War =
Pontiac 's War , Pontiac 's Conspiracy , or Pontiac 's Rebellion was a war that was launched in 1763 by a loose confederation of elements of Native American tribes primarily from the Great Lakes region , the Illinois Country , and Ohio Country who were dissatisfied with British postwar policies in the Great Lakes region after the British victory in the French and Indian War ( 1754 – 1763 ) . Warriors from numerous tribes joined the uprising in an effort to drive British soldiers and settlers out of the region . The war is named after the Odawa leader Pontiac , the most prominent of many native leaders in the conflict .
The war began in May 1763 when Native Americans , offended by the policies of British General Jeffrey Amherst , attacked a number of British forts and settlements . Eight forts were destroyed , and hundreds of colonists were killed or captured , with many more fleeing the region . Hostilities came to an end after British Army expeditions in 1764 led to peace negotiations over the next two years . Native Americans were unable to drive away the British , but the uprising prompted the British government to modify the policies that had provoked the conflict .
Warfare on the North American frontier was brutal , and the killing of prisoners , the targeting of civilians , and other atrocities were widespread . The ruthlessness and treachery of the conflict was a reflection of a growing divide between the separate populations of the British colonists and Native Americans . Contrary to popular belief , the British government did not issue the Royal Proclamation of 1763 in reaction to Pontiac 's War , though the conflict did provide an impetus for the application of the Proclamation 's Indian clauses . This proved unpopular with British colonists , and may have been one of the early contributing factors to the American Revolution .
= = Naming the conflict = =
The conflict is named after its most famous participant , the Ottawa leader Pontiac ; variations include " Pontiac 's War " , " Pontiac 's Rebellion " , and " Pontiac 's Uprising " . An early name for the war was the " Kiyasuta and Pontiac War " , " Kiyasuta " being an alternate spelling for Guyasuta , an influential Seneca / Mingo leader . The war became widely known as " Pontiac 's Conspiracy " after the publication in 1851 of Francis Parkman 's The Conspiracy of Pontiac . Parkman 's influential book , the definitive account of the war for nearly a century , is still in print .
In the 20th century , some historians argued that Parkman exaggerated the extent of Pontiac 's influence in the conflict and that it was misleading to name the war after Pontiac . For example , in 1988 Francis Jennings wrote : " In Francis Parkman 's murky mind the backwoods plots emanated from one savage genius , the Ottawa chief Pontiac , and thus they became ' The Conspiracy of Pontiac , ' but Pontiac was only a local Ottawa war chief in a ' resistance ' involving many tribes . " Alternate titles for the war have been proposed , but historians generally continue to refer to the war by the familiar names , with " Pontiac 's War " probably the most commonly used . " Pontiac 's Conspiracy " is now infrequently used by scholars .
= = Origins = =
In the decades before Pontiac 's Rebellion , France and Great Britain participated in a series of wars in Europe that also involved the French and Indian Wars in North America . The largest of these wars was the worldwide Seven Years ' War , in which France lost New France in North America to Great Britain . Peace with the Shawnee and Lenape who had been combatants came in 1758 with the Treaty of Easton , where the British promised not to settle further beyond the ridge of the Alleghenies - a demarcation later to be confirmed by the Royal Proclamation of 1763 , though it was little respected . Most fighting in the North American theater of the war , generally called the French and Indian War in the United States , came to an end after British General Jeffrey Amherst captured the last important French settlement , Montréal , in 1760 .
British troops proceeded to occupy the various forts in the Ohio Country and Great Lakes region previously garrisoned by the French . Even before the war officially ended with the Treaty of Paris ( 1763 ) , the British Crown began to implement changes in order to administer its vastly expanded North American territory . While the French had long cultivated alliances among certain of the Native Americans , the British post @-@ war approach was essentially to treat the Native Americans as a conquered people . Before long , Native Americans who had been allies of the defeated French found themselves increasingly dissatisfied with the British occupation and the new policies imposed by the victors .
= = = Tribes involved = = =
Native Americans involved in Pontiac 's Rebellion lived in a vaguely defined region of New France known as the pays d 'en haut ( " the upper country " ) , which was claimed by France until the Paris peace treaty of 1763 . Native Americans of the pays d 'en haut were from many different tribes . At this time and place , a " tribe " was a linguistic or ethnic group rather than a political unit . No chief spoke for an entire tribe , and no tribe acted in unison . For example , Ottawas did not go to war as a tribe : some Ottawa leaders chose to do so , while other Ottawa leaders denounced the war and stayed clear of the conflict . The tribes of the pays d 'en haut consisted of three basic groups .
The first group was composed of tribes of the Great Lakes region : Ottawa , Ojibwa , and Potawatomi , who spoke Algonquian languages ; and the Huron , who spoke an Iroquoian language . They had long been allied with French habitants , with whom they lived , traded , and intermarried . Great Lakes Native Americans were alarmed to learn that they were under British sovereignty after the French loss of North America . When a British garrison took possession of Fort Detroit from the French in 1760 , local Native Americans cautioned them that " this country was given by God to the Indians . "
The second group was made up of the tribes from eastern Illinois Country , which included the Miami , Wea , Kickapoo , Mascouten , and Piankashaw . Like the Great Lakes tribes , these people had a long history of close trading and other relations with the French . Throughout the war , the British were unable to project military power into the Illinois Country , which was on the remote western edge of the conflict . The Illinois tribes were the last to come to terms with the British .
The third group was made up of tribes of the Ohio Country : Delawares ( Lenape ) , Shawnee , Wyandot , and Mingo . These people had migrated to the Ohio valley earlier in the century from the mid @-@ Atlantic and other eastern areas in order to escape British , French , and Iroquois domination in the New York and Pennsylvania area . Unlike the Great Lakes and Illinois Country tribes , Ohio Native Americans had no great attachment to the French regime . They had fought as French allies in the previous war in an effort to drive away the British . They made a separate peace with the British with the understanding that the British Army would withdraw from the Ohio Country . But after the departure of the French , the British strengthened their forts in the region rather than abandoning them , and so the Ohioans went to war in 1763 in another attempt to drive out the British .
Outside the pays d 'en haut , most warriors of the influential Iroquois Confederacy did not participate in Pontiac 's War because of their alliance with the British , known as the Covenant Chain . However , the westernmost Iroquois nation , the Seneca tribe , had become disaffected with the alliance . As early as 1761 , the Seneca began to send out war messages to the Great Lakes and Ohio Country tribes , urging them to unite in an attempt to drive out the British . When the war finally came in 1763 , many Seneca were quick to take action .
