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= Yugoslav monitor Drava =
The Yugoslav monitor Drava was the name ship of the Enns @-@ class river monitors built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . As SMS Enns , she was part of the Danube Flotilla during World War I , and fought against the Serbian and Romanian armies from Belgrade to the lower Danube . In October 1915 , she was covering an amphibious assault on Belgrade when she was holed below the waterline by a direct hit , and had to be towed to Budapest for repairs . After World War I she was provided to the newly created Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( later Yugoslavia ) , and renamed Drava .
During the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , Drava spent six days shelling airfields near Mohács in Hungary and fought off a small flotilla of Hungarian gunboats . On 12 April , she was attacked by Junkers Ju 87 Stuka divebombers of the Luftwaffe . The anti @-@ aircraft gunners on the ship claimed three enemy aircraft , but nine of the Stukas scored hits , most of which had little effect . Unfortunately for Drava , the last bomb dropped straight down her funnel and exploded in her engine room , killing 54 of the crew , including her captain , Aleksandar Berić . Only thirteen of the crew survived . She was subsequently raised and scrapped by Hungary during their occupation of parts of Yugoslavia . Berić was posthumously awarded the Order of Karađorđe 's Star for his sacrifice , and the base of the Serbian River Flotilla at Novi Sad is named after him .
= = Description and construction = =
The name ship of the Enns @-@ class river monitors was built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy by Schiffswerft Linz and Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino ( STT ) . She was laid down by Schiffswerft Linz at Linz on 21 November 1913 , as part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian 1912 Naval Program . When World War I broke out in July 1914 , construction of Enns was well advanced , but Schiffswerft Linz had been taken over by STT , and her machinery was therefore ordered from the STT works near Trieste . On 2 August , the machinery was dispatched by train to Linz and installation began without delay . She was launched in September 1914 , and completed on 17 October of that year . Despite the requirement that Enns and SMS Inn be constructed as sister ships , and the fact that their size and armament were identical , there were significant design differences between the two vessels , as they were constructed by completely independent shipbuilding companies . Enns had an overall length of 60 @.@ 2 m ( 197 ft 6 in ) , a beam of 10 @.@ 3 m ( 33 ft 10 in ) , and a normal draught of 1 @.@ 3 m ( 4 ft 3 in ) . Her standard displacement was 536 tonnes ( 528 long tons ) , and her crew consisted of 95 officers and enlisted men . She had two triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving a single propeller shaft . Steam for the engines was provided by two Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers , and her engines were rated at 1 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 100 kW ) , with a maximum of 1 @,@ 700 ihp ( 1 @,@ 300 kW ) . She was designed to reach a top speed of 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) , and carried 70 tonnes ( 69 long tons ) of fuel oil .
Enns was armed with one twin gun turret of 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 45 guns mounted forward , and three single 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 10 howitzer turrets mounted on the aft deck . On the upper deck there were two single 66 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) L / 50 anti @-@ aircraft guns , one on the port side forward of the funnel , and one on the starboard side to the rear of the funnel . She was also equipped with six 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine guns . The maximum range of her Škoda 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 45 guns was 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) . Her armour consisted of belt and bulkheads 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick , deck armour 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick , and her conning tower and gun turrets were 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick .
The original plans called for open anti @-@ aircraft mounts , but the experience of the existing monitors in the first battles on the Danube against Serbia demonstrated that the mounts needed protection from small arms fire , so armoured barbettes were added . These modifications meant that crew in the conning tower were unable to view directly aft of the ship , so a 1 @.@ 3 m ( 4 ft 3 in ) high rectangular box was placed on top of the conning tower . When standing on a platform inside the conning tower , the crew were then able to look aft . In order to avoid any increase in her draught from these modifications , her hull was lengthened . Due to the urgent need for the ship to be put into service , the planned telescopic mast was not installed , and an alternative mast was constructed using angle iron lattice . Enns was launched on 29 July 1914 and commissioned on 17 October 1914 .
= = Career = =
= = = World War I = = =
The month after Enns was commissioned into the Danube Flotilla she was in action against Serbian forces at Belgrade , under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant ( LSL ) Richard Funk . French artillery support arrived in Belgrade in November , endangering the monitor 's anchorage , with only Enns having the range to match the French guns . On 21 November , Enns engaged the French battery in an artillery duel at a range of 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) . This stalemate continued until the following month when the Serbs briefly evacuated Belgrade in the face of an Austro @-@ Hungarian assault . After less than two weeks , the Austrians had to withdraw from Belgrade , and it was soon re @-@ occupied by the Serbs , reinforced by the Russians and French . Enns continued in action against Serbia and her allies at Belgrade until late December , when her base was withdrawn to Petrovaradin for the winter .
In January 1915 , British artillery arrived in Belgrade , further bolstering its defences . In mid @-@ February , the monitors redeployed to an anchorage at Zemun . Following the commencement of the Gallipoli campaign , munitions supply to the Ottomans became critical , and despite the failure of an earlier attempt to ship arms and ammunition down the Danube , another attempt was planned . On 30 March , the steamer Belgrad left Zemun , escorted by Enns and the monitor SMS Bodrog . The convoy was undetected as it sailed past Belgrade at night during a storm , but after the monitors returned to base , the steamer struck a mine near Vinča , and after coming under heavy artillery fire , exploded near Ritopek . On 22 April 1915 , a British picket boat that had been brought overland by rail from Salonika was used to attack the Danube Flotilla anchorage at Zemun , firing two torpedoes without success . In September 1915 , the Central Powers were joined by Bulgaria , and the Serbian Army soon faced overwhelming Austrian and German ground troops . In early October , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Third Army attacked Belgrade , and Enns , along with the majority of the flotilla , was heavily engaged in support of the crossings near the Belgrade Fortress and Ada Ciganlija island . During the final river crossing and support of the resulting bridgehead , Enns was near Grosser Krieg Island on 8 October when she received a direct hit below the waterline and her 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) magazine flooded . She was towed out of danger by the armed steamer Almos , and was eventually hauled to Budapest where she was repaired . During repairs , the barbettes on her upper deck were replaced with turrets for the anti @-@ aircraft guns . Despite the fact that the howitzers had not been particularly successful , a plan to replace the aft howitzer mount with a turret similar to that used on SMS Bodrog was not carried out .
When she returned to the flotilla after repairs , she saw action at Rjahovo in early October 1916 , where she contributed to the defeat of the Romanian Flămânda Offensive . The Romanian attempt to cross the Danube to attack the rear of Generalfeldmarschall August von Mackensen 's Austro @-@ Hungarian Third Army was thwarted , and a force consisting of Enns , the monitors SMS Leitha , SMS Temes ( II ) and SMS Szamos , the patrol boat Viza and the armed steamer Balaton destroyed a pontoon bridge near Rjahovo . After forays against Giurgiu to secure trains loaded with coal and oil , in November Enns and other ships supported the crossing of the Danube by von Mackensen 's army at Sistow . The following month , Enns bombarded Căscioarele , resulting in the expulsion of enemy troops from the village . From late December 1916 to mid @-@ March 1917 , Enns and other ships of the flotilla wintered at Turnu Severin .
In March 1917 , Enns relocated to Brăila in eastern Romania , where it remained until July 1918 . Sent to Linz and Budapest for an overhaul in dry dock , Enns then returned to eastern Romania and was stationed at Reni where she met a group of monitors and patrol boats that had been operating against Russia in the Black Sea . In October 1918 , the Danube Flotilla was under serious threat of being cut off in the lower Danube by French forces after the Bulgarians concluded an armistice with the British and French . After the steamer Croatia was fired on by the French as it tried to get past Lom , she cut her tow line , releasing seven lighters , which ran aground on a sandbank . Croatia was hit , suffered casualties and grounded on the Romanian side of the river . The French retrieved three of the lighters and towed them into the anchorage at Lom . The following day , Enns and two other monitors managed to release three of the remaining lighters while under heavy French fire , and towed them upstream . The flotilla continued to retreat up the Danube , running the gauntlet of French and Serbian forces . With the dissolution of Austria @-@ Hungary , the South Slavs went ashore at Vukovar , and the Austrian , Hungarian and Czech crew members of the flotilla continued on their journey , arriving in Budapest on 6 November , and Enns began flying the Hungarian flag . On 8 December , the monitors were seized by the Allies , and less than two weeks later Enns was towed to Belgrade where she was handed over to Serbia to be maintained on behalf of the soon to be formed Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes .
= = = Interwar period and World War II = = =
Immediately after the armistice , Enns was crewed by sailors of the newly created Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( KSCS , later the Kingdom of Yugoslavia ) in 1918 – 19 . Under the terms of the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye concluded in September 1919 , Enns was transferred to the KSCS along with a range of other vessels , including three other river monitors , and was officially handed over to the KSCS navy and renamed Drava in 1920 . Her sister ship Inn was transferred to Romania and renamed Besarabia . In 1925 – 26 , Drava was refitted , but by the following year only two of the four river monitors of the KSCS Navy were being retained in full commission at any time . In 1932 , the British naval attaché reported that Yugoslav ships were engaging in little gunnery training , and few exercises or manoeuvres , due to reduced budgets .
Drava was based at Bezdan under the command of Aleksandar Berić , when the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia began on 6 April 1941 . She was assigned as flagship of the 1st Mine Barrage Division , and was responsible for the Hungarian border on the Danube , under the operational control of the 30th Infantry Division Osiječka , which was part of the 2nd Army . Drava steamed upstream to Mohács in Hungary to shell the airfield there on 6 and 8 April , but was subjected to daily attacks by the Luftwaffe . On 10 April , Drava and her fellow monitor Morava were ordered to sail downstream to conform with the withdrawals of the 1st and 2nd Army 's from Bačka and Baranja . About 14 : 00 the following day , a Yugoslav lookout near Batina signalled Drava that a group of four Hungarian patrol boats , armed with 70 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) guns , was coming down the Danube from the direction of Mohács . Drava engaged the patrol boats at a range of 6 – 7 km ( 3 @.@ 7 – 4 @.@ 3 mi ) , and drove the small Hungarian flotilla north again . Berić followed this up at 16 : 00 by once again shelling the airfield at Mohács . Morale on the ship was good , but when Berić met with Army elements later that day he became aware of the situation elsewhere , and nine crew deserted .
Early on 12 April , with the other three monitors having been scuttled the night before , Drava was attacked by Junkers Ju 87 Stuka divebombers of Sturzkampfgeschwader 77 flying from Arad , Romania . The anti @-@ aircraft gunners on the ship claimed three enemy aircraft , and nine of the Stukas scored hits on her , most of which had little effect . However , the last bomb dropped straight down her funnel and exploded in her engine room , killing 54 of the crew . Only 13 survived , and she sank off Čib . Having ordered the burning of codes before she sank , Berić and his first officers were among the dead , but two of the successful anti @-@ aircraft gunners were among the survivors . During the occupation of Yugoslavia , Drava was raised and then scrapped by Hungary . Berić was posthumously awarded the Order of Karađorđe 's Star for his sacrifice . In April 2015 , a bust of Berić was unveiled at the village of Belegiš , near Stara Pazova . The barracks of the Serbian River Flotilla in Novi Sad are also named after him .
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= Nguyễn Ngọc Thơ =
Nguyễn Ngọc Thơ ( 26 May 1908 – 1976 ) was a Vietnamese politician who was the first Prime Minister of South Vietnam , serving from November 1963 to late January 1964 . Thơ was appointed to head a civilian cabinet by the military junta of General Dương Văn Minh , which came to power after overthrowing and assassinating Ngô Đình Diệm , the nation 's first president . Thơ 's rule was marked by a period of confusion and weak government , as the Military Revolutionary Council ( MRC ) and the civilian cabinet vied for power . Thơ lost his job and retired from politics when Minh 's junta was deposed in a January 1964 coup by General Nguyễn Khánh .
The son of a wealthy Mekong Delta landowner , Thơ rose through the ranks as a low @-@ profile provincial chief under French colonial rule , and he was briefly imprisoned by Imperial Japan when they invaded and deposed the French during World War II . During this time he met Minh for the first time as they shared a cell . Following World War II , he became the Interior Minister in the French @-@ backed State of Vietnam , an associated state in the French Union . After the establishment of the Republic of Vietnam following the partition , Thơ was sent to Japan as ambassador and secured war reparations . Recalled to Vietnam within a year , he helped to dismantle the private armies of the Hòa Hảo religious sect in the mid @-@ 1950s . Tho led the political efforts to weaken the Hòa Hảo leadership . While Minh led the military effort , Thơ tried to buy off Hòa Hảo leaders . One commander , Ba Cụt , was personally hostile to Thơ , whose father had confiscated the land of Ba Cụt 's family decades earlier . The stand @-@ off could not be ended peacefully in this case , and Ba Cụt was captured and executed .
This success earned Thơ the vice presidential slot in December 1956 to widen the popular appeal of Diệm 's nepotistic and sectarian regime . It was reasoned that Thơ 's southern heritage would broaden the regime 's political appeal — Diệm 's family was from central Vietnam and most administrators were not from South Vietnam . Thơ was not allowed to take part in policy decisions and had little meaningful power , as Diệm 's brothers , Nhu and Cẩn , commanded their own private armies and secret police , and ruled arbitrarily . Thơ oversaw South Vietnam 's failed land reform policy , and was accused of lacking vigour in implementing the program as he was himself a large landowner . He was noted for his faithful support of Diệm during the Buddhist crisis that ended the rule of the Ngô family . Despite nominally being a Buddhist , Thơ defended the regime 's pro @-@ Roman Catholic policies and its violent actions against the Buddhist majority .
Thơ turned against Diệm and played a passive role in the coup . Upon the formation of the new government , he struggled to keep the nation under control as the MRC and civilian cabinet often gave contradictory orders . Media freedom and political debate were increased , but this backfired as Saigon became engulfed in infighting , and Thơ had a series of newspapers shut down after they used the new @-@ found freedom to attack him . During that time , South Vietnam 's military situation deteriorated as the consequences of Diệm 's falsification of military statistics and the misguided policies that resulted were exposed . Minh and Thơ had a plan to try to end the war by winning over non @-@ communist members of the insurgency , believing that they constituted the majority of the opposition and could be coaxed away , weakening the communists . As part of this policy , which the U.S. opposed , the government chose to take a low @-@ key military approach in an attempt to portray themselves to the Vietnamese public as peacemakers . However , they were deposed in Khánh 's U.S.-backed coup before they could pursue their strategy .
= = Early career = =
The son of a wealthy southern landowner , Thơ was born in the province of Long Xuyên in the Mekong Delta . He began his bureaucratic career in 1930 , serving the French colonial authorities as a low @-@ profile provincial chief . During World War II , Thơ rose to become the first secretary of the Resident Superior of Annam , the French governor of the central region of Vietnam . During this time , he crossed paths with Ngô Đình Diệm , a former Interior Minister under the French regime in the 1930s . The French thought that Diệm was working with Imperial Japan and tried to have him arrested , but Thơ tipped off Diệm and the Kempeitai , resulting in their escape .
In March 1945 , Japan , which had invaded and occupied French Indochina in 1941 during World War II , decided to take direct control and overthrew the French colonial regime . Thơ was thrown into a crowded cell with several other prisoners that had no light or toilet and filled with their own excrement . One of his cellmates was Dương Văn Minh , then a junior officer in the French military forces with whom he would work over the next two decades . Thơ was released first and lobbied to have Minh released as well and the pair remained close friends .
Following World War II , Thơ became Interior Minister in the French @-@ backed State of Vietnam under former Emperor Bảo Đại . Following the withdrawal of France from Indochina after the Battle of Điện Biên Phủ , Vietnam was partitioned into a communist north and anti @-@ communist south . Following the proclamation of the Republic of Vietnam — commonly known as South Vietnam — by President Ngô Đình Diệm , who had dethroned Bảo Đại in a fraudulent referendum , Thơ was appointed the inaugural ambassador to Japan . Despite spending most of his time in Tokyo confined to his bed by a fractured hip , Thơ secured reparations from Japan for its imperial occupation of Vietnam during World War II .
In 1956 , Diệm recalled him to Saigon to help deal with the Hòa Hảo , a religious sect equipped with a private army . The Hòa Hảo was effectively an autonomous entity in the Mekong Delta , as its private army enforced a parallel administration and refused to integrate into the Saigon administration . While the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) General Dương Văn Minh led the military effort against the Hòa Hảo , Thơ helped to weaken the sect by buying off its warlords .
However , one Hòa Hảo commander , Ba Cụt , continued to fight , having had a personal history of bad blood with Thơ 's own family . The orphaned , illiterate Cụt 's adopted father 's rice paddies were confiscated by Thơ 's father , which purportedly imbued Cụt with a permanent hatred towards the landowning class . Cụt was eventually surrounded and sought to make a peace deal so he sent a message to Thơ asking for negotiations so that his men could be integrated into mainstream society and the nation 's armed forces . Thơ agreed to meet Ba Cụt alone in the jungle , and despite fears the meeting was a Hòa Hảo trap , he was not ambushed . However , Cụt began asking for additional concessions and the meeting ended in a stalemate . Cụt was captured on 13 April 1956 and guillotined after a brief trial and his remaining forces were defeated in battle .
During this period , Thơ was the Secretary of State for the National Economy . In November , Diệm appointed Thơ as vice president in an effort to widen the regime 's popular appeal . The appointment was endorsed by the National Assembly in December 1956 , in accordance with the constitution . The move was widely seen as an attempt to use Thơ 's Mekong Delta roots to increase the government 's popular appeal among southern peasants , because Diệm 's regime was dominated by family members , Catholics from central Vietnam .
= = Diệm era = =
Despite the importance of his title , Thơ rarely appeared with Diệm in public and was a figurehead with little influence . The real power lay with Diệm 's younger brothers , Nhu and Cẩn , who commanded private armies and secret police , as well as giving orders directly to ARVN generals . Nhu reportedly once ordered a bodyguard to slap Thơ because he felt Thơ had shown him a lack of respect . Diệm held Thơ in contempt and did not allow him to take part in major policy decisions , despite theoretically being the second most powerful man in the country . Thơ had a rapport with the military officers , having befriended Minh years earlier . He was regarded as a genial and affable administrator with a reputation for making compromises .
Thơ was charged with overseeing South Vietnam 's land reform program , because the minister of agrarian reform , Nguyễn Văn Thoi , answered to him . As both men were wealthy landowners , they had little incentive for the program to succeed . The U.S. embassy received angry criticism of Thoi 's lack of enthusiasm towards implementing the policy , stating , " he is most certainly not interested in land distribution which would divest him of much of his property " .
Thơ also retained a degree of influence over domestic economic policies , which ran far behind Diệm 's priorities of absolute control over the military and other apparatus through which he maintained his rule . Despite never having been trained in economic matters , Thơ had a prominent hand in the administration of the Commodity Import Program , an American initiative akin to the Marshall Plan , whereby aid was funnelled into the economy through importing licenses rather than money , in order to avoid inflation . However , Thơ 's administration of the program led to the vast majority of the imports being consumer goods for the upper classes , rather than capital goods to develop South Vietnam 's economic capacity . Under Thơ 's watch , the foreign trade deficit hovered between 150 and 200 % , and the gap between the urban elite and the peasant majority grew . American advisers thought Thơ and the Ngô brothers continually went against their counsel because they were either incompetent or simply distrustful and thus did the opposite of what was recommended .
Thơ also clashed with Interior Minister Nguyễn Hữu Châu over economic strategy . Châu was the married to Madame Nhu 's sister and appointed due to nepotism , but was later expelled from the Ngô family due to his dissent . The Americans claimed Thơ , who was trained in public security , " knew more about political control than the ' basic laws of the market place ' " . In mid @-@ 1961 , after a visit by U.S. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson and pressure from leading American officials , Diệm relieved Thơ of his economic duties .
Thơ then began to put try to put pressure on the Americans to influence Diệm . During a fact @-@ finding mission by General Maxwell Taylor , the chief of the U.S. military , and Walt Rostow , Thơ and Minh complained of Diệm 's autocratic ways and religious favoritism towards his fellow Catholics to the disadvantage of the majority Buddhist populace . In 1962 , he told senior U.S. Embassy official Joseph Mendenhall that Diệm 's military subordinates invented arbitrary and falsely inflated figures of Viet Cong fighters .
= = Role in Buddhist crisis = =
Despite being a Buddhist , Thơ had a reputation for heaping praise on Diệm 's Roman Catholic government . On Diệm 's 62nd birthday , Thơ paid tribute , saying , " thanks to the Almighty for having given the country a leader whose genius was outweighed only by his virtue " . ( Buddhism is a Dharmic religion which does not recognise a supreme being in a theistic sense . ) Thơ later accompanied Diệm to the Roman Catholic Redemptorist Church to pray for the President . Thơ had little public following , with American Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Maxwell Taylor calling him " unimpressive " , while prominent State Department official Paul Kattenberg derided Thơ as a " nonentity " .
In another project , the village of La Vang in Quảng Trị Province near the border with North Vietnam , was the scene of a female apparition in the late 19th century . Buddhists claimed that the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara ( also known as Kuanyin ; Vietnamese : Quan Âm ) performed the miracle . Diệm 's brother , Ngô Đình Thục , was the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Huế and the foremost religious figure in South Vietnam 's nepotistic regime . Thục declared that the apparition was the Virgin Mary , and ordered that a cathedral be built in place of the makeshift Buddhist pagoda that occupied the site . Thơ made notable financial donations to the project for political reasons .
In June , as the Buddhist crisis escalated , Diệm appointed Thơ to lead a government committee to deal with grievances raised by the Buddhist community following the Huế Vesak shootings in which eight Buddhists were killed by government forces while protesting a ban on the flying of Buddhist flags . The committee concluded the Việt Cộng was responsible for the deaths , despite eyewitness accounts and amateur video showing that the government had fired directly at protesters . The committee 's whitewash caused Buddhist protests to escalate . When de facto First Lady Madame Nhu ( herself a Buddhist convert to Catholicism ) mockingly described the self @-@ immolation of Buddhist monk Thích Quảng Đức as a " barbecue " , Thơ refused to condemn her remarks , saying they were " personal opinions " .
Thơ was part of an Interministerial Committee , a group of government officials that negotiated a Joint Communique with the Buddhists to end the civil disobedience . An agreement was signed , but never implemented . Thơ was later criticised by the Nhus through their English language mouthpiece , the Times of Vietnam , for the deal . Despite the general amnesty granted to arrested Buddhist activists , on 13 August , Thơ gave a press conference during which he vowed to prosecute the Buddhist victims of the Huế Vesak shootings , and revoking the amnesty and vowing to jail Buddhist demonstrators .
At a farewell dinner for U.S. ambassador Frederick Nolting in July , Thơ called for the Buddhists to be " crushed without pity " . He derisively said that Buddhism was not a religion and further claimed that while anybody could become a Buddhist monk , it took years of training to become a Catholic priest . When the Thai ambassador disagreed , citing his own previous monastic training , Thơ taunted him in front of other diplomats .
With the pressure on the Diệm regime increasing during the Buddhist crisis , Nhu and Diệm began to shun their cabinet members because they presented arguments contrary to the thinking of the Ngô family . Many ministers attempted to resign , but Thơ was credited with persuading them to stay in office . Finding the situation increasingly intolerable , Thơ also considered resigning but the dissident generals urged him to remain . They were worried that mass resignations would arouse suspicion of a coup plot .
= = Prime Minister = =
In private , Thơ expressed his displeasure with Diệm 's rule to U.S. officials . He complained of Diệm 's reliance on Nhu in the running of the country , Nhu 's attempt to run a police state through his secret Cần Lao apparatus and the lack of success against the Việt Cộng . During the McNamara Taylor mission to South Vietnam , Thơ confided his belief that the country was heading in the wrong direction to the American delegation , imploring them to pressure Diệm to reform his policies . He privately revealed his belief that of the thousands of fortified settlements built under Nhu 's Strategic Hamlet Program , fewer than thirty were functional .
Joseph Mendenhall , a senior Vietnam adviser in the US State Department , advocated the removal of Diệm in a military coup and his replacement with Thơ . Thơ was privately aware that he was the choice of the generals to run the government after the planned overthrow of Diệm . By this time , Diệm and Nhu realized a plot was afoot against them , but did not know that General Tôn Thất Đính , a palace favourite was involved . Nhu ordered Đính and Colonel Lê Quang Tung , the ARVN Special Forces commander , to plan a fake coup against the Ngô family .
One of Nhu 's objectives was to trick dissidents into joining the false uprising so that they could be identified and eliminated . Another objective of the public relations stunt was to give a false impression of the strength of the regime . The first stage of the scheme would involve loyalist soldiers , disguised as insurgents , faking a coup and vandalising the capital . A " revolutionary government " consisting of opposition activists who had not consented to being named in the regime would be announced , while Diệm and Nhu would pretend to be on the run . During the orchestrated chaos of the first coup , the loyalists and Nhu 's underworld contacts would kill the leading plotting generals and their assistants , such as Thơ , CIA agent Lucien Conein , and U.S. Ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge Jr . A fake " counter @-@ coup " was to follow , whereupon the loyalists would triumphantly re @-@ enter Saigon to restore the Diệm regime . However , the plot failed because Đính was part of the coup plot and sent the loyalist forces out of the capital to open the door for the rebels .
After the coup on 1 November 1963 , in which Diệm and Nhu were killed the following day , Thơ was appointed Prime Minister by Minh 's military junta five days later , on 6 November 1963 . He was the leading civilian in the provisional government overseen by the Military Revolutionary Council ( MRC ) . Minh had earlier promised U.S. officials that the civilians would be above the generals in the hierarchy . In addition , he was minister for finance and the economy . Thơ 's appointment was not universally popular , with some leading figures privately lobbying for a clean break from the Diệm era .
= = = Relationship with junta = = =
Thơ 's civilian government was plagued by infighting . According to Thơ 's assistant , Nguyễn Ngọc Huy , the presence of Generals Trần Văn Đôn and Tôn Thất Đính in both the civilian cabinet and the MRC paralysed the governance process . Đính and Đôn were subordinate to Thơ in the civilian government , but as members of the MRC they were superior to him . Whenever Thơ gave an order in the civilian hierarchy with which the generals disagreed , they would go to the MRC and countermand it .
Saigon newspapers , which had re @-@ opened following the end of Diệm 's censorship , reported that the junta was paralysed because all twelve generals in the MRC had equal power . Each member of the MRC had the power of veto , enabling them to stonewall policy decisions . The press , which was liberalised following the downfall of Diệm , strongly attacked Thơ , accusing his government of being " tools " of the MRC . Thơ 's record under Diệm 's presidency was called into question , with allegations circulating in the media that he had supported the repression of the Buddhists by Diệm and Nhu . Thơ claimed that he had countenanced Nhu 's brutal Xá Lợi Pagoda raid , attempting to prove that he would have resigned were it not for Minh 's pleas to stay . The media further derided Thơ for the personal benefits that he gained from the Diệm administration 's land policy . Minh defended Thơ 's anti @-@ Diệm credentials by declaring that Thơ had taken part in the planning of the coup " from the very outset " and that he enjoyed the " full confidence " of the junta .
At one point in December , Thơ could no longer withstand what the free media were publishing about him and called around 100 journalists into his office . An angry Thơ shouted at the writers and banged his first on the table , assailing them for what he regarded as inaccurate , irresponsible and disloyal reporting . Thơ claimed the media were lying in saying that he and his civilian cabinet were puppets of the generals , and claimed that one of the journalists was a communist while another was a drug addict . He said that his administration would " take steps to meet the situation " if the media did not behave responsibly . Having already had his Information Minister , General Đỗ Mậu , circulate a list of topics that were not to be reported on , Thơ had Mậu close down three newspapers for " disloyalty " on the following day .
On 1 January 1964 , a Council of Notables , comprising sixty leading citizens , met for the first time , having been selected by Colonel Phạm Ngọc Thảo . Its job was to advise the military and civilian wings of the government with a view towards reforming human rights , the constitution and the legal system . Thơ publicly stated that he expected a " rational attitude " coupled with " impartial and realistic judgments " and said that it was part of the provisional government 's quest to " clear the way for a permanent regime , which our people are longing for " . The council consisted almost entirely of professionals and academic leaders , with no representatives from the agricultural or labour movements . It soon became engaged in endless debate and never achieved its initial task of drafting a new constitution . Thơ later admitted that the Council was unrepresentative of South Vietnamese society and had been a failure . He claimed that the council 's desire to move away from the rubber stamp model of Diệm 's National Assembly had caused it to degenerate into a debating society .
= = = Policies = = =
With the fall of Diệm , various American sanctions that were implemented against South Vietnam in response to the repression of the Buddhist crisis and Nhu 's Special Forces ' Xá Lợi Pagoda raids , were lifted . The freeze on U.S. economic aid , the suspension of the Commercial Import Program and various capital works initiatives were lifted . The United States quickly moved to recognise Thơ and Minh .
Thơ 's government halted Nhu 's Strategic Hamlet Program . Nhu had trumpeted the program as the solution to South Vietnam 's difficulties with Việt Cộng insurgents , believing that the mass relocation of peasants into fortified villages would isolate the Viet Cong from their peasant support base . Thơ contradicted Nhu 's earlier reports on the success of the program , claiming that only 20 % of the 8 @,@ 600 existing strategic hamlets were under Saigon 's control , with the rest having been taken over by the communists . Those hamlets that were deemed to be tenable were consolidated , while the remainder were dismantled and their inhabitants returned to their ancestral land .
Thơ 's approach to removing Diệm supporters from positions of influence drew criticism from both supporters and opponents of the deposed president . Some felt he was not vigorous enough in removing pro @-@ Diệm elements from authority , whereas others felt that the magnitude of the turnover of public servants was excessive and bordering on vengeance . A number of officials suspected of having engaged in corruption or Diệmist oppression were indiscriminately arrested without charge , most of whom were later released . Đính and the new national police chief , General Mai Hữu Xuân , were given control of the interior ministry . The pair were accused of arresting people en masse , before releasing them in return for bribes and pledges of loyalty . Not all officials under Diệm could automatically be considered pro @-@ Diệm , yet there were calls for further removals of the old guard . The government was criticised for firing large numbers of district and provincial chiefs directly appointed by Diệm , causing a breakdown in law and order during the abrupt transition of power . One high profile and heavily criticised non @-@ removal was that of General Đỗ Cao Trí , the commander of the ARVN I Corps who gained prominence for his particularly stringent anti @-@ Buddhist crackdown in the central region around Huế . Trí was simply transferred to the II Corps in the Central Highlands directly south of the I Corps region .
Thơ and the leading generals in the MRC also had a secret plan to end the communist insurgency , which called itself the National Liberation Front ( NLF ) and claimed to be independent of the communist government of North Vietnam . They claimed that most of them were first and foremost southern nationalists opposed to foreign military intervention and U.S. involvement and support of Diệm . The MRC and Thơ thought that an agreement to end the war within South Vietnam was possible . Thơ recalled in later years that his government 's plan was to generate support among the Cao Đài , Hòa Hảo and ethnic Cambodian minorities , elements of which were in the NLF and bring them back into the mainstream fold out of the insurgency into a non @-@ communist pro @-@ West political system . He thought that it was possible to sideline the communists as he described them as " still having no dominance and only a minor position " within the NLF . According to Thơ , this plan was not a deal with the communists or the NLF as his group saw it as a political attempt to coax back non @-@ communist dissidents and isolate those that were communists .
The government rebuffed American proposals to bomb North Vietnam on the grounds that such actions would cede the moral high ground , which they claimed on the basis of fighting purely for self @-@ defense . For their part , Minh and Thơ 's leadership group believed that a more low @-@ key military approach was needed for their political campaign against the insurgency . Minh and Thơ explicitly and bluntly turned down the bombing proposal in a 21 January meeting with US officials . Australian historian Anne E. Blair identified this exchange as sealing the regime 's " death warrant " .
She pointed out that when the discussion was reported to Washington , the leading US generals in the U.S. military lobbied Defense Secretary Robert McNamara , claiming that it was no longer feasible to work within the parameters laid out by Saigon and that the U.S. should simply take control of anti @-@ communist military policy , thereby necessitating a coup . The Americans became increasingly concerned with Saigon 's reluctance to intensify the war effort , and bombing rebuff was regarded as a critical point . The government 's plans to win over the NLF were never implemented to any degree before the government was deposed .
= = = Downfall = = =
The provisional government lacked direction in policy and planning , resulting in its quick collapse . The number of rural attacks instigated by the Viet Cong surged in the wake of Diệm 's deposal , due to the displacement of troops into urban areas for the coup . The increasingly free discussion generated from the surfacing of new and accurate data following the coup revealed that the military situation was far worse than what was reported by Diệm . The incidence of Việt Cộng attacks continued to increase as it had done during the summer of 1963 , the weapons loss ratio worsened and the rate of Viet Cong defections fell . The units that participated in the coup were returned to the field to guard against a possible major communist offensive in the countryside . The falsification of military statistics by Diệm 's officials had led to miscalculations , which manifested themselves in military setbacks after Diệm 's death . Aside from battlefield setbacks , something that was outside his remit , Thơ was also becoming unpopular in the military establishment . One of the goals of the various anti @-@ Minh coup plots at the time was to remove Thơ , and the prime minister 's unpopularity helped to distract some of the incumbent officers from the fact that they were the primary target ; at that time , the MRC was moving toward removing Thơ , and Minh was the only senior general to retain confidence in him .
On 29 January , General Nguyễn Khánh ousted Minh 's MRC in a bloodless pre @-@ dawn coup ; although Khánh accused the junta of intending to make a deal with the communists and claimed to have proof , he was actually motivated by personal ambition . After Khánh was deposed a year later , he admitted that the allegations against Minh 's group were false . In later years , Khánh , Thơ and Minh 's generals all agreed that the coup was strongly encouraged by the Americans and could not have occurred without their backing .
Thơ was apprehended during the coup and put under house arrest while the plotters consolidated their grip on power ; he was then removed from the political scene . The civilian arm of the government was replaced with Khánh appointees , and Thơ left politics , having personally enriched himself during his period in government . His activities after leaving politics are not known . He died in 1976 in Saigon .
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= Berwyn Heights , Maryland mayor 's residence drug raid =
The drug raid at the residence of former Berwyn Heights mayor Cheye Calvo was a controversial action taken by the Prince George 's County , Maryland , Sheriff 's Office and Police Department on July 29 , 2008 . The raid was the culmination of an investigation that began in Arizona , where a package containing 32 pounds ( 15 kg ) of marijuana was intercepted in a warehouse , addressed to the mayor 's residence . Instead of intercepting the package in transit , the police allowed the package to be delivered . Once the package arrived at the house , a SWAT team raided and held the mayor and his mother @-@ in @-@ law at gunpoint , and shot and killed his two dogs , one while it attempted to run away .
The event gained national and international media attention . While the Calvos were cleared of wrongdoing , the police were accused by the Calvos and civil rights groups of lacking a proper search warrant , excessive force , and failure to conduct a proper background investigation of the home being raided . Despite the criticisms , no action has been taken against the officers or their respective police departments . In August 2010 , Sheriff Michael A. Jackson stated that " We 've apologized for the incident , but we will never apologize for taking drugs off our streets . Quite frankly , we 'd do it again . Tonight . "
= = Raid = =
On July 29 , 2008 , a SWAT team from the Sheriff 's Office , agents of the State of Maryland , executing a search warrant and assisting the separate County Police , conducted a raid on the home of Berwyn Heights Mayor Cheye Calvo . The raid was initiated after the Mayor brought a package delivered by the SWAT team into his home . A drug @-@ sniffing dog in Arizona had determined that the package — addressed to the Mayor 's wife — contained 32 pounds ( 15 kg ) of marijuana . While taking control of the residence , Sheriff 's deputies shot Calvo 's two pet Labrador retrievers , including one who was cited by Calvo to be running away from officers . Calvo and his mother @-@ in @-@ law were handcuffed and questioned for several hours , with Calvo wearing just underwear .
= = Response of law enforcement agencies = =
The incident received wide coverage in the United States and abroad . Immediately following the raid , both the Sheriff 's Office and County Police stated that the Berwyn Heights raid was proper because of the large quantity of drugs involved .
On August 7 , 2008 , Mayor Calvo called for a federal investigation of the incident by the U.S. Department of Justice . The local chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) also requested an investigation . In early August , the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) began a civil rights investigation into the incident .
On August 8 , 2008 , the County Police cleared the Calvos of any wrongdoing relating to the drug shipment . Chief of Police Melvin High called the Calvos " innocent victims " who were caught up in the drug trafficking ring . While High said he regretted the loss of the Calvo 's dogs , he did not apologize for the actions taken by his officers .
In a press conference on the same day as High 's exoneration , Sheriff Michael A. Jackson defended the conduct of the deputies who conducted the raid . However , an internal investigation was launched as with any incident involving the discharge of a deputy 's weapon . The results of the investigation , released on September 4 , 2008 , concluded the conduct of the deputies was appropriate and no wrongdoing was committed . According to the report , the first dog was shot after " engaging an officer " and the second was seen " running towards a second officer " and shot as well .
As of December 2008 , the county police has indicated their investigation is not complete . The FBI is still monitoring the situation . In August 2010 while campaigning to be elected county executive , Sheriff Jackson stated , " We 've apologized for the incident , but we will never apologize for taking drugs off our streets .... Quite frankly , we 'd do it again . Tonight . "
= = Criticism of police actions = =
= = = Improper search warrant = = =
During the interrogation , Calvo repeatedly requested to see the search warrant , but his lawyer stated no copy was provided until three days later . A County Police spokesman initially stated that a no @-@ knock warrant had been issued for Calvo 's home . However , after Calvo 's lawyer challenged that statement and media published copies of the warrant , the commander of the county 's narcotics enforcement division stated that no @-@ knock warrants do not exist in the county . However , no @-@ knock warrants were clarified in a 2005 law , sponsored by Baltimore Delegate Curt Anderson , that limits their use to suspects fleeing into a house , or if a suspect is considered armed or is attempting to destroy evidence .
= = = Lack of a background investigation = = =
During interrogation , Calvo stated that officers did not believe he was the Mayor and for a time refused his request that they contact the Berwyn Heights Police Department ( which was unaware of the raid ) to confirm his identity . Police Chief High stated his department did not know the home was owned by the mayor and his wife .
Patrick Murphy , chief of police for the Berwyn Heights Police Department , was especially critical of the county police . Murphy argued that the raid could have been prevented if his department had handled the situation , stating " you can 't tell me the chief of police of a municipality wouldn 't have been able to knock on the door of the mayor of that municipality , gain his confidence and enter the residence " . Furthermore , according to Mayor Calvo , a memorandum of understanding between the county and the city requires county police to inform the city if an operation is being conducted within their jurisdiction .
= = = Use of excessive force = = =
In an editorial a week after the shooting , The Washington Post criticized the actions of police officers as " a Keystone Cops operation from start to finish " , alluding to the lack of proper execution by the sheriff 's office 's SWAT team . Additionally , groups such as the Cato Institute were critical of the operation and used it as an example of the dangers of the War on Drugs and the militarization of local police departments in the United States . Marc Fisher of the Post also related this incident to the growing prevalence of SWAT units , even in small jurisdictions , noting a massive increase in the amount of SWAT deployments since the mid @-@ 1980s .
Further criticism was leveled against the sheriff 's office 's deputies for the shooting of Calvo 's two dogs . Contrary to the official internal investigations conducted by the sheriff 's office and the county , Calvo stated his dogs were not a threat to the deputies . To support his claims , Calvo paid for a necropsy to be conducted on each dog by the Maryland Department of Agriculture . According to the results , one dog was shot four times , including twice in the head and chest . The other dog was shot twice , including once in the back of the leg which bolsters Calvo 's argument that the dog was fleeing and that the force used was " unbelievably excessive " . This version of events was also confirmed by the later testimony of a law enforcement officer present at the raid .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Later arrests = = =
Prince George 's County Police later arrested two men in a drug trafficking plan involving the shipment of large parcels of marijuana to addresses of uninvolved residents . After each parcel was delivered outside the addressee 's home , another individual would retrieve the drugs . Police seized six packages containing 417 pounds ( 189 kg ) of marijuana .
= = = Internal investigation = = =
On June 19 , 2009 , the Prince George 's County Sheriff 's Office issued a report of an internal investigation that cleared its deputies of any wrongdoing in the Berwyn Heights raid . Prince George 's County Sheriff Michael Jackson said during a press conference that the findings of the report " are consistent with what I 've felt all along : My deputies did their job to the fullest extent of their abilities .... In the sense that we kept these drugs from reaching our streets , this operation was a success . " Jackson 's explanation did not address the fact that the package was intercepted in the FedEx warehouse and delivered under police supervision .
During the press conference , Jackson gave the first apology for the raid by a county official . " I am sorry for the impact this has had on Mayor Calvo , Ms. Tomsic and Ms. Porter and for the loss of their family pets , " Jackson said . " It is extremely unfortunate that a felonious drug trafficker involved this family in his criminal enterprise . "
In response to the report , Cheye Calvo issued the following statement : " By commending his deputies for their actions , the Sheriff is placing other innocent families and innocent family pets at risk . There is no excuse for the no @-@ knock entry into our home , the killing of Payton and Chase , and the prolonged handcuffing of my mother @-@ in @-@ law and myself . "
= = = Lawsuit = = =
A lawsuit was filed in June 2009 against Prince George 's County Sheriff Michael Jackson ; Detective Shawn Scarlata ; the state of Maryland ; Prince George 's County ; and two " John Doe " deputy sheriffs , whose names were not immediately released . In depositions , law enforcement personnel admitted that at least one of the dogs was running away when shot . In January 2011 , the suit was settled out of court for an undisclosed amount of money and various SWAT reforms .
= = = Legislation = = =
In 2009 , Mayor Cheye Calvo proposed a measure that would require every Maryland police department that operates a SWAT team to submit biannual reports on its activities , including where and when it was deployed and whether an operation resulted in arrests , evidence seizures , or injuries . The bill passed that same year , despite strong opposition from Maryland 's police agencies . Maryland was the first state to adopt such legislation ; Utah became the second when it passed a similar bill in March 2014 .
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= Psoriasis =
Psoriasis is a long @-@ lasting autoimmune disease which is characterized by patches of abnormal skin . These skin patches are typically red , itchy , and scaly . They may vary in severity from small and localized to complete body coverage . Injury to the skin can trigger psoriatic skin changes at that spot , which is known as Koebner phenomenon .
There are five main types of psoriasis : plaque , guttate , inverse , pustular , and erythrodermic . Plaque psoriasis , also known as psoriasis vulgaris , makes up about 90 % of cases . It typically presents with red patches with white scales on top . Areas of the body most commonly affected are the back of the forearms , shins , around the navel , and the scalp . Guttate psoriasis has drop @-@ shaped lesions . Pustular psoriasis presents with small non @-@ infectious pus @-@ filled blisters . Inverse psoriasis forms red patches in skin folds . Erythrodermic psoriasis occurs when the rash becomes very widespread , and can develop from any of the other types . Fingernails and toenails are affected in most people at some point in time . This may include pits in the nails or changes in nail color .
Psoriasis is generally thought to be a genetic disease which is triggered by environmental factors . In twin studies , identical twins are three times more likely to both be affected compared to non @-@ identical twins ; this suggests that genetic factors predispose to psoriasis . Symptoms often worsen during winter and with certain medications such as beta blockers or NSAIDs . Infections and psychological stress may also play a role . Psoriasis is not contagious . The underlying mechanism involves the immune system reacting to skin cells . Diagnosis is typically based on the signs and symptoms .
There is no cure for psoriasis . However , various treatments can help control the symptoms . These treatments may include steroid creams , vitamin D3 cream , ultraviolet light , and immune system suppressing medications such as methotrexate . About 75 % of cases can be managed with creams alone . The disease affects 2 – 4 % of the population . Men and women are affected with equal frequency . The disease may begin at any age . Psoriasis is associated with an increased risk of psoriatic arthritis , lymphomas , cardiovascular disease , Crohn 's disease , and depression . Psoriatic arthritis affects up to 30 % of individuals with psoriasis .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
= = = Plaque = = =
Psoriasis vulgaris ( also known as chronic stationary psoriasis or plaque @-@ like psoriasis ) is the most common form and affects 85 % – 90 % of people with psoriasis . Plaque psoriasis typically appears as raised areas of inflamed skin covered with silvery @-@ white scaly skin . These areas are called plaques and are most commonly found on the elbows , knees , scalp , and back . Psoriatic erythroderma ( erythrodermic psoriasis ) involves widespread inflammation and exfoliation of the skin over most of the body surface . It may be accompanied by severe itching , swelling , and pain . It is often the result of an exacerbation of unstable plaque psoriasis , particularly following the abrupt withdrawal of systemic glucocorticoids . This form of psoriasis can be fatal as the extreme inflammation and exfoliation disrupt the body 's ability to regulate temperature and perform barrier functions .
= = = Pustular = = =
Pustular psoriasis appears as raised bumps filled with noninfectious pus ( pustules ) . The skin under and surrounding the pustules is red and tender . Pustular psoriasis can be localized , commonly to the hands and feet ( palmoplantar pustulosis ) , or generalized with widespread patches occurring randomly on any part of the body . Acrodermatitis continua is a form of localized psoriasis limited to the fingers and toes that may spread to the hands and feet . Pustulosis palmaris et plantaris is another form of localized pustular psoriasis similar to acrodermatitis continua with pustules erupting from red , tender , scaly skin found on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet .
Generalized pustular psoriasis ( pustular psoriasis of von Zumbusch ) , also known as impetigo herpetiformis during pregnancy , is a rare and severe form of psoriasis that may require hospitalization . The development of generalized pustular psoriasis is often caused by an infection , abrupt withdrawal of topical corticosteroid treatment , pregnancy , hypocalcemia , medications , or following an irritating topical treatment for plaque psoriasis . This form of psoriasis is characterized by an acute onset of numerous pustules on top of tender red skin . This skin eruption is often accompanied by a fever , muscle aches , nausea , and an elevated white blood cell count . Annular pustular psoriasis ( APP ) , a rare form of generalized pustular psoriasis , is the most common type seen during childhood . APP tends to occur in women more frequently than in men , and is usually less severe than other forms of generalized pustular psoriasis such as impetigo herpetiformis . This form of psoriasis is characterized by ring @-@ shaped plaques with pustules around the edges and yellow crusting . APP most often affects the torso , neck , arms , and legs .
= = = Other skin lesions = = =
Additional types of psoriasis affecting the skin include inverse psoriasis , guttate psoriasis , oral psoriasis , and seborrheic @-@ like psoriasis .
Inverse psoriasis ( also known as flexural psoriasis ) appears as smooth , inflamed patches of skin . The patches frequently affect skin folds , particularly around the genitals ( between the thigh and groin ) , the armpits , in the skin folds of an overweight abdomen ( known as panniculus ) , between the buttocks in the intergluteal cleft , and under the breasts in the inframammary fold . Heat , trauma , and infection are thought to play a role in the development of this atypical form of psoriasis . Napkin psoriasis is a subtype of psoriasis common in infants characterized by red papules with silver scale in the diaper area that may extend to the torso or limbs . Napkin psoriasis is often misdiagnosed as napkin dermatitis ( diaper rash ) .
Guttate psoriasis is characterized by numerous small , scaly , red or pink , droplet @-@ like lesions ( papules ) . These numerous spots of psoriasis appear over large areas of the body , primarily the trunk , but also the limbs and scalp . Guttate psoriasis is often triggered by a streptococcal infection , typically streptococcal pharyngitis . The reverse is not true .
Oral psoriasis is very rare , in contrast to lichen planus , another common papulosquamous disorder that commonly involves both the skin and mouth . When psoriasis involves the oral mucosa ( the lining of the mouth ) , it may be asymptomatic , but it may appear as white or grey @-@ yellow plaques . Fissured tongue is the most common finding in those with oral psoriasis and has been reported to occur in 6 @.@ 5 – 20 % of people with psoriasis affecting the skin . The microscopic appearance of oral mucosa affected by geographic tongue ( migratory stomatitis ) is very similar to the appearance of psoriasis . However , modern studies have failed to demonstrate any link between the two conditions .
Seborrheic @-@ like psoriasis is a common form of psoriasis with clinical aspects of psoriasis and seborrheic dermatitis , and may be difficult to distinguish from the latter . This form of psoriasis typically manifests as red plaques with greasy scales in areas of higher sebum production such as the scalp , forehead , skin folds next to the nose , skin surrounding the mouth , skin on the chest above the sternum , and in skin folds .
= = = Psoriatic arthritis = = =
Psoriatic arthritis is a form of chronic inflammatory arthritis that has a highly variable clinical presentation and frequently occurs in association with skin and nail psoriasis . It typically involves painful inflammation of the joints and surrounding connective tissue and can occur in any joint , but most commonly affects the joints of the fingers and toes . This can result in a sausage @-@ shaped swelling of the fingers and toes known as dactylitis . Psoriatic arthritis can also affect the hips , knees , spine ( spondylitis ) , and sacroiliac joint ( sacroiliitis ) . About 30 % of individuals with psoriasis will develop psoriatic arthritis . Skin manifestations of psoriasis tend to occur before arthritic manifestations in about 75 % of cases .
= = = Nail changes = = =
Psoriasis can affect the nails and produces a variety of changes in the appearance of finger and toe nails . Nail psoriasis occurs in 40 – 45 % of people with psoriasis affecting the skin and has a lifetime incidence of 80 – 90 % in those with psoriatic arthritis . These changes include pitting of the nails ( pinhead @-@ sized depressions in the nail is seen in 70 % with nail psoriasis ) , whitening of the nail , small areas of bleeding from capillaries under the nail , yellow @-@ reddish discoloration of the nails known as the oil drop or salmon spot , thickening of the skin under the nail ( subungual hyperkeratosis ) , loosening and separation of the nail ( onycholysis ) , and crumbling of the nail .
= = = Medical signs = = =
In addition to the appearance and distribution of the rash , specific medical signs may be used by medical practitioners to assist with diagnosis . These may include Auspitz 's sign ( pinpoint bleeding when scale is removed ) , Koebner phenomenon ( psoriatic skin lesions induced by trauma to the skin ) , and itching and pain localized to papules and plaques .
= = Causes = =
The cause of psoriasis is not fully understood , but a number of theories exist .
= = = Genetics = = =
Around one @-@ third of people with psoriasis report a family history of the disease , and researchers have identified genetic loci associated with the condition . Identical twin studies suggest a 70 % chance of a twin developing psoriasis if the other twin has the disorder . The risk is around 20 % for nonidentical twins . These findings suggest both a genetic susceptibility and an environmental response in developing psoriasis .
Psoriasis has a strong hereditary component , and many genes are associated with it , but it is unclear how those genes work together . Most of the identified genes relate to the immune system , particularly the major histocompatibility complex ( MHC ) and T cells . Genetic studies are valuable due to their ability to identify molecular mechanisms and pathways for further study and potential drug targets .
Classic genome @-@ wide linkage analysis has identified nine loci on different chromosomes associated with psoriasis . They are called psoriasis susceptibility 1 through 9 ( PSORS1 through PSORS9 ) . Within those loci are genes on pathways that lead to inflammation . Certain variations ( mutations ) of those genes are commonly found in psoriasis . Genome @-@ wide association scans have identified other genes that are altered to characteristic variants in psoriasis . Some of these genes express inflammatory signal proteins , which affect cells in the immune system that are also involved in psoriasis . Some of these genes are also involved in other autoimmune diseases .
The major determinant is PSORS1 , which probably accounts for 35 % – 50 % of psoriasis heritability . It controls genes that affect the immune system or encode skin proteins that are overabundant with psoriasis . PSORS1 is located on chromosome 6 in the major histocompatibility complex ( MHC ) , which controls important immune functions . Three genes in the PSORS1 locus have a strong association with psoriasis vulgaris : HLA @-@ C variant HLA @-@ Cw6 , which encodes a MHC class I protein ; CCHCR1 , variant WWC , which encodes a coiled protein that is overexpressed in psoriatic epidermis ; and CDSN , variant allele 5 , which encodes corneodesmosin , a protein which is expressed in the granular and cornified layers of the epidermis and upregulated in psoriasis .
Two major immune system genes under investigation are interleukin @-@ 12 subunit beta ( IL12B ) on chromosome 5q , which expresses interleukin @-@ 12B ; and IL23R on chromosome 1p , which expresses the interleukin @-@ 23 receptor , and is involved in T cell differentiation . Interleukin @-@ 23 receptor and IL12B have both been strongly linked with psoriasis . T cells are involved in the inflammatory process that leads to psoriasis . These genes are on the pathway that up @-@ regulate tumor necrosis factor @-@ α and nuclear factor κB , two genes involved in inflammation . Recently , the first gene directly linked to psoriasis has been identified . A rare mutation in the gene encoding for the CARD14 protein plus an environmental trigger was enough to cause plaque psoriasis ( the most common form of psoriasis ) .
= = = Lifestyle = = =
Conditions reported as accompanying a worsening of the disease include chronic infections , stress , and changes in season and climate . Others include hot water , scratching psoriasis skin lesions , skin dryness , excessive alcohol consumption , cigarette smoking , and obesity .
= = = HIV = = =
The rate of psoriasis in HIV @-@ positive individuals is comparable to that of HIV @-@ negative individuals , however , psoriasis tends to be more severe in people infected with HIV . A much higher rate of psoriatic arthritis occurs in HIV @-@ positive individuals with psoriasis than in those without the infection . The immune response in those infected with HIV is typically characterized by cellular signals from Th2 subset of CD4 + helper T cells , whereas the immune response in psoriasis vulgaris is characterized by a pattern of cellular signals typical of Th1 subset of CD4 + helper T cells and Th17 helper T cells . It is hypothesized that the diminished CD4 + -T cell presence causes an overactivation of CD8 + -T cells , which are responsible for the exacerbation of psoriasis in HIV @-@ positive people . Psoriasis in those with HIV / AIDS is often severe and may be untreatable with conventional therapy .
= = = Microbes = = =
Psoriasis has been described as occurring after strep throat , and may be worsened by skin or gut colonization with Staphylococcus aureus , Malassezia , and Candida albicans .
= = = Medications = = =
Drug @-@ induced psoriasis may occur with beta blockers , lithium , antimalarial medications , non @-@ steroidal anti @-@ inflammatory drugs , terbinafine , calcium channel blockers , captopril , glyburide , granulocyte colony @-@ stimulating factor , interleukins , interferons , lipid @-@ lowering drugs , and paradoxically TNF inhibitors such as infliximab or adalimumab . Withdrawal of corticosteroids ( topical steroid cream ) can aggravate psoriasis due to the rebound effect .
= = Mechanism = =
Psoriasis is characterized by an abnormally excessive and rapid growth of the epidermal layer of the skin . Abnormal production of skin cells ( especially during wound repair ) and an overabundance of skin cells result from the sequence of pathological events in psoriasis . Skin cells are replaced every 3 – 5 days in psoriasis rather than the usual 28 – 30 days . These changes are believed to stem from the premature maturation of keratinocytes induced by an inflammatory cascade in the dermis involving dendritic cells , macrophages , and T cells ( three subtypes of white blood cells ) . These immune cells move from the dermis to the epidermis and secrete inflammatory chemical signals ( cytokines ) such as tumor necrosis factor @-@ α , interleukin @-@ 1β , interleukin @-@ 6 , interleukin @-@ 36 and interleukin @-@ 22 . These secreted inflammatory signals are believed to stimulate keratinocytes to proliferate . One hypothesis is that psoriasis involves a defect in regulatory T cells , and in the regulatory cytokine interleukin @-@ 10 .
Gene mutations of proteins involved in the skin 's ability to function as a barrier have been identified as markers of susceptibility for the development of psoriasis .
DNA released from dying cells acts as an inflammatory stimulus in psoriasis and stimulates the receptors on certain dendritic cells , which in turn produce the cytokine interferon @-@ α . In response to these chemical messages from dendritic cells and T cells , keratinocytes also secrete cytokines such as interleukin @-@ 1 , interleukin @-@ 6 , and tumor necrosis factor @-@ α , which signal downstream inflammatory cells to arrive and stimulate additional inflammation .
Dendritic cells bridge the innate immune system and adaptive immune system . They are increased in psoriatic lesions and induce the proliferation of T cells and type 1 helper T cells ( Th1 ) . Targeted immunotherapy as well as psoralen and ultraviolet A ( PUVA ) therapy can reduce the number of dendritic cells and favors a Th2 cell cytokine secretion pattern over a Th1 / Th17 cell cytokine profile . Psoriatic T cells move from the dermis into the epidermis and secrete interferon @-@ γ and interleukin @-@ 17 . Interleukin @-@ 23 is known to induce the production of interleukin @-@ 17 and interleukin @-@ 22 . Interleukin @-@ 22 works in combination with interleukin @-@ 17 to induce keratinocytes to secrete neutrophil @-@ attracting cytokines .
= = Diagnosis = =
A diagnosis of psoriasis is usually based on the appearance of the skin . Skin characteristics typical for psoriasis are scaly , erythematous plaques , papules , or patches of skin that may be painful and itch . No special blood tests or diagnostic procedures are needed to make the diagnosis .
The differential diagnosis of psoriasis includes dermatological conditions similar in appearance such as discoid eczema , seborrhoeic eczema , pityriasis rosea ( may be confused with guttate psoriasis ) , nail fungus ( may be confused with nail psoriasis ) or cutaneous T cell lymphoma ( 50 % of individuals with this cancer are initially misdiagnosed with psoriasis ) . Dermatologic manifestations of systemic illnesses such as the rash of secondary syphilis may also be confused with psoriasis .
If the clinical diagnosis is uncertain , a skin biopsy or scraping may be performed to rule out other disorders and to confirm the diagnosis . Skin from a biopsy will show clubbed epidermal projections that interdigitate with dermis on microscopy . Epidermal thickening is another characteristic histologic finding of psoriasis lesions . The stratum granulosum layer of the epidermis is often missing or significantly decreased in psoriatic lesions ; the skin cells from the most superficial layer of skin are also abnormal as they never fully mature . Unlike their mature counterparts , these superficial cells keep their nucleus . Inflammatory infiltrates can typically be visualized on microscopy when examining skin tissue or joint tissue affected by psoriasis . Epidermal skin tissue affected by psoriatic inflammation often has many CD8 + T cells while a predominance of CD4 + T cells makes up the inflammatory infiltrates of the dermal layer of skin and the joints .
= = = Classification = = =
= = = = Morphological = = = =
Psoriasis is classified as a papulosquamous disorder and is most commonly subdivided into different categories based on histological characteristics . Variants include plaque , pustular , guttate , and flexural psoriasis . Each form has a dedicated ICD @-@ 10 code . Psoriasis can also be classified into nonpustular and pustular types .
= = = = Pathogenetic = = = =
Another classification scheme considers genetic and demographic factors . Type 1 has a positive family history , starts before the age of 40 , and is associated with the human leukocyte antigen , HLA @-@ Cw6 . Conversely , type 2 does not show a family history , presents before age 40 , and is not associated with HLA @-@ Cw6 . Type 1 accounts for about 75 % of persons with psoriasis .
The classification of psoriasis as an autoimmune disease has sparked considerable debate . Researchers have proposed differing descriptions of psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis ; some authors have classified them as autoimmune diseases while others have classified them as distinct from autoimmune diseases and referred to them as immune @-@ mediated inflammatory diseases .
= = = = Severity = = = =
There is no consensus about how to classify the severity of psoriasis . Mild psoriasis has been defined as a percentage of body surface area ( BSA ) ≤ 10 , a Psoriasis Area Severity Index ( PASI ) score ≤ 10 , and a dermatology life quality index ( DLQI ) score ≤ 10 . Moderate to severe psoriasis was defined by the same group as BSA > 10 or PASI score > 10 and a DLQI score > 10 . The DLQI is a 10 question tool used to measure the impact of several dermatologic diseases on daily functioning . The DLQI score ranges from 0 ( minimal impairment ) to 30 ( maximal impairment ) and is calculated with each answer being assigned 0 – 3 points with higher scores indicating greater social or occupational impairment .
The psoriasis area severity index ( PASI ) is the most widely used measurement tool for psoriasis . PASI assesses the severity of lesions and the area affected and combines these two factors into a single score from 0 ( no disease ) to 72 ( maximal disease ) . Nevertheless , the PASI can be too unwieldy to use outside of research settings , which has led to attempts to simplify the index for clinical use .
= = Management = =
While no cure is available for psoriasis , many treatment options exist . Topical agents are typically used for mild disease , phototherapy for moderate disease , and systemic agents for severe disease .
= = = Topical agents = = =
Topical corticosteroid preparations are the most effective agents when used continuously for 8 weeks ; retinoids and coal tar were found to be of limited benefit and may be no better than placebo . Greater benefit has been observed with very potent corticosteroids when compared to potent corticosteroids . Vitamin D analogues such as paricalcitol were found to be significantly superior to placebo . Combination therapy with vitamin D and a corticosteroid was superior to either treatment alone and vitamin D was found to be superior to coal tar for chronic plaque psoriasis .
Moisturizers and emollients such as mineral oil , petroleum jelly , calcipotriol , and decubal ( an oil @-@ in @-@ water emollient ) were found to increase the clearance of psoriatic plaques . Emollients have been shown to be even more effective at clearing psoriatic plaques when combined with phototherapy . However , certain emollients have no impact on psoriasis plaque clearance or may even decrease the clearance achieved with phototherapy . The emollient salicylic acid is structurally similar to para @-@ aminobenzoic acid ( PABA ) , commonly found in sunscreen , and is known to interfere with phototherapy in psoriasis . Coconut oil , when used as an emollient in psoriasis , has been found to decrease plaque clearance with phototherapy . Medicated creams and ointments applied directly to psoriatic plaques can help reduce inflammation , remove built @-@ up scale , reduce skin turnover , and clear affected skin of plaques . Ointment and creams containing coal tar , dithranol , corticosteroids ( i.e. desoximetasone ) , fluocinonide , vitamin D3 analogs ( for example , calcipotriol ) , and retinoids are routinely used . The use of the finger tip unit may be helpful in guiding how much topical treatment to use .
Vitamin D analogues may be useful with steroids ; however , alone have a higher rate of side effects . They may allow less steroids to be used .
Another topical therapy used to treat psoriasis is a form of balneotherapy , which involves daily baths in the Dead Sea . This is usually done for four weeks with the benefit attributed to sun exposure . This is cost @-@ effective and it has been propagated as an effective way to treat psoriasis without medication . Decreases of PASI scores greater than 75 % and remission for several months have commonly been observed . Side @-@ effects may be mild such as itchiness , folliculitis , sunburn , poikiloderma , and a theoretical risk of nonmelanoma skin cancer or melanoma has been suggested . However , more recent studies have determined that there does not appear to be increased risk of melanoma in the long @-@ term . Data are inconclusive with respect to nonmelanoma skin cancer risk , but support the idea that the therapy is associated with an increased risk of benign forms of sun @-@ induced skin damage such as , but not limited to , actinic elastosis or liver spots . Dead Sea balneotherapy is also effective for psoriatic arthritis .
= = = Phototherapy = = =
Phototherapy in the form of sunlight has long been used for psoriasis . Wavelengths of 311 – 313 nanometers are most effective , and special lamps have been developed for this application . The exposure time should be controlled to avoid over exposure and burning of the skin . The UVB lamps should have a timer that will turn off the lamp when the time ends . The amount of light used is determined by a person 's skin type . Increased rates of cancer from treatment appear to be small . Narrow band UVB light ( NBUVB ) phototherapy has been demonstrated to have similar efficacy to PUVA .
A major mechanism of NBUVB is the induction of DNA damage in the form of pyrimidine dimers . This type of phototherapy is useful in the treatment of psoriasis because the formation of these dimers interferes with the cell cycle and stops it . The interruption of the cell cycle induced by NBUVB opposes the characteristic rapid division of skin cells seen in psoriasis . The activity of many types of immune cells found in the skin is also effectively suppressed by NBUVB phototherapy treatments . The most common short @-@ term side effect of this form of phototherapy is redness of the skin ; less common side effects of NBUVB phototherapy are itching and blistering of the treated skin , irritation of the eyes in the form of conjunctival inflammation or inflammation of the cornea , or cold sores due to reactivation of the herpes simplex virus in the skin surrounding the lips . Eye protection is usually given during phototherapy treatments .
Psoralen and ultraviolet A phototherapy ( PUVA ) combines the oral or topical administration of psoralen with exposure to ultraviolet A ( UVA ) light . The mechanism of action of PUVA is unknown , but probably involves activation of psoralen by UVA light , which inhibits the abnormally rapid production of the cells in psoriatic skin . There are multiple mechanisms of action associated with PUVA , including effects on the skin 's immune system . PUVA is associated with nausea , headache , fatigue , burning , and itching . Long @-@ term treatment is associated with squamous cell carcinoma ( but not with melanoma ) . A combination therapy for moderate to severe psoriasis using PUVA plus acitretin resulted in benefit , but acitretin use has been associated with birth defects and liver damage .
= = = Systemic agents = = =
Psoriasis resistant to topical treatment and phototherapy may be treated with systemic therapies including oral medications or injectable treatments . Patients undergoing systemic treatment must have regular blood and liver function tests to check for medication toxicities . Pregnancy must be avoided for most of these treatments . The majority of people experience a recurrence of psoriasis after systemic treatment is discontinued .
Non @-@ biologic systemic treatments frequently used for psoriasis include methotrexate , ciclosporin , hydroxycarbamide , fumarates such as dimethyl fumarate , and retinoids . Methotrexate and ciclosporin are drugs that suppress the immune system ; retinoids are synthetic forms of vitamin A. These agents are also regarded as first @-@ line treatments for psoriatic erythroderma .
Biologics are manufactured proteins that interrupt the immune process involved in psoriasis . Unlike generalised immunosuppressive drug therapies such as methotrexate , biologics target specific aspects of the immune system contributing to psoriasis . These medications are generally well @-@ tolerated and limited long @-@ term outcome data have demonstrated biologics to be safe for long @-@ term use in moderate to severe plaque psoriasis . However , due to their immunosuppressive actions , biologics have been associated with a small increase in the risk for infection . Professional guidelines regard biologics as third @-@ line treatment for plaque psoriasis following inadequate response to topical treatment , phototherapy , and non @-@ biologic systemic treatments . The safety of biologics during pregnancy has not been assessed . European guidelines recommend avoiding biologics if a pregnancy is planned ; anti @-@ TNF therapies such as infliximab are not recommended for use in chronic carriers of the hepatitis B virus or individuals infected with HIV .
Several monoclonal antibodies target cytokines , the molecules that cells use to send inflammatory signals to each other . TNF @-@ α is one of the main executor inflammatory cytokines . Four monoclonal antibodies ( MAbs ) ( infliximab , adalimumab , golimumab , and certolizumab pegol ) and one recombinant TNF @-@ α decoy receptor , etanercept , have been developed to inhibit TNF @-@ α signaling . Additional monoclonal antibodies , such as ixekizumab , have been developed against pro @-@ inflammatory cytokines interleukin @-@ 12 , interleukin @-@ 23 and interleukin @-@ 17 and inhibit the inflammatory pathway at a different point than the anti @-@ TNF @-@ α antibodies . IL @-@ 12 and IL @-@ 23 share a common domain , p40 , which is the target of the recently FDA @-@ approved ustekinumab .
Two drugs that target T cells are efalizumab and alefacept . Efalizumab is a monoclonal antibody that specifically targets the CD11a subunit of LFA @-@ 1 . It also blocks the adhesion molecules on the endothelial cells that line blood vessels , which attract T cells . Efalizumab was voluntarily withdrawn from the European market in February 2009 and from the US market in June 2009 by the manufacturer due to the medication 's association with cases of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy . Alefacept also blocks the molecules that dendritic cells use to communicate with T cells and even causes natural killer cells to kill T cells as a way of controlling inflammation .
Individuals with psoriasis may develop neutralizing antibodies against monoclonal antibodies . Neutralization occurs when an antidrug antibody prevents a monoclonal antibody such as infliximab from binding antigen in a laboratory test . Specifically , neutralization occurs when the antidrug antibody binds to infliximab 's antigen binding site instead of TNF @-@ α . When infliximab no longer binds tumor necrosis factor alpha , it no longer decreases inflammation , and the psoriasis may worsen . Neutralizing antibodies have not been reported against etanercept , a biologic drug that is a fusion protein composed of two TNF @-@ α receptors . The lack of neutralizing antibodies against etanercept is probably secondary to the innate presence of the TNF @-@ α receptor , and the development of immune tolerance .
= = = Surgery = = =
Limited evidence suggests removal of the tonsils may benefit people with chronic plaque psoriasis , guttate psoriasis , and palmoplantar pustulosis .
= = = Alternative therapy = = =
Uncontrolled studies have suggested that individuals with psoriasis or psoriatic arthritis may benefit from a diet supplemented with fish oil rich in eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) . Conflicting evidence exists indicating that there may be an increased incidence of psoriasis in people with celiac disease . Psoriatic disease severity decreased after 3 months of a gluten free diet in patients with anti @-@ gliadin antibodies .
= = Prognosis = =
Most people with psoriasis experience nothing more than mild skin lesions that can be treated effectively with topical therapies .
Psoriasis is known to have a negative impact on the quality of life of both the affected person and the individual 's family members . Depending on the severity and location of outbreaks , individuals may experience significant physical discomfort and some disability . Itching and pain can interfere with basic functions , such as self @-@ care and sleep . Participation in sporting activities , certain occupations , and caring for family members can become difficult activities for those with plaques located on their hands and feet . Plaques on the scalp can be particularly embarrassing , as flaky plaque in the hair can be mistaken for dandruff .
Individuals with psoriasis may feel self @-@ conscious about their appearance and have a poor self @-@ image that stems from fear of public rejection and psychosexual concerns . Psoriasis has been associated with low self @-@ esteem and depression is more common among those with the condition . People with psoriasis often feel prejudiced against due to the commonly held incorrect belief that psoriasis is contagious . Psychological distress can lead to significant depression and social isolation ; a high rate of thoughts about suicide has been associated with psoriasis . Many tools exist to measure the quality of life of patients with psoriasis and other dermatological disorders . Clinical research has indicated individuals often experience a diminished quality of life . Children with psoriasis may encounter bullying .
Several conditions are associated with psoriasis . These occur more frequently in older people . Nearly half of individuals with psoriasis over the age of 65 have at least three comorbidities , and two @-@ thirds have at least two comorbidities .
= = = Cardiovascular disease = = =
Psoriasis has been associated with obesity and several other cardiovascular and metabolic disturbances . The incidence of diabetes is 27 % higher in people affected by psoriasis than in those without the condition . Severe psoriasis may be even more strongly associated with the development of diabetes than mild psoriasis . Younger people with psoriasis may also be at increased risk for developing diabetes . Individuals with psoriasis or psoriatic arthritis have a slightly higher risk of heart disease and heart attacks when compared to the general population . Cardiovascular disease risk appeared to be correlated with the severity of psoriasis and its duration . There is no strong evidence to suggest that psoriasis is associated with an increased risk of death from cardiovascular events . Methotrexate may provide a degree of protection for the heart .
The odds of having hypertension are 1 @.@ 58 times higher in people with psoriasis than those without the condition ; these odds are even higher with severe cases of psoriasis . A similar association was noted in people who have psoriatic arthritis — the odds of having hypertension were found to be 2 @.@ 07 times greater when compared to odds of the general population . The link between psoriasis and hypertension is not currently understood . Mechanisms hypothesized to be involved in this relationship include the following : dysregulation of the renin @-@ angiotensin system , elevated levels of endothelin 1 in the blood , and increased oxidative stress . The incidence of the heart rhythm abnormality atrial fibrillation is 1 @.@ 31 times higher in people with mild psoriasis and 1 @.@ 63 times higher in people with severe psoriasis . There may be a slightly increased risk of stroke associated with psoriasis , especially in severe cases . Treating high levels of cholesterol with statins has been associated with decreased psoriasis severity , as measured by PASI score , and has also been associated with improvements in other cardiovascular disease risk factors such as markers of inflammation . These cardioprotective effects are attributed to ability of statins to improve blood lipid profile and because of their anti @-@ inflammatory effects . Statin use in those with psoriasis and hyperlipidemia was associated with decreased levels of high @-@ sensitivity C @-@ reactive protein and TNFα as well as decreased activity of the immune protein LFA @-@ 1 . Compared to individuals without psoriasis , those affected by psoriasis are more likely to satisfy the criteria for metabolic syndrome .
= = = Other diseases = = =
The rates of Crohn 's disease and ulcerative colitis are increased when compared with the general population , by a factor of 3 @.@ 8 and 7 @.@ 5 respectively . Few studies have evaluated the association of multiple sclerosis with psoriasis , and the relationship has been questioned . Psoriasis has been associated with a 16 % increase in overall relative risk for non @-@ skin cancer . People with psoriasis have a 52 % increased risk cancers of the lung and bronchus , a 205 % increase in the risk of developing cancers of the upper gastrointestinal tract , a 31 % increase in the risk of developing cancers of the urinary tract , a 90 % increase in the risk of developing liver cancer , and a 46 % increase in the risk of developing pancreatic cancer . The risk for development of non @-@ melanoma skin cancers is also increased . Psoriasis increases the risk of developing squamous cell carcinoma of the skin by 431 % and increases the risk of basal cell carcinoma by 100 % . There is no increased risk of melanoma associated with psoriasis .
= = Epidemiology = =
Psoriasis is estimated to affect 2 – 4 % of the population of the western world . The rate of psoriasis varies according to age , gender , region and ethnicity ; a combination of environmental and genetic factors is thought to be responsible for these differences . It can occur at any age , although it most commonly appears for the first time between the ages of 15 and 25 years . Approximately one third of people with psoriasis report being diagnosed before age 20 . Psoriasis affects both sexes equally .
Psoriasis affects about 7 @.@ 5 million Americans and occurs more frequently between the ages of 15 and 50 .
People with inflammatory bowel disease such as Crohn 's disease or ulcerative colitis are at an increased risk of developing psoriasis . Psoriasis is more common in countries farther from the equator . Persons of white European ancestry are more likely to have psoriasis and the condition is relatively uncommon in African Americans and extremely uncommon in Native Americans .
= = History = =
Scholars believe psoriasis to have been included among the various skin conditions called tzaraath ( translated as leprosy ) in the Hebrew Bible , a condition imposed as a punishment for slander . The patient was deemed " impure " ( see tumah and taharah ) during their afflicted phase and is ultimately treated by the kohen . However , it is more likely that this confusion arose from the use of the same Greek term for both conditions . The Greeks used the term lepra ( λεπρα ) for scaly skin conditions . They used the term psora to describe itchy skin conditions . It became known as Willan 's lepra in the late 18th century when English dermatologists Robert Willan and Thomas Bateman differentiated it from other skin diseases . Leprosy , they said , is distinguished by the regular , circular form of patches , while psoriasis is always irregular . Willan identified two categories : leprosa graecorum and psora leprosa .
Psoriasis is thought to have first been described in Ancient Rome by Cornelius Celsus . The disease was first classified by English physician Thomas Willan . The British dermatologist Thomas Bateman described a possible link between psoriasis and arthritic symptoms in 1813 .
The history of psoriasis is littered with treatments of dubious effectiveness and high toxicity . In the 18th and 19th centuries , Fowler 's solution , which contains a poisonous and carcinogenic arsenic compound , was used by dermatologists as a treatment for psoriasis . Mercury was also used for psoriasis treatment during this time period . Sulfur , iodine , phenol were also commonly used treatments for psoriasis during this era when it was incorrectly believed that psoriasis was an infectious disease . Coal tars were widely used with ultraviolet light irradiation as a topical treatment approach in the early 1900s . During the same time period , psoriatic arthritis cases were treated with intravenously administered gold preparations in the same manner as rheumatoid arthritis . All of these treatments have been replaced with modern topical and systemic therapies .
= = = Etymology = = =
The word psoriasis is from Greek ψωρίασις , meaning " itching condition " or " being itchy " from psora , " itch " and -iasis , " action , condition " .
= = Society and culture = =
The International Federation of Psoriasis Associations ( IFPA ) is the global umbrella organization for national and regional psoriasis patient associations and also gathers the leading experts in psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis research for scientific conferences every three years . The Psoriasis International Network , a program of the Fondation René Touraine , gathers dermatologists , rheumatologists and other caregivers involved in the management of psoriasis . Non @-@ profit organizations the National Psoriasis Foundation in the United States , the Psoriasis Association in the United Kingdom and Psoriasis Australia offer advocacy and education about psoriasis in their respective countries .
= = Research = =
The role of insulin resistance in the pathogenesis of psoriasis is currently under investigation . Preliminary research has suggested that antioxidants such as polyphenols may have beneficial effects on the inflammation characteristic of psoriasis .
Many novel drugs being researched target the Th17 / IL @-@ 23 axis , particularly IL @-@ 23p19 inhibitors , as IL @-@ 23p19 is present in increased concentrations in psoriasis skin lesions while contributing less to protection against opportunistic infections . Other cytokines such as IL @-@ 17 and IL @-@ 22 also have been targets for inhibition as they play important roles in the pathogenesis of psoriasis . Another avenue of research has focused on the use of vascular endothelial growth factor inhibitors to treat psoriasis . Oral agents being investigated as alternatives to medications administered by injection include Janus kinase inhibitors , protein kinase C inhibitors , mitogen @-@ activated protein kinase inhibitors , and phosphodiesterase 4 inhibitors , all of which have proven effective in various phase 2 and 3 clinical trials . However , these agents have potentially severe side @-@ effects due to their immunosuppressive mechanisms .
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= Heidi Montag =
Heidi Blair Pratt ( née Montag ; born September 15 , 1986 ) is an American television personality , singer , fashion designer , and author . Born and raised in Crested Butte , Colorado , she befriended Lauren Conrad in 2005 . In 2006 , Montag came to prominence after being cast in the MTV reality television series The Hills , which chronicled the personal and professional lives of Conrad , Montag , and friends Audrina Patridge and Whitney Port . During its production , she briefly attended the Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising and was employed by event planning company Bolthouse Productions . As the series progressed , Montag began dating fellow cast member Spencer Pratt , which ultimately ended her friendship with Conrad . Their ensuing feud became the central focus of the series , and was carried through each subsequent season .
The couple , collectively nicknamed " Speidi " , married in April 2009 . Later that year , they made controversial appearances on the second season of the American version of I 'm a Celebrity ... Get Me Out of Here ! . In January 2010 , Montag released her debut studio album Superficial ; it was critically panned and commercially unsuccessful , failing to earn back the money she spent making it . She also received widespread criticism after undergoing ten cosmetic surgery procedures in one day . In 2011 , Montag was featured on the television series Famous Food , where she and several celebrities competed for a restaurant partnership . Two years later , she and Pratt competed as a single entity on the eleventh series of the British version of Celebrity Big Brother , eventually becoming the runners @-@ up .
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1986 – 2005 : Early life = = =
Heidi Blair Montag was born on September 15 , 1986 in Crested Butte , Colorado to parents Darlene and Bill Montag . After divorcing , Darlene married Tim Egelhoff ; they owned The Timberline restaurant for twenty @-@ one years until its closing in 2010 . Montag has an older sister Holly , also a reality television personality , and a younger brother Sky . Their father later married Terri O 'Hara ; their step @-@ brother Eric O 'Hara died in 2008 after an accidental fall from an icy roof .
After graduating from high school , Montag moved to California and attended the Academy of Art University in San Francisco for one semester . During freshman orientation , she befriended Lauren Conrad , who at the time was a primary cast member of the MTV reality television series Laguna Beach : The Real Orange County . After both transferred to the Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising in Los Angeles , California , Montag was subsequently featured in four episodes during the series ' second season . However , after failing to find the school " challenging " , she dropped out and received employment from Bolthouse Productions as an assistant . Within two years , she was promoted as an event planner .
= = = 2006 – 10 : The Hills and Superficial = = =
After moving to Los Angeles in 2006 , the Laguna Beach spin @-@ off series The Hills was developed to chronicle the lives of now @-@ housemates Conrad and Montag and friends Audrina Patridge and Whitney Port . That year , she began a short @-@ lived relationship with Jordan Eubanks ; she described its end as " the best decision of [ her ] life " . By the second season , Montag and Conrad 's friendship had deteriorated after the former began dating and later moved in with Spencer Pratt . During the third season , Conrad ended her friendship with Montag after she suspected that Pratt was responsible for rumors of a sex tape involving her and her former boyfriend Jason Wahler ; the ensuing feud carried through each subsequent season .
In May 2007 , Montag and Pratt announced their engagement . In August , she entered the music industry and began recording her debut studio album . Later that month , the song " Body Language " was leaked on the internet , and featured an uncredited rap verse from Pratt . The following month , she confirmed to Us Weekly that she had undergone a breast augmentation and rhinoplasty five months prior . Montag 's first promotional single and its accompanying music video " Higher " were released in February 2008 . Later that month , she appeared on the cover of Maxim . Montag collaborated with Anchor Blue to launch her first clothing line " Heidiwood " in April . Her contract was not renewed the following year after the company decided against featuring celebrity endorsements in future advertising .
During the fourth season of The Hills , Montag and Pratt eloped in Mexico on November 20 , 2008 . As the couple decides to officially marry in the fifth season , Conrad made her final appearance on the series during the mid @-@ season finale , where she attended the wedding after much deliberation and made peace with Montag . The ceremony was held on April 25 , 2009 in Pasadena , California . Subsequently , Conrad was replaced by her former Laguna Beach : The Real Orange County cast member Kristin Cavallari , who had previously introduced Montag and Pratt .
After several additional unauthorized leaks , Montag enlisted songwriter Cathy Dennis to continue work on her album . She released her first two extended plays Wherever I Am and Here She Is ... in 2009 . The former included the song " More Is More " ; debuting at number 50 on the US Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart , it became her first and only song to chart in the country . Later that year , she and Pratt appeared on the second season of the American version of I 'm a Celebrity ... Get Me Out of Here ! in support of the " Feed the Children " foundation . They quit after Montag was hospitalized with a gastric ulcer and later created controversy after alleging that they were subject to torture during production . After leaving the series , Montag and Pratt became notorious for their antics and antagonistic roles , notably during an interview with Al Roker of Today , and were described as " everything that 's wrong with America " . In August , she performed her first official single , the finished version of " Body Language " , at the Miss Universe 2009 ; her appearance was met with a negative critical response , who criticized its overall production . The following month , she appeared on the cover of Playboy . In November , Montag and Pratt released the book " How to Be Famous : Our Guide to Looking the Part , Playing the Press , and Becoming a Tabloid Fixture " .
In January 2010 , Montag revealed to People that she had undergone ten cosmetic surgery procedures in a single day two months prior , performed by Frank Ryan . Among the procedures were brow @-@ lifts , ear @-@ pinnings , a chin reduction , as well as a second rhinoplasty and second breast augmentation . She commented that she almost died from too much Demerol , reducing her breath rate to five breaths per minute . Her debut studio album Superficial was digitally released later that month to an overwhelmingly negative critical response from critics . The self @-@ funded record cost nearly $ 2 million and sold approximately 1 @,@ 000 copies in first @-@ week downloads , failing to earn back the money spent making it . In May , she and Pratt made their final appearance on The Hills halfway through the sixth and final season . In December 2013 , Montag stated that she and Conrad have " talked a few times " since the series ' conclusion , elaborating that " it 's unfortunate things happened the way that it did , but we 're both different people now , older and more mature . " However , in 2015 Heidi angrily excoriated Lauren when she appeared on Marriage Boot Camp , during a sequence where the contestants were asked to forgive someone who had hurt them in the past ; Heidi told a stand @-@ in for Lauren that Lauren had " ruined my life with her lies " , said that Lauren DID have a sex tape and had falsely blamed it on her , and that she " forgave " Lauren for being terrible and trying to ruin her life . Heidi was universally lambasted for bringing up the sex tape lies anew , parroting the views of Spencer Pratt ( who , it 's worth noting , is who Lauren actually blamed for spreading the false rumors — Lauren felt Heidi knew he was lying but took Spencer 's side because she loved him ) , and trying to use Lauren 's name to get publicity for herself .
= = = 2010 – present : Later Career = = =
After her exit from The Hills , Montag auditioned for the replacement of Megan Fox in the third installment of the Transformers series , but was ultimately not featured in the film . In June 2010 , she and producer Steve Morales commenced work on her unreleased second studio album . The following month , Montag filed for divorce from Pratt , citing irreconcilable differences in the petition . However , they called it off in September after confessing that the action was intended to boost Montag 's ailing career . In November , they renewed their vows in Carpinteria , California . In February 2011 , Montag made her feature film debut as Kimberly in Just Go with It . Later that year , she appeared on the VH1 reality television series Famous Food , where she competed against other celebrities for a partnership stake in a restaurant in which they worked to open . In October , Montag began writing a memoir . The following year , she released her third extended play Dreams Come True .