= = = Amherst 's policies = = =
General Amherst , the British commander @-@ in @-@ chief in North America , was in overall charge of administering policy towards Native Americans , which involved both military matters and regulation of the fur trade . Amherst believed that with France out of the picture , the Native Americans would have no other choice than to accept British rule . He also believed that they were incapable of offering any serious resistance to the British Army ; therefore , of the 8 @,@ 000 troops under his command in North America , only about 500 were stationed in the region where the war erupted . Amherst and officers such as Major Henry Gladwin , commander at Fort Detroit , made little effort to conceal their contempt for the Native Americans . Native Americans involved in the uprising frequently complained that the British treated them no better than slaves or dogs .
Additional Native resentment resulted from Amherst 's decision in February 1761 to cut back on the gifts given to the Native Americans . Gift giving had been an integral part of the relationship between the French and the tribes of the pays d 'en haut . Following a Native American custom that carried important symbolic meaning , the French gave presents ( such as guns , knives , tobacco , and clothing ) to village chiefs , who in turn redistributed these gifts to their people . By this process , the village chiefs gained stature among their people , and were thus able to maintain the alliance with the French . Amherst , however , considered this process to be a form of bribery that was no longer necessary , especially since he was under pressure to cut expenses after the war with France . Many Native Americans regarded this change in policy as an insult and an indication that the British looked upon them as conquered people rather than as allies .
Amherst also began to restrict the amount of ammunition and gunpowder that traders could sell to Native Americans . While the French had always made these supplies available , Amherst did not trust the Native Americans , particularly after the " Cherokee Rebellion " of 1761 , in which Cherokee warriors took up arms against their former British allies . As the Cherokee war effort had collapsed because of a shortage of gunpowder , so Amherst hoped that future uprisings could be prevented by restricting gunpowder . This created resentment and hardship because gunpowder and ammunition were wanted by native men because it helped them to provide game for their families and skins for the fur trade . Many Native Americans began to believe that the British were disarming them as a prelude to making war upon them . Sir William Johnson , the Superintendent of the Indian Department , tried to warn Amherst of the dangers of cutting back on gifts and gunpowder , to no avail .
= = = Land and religion = = =
Land was also an issue in the coming of the war . While the French colonists — most of whom were farmers who seasonally engaged in fur trade — had always been relatively few , there seemed to be no end of settlers in the British colonies , who wanted to clear the land of trees and occupy it . Shawnees and Delawares in the Ohio Country had been displaced by British colonists in the east , and this motivated their involvement in the war . On the other hand , Native Americans in the Great Lakes region and the Illinois Country had not been greatly affected by white settlement , although they were aware of the experiences of tribes in the east . Historian Gregory Dowd argues that most Native Americans involved in Pontiac 's Rebellion were not immediately threatened with displacement by white settlers , and that historians have therefore overemphasized British colonial expansion as a cause of the war . Dowd believes that the presence , attitude , and policies of the British Army , which the Native Americans found threatening and insulting , were more important factors .
Also contributing to the outbreak of war was a religious awakening which swept through Native settlements in the early 1760s . The movement was fed by discontent with the British as well as food shortages and epidemic disease . The most influential individual in this phenomenon was Neolin , known as the " Delaware Prophet " , who called upon Native Americans to shun the trade goods , alcohol , and weapons of the whites . Merging elements from Christianity into traditional religious beliefs , Neolin told listeners that the Master of Life was displeased with the Native Americans for taking up the bad habits of the white men , and that the British posed a threat to their very existence . " If you suffer the English among you , " said Neolin , " you are dead men . Sickness , smallpox , and their poison [ alcohol ] will destroy you entirely . " It was a powerful message for a people whose world was being changed by forces that seemed beyond their control .
= = Outbreak of war , 1763 = =
= = = Planning the war = = =
Although fighting in Pontiac 's Rebellion began in 1763 , rumors reached British officials as early as 1761 that discontented Native Americans were planning an attack . Senecas of the Ohio Country ( Mingos ) circulated messages ( " war belts " made of wampum ) which called for the tribes to form a confederacy and drive away the British . The Mingos , led by Guyasuta and Tahaiadoris , were concerned about being surrounded by British forts . Similar war belts originated from Detroit and the Illinois Country . The Native Americans were not unified , however , and in June 1761 , Native Americans at Detroit informed the British commander of the Seneca plot . After William Johnson held a large council with the tribes at Detroit in September 1761 a tenuous peace was maintained , but war belts continued to circulate . Violence finally erupted after the Native Americans learned in early 1763 of the imminent French cession of the pays d 'en haut to the British .
The war began at Fort Detroit under the leadership of Pontiac , and quickly spread throughout the region . Eight British forts were taken ; others , including Fort Detroit and Fort Pitt , were unsuccessfully besieged . Francis Parkman 's The Conspiracy of Pontiac portrayed these attacks as a coordinated operation planned by Pontiac . Parkman 's interpretation remains well known , but other historians have since argued that there is no clear evidence that the attacks were part of a master plan or overall " conspiracy " . The prevailing view among scholars today is that , rather than being planned in advance , the uprising spread as word of Pontiac 's actions at Detroit traveled throughout the pays d 'en haut , inspiring already discontented Native Americans to join the revolt . The attacks on British forts were not simultaneous : most Ohio Native Americans did not enter the war until nearly a month after the beginning of Pontiac 's siege at Detroit .
Parkman also believed that Pontiac 's War had been secretly instigated by French colonists who were stirring up the Native Americans in order to make trouble for the British . This belief was widely held by British officials at the time , but subsequent historians have found no evidence of official French involvement in the uprising . ( The rumor of French instigation arose in part because French war belts from the Seven Years ' War were still in circulation in some Native villages . ) Rather than the French stirring up the Native Americans , some historians now argue that the Native Americans were trying to stir up the French . Pontiac and other native leaders frequently spoke of the imminent return of French power and the revival of the Franco @-@ Native alliance ; Pontiac even flew a French flag in his village . All of this was apparently intended to inspire the French to rejoin the struggle against the British . Although some French colonists and traders supported the uprising , the war was initiated and conducted by Native Americans who had Native — not French — objectives .
Historian Richard Middleton ( 2007 ) argues that Pontiac 's vision , courage , persistence , and organizational abilities allowed him to activate a remarkable coalition of Indian nations prepared to fight successfully against the British . Though the idea to gain independence for all Native Americans west of the Allegheny Mountains did not originate with him but with two Seneca leaders , Tahaiadoris and Guyasuta , by February 1763 Pontiac appeared to embrace the idea . At an emergency council meeting , Pontiac clarified his military support of the broad Seneca plan and worked to galvanize other nations into the military operation that he helped lead , in direct contradiction to traditional Indian leadership and tribal structure . He achieved this coordination through the distribution of war belts : first to the northern Ojibwa and Ottawa near Michilimackinac ; and then after the failure to seize Detroit by stratagem , to the Mingo ( Seneca ) on the upper Allegheny River , the Ohio Delaware near Fort Pitt , and the more westerly Miami , Kickapoo , Piankashaw and Wea peoples .