In January 2013 , Montag and Pratt as a single entity competed as housemates on the eleventh series of the British version of Celebrity Big Brother , where they notably developed a minor feud with singer and television personality Rylan Clark . They were named the runners @-@ up , losing to Clark . On February 18 , Channel 5 aired a one @-@ off television special discussing Montag and Pratt 's rise to prominence , titled Speidi : Scandal , Secrets & Surgery ! . Later that year , they launched the Speidi Show , which was initially assumed to be a web series in which the couple used a different reality television format for each installment . However , the project was later revealed to be an example of networked improv narrative , where Montag and Pratt collaborated with Mark Marino and Rob Wittig to create a Twitter game in which players Live Tweet an imaginary show . In October 2013 , Montag revealed that her original F @-@ cup breast implants resulted in severe health issues , and underwent a breast reduction surgery to replace them with D @-@ cup implants . She and Pratt appeared in the television special After Shock : Heidi & Spencer , which premiered on December 9 , 2013 , on E ! , during which they admitted that many of the situations they were involved with in the various reality series they starred on were in fact made up by the shows producers . Montag and Pratt later appeared on an episode of Celebrity Wife Swap in June 2014 , for which they swapped with Olympic athlete Amanda Beard and her husband Sacha Brown . In October 2015 , Heidi and her husband made several media appearances that were largely devoted to two subjects : claiming that their image as terrible people stemming from " The Hills " was not factual and , somewhat divergently , their intense dislike of Lauren Conrad , which included Heidi 's husband admitting he spread rumors ( which Heidi said were true but have never been proven ) that Lauren made a sex tape with a former boyfriend . Heidi also claimed she had been paid to remain Lauren 's friend during her time on the show , while also adding she had reconciled with her family to her husband 's displeasure .
= = Filmography = =
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Superficial ( 2010 )
Extended plays
Wherever I Am ( 2009 )
Here She Is ... ( 2009 )
Dreams Come True ( 2012 )
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= Emily Sartain =
Emily Sartain ( March 17 , 1841 – June 17 , 1927 ) was an American painter and engraver . She was the first woman in Europe and the United States to practice the art of mezzotint engraving , and the only woman to win a gold medal at the 1876 World Fair in Philadelphia . Sartain became a nationally recognized art educator and was the director of the Philadelphia School of Design for Women from 1866 to 1919 or 1920 . Her father , John Sartain , and three of her brothers , William , Henry and Samuel were artists . Before she entered the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts and studied abroad , her father took her on a Grand Tour of Europe . She helped found the New Century Club for working and professional women , and the professional women 's art clubs , The Plastic Club and The Three Arts Club .
= = Early life = =
Emily Sartain was born in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania on March 17 , 1841 . She was the fifth of eight children of Philadelphia master printer and publisher of Sartain 's Magazine John Sartain and Susannah Longmate Swaine Sartain .
In 1858 , Sartain graduated from the Philadelphia Normal School and then taught school until the summer of 1862 . John Sartain taught his daughter art , including the mezzotint engraving technique that he revived , which was a favored process in England that created high @-@ quality prints of paintings . John Sartain believed in equal opportunities for women and encouraged his daughter to pursue a career . He mortgaged his house and gave her a " gentleman 's education " in fine art by taking her on a Grand Tour of Europe beginning the summer of 1862 . They started in Montreal and Quebec and then sailed for Europe . She enjoyed the English countryside ; old world cities , especially Florence and Edinburgh ; the Louvre ; Italian Renaissance paintings ; and artists like Dante and engraver Elena Perfetti . She traveled to Venice to visit William Dean Howells and his wife Elinor Mead Howells , who was a painter . Sartain decided in the course of the trip that she wanted to become an artist . During their travels the Sartains learned that William Sartain had enlisted during the Civil War ( 1861 – 1865 ) and later hastily returned to the United States when John and Emily learned that the Confederate States Army had crossed into Chambersburg , Pennsylvania , which is 158 miles west of Philadelphia .
Of John and Susannah Sartain 's children , Samuel ( 1830 – 1906 ) , Henry ( 1833 – 1895 ) , William Sartain ( 1843 – 1925 ) and Emily were painters and engravers , beginning a legacy of Sartain family artists and printmakers . Sartain sought her father 's input on her work throughout her career and benefited from his support and connections . She carried on the mezzatint engraving technique that he taught her . Sartain lived with her parents into adulthood , supporting and caring for them in their later years . In 1886 , her parents moved into her living quarters at the Philadelphia School of Design for Women .
= = Education = =
A portrait painter and engraver , Emily Sartain studied with Christian Schussele and her father , John Sartain , at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts . She met Thomas Eakins at the academy and entered into what biographer Henry Adams believes was Eakin 's " first known romance " . Their romantic relationship ended after Eakins went to Paris to study art and Eakins succumbed to what Sartain described as " temptations of the great city " and due to her interest in women 's rights . The two remained lifelong friends .
In 1870 , Sartain met Mary Cassatt in Philadelphia and the following year they left for Paris , London , Parma , and Turin to study painting . The women spent the first winter in Italy and studied printmaking with Carlo Raimondi , who taught engraving at the Academy of Fine Arts in Parma . Sartain spent the rest of the four @-@ year stay in Paris and studied under Évariste Vital Luminais . She shared a studio with Jeanne Rongier . Florence Esté , Sartain 's friend , also worked in the studio occasionally . The women copied each other 's work and provided one another criticism and encouragement . Two of Sartain 's paintings , genre painting Le Piece de Conviction ( The Reproof ) and a portrait of Mlle. Del Sarte , were accepted at the Paris salon in 1875 . Sartain returned to the United States that year , when she ran out of money . Harriet ( Hattie ) Judd Sartain , who was her brother Samuel 's wife and a successful homeopathic physician , had lent Emily Sartain money for her education . Emily believed Hattie was likely to continue to help with education expenses in Philadelphia where expenses were lower and she would more likely sell her works .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Sartain set up a studio in Philadelphia in 1875 where she created paintings and engravings . Over the course of her career she made copies of paintings in Spanish and Italian galleries , portraits , genre paintings , and was the first woman to practice the art of the mezzotint in the United States and Europe . Among her works were period scenes that depicted submissive women with downcast eyes as in Italian Woman and The Reproof . Sartain exhibited her works in cities along the East Coast of the United States and was the only woman to win a gold medal at the 1876 World Fair in Philadelphia for The Reproof . She won the Mary Smith Prize for best picture by a woman at the 1881 and 1883 Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts exhibits . Sartain worked as art editor for the paper Our Continent from 1881 to 1883 . She was then the art editor for New England Bygones ( 1883 ) by Ellen C. H. Rollins . Joseph M. Pennell said that Sartain was " the only trained woman art editor I ever knew " .
Sartain was a progressive New Woman , who with her sister @-@ in @-@ law , Hattie Judd Sartain , formed the woman 's organization , the New Century Club . Hattie is believed to have helped her attain the commissions of portraits of local physicians Constantin Hering and James Caleb Jackson . Besides having financed her education and being her ally and mentor , Hattie also modeled for Sartain .
= = = Philadelphia School of Design for Women = = =
In 1886 she became the director of the Philadelphia School of Design for Women , in which her father had served on the board as vice president for years . It was the country 's largest art school for women , where she was , according to Henry Adams , " a pioneering advocate of advanced education for women . " Sartain implemented life @-@ drawing classes at the Philadelphia School of Design for Women , using draped male and nude women models , which was uncommon for women artists at the time . She created a professional program that was built upon technical and lengthy training and high standards . The women were taught to create works of art based upon three @-@ dimensional and human forms . She trained women who taught art . Through her efforts , she brought the level of instruction at the school to that of a French academy and similar to that of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts . Industrial design schools for women were often considered purveyors of lower forms of art , but Sartain believed that good art was defined more by the artist 's capabilities than the medium and that the same aesthetic principles used to judge fine art could be applied to commercial art . She was responsible for introducing important faculty members such as Robert Henri , Samuel Murray and Daniel Garber to the school . Sartain was an established , national authority on art education and art for women by 1890 .
She was an exhibitor , member of the Fine Arts jury , chair of the decorating committee for the Pennsylvania Building , and an art education speaker at the 1893 Chicago World 's Columbian Exposition . In 1897 , Emily Sartain and Alice Barber Stephens , a teacher at the school , founded The Plastic Club in Philadelphia . She was president of the club from 1899 to 1903 and again in 1904 and 1905 . Sartain also help found the Three Arts Club . She spoke in London in 1899 at the Professional Section of the International Congress of Women . In 1900 , Sartain attended the first international conference on art education in Paris . She was one of three delegates from the United States that year and again in 1904 in Berne . Her article " Value of Training in Design for Woman " was published in 1913 in The New York Times . She led the design school until 1919 or 1920 . Her niece , Harriet Sartain led the school after her retirement . Harriet was Henry 's daughter and had been mentored by her Aunt Emily . Sartain received certificates , medals , and diplomas in recognition of her service to art and education , including recognition from the London Society of Literature , Science and Art .
Nina de Angeli Walls wrote ,
As Sartain 's career illustrates , art schools conferred professional status in a cultural field once dominated by men . Women artists used formal schooling to counter the accusation of amateurism frequently leveled at them . Nineteenth century design schools were the first institutions to offer professional certification for women in such careers as art education , fabric design , or magazine illustration ; hence , the schools opened unprecedented paths to female economic independence .
= = Later years = =
Sartain retired to San Diego , California . During her career Sartain traveled to Europe most summers and continued to travel abroad every year during her retirement . She was visiting in Philadelphia when she died on June 17 , 1927 .
= = Collections = =
Franklin Institute Of Science , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania
Frederick Fraley , ca . 1891 – 1901 , oil
Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts : Christ Walking on the Sea , Emily Sartain after Henry Richter , 1865 , mezzotint , etching and stipple
Christ Walking on the Water , Emily Sartain after Charles Jalabert , 1867 , engraving with roulette
Ralph Waldo Emerson , Emily Sartain after William Henry Furness , Jr . , 1871 , mezzotint , etching , engraving and stipple
Untitled , 1887 , oil on wood
Welcome News , 1888 , etching on chine collé
I. S. Hentchin , etching , engraving , mezzotint , stipple and photomechanical texture
S. C. Huntington , etching , engraving , mezzotint and stipple
President Lincoln and Son , mezzotint , etching , engraving , stipple and photomechanical ground
His Excellency Baron Lisgar , mezzotint , etching , stipple and photomechanical ground
Samuel Partridge , mezzotint , etching , engraving and stipple
Alexander Thomson , Emily Sartain after J. C. Darley , etching , engraving , mezzotint and photomechanical ground
J. W. Weir , Etching , engraving and photomechanical ground
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= Terang Boelan =
Terang Boelan ( [ təˈraŋ buˈlan ] ; Indonesian for " Full Moon " , Terang Bulan in the Perfected Spelling System ) is a 1937 film from the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) . Written by Saeroen , directed by Albert Balink , and starring Rd Mochtar , Roekiah and Eddie T. Effendi , Terang Boelan follows two lovers who elope after one is almost forced to marry an opium smuggler . The film was shot in the Indies and Singapore , and was partially inspired by the 1936 Hollywood film The Jungle Princess . It was aimed at native audiences and included keroncong music , which was popular at the time , and several actors from Balink 's previous work Pareh ( 1936 ) .
Terang Boelan was a commercial success in both the Indies and abroad , earning 200 @,@ 000 Straits dollars in British Malaya . This success revived the faltering domestic film industry and inspired films aimed at Malay audiences in Malaya , creating a formula of songs , beautiful scenery and romance that was followed for decades afterwards . The Indonesian film historian Misbach Yusa Biran described it as a turning point in the history of Indonesian cinema for its catalytic effect on the industry 's growth . Like many Indonesian films of the era , Terang Boelan has been lost since at least the 1970s .
= = Plot = =
Rohaya ( Roekiah ) must separate from her lover , Kasim ( Rd Mochtar ) , so that she can marry her father 's choice , the disreputable but rich Musa ( Eddie T. Effendi ) . The night before the wedding , Kasim plays the song " Terang Boelan " for Rohaya , and they agree to elope . The following day , Rohaya and Kasim escape from Sawoba Island to Malacca , where Kasim begins work at a drydock and Rohaya keeps busy as a housewife . They discover that Kasim 's old friend , Dullah ( Kartolo ) , has lived in Malacca for some time .
Their life together is interrupted when Musa , who is revealed to be an opium dealer , discovers them . While Kasim is away at work , Rohaya 's father ( Muhin ) comes and takes her back to Sawoba . Kasim , having discovered Musa 's deeds , also returns to Sawoba and rallies the villagers to his side by telling them of Musa 's opium dealings . He and Musa begin fighting . When it appears Kasim may lose , he is saved by Dullah , who had followed him back to Sawoba . The villagers and Rohaya 's father agree that Kasim and Rohaya should be together , as they are truly in love .
= = Background = =
During 1934 and early 1935 , all feature films released in the Dutch East Indies had been made by the American @-@ educated Chinese @-@ Indonesian director The Teng Chun . His low budget but popular films were mainly inspired by Chinese mythology or martial arts , and although aimed at ethnic Chinese proved popular among native audiences because of their action sequences . The Teng Chun 's dominance was an effect of the Great Depression and changing market trends . The Great Depression had led to the Dutch East Indies government collecting higher taxes and cinemas selling tickets at lower prices , ensuring that there was a very low profit margin for local films . As a result , cinemas in the colony mainly showed Hollywood productions , while the domestic industry decayed . The Teng Chun was able to continue his work only because his films often played to full theatres .
In an attempt to show that locally produced , well @-@ made films could be profitable , the Dutch journalist Albert Balink , who had no formal film experience , produced Pareh ( Rice ) in 1935 in collaboration with the ethnic Chinese Wong brothers ( Othniel and Joshua ) , and the Dutch documentary filmmaker Mannus Franken . The film cost 20 times as much as an average local production , in part because of Balink 's perfectionism , and was ultimately a failure . The Indonesian writer and cultural critic Armijn Pane wrote that Pareh had performed poorly with native audiences as it was seen as looking at them through European eyes . Pareh bankrupted its producers , and enabled The Teng Chun to dominate the industry – although with less traditional stories – for a further two years .
= = Production = =
By late 1936 Balink had obtained financial backing from several domestic and foreign companies with which he , the Wongs , and Franken opened the Dutch Indies Film Syndicate ( Algemeen Nederlandsch Indisch Filmsyndicaat , or ANIF ) in Batavia ( now Jakarta ) . Although this new establishment focused mainly on newsreels and documentaries , on 1 January 1937 ANIF announced that it would produce several feature films , one of which was Terang Boelan .
The story for Terang Boelan was written by Saeroen , a reporter with the newspaper Pemandangan who had close connections to the theatrical community , shortly after the domestic release of the American @-@ produced Dorothy Lamour vehicle The Jungle Princess ( 1936 ) , which served as an inspiration . The Indonesian film historian Misbach Yusa Biran wrote that this gave Terang Boelan stylistic and thematic similarities to the earlier film . The Indonesian film critic Salim Said also recognised such similarities , describing Terang Boelan as reflecting the " jungle princess " works popular at the time . Saeroen named the fictional island on which Terang Boelan takes place " Sawoba " after the crew : Saeroen , Wong , and Balink .
Production had begun by February 1937 , under Balink 's direction and with the Wongs as cinematographers , only to be interrupted by the relocation of ANIF 's offices . Filming had begun by May of that year . Sources conflict as to whether Franken was involved : Biran wrote that Franken had been left in charge of the studio 's documentaries , while the American film scholar Karl G. Heider recorded Franken as co @-@ directing the film . As opposed to The Teng Chun , who aimed his films at lower @-@ class audiences , Balink aimed his film at educated native Indonesians , attempting to show them not from a European perspective but as they viewed themselves . According to Said , this arose as a reaction to Pareh 's failure and resulted in a less ethnological approach . Terang Boelan was shot in black @-@ and @-@ white using highly flammable nitrate film at Cilincing in Batavia , Merak Beach in Banten , and Tanjong Katong in Singapore . The use of nitrate film may have been a factor in the film 's later loss .
The cast of Terang Boelan mainly consisted of actors who had appeared in Pareh . This included the leading actor , Rd Mochtar , and several minor players , including Eddie T. Effendi and Soekarsih . Other cast members , including the leading lady Roekiah and her husband Kartolo , were drawn from traditional toneel theatrical troupes ; this may have been part of an effort to attract theatregoers . The film , which included the songs " Terang Boelan " and " Boenga Mawar " ( " Rose " ) , required its cast to sing keroncong music ( traditional music with Portuguese influences ) ; because Mochtar 's voice was ill @-@ suited to the task , the musician Ismail Marzuki – who also composed the film 's score – sang while Mochtar lip synced .
= = Release and reception = =
Terang Boelan premiered on 8 December 1937 at the Rex Theatre in Batavia , the capital of the Dutch East Indies ; it played to a nearly full theatre . Also marketed under the Dutch title Het Eilan der Droomen , the film was advertised as showing that the Indies were as beautiful as Hawaii , a popular island paradise in Hollywood films . Posters also emphasised the use of Indonesian @-@ language dialogue . William van der Heide , a lecturer on film studies at the University of Newcastle in Australia , notes that the film continued a trend of " Indonesianisation " , or the application of a national ( Indonesian ) understanding to borrowed concepts ; for Terang Boelan this indigenisation process involved the inclusion of " exotic local settings " and keroncong music . Such adaptations of foreign films had arisen several years earlier and continued long after Terang Boelan 's release .
The film was a commercial success , both in the Indies and nearby British Malaya . Native audiences filled the cinemas , most of them working @-@ class people , including native fans of toneel and keroncong who rarely watched films . After being licensed by RKO Radio Pictures , the film was screened in British Malaya , where it was advertised as " the first and best Malay musical " and earned 200 @,@ 000 Straits dollars ( then equivalent to US $ 114 @,@ 470 ) in two months . Terang Boelan proved to be the most successful production in the area until Krisis ( Crisis ) in 1953 , released after the Netherlands recognised Indonesia 's independence in 1949 .
Despite the success , ANIF was displeased with the film and halted its other non @-@ documentary productions ; one of the studio 's cameramen , an Indo man named J.J.W. Steffens , suggested that ANIF 's management preferred works of non @-@ fiction as a more intellectual medium . Disappointed by the company 's reaction , Balink left the Indies and emigrated to the United States in March 1938 . Terang Boelan 's cast left ANIF not long afterwards and , after briefly touring Malaya , joined Tan 's Film . They made their first film for Tan 's , Fatima , in 1938 . Mochtar , who soon married fellow Terang Boelan actress Soekarsih , continued to be cast as Roekiah 's lover ; the two were a popular screen couple until Mochtar left Tan 's in 1940 over a wage dispute .
= = Legacy = =
The success of Terang Boelan led to an increase in film production in the colony , many of the films following the same formula , including songs , beautiful scenery and romance . Before Terang Boelan , local studios had generally been unsuccessful in finding a formula popular with audiences , but the triple successes of Terang Boelan , Fatima , and Alang @-@ Alang ( Grass , 1939 ) revived the industry . Four new production houses were established in 1940 , and actors and actresses previously attached to theatrical troupes entered the film industry , which was reaching new audiences . Most locally produced films released in the Indies were made between 1939 and the Japanese occupation in 1942 . Meanwhile , in Malaya , the brothers Run Run and Runme Shaw , drawing inspiration from Terang Boelan and Alang @-@ Alang 's success with Malay audiences , established Malay Film Productions in Singapore , where it became one of the more successful production houses .
Heider considered Terang Boelan one of the two most important cinematic works from the Dutch East Indies during the 1930s ; Balink 's earlier film Pareh was the other . He notes that Terang Boelan " set the tone for popular Indonesian cinema " , a tone that remained dominant into the 1990s . Biran considered the film a turning point in the history of Indonesian cinema , showing the possibilities of the medium and serving as a catalyst for further development . Said concurred , describing the film as a milestone in Indonesia 's history because of the widespread formula it introduced . The repeated use of Terang Boelan 's formula has been criticised . The director Teguh Karya , for instance , denounced films that used it without building on it , leaving the formula " undeveloped and static " .
Terang Boelan is considered lost , as are most domestic productions from the era . The Filipino film historian and director Nick Deocampo noted that productions made with nitrate film – such as Terang Boelan – burned easily and were thus easily lost , but suggested that copies of the film may have survived until the 1970s . In a 1991 publication Said , Heider , and the American translator John H. McGlynn expressed hope that a copy of the film might be lying around in someone 's attic or closet in Indonesia or the Netherlands .
= = Explanatory notes = =
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= Gray @-@ tailed vole =
The gray @-@ tailed vole ( Microtus canicaudus ) also known as the gray @-@ tailed meadow vole or gray @-@ tailed meadow mouse , is a rodent in the genus Microtus ( small @-@ eared " meadow voles " ) of the family Cricetidae . Voles are small mammals , and this species lies roughly in the middle of their size range . First collected in 1895 , it is endemic to the Willamette Valley , Oregon , and Clark County , Washington , in the Pacific Northwest region of North America . Historically , they were found in the prairie areas of the Valley and , though many of these areas have been converted for agricultural purposes , these animals remain common . For reasons that remain unclear , vole population densities in any area may fluctuate widely from season to season and year to year . They are preyed upon by owls , hawks , and carnivorous mammals , and their parasites include fleas and ticks . These voles build underground burrows and complex tunnel networks , which they sometimes share with other burrowing animals . Relatively little is known about their behavior in the wild , because they are elusive and unlikely to enter traps .
= = Taxonomy = =
The scientific name of the gray @-@ tailed vole is Microtus canicaudus . The generic name Microtus derives from the Ancient Greek words μικρός ( small ) and οὖς ( ear ) . The species name canicaudus derives from the Latin canens ( gray ) and cauda ( tail ) . The gray @-@ tailed vole was first described in 1897 by Gerrit S. Miller in the Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington . The type specimen was collected in McCoy , Oregon , on December 1 , 1895 , by B.J. Bretherton . Miller 's initial examination included the type specimen and eleven others . Two from his collection had been obtained in Beaverton . The remaining specimens , collected in McCoy , were part of the US National Museum Biological Survey under C. Hart Merriam .
The gray @-@ tailed vole is monotypic , but there are some differences between specimens obtained on either side of the Columbia River . It appears to be a sibling species of the montane vole ( Microtus montanus ) or of Townsend 's vole ( M. townsendii ) . It was classified as a geographic race or subspecies of the montane vole by Hall and Kelson in 1951 , but laboratory analyses , including electrophoresis and karyotype evaluations , subsequently confirmed that they are two separate species . The karyotypes of the montane vole and the gray @-@ tailed vole are dissimilar in terms of homology in 6 of 22 autosomal arms . The quantity and distribution of heterochromatin among both X chromosomes and autosomes is different as well . The two species are allopatric , but not contiguously so .
= = Description = =
The gray @-@ tailed vole is a small mammal in the middle of the size range for voles in general . The fur on the back is yellowish @-@ brown or yellowish @-@ gray . They have a short tail , black or brown above and grayish below . The young have gray fur on the underside and a darker , " sooty " gray on the back . The feet of the young are dusky , and they have a gray tail with a black stripe . They are similar in size and overall appearance to the montane vole , but with a more yellowish fur and a grayer tail . The type specimen measured 135 mm ( 5 @.@ 3 in ) in total length . The tail vertebrae measured 33 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) and the hind foot measured 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) . Typical adults average 141 mm ( 5 @.@ 6 in ) in total length , with a 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) tail . The feet measure 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) and the ears 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 47 in ) . On each side they have an upper and lower incisor and three upper and lower molars , for a total of 16 teeth .
Gray @-@ tailed voles are sympatric with Townsend 's vole ( M. townsendii ) , with which they share many similarities . They can be distinguished by appearance , because Townsend 's vole has darker colorings , a longer tail , and differences in the structure of the hard palate . Gray @-@ tailed and montane voles also differ in some aspects of hard palate structure , especially the incisive foramina . The gray @-@ tailed vole shares its geographic range with the creeping vole ( Microtus oregoni ) as well . The gray @-@ tailed vole has a sturdier build , larger eyes , and some differences in the upper molars .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The gray @-@ tailed vole is endemic to the Willamette Valley , Oregon , and to Clark County , Washington . Its range in Oregon extends from Scappoose and Gresham in the north , through the Willamette Valley to around Eugene . Reports of the species east of the Cascades have been called into question . Gray @-@ tailed voles are prevalent in agricultural areas : they are found in and around pastures , hayfields , grain fields , and disturbed habitats . They once inhabited grassy prairies of the valley . These prairies were burned annually by Native Americans , with uncertain effects on vole populations .
Vernon Orlando Bailey describes the Willamette Valley as part of the humid division of the Transition Zone . Annual precipitation there is 40 in ( 100 cm ) , falling mostly in the winter . The valley is warmer and drier than the surrounding hills , less heavily forested , and better suited to agricultural use . In 1901 , zoologist Edmund Heller visited McCoy , where the type specimen of the gray @-@ tailed vole had been collected . The account of his journey is relayed by Daniel Giraud Elliot , referring specifically to the terrain inhabited by the gray @-@ tailed vole .
Heller described the area around McCoy as " much the same kind of country as Beaverton , but more level and forested . The coast range is about fifteen miles distant . In some places , forests of Douglas fir occur , but the land is chiefly open and grassy . White oaks and a few yellow pine occur also , and the region I should judge was more Transition than that at Beaverton . " He described Beaverton as : " low and rolling , but hills are entirely lacking in the immediate vicinity of the town . The timbered land is covered with forests of yellow pine ( Pinus jeffreyi ) , Douglas fir ( Pseudotsuga taxifolia ) , white oak ( Quercus zarryana ) , etc . The soil is chiefly black adobe except on the higher parts , where it is largely clay . The region evidently is Transition in character of its vegetation as shown by the presence of the yellow pine and white oak . "
Mammals sharing the Transition Zone with the gray @-@ tailed vole include : Roosevelt elk , Columbian black @-@ tailed deer , Columbian white @-@ tailed deer , Washington rabbit , brush rabbit , silver gray squirrel , Douglas 's squirrel , Townsend 's chipmunk , Douglas 's ground squirrel , Oregon flying squirrel , dusky wood rat , ruddy deer mouse , California red @-@ backed mouse , red tree vole , white @-@ footed phenacomys , Townsend 's vole , Oregon creeping mouse , mountain beaver ( Aplodontia rufa ) , jumping mice including Zapus princeps and Zapus trinotatus , Camas pocket gopher , Mazama pocket gopher , and northwest coast bobcat ( Lynx rufus fasciatus ) . Birds in the range include : sooty grouse , Oregon ruffed grouse , band @-@ tailed pigeon , California pygmy owl , Harris 's woodpecker , northern pileated woodpecker , Lewis 's woodpecker , Vaux 's swift , Steller 's jay , Townsend 's warbler , western winter wren , California creeper , Oregon chickadee , chestnut @-@ backed chickadee , wrentit , western golden @-@ crowned kinglet , and black @-@ headed grosbeak .
= = Behavior = =
Gray @-@ tailed voles are burrowing rodents that construct complex networks of tunnels and burrows . They may also nest above ground , sheltered under wood , abandoned equipment , or other agricultural debris . They are known to use the tunnel networks of the Camas pocket gopher . The tunnels are built to provide shelter during wet periods , which are frequent throughout their range . When the tunnels flood , the voles swim to dry areas or chambers in which air has been trapped . If the networks flood completely , they will head for higher ground . As many as 20 – 30 voles have been seen gathered on dry fence posts in flooded areas . When approached , they swam to safer ground nearby . Where tunnels intersect , they sometimes establish middens 8 – 15 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) long by 3 – 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) wide by 8 – 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) deep .
Gray @-@ tailed voles are difficult to capture live in the wild , as they are unlikely to enter enclosure type traps . The most effective traps are laid inconspicuously along commonly used runways , so that the voles run directly into them . Much of what is known about the voles has been obtained from observing them in captivity .
= = Ecology = =
Information about the reproductive habits of gray @-@ tailed voles is based on studies of captive animals . In captivity , female voles as young as 18 days , weighing only 12 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 44 oz ) are capable of reproducing . Litters produced by these younger females result in larger litters , newborns of smaller mass , and lower rates of newborn survival . The gestation period is 21 – 23 days . The newborns weigh around 2 @.@ 5 g ( 0 @.@ 088 oz ) . The average litter size is around 4 @.@ 5 . It is uncertain how frequently gray @-@ tailed voles breed . Breeding likely occurs year round .
Gray @-@ tailed voles recognize relatives based on familiarity . Under laboratory conditions , gray @-@ tailed voles familiar with one another produced fewer litters than unfamiliar ones . Pairings of related voles resulted in lower pup survival than did pairings of unrelated individuals . Common foods of the gray @-@ tailed vole in the wild are thought to be grasses , clover , wild onion , and false dandelion . Published claims that the voles are omnivorous lack references or evidence .
Although gray @-@ tailed voles are now described as common , Bailey reported them to be so scarce that few specimens were available . He also claimed that they were present east of the Cascades , but subsequent authorities have refuted this . Their population density fluctuates widely during the year . There is not much data available to calculate population density in the field , but studies in more controlled settings yield estimates of around 600 animals per 1 hectare ( 2 @.@ 5 acres ) .
= = Human interactions = =
Gray @-@ tailed voles are have been used in laboratory research projects . They have been used to study the effects of mineral deficiencies , such as selenium , which is lacking in Willamette Valley soils . They have also been used in studies on livestock feed modifications , including pretreatment of feeds by fermentation , sprouting the grains in the feeds , and clearance of radioactive isotopes from contaminated food .
Gray @-@ tailed voles can become so abundant within their range that humans may take measures to control populations . Trapping them is challenging .
= = Conservation status = =
The gray @-@ tailed vole is listed as " least concern " by the IUCN ( International Union for Conservation of Nature ) . No major threats to this common species are recognized . While its range is limited ( less than 20 @,@ 000 km ² ) , it thrives in agricultural environments , so land conversion for such purposes is not problematic . This species is listed as secure by NatureServe .
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= Nur Muhammad Taraki =
Nur Muhammad Taraki ( 15 July 1917 – 14 September 1979 ) was an Afghan politician and statesman during the Cold War . Taraki was born near Kabul and educated at Kabul University , after which he started his political career as a journalist . He later became one of the founding members of the People 's Democratic Party of Afghanistan ( PDPA ) and was elected as the party 's general secretary at its first congress . He ran as a candidate in the 1965 Afghan parliamentary election but failed to secure himself a seat . In 1966 he published the first issue of Khalq , a party newspaper , but it was closed down shortly afterwards by the Afghan Government . The assassination of Mir Akbar Khyber led Taraki , along with Hafizullah Amin ( the organiser of the revolution ) and Babrak Karmal , to initiate the Saur Revolution and establish the communist Democratic Republic of Afghanistan .
The presidency of Taraki , albeit short @-@ lived , was always marked by controversies . Taraki launched a land reform on 1 January 1979 which proved to be highly unpopular and , along with his government 's other reforms , led to a popular backlash which initiated the Afghan civil war . Despite repeated attempts throughout his reign , Taraki proved unable to persuade the Soviet Union to intervene in support of the restoration of civil order .
At the beginning of his rule , the government was divided between two PDPA factions : the Khalqists ( which Taraki was the leader of ) , the majority , and the Parchamites , the minority . In 1978 , shortly after his rule began , Taraki started a purge of the government and party which led to several high @-@ ranking Parchamite members being sent into de facto exile by being assigned to serve overseas as ambassadors . His reign was marked by a cult of personality centered on himself that had been cultivated by Amin . His relationship with Amin turned sour during his rule , ultimately resulting in Taraki 's murder on 14 September 1979 , upon Amin 's orders .
= = Early life and career = =
Taraki was born on 15 July 1917 to a Ghilzai Pashtun peasant family in Nawa District of Ghazni Province , Afghanistan . He was the oldest of three children and attended a village school in Nawa before leaving in 1932 , at the age of 15 , to work in the port city of Bombay , India . There he met a Kandahari merchant family who employed him as a clerk for the Pashtun Trading Company . Taraki 's first encounter with communism was during his night courses , where he met several Communist Party of India members who impressed him with their discussions on social justice and communist values . Another important event was his encounter with Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan , a Pashtun nationalist and leader of the Red Shirt Movement in neighboring India , who was an admirer of the works of Vladimir Lenin .
In 1937 Taraki started working for Abdul Majid Zabuli , the Minister of Economics , who introduced him to several Russians . Later Taraki became Deputy Head of the Bakhtrar News Agency and became known throughout the country as an author and poet . His best known book , the De Bang Mosaferi , highlights the socio @-@ economic difficulties facing Afghan workers and peasants . His works were translated into Russian language in the Soviet Union , where his work was viewed as embodying scientific socialist themes . He was hailed by the Soviet Government as " Afghanistan 's Maxim Gorky " . On his visit to the Soviet Union Taraki was greeted by Boris Ponomarev , the Head of the International Department of the Central Committee , and other Communist Party of the Soviet Union members .
Under Mohammad Daoud Khan 's prime ministership , suppression of radicals was common . However , because of his language skills , Taraki was sent to the Afghan Embassy in the United States in 1952 . Within several months Taraki began denouncing the Afghan government under King Zahir Shah and accused it of being autocratic and dictatorial . His denunciation of the Afghan government earned him much publicity in the United States . It also attracted unfavorable attention from authorities back home , who relieved him of his post and ordered him repatriated but stopped short of placing him under arrest . After a short period of unemployment Taraki started working for the United States Overseas Mission in Kabul as an interpreter . He quit that job in 1958 and established his own translation company , the Noor Translation Bureau . Four years later , he started working for the U.S. Embassy in Kabul , but quit in 1963 to focus on the establishment of the People 's Democratic Party of Afghanistan ( PDPA ) , a communist political party .
At the founding congress of the PDPA , held in his own home , Taraki won a competitive election against Babrak Karmal to the post of general secretary on 1 January 1965 . Karmal became second secretary . Taraki ran as a candidate for the PDPA during the September 1965 parliamentary election but did not win a seat . Shortly after the election , he launched Khalq , the first major left @-@ wing newspaper in Afghanistan . The paper was banned within one month of its first printing . In 1967 , less than two years after its founding , the PDPA split into several factions . The largest of these included Khalq ( Masses ) led by Taraki , and Parcham ( Banner ) led by Karmal . The main differences between the factions were ideological , with Taraki supporting the creation of a Leninist @-@ like state , while Karmal wanted to establish a " broad democratic front " .
On 19 April 1978 a prominent leftist named Mir Akbar Khyber was assassinated and the murder was blamed on Mohammed Daoud Khan 's Republic of Afghanistan . His death served as a rallying point for the pro @-@ communist Afghans . Fearing a communist coup d 'état , Daoud ordered the arrest of certain PDPA leaders , including Taraki and Karmal , while placing others such as Hafizullah Amin under house arrest . On 27 April 1978 the Saur Revolution was initiated , reportedly by Amin while still under house arrest . Khan was killed the next day along with most of his family . The PDPA rapidly gained control and on 1 May Taraki became Chairman of the Revolutionary Council , a role which subsumed the responsibilities of both president and Chairman of the Council of Ministers ( literally prime minister in Western parlance ) . The country was then renamed the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan ( DRA ) , installing a regime that would last until April 1992 .
= = Presidency = =
= = = Establishment and purge = = =
Taraki was appointed Chairman of the Revolutionary Council and Chairman of the Council of Ministers while retaining his post as PDPA general secretary . He initially formed a government which consisted of both Khalqists and Parchamites ; Karmal became Deputy Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council while Amin became Minister of Foreign Affairs and Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers . Internal problems soon arose and several prominent Khalqists accused the Parcham faction of conspiring against the Taraki government . A Khalqi purge of the Parcham then began with the faction 's most prominent members being sent out of the country : Karmal became Afghan Ambassador to Czechoslovakia and Mohammad Najibullah became Afghan Ambassador to Iran . Internal struggle was not only to be found between the Khalqist and Parchamites ; tense rivalry between Taraki and Amin had begun in the Khalq faction with both vying for control .
Karmal was recalled from Czechoslovakia but rather than returning to Afghanistan he went into hiding with Anahita Ratebzad , his friend and former Afghan ambassador to Yugoslavia , as he feared execution if he returned . Muhammad Najibullah followed them . Taraki consequently stripped them of all official titles and political authority .
= = = Socio @-@ economic changes = = =
= = = = Land reform = = = =
Taraki 's Government initiated a land reform on 1 January 1979 which attempted to limit the amount of land a family could own . Those whose landholdings exceeded the limit saw their property requisitioned by the government without compensation . The Afghan leadership believed the reform would meet with popular approval among the rural population while weakening the power of the bourgeoisie . The reform was declared complete in mid @-@ 1979 and the government proclaimed that 665 @,@ 000 hectares ( approximately 1 @,@ 632 @,@ 500 acres ) had been redistributed . The government also declared that only 40 @,@ 000 families , or 4 percent of the population , had been negatively affected by the land reform .
Contrary to government expectations the reform was neither popular nor productive . Agricultural harvests plummeted and the reform itself led to rising discontent amongst Afghans . When Taraki realized the degree of popular dissatisfaction with the reform he quickly abandoned the policy . However , the land reform was gradually implemented under the later Karmal administration , although the proportion of land area impacted by the reform is unclear .
= = = = Other reforms = = = =
In the months following the coup , Taraki and other party leaders initiated other radical Marxist policies that challenged both traditional Afghan values and well @-@ established traditional power structures in rural areas . Taraki introduced women to political life and legislated an end to forced marriage . However , he ruled over a nation with a deep Islamic religious culture and a long history of resistance to any type of strong centralized governmental control , and consequently many of these reforms were not actually implemented nationwide . Popular resentment of Taraki 's drastic policy changes triggered surging unrest throughout the country , reducing government control to only a limited area . The strength of this anti @-@ reform backlash would ultimately lead to the Afghan civil war .
Under the previous administration of Mohammad Daoud Khan , a literacy program created by UNESCO had been launched with the objective of eliminating illiteracy within 20 years . The government of Taraki attempted to reduce this time frame from 20 to four years , an unrealistic goal in light of the shortage of teachers and limited government capacity to oversee such an initiative . The duration of the project was later lengthened to seven years by the Soviets in the aftermath of the Soviet intervention . The cultural focus of the UNESCO programme was declared " rubbish " by Taraki , who instead chose to introduce a political orientation by utilizing PDPA leaflets and left @-@ wing pamphlets as basic reading material .
= = = Afghan – Soviet relations = = =
Taraki signed a Twenty @-@ Year Treaty of Friendship with the Soviet Union on 5 December 1978 which greatly expanded Soviet aid to his regime . Following the Herat uprising , Taraki contacted Alexei Kosygin , chairman of the USSR Council of Ministers , and asked for " practical and technical assistance with men and armament " . Kosygin was unfavorable to the proposal on the basis of the negative political repercussions such an action would have for his country , and he rejected all further attempts by Taraki to solicit Soviet military aid in Afghanistan . Following Kosygin 's rejection Taraki requested aid from Leonid Brezhnev , the general secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and Soviet head of state , who warned him that full Soviet intervention " would only play into the hands of our enemies – both yours and ours " . Brezhnev also advised Taraki to ease up on the drastic social reforms and to seek broader support for his regime .
In 1979 , Taraki attended a conference of the Non @-@ Aligned Movement in Havana , Cuba . On his way back he stopped in Moscow on 20 March and met with Brezhnev , foreign minister Andrei Gromyko and other Soviet officials . It was rumoured that Karmal was present at the meeting in an attempt to reconcile Taraki 's Khalq faction and the Parcham against Amin and his followers . At the meeting , Taraki was successful in negotiating some Soviet support , including the redeployment of two Soviet armed divisions at the Soviet @-@ Afghan border , the sending of 500 military and civilian advisers and specialists , and the immediate delivery of Soviet armed equipment sold at 25 percent below the original price . However , the Soviets were not pleased about the developments in Afghanistan and Brezhnev impressed upon Taraki the need for party unity . Despite reaching this agreement with Taraki , the Soviets continued to be reluctant to intervene further in Afghanistan and repeatedly refused Soviet military intervention within Afghan borders during Taraki 's rule as well as later during Amin 's short rule .
= = = Taraki – Amin break = = =
In the first months after the April 1978 revolution , Hafizullah Amin and Taraki had a very close relationship . Taraki reportedly remarked , " Amin and I are like nail and flesh , not separable " . Amin set about constructing a personality cult centered on Taraki . In party and government meetings Amin always referred to Taraki as " The Great Leader " , " The Star of the East " or " The Great Thinker " among other titles , while Amin was given such titles as " The True Disciple and Student " . Amin would later come to realize he had created a monster when the Kim Il @-@ sung @-@ like personality cult he had created inspired Taraki to become overly confident and believe in his own brilliance . Taraki began discounting Amin 's suggestions , fostering in Amin a deep sense of resentment . As their relationship turned increasingly sour , a power struggle developed between them for the control of the Afghan National Army . Their relations came to a head later that year when Taraki accused Amin of nepotism after Amin had appointed several family members to high @-@ ranking positions .
Taraki could count on the support of four prominent army officers in his struggle against Amin : Aslam Watanjar , Sayed Mohammad Gulabzoy , Sherjan Mazdoryar and Assadullah Sarwari . These men had joined the PDPA not because of ideological reasons , but instead due to their lofty political ambitions . They also had developed a close relationship with Alexander Puzanov , the Soviet ambassador in Afghanistan , who was eager to use them against Amin . After the Herat city uprising on 17 March 1979 , the PDPA Politburo and the Revolutionary Council established the Homeland Higher Defence Council , to which Taraki was elected its chairman while Amin became its deputy . At around the same time , Taraki left his post as Council of Ministers chairman and Amin was elected his successor . Amin 's new position offered him little real influence , however ; as Chairman of the Council of Ministers , Amin had the power to elect every member of the cabinet , but all of them had to be approved by the head of state , Taraki . In reality , through this maneuver Taraki had effectively reduced Amin 's power base by forcing him to relinquish his hold on the Afghan army in order to take on the supposedly heavy responsibilities of his new but ultimately powerless post .
During Taraki 's foreign visit to the non @-@ aligned conference in Cuba , his Gang of Four had received an intelligence report that Amin was planning to arrest or kill them . This report , it turned out , was incorrect . Nonetheless , the Gang of Four were ordered to assassinate Amin , its leader Sarwari selecting his nephew Aziz Akbari to conduct the assassination . However , Akbari was not informed that he was the chosen assassin or that it was a secret mission , and he confided the information to contacts in the Soviet embassy . The embassy responded by warning Amin of the assassination attempt , thereby saving him from certain death .
= = = = Fall from power = = = =
Taraki was greeted by Amin at the airport on his return to Kabul . The flight was scheduled to land at 2 : 30 but Amin forced the delay of the landing by an hour as a demonstration to Taraki of his control over the government . Shortly afterward , Taraki sought to neutralize Amin 's power and influence by requesting that he serve overseas as an ambassador . Amin turned down the proposal , shouting " You are the one who should quit ! Because of drink and old age you have taken leave of your senses . " The following day Taraki invited Amin to the presidential palace for lunch with him and the Gang of Four . Amin turned down the offer , stating he would prefer their resignation rather than lunching with them . Soviet Ambassador Puzanov managed to persuade Amin to make the visit to the palace along with Sayed Daoud Tarun , the Chief of Police and Nawab Ali ( an intelligence officer ) . Upon arriving at the palace , unknown individuals within the building opened fire on the visitors . Tarun was killed , while Ali sustained an injury and escaped with an unharmed Amin . Shortly afterward , Amin returned to the palace with a contingent of Army officers and placed Taraki under arrest . The Gang of Four , however , had " disappeared " and their whereabouts would remain unknown for the duration of Amin 's 104 @-@ day rule .
After Taraki 's arrest , Amin reportedly discussed the incident with Leonid Brezhnev in which he said , " Taraki is still around . What should I do with him ? " Brezhnev replied that it was his choice . Amin , who now believed he had the full support of the Soviets , ordered the death of Taraki . Taraki was subsequently suffocated with pillows . The Afghan media would report that the ailing Taraki had died , omitting any mention of his murder .
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= The Triumph of Cleopatra =
The Triumph of Cleopatra , also known as Cleopatra 's Arrival in Cilicia and The Arrival of Cleopatra in Cilicia , is an oil painting by English artist William Etty . It was first exhibited in 1821 , and is now in the Lady Lever Art Gallery in Port Sunlight across the River Mersey from Liverpool . During the 1810s Etty had become widely respected among staff and students at the Royal Academy of Arts , in particular for his use of colour and ability to paint realistic flesh tones . Despite having exhibited at every Summer Exhibition since 1811 he attracted little commercial or critical interest . In 1820 he exhibited The Coral Finder , which showed nude figures on a gilded boat . This painting attracted the attention of Sir Francis Freeling , who commissioned a similar painting on a more ambitious scale .
The Triumph of Cleopatra illustrates a scene from Plutarch 's Life of Antony and Shakespeare 's Antony and Cleopatra , in which Cleopatra , Queen of Egypt , travels to Tarsus in Cilicia aboard a magnificently decorated ship to cement an alliance with the Roman general Mark Antony . An intentionally cramped and crowded composition , it shows a huge group of people in various states of undress , gathering on the bank to watch the ship 's arrival . Although not universally admired in the press , the painting was an immediate success , making Etty famous almost overnight . Buoyed by its reception , Etty devoted much of the next decade to creating further history paintings containing nude figures , becoming renowned for his combination of nudity and moral messages .
= = Background = =
William Etty was born in York in 1787 , the son of a miller and baker . He showed artistic promise from an early age , but his family were financially insecure , and at the age of 12 he left school to become an apprentice printer in Hull . On completing his seven @-@ year indenture he moved to London " with a few pieces of chalk @-@ crayons in colours " , with the aim of emulating the Old Masters and becoming a history painter . Etty gained acceptance to the Royal Academy Schools in early 1807 . After a year spent studying under the renowned portrait painter Thomas Lawrence , Etty returned to the Royal Academy , drawing in the life class and copying other paintings . He was unsuccessful in all the Academy 's competitions , and every painting he submitted for the Summer Exhibition was rejected .
In 1811 , one of his paintings , Telemachus Rescues Antiope from the Fury of the Wild Boar , was finally accepted for the Summer Exhibition . Etty was becoming widely respected at the Royal Academy for his painting , particularly his use of colour and his ability to produce realistic flesh tones , and from 1811 onwards had at least one work accepted for the Summer Exhibition each year . However , he had little commercial success and generated little interest over the next few years .
At the 1820 Summer Exhibition Etty exhibited The Coral Finder : Venus and her Youthful Satellites Arriving at the Isle of Paphos . Strongly inspired by Titian , The Coral Finder depicts Venus Victrix lying nude in a golden boat , surrounded by scantily @-@ clad attendants . It was sold at exhibition to piano manufacturer Thomas Tomkinson for £ 30 ( about £ 2 @,@ 200 in 2016 terms ) .
Sir Francis Freeling admired The Coral Finder at its exhibition , and learning that it had been sold he commissioned Etty to paint a similar picture on a more ambitious scale , for a fee of 200 guineas ( about £ 15 @,@ 100 in 2016 terms ) . Etty had for some time been musing on the possibility of a painting of Cleopatra , and took the opportunity provided by Freeling to paint a picture of her based loosely on the composition of The Coral Finder .
= = Composition = =
The Triumph of Cleopatra is based loosely on Plutarch 's Life of Antony as repeated in Shakespeare 's Antony and Cleopatra , in which Cleopatra , Queen of Egypt , travels to Tarsus in Cilicia aboard a grand ship to cement an alliance with the Roman general Mark Antony .
Therefore when she was sent unto by divers letters , both from Antonius himself and also from his friends , she made so light of it and mocked Antonius so much that she disdained to set forward otherwise but to take her barge in the river of Cydnus , the poop whereof was of gold , the sails of purple , and the oars of silver , which kept stroke in rowing after the sound of the music of flutes , howboys , cithernes , viols , and such other instruments as they played upon in the barge . And now for the person of herself : she was laid under a pavilion of cloth of gold of tissue , apparelled and attired like the goddess Venus commonly drawn in picture ; and hard by her , on either hand of her , pretty fair boys apparelled as painters do set forth god Cupid , with little fans in their hands , with the which they fanned wind upon her . Her ladies and gentlewomen also , the fairest of them were apparelled like the nymphs Nereides ( which are the mermaids of the waters ) and like the Graces , some steering the helm , others tending the tackle and ropes of the barge , out of which there came a wonderful passing sweet savour of perfumes , that perfumed the wharf 's side , pestered with innumerable multitudes of people .
While superficially similar to The Coral Finder , Cleopatra is more closely related to the style of Jean @-@ Baptiste Regnault , with its deliberately cramped and crowded composition . The individual figures are intentionally out of proportion to each other and to the ship , while a large number of figures are tightly positioned within a relatively small section of the painting .
As well as from Regnault , the work borrows elements from Titian , Rubens and classical sculpture . The figures are painted as groups , and while each figure and group of figures is carefully arranged and painted , the combination of groups gives the appearance of a confused mass surrounding the ship when the painting is viewed as a whole . ( Etty 's 1958 biographer Dennis Farr comments that " [ Cleopatra ] contains elements enough for three or four paintings no less ambitious but more maturely planned . " ) The scene includes a number of images based on drawings Etty had sketched while out and about in London , such as the mother holding up her baby to see the view and the crowd on the roof of a temple in the background . It also includes elements of European painting that Etty had learned while copying Old Master artworks as a student , such as the putti in the sky . Etty greatly admired the Venetian school , and the painting includes obvious borrowings from Titian and other Venetian artists . It also contains a number of elements from the paintings of Rubens , such as the Nereids and Triton in the sea in front of the ship .
Unusually for an English painting of the period in its representation of a queen of an African country the group of Cleopatra 's attendants includes both dark- and light @-@ skinned figures shown on equal terms and with equal prominence . From the earliest days of his career Etty had been interested in depicting variations in skin colour , and The Missionary Boy , believed to be his oldest significant surviving painting , shows a dark @-@ skinned child .
= = Reception = =
Cleopatra caused an immediate sensation ; Etty later claimed that the day after the Summer Exhibition opened he " awoke famous " . The May 1821 issue of The Gentleman 's Magazine hailed Cleopatra as " belonging to the highest class " , and Charles Robert Leslie described it as " a splendid triumph of colour " . The painting did not meet with universal approval . Blackwood 's Edinburgh Magazine conceded that the painting had been " seen and admired at the Royal Academy " but condemned Etty 's taking a mythological approach to a historical subject :
The effect of this picture would have been much more intense had the painter treated it as a mere fact , and had not brought upon the scene those flying Cupids who turn the thing into a mythological fable . Real boys dressed like Cupids would have been proper , but aerial beings are impertinences , and put one out when one is thinking of the sex . If this amorous pageant had been a mere fiction , instead of having actually taken place , still the power of its delineation would have consisted in its probability .
Etty attempted to replicate the success of Cleopatra , and his next significant exhibited work was A Sketch from One of Gray 's Odes ( Youth on the Prow ) , exhibited at the British Institution in January 1822 . As with The Coral Finder and Cleopatra , this painting showed a gilded boat filled with nude figures , and its exhibition provoked condemnation from The Times :
We take this opportunity of advising Mr. Etty , who got some reputation for painting " Cleopatra 's Galley " , not to be seduced into a style which can gratify only the most vicious taste . Naked figures , when painted with the purity of Raphael , may be endured : but nakedness without purity is offensive and indecent , and on Mr. Etty 's canvass is mere dirty flesh . Mr. Howard , whose poetical subjects sometimes require naked figures , never disgusts the eye or mind . Let Mr. Etty strive to acquire a taste equally pure : he should know , that just delicate taste and pure moral sense are synonymous terms .
Despite the tone , Etty was pleased to be noticed by a newspaper as influential as The Times , and much later confessed how delighted he was that the " Times noticed me . I felt my chariot wheels were on the right road to fame and honour , and I now drove on like another Jehu ! " Possibly as a result of the criticism in The Times , Freeling asked Etty to overpaint the figures in the foreground of Cleopatra . In 1829 , after Etty had become a respected artist , Freeling allowed the restoration of the figures to their original condition .
= = Legacy = =
The criticism did little to dissuade Etty from attempting to reproduce the success of Cleopatra , and he concentrated on painting further history paintings containing nude figures . He exhibited 15 paintings at the Summer Exhibition in the 1820s ( including Cleopatra ) , and all but one contained at least one nude figure . In so doing Etty became the first English artist to treat nude studies as a serious art form in their own right , capable of being aesthetically attractive and of delivering moral messages .
In 1823 – 24 Etty made an extended trip to study in France and Italy , and returned a highly accomplished artist . His monumental 304 by 399 cm ( 10 ft by 13 ft 1 in ) 1825 painting The Combat : Woman Pleading for the Vanquished was extremely well @-@ received , and Etty began to be spoken of as one of England 's finest painters . In February 1828 Etty soundly defeated John Constable by eighteen votes to five to become a full Royal Academician , at the time the highest honour available to an artist . On occasion he would re @-@ use elements from Cleopatra in his later paintings , such as the black soldier who squats on the side of the ship in Cleopatra and who also sits watching dancers in his 1828 The World Before the Flood .
Etty continued to produce paintings ranging from still lifes to formal portraits , and to attract both admiration for his technique and criticism for supposed obscenity , until his death in 1849 . In the years following his death Etty 's work became highly collectable , and his works fetched huge sums on resale . Changing tastes from the 1870s onwards meant history paintings in Etty 's style fell rapidly out of fashion , and by the end of the 19th century , the value of all of his works had fallen below their original prices .
Despite its technical flaws , Cleopatra remained a favourite among many of Etty 's admirers during his lifetime ; in 1846 Elizabeth Rigby described it as a " glorious confusion of figures " and " that wonderful ' Cleopatra ' of Etty 's " .
Following Freeling 's death in 1836 , Cleopatra was sold for 210 guineas , around the same price Freeling had paid for it , and entered the collection of Lord Taunton . While in Taunton 's ownership it was shown at a number of important exhibitions , including a major 1849 Etty retrospective , the Art Treasures Exhibition of 1857 and the 1862 International Exhibition . Following Taunton 's death in 1869 it was sold to a succession of owners for a variety of prices , peaking at 500 guineas ( about £ 47 @,@ 000 in 2016 terms ) in 1880 and dropping in price on each subsequent resale . In 1911 it was bought for 240 guineas ( about £ 23 @,@ 000 in 2016 terms ) by William Lever , 1st Viscount Leverhulme , who was a great admirer of Etty and had a number of his paintings hanging in the entrance hall of his home . It has remained in the collection Leverhulme assembled , housed from 1922 in the Lady Lever Art Gallery , ever since .
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= Suwałki Agreement =
The Suwałki Agreement , Treaty of Suvalkai , or Suwalki Treaty ( Polish : Umowa suwalska , Lithuanian : Suvalkų sutartis ) was an agreement signed in the town of Suwałki between Poland and Lithuania on October 7 , 1920 . It was registered in the League of Nations Treaty Series on January 19 , 1922 . Both countries had re @-@ established their independence in the aftermath of World War I and did not have well @-@ defined borders . They waged the Polish – Lithuanian War over territorial disputes in the Suwałki and Vilnius Regions . At the end of September 1920 , Polish forces defeated the Soviets at the Battle of the Niemen River , thus militarily securing the Suwałki Region and opening the possibility of an assault on the city of Vilnius ( Wilno ) . Polish Chief of State , Józef Piłsudski , had planned to take over the city since mid @-@ September in a false flag operation known as Żeligowski 's Mutiny .
Under pressure from the League of Nations , Poland agreed to negotiate , hoping to buy time and divert attention from the upcoming Żeligowski 's Mutiny . The Lithuanians sought to achieve as much protection for Vilnius as possible . The agreement resulted in a ceasefire and established a demarcation line running through the disputed Suwałki Region up to the Bastuny railway station . The line was incomplete and did not provide adequate protection to Vilnius . Although neither Vilnius or the surrounding region was explicitly addressed in the agreement , numerous historians have described the agreement as allotting Vilnius to Lithuania .
Shortly after the agreement was signed , the clauses calling for territorial negotiation and an end to military actions were broken by Poland . Polish general Lucjan Żeligowski , acting under secret orders from Piłsudski , pretended to disobey stand @-@ down orders from the Polish military command and marched on Vilnius . The city was taken on October 9 . The Suwałki Agreement was to take effect at noon on October 10 . Żeligowski established the Republic of Central Lithuania which , despite intense protests by Lithuania , was incorporated into the Second Polish Republic in 1923 . The Vilnius Region remained under Polish administration until 1939 .
= = Background = =
In the aftermath of World War I both Poland and Lithuania gained independence , but borders in the region were not established . The most contentious issue was Vilnius ( Wilno ) , historical capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with a population , according to the 1916 German census , divided about evenly between Jews and Poles , but with only a 2 – 3 % Lithuanian minority . The Soviet – Lithuanian Peace Treaty , signed in July 1920 between Lithuania and the Russian SFSR , drew the eastern border of Lithuania . Russia recognized large territories , including the Vilnius and Suwałki Regions , as belonging to Lithuania . That month , during the Polish – Soviet War , the Red Army pushed Polish forces from the contested territories , including Vilnius . In the meantime , Lithuanians secured some other areas abandonened by the Polish army , such as the town of Suwałki . On August 6 , Lithuania and Soviet Russia signed a convention regarding withdrawal of Russian troops from the recognized Lithuanian territory . However , there were indications that the Soviets planned a coup against the Lithuanian government in hopes of re @-@ establishing the Lithuanian SSR . The Soviet troops began to retreat only after the Red Army suffered a heavy defeat in Poland at the Battle of Warsaw in mid @-@ August .
The Polish Army pushed back and came in contact with the Lithuanians in the contested Suwałki Region . The diplomatic negotiations broke down . The Lithuanians claimed to be defending their borders , while Poland did not recognize the Soviet – Lithuanian Peace Treaty and claimed that the Lithuanians had no rights to these territories . Poland also accused the Lithuanians of collaborating with the Soviets and thus violating the declared neutrality in the Polish – Soviet War . In the ensuing hostilities , the towns of Suwałki , Sejny , and Augustów changed hands frequently . The diplomatic struggle , both directly between the two states and in the League of Nations , intensified .
= = Negotiations = =
= = = Pressure from the League of Nations = = =
On September 5 , 1920 , Polish Foreign Minister Eustachy Sapieha delivered a diplomatic note to the League of Nations asking it to intervene in the Polish – Lithuanian War . He claimed that Lithuania allowed free passage through its territory for Soviet troops and therefore violated its declared neutrality in the Polish – Soviet War . The next day Lithuania responded with a direct note to Poland in which Lithuanian Foreign Minister Juozas Purickis proposed to negotiate a demarcation line and other issues in Marijampolė . On September 8 , during a planning meeting for what later was the Battle of the Niemen River , the Poles decided to maneuver through the Lithuanian territory to the rear of the Soviet Army . In an attempt to conceal the planned attack , Polish diplomats accepted the proposal to negotiate . The negotiations started on September 16 in Kalvarija , but collapsed just two days later .
The League of Nations began its session on September 16 , 1920 . After reports by Lithuanian representative Augustinas Voldemaras and Polish envoy Ignacy Jan Paderewski , the League adopted a resolution on September 20 . It urged both states to cease hostilities and adhere to the Curzon Line . Poland was asked to respect Lithuanian neutrality if Soviet Russia agreed to do the same . A special Control Commission was to be dispatched into the conflict zone to oversee implementation of the resolution . The Lithuanian government accepted the resolution . Sapieha replied that Poland could not honor the Lithuanian neutrality or the demarcation line as Lithuania was actively collaborating with the Soviets . The Poles reserved the right of full freedom of action . The Lithuanian representative in London , Count Alfredas Tiškevičius , informed the secretariat of the League of Nations that Sapieha 's telegram should be regarded as a declaration of war ; he also asked that the League of Nations take immediate intervention in order to stop new Polish aggressive acts .
On September 22 , 1920 , Poland attacked Lithuanian units in the Suwałki Region as part of the Battle of the Niemen River . The Polish army took prisoner 1 @,@ 700 Lithuanian troops who had surrendered . Polish forces then marched , as planned during the September 8 meeting , across the Neman River near Druskininkai and Merkinė to the rear of the Soviet forces near Hrodna and Lida . The Red Army retreated . This attack , just two days after the League 's resolution , damaged both Poland 's and the League 's reputation . Some politicians began to view Poland as an aggressor while the newly formed League realized its own shortcomings in light of such defiance . On September 26 , urged by the League , Sapieha proposed new negotiations in Suwałki . Lithuania accepted the proposal on the following day .
= = = Negotiations in Suwałki = = =
At the time of the negotiations , the military situation on the ground was threatening Lithuania not only in the Suwałki Region , but also in Vilnius . The Polish leader , Józef Piłsudski , feared that the Entente and the League might accept the fait accompli that had been created by the Soviet transfer of Vilnius to Lithuania on August 26 , 1920 . Already on September 22 , Sapieha asked Paderewski to gauge the possible reaction of the League in case military units in the Kresy decided to attack Vilnius , following the example of the Italian Gabriele D 'Annunzio , who in 1919 staged a mutiny and took over the city of Fiume . By agreeing to the negotiations , the Poles sought to buy time and distract attention from the Vilnius Region . The Lithuanians hoped to avoid new Polish attacks and , with help of the League , to settle the disputes .
The conference began in the evening of September 29 , 1920 . The Polish delegation was led by colonel Mieczysław Mackiewicz ( who originated from Lithuania ) , and the Lithuanian delegation by general Maksimas Katche . Lithuania proposed an immediate armistice , but the Polish delegation refused . Only after the Lithuanian delegation threatened to leave the negotiation table did Poland agree to stop fighting , but only to the east of the Neman River ( the Suwałki Region ) . Fighting to the west of the river continued . The Polish delegates demanded that the Lithuanians allow the Polish forces to use a portion of the Warsaw – Saint Petersburg Railway and the train station in Varėna ( Orany ) . The Lithuanians refused : their major forces were concentrated in the Suwałki Region and moving them to protect Vilnius without the railway would be extremely difficult . The Lithuanian side was ready to give up the Suwałki Region in exchange for Poland 's recognition of the Lithuanian claims to Vilnius .
The Lithuanian delegation , after consultations in Kaunas on October 2 , proposed their demarcation line on October 3 . The line would be withdrawn about 50 – 80 km ( 31 – 50 mi ) from the border determined by the Soviet – Lithuanian Peace Treaty . On October 4 , the Polish delegation , after consultations with Piłsudski , presented a counter @-@ offer . In essence , the Lithuanians wanted a longer demarcation line to provide better protection for Vilnius and the Poles pushed for a shorter line . While Vilnius was not a topic of debate , it was on everybody 's mind . On the same day the Control Commission , sent by the League according to its resolution of September 20 , arrived in Suwałki to mediate the talks . The commission , led by French colonel Pierre Chardigny , included representatives from Italy , Great Britain , Spain , and Japan .
On October 5 , 1920 , the Control Commission presented a concrete proposal to draw the demarcation line up to the village of Utieka on the Neman River , about 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) south of Merkinė ( Merecz ) , and to establish a 12 km ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) wide neutral zone along the line . On October 6 , negotiations continued regarding an extension of the demarcation line . The Poles refused to move it past the village of Bastuny , claiming that the Polish army needed freedom to maneuver against the Soviet troops , even though a provisional ceasefire agreement had been reached with Soviet Russia on October 5 . The Poles proposed to discuss further demarcation lines in Riga , where Poland and Russia negotiated the Peace of Riga . On the same day fighting west of the Neman River ceased as Polish troops captured the Varėna train station . On October 7 , at midnight , the final Suwałki Agreement was signed . On October 8 , the Control Commission stated that they could not see why the demarcation line could not be extended further than Bastuny and urged another round of negotiations .
= = Provisions of the agreement = =
The agreement was finally signed on October 7 , 1920 ; the ceasefire was to begin at noon on October 10 . Notably , the treaty made not a single reference to Vilnius or the Vilnius Region . The agreement contained the following articles :
Article I : on the demarcation line ; besides setting it out , it also stated that the line " in no way prejudices the territorial claims of the two Contracting Parties . " The demarcation line would start in the west following the Curzon Line until it reached the Neman River . It would follow the Neman and Merkys Rivers , leaving the town of Varėna to the Lithuanians , but its train station on the Polish side . From Varėna the line would follow Barteliai – Kinčai – Naujadvaris – Eišiškės – Bastuny ( Bastūnai , Бастынь ) . The train station in Bastuny also remained in Polish hands . The demarcation line east of Bastuny was to be determined by a separate agreement .
Article II : on the ceasefire ; notably the ceasefire was to take place only along the demarcation line , not on the entire Polish – Lithuanian frontline ( i.e. not east of Bastuny ) .
Article III : on the train station in Varėna ( Orany ) ; it was to remain under Polish control but the Polish side promised unrestricted passage of civilian trains , but only two military trains per day
Article IV : on prisoner exchange .
Article V : on the date and time the ceasefire would start ( October 10 at noon ) and expire ( when all territorial disputes are resolved ) and which map was to be used .
= = Aftermath = =
The demarcation line drawn through the Suwałki Region for the most part remains the border between Poland and Lithuania in modern times ; notably the towns of Sejny , Suwałki and Augustów remained on the Polish side . In the 21st century , the Suwałki Region ( the present @-@ day Podlaskie Voivodeship ) remains home to the Lithuanian minority in Poland .
The most controversial issue – the future of the city of Vilnius – was not explicitly addressed . When the agreement was signed , Vilnius was garrisoned by Lithuanian troops and behind the Lithuanian lines . Yet this changed almost immediately when the staged Żeligowski 's Mutiny began on October 8 . Soon after the mutiny , Léon Bourgeois , President of the Council of the League of Nations , expressed strong disapproval , asserting that Żeligowski 's actions were a violation of the engagements entered into with the Council of the League of Nations , and demanding the immediate Polish evacuation of the city .
In Piłsudski 's view , signing even such a limited agreement was not in Poland 's best interests , and he disapproved of it . In a 1923 speech acknowledging that he had directed Żeligowski 's coup , Piłsudski stated : " I tore up the Suwałki Treaty , and afterwards I issued a false communique by the General Staff . " Żeligowski and his mutineers captured Vilnius , established the Republic of Central Lithuania , and after a disputed election in 1922 , incorporated the republic into Poland . The conflict over the city dragged on until World War II . In the 21st century , the Vilnius Region ( Wileńszczyzna ) is the major center of the Polish minority in Lithuania .
= = Evaluations and historiography = =
While the Lithuanian side considered the agreement to be an enforceable political treaty , the Polish side considered it to be a minor military agreement , later superseded by a ceasefire agreement between Lithuania and Żeligowski reached on November 29 . American historian Alfred Erich Senn has argued that it was not a regular political treaty , as it did not require ratification , but the presence of political representatives of both sides indicated that it was not a mere military agreement . Poland and Lithuania also disagreed about the agreement 's relation to the Vilnius question , which was not explicitly addressed in the treaty . The Lithuanian side considered that the agreement assigned Vilnius to Lithuania , while the Polish side argued that it did not concern Vilnius or other territorial claims . Senn has described the agreement as tacitly leaving Vilnius to Lithuania .
Finally , the Lithuanian side considered the Żeligowski 's attack on Vilnius a violation of the Suwałki agreement and as a major argument in international mediation . Poland disagreed and protested such interpretation of the document . At first Poland claimed that Żeligowski was a rebel who acted without approval from the Polish government . Later Piłsudski 's role in the attack was acknowledged , but the Polish side argued that the agreement was not violated , as the attack was held to the east from the demarcation line . The League of Nations considered the Polish attack a violation of the agreement , but placed emphasis on resumption of the hostilities and not subsequent territorial changes . Senn said the view that the agreement has not been violated was " specious " . In his opinion , Piłsudski himself did not seem to share that view , as evidenced by his attempt to pretend that the attacking forces were " rebels " .
In most cases historians tend to summarise the issue by saying that the agreement assigned Vilnius to Lithuania and Polish attack violated it . However , Piotr Łossowski argued that such summaries are inadequate and misleading .
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= Trent Daavettila =
Trent Daavettila ( born September 3 , 1984 ) is an American professional ice hockey player who currently plays for the Colorado Eagles of the ECHL . After beginning his college hockey career with Finlandia University , he transferred to Michigan Technological University , but failed to gain a place on their team . He remained at Michigan Tech and played for an upper @-@ level men 's amateur team while earning a civil engineering degree . Daavettila tried out for numerous minor league hockey teams after graduating from college , but was not accepted by any . Months later , however , he was signed to a professional tryout contract by the Kalamazoo Wings . Daavettila remained with the team , and two seasons later he tied for the team scoring lead and was named a second @-@ team all @-@ star by the ECHL . Through the 2012 – 13 season , he has also played in 19 American Hockey League games .
= = Early life = =
Daavettila was born on September 3 , 1984 . He grew up in Howell , Michigan , as the second oldest in a family of eleven children . His first exposure to ice hockey was in his backyard , where his family had constructed a rink . Through crowded pick @-@ up games , Daavettila learned to stickhandle . " You 'd always want to stickhandle your way down . It was never cool to score from far out " , he said .
= = Playing career = =
Daavettila graduated from Howell High School in 2002 and enrolled at Finlandia University in Hancock , Michigan . He played in ten games for Finlandia 's varsity hockey team , a member of the Midwest Collegiate Hockey Association in Division III of the National Collegiate Athletic Association , and scored three goals and ten assists before moving on . Daavettila transferred to Michigan Technological University , just across Portage Lake from Finlandia , and attempted to join the Division I Michigan Tech Huskies hockey team as a walk @-@ on , but failed to do so . He continued to study civil engineering at Michigan Tech while playing for the Portage Lake Pioneers , a high @-@ level men 's amateur team playing in the Great Lakes Hockey League . During his five years with the Pioneers , Daavettila scored at a rate of more than a point per game and in 2005 he won a national championship with them .
Daavettila graduated from Michigan Tech in 2008 and tried out for the Flint Generals of the International Hockey League ( IHL ) . He appeared in two games for the Generals at the end of the season ( for only about three shifts ) , and did not register a point . Daavettila had not originally planned to pursue a professional hockey career , but said " When I got one skate with Flint , it kind of sparked my interest and I decided to give it a try " . During the off @-@ season , Daavettila worked for a structural engineering firm in Saginaw , Michigan . He used vacation time at the start of the next hockey season later in 2008 to try out for the Grand Rapids Griffins of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) and the Muskegon Lumberjacks ( IHL ) , though he was rejected by both teams . Tryouts with two more IHL teams , the Kalamazoo Wings and the Bloomington PrairieThunder , did not result in a contract either . Daavettila assumed his hockey career was over and went back to his engineering job , but he continued to skate a couple times a week . He had left an impression on Kalamazoo coach Nick Bootland , however , who called Daavettila back in March 2009 after his team was depleted by injuries . " You could see he had a skill set , " said Bootland . " But I thought the way he held on to the puck , he was going to get himself killed . ... You kept thinking he was going to make a mistake . Then he 'd pop a guy for a breakaway . "
Bootland played Daavettila for two shifts in his first game with the Wings and more in his second game . Daavettila responded with his first professional hockey goal and went on to score 9 goals and 9 assists in 20 games for the Wings that season . During the off @-@ season , the New York Rangers of the NHL invited Daavettila to participate in a development camp for their recent draftees and other prospects . " It was the hardest I 've ever had to push myself as far as conditioning and the longevity of it " , said Daavettila . Also during the off @-@ season , the Kalamazoo Wings left the IHL to become members of the ECHL , and Daavettila was one of the first players the team signed to play in their new league . " It was a weird feeling knowing you had a ... plan for next year , somebody actually wants you " , he said .
Daavettila scored 8 goals among 14 points in the Wings ' first 14 games of the 2009 – 10 ECHL season , helping the team to achieve the best record of the league 's 25 teams at that point . His performance prompted the Adirondack Phantoms ( AHL ) to sign Daavettila to a professional tryout contract when the team was beset by injuries early in the season . Daavettila played eleven games for the Phantoms , as center of the third and fourth lines , and collected two assists before being sent back to Kalamazoo . Shortly thereafter , he was signed to another professional tryout by the Grand Rapids Griffins , for whom he played in two games and scored his first AHL goal by deflecting a shot by Andy Delmore . Daavettila was later called up again and played in two more games for Adirondack . Meanwhile , while with Kalamazoo , he scored 19 goals and added 30 assists in 51 games to finish fourth on the team in scoring . In the playoffs , Daavettila continued his point @-@ per @-@ game scoring rate , but the Wings lost their first @-@ round series to the Reading Royals . In July , he was one of the first players signed by the Wings for the following season .
Daavettila began the 2010 – 11 season at the Grand Rapids Griffins training camp , but again did not make the team . Back with the Wings , he centered a line with Brady Leisenring and Andrew Fournier and had a 12 @-@ game point @-@ scoring streak early in the season . In early January , Daavettila was loaned to the Griffins , where he played in one game before being returned . He was named ECHL Player of the Week for the week ending on February 13 after scoring five goals and two assists in four games , including his first professional hat trick on February 12 against the Greenville Road Warriors . He was on a seven @-@ game point streak at the end of the month and was named ECHL Plus Performer of the Month for having the best plus @-@ minus in February and ECHL Player of the Month for scoring 8 goals and 14 assists in his team 's 14 games . Now on a line with Fournier and Darryl Lloyd , Daavettila extended his point streak to eleven games and helped Kalamazoo gain a place in the playoffs in March . He finished the season with 80 points to tie with Kory Karlander as Kalamazoo 's lead scorers ; the pair tied for fourth in league scoring . Daavettila was also named an ECHL second @-@ team all @-@ star and shared the ECHL Reebok Plus Performer Award with Brendan Connolly of the Greenville Road Warriors . In the playoffs , Daavettila scored 6 goals and 22 assists in 18 games , leading the league in playoff scoring , and helped the Wings defeat the Florida Everblades , Reading Royals and Wheeling Nailers on their way to the Kelly Cup Finals . In that series , Kalamazoo lost to the Alaska Aces 4 – 1 .
After completing his fourth season with the Wings in 2011 – 12 , Daavettila signed his first European contract as a free agent , agreeing to a one @-@ year deal with Frederikshavn White Hawks of the Danish AL @-@ Bank Ligaen on June 13 , 2012 . However a little over a month later , due to personal reasons , Daavettila sought a release from his contract and was granted on July 30 , 2012 . On September 13 , Daavettila agreed to remain in the ECHL , defecting from the Wings to fellow competitor the Colorado Eagles on a one @-@ year deal .
= = Personal life = =
Daavettila married his wife Wendy on August 7 , 2010 . During the 2009 and 2010 off @-@ seasons , he worked for Tetra Tech in Howell , Michigan .
= = Career statistics = =
Statistics as of the end of the 2015 – 16 season .
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= I , Borg =
" I , Borg " is the 23rd episode of the fifth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation , the 123rd overall . It was originally released on May 10 , 1992 , in broadcast syndication . The episode was written by René Echevarria , with an uncredited assist from executive producer Jeri Taylor . It was directed by Robert Lederman , the film editor for The Next Generation , one of two directing credits he received during the course of the season .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Federation starship Enterprise . In this episode , an injured Borg drone ( Jonathan Del Arco ) is found amid a crashed scout ship . As they restore him to health , the crew must decide whether or not to develop him as a weapon of mass destruction against the Borg , but when he demonstrates free will , they must question that decision .
The writers had problems bringing back the Borg due to their apparent near @-@ invincibility . The idea for " I , Borg " was well received among the staff , with Taylor comparing it to the film Edward Scissorhands . The episode also saw a development in the make @-@ up design for the Borg by Michael Westmore 's team . Del Arco was deliberately antisocial prior to his audition in order to enter Hugh 's mindset , but at the same time sought to use the innocence and wonderment generated by a friend 's death as Hugh 's voice . He was pleased when the character later returned in the two @-@ part episode " Descent " . The episode received Nielsen ratings of 12 @.@ 8 percent , and critics were positive with praise directed at both Del Arco and Whoopi Goldberg , as well as the general nature of the plot .
= = Plot = =
The crew discover a wrecked Borg scout ship with a single survivor : a young Borg drone . Dr. Beverly Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) insists on treating the surviving Borg despite the concerns of Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) . On Picard 's orders , the drone is confined and monitored by security forces at all times and is prevented from contacting the Borg Collective . Chief Engineer Geordi La Forge ( LeVar Burton ) and Lt. Commander Data assist Crusher in bringing the Borg back to health . As they come to understand the workings of the Borg , La Forge and Data postulate an idea of using the Borg drone as a weapon of mass destruction . By implanting an unsolvable geometric formula into his mind and returning him back to the Collective , the formula should rapidly spread ( similar to a computer virus ) and disable the Borg . Crusher is aghast at this suggestion , considering it equivalent to genocide , while Picard and the other senior crew deliberate on the ethics of this plan .
The Borg drone initially calls himself " Third of Five " , but ends up referring to and understanding himself as " Hugh " – the name given to him by La Forge . Hugh discusses how the Borg only wish to learn about other cultures through assimilation , but La Forge counters this argument , discussing aspects of individuality that make them human and unique . In further debates , La Forge finds himself becoming a friend to Hugh , and begins to doubt his previous idea . This is further complicated when Hugh shows elements of individualism . The crew now debate whether it is appropriate to sacrifice one individual to protect the majority , though Picard is still insistent on destroying the Collective . Crusher and La Forge arrange to have Guinan ( Whoopi Goldberg ) , who has a similar loathing for the Borg because they destroyed her homeworld , speak to Hugh .
She finds Hugh to be not a mindless drone but a confused young man , and she agrees Hugh is no longer a Borg . Guinan convinces Picard to meet with Hugh , as well , and Picard comes to the same conclusion , in part because Hugh refers to himself as " I " instead of the Borg 's collective " we " during their discussion . Picard abandons the proposed plan and instead offers Hugh asylum within the Federation . Hugh expresses enthusiasm at the prospect of remaining with La Forge but ultimately refuses , recognizing that the Borg will still come looking for him . He offers to be returned to the crash site , where he will be found and re @-@ assimilated by the Borg . Picard hopes that , once Hugh is reconnected , the sense of individualism Hugh has learned will spread throughout the Collective . La Forge accompanies Hugh to the crash site and , from a safe distance , watches the Borg recover him . Just as the Borg transport out , Hugh turns to give La Forge a parting glance .
= = Production = =
Following the Borg @-@ based two @-@ part episode " The Best of Both Worlds " , the production team were having difficulty in introducing the Borg to the series due to their unstoppable nature . The story idea for " I , Borg " was well received by the production staff , with executive producer Rick Berman saying that he " fell in love " with the characterisations of Guinan , Picard , La Forge and Hugh which resulted in a series of two character scenes in the episode . Story editor René Echevarria wrote the script , with a uncredited assist from executive producer Jeri Taylor . She compared the idea to the 1990 film Edward Scissorhands , saying that she felt it would become a " classic " and that the Borg " would never be the same again " . Michael Piller , who wrote the " The Best of Both Worlds " , described " I , Borg " as having a " great premise which forces Guinan and Picard to face their own prejudices " . He said it was his favourite of the season .
The episode was directed by Robert Lederman , his first of the series and the only new director during the fifth season . Lederman was also the film editor on the series , and would go on to also direct the episode " Force of Nature " . " I , Borg " also marked the first time that Jay Chattaway scored a Borg related episode , but would continue to do so for the rest of the series and during Star Trek : Voyager .
= = = Design and casting of Hugh = = =
The design of the Borg prosthetics as used in " I , Borg " was an evolution from those previously seen in the series . Michael Westmore 's make @-@ up team developed a removable eye @-@ piece for Hugh , using magnets to allow the actor to remove it as required by the script . The team wanted the eye @-@ piece to be dramatic , but decided against using a laser as this had been previously used for Locutus of Borg . They instead opted for a hologram and a series of LEDs that were powered by a battery pack built into the costume and mounted on the actor 's back . The arm piece was also redeveloped ; rather than a single " club " piece as previously used for the Borg , it was built from a foam @-@ rubber glove with attachments .
Jonathan Del Arco had no concept of what a Borg was prior to the audition . He received his script on the evening prior to meeting with the producers and felt that it gave him a decent sense of the character . Instead , Del Arco later explained that he was deliberately anti @-@ social towards the other actors at the audition in order to get into Hugh 's mindset . When he performed for the producers , someone else read the lines assigned to Picard and La Forge , and he felt like he immediately got a positive result . He received a call back , and returned to audition once more .
He said that his performance in " I , Borg " was driven by the memories of watching a childhood friend die , and the innocence that he felt given to his friends memory over time ; " When I first read the script . I heard his voice , that 's what it sounded like – full of wonderment and confusion about everything . That , to me , was Hugh . " Following his appearance in the episode , he later pitched a couple of story ideas to the producers to feature the return of Hugh . He was happy when the character later returned in the sixth season finale / seventh season opener " Descent " , which he felt was similar to his previous ideas .
= = Reception and home media release = =
The episode aired during the week commencing May 10 , 1992 , in broadcast syndication . According to Nielsen Media Research , it received ratings of 12 @.@ 8 percent . This means that it was watched by 12 @.@ 8 percent of all households watching television during its timeslot . It was the seventh most watched episode of the season , behind both parts of " Unification " , " A Matter of Time " , " Power Play " , " Cause and Effect " and " The Game " .
Keith DeCandido in his review for Tor.com gave the episode a score of 8 out of 10 , and described Goldberg 's appearance as " particularly good " , while Del Arco was said to be " spectacular " in his " subtle , powerful performance " . DeCandido criticised the " defanging " of the Borg , but understood why the writers took the approach they did as a near @-@ unstoppable enemy is difficult to write for . He praised the characterisations , specifically for Crusher , and added " it ’ s never a bad thing when TNG actually remembers its character continuity " . James van Hise , in his book The Complete Trek : The Next Generation , said that the episode " enriched the creative tapestry of the series " and gave the writers a number of possibilities for following it up .
Sven Harvey included " I , Borg " in a list of 25 " must watch " episodes of the series compiled for Den of Geek , describing it as " a wonderfully written and executed episode which lays a path for later developments " . Zack Handlen gave " I , Borg " a grade of A- in his review for the A.V. Club , and while he was disappointed that the Borg were made less " nightmarish " , the question of genocide that hung over the episode and the expansion of potential story ideas from the plot made it worth it .
" I , Borg " was first released on VHS cassette in the United States and Canada on October 7 , 1997 . The episode was later released in the United States on September 3 , 2002 , as part of the Star Trek : The Next Generation season four DVD box set . It was subsequently released as part of the Star Trek : Fan Collective – Borg collection on DVD , which brought together the Borg @-@ themed episodes from The Next Generation , Voyager and Star Trek : Enterprise . The first Blu Ray release was in the United Kingdom on July 29 , 2013 , followed by the United States on July 30 .
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= 3 ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" 3 " is the seventh episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . First broadcast on the Fox network on November 4 , 1994 , the episode was written by Glen Morgan , James Wong and Chris Ruppenthal , directed by David Nutter , and featured guest appearances by Perrey Reeves and Malcolm Stewart . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . Following on from the abduction of Dana Scully in the previous episode , " Ascension " , " 3 " was the first episode of The X @-@ Files not to feature series star Gillian Anderson . The episode earned 9 million households during its first broadcast , and received mixed reviews from both critics and the show 's cast and crew .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In the episode , Mulder is brought in to investigate a series of ritualistic murders in Los Angeles , which he first believes were the work of a cult . However , it turns out that the perpetrators are a group of vampires .
= = Plot = =
In Los Angeles , Garrett Lorre , a middle @-@ aged businessman , embarks on a one night stand with an anonymous woman he has met at a corporate party . However , as they are having sex in his hot tub , the woman bites Lorre to drink his blood . Two other men join the woman , helping her kill Lorre by repeatedly stabbing him using hypodermic needles .
The following day , before departing for Los Angeles , Fox Mulder stores the missing Dana Scully 's FBI badge in an X @-@ File and files it under her name . At the crime scene , Mulder meets with the LAPD detectives investigating the case , explaining that Lorre 's murder is the latest in a series of seemingly vampiric serial killings that have spanned two other states . Because the killers write biblical passages in the victims ' blood , Mulder believes that they view themselves as an " Unholy Trinity " .
Mulder visits a local blood bank where a night watchman has been recently hired . Mulder has him arrested after he is caught drinking blood in the facility 's storeroom . During his interrogation , the suspect tells Mulder that he belongs to a trio of vampires who desire immortality ; he is known as " The Son " while the other two , a man and a woman , are called " The Father " and " The Unholy Spirit " . Mulder does not believe The Son 's claims . However , at sunrise , The Son is burned to death when sunlight from the window touches his flesh . Mulder is taken aback , having previously assumed vampires to be purely mythological .
During an examination of The Son 's body , Mulder discovers a tattoo for Club Tepes , a local vampire club . There , he comes across a young woman named Kristen Kilar who partakes in the consumption of blood . Mulder , having his suspicion aroused , follows Kristen after she and another club patron , David Yung , leave for an erotic liaison ; he initially fears that Kristen is targeting Yung , but is beaten by Yung when he catches the agent spying on them . After Mulder leaves , Yung is murdered by the three killers , although the reason is not known .
Mulder runs a background check into Kristen , discovering that she formerly lived in Memphis and Portland — both the previous locations of earlier murders . Mulder assists the LAPD in searching Kristen 's home , where he finds various blood @-@ related paraphernalia . When Kristen arrives later , Mulder is waiting for her . Kristen tells Mulder that she met The Son in Chicago and that they had engaged in " blood sports " together . Later , Kristen fled The Son as he formed the Unholy Trinity with his accomplices and began their killing spree , following her across the country . Mulder and Kristen kiss while The Son , who has returned from the dead , looks on .
The next morning , The Son confronts Kristen and tells her that by killing Mulder and drinking the blood of a " believer " , she will become one of them . Kristen approaches Mulder with a knife but instead stabs The Father , who is hiding in the bedroom . The Son attacks Mulder but is subdued . Mulder and Kristen try to escape using a car parked in the garage , but the The Unholy Spirit jumps onto the car hood and attacks them . Kristen drives into her , impaling her on a wooden peg on the wall . Kristen tricks Mulder into running outside of the house while she goes back inside and pours gasoline around herself and The Son . Kristen lights a match , blowing up the house and taking her own life in order to kill the other vampires . Firefighters and police find four bodies in the wreckage while Mulder stares at Scully 's cross necklace .