= = = Siege of Fort Detroit = = =
On April 27 , 1763 , Pontiac spoke at a council on the banks of the Ecorse River , in what is now Lincoln Park , Michigan , about 10 miles ( 15 km ) southwest of Detroit . Using the teachings of Neolin to inspire his listeners , Pontiac convinced a number of Ottawas , Ojibwas , Potawatomis , and Hurons to join him in an attempt to seize Fort Detroit . On May 1 , Pontiac visited the fort with 50 Ottawas in order to assess the strength of the garrison . According to a French chronicler , in a second council Pontiac proclaimed :
It is important for us , my brothers , that we exterminate from our lands this nation which seeks only to destroy us . You see as well as I that we can no longer supply our needs , as we have done from our brothers , the French .... Therefore , my brothers , we must all swear their destruction and wait no longer . Nothing prevents us ; they are few in numbers , and we can accomplish it .
Hoping to take the stronghold by surprise , on May 7 Pontiac entered Fort Detroit with about 300 men carrying concealed weapons . The British had learned of Pontiac 's plan , however , and were armed and ready . His tactic foiled , Pontiac withdrew after a brief council and , two days later , laid siege to the fort . Pontiac and his allies killed all of the British soldiers and settlers they could find outside of the fort , including women and children . One of the soldiers was ritually cannibalized , as was the custom in some Great Lakes Native cultures . The violence was directed at the British ; French colonists were generally left alone . Eventually more than 900 soldiers from a half @-@ dozen tribes joined the siege . Meanwhile , on May 28 a British supply column from Fort Niagara led by Lieutenant Abraham Cuyler was ambushed and defeated at Point Pelee .
After receiving reinforcements , the British attempted to make a surprise attack on Pontiac 's encampment . But Pontiac was ready and waiting , and defeated them at the Battle of Bloody Run on July 31 , 1763 . Nevertheless , the situation at Fort Detroit remained a stalemate , and Pontiac 's influence among his followers began to wane . Groups of Native Americans began to abandon the siege , some of them making peace with the British before departing . On October 31 , 1763 , finally convinced that the French in Illinois would not come to his aid at Detroit , Pontiac lifted the siege and removed to the Maumee River , where he continued his efforts to rally resistance against the British .
= = = Small forts taken = = =
Before other British outposts had learned about Pontiac 's siege at Detroit , Native Americans captured five small forts in a series of attacks between May 16 and June 2 . The first to be taken was Fort Sandusky , a small blockhouse on the shore of Lake Erie . It had been built in 1761 by order of General Amherst , despite the objections of local Wyandots , who in 1762 warned the commander that they would soon burn it down . On May 16 , 1763 , a group of Wyandots gained entry under the pretense of holding a council , the same stratagem that had failed in Detroit nine days earlier . They seized the commander and killed the other 15 soldiers , as well as British traders at the fort . These were among the first of about 100 traders who were killed in the early stages of the war . The dead were ritually scalped and the fort — as the Wyandots had warned a year earlier — was burned to the ground .
Fort St. Joseph ( the site of present @-@ day Niles , Michigan ) was captured on May 25 , 1763 , by the same method as at Sandusky . Potawatomis seized the commander and killed most of the 15 @-@ man garrison outright . Fort Miami ( on the site of present Fort Wayne , Indiana ) was the third fort to fall . On May 27 , 1763 , the commander was lured out of the fort by his Native mistress and shot dead by Miami Native Americans . The nine @-@ man garrison surrendered after the fort was surrounded .
In the Illinois Country , Weas , Kickapoos , and Mascoutens took Fort Ouiatenon ( about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west of present Lafayette , Indiana ) on June 1 , 1763 . They lured soldiers outside for a council , and took the 20 @-@ man garrison captive without bloodshed . The Native Americans around Fort Ouiatenon had good relations with the British garrison , but emissaries from Pontiac at Detroit had convinced them to strike . The warriors apologized to the commander for taking the fort , saying that " they were obliged to do it by the other Nations . " In contrast with other forts , the Natives did not kill the British captives at Ouiatenon .
The fifth fort to fall , Fort Michilimackinac ( present Mackinaw City , Michigan ) , was the largest fort taken by surprise . On June 2 , 1763 , local Ojibwas staged a game of stickball ( a forerunner of lacrosse ) with visiting Sauks . The soldiers watched the game , as they had done on previous occasions . The ball was hit through the open gate of the fort ; the teams rushed in and were given weapons which Native women had smuggled into the fort . The warriors killed about 15 of the 35 @-@ man garrison in the struggle ; later they killed five more in ritual torture .
Three forts in the Ohio Country were taken in a second wave of attacks in mid @-@ June . Iroquois Senecas took Fort Venango ( near the site of the present Franklin , Pennsylvania ) around June 16 , 1763 . They killed the entire 12 @-@ man garrison outright , keeping the commander alive to write down the grievances of the Senecas . After that , they ritually burned him at the stake . Possibly the same Seneca warriors attacked Fort Le Boeuf ( on the site of Waterford , Pennsylvania ) on June 18 , but most of the 12 @-@ man garrison escaped to Fort Pitt .
On June 19 , 1763 , about 250 Ottawa , Ojibwa , Wyandot , and Seneca warriors surrounded Fort Presque Isle ( on the site of Erie , Pennsylvania ) , the eighth and final fort to fall . After holding out for two days , the garrison of about 30 to 60 men surrendered , on the condition that they could return to Fort Pitt . The warriors killed most of the soldiers after they came out of the fort .
= = = Siege of Fort Pitt = = =
Colonists in western Pennsylvania fled to the safety of Fort Pitt after the outbreak of the war . Nearly 550 people crowded inside , including more than 200 women and children . Simeon Ecuyer , the Swiss @-@ born British officer in command , wrote that " We are so crowded in the fort that I fear disease ... ; the smallpox is among us . " Fort Pitt was attacked on June 22 , 1763 , primarily by Delawares . Too strong to be taken by force , the fort was kept under siege throughout July . Meanwhile , Delaware and Shawnee war parties raided deep into Pennsylvania , taking captives and killing unknown numbers of settlers in scattered farms . Two smaller strongholds that linked Fort Pitt to the east , Fort Bedford and Fort Ligonier , were sporadically fired upon throughout the conflict , but were never taken .
Before the war , Amherst had dismissed the possibility that the Native Americans would offer any effective resistance to British rule , but that summer he found the military situation becoming increasingly grim . He ordered subordinates to " immediately ... put to death " captured enemy Native American warriors . To Colonel Henry Bouquet at Lancaster , Pennsylvania , who was preparing to lead an expedition to relieve Fort Pitt , Amherst wrote on about June 29 , 1763 : " Could it not be contrived to send the small pox among the disaffected tribes of Indians ? We must on this occasion use every stratagem in our power to reduce them . " Bouquet responded to Amherst ( summer of 1763 ) :
P.S. I will try to inocculate [ sic ] the Indians by means of Blankets that may fall in their hands , taking care however not to get the disease myself . As it is pity to oppose good men against them , I wish we could make use of the Spaniard 's Method , and hunt them with English Dogs . Supported by Rangers , and some Light Horse , who would I think effectively extirpate or remove that Vermine .
In a postscript , Amherst replied :
P.S. You will Do well to try to Innoculate [ sic ] the Indians by means of Blankets , as well as to try Every other method that can serve to Extirpate this Execrable Race . I should be very glad your Scheme for Hunting them Down by Dogs could take Effect , but England is at too great a Distance to think of that at present .
Officers at the besieged Fort Pitt had already attempted to do what Amherst and Bouquet were discussing , apparently on their own initiative . During a parley at Fort Pitt on June 24 , 1763 , Ecuyer gave Delaware representatives , Turtleheart and Mamaltee , two blankets and a handkerchief that had been exposed to smallpox , hoping to spread the disease to the Native Americans in order to " extirpate " them from the territory . William Trent , the militia commander , left records that showed the purpose of giving the blankets was " to Convey the Smallpox to the Indians . " Turtleheart and Killbuck would later represent the Delaware at the Treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1768 . Based on the testimony of a captive of the Shawnee and Delaware , Gershom Hicks , the disease had afflicted three local Native American population by the spring of 1763 and " still continued amongst them " through 1764 .
On July 22 , Trent writes , " Gray Eyes , Wingenum , Turtle 's Heart and Mamaultee , came over the River told us their Chiefs were in Council , that they waited for Custaluga who they expected that Day " . There are eyewitness reports that outbreaks of smallpox and other diseases had plagued the Ohio Native Americans in the years prior to the siege of Fort Pitt . Colonists also caught smallpox from Native Americans at a peace conference in 1759 which then led to an epidemic in Charleston and the surrounding areas in South Carolina .
Historians are at odds as to how much damage the attempt to spread smallpox at Fort Pitt caused . Historian Francis Jennings concluded that the attempt was " unquestionably successful and effective " and inflicted great damage to the Native Americans . Historian Michael McConnell writes that , " Ironically , British efforts to use pestilence as a weapon may not have been either necessary or particularly effective " , noting that smallpox was already entering the territory by several means , and Native Americans were familiar with the disease and adept at isolating the infected . Historians widely agree that smallpox devastated the Native American population , as it did the European populations . It is estimated that 400 @,@ 000 @-@ 500 @,@ 000 ( possibly up to 1 @.@ 5 million ) Native Americans died during and years after the Pontiac 's War , mostly from smallpox ,
= = = Bushy Run and Devil 's Hole = = =
On August 1 , 1763 , most of the Native Americans broke off the siege at Fort Pitt in order to intercept 500 British troops marching to the fort under Colonel Bouquet . On August 5 , these two forces met at the Battle of Bushy Run . Although his force suffered heavy casualties , Bouquet fought off the attack and relieved Fort Pitt on August 20 , bringing the siege to an end . His victory at Bushy Run was celebrated in the British colonies — church bells rang through the night in Philadelphia — and praised by King George .
This victory was soon followed by a costly defeat . Fort Niagara , one of the most important western forts , was not assaulted , but on September 14 , 1763 , at least 300 Senecas , Ottawas , and Ojibwas attacked a supply train along the Niagara Falls portage . Two companies sent from Fort Niagara to rescue the supply train were also defeated . More than 70 soldiers and teamsters were killed in these actions , which Anglo @-@ Americans called the " Devil 's Hole Massacre " , the deadliest engagement for British soldiers during the war .
= = Paxton Boys = =
The violence and terror of Pontiac 's War convinced many western Pennsylvanians that their government was not doing enough to protect them . This discontent was manifested most seriously in an uprising led by a vigilante group that came to be known as the Paxton Boys , so @-@ called because they were primarily from the area around the Pennsylvania village of Paxton ( or Paxtang ) . The Paxtonians turned their anger towards Native Americans — many of them Christians — who lived peacefully in small enclaves in the midst of white Pennsylvania settlements . Prompted by rumors that a Native war party had been seen at the Native village of Conestoga , on December 14 , 1763 , a group of more than 50 Paxton Boys marched on the village and murdered the six Susquehannocks they found there . Pennsylvania officials placed the remaining 16 Susquehannocks in protective custody in Lancaster , but on December 27 the Paxton Boys broke into the jail and slaughtered most of them . Governor John Penn issued bounties for the arrest of the murderers , but no one came forward to identify them .
The Paxton Boys then set their sights on other Native Americans living within eastern Pennsylvania , many of whom fled to Philadelphia for protection . Several hundred Paxtonians marched on Philadelphia in January 1764 , where the presence of British troops and Philadelphia militia prevented them from doing more violence . Benjamin Franklin , who had helped organize the local militia , negotiated with the Paxton leaders and brought an end to the immediate crisis . Franklin published a scathing indictment of the Paxton Boys . " If an Indian injures me , " he asked , " does it follow that I may revenge that Injury on all Indians ? " One leader of the Paxton Boys was Lazarus Stewart who would be killed in the Wyoming Massacre of 1778 .
= = British response , 1764 – 1766 = =
Native American raids on frontier settlements escalated in the spring and summer of 1764 . The hardest hit colony that year was Virginia , where more raids occurred on July 26 , when four Delaware Indian soldiers killed and scalped a school teacher and ten children in what is now Franklin County , Pennsylvania . Incidents such as these prompted the Pennsylvania Assembly , with the approval of Governor Penn , to reintroduce the scalp bounties offered during the French and Indian War , which paid money for every Native killed above the age of ten , including women .
General Amherst , held responsible for the uprising by the Board of Trade , was recalled to London in August 1763 and replaced by Major General Thomas Gage . In 1764 , Gage sent two expeditions into the west to crush the rebellion , rescue British prisoners , and arrest the Native Americans responsible for the war . According to historian Fred Anderson , Gage 's campaign , which had been designed by Amherst , prolonged the war for more than a year because it focused on punishing the Native Americans rather than ending the war . Gage 's one significant departure from Amherst 's plan was to allow William Johnson to conduct a peace treaty at Niagara , giving those Native Americans who were ready to " bury the hatchet " a chance to do so .
= = = Fort Niagara treaty = = =
From July to August 1764 , Johnson negotiated a treaty at Fort Niagara with about 2 @,@ 000 Native Americans in attendance , primarily Iroquois . Although most Iroquois had stayed out of the war , Senecas from the Genesee River valley had taken up arms against the British , and Johnson worked to bring them back into the Covenant Chain alliance . As restitution for the Devil 's Hole ambush , the Senecas were compelled to cede the strategically important Niagara portage to the British . Johnson even convinced the Iroquois to send a war party against the Ohio Native Americans . This Iroquois expedition captured a number of Delawares and destroyed abandoned Delaware and Shawnee towns in the Susquehanna Valley , but otherwise the Iroquois did not contribute to the war effort as much as Johnson had desired .