= = Production = =
Howard Gordon was originally supposed to write the seventh episode of the season , but when he became unavailable Glen Morgan and James Wong , who were working on writing the eighth episode of the season , agreed to rewrite a freelance script provided by Chris Ruppenthal . The writers had to do significant edits , but retained the main plot surrounding three vampires .
Club Tepes , named after Prince Vlad Tepes — better known as Vlad the Impaler , who was the inspiration for Dracula — was shot inside a closed @-@ down and redecorated nightclub , with extras recruited from other Vancouver clubs . The location for Kristen 's house was the mansion of hockey player Pavel Bure , then the leading name of the Vancouver Canucks . The producers had an agreement for the late filming from all but one of Bure 's neighbors , who was absent during the petitioning . Said neighbor later tried to sue Fox , only agreeing to let production continue after receiving an indenization .
Perrey Reeves , who played Kristen , was David Duchovny 's real @-@ life girlfriend at the time . Speaking of Mulder 's possible sexual encounter with Kristen , series creator Chris Carter said , " I thought , ' This guy 's a monk . Let 's let him be a human . Especially in [ Scully 's ] absence , it seemed like a perfect opportunity to do it . " Duchovny had previously acted alongside another real @-@ life girlfriend , Maggie Wheeler , in the first season episode " Born Again " . Gillian Anderson is absent from the episode as she was on leave to give birth to her daughter Piper at the time . This episode was the first in which Scully did not appear .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" 3 " premiered on the Fox network on November 4 , 1994 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on October 9 , 1995 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 4 , with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 9 @.@ 4 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 9 million households .
= = = Reviews = = =
" 3 " received mixed reviews from critics . Sarah Stegall , in The Munchkyn Zone , gave the episode a 5 out of 5 rating . Stegall referred to it as a " compelling story " with " excellent special effects " . She commended Duchovny 's performance , saying he is " definitely at the top of his form in this episode " . While writing about vampire @-@ related television shows for Metacritic , Zeenat Burns described the episode as " wretched " . Entertainment Weekly gave the episode a C , criticizing the fact that it did not explore enough the " promising premise " of Scully 's absence . Reviewer Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club also considered that without said premise " deserve [ d ] better than to be background noise for a by @-@ the @-@ numbers erotic thriller " . Handlen described Mulder and Kristen 's " tedious romance " as " all kinds of misguided " , and felt the episode indulged in " lazy writing " regarding the over @-@ explored theme of vampires which resulted in " terrible dialogue and heavy @-@ handed attempts at mood " . He still praised David Duchovny 's performance and felt the first twenty minutes were " endurable trash " with a " serious USA Up All Night vibe " .
Co @-@ writer Glen Morgan felt doing an episode on vampires was a mistake , and said that they also took heat for having Mulder fall for Kristen . Co @-@ writer James Wong was also disappointed , saying that the script was a lot better than the show and that the episode was weakened when Fox censors had problems with the episode . Actor David Duchovny thought the episode had style , but suffered some lapses in logic , including the scene where Kristen shaves Mulder before the two kiss .
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= Cryptic Writings =
Cryptic Writings is the seventh studio album by American thrash metal band Megadeth . Released on June 17 , 1997 through Capitol Records , it was the band 's last studio album to feature drummer Nick Menza . His departure would mark the end of the band 's longest lasting lineup to date , having recorded four studio albums . Megadeth decided to produce the record with Dann Huff in Nashville , Tennessee , because they were not satisfied with their previous producer Max Norman . The album features 12 tracks with accessible song structures , specifically aimed for radio airplay . The lyrics were also altered , in order to make the music more inclusive for wider audience . These changes were met with mixed opinions from music critics , who noted the band moving away from their thrash metal roots .
The album debuted at number 10 on Billboard 200 chart and was certified platinum in 1998 by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipping one million copies in the United States . The first 500 @,@ 000 copies of Cryptic Writings in the U.S. were released with silver background album cover . A remixed and remastered version , featuring four bonus tracks , was released in 2004 . Two years after its original release , the album sold 850 @,@ 000 copies in the United States and won widespread praise from rock radio programmers . The song " Trust " was nominated for a " Best Metal Performance " at the 1998 Grammy Awards and became the band 's highest charting song on the Billboard 's Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks .
= = Background and recording = =
In 1992 Megadeth released Countdown to Extinction , which contained songs with compact , accessible structures that resulted with strong sales and significant radio airplay . 1994 's Youthanasia and 1997 's Cryptic Writings followed a similar route , receiving platinum and gold certification respectively , with the latter spawning three rock @-@ radio hits . Frontman Dave Mustaine , speaking about the band 's commercial breakthrough , said : " I think a lot of our success now has to do with the fact that we 're willing to study the marketplace and educate ourselves . Most musicians don 't get the opportunity to go into the market with educated strategy . Fortunately , for us , our management educated us on how to study what 's current without losing our integrity and to keep on edge while staying at the forefront of what 's important right now . "
According to guitarist Marty Friedman , it took the band a year to prepare the record " from note one to mixing " . A lot of the material was written during the tour and some of it afterwards . As Friedman said , the songs came together naturally because the band wasn ’ t rushed to get a record out . The album was produced by Dann Huff , who had his producing debut with Megadeth . The band chose to work with Huff because they were not satisfied with Max Norman , the producer of their previous record . Mustaine explained why he decided to quit the collaboration with Norman : " Max came up with this bullshit formula that every song had to be 120 beats per minute to get on the radio . When people make drastic decisions to do things like that and it backfires , it usually ends up , in one way or another , costing them their jobs . "
Before the start of the recording sessions , bassist David Ellefson stated that the band doesn 't want their seventh studio album to sound like anything they have already recorded . Instrumentally , the band introduced a more melodic mix than the previous albums , filled with crunchy riffs and speedy guitar solos . In addition , Mustaine re @-@ evaluated the band 's songwriting techniques , recasting some lyrics to better reflect the sales and radio airplay environment of then 's rock arena . According to him , many of the song 's lyrics were altered in order to make the music " a little more inclusive of people who aren 't into dying and evil " . Ellefson commented that this album was a natural progression in Megadeth 's sound . He further stated that they were not trying to leave behind their thrash metal and heavy metal roots , but to broaden their musical horizons .
= = Artwork and release = =
The symbol depicted on the cover is a veve , a voodoo sign . According to Ellefson , the original concept for the album 's cover was very different , however , it was changed at the last minute . The title derives from a lyric in " Use the Man " . Aside from being a lyric , Ellefson stated that there was not really any correlation between the title and the music on the album . The first 500 @,@ 000 copies of Cryptic Writings in the United States were released with an album cover featuring a silver background . These releases also included a Vic Rattlehead collectible card which promoted " The Cryptic Writings Of Megadeth " , an issue run by Chaos Comics . Later US pressings features the same artwork with a black background instead . The black background album cover is also featured in the remasters .
The album sold 75 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release and debuted at number 10 on Billboard 200 . Four months after its release , the record was certificated gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipping half million copies in the US , of which 383 @,@ 000 were sold according to Nielsen Soundscan . Two years after its original release , the album sold 850 @,@ 000 copies in the United States and won widespread praise from rock radio programmers . However , Cryptic Writings did not enjoy particular chart success on international level . It only managed to peak at number two on the Finnish Albums Chart , where it charted for eleven weeks . Elsewhere , it didn 't enter into the top 10 . It eventually received a gold certification from the Canadian Music Association for shipping 50 @,@ 000 copies .
A remixed and remastered version , featuring four bonus tracks , was released in 2004 through Capitol Records as part of the group 's reissued back catalogue . According to the liner notes of the remastered version of Cryptic Writings , Dave Mustaine had to alter many lyrics at the request of their new manager , Bud Prager . The liner notes suggest that Mustaine was not a fan of the changes , but other interviews indicate the band actively sought and eventually accepted Prager 's advice for the album . " I figured maybe this guy ( Prager ) could help me get that intangible number one record I wanted so badly " , Mustaine wrote in the liner notes .
= = Composition = =
Mustaine pointed out that four of the album 's 12 tracks are " fast , hard and crunchy " . Referring to the musical direction of the album , MTV 's writer P.R. Flack noted that " The Disintegrators " and " FFF " were rooted in the thrash metal genre , and ranked them among the fastest tracks on the record . Neil Arnold of Metal Forces highlighted the tune " Vortex " , which according to him , features some of the album 's best guitar work . However , a number of songs , particularly " I 'll Get Even " and " Use the Man " , carried a more rock @-@ oriented sound , which contributed to the album 's diverse style . Lyrically , the album does not have a distinct subject matter , but focuses on numerous themes instead . " She @-@ Wolf " tells of a " wicked temptress with mystic lips and lusting eyes " , while " Mastermind " has been stated by Mustaine as being about " the computerization of the world . "
" Trust " was released as the record 's lead single . The song was developed from " Absolution " , an instrumental track recorded on a demo during the studio sessions of their previous album . " Trust " peaked at number five on the US Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks , thus becoming the band 's highest charting song on that chart . It was nominated for " Best Metal Performance " at the 1998 Grammy Awards . " Almost Honest " was the second single of the album , and like its predecessor , it managed to enter the Top 10 on Billboard 's Mainstream Rock Chart . Mustaine stated that the song is about how people treat one another , which contains a message that " it 's difficult for people to be honest " . Billboard 's Chuck Taylor commented that the song contains catchy hooks and the band 's " signature guitar howl " and classified it " somewhere between Def Leppard and Bon Jovi " . " Use the Man " and " A Secret Place " were released as the third and fourth single , respectively . " Use the Man " ( which started with a snippet of The Searchers ' " Needles and Pins " , which was removed in the 2004 remaster ) is about drug addiction , while " A Secret Place " describes losing touch with reality .
Three extended plays were released in support of Cryptic Writings . Two of these featured live recordings from the ensuing tour while the other was a studio EP which featured instrumental versions of several album tracks . The live releases were entitled Live Trax and Live Trax II , the first being released on June 30 , 1998 , while the second was released as a bonus disc to Cryptic Writings in 1998 . An instrumental EP entitled Cryptic Sounds : No Voices in Your Head was released in Japan , Argentina and as a bonus disc to the album in Korea . The vocals on the tracks were replaced with extra guitar melodies , with the song " She @-@ Wolf " being performed in a Spanish acoustic style for the first half .
= = Critical reception = =
Music critics were divided on the record . Stephen Thomas Erlewine , reviewing the album for AllMusic , reacted unenthusiastically towards it . He criticized Mustaine 's ability to write more " ambitious " material and opined that the band " sounds better playing thrash . " However , Erlewine did admire the band 's desire to experiment with their sound . Rolling Stone was more generous towards Cryptic Writings . Reviewer Jon Wiederhorn commented that the album " should thrill Metallica fans who felt screwed by that band 's thrashless 1996 album , Load . " Dean Golemis of the Chicago Tribune panned the album for being " predictable and annoying " and assumed that Megadeth were " destined to follow Metallica 's leap into mainstream sounds " . Author Thomas Harrison also noted the album for not making much impact as their previous studio releases .
Westnet 's Simon Speichert wrote positively about the record , qualifying it as " pure , solid heavy metal " . He noted that the album contains various kinds of tunes and named it " one of the best metal records of 1997 " . Neil Arnold from Metal Forces observed that Cryptic Writings is not " a bad record " , though it comes " pale " in comparison to their 1994 opus Youthanasia . Arnold went on to comment that the album confirms Megadeth are " no longer a thrash band " . Wolfgang Schäfer , from the German metal magazine Rock Hard , stated that Cryptic Writings followed the musical direction of its predecessors . He described the album as a " balanced mix of typical Megadeth rockers and some experimental songs " .
= = Touring = =
Megadeth supported the album with a world tour that started in the summer of 1997 . The Misfits were the opening act of these live shows , one of which was the band 's first all @-@ acoustic performance that took place in South America . The following summer , the group participated in Ozzfest ' 98 for the dates in the United States . These live shows were the last for drummer Nick Menza , who was fired subsequently . Menza began to suffer knee problems and escalating pain during the tour . He was diagnosed with a tumor and underwent surgery which waylaid him briefly . However , the tumor was benign and Menza was eager to rejoin his bandmates , who had continued the tour with Jimmy DeGrasso . Although DeGrasso was hired as a temporary replacement , he stayed with the band for the recording of their next two studio albums . Menza stated that Mustaine had dismissed him from the band two days after his knee surgery via phone call telling him that his services " were no longer needed " . On the other hand , Dave Mustaine believed that Menza had lied about his injury .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Dave Mustaine except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
= = Chart performance = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Geoffrey Boycott =
Geoffrey Boycott OBE ( born 21 October 1940 ) is a former Yorkshire and England cricketer . In a prolific and sometimes controversial playing career from 1962 to 1986 , Boycott established himself as one of England 's most successful opening batsmen and since retiring as a player , he has found further success as a cricket commentator . Boycott made his international debut in a 1964 Test match against Australia . He was noted for his ability to occupy the crease and became a key feature of England 's Test batting line up for many years , although he was less successful in his limited One Day International ( ODI ) appearances . He accumulated large scores – he is the equal fifth highest accumulator of first @-@ class centuries in history , eighth in career runs and the first English player to average over 100 in a season ( 1971 and 1979 ) – but often encountered friction with his team mates . Journalist Ian Wooldridge commented that " Boycott , in short , walks alone " , while cricket writer John Arlott wrote that Boycott had a " lonely " career . Others , however , have stated that the extent of his introverted nature has been exaggerated , and that while he was " obsessed with success " he was not a selfish player .
After 108 Test match appearances for England , Boycott ended his international career in 1982 as the leading Test run scorer with over 8 @,@ 000 Test match runs , earning an OBE for services to cricket . When dropped from the Yorkshire team in 1986 he was the leading run scorer in first @-@ class cricket . In 1965 while still a young player he had been named as one of five Cricketers of the Year by Wisden , the cricket almanack , and he was inducted into the International Cricket Council 's Hall of Fame in 2009 .
After his playing career ended , Boycott became an often outspoken and controversial cricket commentator on both radio and television . In 1998 , he was convicted in France , of assaulting his former girlfriend Margaret Moore ; he was given a suspended sentence and fined . He always maintained his innocence . In 2002 , after being diagnosed with throat cancer , he underwent successful radiation treatment , and went into remission . He revived his commentating career in 2003 , and continues to attract both criticism and praise . He is currently a member of BBC Radio 4 long wave 's Test Match Special commentary team , and was President of Yorkshire County Cricket Club between March 2012 and March 2014 , succeeded by Dickie Bird .
= = Early life = =
Boycott was born in the mining village of Fitzwilliam , near Wakefield and Pontefract in the West Riding of Yorkshire . He was the eldest of three sons of Jane ( née Speight ) and Thomas Wilfred Boycott , a colliery worker from Shropshire . When Boycott was eight years old , he was impaled through his chest by the handle of a mangle after falling off an iron railing near his home . Boycott nearly died , and in the efforts to save his life , his spleen was removed . In March 1950 , Boycott 's father had a serious accident while working as a coalminer . His spine was severely damaged after he was hit by empty coal carts ; Thomas Boycott never fully recovered , and died in 1967 .
Boycott attended Fitzwilliam Primary School . There he won a Len Hutton batting award for scoring 45 runs and capturing six wickets for 10 runs in a school match . At age 10 , he joined Ackworth Cricket Club , demonstrating " outstanding ability . " At the age of 11 he failed the examinations that would have taken him to grammar school , and instead went to the local Kinsley Secondary Modern School . A year later , however , he passed his late @-@ entry exams , and transferred to Hemsworth Grammar School . His cricket prowess was such that he captained the school 's Cricket First XI at the age of 15 . During winters he attended an indoor cricket school , where he was coached by former county professional Johnny Lawrence .
While studying for his O @-@ levels he began to have difficulties reading the blackboard and was initially devastated when told he would need glasses . At first , he played poorly at school , encumbered by the fragile spectacles , before a more robust pair was fashioned for him at the behest of his uncle , similar to those glasses worn by cricketer Roy Marshall . His uncle would go on to be a strong influence on Boycott 's early cricketing game whilst playing for Brierley Juniors Football Club . In 1958 , Boycott left school with seven O @-@ level passes and the school 's Individual Cricket Cup . That summer he played for the Leeds United under @-@ 18 football team alongside Billy Bremner and attracted the attention of Leeds United scouts . During the winter he continued to play nets with uncle Lawrence .
Boycott told the BBC in 1965 that he chose to leave school at 17 because he no longer wished to be a financial strain on his parents , and because he wanted to pursue his cricketing career . He worked as a clerk in the Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance in Barnsley from 1958 to 1963 , at the same time playing for a number of cricket clubs . Boycott captained the South Elmsall district team , and achieved a batting average of 70 . He also played for the Yorkshire Federation 's Under @-@ 18 team , and for Barnsley , where he was noticed by Clifford Hesketh , a member of Yorkshire 's County Cricket team committee .
= = County career = =
Boycott began playing for his home county in 1962 after topping the averages for Leeds , Yorkshire Colts and Yorkshire Second XI . In 414 matches for Yorkshire he scored 32 @,@ 570 runs at an average of 57 @.@ 85 , with a highest score of 260 not out against Essex , and 103 centuries in all . He scored another 8 @,@ 699 runs in List A cricket , averaging 40 @.@ 08 . Boycott twice averaged over 100 in an English first @-@ class season : 100 @.@ 12 in 1971 , and 102 @.@ 53 in 1979 . He is one of only two players to have achieved this twice , Mark Ramprakash being the other . Boycott was appointed captain of Yorkshire in 1971 , but was sacked in 1978 after failing to win a trophy while in charge . He was then dismissed as a player , but reinstated after a members ' revolt . During his career Boycott frequently clashed with other strong personalities at the club , including Fred Trueman , Brian Close and Ray Illingworth , but remained popular with the Yorkshire crowds .
= = = First years = = =
Before he played in first @-@ class cricket , Boycott played for the successful Barnsley Cricket Club , making his debut in 1959 and becoming a regular team member in 1959 alongside Dickie Bird , Bill Foord and Michael Parkinson . In one match , Boycott faced a delivery from Foord which he dispatched to the boundary for four . Foord turned to Parkinson and asked : " Christ almighty , what 's this lad 's name ? " Bird remembered his " application , concentration and absolute belief in himself . He had one great gift , mental strength . You can have all the coaching in the world but the most important thing is to be mentally strong . " Though Bird later left Boycott out of his choice XI , he would write : " of all the great players I have seen , if I had to pick a batsman to bat for my life , I would go for Geoffrey . " He made his Yorkshire Second XI debut on 6 July 1959 against Cumberland at Penrith , scoring five and 15 .
Boycott made his Yorkshire first team debut on 16 June 1962 against the Pakistan touring team . He opened the batting , scoring four in both innings – the first from a boundary off of his first ball in first class cricket – and taking one catch , but he did not bowl . He then went on to play his first County Championship match the next day , on 20 June , against Northamptonshire . Batting at number four , he scored six and 21 * .
Early in his career , Boycott continued to play in his spectacles , and later switched to contact lenses . He feared his career would have ended had he not used such aids as his eyesight was poor . Boycott 's initial appearances for Yorkshire failed to impress , and he was compared unfavourably to his main rival , John Hampshire . When Brian Close took over from Vic Wilson as captain of Yorkshire in 1963 he persuaded the committee to keep Boycott on , and was rewarded when , on 2 June 1963 , Boycott scored 145 against Lancashire . His century was also part of a 249 @-@ run fourth wicket partnership which became a Yorkshire record . Boycott cemented his place in the Yorkshire XI in the 1963 season with successive scores of 76 , 53 , 49 not out and 50 , and on 29 August made a century partnership in both innings of a match against Leicestershire with Ken Taylor . Boycott handed in his notice to the Ministry of Pensions that same year . After a brief loss of form he kept his place with scores of 62 , 28 and 113 in the following matches . This second century again came against Lancashire , making Boycott the first Yorkshire cricketer to score his first two centuries in a Roses match , as the hotly contested Yorkshire versus Lancashire matches were termed .
Boycott went on to hit his highest score thus far , 165 not out , against Leicestershire , and ended his first full season with 1 @,@ 446 runs at an average of 46 @.@ 64 , placing him second in the 1963 national batting averages . He was awarded his county cap on 2 October . At the start of the 1964 season Boycott hit 151 against Middlesex , followed by another hundred against Lancashire in May , and then played for the MCC against the Australian touring side at Lord 's , where he scored 63 . On 16 May he completed a third consecutive century , and on 31 May he was called up for the First Test against Australia at Trent Bridge . By the end of the 1964 season , Boycott had topped the country 's domestic averages with 59 @.@ 45 .
Although he later became renowned for his ability to occupy the crease for hours of defensive play , he was capable of playing attacking cricket . His highest one day score , a match @-@ winning 146 , came in the 1965 Gillette Cup final against Surrey . In his previous Gillette Cup match , the quarter @-@ final against Somerset , Boycott took 32 overs to accumulate 23 runs . According to captain , Close , at Lord 's after Yorkshire had slowly reached 22 / 1 , Close promoted himself to number three in the batting order so that he could urge Boycott into action . " I joined Geoffrey in the middle and said to him : " Listen , if I call , you bloody well run . " Boycott later claimed this plan had been agreed on a fortnight previously , and denied such an incident ever occurring . Boycott subsequently hit 15 fours and three sixes , even though the modern @-@ day fielding restrictions , which facilitate rapid scoring , did not exist in 1965 . One shot , a lofted straight drive off England paceman Geoff Arnold was nearly caught by Boycott 's team mates on the players ' balcony in the pavilion . Close and Boycott added 192 runs for the second wicket , as Yorkshire posted a then record total of 317 . Cricket writer John Woodcock wrote in The Times that " his magnificent innings contained every stroke in the book . "
In the 1966 season Boycott scored two centuries in one match for the first time , against Nottinghamshire on 18 July . Against Leicestershire on 15 June 1968 he carried his bat through an entire Yorkshire innings of 297 all out , remaining unbeaten on 114 * . It was the first time he had been unbeaten at the end of an innings . He ended the season top of the national averages for the first time . On 27 July 1970 he scored 260 * , his highest first @-@ class score in England , against Essex . At the end of the season , Close was sacked by the club committee in what Boycott called in 1987 " one of the cruelest incidents in the history of sport . " Boycott , on tour in Australia , was awarded the captaincy .
= = = Captaincy = = =
Boycott captained Yorkshire for eight seasons from 1971 to 1978 , having been appointed following the sacking of Brian Close in 1970 . Despite well publicised conflict between the two players , Boycott recorded in 1987 that he regretted Close 's removal from the club , and wrote him a letter in admiration for his contributions to Yorkshire . To captain Yorkshire had been one of Boycott 's aims since he started county cricket in 1962 . Yorkshire 's scorer Ted Lester commented later that Boycott " never got the support he deserved from the committee . After the captaincy was decided on a casting vote , the half that didn 't want him never wanted him . " Some members of the committee wanted to remove him almost immediately . He also caused strife between his fellow players , including a reciprocated dislike for Richard Hutton , with many players leaving the club citing personal differences with Boycott as the reason for their departure . After his first season as captain he spent the winter of 1971 playing in South Africa for Northern Transvaal . He played only one match , however , scoring 107 and 41 .
Boycott 's eight seasons of captaincy were among Yorkshire 's least successful . The club failed to win any competitions and ranked low in the Championship table , in contrast to their one @-@ time dominance of English cricket . The beginning of the end of his captaincy came after BBC Radio Leeds interviews in which two Yorkshire committee members and former players , Don Brennan and Mel Ryan , said that a change in leadership was needed . Boycott himself did not suffer a loss of form to mirror that of his county ; in his first year as captain , he scored 2 @,@ 503 runs at an average of 100 @.@ 12 , included a century in his first match as captain . His success was cited by Trueman as evidence that his selfish nature was harming Yorkshire . Boycott headed the national batting averages in 1972 with 72 @.@ 35 , and was second in 1973 with 63 @.@ 62 . In 1973 , however , Yorkshire failed to win any of the 8 championship games with Boycott in charge , and Wisden called the season " disturbingly unsuccessful " . It led to further calls for Boycott to be stripped of the captaincy . He was also coming into increased conflict with Richard Hutton , Close , and several members of the committee and senior players . " Looking back , " Boycott wrote in 1987 " I wish I had given up the Yorkshire captaincy at the end of that year . "
In 1974 Boycott 's form dipped , when he scored only 75 runs in the first innings of the season , other than a non @-@ championship century against Cambridge University . He did , however , score 152 * against Worcestershire on 15 May to complete his tour of centuries against every first @-@ class county . Both he and Yorkshire suffered through 1975 and 1976 , as did his international career , since he refused to play for England from 1974 until 1977 . During the summer of 1978 Boycott broke a finger , so John Hampshire temporarily took over as captain . Boycott returned later in the season , scoring 968 runs at 50 @.@ 94 , but this was second to Hampshire 's 1 @,@ 463 at 54 @.@ 18 . A poll of the dressing room showed that 95 % of the players wanted a permanent change in the captaincy . On 15 September 1978 Boycott 's mother , to whom he was very close , died of cancer , placing further pressure on him . On 29 September , the Yorkshire club committee met with Boycott to discuss terminating his captaincy . A statement by the club outlined Yorkshire 's intention to retain Boycott as a player while giving the captaincy to Hampshire . Boycott , in response , attacked the Yorkshire club and its decision in an appearance on the BBC 's flagship chatshow Parkinson on 7 October , prompting both strong criticism from the club and strong public support for his own position .
= = = Later years = = =
Boycott , after much thought , continued as a player at Yorkshire , scoring 1 @,@ 941 runs at 61 @.@ 70 in 1979 , hitting six hundreds to pass Len Hutton 's record of 129 first @-@ class centuries . In 1980 he scored his ninth Roses century , equalling Herbert Sutcliffe 's record . He also finished the season with an average of over 50 @.@ 00 for a record eleventh consecutive year , surpassing the achievement of Jack Hobbs . He would experience growing friction with Hutton 's son , Yorkshire 's Richard , as well as with later Yorkshire captain John Hampshire . In the early 1980s Boycott continued his run of form , although a slow 347 @-@ ball knock of 140 * incensed captain , Ray Illingworth , and created friction between Boycott and the rest of the Yorkshire Committee . In 1982 Boycott and Graham Stevenson added a record 149 runs for Yorkshire 's tenth wicket against Warwickshire , Stevenson scoring 115 of these runs .
On 3 October 1983 the friction between Boycott and the committee culminated in a unanimous decision not to offer Boycott a contract for the next season . This generated much protest from Boycott supporters , who rallied , calling for his reinstatement at a meeting on 9 October in Ossett , Yorkshire . Bill Athey left the club at this time , and while Boycott in his biography maintained that he had no reason to believe that his actions had caused Athey 's departure , Athey later stated to biographer Leo McKinstry that " Boycott 's attitude and the atmosphere he created had everything to do with my decision to leave Yorkshire . " The " Members 84 Group " , consisting of strong supporters of Boycott , met regularly to clamour for the batsman 's reinstatement . Their leader , Peter Briggs , stated " Geoffrey Boycott is a giant playing among pygmies . "
On 21 January 1984 the Yorkshire Club committee , in the face of this rising pressure , agreed to offer Boycott a contract for 1984 . Several members of the committee , including Trueman , Billy Sutcliffe and Ronnie Burnet , resigned . Of the replacement members , 17 were from the Members 84 Group , and Boycott himself was elected , leaving him with both a position on the team and on the Yorkshire Club committee . The 1984 season was , however , not the most prolific for Boycott . McKinstry records that he scored slowly in several matches : 60 in 52 overs against Somerset ; 53 in 51 overs against Hampshire ; 17 in 26 overs against Leicestershire ; 77 in 67 overs against Sussex . This was coupled with continued friction between himself and both players and club members . In particular , Boycott 's place on both the team and the committee led to feelings of distrust from both – though Boycott denies this – which led to the loss of support from long @-@ term ally Sid Fielden .
His success on the field resumed in 1985 , where he scored 1 @,@ 657 runs at 75 @.@ 31 , second only to Viv Richards in the national averages . He also shared a record opening partnership of 351 with Martyn Moxon . In contrast to the poor relations between Boycott and the senior players , many junior members of the team remember 1985 and 1986 as pleasant times to be around Boycott , who often coached them on their technique . 1986 saw Boycott score 890 runs at 52 @.@ 35 , his season cut short by injuries which were becoming more frequent as he passed the age of 45 . This season was the first since 1962 that he had not hit an overall total of 1 @,@ 000 runs ; he finished eight short in his final match , when he was run out for 61 . He advised the then captain to enforce the follow @-@ on , and did not bat again . Since 1984 , support for Boycott had waned in light of his slow scoring , multiple injuries and the general atmosphere around him . Both Brian Close and Ray Illingworth increasingly advocated his removal to Yorkshire 's committee , and on 23 September 1986 it was confirmed that he would not be offered a contract for the following year . A few months later , captain David Bairstow , a long term ally of Boycott whose leadership had Boycott 's support , was ruled out of the running for captaincy for the following season , which was instead given to Phil Carrick , of whom Boycott disapproved . Boycott paid tribute to the Reform Group in 1987 , describing them as " dedicated Yorkshire members with a heartfelt stake in their club . " He suggests that Close and Illingworth feared his popularity . Boycott was offered contracts by other counties , including Derbyshire and Glamorgan , but he never took these offers up , nor played professional cricket again . At the time of his retirement he had scored more first @-@ class runs than any other player .
= = Test Match career = =
Over Boycott 's 18 @-@ year career he scored 8 @,@ 114 runs in 108 Test matches for England . He was the first England cricketer to pass 8 @,@ 000 Test runs and , as of 2015 , is sixth on England 's all @-@ time run scoring list ( behind Alastair Cook , Graham Gooch , Alec Stewart , David Gower and Kevin Pietersen ) . His average of 47 @.@ 72 runs over 193 innings is the highest completed career average among England players since 1970 . His Test career included 22 centuries ( an England record held jointly with Wally Hammond , Colin Cowdrey , Kevin Pietersen , and current England captain Alastair Cook until December 2012 when Cook made his 23rd England century ) . England did not lose a Test match in which he scored a century and only 20 of his 108 Tests ended in defeat . John Arlott wrote in 1979 that " any expectation of an English win , except in freak bowling conditions , is based on a major innings from Boycott . "
= = = Debut year = = =
Boycott began his Test career on 4 June 1964 , only two years after his first @-@ class debut , in the first Test against Australia . He top scored with 48 runs from 118 deliveries before he was bowled by Grahame Corling . The match ended as a rain @-@ affected draw , and Boycott did not bat in the second innings as he had suffered a cracked finger . He made 58 at Old Trafford , and then hit 113 at The Oval , his maiden Test century . He finished his first Test series with 291 runs at 48 @.@ 50 . In the winter of 1964 , Boycott was selected for the England team touring South Africa . After a series of low scores during the warm up matches , he was more successful in the Test series . His innings included scores of 73 runs in the opening Test , 76 in the fourth , and 117 in the fifth and final match . He averaged 49 @.@ 66 in all first @-@ class cricket during the tour , and took five wickets with the ball as England won the Test series 1 – 0 . He made a mixed impression on the other England players , who were impressed by his talent but perplexed by his introverted attitude each time he was dismissed .
= = = Early career = = =
England hosted New Zealand and South Africa in 1965 . Against New Zealand , Boycott scored 23 and 44 not out in the first Test at Edgbaston and 76 in the second at Lord 's , but missed the third Test owing to injury . He returned against South Africa at Lord 's , but after scores of 31 and a slow 28 in 105 minutes , the press began to speculate that his may lose his place in the team . In the second Test , Boycott made a duck in the first innings and later took 140 minutes to score 16 runs when England needed to score quickly ; Wisden described the latter innings as a " dreadful effort when courage was needed " . Subsequently , Boycott was dropped and replaced by Eric Russell . Boycott returned to the team at the end of the season for the tour to Australia . In the 1965 @-@ 66 Ashes series , illness dogged his performance initially . He then hit a form of " brighter cricket " during the First and Second Tests . Uncharacteristically , he hit a four from his very first delivery at Perth , and put on 98 in 16 overs with Bob Barber in the Second Test . In the Third Test , Boycott and Barber shared an opening partnership of 234 in four hours ; Boycott hit 84 , his highest score of the series . But in the Fifth Test he monopolised the strike , ran out Bob Barber and took 75 minutes to make 17 runs . His form deserted him again when the MCC went on to tour New Zealand .
In 1966 , England faced the West Indies . Boycott was omitted from the first Test , but shared a partnership of 115 with Tom Graveney . However , he struggled during the series , and managed an average of 26 @.@ 57 . It was a disappointing year for Boycott both for England and Yorkshire , and his average for the former fell to 36 @.@ 60 . Furthermore , he had only passed 50 twice in his last 12 first @-@ class innings . The following summer , he rediscovered his form . On 8 and 9 June 1967 , he made his highest Test score of 246 not out against India on his home ground of Headingley . Batting for 573 minutes , Boycott struck thirty fours and a six at a strike rate of 44 @.@ 32 . He began his innings slowly , taking six hours over his first 106 runs ; he scored 17 in the first hour and 8 in the second . This particularly frustrated the England selectors as the pitch was excellent for batting , and the Indian attack was weakened by injury . Their frustration was exacerbated when Boycott added 140 runs in four hours on the second day . Ian Wooldridge wrote in the Daily Mail that Boycott " could not be excused by his nearest and dearest relations . " He did not bat in the second innings and England won by six wickets .
Boycott 's slow scoring led to increasing media pressure , and owing to his perceived selfish attitude , he was dropped from the team after the match . He remembered in 1987 that " the decision stunned me at the time , though looking back now I see that it had become inevitable . I was mortified with embarrassment and filled with an angry , burning sense of injustice which I can remember clearly and painfully to this day . " A combination of low confidence and a throat infection limited Boycott to two further Test appearances , playing once more against India and once against Pakistan , for the rest of the year . He nevertheless again topped the domestic averages with 1260 at 48 @.@ 46 . In 1967 , Boycott toured the West Indies with England , where he hit a rich seam of form . He scored 463 runs at 66 @.@ 14 in a series England won 1 – 0 .
Over the next two years , Boycott appeared only intermittently in the Test team . A back injury forced him to miss half of the 1967 season , and an average of 32 @.@ 40 against the Australians during the 1968 Ashes was unspectacular . Domestically , his injury also limited his contribution ; however , he did hit five centuries before he was forced to stop playing in June 1968 . Health problems with his spleen and trouble adjusting to wearing contact lenses meant that Boycott missed the tour of Pakistan in 1967 – 68 , but he returned to the team by the summer of 1969 , scoring 128 against the West Indies at Old Trafford , and another century at Lord 's . However , he lost form in the rest of the season ; he scored 12 and 0 in the third Test and averaged only 20 @.@ 20 , with two ducks , in the three Tests against New Zealand .
Boycott was left out of the first three Tests against the World XI in 1970 , he played in the fourth and scored 15 and 64 , and in the final Test of the summer scored 157 . He won the Walter Lawrence Trophy for this century . He was selected for the 1970 – 71 tour of Australia , and averaged 95 @.@ 93 over all first @-@ class matches . He scored 173 in the opening first @-@ class game , followed by 124 against Queensland . In the third Test match , having hit good partnerships in the first two , Boycott made 77 and 142 not out . During the second match , Boycott allegedly told Basil D 'Oliveira , the latter having just announced that he had worked out the action of Australian spinner Johnny Gleeson , that he had " sorted that out a fortnight ago . " This incident was used as evidence for Boycott 's selfish attitude for many years after . His highest score was 142 not out in the second innings of the Fourth Test at Sydney , in a 299 @-@ run victory . The Fifth Test was drawn , Boycott making 12 and 76 * , and in the Sixth Test he was run out for 58 . Boycott initially refused to leave the ground in disbelief , and eventually walked off to jeering from the crowd . He made 119 in the second innings but injured his arm against fast bowler Garth McKenzie in a following one day match and missed the final Test , when England retained the Ashes . He later maintained that the injury permanently affected his wrist , and that he carried a squash ball in a sock in his pocket , which he could squeeze to keep his wrist strong . He ended the series with 657 Test runs at 93 @.@ 85 .
In 1971 , Boycott made his One Day International debut against Australia , the press by then touting him as the best batsman in the world . He was the first batsman to receive a ball in a one @-@ day international and his was the first wicket to fall , after he had scored eight runs from 37 balls . In the summer of 1971 he enjoyed an average of over 100 in domestic cricket , and scored 121 not out against Pakistan at Lord 's . He played only two Tests in 1972 owing to a series of injuries , but rejoined the team in the West Indies under Denness ' captaincy . Boycott was dismissed for 99 in the first innings against the West Indies at Port @-@ of @-@ Spain in 1973 – 74 and scored 112 in the second , followed by a career @-@ best first @-@ class score of 261 not out against a West Indies Board President 's XI . Boycott and Denness did not get on well , and at the end of the tour they clashed over Boycott 's preference for a one @-@ day match over a three @-@ day game against Bermuda . Boycott recalled in his autobiography that when Denness confronted him on the issue he replied " Get out of here before I do something I 'll regret . " Boycott had " no confidence in Denness 's professional ability and no respect for him as a man and another tour like the previous one to the West Indies was the last thing I wanted . "
= = = Exile = = =
Between 1974 and 1977 , Boycott elected to make himself unavailable for England . He claimed in 2006 that he had simply lost his appetite for Test cricket and the stress became too much for him . Boycott 's biographer , McKinstry , speculates that the self @-@ imposed exile may also have been linked to the appointments of Mike Denness and then Tony Greig to the England captaincy , in preference to Boycott . Boycott was very critical of Denness 's captaincy and his standard of batting in his autobiography in 1987 , citing it as a factor in his decision , along with the pressures at Yorkshire . His weak immune system was a recurring motivation for not touring the Indian subcontinent . This period of exile coincided with the peaks of several fast bowlers ' careers , including Dennis Lillee , Jeff Thomson , Andy Roberts , and Michael Holding . However , he later came back to face the West Indies pace battery at its most fearsome in the late 70s and early 80s .
Boycott has responded to these accusations by pointing out that Lillee had been out of cricket for 21 months suffering from a serious back complaint and that Thomson had not played in Tests for 23 months before the 1974 – 5 Ashes series , since an unsuccessful debut Test against Pakistan ( Thomson 's match figures were 0 – 110 ) . Furthermore , he was dismissed for 99 in the first innings against the West Indies at Port @-@ of @-@ Spain in 1973 – 74 and scored 112 in the second , followed by a career @-@ best 261 not out against a West Indies Board President 's XI . All of these teams included Roberts , with a young Holding representing the Board XI .
In the mean time , " When An Old Cricketer Leaves The Crease " was released by Roy Harper in 1975 , and again in 1978 , dedicated to Boycott and John Snow .
= = = Comeback Tests = = =
When Boycott returned to the Test side against Australia at Trent Bridge in 1977 he ran out Derek Randall in front of his home crowd before going on to make a century . In this match , in which Ian Botham made his England debut , Boycott batted on each of the five days of the match : his first innings 107 started at the end of the first day , he batted throughout the second day and was dismissed on the third day ; he started his second innings at the end of day four and batted throughout England 's successful run chase scoring 80 not out , scoring the winning runs in partnership with Randall . Among England batsmen , only Allan Lamb and Andrew Flintoff have emulated this feat of batting on all five days , and both subsequent to Boycott . He also had a 215 @-@ run partnership with Alan Knott . Botham later remarked that " The Aussies , shell @-@ shocked at having to bowl at Boycott for twenty @-@ two and a half hours , capitulated without much of a fight . "
On 11 & 12 August 1977 he scored 191 against Australia in the fourth Test in front of a full house at his home ground of Leeds , becoming the first cricketer to score his one hundredth first @-@ class century in a Test match . Boycott reached the milestone from the bowling of Greg Chappell with an on drive for four . In the match , Boycott became the fourth English player to be on the field for the entire duration of a Test . Boycott ended the series 442 runs at an average of 147 @.@ 33 .
Appointed vice @-@ captain for the tour of Pakistan and New Zealand that winter , Boycott assumed the captaincy in 1978 for two Tests when Mike Brearley was injured , and brought with him his successful summer form . However , he was replaced upon Brearley 's return . While the rest of the England team took part in warm @-@ up matches , Boycott remained in Lahore and organised a special warm up match where the team would play itself . However he went on to occupy the crease for a long period of time , limiting the amount of time other players had to practice . He later stated that , as the number one batsman , he should have the most time in the middle . In the second Test match , he scored 79 and 100 not out , increasing his statistics since his return to the England team to 684 runs at 136 @.@ 80 . It was between this match and the third Test that Brearley broke his arm , giving Boycott the captaincy . Boycott led England to a draw in the third match , his leadership meeting mixed reviews .
Following Pakistan , Boycott and the England team travelled to New Zealand . England were defeated in the opening Test for the first time in 48 years . Boycott took seven hours and 22 minutes to score 77 runs , and England were bowled out for 64 when chasing 137 to win . In the second match , Botham 's first Test century took England to 418 , but by the end of the match England needed to score quickly to force a win . Boycott , however , told his team that he would play the way he always had , and proceeded to accumulate runs very slowly . Derek Randall was run out , and Botham went out to bat with his captain , informing the dressing room that " Boycs will be back in here before the end of the over . " Botham then ran Boycott out , later claiming in his autobiography that he had done it deliberately . Indeed , some have suggested that this was a team order . Boycott disputes the suggestion that the run @-@ out was deliberate in his autobiography , referring to Botham 's account as " a story that gets bigger and more fanciful with every telling " . The tale does nevertheless remain a renowned story . Boycott then delayed his declaration , much to the frustration of England bowler Bob Willis . England did eventually declare , and Willis took 4 / 14 . New Zealand were bowled out for 105 and England won by 174 runs . Boycott suffered a scratch on his cornea and missed the last two days of the final match , and by the start of the 1978 season , Brearley had taken the captaincy back from Boycott .
= = = Ashes series , West Indies and India = = =
During the 1978 – 79 Ashes series , Boycott unusually went in at No. 11 in the second innings of a match against state side South Australia ( not due to injury ) . At Perth on 15 December , he also scored 77 runs without hitting a boundary – the highest total of this nature – though it did include an all @-@ run four . England went on to win the six @-@ Test series 5 – 1 , with Boycott struggling overall through three of the Tests with 263 runs at 21 @.@ 91 . Boycott then played in the 1979 Cricket World Cup held in England , taking two wickets in the opening match against Australia , which England won . The hosts then went on to win their next two games and topped their table for the opening round . Reaching the final after a close victory against New Zealand in which Boycott scored only two , he hit 57 from 105 balls as England chased Viv Richards 138 not out @-@ inspired 286 to win , falling 92 runs short at 194 all out . Boycott ended the competition with the sixth highest strike rate of 42 @.@ 99 and an average of 23 @.@ 00 .