= = = Two expeditions = = =
Having secured the area around Fort Niagara , the British launched two military expeditions into the west . The first expedition , led by Colonel John Bradstreet , was to travel by boat across Lake Erie and reinforce Detroit . Bradstreet was to subdue the Native Americans around Detroit before marching south into the Ohio Country . The second expedition , commanded by Colonel Bouquet , was to march west from Fort Pitt and form a second front in the Ohio Country .
Bradstreet set out from Fort Schlosser in early August 1764 with about 1 @,@ 200 soldiers and a large contingent of Native allies enlisted by Sir William Johnson . Bradstreet felt that he did not have enough troops to subdue enemy Native Americans by force , and so when strong winds on Lake Erie forced him to stop at Presque Isle on August 12 , he decided to negotiate a treaty with a delegation of Ohio Native Americans led by Guyasuta . Bradstreet exceeded his authority by conducting a peace treaty rather than a simple truce , and by agreeing to halt Bouquet 's expedition , which had not yet left Fort Pitt . Gage , Johnson , and Bouquet were outraged when they learned what Bradstreet had done . Gage rejected the treaty , believing that Bradstreet had been duped into abandoning his offensive in the Ohio Country . Gage may have been correct : the Ohio Native Americans did not return prisoners as promised in a second meeting with Bradstreet in September , and some Shawnees were trying to enlist French aid in order to continue the war .
Bradstreet continued westward , as yet unaware that his unauthorized diplomacy was angering his superiors . He reached Fort Detroit on August 26 , where he negotiated another treaty . In an attempt to discredit Pontiac , who was not present , Bradstreet chopped up a peace belt the Ottawa leader had sent to the meeting . According to historian Richard White , " such an act , roughly equivalent to a European ambassador 's urinating on a proposed treaty , had shocked and offended the gathered Indians . " Bradstreet also claimed that the Native Americans had accepted British sovereignty as a result of his negotiations , but Johnson believed that this had not been fully explained to the Native Americans and that further councils would be needed . Although Bradstreet had successfully reinforced and reoccupied British forts in the region , his diplomacy proved to be controversial and inconclusive .
Colonel Bouquet , delayed in Pennsylvania while mustering the militia , finally set out from Fort Pitt on October 3 , 1764 , with 1 @,@ 150 men . He marched to the Muskingum River in the Ohio Country , within striking distance of a number of native villages . Now that treaties had been negotiated at Fort Niagara and Fort Detroit , the Ohio Native Americans were isolated and , with some exceptions , ready to make peace . In a council which began on October 17 , Bouquet demanded that the Ohio Native Americans return all captives , including those not yet returned from the French and Indian War . Guyasuta and other leaders reluctantly handed over more than 200 captives , many of whom had been adopted into Native families . Because not all of the captives were present , the Native Americans were compelled to surrender hostages as a guarantee that the other captives would be returned . The Ohio Native Americans agreed to attend a more formal peace conference with William Johnson , which was finalized in July 1765 .
= = = Treaty with Pontiac = = =
Although the military conflict essentially ended with the 1764 expeditions , Native Americans still called for resistance in the Illinois Country , where British troops had yet to take possession of Fort de Chartres from the French . A Shawnee war chief named Charlot Kaské emerged as the most strident anti @-@ British leader in the region , temporarily surpassing Pontiac in influence . Kaské traveled as far south as New Orleans in an effort to enlist French aid against the British .
In 1765 , the British decided that the occupation of the Illinois Country could only be accomplished by diplomatic means . As Gage commented to one of his officers , he was determined to have " none our enemy " among the Indian peoples , and that included Pontiac , to whom he now sent a wampum belt suggesting peace talks . Pontiac had by now become less militant after hearing of Bouquet 's truce with the Ohio country Native Americans . Johnson 's deputy , George Croghan , accordingly travelled to the Illinois country in the summer of 1765 , and although he was injured along the way in an attack by Kickapoos and Mascoutens , he managed to meet and negotiate with Pontiac . While Charlot Kaské wanted to burn Croghan at the stake , Pontiac urged moderation and agreed to travel to New York , where he made a formal treaty with William Johnson at Fort Ontario on July 25 , 1766 . It was hardly a surrender : no lands were ceded , no prisoners returned , and no hostages were taken . Rather than accept British sovereignty , Kaské left British territory by crossing the Mississippi River with other French and Native refugees .
= = Legacy = =
The total loss of life resulting from Pontiac 's War is unknown . About 400 British soldiers were killed in action and perhaps 50 were captured and tortured to death . George Croghan estimated that 2 @,@ 000 settlers had been killed or captured , a figure sometimes repeated as 2 @,@ 000 settlers killed . The violence compelled approximately 4 @,@ 000 settlers from Pennsylvania and Virginia to flee their homes . Native American losses went mostly unrecorded .
Pontiac 's War has traditionally been portrayed as a defeat for the Native Americans , but scholars now usually view it as a military stalemate : while the Native Americans had failed to drive away the British , the British were unable to conquer the Native Americans . Negotiation and accommodation , rather than success on the battlefield , ultimately brought an end to the war . The Native Americans had in fact won a victory of sorts by compelling the British government to abandon Amherst 's policies and instead create a relationship with the Native Americans modeled on the Franco @-@ Native alliance .