Following the World Cup , against Australia during a Test match at Perth in 1979 – 80 , Boycott became the first man to be marooned on 99 not out in a Test when he ran out of partners . England then toured the West Indies . Here , Boycott again faced the West Indies ' feared pace attack , but succeeded in scoring centuries off the likes of Holding , Roberts , Colin Croft and Joel Garner , despite having passed the age of 40 the previous year . Other batsmen , such as David Gower found the attack difficult to cope with , and the later England captain stated that Boycott often had no sympathy . Boycott was the third most successful batsman , behind Gooch and Gower , during a tour where England went down 2 – 0 . He scored 70 in the opening match , the only England player to pass 50 . In the third match , in Bridgetown , Barbados , Boycott was to face what was later said to be Holding 's greatest over . Boycott was hit on the gloves by the first delivery , played @-@ and @-@ missed the second outside off stump , was hit on the thigh by the third , fended the next two deliveries away with his bat , and was then bowled by the final delivery . Though in 1987 Boycott would claim a 1966 delivery by Gary Sobers to be the best he ever faced in cricket , he noted of Holding 's over that " for the first time in my life I can look at a scoreboard with a duck against my name and not feel a profound sense of failure . " Boycott led an England fight back in the fourth Test . Having watched Holding 's over several times on video , and worked in the nets on his game , Boycott came out and made 38 in the first innings and then hit his twentieth Test century . His career run total was now 7 @,@ 410 , gaining on Gary Sobers ' record of 8 @,@ 032 .
Boycott was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 1980 Queen 's Birthday Honours " for services to Cricket . " He then played in the 1981 Ashes series , despite being aged 40 . During the second Test at Lord 's Cricket Ground Boycott was dismissed 40 short of a hundred by Dennis Lillee , and was " crushed " given that , as it was his hundredth Test match , he wished to score a century . Forever keen on the England captaincy , Boycott 's hopes were cut short when Botham 's 149 not out secured victory in Boycott 's 101st Test match , and Mike Brearley 's position as captain was made secure . During the series , Boycott became concerned with his form and that he may be dropped before he could chase Sobers ' record in the upcoming tour of India . He had scored only 10 and 37 in the Fifth Test , however in the drawn Sixth Test at The Oval he scored 137 , passing Colin Cowdrey 's record of 7624 runs and becoming England 's highest run @-@ scorer . He ended the series behind only Botham , with 392 runs at 32 @.@ 66 .
= = = " Bye bye Boycott " = = =
By now , Boycott 's fame and constant attention from the media had begun to affect his personal life . He was again refused the captaincy for the next Test series against India over the winter of 1981 – 82 . Angered by this decision , he stated that " even the Yorkshire Ripper got a fair trial in the dock but I 've not been given a single chance . " He later battled Keith Fletcher over his slow scoring rate , playing Fletcher 's comments to him during a press conference using a tape recorder . The series against India was to be his last . In his final ODI match during England 's tour he scored 6 from 12 deliveries . During the following Test series he passed Sobers ' career run record , hitting 60 in the first Test , 36 and 50 in the second to take him 81 runs short , and in the third Test he overtook the record with a flick off his pads for four . He thus became the leading Test run @-@ scorer . In his last Test match , the fourth of the tour , taking place in January 1982 , he scored 18 and six . During the tour , Boycott claimed that he was too ill to field in a Test Match , but it was later discovered that he was playing golf while his team mates were still out on the field .
This led to Boycott being dropped from the side and forced to return to England , despite apologising via a note to the England dressing room . He claimed in his autobiography , however , that he went to the golf course following medical advice to get fresh air . Later in 1982 he was instrumental in organising , in defiance of a United Nations and a TCCB ban , a so @-@ called " rebel " tour of apartheid South Africa by 13 current and former England Test cricketers , who were almost all nearing the end of their careers . All the players were banned from international cricket for three years as a result . By the mid @-@ 1980s , with Boycott in good county form and physical shape , there was speculation that he might return to the England side . David Gower , England captain of the time , however , stated that " Geoffrey 's been a marvellous servant for England but we have to look to the future and , in view of his age , it wouldn 't make an awful lot of sense to pick him again . " This was confirmed by the return of Graham Gooch and Tim Robinson 's 175 against Australia at Leeds , which prompted Botham , who had once remarked that Boycott was " totally , almost insanely , selfish " , to sing " Bye bye Boycott " from the England balcony .
= = Commentator , controversy and personal life = =
= = = Commentating = = =
Cricket commentator and statistician Simon Hughes states that Boycott is fastidious in the commentary box , always immaculately dressed , and never socialises with the other commentators or production staff . Bill Sinrich , an official of Trans World International , commented that Boycott " fulfilled all our hopes . He was animated , intelligent , informed , with opinions that got the attention of most people . " Boycott claims to have invented the phrase " corridor of uncertainty " as a reference to the area outside the off stump where a batsman is unsure whether he should leave or hit the ball and was noted for using a key to measure the hardness of the pitch , until this was outlawed by the International Cricket Council . He is especially known for several stock phrases that have become his recognised trademarks in the cricket @-@ watching world , notably ( of dropped catches ) that his mother or grandmother " could have caught that in her pinny " or ( of an easy batting miss ) that they could have " hit the ball with a stick of rhubarb . " These two phrases in particular inspire much affectionate spoofing of his style .
Boycott was offered a role by talkSPORT . He continued to commentate for the station , along with various satellite and Asian channels , until 2003 , when his career was further threatened by throat cancer . Having successfully undergone treatment , Boycott enjoyed a renaissance in his career as he returned to high @-@ profile commentating with Channel 4 , which had meanwhile taken over from the BBC in televising England 's home Test games . In November 2005 , Boycott rejoined the BBC 's Test Match Special to provide commentary for England 's 2005 tour of Pakistan . In January 2006 , Boycott joined Asian channel Ten Sports . He delivered the Colin Cowdrey Lecture in 2005 , speaking about the need for cricket to adapt to changing circumstances and embrace innovations like Twenty20 .
Boycott worked on Cricket on Five with Mark Nicholas and Simon Hughes as co @-@ commentators , and was a member of the BBC Cricket Team for commentary on the 2006 / 7 Ashes series . His role , as in his other commentary @-@ related work , was to contribute to discussion of the main talking points . During England 's 5 – 0 whitewash by Australia , Boycott stated that the team were undeserving of their MBEs and that he felt " so bad about mine I 'm going to tie it round my cat . It doesn 't mean anything any more . It 's a joke " . Boycott has been credited as having a high level of influence in the game , with Yorkshire 's Chief Executive Stewart Regan crediting Boycott over the completion of a deal for Younis Khan to play county cricket for Yorkshire in the 2007 season . On a larger scale , Boycott has worked towards scrapping the rule at Yorkshire regarding the number of overseas players . He stated that he believed Brian Close and the other selectors to be living in past times , and that he wished to encourage a growth in the number of players from Pakistan , the West Indies or India .
His on air commentary has caused controversy . As a commentator , Boycott has renewed his ' pull @-@ no @-@ punches ' style in contrast to most of his fellow commentators . In particular he is known for criticising players , often in a caustic and strident style . In 2005 he mocked the Australian captain Ricky Ponting for electing to bowl first on a batsman @-@ friendly pitch , saying he was a " nice man " for being so generous to the England team . In 2006 , he was initially receptive to the difficulties endured by Marcus Trescothick during his periods of stress @-@ related illness ; however , he was not always as amiable . In March 2008 , recently dropped Steve Harmison attacked Boycott in an article in the Mail on Sunday where he referred to Boycott as a " waste of space . " This was in response to Boycott 's statement a few days previously on 19 March 2008 that if Harmison " gets a central contract this summer then a lot of us will be screaming favouritism and a total waste of money . England should forget him " .
Nevertheless , Boycott has enjoyed a successful commentating career , and his opinions are sought across a number of cricketing media . As well as newspaper columns , Boycott contributes to several online blogs , podcasts and question and answer sessions , notably on the BBC News website and CricInfo . He is also popular among cricket pundits and biographers , being the subject of three significant biographies from 1982 to 2000 , while his comments are reproduced across a number of published cricketing quotes collections .
= = = Relationships , court case = = =
Boycott ( then 18 ) met Anne Wyatt ( then 32 ) while they were both working at the Ministry of Pensions in Barnsley in 1958 . For 20 years they lived in the village of Woolley , near Wakefield , West Yorkshire . They bought a house in Sandbanks , Dorset in 1996 , though Boycott remained in Yorkshire and the relationship disintegrated . Wyatt died from lung cancer at the age of 82 in 2009 .
In 1996 , Boycott assaulted Margaret Moore , a former lover . Boycott denied the charges , claiming she had fallen over and injured herself . He pointed to the fact that Moore was in financial difficulties and said that he would never hit a woman . However , in the second trial beginning on 20 October 1998 , Boycott , having missed the first trial in January where his conviction had been set , appeared before a French Magistrates court and was given a three @-@ month suspended sentence , and his £ 5 @,@ 300 fine was confirmed . He was criticised by the Magistrate for the way he conducted his case and for " rudely interrupting " Mrs Moore 's barrister . According to Boycott , Moore had grown angry when he refused to marry her , stating that " he was not the marrying kind " and had fallen when throwing his clothing from the window , hitting her head on the carpet . However , when he again appealed against his conviction , Moore 's version of events that Boycott had attacked her by punching her in the face , causing bruising , was upheld , in the light of photographs of her injuries shown to the court and the testimony of a doctor that the injuries could not have been caused in the way described by Boycott . Boycott nevertheless later married Margaret Rachel Swinglehurst on 26 February 2003 at Wakefield Register Office , and they have a daughter , born October 1988 . They lived in Woolley , and Boycott and his family currently divide their time between Boston Spa , Jersey in the Channel Islands and Cape Town , South Africa .
At the time of the conviction he was working for BSkyB and BBC Radio , commentating on England 's tour of the West Indies . He was sacked from both roles . He was also sacked from his columnist 's job in The Sun , which announced the dismissal in an article on the front page with the headline " Sun Sacks Boycott the Brute " , although the Sun gave Boycott an undertaking in writing that they would continue to employ him regardless of the result of the court case , as did Talk Sport . A BBC television spokesman said " Geoffrey Boycott is not under contract with the BBC [ television ] and there are no plans to use him in the future . "
Boycott 's commentating career continued , however , as he was able to carry on working overseas , particularly in India . He hosted The Sunny and Boycs Show with Sunil Gavaskar and he hosted the touring Indian team at his home in August 2002 . He also worked in South Africa and coached the Pakistan cricket team upon request . In 2001 , as resentment towards him in the British media following the court case died down , he was reinstated as a writer for British newspapers , and there was speculation that he would lead Lancashire Cricket Club following the departure of Bobby Simpson , though Mike Watkinson eventually took the role .
= = = Throat cancer = = =
talkSPORT , as well as both Indian and South African television programmes , continued to use Boycott as a commentator in 2002 , during which he suffered a continual sore throat . Finding a lump while shaving , Boycott returned to England , and on 20 August 2002 was examined at Leeds General Infirmary . By 3 September , he was informed that he had four cancerous tumours in his throat . Initially , surgeons recommended an eight @-@ hour procedure to remove the tumours ; however , their size and proximity to his voice box eventually persuaded them to recommend radiotherapy , of which Boycott had 35 sessions from 22 October . By December , scans revealed that the majority of the tumours had disappeared , and the final tumour 's disappearance was confirmed in early 2003 . Although initially reluctant to discuss his health with the public , he spoke privately with his daughter , Emma , and then released a statement publicly , which evoked a significant emotional response . On 16 August 2003 , he was given his own standing ovation by the crowd at Trent Bridge as he and a number of other cricketers did a lap of the ground in vehicles to celebrate Trent Bridge 's 50th Test match .
= = = Return to commentary = = =
Following this public support , Boycott resumed writing for the Daily Telegraph and commentating on Channel Four for the Cheltenham and Gloucester Championship Final and the following summer 's cricket . Radio Five Live then hired Boycott in early 2004 . His fellow commentators state that his illness has altered his voice and led to a more pleasant personality , but that he is still prone to unpleasant behaviour . Channel Four producer Gary Francis stated " I think Geoff is a lot more mellow now . He still has his moments , like when the taxi does not arrive and he is not happy , as he makes extremely clear . But overall he 's great fun to work with . " In September 2004 , Boycott wrote for the Daily Telegraph a posthumous tribute to lifelong friend Brian Clough .
In 2004 it was reported in the Yorkshire Post and subsequently the Daily Mail that Boycott was supporting the United Kingdom Independence Party in that year 's election for the European Parliament . He stated that " I am not a political animal . But I am concerned at the way governments of all colours have handed powers to Brussels without the British people having a say in the matter . "
In early 2008 there was speculation that Boycott would be awarded a role amongst the England coaching staff , pertaining in particular to the coaching of Andrew Flintoff back from injury . On 8 May 2008 , however , the ECB revealed that Boycott would not hold such a position . The two had been involved in the past , and while Flintoff is an admirer of Boycott , the ECB stressed any coaching relationship would only be informal . Boycott , however , used to give informal talks to younger cricket players during his career , and the media speculated that he might find a place coaching the England U19s . Boycott continued in his commentating career for TMS , criticising the England team 's approach to the ODI matches under Pietersen in India in November 2008 . Also in November , Daily Mail contributor Leo McKinstry published a new biography on Boycott . On 2 January 2009 , Boycott , along with 54 others , was inducted into the ICC Hall of Fame . He continued to be an active member of the cricket community , voicing his support in late April 2009 for Pakistan player Saeed Ajmal , and calling for the legalisation of the doosra spin @-@ bowling delivery .
Boycott continued to be vocal in matters cricket . He levelled criticism in July 2009 against Kevin Pietersen for his captaincy difficulties and in September against Andrew Flintoff for his apparent favour of club cricket over internationals . On 29 November 2009 , he was commentating an ODI between England and South Africa when he was heard swearing on air following a catch taken by Paul Collingwood dismissed Ryan McLaren . The BBC released a statement on 30 November which read : " An off @-@ air comment made by Geoffrey Boycott in a live broadcast was heard by some listeners which we apologised for as soon as we realised it had been audible . "
= = = Presidency of Yorkshire , Corridor of Certainty = = =
In March 2012 Boycott was elected President of Yorkshire County Cricket Club . Elected at an annual meeting , he gained 91 @.@ 09 % of the vote . He election came on the back of Yorkshire 's relegation from the first to the second division of the County Championship , the reversal of which Boycott targeted immediately upon taking up the post . He remarked to the media that " The only thing that really matters to the membership is that Yorkshire do well in Championship cricket . " His tenure also presided over the club 's 150th anniversary in 2013 . In February 2014 it was revealed that former Test umpire and Yorkshire player Dickie Bird would replace Boycott .
In March 2013 Boycott and his partner Rachel Swinglehurst purchased the Grade II listed Boston Hall in Boston Spa , West Yorkshire , citing a desire to be closer to family , friends , and Yorkshire County Cricket Club . They later married , and have a daughter named Emma . Later in 2014 he also released a book entitled Geoffrey Boycott : The Corridor of Certainty with Simon & Schuster . ESPNcricinfo reviewed the piece in October , commenting on Boycott 's more amiable personality since his recovery from cancer : " we have a much more rounded and nuanced book , full of self @-@ awareness and a willingness , even eagerness , to acknowledge errors , failings and regrets ... This a complex , driven man , whom we all recognise and admire for his achievements , revealing aspects of his life and survival that have hitherto been kept close to his chest . "
= = Playing style = =
Boycott 's playing style revolved around intense concentration , solid defence and attention to detail , while avoiding heavy hitting or slogging . He was described in The Complete Encyclopaedia of Cricket as " one of the greatest opening batsman that the game has known . He dedicated his life to the art of batting , practising assiduously and eschewing any shot that might even hint at threatening the loss of his wicket . " Through his Test career , he scored 15 @.@ 4 % of England 's runs , and England won 32 @.@ 41 % of the Tests in which Boycott played . This compares with England 's 34 @.@ 76 % victory rate over all Test cricket history . Richard Hutton , Yorkshire and England batsman and son of Len Hutton described Boycott as a " one @-@ pace player " , suggesting that he was unable to alter his playing pace as the match circumstances dictated . Nevertheless , Boycott maintained an " impeccable " defensive technique , and possessed a temperament ideally suited for five @-@ day Test matches . Arlott wrote that " his technique is based on a defence organised as near flawlessness as may be . " Boycott himself remarked , in 1981 , that : " Given the choice between Raquel Welch and a hundred at Lord 's , I 'd take the hundred every time . " His careful batting is reflected in his 22 centuries for England , of which only two had a strike rate of over 51 @.@ 00 . Former England bowler Frank Tyson wrote in 1987 , in The Test Within , that " the greatness of Boycott the batsman and the gaffes of Boycott the man had common roots in an unceasing quest after perfection . "
While this style facilitated his solid defensive play , it inhibited him as a stroke player and made him susceptible to hand and arm injuries . Such injuries would be common throughout his career . One such injury almost required the tip of a broken finger to be amputated . He was occasionally vulnerable to left @-@ arm bowlers , either due to his inability to adjust his line of stroke or because during his career there were few fast left @-@ hand bowlers for him to practise against in the nets . Boycott himself disputes this . In spite of that , he was never vulnerable to any one particular bowler . Pace bowler Dennis Lillee was the most successful against him in Test matches , with seven dismissals . Gary Sobers also dismissed him seven times , but Lillee did so in fewer matches . Peter Lever , a Test colleague , discussed with Boycott his vulnerability when playing the hook stroke , which was to get him out on more than one occasion . Overall in Test cricket , 54 % of Boycott 's dismissals were by being caught , with lbw and bowled taking 14 % and 16 % respectively .
Boycott was also a very occasional medium @-@ pace inswing bowler . He was never a genuine all @-@ rounder , but took seven wickets at Test level at an average of 54 @.@ 57 , often bowling wearing his cap turned back @-@ to @-@ front to assist his vision . At the start of his career , Boycott was a below average fielder , having received no coaching on this from Yorkshire and with little inclination to rectify it when concentrating on his batting . A fellow Yorkshire batsman Ken Taylor worked with Boycott , who was " limited in [ fielding ] ability , " but had " tremendous determination " . With further help from his two brothers Boycott 's fielding improved . He became a safe pair of hands generally at cover point , though he continued to lack power and pace in the field , never taking more than two catches in a Test innings , and averaging 0 @.@ 170 dismissals per innings with 33 career catches in all . He would remark in his autobiography that his usual fielding positions depended not on the tactical situation but on whether the captain was one of Boycott 's critics , who would therefore banish him to a remote part of the field .
= = Written works = =
Throughout his career in international cricket and well into retirement , Boycott has written a number of works on cricket , including his own autobiography and a joint project on the biography of umpire Dickie Bird :
Geoff Boycott 's Book for Young Cricketers , 1976 .
Put to the Test , 1979 .
Opening up , 1980 .
In The Fast Lane , 1981
Sir Geoffrey . 21 Years of Yorkshire Cricket , 1984 .
Boycott : The Autobiography , 1987 .
Free as a Bird : Life and Times of Harold " Dickie " Bird with David Hopps , 1997 .
Boycott on Cricket , 1990 .
Geoffrey Boycott on Cricket , 1999 .
The Best XI , 2008
Geoffrey Boycott : The Corridor of Certainty , 2014
= = Records = =
Wisden , a Cricketer of the Year for 1965 , when he played nine Test matches , scoring 617 runs with one century and four fifties at an average of 47 @.@ 46 .
Winner of the Walter Lawrence Trophy in 1970 .
= = = Test matches = = =
Boycott 's abilities in the Test match theatre during his career of 17 years and 216 days have left him with a number of Test cricket records . He is the seventh most capped player for England in Tests , and has the sixth highest career runs total in Tests for an England player , 8114 . He was the fourteenth quickest player to reach 8 @,@ 000 runs , taking 190 innings . He topped the national averages for six seasons , the highest of any post @-@ World War II player , and is tied for second in the list of centuries for England behind Alastair Cook . Boycott was also the first player to score 99 not out , and the first to score 99 and then a century in a Test match . The forty @-@ eight century partnerships he was involved in remains a record for any England player . In 1977 against Australia , Boycott became the first England player to bat on all five days of a Test match . He spent the 629 minutes at the crease for 191 runs in 1977 .
= = = = Opening partners = = = =
Such was Boycott 's longevity in the game that he had 16 opening partners for England . ( Note that the figures in the Innings column below show all his Test Match partnerships with his opening partners ( not just his partnerships with them for the first wicket ) . For example , he did have 46 partnerships with John Edrich but only 35 were opening partnerships ) .
= = = = Career performance = = = =
= = = = Test centuries = = = =
= = = One Day Internationals = = =
Boycott 's ODI career was noticeably less productive than his Test . He did , however , face the first One Day International ball ever bowled , and was the first batsman to be dismissed in what was the first ever ODI game . The match , considered a one @-@ off at the time due to ODI cricket being in its infancy , was hastily arranged to cover a washed out 1970 @-@ 71 Ashes Test .
Career performance :
= = = = ODI century = = = =
= = = Printed sources = = =
= = = Online articles = = =
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= Petitcodiac River =
The Petitcodiac River / pɛtiˈkoʊdi.æk / , known informally as the Chocolate River , is a Canadian river in south @-@ eastern New Brunswick . The river has a meander length of 79 kilometres ( 49 miles ) and is located in Westmorland , Albert , and Kings counties , draining a watershed area of about 2 @,@ 071 square kilometres ( 800 sq mi ) . The watershed features valleys , ridges , and rolling hills , and is home to a diverse population of terrestrial and aquatic species . Ten named tributaries join the river in its course toward its mouth in Shepody Bay . Before the construction of a causeway in 1968 , the river had one of the world 's largest tidal bores , which ranged from 1 to 2 metres ( 3 @.@ 3 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) in height and moved at 5 to 13 kilometres per hour ( 3 @.@ 1 – 8 @.@ 1 mph ) . With the opening of the causeway gates in April 2010 , the river is flushing itself of ocean silts , and the Bore is returning to its former glory .
The Mi 'kmaq were the first to settle near the river , and used it as part of a portage route between Shubenacadie and the village of Petitcodiac , where they had a winter camp . Acadians from Port Royal , Nova Scotia colonised the region in 1698 , but were expelled in 1755 during the Seven Years ' War . Acadian resistance fighters in Village @-@ des @-@ Blanchard ( now Hillsborough ) fought under the command of French leader Charles Deschamps de Boishébert in the Battle of Petitcodiac to fend off British troops and suffered the destruction of most of their settlement . The British troops revisited the river three years later and conducted the Petitcodiac River Campaign . In the 1840s , the Greater Moncton area saw a shipbuilding boom , but this was halted following the arrival of the steam train , and forced the town to unincorporate . These changes eventually marginalised the Petitcodiac River .
In 1968 , a controversial rock @-@ and @-@ earth fill causeway was built between Moncton and Riverview to prevent agricultural flooding and to carry a crossing between the two communities . The causeway caused many problems for the river and its surrounding ecosystem . An estimated 10 million cubic metres ( 13 million cubic yards ) of silt was deposited in the 4 @.@ 7 km ( 2 @.@ 9 mi ) of river downstream from the causeway in the first three years following construction . The causeway restricted the movement of fish and reduced the region 's salmon catches by 82 percent . Water quality has also dropped thanks to industrial expansion around the area . In 2003 , Earthwild International designated the Petitcodiac River as the most endangered river in Canada because of these problems . On 14 April 2010 , the causeway 's gates were opened permanently as part of a $ 68 million three @-@ phase project designed to restore the river , to be completed by 2015 .
= = Etymology = =
A popular belief suggests that the name derives from the French term " petit coude " , meaning " little elbow " . In fact , the name derives from an indigenous word , probably Maliseet or , possibly Mi 'kmaq . According to Maliseet Elder and linguist Dr. Peter Paul of Woodstock Reserve , the name refers to a wall of water rushing in : " now they call that petakuyak . [ It ] means ' sound of thunder , ' well , the rush of water coming in like a thunderstorm . " If the term has a Mi 'kmaq origin , it could have been derived from the word Petkootkweăk , meaning " the river that bends like a bow " , a reference to the right angle bend near Moncton . Acadians transformed this to Petcoudiac or Petitcoudiac , which was modified to Petitcodiac by British settlers . The river 's heavy sedimentation led to the nickname " Chocolate River " , due to the resulting brown tint . When the Petitcodiac River Causeway was built , an additional 10 million cubic metres ( 13 million cubic yards ) of this sediment began to accumulate in the 4 @.@ 7 km ( 2 @.@ 9 mi ) of river downstream from it .
= = Geography = =
= = = Course = = =
The river measures about 79 km ( 49 mi ) from its source near Petitcodiac to its mouth at Shepody Bay ; its source derives from the confluence of the Anagance and North rivers in western Westmorland County . The Anagance River arises from its tributaries , Hayward Brook and Holmes Brook , and drains 81 km2 ( 31 sq mi ) from the south @-@ east of the Petitcodiac River , while the North River drains 264 km2 ( 102 sq mi ) from the north . From the confluence , the river passes under the bridge on Route 106 in Petitcodiac , The road then follows the river to Moncton on the left side of the river . Route 1 crosses the river a few kilometres downstream to join Trans @-@ Canada Highway 2 . The community of River Glade precedes Petitcodiac River 's right tributary , Pollett River , with a watershed of 314 km2 ( 121 sq mi ) . As the waterway runs past Salisbury , its final major right tributary , Little River ( formerly known as Coverdale River ) , joins it . Little River 's watershed is 275 km2 ( 106 sq mi ) . The river passes Coverdale and is joined by Turtle Creek before widening as it approaches Moncton .
The causeway , built in 1968 , formed a wall blocking all but 100 m ( 330 ft ) of water as the river flowed downstream toward the Gunningsville Bridge . Before the causeway 's construction , the river 's area would expand through Moncton , attaining a width of 1 @.@ 6 km ( one mile ) . A series of banks to both sides precede the 90 @-@ degree turn to the south , a feature that gave Moncton its original name , Le Coude ( The Elbow ) . The river passes Dieppe on its eastern side and Hillsborough on its western side before it approaches its mouth .
The Memramcook River , which has a watershed area of 412 km2 ( 159 sq mi ) joins the Petitcodiac River near its mouth . The Petitcodiac River then widens and drains into Shepody Bay , where there is a 122 km2 ( 47 sq mi ) wetland . Once past the Hopewell Rocks , Shepody Bay merges with the Cumberland Basin , which runs south @-@ west toward Chignecto Bay . Chignecto Bay drains into the Bay of Fundy , which flows into the Gulf of Maine , which proceeds south @-@ east into the Atlantic Ocean through the Northeast Channel .
= = = Watershed = = =
The Petitcodiac River watershed is about 2 @,@ 071 km2 ( 800 sq mi ) . The average yearly precipitation in the watershed is 1 @,@ 100 millimetres ( 43 in ) , with average temperatures of 17 @.@ 5 ° C ( 63 @.@ 5 ° F ) in the summer and − 7 @.@ 5 ° C ( 18 @.@ 5 ° F ) in the winter . The watershed is located in the Kings , Westmorland , and Albert counties in south @-@ east New Brunswick , with some of it crossing into the Caledonian Highlands to the south @-@ east . It borders the Bay of Fundy and three other designated watersheds in the province : the lower Saint John River to the north @-@ west , the Shediac Bay to the north @-@ east , and the Kennebecasis River to the south . Although the Petitcodiac River 's watershed is geographically distinct from that of the nearby Memramcook River , some groups merge the two for categorisational purposes .
The area has been occupied by Europeans since the late 17th century . Moncton 's population has grown rapidly since the 19th century , rising from fewer than 100 people in 1825 , to over 15 @,@ 000 people in 1917 , and to 126 @,@ 000 people in 2006 . In spite of this growth , most of the area remains relatively undisturbed : 80 percent of the watershed is covered with forest , a tenth is used for agriculture and three percent is occupied by wetlands . Only four percent of the area is used for commercial , residential , or private usage . Nevertheless , the Petitcodiac Watershed Monitoring Group noted in 2001 that this growth is one of the main factors for the ongoing " environmental degradation " of the river .
= = Hydrology = =
= = = Water quality = = =
The Petitcodiac River was listed in 2003 as the most endangered river in Canada by Earthwild International , and was listed second , behind Quebec 's Rupert River , in 2002 . The causeway was cited as one of the major factors behind the river 's degraded health . The Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment 's Water Quality Index gave two study sites an " excellent " rating , 20 sites a " good " rating , 27 sites a " fair " rating , and five sites a " marginal " rating .
Since 1999 , the Petitcodiac Watershed Alliance ( known as the Petitcodiac Watershed Monitoring Group at the time ) has collected water samples from May to October to study bacteria , nutrient , pH , dissolved oxygen ( DO ) , and sediment levels . Two sampling sites , one upstream from the causeway and one downstream , were used during the 2009 study . The river had an average temperature of 27 ° C ( 81 ° F ) in August at the upstream location , in contrast to the average of 20 @.@ 1 ° C ( 68 @.@ 2 ° F ) at the same site over the total period of the study . E. coli levels were high upstream , and above recreationally safe levels downstream in June , July , and August . Nitrates and phosphates failed to meet the safe quality threshold on occasion . A publication by the New Brunswick Department of Environment in 2007 showed that the watershed did not meet the quality guidelines for E. coli in 10 percent of samples , for dissolved oxygen in 5 percent of samples , and pH in 3 percent of samples ; in contrast , the river was always within safe nitrate levels .
During their 2001 study , the Petitcodiac Watershed Alliance noted the effects of agriculture on the river 's water quality , and recommended to work with local farmers to install cattle fencing around streams which run through their properties , and " eventually phase out " cosmetic pesticide usage . The Petitcodiac Riverkeeper holds a stronger position on the issue : the organisation notes that pesticides " find their way into the surface and ground water by leaching into the soil or as part of stormwater runoff . " They request that , while measures have been taken in 2009 by the provincial government to regulate cosmetic pesticide usage , the province must forbid its usage altogether and require chemical manufacturers to disclose health warnings and all ingredients on labels . The New Brunswick Department of Environment also warned of the erosion caused by the removal of the river 's riparian zones , which is a common " land use practice " .
Although mining around the area essentially stopped with the closure of the gypsum mines in 1982 , uranium mining has surfaced as a potential problem for the river . The province was the subject of a controversy in 2007 when it gave Vale Limited ( formerly known as CVRD Inco ) the right to mine for uranium at Turtle Creek , where the Greater Moncton water reservoir is maintained . Environmentalists warned of the dangers related to the move , fearing that contaminants could be pushed into the surrounding water . The Petitcodiac Riverkeeper also noted uranium mining 's " irreversible effects to the health of ecosystems , watersheds , wildlife , agriculture , recreation , and public health " , and joined 30 other environmental groups in asking the provincial government to establish a ban on the act . The province would later restrict uranium mining to 300 m ( 980 ft ) from residential areas and ban it from protected drinking water areas . Another controversy in 2006 involved exploration for oil and gas deposits in the same area , but access was blocked by the municipal government .
Shortly after the building of the causeway , a 35 ha ( 86 @-@ acre ) landfill was built near the river . Various materials were disposed of in the area , including petroleum waste oil , pipe and foam insulation , sewage sludge , and medical waste . While the landfill was shut down in 1992 , samples by the Environmental Bureau of Investigation and the Petitcodiac Riverkeeper showed that ammonium levels around the leachate exceeded Canadian quality guidelines by as much as 15 times , and contained heavy metals , petroleum hydrocarbons , and PCBs . A mortality rate of 100 percent was found for test trout and daphnia when exposed to water samples . Gemtec Limited , the company responsible for planning and closing the landfill , and the City of Moncton were charged on 12 March 2002 , for offences relating to the Canadian Environmental Protection Act ( 1999 ) and the Fisheries Act . The city pleaded guilty on 23 September 2003 , paid a $ 35 @,@ 000 fine , and was ordered to help reduce the leachate flow from the landfill . Three years later , Gemtec Limited was fined a total of $ 6 @,@ 000 and was ordered to contribute a total of $ 22 @,@ 000 to the federal Environmental Damages Fund and the Jonathan Creek Committee .
= = = Discharge = = =
The river aids in the drainage of ten significant bodies of water : Weldon Creek , Fox Creek , Mill Creek , Halls Creek , Jonathan Creek , Turtle Creek , Little River , Pollett River , Anagance River , and North River . A report in 2000 showed that it handles an average discharge of 27 @.@ 3 m3 / s ( 960 cu ft / s ) into its mouth yearly , with a recorded high of 730 m3 / s ( 26 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ) in 1962 and a low of 0 @.@ 36 m3 / s ( 13 cu ft / s ) in 1966 . The same report estimated mean values for the minimum and maximum discharges for every two @-@ year , 10 @-@ year , and 100 @-@ year flood events , and minimum discharges for every two @-@ year , five @-@ year , and 100 @-@ year " drought " events :
= = = Tidal bore = = =
The Petitcodiac River tidal bores — retrograde waves moving upstream over downstream waves — occur twice a day and come from the world 's highest tides in the Bay of Fundy . The first European mention of the bore was by British Lieutenant Colonel George Scott on 17 November 1758 , during a downstream voyage from Moncton to Fort Frederick , near Saint John . The Admiralty referred to the tidal bore in a hydrographic chart published in 1861 , observing that " [ after ] its passage the rise of the tide is very rapid until high water is attained " , and that " [ during the lowest tides ] the Bore still appears but its broken front usually is only a few inches high . "
The bores ranged from 1 to 2 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) in height , with speeds from 5 to 13 km / h ( 3 @.@ 1 – 8 @.@ 1 mph ) . In 1825 , Peter Fisher noted that the " noise of the Bore is heard a great distance , and animals immediately take to the highland , and manifest visible signs of terror if near it . " Before the causeway ( 1968 ) , values were compared with the tidal bores of the Qiantang , Hooghly and Amazon rivers . After the causeway was built , the bores reached heights from about 5 to 75 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 29 @.@ 5 in ) .
= = Wildlife = =
Before the construction of the causeway , the Petitcodiac River was home to many aquatic species . Fish originally included hundreds of thousands of Atlantic tomcod and rainbow smelt , tens of thousands of gaspereau and American shad , thousands of American eel , Atlantic salmon , brook trout , lamprey , and striped bass and hundreds of Atlantic sturgeon . Other fish include the blueback herring , the brown bullhead , the chain pickerel , the smallmouth bass , the white perch , and the white sucker . Marine mammals were uncommon , but normally consisted of pilot whales , Atlantic white @-@ sided dolphins , harbour porpoise , harbour seals , and porbeagles . Freshwater mollusc species included the brook floater , the dwarf wedgemussel , the eastern ellipto , the eastern floater , the eastern pearlshell , and the triangle floater . Many other aquatic organisms are thought to have once entered the watershed due to the low salinity of the water .
Six species have disappeared from the river since the mid @-@ 1980s . The Petitcodiac River was the only known Canadian habitat of the dwarf wedgemussel , and was later isolated to just nine American watersheds after its elimination from the Petitcodiac . The Atlantic salmon is no longer present in the watershed , and has since been listed as an endangered species in Canada . The American shad was a favourite with fishermen , and represented two @-@ thirds of the entire Canadian shad landings from 1870 to 1900 ; catches peaked at 0 @.@ 91 to 2 @.@ 72 million kilograms ( two to six million pounds ) per year . Three other species have been eliminated from the river : the striped bass , the Atlantic sturgeon , and the Atlantic tomcod . However , a project of the Petitcodiac Riverkeeper , funded by the Government of Canada 's Environmental Damage Fund in 2005 , noted that the removal of the causeway would result in a " good " chance of bringing back the eliminated species , and an " excellent " chance of increasing the numbers of species deemed to have been reduced in numbers . No data has been released for the Atlantic salmon or the striped bass .
Various insects and arachnids reside around the Petitcodiac River . Among them is the stonefly , the mayfly , the caddisfly , the simulium , the subfamily of tanypodinae , and the Hydracarina . Non @-@ native species , such as the black @-@ footed spider , the beech scale , the white @-@ marked tussock moth , and the mountain ash sawfly have also made their home in the Petitcodiac River watershed . At the southern extremities of the watershed , 50 to 90 percent of the world 's semipalmated sandpipers feed on the mud shrimp at Shepody Bay . Around 269 @,@ 445 stop there before migrating to South America , a number which accounts for at least 7 @.@ 7 percent of the total population . Among others , the semipalmated plover ( around 2 percent of the North American population ) , the short @-@ billed dowitcher , the red knot , the sanderling , and the least sandpiper are also known for migrating through the Important Bird Area .
A diverse number of plant species reside in the watershed as well . Red , white , and black spruce , red maple , white birch , and trembling aspen are the most common . Jack pine is commonly found in regions that fires have repeatedly ravished , while cedar is found in bogs and areas where gypsum and limestone are present . Higher altitude slopes and ridgetops house sugar maple , beech , and yellow birch trees . Zelazny et al. note that " [ the ] high frequency of disturbed sites dominated by aspen stands reveals the degree of historical and recent human disturbance along the Petitcodiac River . " The Petitcodiac River 's riparian zone houses a number of trees , including willows , white spruce , white pine , and speckled alder . Other trees , such as the tamarack and white pine , can also be found in the watershed . Plants such as the rufous bulrush tend to grow near calcareous areas , and hemlock can be found in small , pure stands . Alien plant species include the mother @-@ of @-@ thyme , the Japanese barberry , the Scotch broom , the yellow flag , and Canada bluegrass .
In 1937 , the 37 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old skeleton of a mastodon was discovered by workers near Hillsborough . It was in near perfect condition and was transported to the New Brunswick Museum in Saint John , where it has been displayed ever since .
= = Geology = =
The Petitcodiac River watershed covers an area north and east of the Caledonian Highlands ; a low @-@ elevation ( on average 67 m ; 220 ft ) region with rolling hills , valleys , and ridges . In fact , most of the region was below sea level , beneath the former DeGeer and Goldthwait seas , during the quaternary period . Non @-@ calcareous Pennsylvanian ( and younger ) sandstones , conglomerates , silt , and red- to grey @-@ tinted mudstone now compose the majority of the bedrock . The northern shore of the Petitcodiac River , including the Anagance and North rivers , is primarily made up of shale with volcanic rocks , mixed igneous rocks , and felsic pebble conglomerates . The southern shore , including the Little and Pollett rivers , is composed of Precambrian or Lower @-@ Palaeozoic sedimentary , igneous , and volcanic rocks , and limestone . Both shores include red to grey Mississippian sandstone . Red beds , or red @-@ tinted sedimentary rocks , have a higher occurrence around Port Elgin . Other significant Mississippian @-@ era rock patches appear in two areas around the watershed . The first is located near the north @-@ western border of the watershed , near Lutes Mountain and Cornhill . The second ranges from the east of the Memramcook River to the west of Hillsborough , in Beech Hill . The Petitcodiac River watershed also features karst topography , where gypsum and limestone around Mississippian rocks dilute into the circulating groundwater . This creates sinkholes , depressions , and caves . Examples of rare karst occurrences appear west of the village of Petitcodiac , where large sinkholes alternate between small ridges to form honeycomb @-@ shaped patterns . Hillsborough is the home of one of the longest gypsum cave networks in eastern Canada , and is a key habitat for bats in hibernation .
The majority of the watershed 's topsoil is composed of sand , clay , and silt , under which normally lies a layer of ablation moraines . Fairly rich soils made of alluvium and tidal deposits are found along the Petitcodiac and Memramcook rivers , and have often been exploited for agricultural purposes . A publication by the New Brunswick Department of Natural Resources notes that the soils in Salisbury , made from calcareous sandstone and mudstone , are fine @-@ textured and , when properly drained , " are the most fertile glacial tills " in the watershed . In contrast , they note , soils deriving from local conglomerates are more coarse and sandy , and are less fertile .
Albertite , a type of asphalt , was first found in Albert County in 1849 by the Canadian physicist Abraham Gesner , inventor of kerosene . Over 200 @,@ 000 tonnes of the mineral were shipped to Boston within 30 years . Large deposits of gypsum found eight kilometres ( five miles ) from the mining site were shipped around the globe as well . The Petitcodiac River was used as the primary means for transporting the minerals at the time .
= = History = =
= = = Colonisation ( 1604 – 1698 ) = = =
The Petitcodiac River region was first settled by the Mi 'kmaq , who used the river 's upstream current as part of a portage route between Shubenacadie and a winter camp at the confluence of the Anagance and North rivers . The first Europeans arrived in early 1604 , when a French expedition to Acadia ( now Nova Scotia and New Brunswick ) , led by the explorer Pierre Dugua de Mons and accompanied by cartographer Samuel de Champlain and future Acadian governor Jean de Biencourt , sailed into the Bay of Fundy . Hoping to find an ideal site for a settlement , they passed Advocate Harbour and the Saint John River before Dugua chose to settle on Saint Croix Island in present @-@ day Maine . Although they did not explore the Petitcodiac region , they returned to the coasts of eastern Nova Scotia , where they founded Port Royal . In 1676 , Jacques Bourgeois , a colonist from the Nova Scotian settlement , settled in the area of Beaubassin ( now the Tantramar Marshes ) . By 1685 , its population had grown to 129 , with 19 out of the 22 families living permanently in the region . Pierre Thibodeau , also from Port Royal , founded Chipody ( now Shepody , New Brunswick ) near Shepody Bay in 1698 . At this time , the inhabitants often referred to the Petitcodiac , Memramcook , and Shepody River area as " Trois @-@ Rivières " ( Three Rivers ) ( not to be confused with Trois @-@ Rivières , Quebec ) .
= = = Acadian history ( 1698 – 1763 ) = = =
The French and Indian War erupted in 1754 amid tensions between the British and the French over control of the Ohio Valley . Initially , the inhabitants of Acadia were uninvolved in the conflict because the French had already ceded the land to Britain under the Treaty of Utrecht ( 1713 ) . The Acadians were asked to take an oath declaring complete fidelity toward the British monarch on several occasions , but they refused . At first , they were not punished for doing so . A declaration of neutrality was signed in 1730 and was accepted by Nova Scotia governor Richard Philipps . This earned the Acadians the nickname the " neutral French " . At the outbreak of war in 1754 , the British again demanded unconditional oaths of fealty , perceiving the Acadians as a possible threat . In spite of resistance led by Jean @-@ Louis Le Loutre , representatives eventually agreed to sign , but their reluctance persuaded Governor Charles Lawrence to order the Acadian population expelled from British territory .
About 1 @,@ 100 Acadians living around the Petitcodiac River were affected by this decision . Two hundred British troops led by Major Joseph Frye were sent to destroy the settlements of the Three Rivers , beginning with Shepody and Village @-@ des @-@ Blanchard ( now Hillsborough ) . French resistance commander Charles Deschamps de Boishébert , hoping to evacuate as many Acadians as possible , was unable to march the distance between Nerepis and the Shepody settlement in time , but fought at the second threatened village on 28 August 1755 . Boishébert 's troops , composed of inhabitants from the area and from Shepody , counter @-@ attacked , suffering only one loss to twenty @-@ three British casualties . This defeat is thought to have been the reason for the British abandonment of the campaign at the Three Rivers . The commander and the evacuated Acadians , whom Edward Larracey estimated to total around 700 , suffered a massive famine from 1756 to 1758 , largely caused by the scarce resources following the battle .