Relations between British colonists and Native Americans , which had been severely strained during the French and Indian War , reached a new low during Pontiac 's Rebellion . According to historian David Dixon , " Pontiac 's War was unprecedented for its awful violence , as both sides seemed intoxicated with genocidal fanaticism . " Historian Daniel Richter characterizes the Native attempt to drive out the British , and the effort of the Paxton Boys to eliminate Native Americans from their midst , as parallel examples of ethnic cleansing . People on both sides of the conflict had come to the conclusion that colonists and Native Americans were inherently different and could not live with each other . According to Richter , the war saw the emergence of " the novel idea that all Native people were ' Indians , ' that all Euro @-@ Americans were ' Whites , ' and that all on one side must unite to destroy the other . "
The British government also came to the conclusion that colonists and Native Americans must be kept apart . On October 7 , 1763 , the Crown issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763 , an effort to reorganize British North America after the Treaty of Paris . The Proclamation , already in the works when Pontiac 's War erupted , was hurriedly issued after news of the uprising reached London . Officials drew a boundary line between the British colonies along the seaboard , and Native American lands west of the Allegheny Ridge ( i.e. , the Eastern Divide ) , creating a vast ' Indian Reserve ' that stretched from the Alleghenies to the Mississippi River and from Florida to Quebec . It thus confirmed the antebellum demarcation that had been set by the Treaty of Easton in 1758 . By forbidding colonists from trespassing on Native lands , the British government hoped to avoid more conflicts like Pontiac 's Rebellion . " The Royal Proclamation , " writes historian Colin Calloway , " reflected the notion that segregation not interaction should characterize Indian @-@ white relations . "
The effects of Pontiac 's War were long @-@ lasting . Because the Proclamation officially recognized that indigenous people had certain rights to the lands they occupied , it has been called the Native Americans ' " Bill of Rights " , and still informs the relationship between the Canadian government and First Nations . For British colonists and land speculators , however , the Proclamation seemed to deny them the fruits of victory — western lands — that had been won in the war with France . The resentment which this created undermined colonial attachment to the Empire , contributing to the coming of the American Revolution . According to Colin Calloway , " Pontiac 's Revolt was not the last American war for independence — American colonists launched a rather more successful effort a dozen years later , prompted in part by the measures the British government took to try to prevent another war like Pontiac 's . "
For Native Americans , Pontiac 's War demonstrated the possibilities of pan @-@ tribal cooperation in resisting Anglo @-@ American colonial expansion . Although the conflict divided tribes and villages , the war also saw the first extensive multi @-@ tribal resistance to European colonization in North America , and was the first war between Europeans and Native North Americans that did not end in complete defeat for the Native Americans . The Proclamation of 1763 ultimately did not prevent British colonists and land speculators from expanding westward , and so Native Americans found it necessary to form new resistance movements . Beginning with conferences hosted by Shawnees in 1767 , in the following decades leaders such as Joseph Brant , Alexander McGillivray , Blue Jacket , and Tecumseh would attempt to forge confederacies that would revive the resistance efforts of Pontiac 's War .
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= Deep , Deep Trouble =
" Deep , Deep Trouble " is a rap song from the 1990 Simpsons album The Simpsons Sing the Blues , sung by the fictional character Bart Simpson ( voiced by Nancy Cartwright ) about his trouble @-@ making antics . It was written by Matt Groening and DJ Jazzy Jeff and recorded during the fall of 1990 . The song was released as the second single from the album in early 1991 and an accompanying music video ( directed by Gregg Vanzo ) was broadcast on television on March 7 , 1991 . This video has since been released on DVD as part of the 2002 boxset The Simpsons : The Complete Second Season . " Deep , Deep Trouble " charted in several countries around the world , including the top ten in Ireland , New Zealand , and the United Kingdom . Critical reception of the song was positive and it has been praised for its humorous lyrics .
= = Background = =
" Deep , Deep Trouble " appeared on the successful 1990 album The Simpsons Sing the Blues that features songs sung by the characters from the American animated television series The Simpsons . It was recorded along with the rest of the album during the fall of 1990 , at which point the cast members of The Simpsons were also recording the second season of the series . The song was written by The Simpsons creator Matt Groening and DJ Jazzy Jeff , and produced by DJ Jazzy Jeff and John Boylan . DJ Jazzy Jeff provided the drum programming , keyboards , and scratches on " Deep , Deep Trouble " .
The song is a rap performed by the character Bart Simpson about his trouble @-@ making antics . Groening has described it as " the tragic story of Bart Simpson , a bad youth gone worse . " The Simpsons cast member Nancy Cartwright , who voices Bart on the show , provided the character 's voice in " Deep , Deep Trouble " as well . The characters Homer Simpson and Maggie Simpson are also featured , with Homer ranting at Bart , and Maggie sucking on her pacifier to the beat of the song .
" Deep , Deep Trouble " was released in early 1991 as the second single from The Simpsons Sing the Blues after " Do the Bartman " , which also features Bart rapping . That single achieved much popularity , placing first on the singles charts in Australia , Ireland , New Zealand , Norway , and the United Kingdom , and eventually becoming certified gold in the latter country with 400 @,@ 000 units sold . In Ireland , " Do the Bartman " spent nine weeks at number one on the Irish Singles Chart — only seven singles have ever managed a longer run at number one there .
= = Reception = =
The song received a positive response from critics . Sommer Swindell of the Observer @-@ Reporter commented that " after listening to [ The Simpsons Sing the Blues ] once , no one will forget ' Deep , Deep Trouble ' [ ... ] It would be hard not to crack a smile while listening closely to the lyrics , as they are very creative and humorous . " Thor Christensen of The Milwaukee Journal wrote that Bart " gets in a few good yuks " in the song , and Walt Belcher of The Tampa Tribune reported that Bart " raps out an amusing story about his misadventures while mowing the lawn " . The Orange County Register 's Cary Darling noted that " Bart turning his life into a hip @-@ hop autobiography on ' Deep , Deep Trouble ' is an absolute joy . " Cartwright 's rapping was praised by Tom Hopkins of the Dayton Daily News .
The single was a commercial success , reaching number one on the singles chart in Ireland . It charted in the top ten in New Zealand and the United Kingdom , and outside the top ten in Australia , the Netherlands , Sweden , and the United States . " Deep , Deep Trouble " spent nine weeks on the chart in New Zealand , seven weeks on the charts in Ireland , the Netherlands , and the United Kingdom , five weeks on the Australian chart , and three weeks on the chart in Sweden .
= = Music video = =
The music video for the single premiered on the Fox network in the United States on March 7 , 1991 together with the Simpsons episode " Bart 's Dog Gets an F " of the series ' second season . When " Do the Bartman " was released it was also accompanied by a music video , which ended up being nominated for Best Special Effects at the 1991 MTV Video Music Awards and becoming the number one music video on the American network MTV .
The video for " Deep , Deep Trouble " illustrates the things Bart raps about in the song , showing how he is forced by Homer to mow the lawn after throwing a buzzing alarm clock at his father in his sleep . When Homer tells Bart to hurry up , Bart accidentally runs over the sprinkler and as a result he has to stay at home when the family goes to see a boat show . After they leave , Bart decides to throw a party and invites his friends . They make a mess in the house and when Homer and Marge return home , Bart realizes he is in deep trouble . Joanne Ostrow of The Denver Post thought the video was not " nearly as clever as the cartoon " and that it had " ' promotional gimmick ' written all over it . " " Then again , I never thought the video of the dance rap ' Do the Bartman ' would be a ratings hit when it aired in December . So what do I know ? " , she added .
The music video features both original animation and old animation from the series and the Simpsons shorts that aired on The Tracey Ullman Show before they were spun off into The Simpsons in 1989 . Gregg Vanzo directed the video , which , according to him , features quicker character poses than in episodes of the show to allow the animation to match the hip @-@ hop beat . The music video was later included on the 2002 DVD boxset The Simpsons : The Complete Second Season , with audio commentary from its producers .
= = Track listing = =
= = Chart positions = =
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= Sam Strachan =
Samuel Noel " Sam " Strachan is a fictional character in the BBC medical drama Holby City , portrayed by actor Tom Chambers . The character first appeared on @-@ screen on 3 January 2006 , in episode " Mother Love " - series 8 , episode 12 of the programme . Chambers was cast in the role after sending a video of himself performing a Fred Astaire dance routine to over 800 television producers , and piquing the interest of BBC Casting Director Julie Harkin . Although he originally auditioned for only a minor role in the show , he was later asked back to audition for the newly created role of major character Sam Strachan .
Sam 's initial function in the show was that of hospital Lothario – romancing and fathering a child with his boss , Connie Beauchamp ( Amanda Mealing ) , as well as engaging in relationships with Ward Sisters Chrissie Williams ( Tina Hobley ) and Faye Morton ( Patsy Kensit ) , SHO Maddy Young ( Nadine Lewington ) , and Staff Nurse Zoe Foxe ( Alicia Davies ) . However , he was taken on a redemptive path and was seen to change his philandering ways after being diagnosed with Non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma stage three , with just a 40 % survival rate .
The character has proven highly popular with fans of the show , being voted in 2006 ' Favourite Newcomer ' of the series , and in 2007 ' Favourite All @-@ Time Male ' within the show . However , in October 2007 , the character also came under heavy criticism by drinks industry body the Portman Group , resulting from an incident of on @-@ screen binge drinking , broadcast without showing any negative effects , which the group lambasted as " highly irresponsible . "
It was announced on 4 October 2008 that the character would depart from Holby City in a Christmas 2008 storyline .
= = Creation = =
Sam Strachan was one of eight new characters to join Holby City 's cast in its eighth series . In the context of the show , the character 's arrival coincided with the on @-@ screen expansion of Darwin , the Cardiothoracic surgical ward . Over the course of series 7 and 8 , medical staff on this ward had been reduced solely to nurses , and Consultant Connie Beauchamp . However , the series 8 plot strand which saw Connie strive to turn Holby City Hospital into a Cardiothoracic Centre of Excellence required a similar expansion of ward staff , and so three new Cardiothoracic surgical characters were created — Consultant Elliot Hope ( Paul Bradley ) , and Registrars Sam Strachan and Joseph Byrne ( Luke Roberts ) .
Tom Chambers was approached about assuming the role of Sam by BBC casting director Julie Harkin , who was also responsible for casting fellow Holby City newcomers Rakie Ayola as Kyla Tyson and Luke Roberts as Joseph Byrne . Chambers has revealed that he sent a video of himself performing a Fred Astaire tap dance routine to over 800 stage and television directors and producers in the UK , explaining : " Julie Harkin in casting at Holby saw it and gave me a call because they thought it was unusual . Originally I went up for a small role as an American doctor , but after the audition they said come back next week to audition for a bigger part and that was it ! " Upon assuming the role of Sam , Chambers revealed that he had once been an avid viewer of Holby City 's sister show , Casualty , recalling watching it as far back as 1991 .
Prior to beginning work on the show , Chambers underwent observational training at the NHS Heart Hospital in London , watching three open @-@ heart operations . He has described it as " the most amazing experience I 've ever witnessed . " Speaking of his nerves on his first day on set , Chambers has commented that the experience was made worse by the fact it was also new co @-@ star Luke Roberts ' first day , and : " we had rehearsals and all the top producers , executive producers and everyone from the script writers to the floor runners came on set and watched us . That 's normal but I wasn 't expecting such a big audience just for the rehearsals . "
Chambers has spoken highly of his relationship with his co @-@ stars , explaining that : " Luke and I joined at the same time so we 've always had a kinship and on our dressing room corridor we have Patsy , Rosie , Phoebe , Rakie and Jaye so there 's always some banter going on , it 's like being back at school . I think we 're lucky because the guests we have on the show often comment on what a good atmosphere Holby has . [ ... ] Paul Bradley who plays Elliot is one of the funniest people to work with - when the cameras aren 't rolling he 's very good at turning difficult moments into humour when everyone 's feeling the strain to finish the day . "
= = Development = =
= = = Personality = = =
The BBC have described Sam as a compassionate , decisive adrenaline junkie . A hugely volatile person , his emotions can land him in hot water " . Chambers has added to this , assessing of his character : " In brief I 'd say he loves his job and loves a challenge , is laid back but a bit of a rule @-@ bender and slightly mischievous when it comes to trying to help the patients against hospital policy and hierarchy . He loves women but can 't let himself get too wrapped up in them because work comes first ... at the moment . "
Sam 's personality was further developed in an episode which saw the character discover one of his patients to be a male escort . Although he was aware that the woman accompanying his patient was a client rather than a relative , he persuaded her to sign consent forms on the patient 's behalf . Chambers has described this plot strand as portraying Sam " ( bending ) the rules to make something happen [ ... ] It 's yet another example of Sam not thinking about the repercussions of his actions . "
The character went on to form a close bond with 14 @-@ year @-@ old child prostitute , patient Jade MacGuire ( Ophelia Lovibond ) . Despite his colleagues ' malicious gossip about the potentially inappropriate nature of their relationship , he repeatedly pushed the boundaries of their doctor / patient relationship in an attempt to take care of her , going as far as to shelter her in his own home after discovering her to be pregnant . Chambers has commented : " The storyline with the homeless prostitute was a challenge . Sam , trying to help but making stupid mistakes and having to suffer the consequences - it could have easily been seen as sleaze if you didn 't get the balance right . "
= = = Relationships = = =
During his time at Holby City hospital , Sam has romanced Connie Beauchamp , Chrissie Williams , Faye Morton , Maddy Young and Zoe Foxe . His brief relationship with Connie resulted in the birth of their daughter Grace . Sam has one other child - a son he fathered in his teenage years who was subsequently adopted and who he has only seen once , shortly after his birth .
Interviewed in January 2006 , Chambers foreshadowed major developments for his character when he stated : " I think Sam 's ideal woman might be Connie because she 's feisty , doesn 't beat around the bush and is very talented , which is always sexy . However I reckon they clash quite a lot because she manipulates with her power play and won 't drop the act so it would be very much on a love hate basis . " The two characters went on to have a brief sexual relationship , resulting in Connie becoming pregnant with Sam 's child . Once the revelation of Connie 's pregnancy had been made , Chambers asserted of the tension between the separated couple : " Some of the scenes with Connie work amazingly well because we do genuinely get worked up and we like to keep it that way until filming is finished . It 's a useful tip to let the frustrations come through in your work - it makes good viewing . "
From his relationship with Connie , Sam moved on to a love triangle storyline with Ward Sisters Faye Morton and Chrissie Williams . Kensit said of the relationship in August 2007 , as the storyline was ongoing : " For Faye , Sam is not Mr Right , simply Mr Right Now . But Faye is not as sweet as she looks - there 's a streak of toughness there ... It 's all going to get very messy ! " Once his deception was uncovered , Sam attempted to salvage his romantic relationship with Chrissie , but was unsuccessful . For some weeks thereafter , Sam engaged in casual sexual relationships with Senior house officer Maddy Young and Staff Nurse Zoe Foxe . These were , however , stymied by the discovery he had cancer .