In 1758 , Joseph Broussard , also known as Beausoleil by the locals , led raids against British vessels sailing in the Bay of Fundy and the Cumberland Basin . This provoked the British into initiating two raids of their own . The first took place in February in Shediac , where Lieutenant Colonel George Scott tried to find Boishébert . When they were returning , Boishébert ambushed them , killing two of Scott 's gunmen . The second raid took place at the settlement of Shepody in March , where the British were shocked to find that the Acadians had already begun rebuilding their homes . On 28 June , Scott learned of reports that cattle were stolen outside of Fort Beausejour ; the British issued an order for Captain Beloni Danks to send 75 men up the Petitcodiac River . They arrived in Moncton the following night , and about 30 Acadians began firing at their vessel . However , Danks held his offensive position , and the British killed 19 Acadians , taking nine others prisoner . He and his troops continued to sail up the river the next day ; they sent 60 men to burn a settlement 9 @.@ 7 km ( 6 mi ) west of Moncton . Historians presume that the area had already been deserted .
Acadians continued to survive in the region , overcoming the results of the raids . Scott sailed back to the region to search for Beausoleil and to weaken the Acadians before the winter . He arrived in Moncton near midnight on 12 November , but the tide of the Petitcodiac River prevented him from sending more than twelve men . They came back the next morning with 16 prisoners . Scott was told that the area was virtually defenceless , so he sent three parties to La Chapelle ( now Bore Park in Moncton ) , Silvabro ( now Lewisville ) , and Jagersome ( now Dieppe ) . Scott recorded no deaths or prisoners , but all buildings in sight were burned , and cattle were brought back onto the vessel . Additional raids by Scott between 14 and 17 November captured a dozen Acadian prisoners , burned settlements , and uncovered Beausoleil 's own schooner . The crew sent an Acadian prisoner on the 17th to request the surrender of the remaining residents , but when he returned , he reported that they had all begun to flee to Cocagne , Shediac , and the settlements around the Miramichi River . This prompted Scott to return to Fort Frederick in Saint John .
A few of the Acadians migrating to the Miramichi River probably died of hypothermia during the trip due to the 1758 – 59 winter . Those who survived joined the refugees already present , who had been persuaded by Boishébert to seek refuge there . Inadequate housing and supplies , among other reasons , led to the deterioration of the reputation of the French commander , and only 700 Acadians remained there by late 1759 . Meanwhile , the raiding rapidly took its toll on the residents who stayed around the Three Rivers , as food supplies became scarce and reconstruction became impossible . The fall of Quebec City in September 1759 also eliminated the possibility of assistance from that area . On 16 November 1759 , the 190 Acadians in the region sent a delegate to Fort Beauséjour ( which had been renamed Fort Cumberland ) to announce their surrender to the newly promoted Colonel Frye . The settlements of Miramichi , Richibucto , and Bouctouche surrendered the next day , with a delegate sent to the fort to represent their 700 refugees . Frye requested and received permission from Governor Lawrence to take them in for the winter . The Acadian refugees were offered land on the Isthmus of Chignecto in early 1760 , but most requested their original lands around the Three Rivers , which the governor granted .
= = = Resettlement and modern history ( 1763 – present ) = = =
After the Treaty of Paris ( 1763 ) , exiled Acadians began to return to the area , but their numbers around the Three Rivers remained under 200 by 1769 . Settlers from Philadelphia began to migrate to the Petitcodiac River area in 1766 : the Trites , Jones and Stieff families moved to present @-@ day Moncton , but the Stieff family ( now Steeves ) , later moved south @-@ east to Hillsborough . Nine families bought land up to 21 km ( 13 mi ) west from the bend of the river , ranging from 1 @,@ 718 to 2 @,@ 193 acres ( 695 – 887 ha ) per grant . In 1829 , the population of Moncton reached 100 , composed mainly of descendants of these settlers .
Moncton 's shipbuilding era began in 1840 with the arrival of Stewart Russell , a shipbuilder from Hopewell . Russell built the Aginora , which sailed down the Petitcodiac River to trade at the ports in Saint John and New England . The ship and its crew sank in a storm on 24 December 1850 , during a trip to Boston for Christmas . A ferry service on the Petitcodiac River was launched around 1841 , thanks to a license obtained by Simon Outhouse . The Larch , built by Stephen Binney in 1845 , was another important vessel , becoming the largest to sail on the river . But it was not until the arrival of Joseph Salter in 1846 that the shipbuilding boom began : a shipyard founded by Binney and Salter produced 24 vessels from 1847 to 1859 , and employed almost 500 of the 1 @,@ 000 inhabitants in Moncton . Salter would become the first mayor of Moncton in April 1855 , the year the town was incorporated .
The European and North American Railway was extended to link Pointe @-@ du @-@ Chene to Moncton in 1857 , with an eventual goal of reaching Saint John in 1860 . The move , according to Larracey , caused the town to become " but a station stop along a railway line " . This coincided with the failure of Moncton 's shipbuilding industry and a population drop from a peak of 2 @,@ 000 to about 500 . The town declared bankruptcy and was unincorporated in 1862 , but it later regained its status in 1875 , after it became the Intercolonial Railway 's headquarters for its shops in 1871 . While the Petitcodiac River continued to aid in the shipping of goods into the 20th century , shipbuilding essentially ended in the 1890s . The final vessel built in Moncton was the Woolastook II on 14 May 1980 , while the final ship to sail up the Petitcodiac River was the Inox from France , which arrived on 12 July 1986 , ( and was , ironically , stranded in Moncton until 3 November due to the river 's tidal fluctuations ) .
In 1924 , the Petitcodiac Tidal Power Company proposed a tidal power project . This called for a dam to be built between Hopewell Cape and Fort Folly Point . The company sold shares to raise funds for the project and a series of on @-@ site and airborne studies were conducted by the federal government , but the project fell through by 1928 . As rail transport became more common , it displaced river transportation around the Great Depression . In addition , the Greater Moncton International Airport offered an airmail service from Moncton to Montreal by 29 December 1929 . These factors further marginalised the Petitcodiac .
The Gunningsville Bridge , which crosses the Petitcodiac River to link Moncton and Riverview , was built in 1867 . It was damaged and rebuilt on four different occasions . The first was following the Saxby Gale of 1869 , which forced the town to rebuild the bridge in 1872 . It went under " extensive repairs " mid @-@ 1892 , but ice build @-@ up from the Petitcodiac continued to pose a threat for the wooden structure , leading to the construction of a new steel version from 1915 to 1919 . This fourth bridge would suffer through many collisions , including one with the Mayflower in September 1929 , which caused the ship to capsize and drown two men . The Gunningsville Bridge would last 86 years before it would be demolished a final time , making way for a 425 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 1 @,@ 394 ft ) four @-@ lane bridge crossing . Covered bridges were also built over the Petitcodiac River , the final extant one being " Hasty " , built in 1929 .
= = = Causeway controversy ( 1968 – present ) = = =
In 1968 , the provincial and federal governments completed the construction of a causeway between the communities of Moncton and Riverview to provide a crossing over the river , and to keep water levels from impeding agricultural production . This was a benefit for the federal government at the time , which had constantly maintained the dykes in the area . It also benefited the provincial government , as the federal government was willing to fund the $ 3 million project , but not a bridge . Although the causeway was equipped with a fishway , problems arose when fish were unable to cross it freely due to sedimentation build @-@ up ; some 82 percent of the salmon were prevented from travelling upstream by the structure . The sediment accumulated in the 4 @.@ 7 km ( 2 @.@ 9 mi ) of river downstream from the causeway , with over 10 million cubic metres ( 13 million cubic yards ) of silt deposited in the first three years following construction . Several reports from 1969 to 1971 described its impact on the aquatic ecosystem , and proposals for amendments to the causeway gates were released , but no action was taken . In 1976 and 1977 , reports pointed out several problems related to the gates ' function due to erosion , winter ice jams , and " unsatisfactory fishway operation " .
It was not until 1978 that New Brunswick 's Department of Transportation commissioned a study of the problems . The final report recommended three alternatives for action : to continue operation " as @-@ is " , to continue operation without the gates , or to eliminate gate leakage and amend the operation protocol . The third alternative was chosen two years later , but did not substantially improve fish migration as expected . The provincial government decided to open the gates between 15 April and 7 July 1988 , to allow fish to migrate up the stream . This was repeated from 26 September to 31 October 1988 , and in the spring of 1989 and 1990 during low tides . In 1991 , New Brunswick 's Department of Oceans and Fisheries recommended opening the gates from April to December each year . A provincial government committee report recommended an additional seven options for the modification of the causeway in May 1992 , but the government did not act upon any of these options due to the low " cost @-@ benefit " factor . More reports documented problems related to the passage of fish in the river until 1995 , when the Department of Transportation agreed to open one gate from April to December , as suggested four years earlier . A project was then organized in December 1996 to begin a trial for the systematic opening of the gates during the year , but conditions could not be physically met , and it was terminated on 1 June 1999 .
In February 2001 , the Niles Report proposed an additional four modifications to the causeway project : to either replace the fishway , open the gates during peak fish migration , open the gates permanently , or replace the entire causeway with a bridge . An Environmental Impact Assessment study was commissioned in 2003 to develop and summarise these options , and on its completion in 2005 , it announced the recognition of " Option 3 " and " Option 4 " as possible solutions . The first option had been ruled out following the evaluation of other fish passage models , which were deemed inapplicable to the river . The second , suggesting systematic gate @-@ opening periods , was ruled out because of the inability to cater to every marine species ' migration periods . Option 4 was split into three sub @-@ options , mainly to list possible bridge lengths : 170 , 280 , and 315 metres ( 190 , 310 , and 344 yards ) . The provincial government later accepted the proposal on 6 December 2006 , and selected " Option 4B " on 7 August 2007 , which called for a 280 m ( 310 yd ) bridge in the place of the causeway .
The project was divided into three phases , expected to cost a total of $ 68 million . Phase 1 consisted of the prevention of erosion along the shorelines , improvements to the nearby drainage system , and the construction of dikes and aboiteaux ; the work was carried out from 7 July 2008 , to 14 April 2010 . Phase 2 consists of opening the gates to monitor river flow , both upstream and downstream , for two years . Phase 3 , commenced in 2012 , consisted of the bridge 's development and the removal of the causeway , and is anticipated to be completed in 2015 . Confusion arose as to whether or not the project would be funded by the federal government . They refused , in spite of an earlier comment from the Department of Fisheries and Oceans , which had hinted at a possible negotiation . Unwilling to wait , the provincial government came forward with an initial $ 20 million on 7 July 2008 , to begin the first phase .
The approach of Phase 2 was met with various complaints . A biology professor at the Université de Moncton noted that $ 200 @,@ 000 – $ 250 @,@ 000 worth of pesticide would be required to keep the mosquito population around the city of Moncton from doubling once the gates open . Flood warnings were issued by the provincial Department of Supply and Services for the town of Riverview , warning that high river tides could lead to the flooding of over 3 hectares ( 7 @.@ 4 acres ) of sport fields and structures built in low @-@ lying areas ; however , they added that the causeway 's flood gates were able to descend if required , eliminating the chances of such repercussions from a possible inundation . Residents near the headpond west of the causeway criticized the project , citing the decrease in property values of about 480 homes ( by approximately 30 percent , according to the EIA report ) , the $ 68 million price tag , unstable ice conditions , and a lower water quality . In spite of legal threats by the Lake Petitcodiac Preservation Association ( LAPPA ) and various residents , the causeway opened its gates on 14 April 2010 , coinciding with the beginning of various studies .
Since the opening , the river improved significantly , surpassing original expectations for the project . An AMEC engineer participating in the firm 's studies , Jacques Paynter , said that the banks of the river had begun widening " at a noticeable pace " , with the tidal bore growing closer to its pre @-@ 1968 levels : " We were actually anticipating a fairly modest increase in height . It seems to be already exceeding what we might have expected . " He noted that an estimated 40 @,@ 000 gaspereau had returned to the river , and called for more studies to determine the impact of the causeway 's opening .
= = Recreation = =
Residents around the Petitcodiac have used the river for various recreational purposes . Trips were made annually via the river from Moncton to Beaumont for Feast of Saint @-@ Anne celebrations with the locals . The Blakeson , a towboat owned by Blakeny and Sons , offered " moonlight cruises " in the early 1930s for 50 cents ( approximately $ 6 @.@ 50 in 2010 values ) . The service was popular until the towboat capsized in front of embarking passengers , causing them to lose interest . During their Environmental Impact Assessment in September 2005 , AMEC cited recreational fishing and birdwatching as major pre @-@ causeway activities . A fishery for Atlantic salmon existed downstream from the causeway for several years post @-@ 1968 . The Moncton Naturalists ' Club also publishes their Birding in the Moncton Area , a birdwatching guide covering sites from Sackville to Mary 's Point . Other activities downstream from the causeway include boating , canoeing , kayaking , seal and harbour @-@ porpoise viewing , and tour boating . On 24 July 2013 , the North American record for surfing a single river wave was set by Wessels and Whitbread of California , who rode the Petitcodiac River 's tidal bore 29 km ( 18 mi ) .
Before the opening of the causeway gates on 14 April 2010 , the Petitcodiac River 's 21 km ( 13 mi ) headpond ( west of the causeway ) , colloquially known as Lake Petitcodiac , was promoted by LAPPA as a recreational haven for residents in the area . According to the association , over 10 @,@ 000 estimated hours of boating took place on the lake , in addition to canoeing , kayaking , motor boating , water skiing , jet skiing , sailing , and swimming . Fishing tournaments , dragon boat ragattas , dog sledding , and snowmobiling were popular at the time as well . However , a study by the PWMG showed that fecal coliform levels in the headpond from June , July , and September 2009 exceeded 2 @,@ 419 parts per 100 millilitres ; more than 12 times the 200 / 100 ml recommended by the Canadian Water Quality Guidelines for recreational purposes .
Bore Park , located in the area formerly known as La Chapelle , became a popular tourist location by 1907 for watching the Petitcodiac 's tidal bore move up the river twice a day . The area features information about the wave , as well as a clock indicating the time of its next appearance . Bore Park is a part of Riverfront Park , Greater Moncton 's 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) section of the Trans Canada Trail , where tourists may walk , bike , or skate along the riverfront . The trail continues west to Hillsborough and Fundy National Park , and east to Sackville , Nova Scotia , and Prince Edward Island . Jonathan Creek , Fox Creek , Halls Creek , and Mills Creek also offer trails that run along their streams .
= = Lists = =
The following lists are ordered from the mouth of the river to its source .
= = = Crossings = = =
The river runs under ten bridges , excluding the causeway .
= = = Tributaries = = =
The Petitcodiac River features ten named tributaries , which drain a total of 28 additional streams .
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= Abyss ( roller coaster ) =
Abyss is a steel roller coaster located at the Adventure World amusement park in Perth , Western Australia . The $ 12 @-@ million attraction was announced in April 2013 , and construction began the following month . Six months later , the ride opened to the general public on 1 November 2013 .
The Abyss is a Euro @-@ Fighter , a roller coaster model from Gerstlauer that features a " beyond @-@ vertical " first drop which exceeds 90 degrees . In addition to several inversions , the Abyss reaches a top speed of 85 kilometres per hour ( 53 mph ) along the two @-@ minute , 630 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 2 @,@ 070 ft ) ride . The roller coaster has been well received by the public .
= = History = =
In mid @-@ 2012 , the 15 @-@ month phase of planning and construction of Abyss began . In April 2013 , Adventure World announced on their Facebook page that they would be adding a $ 12 million , world @-@ class attraction in 2013 . By May 2013 construction had begun . In June 2013 , a concrete slab was poured prior to the construction of a show building . Shortly after track arrived in July 2013 , Adventure World officially announced that the ride would be a Gerstlauer Euro @-@ Fighter , similar to Saw – The Ride . The ride was manufactured at the company 's facilities in Germany before being shipped to Australia in forty @-@ five 40 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 12 m ) shipping containers . Construction of the ride was completed by Gerstlauer crews over seven weeks . The name of the attraction was revealed on the Friday the 13th of September 2013 as Abyss . The announcement was made on Friday the 13th due to the ride 's horror theme . Abyss officially opened to the public on 1 November 2013 as the single biggest investment in the park 's history .
Adventure World 's CEO Mark Shaw stated the addition of the Abyss was an attempt to elevate the park " from adventure park to theme park " . The park expected double @-@ digit attendance growth following the addition of the ride . Prior to the 2013 opening of Abyss , Adventure World 's only roller coaster was Dragon Express , a small junior roller coaster by Zamperla . Adventure World previously operated the Anton Schwarzkopf @-@ designed Turbo Mountain , before its closure and removal in 2009 .
= = Characteristics = =
Abyss is a custom Gerstlauer Euro @-@ Fighter with 630 metres ( 2 @,@ 070 ft ) of track . The ride 's vertical lift hill takes riders to a height of 30 metres ( 98 ft ) before dropping 30 @.@ 5 metres ( 100 ft ) in a 100 ° , beyond @-@ vertical drop . The two @-@ minute ride features a top speed of 85 kilometres per hour ( 53 mph ) and exerts up to 4 @.@ 5 times the force of gravity on its riders . Abyss contains three inversions including an inline twist enclosed in the ride 's show building , as well as an Immelmann loop and a dive loop outdoors . The ride features four trains which each seat riders four @-@ abreast in two rows . The theming around the ride was manufactured in the Philippines and includes thirty 3 @-@ metre @-@ tall ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) ancient druid guardians , exposed tree roots , upturned trees , and an entrance archway .
= = Ride experience = =
The ride begins at the station inside the show building . Once the train departs the station , it makes a slow turn to the right . A quick drop follows , before the train rounds a series of left turns into the first inversion , an inline twist . The train emerges from the show building and makes a slight left towards the 30 @-@ metre ( 98 ft ) chain lift hill . Once at the top of the hill , riders drop down 30 @.@ 5 metres ( 100 ft ) at an angle of 100 ° . The second inversion of the ride , an Immelmann loop , is followed by an overbanked turn around . An air @-@ time hill , where riders experience the feeling of weightlessness , and a right turn leads into the mid @-@ course brake run . The train exits the brake run with a left turn into a dive loop . A left turn leads the train into the final brake run , before returning to the enclosed station .
= = Reception = =
Abyss has been well received . Edwin Dickinson of the Australian Coaster Club praised Abyss for its smoothness , intensity and pacing . He described the ride as better than Superman Escape at Warner Bros. Movie World , stating Adventure World " certainly lifted the bar for roller coasters in Australia " . The Australian Associated Press commended the ride 's ability to continue to be thrilling after multiple rides . Natalie Bonjolo of Today Tonight stated she didn 't " know whether to laugh or cry " at the end of Abyss , describing the ride as unbelievable . Local MP Joe Francis described the ride as an " amazing piece of mechanical engineering " .
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= SS Batavier V ( 1902 ) =
SS Batavier V was a steam packet for the Batavier Line that sailed between Rotterdam and London for most of her career . The ship was built in 1897 by the Gourlay Brothers of Dundee . The Dutch ship could carry a limited amount of freight and up to 428 passengers . She was rebuilt in 1909 which increased her length by over 5 metres ( 16 ft ) .
During World War I , the Batavier Line attempted to maintain service , but in March 1915 , Batavier V was seized as a prize by German submarine U @-@ 28 and sailed into Zeebrugge in German @-@ occupied Belgium . The ship was released by a German prize court in September . In May 1916 , Batavier V struck a mine laid by German submarine UC @-@ 6 off the British coast and sank with the loss of four lives .
= = Career = =
Batavier V and sister ship Batavier IV were built for William Müller and Company by the Gourlay Brothers of Dundee , Scotland . The ship was launched on 28 November 1902 . She was 79 @.@ 3 metres ( 260 ft 2 in ) long ( between perpendiculars ) and 10 @.@ 7 metres ( 35 ft 1 in ) abeam . Batavier V was powered by a single 3 @-@ cylinder , triple @-@ expansion steam engine of 2 @,@ 300 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 700 kW ) that moved her at a speed of up to 14 @.@ 5 knots ( 26 @.@ 9 km / h ) . She could carry a maximum of 428 passengers : 75 in first class , 28 in second , and up to 325 in steerage . She was listed at 1 @,@ 562 gross register tons ( GRT ) .
Upon completion in February 1903 , she joined Batavier I , Batavier II , Batavier III , and Batavier IV in packet service between Rotterdam and London . In Rotterdam , the ships docked at the Willemsplein ; in London , the ships docked at the Customs House and Wool Quays near the Tower Bridge . The Batavier Line service between Rotterdam and London was offered daily except Sundays , with each ship making multiple round trips per week .
After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , the Batavier Line continued service on the Rotterdam – London route . Batavier V was frequently stopped by German warships , examined and allowed to proceed . On 17 March 1915 , however , Batavier V left Rotterdam and proceeded to Hook of Holland , passing there in the early morning hours of 18 March . At about 05 : 00 , 6 nautical miles ( 11 km ) southwest of the Maas Lightship , German submarine U @-@ 28 hailed Batavier V. Kapitänleutnant Georg @-@ Günther von Forstner , U @-@ 28 's commanding officer , made clear his intent to seize Batavier V and sail it to German @-@ occupied Zeebrugge . While the captains of the two vessels argued the legalities of seizing a vessel flagged under a neutral country , lookouts on the submarine spotted another Dutch steamer , Zaanstroom . U @-@ 28 left an officer and a sailor on board Batavier V , and proceeded to stop and similarly seize Zaanstroom . U @-@ 28 and a pilot boat , W2 , led both of the Dutch ships through minefields and into Zeebrugge .
According to Popular Mechanics , one of Batavier V 's passengers was a photographer who was able to snap pictures of the ship 's encounter with the U @-@ boat . In April , the International News Service copyrighted eight images from the photographer , and deposited them with the Library of Congress . According to Popular Mechanics , which published one of the photos in its July 1915 edition , the photographs give a sense of the " enormous size and power of the latest German submarines " .
At Zeebrugge , Batavier V 's Dutch crew , and all the Dutch citizens , women , and children among the ship 's passengers were released ; fourteen Belgian men of fighting age and two priests were taken prisoner by the Germans . Batavier V 's cargo of fresh meat and Zaanstroom 's 300 long tons ( 340 short tons ) of fresh eggs were confiscated and unloaded by German personnel . The women and children were fed what one woman called " unpalatable black bread " before being sent to Ghent and on to Terneuzen in the Netherlands . The Dutch government requested explanation from Germany over the seizure of the neutral vessels and their cargoes . Batavier V was released by a German prize court in September .
Batavier V resumed Rotterdam – London passenger service after her release from German control at Zeebrugge . On 16 May 1916 , while outbound from London for Rotterdam , Batavier V struck a mine near the north buoy at Inner Gabbard . The mine had been recently planted by the German coastal minelaying submarine UC @-@ 6 . According to one witness , the ship 's decks were awash within three minutes of the explosion , which blew the rear cargo hold hatch and sent a great deal of cargo flying through the air . Batavier V sank within twenty minutes , taking with her three members of the crew and one American passenger .
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= Nevado del Ruiz =
The Nevado del Ruiz ( Spanish pronunciation : [ neβaðo ðel ˈrwis ] ) , also known as La Mesa de Herveo ( English : Mesa of Herveo ( the nearby town ) ) , or Kumanday in the language of the local pre @-@ Colombian indigenous people , is a volcano located on the border of the departments of Caldas and Tolima in Colombia , about 129 kilometers ( 80 mi ) west of the capital city Bogotá . It is a stratovolcano , composed of many layers of lava alternating with hardened volcanic ash and other pyroclastic rocks . Nevado del Ruiz has been active for about two million years , since the early Pleistocene or late Pliocene epoch , with three major eruptive periods . The current volcanic cone formed during the present eruptive period , which began 150 thousand years ago .
The volcano usually generates Plinian eruptions , which produce swift @-@ moving currents of hot gas and rock called pyroclastic flows . These eruptions often cause massive lahars ( mud and debris flows ) , which pose a threat to human life and the environment . The impact of such an eruption is increased as the hot gas and lava melt the mountain 's snowcap , adding large quantities of water to the flow . On November 13 , 1985 , a small eruption produced an enormous lahar that buried and destroyed the town of Armero in Tolima , causing an estimated 25 @,@ 000 deaths . This event later became known as the Armero tragedy — the deadliest lahar in recorded history . Similar but less deadly incidents occurred in 1595 and 1845 , consisting of a small explosive eruption followed by a large lahar .
The volcano is part of Los Nevados National Natural Park , which also contains several other volcanoes . The summit of Nevado del Ruiz is covered by large glaciers . The volcano continues to pose a threat to the nearby towns and villages , and it is estimated that up to 500 @,@ 000 people could be at risk from lahars from future eruptions .
= = Geography and geology = =
Nevado del Ruiz , which lies about 129 kilometers ( 80 mi ) west of Bogotá , is part of the Andes mountain range . The volcano is part of the Ruiz – Tolima volcanic massif ( or Cordillera Central ) , a group of five ice @-@ capped volcanoes which includes the Tolima , Santa Isabel , Quindio and Machin volcanoes . The massif is located at the intersection of four faults , some of which still are active .
Nevado del Ruiz lies within the Pacific Ring of Fire , a region that encircles the Pacific Ocean and contains some of the world 's most active volcanoes . It is the third most northerly of the volcanoes lying in the North Volcanic Zone of the Andean Volcanic Belt , which contains 75 of the 204 Holocene @-@ age volcanoes in South America . The Andean Volcanic Belt is produced by the eastward subduction of the oceanic Nazca Plate beneath the South American continental plate . As is the case for many subduction @-@ zone volcanoes , Nevado del Ruiz can generate explosive Plinian eruptions with associated pyroclastic flows that can melt snow and glaciers near the summit , producing large and sometimes devastating lahars ( mud and debris flows ) .
Like many other Andean volcanoes , Nevado del Ruiz is a stratovolcano : a voluminous , roughly conical volcano consisting of many strata of hardened lava and tephra including volcanic ash . Its lavas are andesitic – dacitic in composition . The modern volcanic cone comprises five lava domes , all constructed within the caldera of an ancestral Ruiz volcano : Nevado El Cisne , Alto de la Laguna , La Olleta , Alto la Pirana , and Alto de Santano . It covers an area of more than 200 square kilometers ( 77 sq mi ) , stretching 65 kilometers ( 40 mi ) from east to west . The mountain 's broad summit includes the Arenas crater , which is one kilometer in diameter and 240 meters ( 790 ft ) deep .
The summit of the volcano has steep slopes inclining from 20 to 30 degrees . At lower elevations , the slopes become less steep ; their inclination is about 10 degrees . From there on , foothills stretch almost to the edge of the Magdalena River north of the volcano and the Cauca River to the west . On the two major sides of the summit , headwalls show where past rock avalanches occurred . At times , ice on the summit has melted , generating devastating lahars , including the continent 's deadliest eruption in 1985 . On the volcano 's southwest flank is the pyroclastic cone La Olleta , which is not currently active , but may have erupted in historical times .
= = = Glaciers = = =
The summit of Nevado del Ruiz is covered by glaciers ( nevado means " snow @-@ covered " in Spanish ) , which formed over many thousands of years , and have generally retreated since the last glacial maximum . From 28 @,@ 000 to 21 @,@ 000 years ago , glaciers occupied about 1 @,@ 500 square kilometers ( 600 sq mi ) of the Ruiz – Tolima massif . As late as 12 @,@ 000 years ago , when the ice sheets from the last glacial period were retreating , they still covered 800 square kilometers ( 300 sq mi ) . During the Little Ice Age , which lasted from about 1600 to 1900 CE , the ice cap covered approximately 100 square kilometers ( 40 sq mi ) .
Since then the glaciers have retreated further because of atmospheric warming . By 1959 , the massif 's glaciated area had dropped to 34 square kilometers ( 13 sq mi ) . Since the 1985 eruption , which destroyed about 10 % of the summit ice cover , the area of Nevado del Ruiz covered by glaciers has halved — from 17 to 21 square kilometers ( 6 @.@ 6 to 8 @.@ 1 sq mi ) just after the eruption to about 10 square kilometers ( 3 @.@ 9 sq mi ) in 2003 . The glaciers reached altitudes as low as 4 @,@ 500 meters ( 14 @,@ 800 ft ) in 1985 but have now retreated to elevations of 4 @,@ 800 – 4 @,@ 900 meters ( 15 @,@ 700 – 16 @,@ 100 ft ) .
The ice cap is approximately 50 meters ( 160 ft ) thick on average . It is thickest in parts of the summit plateau and under the Nereides Glacier on the southwestern slopes , where it is as deep as 190 meters ( 620 ft ) . Glaciers on the northern and , to a lesser extent , the eastern slopes lost the most ice in the 1985 eruption , and therefore reach only up to 30 meters ( 100 ft ) deep . The deep ice covering the summit plateau may hide a caldera . Five domes ringing the summit plateau have emerged as the ice has retreated .
The meltwater from the glaciers drains primarily to the Cauca River and Magdalena River via the western and eastern flanks of the volcano , respectively . Runoff from these glaciers and those on the surrounding volcanoes is a source of fresh water for forty surrounding towns , and Colombian scientists and government officials are concerned about the towns ' water supply should the glaciers melt completely .
= = Flora and fauna = =
Nevado del Ruiz is generally poorly forested because of its high elevation , and its forest cover decreases with increasing elevation . At lower elevations , well @-@ developed mesic forests ( 20 – 35 meters / 66 – 110 ft high ) are present . Above these but below the tree line , parts of the volcano are covered with dwarf forests 3 – 8 meters ( 10 – 30 ft ) high . Above the tree line , in the Páramo zone , the vegetation is dominated by plants such as bunchgrass and Espeletia . Regional vegetation consists of different families of woody plants , including Rubiaceae , Leguminosae , Melastomataceae , Lauraceae , and Moraceae . Flowers such as Polypodiaceae s.l. , Araceae , Poaceae , Asteraceae , Piperaceae , and Orchidaceae are also present in the region .
Animals living on the volcano include the mountain tapir and spectacled bear , both of which are designated as threatened . Other animals inhabiting the surrounding region include the rufous @-@ fronted parakeet , bearded helmetcrest , and Herveo plump toad . The volcano is home to 27 species of birds endemic to Colombia , with 14 of these species confined to the region around the volcano . 15 bird species in the area are considered threatened .
= = Los Nevados National Park = =
Nevado del Ruiz is one of several stratovolcanoes within Los Nevados National Natural Park , a national park located west of Bogotá in the centre of the Colombian Andes . The park is a popular tourist destination and contains several tourist shelters . The slopes of the volcano are used for winter sports , and nearby Lake Otún offers trout fishing . A number of commercially operated spas can be found nearby . In 1868 – 1869 , German geologists Wilhelm Reiss and Alphons Stübel were the first to attempt to climb Ruiz . In 1936 , W. Cunet and Augusto Gansser @-@ Biaggi made the first successful ascent , partly by ski ; they repeated the ascent in 1939 .
= = Eruptive history = =
The first eruptions of Nevado del Ruiz occurred about 1 @.@ 8 million years ago at the beginning of the Pleistocene epoch . Three primary eruption periods in the history of the massif have been identified : ancestral , older and present . During the ancestral period between one million to two million years ago , a complex of large stratovolcanoes was created . Between 1 @.@ 0 million and 0 @.@ 8 million years ago , they partially collapsed , forming large ( 5 – 10 km wide ) calderas . During the older period , which lasted from 0 @.@ 8 million to 0 @.@ 2 million years ago , a new complex of large stratovolcanoes developed ( including Older Ruiz , Tolima , Quindio , and Santa Isabel ) . Once again explosive summit calderas formed from 0 @.@ 2 million to 0 @.@ 15 million years ago .
The present period began about 150 @,@ 000 years ago and involved the development of the present volcanic edifice through the emplacement of lava domes made of andesite and dacite ( igneous rocks ) inside older calderas . During the past 11 @,@ 000 years , Nevado del Ruiz passed through at least 12 eruption stages , which included multiple slope failures ( rock avalanches ) , pyroclastic flows and lahars leading to partial destruction of the summit domes . During the past several thousand years , eruptions of the volcanoes in the Ruiz – Tolima massif have mostly been small , and the pyroclastic flow deposits have been much less voluminous than during the Pleistocene . Since the volcano 's earlier eruptions are not recorded , volcanologists have used tephrochronology to date them .
During recorded history , eruptions have consisted primarily of a central vent eruption ( in the caldera ) followed by an explosive eruption , then lahars . Ruiz 's earliest identified Holocene eruption was about 6660 BC , and further eruptions occurred in 1245 BC ± 150 years ( dated through radiocarbon dating ) , about 850 BC , 200 BC ± 100 years , 350 AD ± 300 years , 675 AD ± 50 years , in 1350 , 1541 ( perhaps ) , 1570 , 1595 , 1623 , 1805 , 1826 , 1828 ( perhaps ) , [ b ] 1829 , 1831 , 1833 ( perhaps ) , [ b ] 1845 , 1916 , December 1984 – March 1985 , September 1985 – July 1991 , and possibly in April 1994 . [ b ] Many of these eruptions involved a central vent eruption , a flank vent eruption , and a phreatic ( steam ) explosion . Ruiz is the second @-@ most active volcano in Colombia after Galeras .
= = = 1595 lahar = = =
On the morning of March 12 , 1595 , Nevado del Ruiz erupted . The episode consisted of three Plinian eruptions , which were heard up to 100 kilometers ( 62 mi ) from the summit of the volcano . A large amount of ash was ejected , which completely darkened the surrounding area . The volcano also erupted lapilli ( a form of tephra ) and pumice bombs . In total , the eruption produced 0 @.@ 16 km3 of tephra . The eruption was preceded by a large precursor earthquake three days before . The eruption caused lahars , which traveled down the valleys of the nearby Gualí and Lagunillas rivers , clogging up the water , killing fish and destroying vegetation . More than 600 people died as a result of the lahar . The 1595 eruption was the last major eruption of Nevado del Ruiz before 1985 . The 1595 and 1985 eruptions were similar in many respects , including in the chemical composition of the erupted material .
= = = 1845 lahar = = =
On the morning of February 19 , 1845 , a large earthquake resulted in a substantial mudflow . This mudflow flowed down the valley of the Lagunillas River for approximately 70 kilometers ( 43 mi ) , spilling out of the river channel and killing much of the local population . After reaching an alluvial fan , the mudflow split into two branches . The larger portion of it joined the Lagunillas River and flowed into the nearby Magdalena River , while the smaller portion was diverted by hills in front of Lagunillas Canyon , turned 90 degrees to the north until it reached the Sabandija River , and then flowed east with the Sabandija River , until it rejoined the other branch of the mudflow at the junction of the Sabandija and the Magdalena . It is estimated that 1000 people were killed in the mudflows .
= = = Eruption ( 1985 ) = = =
Beginning November 1984 , geologists observed an increasing level of seismic activity near Nevado del Ruiz . Other signs of a forthcoming eruption included increased fumarole activity , deposition of sulfur on the summit of the volcano , and small phreatic eruptions . In the latter , hot magma came in contact with water , resulting in explosions as the water was almost instantly turned into steam . The most notable of these events was an ash ejection on September 11 , 1985 . The activity of the volcano decreased in October 1985 . The most likely explanation of the events is that new magma rose into the volcanic edifice before September 1985 .
An Italian volcanological mission analyzed gas samples from fumaroles along the Arenas crater floor and proved them to be a mixture of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide , indicating a direct release of magma into the surface environment . The mission 's report , delivered on October 22 , 1985 , judged the risk of lahars to be very high . The report proposed various simple preparedness techniques to local authorities .
In November 1985 , volcanic activity once again increased as magma neared the surface . The volcano began releasing increasing quantities of gases rich in sulfur dioxide and elementary sulfur . The water content of the fumaroles ' gases decreased , and water springs in the vicinity of Nevado del Ruiz became enriched in magnesium , calcium and potassium , which were leached from the magma . The thermodynamic equilibration ( stationary heat energy ) temperatures , corresponding to the chemical composition of the discharged gases , were from 200 ° C ( 400 ° F ) to 600 ° C ( 1 @,@ 000 ° F ) . The extensive degassing of the magma caused pressure to build up inside the volcano , which eventually resulted in the explosive eruption .
= = = = Eruption and lahars = = = =
At 3 : 06 pm , on November 13 , 1985 , Nevado del Ruiz began to erupt , ejecting dacitic tephra more than 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) into the atmosphere . The total mass of the erupted material ( including magma ) was 35 million tonnes — only 3 % of the amount that erupted from Mount St. Helens in 1980 . The eruption reached a value of 3 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index . The mass of the ejected sulfur dioxide was about 700 @,@ 000 tonnes , or about 2 % of the mass of the erupted solid material , making the eruption atypically sulfur @-@ rich .
The eruption produced pyroclastic flows that melted summit glaciers and snow , generating four thick lahars that raced down river valleys on the volcano 's flanks . It also destroyed a small lake that was observed in Arenas crater several months before the eruption . Water in such volcanic lakes tends to be extremely salty and contain dissolved volcanic gases . The lake 's hot , acidic water significantly accelerated the melting of the ice ; this effect was confirmed by the large amounts of sulfates and chlorides found in the lahar flow .
The lahars , formed of water , ice , pumice , and other rocks , mixed with clay as they travelled down the volcano 's flanks . They ran down the volcano 's sides at an average speed of 60 km per hour , eroding soil , dislodging rock , and destroying vegetation . After descending thousands of meters down the side of the volcano , the lahars were directed into all of the six river valleys leading from the volcano . While in the river valleys , the lahars grew to almost 4 times their original volume . In the Gualí River , a lahar reached a maximum width of 50 meters ( 200 ft ) .
One of the lahars virtually erased the small town of Armero in Tolima , which lay in the Lagunilla River valley . Only one quarter of its 28 @,@ 700 inhabitants survived . The second lahar , which descended through the valley of Chinchiná River , killed about 1 @,@ 800 people and destroyed about 400 homes in the town of Chinchiná , in the department of Caldas . In total , over 23 @,@ 000 people were killed and approximately 5 @,@ 000 were injured . More than 5 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed . The Armero tragedy , as the event came to be known , was the second @-@ deadliest volcanic disaster in the 20th century , being surpassed only by the 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée , and is the fourth @-@ deadliest volcanic eruption in recorded history . It is also the deadliest known lahar , and Colombia 's worst natural disaster .
The loss of life during the 1985 eruption was due partly to the fact that scientists did not know precisely when the eruption would occur , and the authorities would not take costly preventative measures without clear warnings of imminent danger . Because the volcano 's last substantial eruption occurred 140 years ago , it was also hard for many to accept the danger the volcano presented ; locals even called it the " Sleeping Lion " . Hazard maps showing Armero would be completely flooded after an eruption were distributed more than a month before the eruption , but the Colombian Congress criticized the scientific and civil defense agencies for scaremongering . Local authorities failed to alert people to the seriousness of the situation , with Armero 's mayor and a priest both reassuring the populace after an ash eruption on the afternoon of November 13 and the consequent ashfall early that evening . Another factor was the storm that hit that evening , causing electrical outages and hindering communications . Civil defense officials from four nearby towns tried to warn Armero the lahar was approaching in the hour or so before it reached Armero , but failed to make radio contact .
Scientists later looked back to the hours before the eruption and noticed that several long @-@ period earthquakes , which start out strong and then slowly die out , had occurred in the final hours before the eruption . Volcanologist Bernard Chouet said that , " the volcano was screaming ' I 'm about to explode ' " , but the scientists who were studying the volcano at the time of the eruption were not able to read this signal .
= = Current threats and preparedness = =
The volcano continues to pose a serious threat to nearby towns and villages . The most likely hazard is small @-@ volume eruptions , which might destabilize glaciers and trigger lahars . Despite the significant retrenchment of the volcano 's glaciers , the volume of ice atop Nevado del Ruiz and other volcanoes in the Ruiz – Tolima massif remains large . Melting merely 10 % of the ice would produce mudflows with a volume of up to 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic meters ( 70 @,@ 629 @,@ 333 cu ft ) — similar to the mudflow that destroyed Armero in 1985 . Such lahars can travel up to 100 kilometers ( 62 mi ) along river valleys in a matter of few hours . Estimates show that up to 500 @,@ 000 people living in the Combeima , Chinchiná , Coello @-@ Toche , and Guali valleys are in danger , and 100 @,@ 000 of these are considered to be at high risk . Lahars poses a threat to nearby towns of Honda , Mariquita , Ambalema , Chinchiná , Herveo , Villa Hermosa , Salgar and La Dorada . Although small eruptions are more likely , the two million @-@ year eruptive history of the Ruiz – Tolima massif includes numerous large eruptions , indicating that the threat of a large eruption cannot be ignored . A large eruption would have more widespread effects , including the potential closure of Bogotá 's airport due to ashfall .
As the Armero tragedy was exacerbated by the lack of early warnings , unwise land use , and the unpreparedness of nearby communities , the government of Colombia created a special program ( Oficina Nacional para la Atencion de Desastres , 1987 ) to prevent such incidents in the future . All Colombian cities were directed to promote prevention planning in order to mitigate the consequences of natural disasters , and evacuations due to volcanic hazards have been carried out . About 2 @,@ 300 people living along five nearby rivers were evacuated when Nevado del Ruiz erupted again in 1989 . When another Colombian volcano , the Nevado del Huila , erupted in April 2008 , thousands of people were evacuated because volcanologists worried that the eruption could be another " Nevado del Ruiz " .
In 2006 , heavy rains on Ruiz sent a mudslide down the Chinchiná River , killing nine youths aged 12 – 19 on a scouting expedition near the volcano .
= = = Recent activity = = =
During September and October 2010 , INGEOMINAS ( Colombian Institute of Mining and Geology ) noted gradual increases in seismic activity near the Arenas crater . Sulfurous odors and phreatic eruptions reported at Nevado del Ruiz prompted an alert level of Yellow on October 1 . Chemical analysis of the volcano demonstrated deformative changes and geochemical alterations . Over the next four months a smattering of long @-@ period earthquakes , considered pseudo @-@ Tornillo events , raised worries that the volcano might erupt . In 2010 , tilt increased , and on average 890 volcanic tremors were recorded monthly , roughly eight times as many as had been recorded from 2009 – 2010 . 2010 marked the beginning of increases in sulfur dioxide emissions accompanying small eruptions at the volcano , which both peaked in February 2012 correspondent to a dramatic increase in earthquakes .