= = = Non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma = = =
In November 2007 , the character was diagnosed with Non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma . Although he had been shown to be feeling sickly in the show for some time , he was wary of being tested . Even when forced into it by friend and colleague Maddy Young , he initially refused to so much as look at his results . Chambers explained : " It 's serious , but Sam 's playing it down . Of course he 's scared but he deals with it by just wanting to laugh it off and make jokes about it " . He speculated that the experience would force Sam to grow up and appreciate life more , as well as seriously consider the future of his daughter , Grace , and cease his philandering way with female staff . Chambers has also spoken extensively about the research he did before beginning the cancer storyline :
" When I was first told about the storyline , I felt honoured to be given such a big opportunity . But I was also aware that I had a huge responsibility to get it right and do justice to those suffering in real life . Because Sam has chemotherapy , I was asked if I 'd be willing to shave off my hair , and I said , " Absolutely , " which is why I 'm bald . I 've also done a lot of research , and try hard to separate my character from my life off @-@ screen , but I feel guilty that at the end of each day I can walk away from the illness , when many aren 't so fortunate . "
Sam 's illness was played out over the course of the show 's tenth series , reaching its zenith when he developed septicemia and went into septic shock in episode " Long Dark Night " . He pulled through , however , and was eventually given the all @-@ clear from cancer eight months after having been diagnosed , in episode " Only Believe " .
= = = Departure = = =
It was announced on 4 October 2008 that Sam would depart from Holby City in " a blaze of glory in a big Christmas storyline " . A show insider revealed that " Tom ’ s departure will leave his fans in tears , but Holby bosses are keeping tight @-@ lipped about whether or not Sam will be killed off . " Chambers explained of his decision to leave : " I was worried about telling the bosses , but I wrote a long letter to the producers explaining my decision and they were incredibly nice about it . Sam Strachan has gone through so much in the past year with his cancer – it seemed like the perfect time to make the break . " Several episodes before the character 's departure , his estranged son Kieron played by Misha Crosby , was introduced to Holby City . Father and son both developed romantic feelings for nurse Maria Kendall , leading to Sam asking her to accompany them both to New York , where Kieron was a famous violinist . After being shown her future should she accept , Maria declined Sam 's offer , and he and Keiron departed together .
In the episode " What Will Survive of Us " , Sam sent flowers for Maddy from New York when she died . His mother , Audrey , was introduced to Holby City 's sister show , Casualty in December 2014 @.@ in January 2015 Grace moves to New York to be him and half @-@ brother Kieron .
= = = Return & Crossover into Casualty = = =
In the Christmas trailer of 2015 it is seen that Chambers reprises his role as Sam Strachan , as he is seen to reappear , but in Casualty not Holby City . His first episode airs on 13 February 2016 , titled : " Hearts and Flowers " .
= = Reception = =
In 2006 , Tom Chambers was named tenth ' Best Actor ' in the BBC Drama awards for his portrayal of the character . He has proven popular with fans of the show , performing well in the annual official fan awards . In 2006 he was named ' Favourite Male ' and second ' Favourite Newcomer of Series 8 ' , with the Connie / Sam / Chrissie storyline voted second ' Favourite Storyline of Series 8 ' , and his pairing with Connie ' Best Couple of Series 8 ' . In 2007 he ranked second ' Favourite Male of Series 9 ' , and also ' Favourite All @-@ Time Male ' . Connie and Sam were again voted ' Best Couple of Series 9 ' , with Tom Chambers ' portrayal of Sam during the birth of their daughter voted fifth ' Best Acting Performance ' of the series . Asked to comment on why he thought Sam had proven so popular with viewers , Chambers responded : " No idea ! I just try to turn up on time and learn my lines . I love playing Sam and finding different ways of doing things . It 's a roller @-@ coaster of emotions and storylines - some are not as easy to manage as others and it 's always a challenge to find the most natural and interesting way to deliver . "
Controversy arose in September 2006 , when a set of publicity shots were released to weekly TV magazines showing Sam and Connie engaging in a raunchy kiss in Connie 's office , but the scene failed to ever materialise on screen . Series producer Diana Kyle addressed complaints from fans with the statement :
" To those people who complained that a photograph appeared in the press showing Connie and Sam kissing when they did not actually kiss in the transmitted episode , I am afraid I must say a genuine mistake occurred for which I apologise . The only script that ever featured Connie and Sam actually kissing was in the final scene of Episode 44 ( transmitted on 29 August ) . This was edited together as scripted and shot . Nothing was cut [ ... ] I am sorry if some members of our audience felt cheated . A photographer attended the shoot for Episode 46 and took a selection of shots of Sam and Connie . A photograph from this shoot was mistakenly released and marked as being from Episode 45 as Connie was wearing the same outfit in both episodes . I can only apologise for this mistake . [ ... ] I am sorry a few people had concerns over these episodes . "
Chambers has contradicted this statement , asserting that a cut scene did in fact exist , but that he is not aware of the reason it was omitted from the relevant episode . He stated : " It may have given off the wrong idea , it may have been too risky . The producers work very hard to get the right image at the right time and it may have just looked out of place . It 's still a mystery to this day ... "
In October 2007 , drinks ' industry body the Portman Group made an official complaint to communications regulator Ofcom about a scene in Holby City episode " Trial and Retribution " , which depicted characters Sam and Maddy Young each taking five shots of tequila following a stressful day at work . The body 's chief executive David Poley claimed that in failing to show the negative consequences of this action , the series was presenting a " highly irresponsible portrayal of excessive and rapid drinking " . In response to the groups ' accusation that " We would expect the BBC to take greater care with the portrayal of alcohol in programmes " , the BBC released a statement explaining that : " Holby City takes the issue of the negative effects of alcohol abuse very seriously . On occasions when our continuing drama series deal with alcohol within a storyline we always seek to handle the issue sensitivity .
Medical journal The Lancet featured an article in May 2008 entitled ' Cancer in Medical Dramas ' , which examined the character 's Non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma storyline . Talha Burki , author of the article , quoted Martin Ledwick , Cancer Research UK 's head of patient information , as approving of the plot , stating : " There is a value in dramas , they can make cancer more normal , less frightening . [ ... ] If people see a character they like get cancer , and that character fights the illness , then that 's a good message to take home " .
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