Scientists flying over the volcano on March 8 , 2012 noted fresh ash deposits on the east flank of the volcano near the crater , likely from an phreatic eruption on February 22 . Later that day , a small ash plume erupted from the crater ; by March 13 , scientists detected ash deposits at the head of the Gualí River . After seismicity continued to increase , the alert level was raised to Orange , and in April Nevados National Natural Park authority closed the reserve , fearing lahars and ashfall hazards . The sudden activity peak in March did not culminate in a major eruption , and activity declined enough that the alert level was lowered to Yellow on May 3 . On May 29 , seismicity rapidly increased , and the alert level was restored to Orange because ash fell into more than 20 nearby communities . Over the next few months ash fell frequently until earthquakes increased again in June . Because of the severity of these tremors , evacuations were ordered by the Emergency Committee of Caldas on news media for 300 – 1500 people near the volcano . The alert level was raised to Red , indicating an imminent major volcanic event , and an eruption 7 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 7 mi ) in diameter took place on July 2 , 2012 , continuing intermittently until the end of August . Ash plumes and sulfur dioxide emissions recurred until January 2013 .
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= Christopher Smart =
Christopher Smart ( 11 April 1722 – 21 May 1771 ) , also known as " Kit Smart " , " Kitty Smart " , and " Jack Smart " , was an English poet .
He was a major contributor to two popular magazines and a friend to influential cultural icons like Samuel Johnson and Henry Fielding . Smart , a high church Anglican , was widely known throughout London .
Smart was infamous as the pseudonymous midwife " Mrs. Mary Midnight " and widespread accounts of his father @-@ in @-@ law , John Newbery , locking him away in a mental asylum for many years over Smart 's supposed religious " mania " . Even after Smart 's eventual release , a negative reputation continued to pursue him as he was known for incurring more debt than he could repay ; this ultimately led to his confinement in debtors ' prison until his death .
Smart 's two most widely known works are A Song to David and Jubilate Agno , both at least partly written during his confinement in asylum . However , Jubilate Agno was not published until 1939 and A Song to David received mixed reviews until the 19th century . To his contemporaries , Smart was known mainly for his many contributions in the journals The Midwife and The Student , along with his famous Seaton Prize poems and his mock epic The Hilliad . Although he is primarily recognised as a religious poet , his poetry includes various other themes , such as his theories on nature and his promotion of English nationalism .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Christopher Smart was born in Shipbourne in Kent , England on the Fairlawn estate of William , Viscount Vane , younger son of Lord Barnard of Barnard Castle . He was , according to his nephew , " of a delicate constitution having been born earlier than the natural period " . He was baptised in Wrotham parish on 11 May 1722 . Smart 's father was Peter Smart , steward or bailiff of Fairlawne . His mother was Winifred Smart of the Griffiths family of Radnorshire , Wales .
Winifred was born c 1691 , given that when she died in 1766 she was 75 years of age : " 15 May 1766 Forename : Winefred , Widow Surname : Smart Age : 75 Place : St John in Thanet ( Margate ) , St John the Baptist County : Kent Archive Reference : U3 / 140 / 1 / 3 " This was near Margate where she had been living " Dr. John Hawkesworth visited him ( Christopher Smart ) in October 1764 , and found him silently hostile towards his mother , Winifred Smart , and his sister , Margaret Hunter , at Margate " ( The Poetry of Christopher Smart by Moira Dearnley ) .
Winifred 's parentage " Of the Griffiths family of Radnorshire " has not been unequivocally established before . However , she now appears to have been the daughter of a Resse Griffiths and the sister of Jeremiah Griffith c1692 @-@ c1759 ; qv Inner Temple admission records ; " First Name : Jeremiah Last Name : Griffith Occupation Given : gentleman Admission Date : 12 / 02 / 1713 Call Date : 18 / 06 / 1716 Father 's Details Name : Resse Griffith Occupation : gentleman Father / Son Relationship : son and heir apparent Address : Diserth Radnorshire Notes : Referred to as Jeremy Griffith in the Bar Book . Father 's address described as in " Parish of Dissearth Wales " .
She was also of the Inner Temple at her marriage , where she presumably had lodged with her brother before he was called to the Bar . " Winifred Griffith of The Inner Temple , London , Spinster , Spouse : Peter Smart of Fair Lawne , Kent , Batchelor ; source Parish Register St Benet Paul ´ s Wharf City of London Marriage Date : 7 Apr 1716 "
Jeremiah Griffith , Christopher Smart 's uncle , is recorded as having married twice . First Marriage : 19 May 1715 Jeremiah Griffith of the Inner Temple , London , Bach . , and Sarah Twells of St Andrew , Holborn , Midx . , S ( pinster ) . St Benet Pauls Wharf . His second marriage ; Jeremiah Griffith Marriage Date : 17 Jan 1746 Place : St James , Piccadilly , Middlesex Spouse 's Name : Charlotte Walker ( widow and executrix of John Walker DD deceased , she was natural daughter of Sheffield Duke of Buckingham and Francis Lambert , wife of Hon Oliver Lambert ( 2nd son of Charles [ Lambert ] , 3rd Earl of Cavan ) . Jeremy died c1759 Copy of the will of Jeremiah Griffiths of Downton , New Radnor Esq . , 12 Sep 1747 probate 17 May 1759 is held at Powys archives. ref RX / 11 / 400 .
Before giving birth to Christopher , Winifred had two daughters , Margaret and Mary Anne .
During Smart 's younger years , Fairlawne was the residence of Christopher Vane , 1st Baron Barnard and Lady Barnard , who bequeathed £ 200 to Smart . He is supposed to have received so much money due to his father 's closeness to the Vane family , his being named after Christopher Vane , and the young boy was considered " the pride of Fairlawn " . However , there is some controversy over the exact nature of this inheritance ; while some cynically disagree with the reasons for his inheritance , no other explanation has been specified . In 1726 , three years after Christopher Vane died , Peter Smart purchased Hall @-@ Place in East Barming , which included a mansion house , fields , orchards , gardens , and woodland , a property that was influential throughout Smart 's later life . From the age of four until eleven , he spent much time around the farms , but did not participate , leading to speculations that he suffered from asthma attacks . However , not all scholars agree that he was a " sickly youth " . The only written record of events during his childhood comes from his writing of a short poem , at the age of four , in which he challenges a rival to the affections of a twelve @-@ year @-@ old girl .
While at Hall @-@ Place , Smart was sent to the local Maidstone Grammar School where he was taught by Charles Walwyn , a scholar from Eton College who had received an MA from King 's College , Cambridge in 1696 . It was here that Smart received an intensive education in Latin and Greek . He did not complete his education at Maidstone however , as his father died on 3 February 1733 , and his mother took Smart and his siblings to live near relatives in Durham after selling off a large portion of the estate to pay off Peter Smart 's debts .
Smart then attended Durham School , where the Reverend Mr. Richard Dongworth was headmaster ; it is not known whether he lived with his uncle , John Smart , or with a school master . He spent vacations at Raby Castle , which was owned by Henry Vane , 1st Earl of Darlington , the grandson of Christopher Vane . Henry Vane and his wife Grace , sister to William and Henrietta Fitzroy the Duke and Duchess of Cleveland , had four children , Henry , Frederick , Anne , and Mary . They were only a few years younger than Smart and became playmates , with Anne and Henry " pairing off " with Christopher and his sister Margaret respectively . Although nothing resulted from the match , Anne has been traditionally described as being his " first love " . During his time with the Vane family , Smart dedicated many poems to Henrietta , the Duchess of Cleveland . It was his closeness with the Vane family along with his skill for learning that encouraged Henrietta to allow him a pension of 40 pounds yearly , continued by her husband after her death in 1742 . This allowed Smart to attend Pembroke College , Cambridge .
= = = College = = =
Smart was admitted to Pembroke College on 20 October 1739 as a sizar under Leonard Addison . Although it is unclear why he chose Pembroke College , Addison was named in Peter Smart 's trust deed ( 1729 ) . As a sizar , he occasionally had to wait on the " Fellows ' table " and perform other menial tasks . On 12 July 1740 , he was awarded the " Dr. Watt 's Foundation scholarship " , which granted him six pounds a year until he gained a Bachelor of Arts degree . In addition to this income , he was also granted four pounds a year for scholarship . Although he was successful academically , he began to run up debt in order to pay for his extravagant lifestyle while at the college .
During his time at Pembroke , Smart borrowed numerous books spanning the fields of literature , religion , and science . These works helped when he wrote the three " Tripos Verse " at the end of each year . These poems were written in Latin and they , along with his other Latin poems like his translation of Alexander Pope 's Ode on St. Cecilia 's Day , led to him being awarded the " Craven scholarship for classics " on 10 June 1742 , which paid ₤ 25 a year for 14 years . These scholarships , combined with his becoming a fellow in 1743 , justified Smart calling himself " Scholar of the University " .
In 1743 , Smart pushed his translation of Pope 's Ode on St. Cecilia 's Day as Carmen Cl . Alexandri Pope in S. Caeciliam Latine Redditum and paid for the publication himself . With this translation , he wanted to win Pope 's favour and translate Pope 's Essay on Man , but Pope rejected the idea and , after a lettered response and a possible meeting between the two , Smart translated Pope 's An Essay on Criticism ( De Arte Critica ) instead . The initial letter sent from Pope recommending the future translation was prized by Smart . In response to this letter and his budding relationship with Pope , the Pembroke Fellows honoured him with a portrait showing him holding the letter from Pope and allowed him to write a poem in celebration of Jubilee of Pembroke 's 400th year in 1744 .
In October 1745 , Smart was elected Praelector of Philosophy , which paid one pound a year , and made one of three Keepers of the Common Chest . The next year , on 11 February 1746 , he became a Master of Arts and was later elected on 10 October 1746 , to Praelector of Philosophy , Praelector of Rhetoric , and Keeper of the Common Chest . However , he had run up more debt of over twice his annual income , and he was not re @-@ elected in 1747 to the Praelectorship and was denied his control over the Common Chest accounts . However , he was made a " Preacher before the Mayor of Cambridge " at the college under the title " Concionatori Coram Praetore oppidano " , and his modest living during this year allowed him to regain Praelectorship in Philosophy along with being made a catechist , which suggests that he was ordained in the Anglican church .
In 1746 , Smart became tutor to John Blake Delaval , but this was abruptly cancelled and Delaval eventually removed from Pembroke over various broken rules and mischief . After recovering from this , Smart returned to studying . In April 1747 , a comedy he wrote just months before , A Trip to Cambridge , or The Grateful Fair , was performed in Pembroke College Hall , with many parts , including female roles , played by Smart himself . The prologue was printed in The Cambridge Journal Weekly Flying @-@ Post , which claimed that the play received " Universal Applause " .
During his final years at Pembroke , Smart was writing and publishing many poems . On 9 January 1748 , there were three proposals for " A Collection of Original Poems , By Christopher Smart , M.A. , Fellow of Pembroke Hall , in the University of Cambridge " that would include " The Hop Garden " , " The Judgment of Midas , a Masque " , his odes , his translations into Latin , and some original Latin poems . Thomas Gray , on 17 March 1747 , referred to this work as Smart 's " Collection of Odes " . This collection was not printed in 1748 but was delayed until 1752 , and was re @-@ titled Poems on Several Occasions .
Between 1740 and 1746 , he was introduced to Harriot Pratt , and he began to write poetry about her . By 1749 , he was in love with her and wrote to his friend Charles Burney ( father of Fanny Burney ) , " I am situated within a mile of my Harriote & Love has robd Friendship of her just dues ... There was a great musical crash at Cambridge , which was greatly admired , but I was not there , being much better pleased with hearing my Harriote on her spinnet & organ at her ancient mansion " , suggesting that he was living permanently in Market Downham , London . Although he wrote many poems dedicated to Harriot , his poem " The Lass with the Golden Locks " ( 1752 ) claims that he was done with both Harriot , Polly , and other women . The " lass with the golden locks " who replaced Smart 's previous fancies was Anna Maria Carnan . Anna would be Smart 's future wife and she was the stepdaughter of John Newbery , Smart 's future publisher .
= = = London = = =
Although Smart seemed to turn his life around at Pembroke , he slowly abandoned the college for London . During 1749 , Smart listed himself on Pembroke 's " Liber Absentiae " and would occasionally return to Pembroke throughout 1749 and 1750 . Because of his relationship with those at Pembroke , he was allowed to keep his name in the college 's records , which allowed him to participate and be charged as a member of the college . By 1750 he was living near St. James 's Park and was busy familiarising himself with Grub Street . It was this year that Smart developed a business relationship with John Newbery . It is unknown how Smart and Newbery met , but Smart 's daughter claimed Charles Burney introduced the two . Newbery was looking for a contributory to his The Midwife and The Student magazines , and it is possible that Smart 's winning of Cambridge 's " Seatonian Prize " on 25 March 1750 brought his poetic abilities to Newbery 's attention .
The " Seatonian Prize " was a contest for one English poem each year on the topic of " the Perfections or Attributes of the Supreme Being " and the prize would be the " Rent of the [ Kislingbury , Northamptonshire ] estate " It was established by the will of Thomas Seaton , an " Anglican divine and hymn writer " . Smart wrote in the " poetical essay " tradition using Miltonic blank verse . In 1750 , the poem he won the prize with was On the Eternity of the Supreme Being . The prize was only worth 17 pounds each year before 7 pounds were deducted for the publication of the poem . However , after the publication of the poem , Smart became a regular contributor in The Student .
The Student , before Smart 's work , was a serious magazine that included a few poems and critical essays . However , once he joined and began writing under many pseudonyms , the magazine became filled with satire , parody , and humorous essays and poems . Along with him composing 15 of the essays and the majority of the poems published in the two volumes of the magazine , he decided to append three of The Inspector , a " humorous news report " , to the second of the volumes . These reports included many " puff pieces " promoting Smart 's works along with various stories written by his friends and associates , including the famous writers / poets Henry Fielding , Samuel Johnson , William Collins , and Tobias Smollett . However , this was not the only important publication produced by him during this time .
= = = The Midwife = = =
The Midwife , first published on 16 October 1751 and lasting until April 1753 , was produced primarily by Smart while he worked on The Student . This magazine was popular enough to be published in four editions . To hide his identity for practical and humorous reasons , he adopted the persona of a midwife , also known as a " Mrs. Midwife " in slang , and called this persona " Mrs. Mary Midnight " .
When his poem " Night Piece " was attacked by William Kenrick in Kapelion , or Poetical Ordinary , possibly out of a prearranged publicity stunt , Smart used The Midwife in December , 1750 , to attack back at Kenrick and promised an Old Woman 's Dunciad to be written against the other poet . However , Kenrick beat Smart to the use of the title and printed his own in January , 1751 . This feud lasted as attacks published in a few issues of The Midwife , but it soon died out when Smart focused his attention to writing a prologue and epilogue for a production of Othello and using the magazine to promote it .
His attention slowly shifted away from The Midwife when he wrote for , and won , the " Seatonian Prize " for his On the Immensity of the Supreme Being and when he began working with Newbery 's children 's magazine , The Lilliputian Magazine . However , Smart returned to this character full force when he established The Old Woman 's Oratory ; or Henley in Petticoats in December 1751 . The Oratory included Smart playing as Mrs. Midnight , various songs and dances , animal acts , and " miscellany " acts . The Oratory was successful , and was completely redone on 21 January 1752 . However , not everyone enjoyed the show , and Horace Walpole described the performance as " the lowest buffoonery in the world even to me who am used to my uncle Horace . " Late in 1752 , Smart finished and published a collection of his works as Poems on Several Occasions , which resulted in the end of the Oratory and The Midwife .
= = = Later career = = =
In 1752 , Christopher Smart was slowly dragged into a large " paper war " that involved many of London 's writers . After the publication of Poems on Several Occasions , including The Hop @-@ Garden , in June 1752 , John Hill launched a major attack upon Smart 's poetry . Smart responded with his mock @-@ epic , The Hilliad . Before the release of Smart 's poem , Hill was engaged in a large literary battle between various members of Grub Street 's and London 's writing community , especially Henry Fielding . This battle may have been for publicity only and lasted over many months before Smart involved himself . However , even with such a late entry , his Hilliad was the " loudest broadside " of the war .
Smart was incurring many debts , and started publishing as much as possible during this time to support his family ; he was married to Anna Maria Carnan around mid @-@ 1752 , and in 1754 already had two daughters , Marianne ( 3 May 1753 ) and Elizabeth Anne ( 27 October 1754 ) . As a married man , he could no longer stay enrolled at Pembroke and collect his scholarship money when his marriage and children were made apparent to the heads of the college . Newbery allowed Smart , along with his wife and their children , to live at Canonbury House , Islington . Although Newbery had a strong reputation for charity , he was determined to have complete control over his writers . It is likely that such an attitude combined with monetary problems led to a rift forming between the two in 1753 .
Between 1753 and 1755 , Smart published or republished at least 79 works . However , even if he received money from each of these publications , these publications were unable to provide enough of an income to support a family , especially to his standard of living . While he was producing a poem each year for the Seatonian Prize , this amounted to very little of his writing ; he was forced into a life of " hack work " , which was described by his contemporary , Arthur Murphy , as " a bookseller is his only friend , but for that bookseller , however liberal , he must toil and drudge . " In December of 1755 , he finished The Works of Horace , Translated Literally into English Prose , a translation of Horace , which was widely used but brought him little profit .
He signed a 99 @-@ year contract in November 1755 to produce a weekly paper entitled The Universal Visitor or Monthly Memorialist for Thomas Gardner and Edmund Allen . However , the strain of publishing caused Smart to suffer from a fit , and he was unable to keep up with the publishing of the paper . Allen was a friend of Samuel Johnson , and it was Samuel Johnson , along with many other friends of Smart , who contributed to the magazine in order to help Smart keep up with his contract . In March 1756 , Newbery published without Smart 's authority Smart 's final " Seatonian Prize " poem , On the Goodness of the Supreme Being , and later , on 5 June , Newbery published without Smart 's authority Smart 's Hymn to the Supreme Being , a poem which thanked God for recovery over an illness of some kind , possibly a " disturbed mental state " . The Hymn to the Supreme Being marks the time in Smart 's life after the mysterious " fit " was resolved and the beginning of Smart 's obsession with religion and his praying " without ceasing " .
= = = Asylum confinement = = =
A " Commission of Lunacy " was taken out against Smart , and he was admitted to St Luke 's Hospital for Lunatics on 6 May 1757 as a " Curable Patient " . It is possible that Smart was confined by Newbery over old debts and a poor relationship between the two ; Newbery had previously mocked Smart and his immorality in his A Collection of Pretty Poems for the Amusement of Children six Foot High . Regardless of the exact reasons , there is evidence suggesting that Newbery 's admittance of Smart into the mental asylum was not based on " madness " . However , there is also evidence that an incident of some kind took place in St. James 's Park in which Smart started to pray loudly in public until he had " routed all the company " ( Jubilate Agno B89 ) .
It is not known what exactly happened during his confinement , but Smart did work on two of his most famous poems , Jubilate Agno and A Song to David . What is known is that he may have been in a private madhouse before St Luke 's and that he was later moved from St Luke 's to Mr. Potter 's asylum until his release . At St Luke 's , he transitioned from being " curable " to " incurable " , and was moved to Mr. Potter 's asylum for monetary reasons . During this time , Anna left and took the children with her to Ireland . His isolation led him into writing religious poetry , although he abandoned the traditional genres of the 18th century that marked his earlier poetry when he wrote Jubilate Agno . Although it is debated as to whether his turning inward to examine himself in his poetry represents an evangelical type of Christianity , his poetry during his isolation does show a desire for " unmediated revelation " . There is an " inner light " that serves as a focal point for Smart and his poems written during this time , and that inner light connects him to the Christian God .
Smart was left alone , except for his cat Jeoffrey and the occasional gawker . It is very possible that he felt " homeless " during this time and surely felt that he was in a " limbo ... between public and private space " . In London , only a few of his works were still being published . However , not everyone viewed Smart 's " madness " as problematic , and Johnson defended him , sometimes seriously and sometimes comically , many times . A century later , Robert Browning later remarked that A Song to David was great because Smart was mad , and that the poem allowed him to rank alongside of Milton and Keats . It is no wonder that a few of his loyal friends did come to Mr. Potter 's and free him .
Little is known as to how and why Smart was released from asylum , but Elizabeth , his daughter , claimed : " He grew better , and some misjudging friends who misconstrued Mr Newbery 's great kindness in placing him under necessary & salutary restriction which might possibly have eventually wrought a cure , invited him to dinner and he returned to his confinement no more . " Although this may be a misstatement of the events , Smart did leave the asylum on 30 January 1763 .
= = = Final years = = =
A Song to David was printed on 6 April 1763 along with a proposal for a new translation of the Psalms . The poem was received harshly , which was possibly just thinly veiled personal attacks over Smart being freed from the asylum just weeks before . However , Kenrick , Smart 's former rival , praised the poem in one of his own printed on 25 May 1763 . Also , John Lockman followed on 21 June 1763 , with his own poem in praise of Smart 's and Samuel Boyce followed this on 15 July 1763 with another . Along with this support , Smart responded to his critics at the Critical Review ; in regards to Smart 's response , the Critical Review claimed that they would " say no more of Mr. Smart " .
After A Song to David , he tried to publish a collection of his Psalms translations , and Newbery sought to ruin him by hiring James Merrick to produce his own translations . Newbery then hired Smart 's new publisher , James Fletcher , which in turn forced Smart to find a new publisher , delaying the printing of his Psalms . Finally , on 12 August 1765 , he printed A Translation of the Psalms of David , which included Hymns and Spiritual Songs and a second edition of A Song to David . This work was criticised by Tobias Smollett who was working with Newbery at the time , and Newbery 's edition by Merrick was constantly compared with Smart 's . However , modern criticism has received Smart 's version in a more favourable light . While working on this project , he was also working on a translation of the Phaedrus and a verse translation of Horace . His verse Horace was published in July 1767 including a preface in which he attacked Newbery , but the attack was in vain because Newbery died soon after .
On 20 April 1770 , Smart was arrested for debt . On 11 January 1771 , he was tried by Lord Mansfield , the gentleman who originally introduced Smart to Alexander Pope , and he was soon recommended to the King 's Bench Prison . Although he was in prison , Charles Burney purchased the " Rules " ( allowing him some freedom ) , and Smart 's final weeks may have been peaceful although pathetic . In his final letter , Smart begged for money from Rev. Mr. Jackson , saying : " Being upon recovery from a fit of illness , and having nothing to eat , I beg you to send me two or three shillings which ( God willing ) I will return , with many thanks , in two or three days . " On 20 May 1771 , Smart died from either liver failure or pneumonia shortly after completing his final work , Hymns , for the Amusement of Children .
= = = Death = = =
In response to his uncle 's death , Christopher Hunter wrote , " I trust he is now at peace ; it was not his portion here . " Fanny Burney , in her journal , wrote :
But now I speak of authors , let me pay the small tribute of regret and concern due to the memory of poor Mr. Smart , who died lately in the King 's Bench Prison ; a man by nature endowed with talents , wit , and vivacity , in an eminent degree ; and whose unhappy loss of his sense was a public as well as private misfortune . I never knew him in his glory , but ever respected him in his decline , from the fine proofs he had left of his better day , and from the account I have heard of his youth from my father , who was then his intimate companion ; as , of late years , he has been his most active and generous friend , having raised a kind of fund for his relief , though he was ever in distress . His intellects , so cruelly impaired , I doubt not , affected his whole conduct .
On 22 May 1771 , a jury of twelve fellow inmates of the King 's Bench Prison declared that Smart " upon the Twentieth day of May Instant died a Natural Death within the Rules of the Prison . " He was buried on 26 May in St Paul 's Covent Garden .
= = Literary themes and styles = =
Christopher Smart received occasional mentions by critics and scholars after his death , especially by Robert Browning , but analysis and commentary on his works increased dramatically with the " discovery " of Jubilate Agno in 1939 . Many recent critics approach Smart from a religious perspective ( Neil Curry , Harriet Guest , Clement Hawes , Chris Mounsey ) . However , some also favour a psychology / sexual analysis of his works ( Lance Bertelsen , Clemet Hawes , Alan Liu ) .
= = = Religion = = =
Although Smart wrote the " Seatonian Prize " poems early on , there is a contrast between the mimicked Miltonic blank verse and the intense exploration of religion found in his later works . His first " Seatonian Prize " poem , On the Eternity of the Supreme Being is part of two traditional types of religious writing : " authoritative discourse of religious poetry " and " tentative and self @-@ critical discourse of an apparently more personal devotion " In connecting the two , he redefines " the role of the religious poet . " By establishing a debate between these two forms , Harriet Guest claims that Smart creates " a poetic space which allows the poet to make provisional , even questionable statements " , which are important to his later works . To Guest , Smart , in his religious poems , " is not concerned to offer instruction in Christian conduct . " Besides the greater theological debate , the poems also are the origins of Smart 's belief that all of creation is constantly praising God , and that a poet must " give voice to mute nature 's praise of God . "
Jubilate Agno reflects an abandonment of traditional poetic structures in order to explore complex religious thought . His " Let " verses join creation together as he seemingly writes his own version of Biblical poetry . Smart , in Jubilate Agno , plays on words and the meaning behind words in order to participate with the divine that exists within language . Although the original manuscript divided the " Let " and " For " verses onto opposing sides of the manuscript , Karina Williams claims that " Dr W. H. Bond then discovered that some of the LET and FOR folios were numbered and dated concurrently , and that these chronologically parallel texts were further connected by verbal links . " This justified her combing the two sides to follow each other . Using this as a model , Guest claims that the " For " verses explore religion with a " personal tone " and the " Let " are " unambiguous " and deal with public matters . Jeanne Walker goes further than Guest and claims that the " Let " and " For " sections are united with the Hebrew tradition and " iterate both present and future simultaneously , that is , they redeem time . "
Words and language connect the poet to divine revelation , and God is the " great poet " who used language in order to create the universe . Through words and language , Smart attempted to capture the creative power of those words . By relying on the power of words , Smart is , according to Clement Hawes , subverting " Anglican control over religious functions and services . " In essence , Smart 's approach to religion in Jubilate Agno is comparable to John Wesley 's theological dictum and to the writings of John Perro and William Bowling . He also creates his own natural philosophy and criticises science , like that established by Isaac Newton , for their ignoring " the glory of Almighty God . "
To Smart , each piece of matter is alive because it is connected to God , and matter cannot be described in a cold manner that disconnects it from this reality . However , Smart accomplished his new science by relying on Newtonian empiricism . As part of his desire to bring back the divine language to poetry and science , he creates an " Ark of Salvation " in order to describe a prophetic and apocalyptic future which emphasises the importance of Christ and England . Along with being prophetic , the poem itself is modelled after the canticles and follows the form of the Benedicite . The Benedicite is not the only model however , and there is a strong link between Jubilate Agno and the psalm tradition .
Smart 's A Song to David is an attempt to bridge poetry written by humans and Biblical poetry . The Biblical David plays an important role in this poem just as he played an important role in Jubilate Agno However , David in Jubilate Agno is an image of the creative power of poetry whereas he becomes a fully realised model of the religious poet . By focusing on David , Smart is able to tap into the " heavenly language . " Many critics have focused on the role of David as planner of Solomon 's Temple and his possible role with the Freemasons . However , the true life of the poem comes later when Christ is introduced as the major subject . After Christ is introduced , Smart attempts to " reach to heaven " and the final passages , to Neil Curry , represent a " final rush for glory . "
According to Mounsey , A Song to David and Smart 's Psalms is an attempt to " Christianize " the Old Testament through writing an 18th @-@ century psalter . However , the Psalms perform a secondary function : they allow Smart to relate to the suffering of David and to reinforce his own religious convictions by following his Biblical model . As part of Smart 's " Christianizing " of the Psalms , Jesus becomes a divine form of suffering , and Smart becomes further juxtaposed with his Biblical model as both praise God for Jesus 's ultimate sacrifice and for the beauty of all creation . The Hymns and Psalms form their own sort of liturgy and attempt to reform Anglican liturgy by emphasising God 's place in nature .
Smart 's Hymns are modelled after a tradition exemplified by Robert Nelson . They are steeped in Anglican tradition and also emphasise English patriotism and England 's divine favour . The Hymns , according to Guest , " [ express ] a delight in creation that is largely absent from the work of other hymn @-@ writers of the century , unless they are paraphrasing the words of David . " To Hawes , the Hymns exemplify an evangelical spirit that separates Smart from the traditional Anglican church . Although he wrote his second set of hymns , Hymns for the Amusement of Children , for a younger audience , Smart cares more about emphasising the need for children to be moral instead of " innocent " . These works have been seem as possibly too complicated for " amusement " because they employee ambiguities and complicated theological concepts . In essence , the Hymns for the Amusement of Children is intended to teach children the specific virtues that make up the subject matter of the work . Like the Hymns for the Amusement of Children , Smart 's The Parables of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ were designed to teach morals . However , these Parables alter the original Biblical parables in order to simplify them and help them " make sense " As such , Todd Parker claims that the Parables , and the other religious works of Smart , are part of his final push for the " evangelization of London 's reading public . "
= = = Language = = =
The language and commentary on language is of particular emphasis in Jubilate Agno . To Alan Jacobs , Smart 's use of language represents his attempt to connect to the " Ur language " , allowing Smart to connect to " the Word calling forth the world . " This is similar to David and Orpheus 's ability as poets to create through their song . In his constant emphasis on the force of poetry , Jubilate Agno takes on the qualities of the Ars Poetica tradition . As such , Smart is attempting to develop a poetic language that will connect him to the " one true , eternal poem . " The poetic language that he creates is related to Adam 's " onomathetic " tradition , or the idea that names hold significant weight in the universe and that Adam was able to join in with creation by naming objects .
In Jubilate Agno , he describes his writing as creating " impressions " . To accomplish this task , he incorporated puns and onomonpoeia in order to emphasise the theological significance of his poetic language . In addition to these techniques , he relied on repeated language and allusions to traditional works and to scripture for a source of authority in various works , especially in his Hymns . Along with scriptural authority , he relies on prophetic rhetoric to gain his audience 's sympathy .
During the 18th century , there was a debate over poetic language and the translations of Smart , especially of Horace , positioned him as one who sought to redeem traditional forms and understanding of language . However , some critics , like Alan Liu , believe that translations are effectively forced to compete against the original works , and that Smart 's language , at least in his translations , must constantly seek to undermine the original authors , like Horace . Not all critics agree with Liu , and those like Donald Davie believe that the Smart 's translations cannot be compared to the original works , but are part of a system of Smart competing against the language of his contemporaries . Thomas Keymer further verified this point about Smart 's translations by revealing that the poet claims , in William Toldervy 's The History of Two Orphans , " But what heaven @-@ exciting harmony might we not expect from that exalted genius , who can produce such lines as these following ! " in anticipation of replacing the previous flawed translations of the Psalms .
Regardless of where he stood on the specific issue of translation Smart believed that there was an importance to language , which carried over to his constant revising of his poems to slowly correct them . Many of Smart 's poems served a dual purpose , and when put to music were altered to meet various standards . By constantly revising , he ensured that his poems were always the " authentic " version .
= = = Gender = = =
Smart 's role as Mrs. Midnight along with his gendered comments in Jubilate Agno form the focal point for analysing his understanding of sexuality and gender . With Mrs. Midnight , Smart challenges the traditional social order found in 18th @-@ century England . However , some , like Lance Bertelsen , claim that the Mrs. Midnight persona reveals Smart 's schizophrenia in which he is torn between masculine and feminine roles . Fraser Easton claims that the existence of Mrs. Midnight proves that Smart identified a female connection to poetry and her character was used to defy popular 18th @-@ century notions of who is able to attain knowledge . This role allowed Smart to focus on " social and sexual dimensions " in his satire . However , there is a potentially darker side to Mrs. Midnight , and she could represent his feelings that he was " emasculated by economic pressures . "
The image of " horns " in Jubilate Agno is commonly viewed as a sexual image . Easton puts particular emphasis on the image of horns as a phallic image and contends that there are masculine and feminine horns throughout Smart 's poem . Hawes picks up this theme and goes on to claims that the poem shows " that [ Smart ] had been ' feminized ' as a cuckold . " In response to this possible cuckolding , Jubilate Agno predicts a misogynistic future while simultaneously undermining this effort with his constant associations to female creation .
= = = Environmental = = =
Smart had a reputation for being a " dedicated gardener " . His poem the Hop @-@ Garden helped to further this reputation , and even during his stay in a mental asylum he convinced others of his bond with nature . Johnson witnessed Smart 's time in asylum and stated , " he has partly as much exercise as he used to have , for he digs in the garden . " Gardening , to Smart , was a way in which humans could interact with nature and actually " improve " on the natural landscape .
However , Smart did not only write about gardens and vegetation , and his focus on his cat Jeoffry is widely known and his focus on nature connects him to those mistreated and neglected by 18th @-@ century society . The first fragment of Jubilate Agno is a poetic " Ark " that pairs humans with animals in order to purify all of creation . The whole work relies on his extensive background in botany and his knowledge of taxonomy . Smart actively participated in the 18th @-@ century taxonomy systems established by Carl Linnaeus ; however , Smart is mythologising his view of nature and creation when he adds information from Pliny the Elder into his work .
By using this knowledge , Smart was able to give a " voice " to nature ; he believed that nature , like his cat Jeoffry , is always praising God but needs a poet in order to bring out that voice . As such , the themes of animals and language are merged in Jubilate Agno , and Jeoffry is transformed into a manifestation of the Ars Poetica tradition .
= = = Freemasonry = = =
Many critics have focused on the role of David as planner of Solomon 's Temple and his possible role with the Freemasons . Although it is not known for sure whether Christopher was a Freemason or not , there is evidence suggesting that he was either part of the organisation or had a strong knowledge of its belief system . Based on personal admittance to contributing to A Defence of Freemasonry , contemporary verification of his participation in the volume and with Masonic meetings , there is enough to confirm " his participation in Masonic affairs . " Furthermore , there are accounts of Smart attending meetings at the Bell Tavern in Westminster . The information available has led Marie Roberts to declare in her 1986 book British Poets and Secret Societies , " It has been universally accepted by scholars that Christopher Smart ... was a Freemason yet no record of his membership has been traced . " However , in the notes to Chris Mounsey 's 2001 book Christopher Smart : Clown of God , Marie Roberts ' 1986 book is referred to as " an account of Smart 's work which accepts his association with the Freemasons , " but in Mounsey 's view , " Since neither Smart 's name nor his pseudonyms appear in the records of the Freemasons , it is highly unlikely he was ever one of their number . "
Smart 's involvement with Masonry can be traced through his poems , including Jubilate Agno and A Song to David , with his constant references to Masonic ideas and his praise of Free Masonry in general . In Jubilate Agno , Smart declares " I am the Lord 's builder and free and accepted MASON in CHRIST JESUS " ( B 109 ) . This declaration of being a " free and accepted MASON " has been interpreted to define his connection to speculative Masonry . The " in Christ Jesus " declaration places Smart within a Christian version of Masonry . He also declares himself as " the Lord 's builder " and this connects his life with the building of King Solomon 's Temple , an important Masonic idea . In A Song to David , Smart returns to the building of Solomon 's Temple and incorporates many of the Masonic images that he uses in Jubilate Agno .
It was this detail that encouraged many critics to try and decode the " seven pillar " section of A Song of David along the lines of Masonic imagery . The poem follows two traditional sets of motions common to Freemason writing that mimic the image of Jacob 's Ladder : movement from earth to heaven and movement from heaven to earth . This image further connects Freemason belief surrounding the relationship of David to Solomon 's Temple . While these images , and further images in A Song to David are related also to depictions of the Temple in Isaac Newton 's Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended ( 1728 ) , the John Bunyan 's Solomon 's Temple Spiritualiz 'd ( 1688 ) , and to the Geneva Bible , these works were relied on by the Freemasons .
Based on this theory , the first pillar , the Greek alpha , represents the mason 's compass and " God as the Architect of the Universe . " The second , the Greek gamma , represents the mason 's square . In addition , the square represents the " vault of heaven . " The third , the Greek eta , represents Jacob 's ladder itself and is connected to the complete idea of seven pillars . The fourth , the Greek theta , is either " the all @-@ seeing eye or the point within a circle . " The fifth letter , the Greek iota , represents a pillar and the temple . The sixth letter , the Greek sigma , is an incomplete hexagram , otherwise known as " the blazing star or hexalpha " to the Freemasons . The last , the Greek omega , represents a lyre and David as a poet .
= = Works = =
Smart , throughout his career , published many known works . Although his works are far too many to list , a few of his most famous and important publications during his life include :
A Song to David
Poems on Several Occasions ( including the Hop @-@ Garden )
The Hilliad
The Hop @-@ Garden
Hymns and Spiritual Songs
Hymns for the Amusement of Children
The Oratorios Hannah and Abimelech
The Parables of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ
A Poetical Translation of the Fables of Phaedrus
The " Seatonian Prize " poems
A Translation of the Psalms of David
The Works of Horace Prose and Verse
One of his most famous poems , Jubilate Agno , was not published until 1939 , by William Force Stead . In 1943 , lines from this poem were set to music by Benjamin Britten with the translated title Rejoice in the Lamb .
He is also credited with the writing of A Defence of Freemasonry ( 1765 ) , also known as A Defence of Freemasonry as practised in the regular lodges , both foreign and domestic , under the Constitution of the English Grand Master , in which is contained a refutation of Mr. Dermott 's absurd and ridiculous account of Freemasonry , in his book entitled ' Ahiman Rezon ' and the several quries therein reflecting on the regular Masons , briefly considered and answered , that response to Laurence Dermott 's Ahiman Rezon . Although there is no direct attribution on the text 's titlepage , it was established as his work since its publication , and it includes a poem directly attributed to him .
A two @-@ volume edition of the Complete Poems of Christopher Smart was published in 1949 by Norman Callan , Professor of English at Queen Mary College , London ( now University ) . There have been numerous reprints .
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= Al MacInnis =
Allan MacInnis ( born July 11 , 1963 ) is a retired Canadian ice hockey defenceman who played 23 seasons in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Calgary Flames and St. Louis Blues . A first round selection of the Flames in the 1981 NHL Entry Draft , he went on to become a 13 @-@ time All @-@ Star . He was named the Conn Smythe Trophy winner as the most valuable player of the playoffs in 1989 after leading the Flames to the Stanley Cup championship . He was voted the winner of the James Norris Memorial Trophy in 1999 as the top defenceman in the league while a member of the Blues .
MacInnis was most famous for having the hardest shot in the league . He tied Bobby Orr 's Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) record for goals by a defenceman , and won two OHL championships and a Memorial Cup with the Kitchener Rangers as a junior . He famously split goaltender Mike Liut 's mask with a shot , and became only the fourth defenceman in NHL history to score 100 points in a season . Internationally , he was an all @-@ star on defence as Canada won the 1991 Canada Cup and twice participated in the Winter Olympics . He was a member of the 2002 team that won Canada 's first gold medal in 50 years .
An eye injury suffered early in the 2003 – 04 NHL season forced MacInnis into retirement . He finished his career third all @-@ time among defencemen in goals , assists and points and was named to seven post @-@ season all @-@ star teams . He was elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 2007 , and his jersey number 2 was retired by the Blues and is honoured by the Flames . MacInnis remains a member of the Blues organization , currently serving as the team 's Vice President of Hockey Operations .
= = Early life = =
MacInnis was born in Inverness , Nova Scotia , and grew up in Port Hood , Nova Scotia , a fishing village on Cape Breton Island . He is the seventh of eight children born to Alex and Anna Mae MacInnis , and one of six brothers . His father worked as a coal miner and later as the assistant manager of the arena in Port Hood when the mine closed while his mother was a school teacher . The brothers all played hockey in Port Hawkesbury during the winter . MacInnis often assisted his father 's work at the arena , collecting pucks that he used to shoot repeatedly against a sheet of plywood set against the family barn during the summer . It was through this practice , which occasionally left him with blistered fingers , that he developed his powerful slapshot .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
MacInnis left home in 1979 to join the Regina Pat Blues of the Saskatchewan Junior Hockey League ( SJHL ) . He appeared in 59 games , scoring 20 goals and 48 points with the Pat Blues , and appeared in two Western Hockey League ( WHL ) games with the Regina Pats . He then moved to Ontario and joined the Kitchener Rangers of the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) . Following a season in which he scored 39 points in 47 games and winning the league Championship with Kitchener in the 1980 – 81 OHL season , MacInnis was rated as the second best defensive prospect at the 1981 NHL Entry Draft . He was selected by the Calgary Flames in the first round , 15th overall . The Flames invited him to their training camp , although they did not expect him to play for them immediately , and he was returned to junior .
Most of his season was spent with Kitchener where MacInnis was named to the OHL First All @-@ Star Team after scoring 75 points for the Rangers . The team won its second consecutive OHL title , and captured the 1982 Memorial Cup . He played a third season in Kitchener in 1982 – 83 , and was again named a First @-@ Team All @-@ Star after an 84 @-@ point season . Additionally , MacInnis was voted the winner of the Max Kaminsky Trophy as the OHL 's top defenceman . He tied Bobby Orr 's OHL record for goals by a defenceman in one season with 38 ( subsequently broken by Bryan Fogarty 's 47 in 1988 – 89 ) , and holds the Canadian Hockey League record of five goals in one game by a defenceman .
= = = Calgary Flames = = =
MacInnis made his NHL debut with the Flames on December 30 , 1981 , against the Boston Bruins . He appeared in two games that season , and an additional fourteen in 1982 – 83 in seasons spent primarily with Kitchener at the junior level . He scored his first NHL point against the Toronto Maple Leafs on October 23 , 1982 . MacInnis began the 1983 – 84 season with the Colorado Flames of the Central Hockey League , scoring 19 points in 19 games before joining Calgary full @-@ time . With the Flames , he scored 11 goals and 34 assists in 51 games and appeared in his first 11 post @-@ season games during the 1984 Stanley Cup playoffs .
A point @-@ per @-@ game pace in 1984 – 85 ( 66 points in 67 games ) earned MacInnis his first All @-@ Star Game appearance , playing in front of his hometown fans at the 1985 game in Calgary . He was voted a Second @-@ Team All @-@ Star for the 1986 – 87 NHL season , and started his first All @-@ Star Game in 1988 . He was a finalist for the James Norris Memorial Trophy as top defenceman in the league in three consecutive seasons , 1989 , 1990 and 1991 , but failed to win the award each time .
Led by MacInnis ' 31 points , the Flames won the first Stanley Cup championship in their history in 1989 . He had four goals and five assists in six games in the final series against the Montreal Canadiens en route to winning the Conn Smythe Trophy as the most valuable player of the playoffs . MacInnis became the first defenceman to lead the league in post @-@ season scoring , and he finished with a 17 @-@ game scoring streak , the longest by a defenceman in NHL history .
MacInnis finished second amongst NHL defencemen in scoring in 1989 – 90 with 90 points and was named a First Team All @-@ Star for the first time . He improved to a career high 103 points the following year , becoming the first Flames ' defenceman and only the fourth in NHL history to record a 100 @-@ point season . He scored his 563rd career point in a January 8 , 1991 , game against Toronto , to surpass Kent Nilsson as the franchise 's all @-@ time scoring leader . MacInnis missed three months of the 1992 – 93 season when he suffered a dislocated hip during a game on November 11 , 1992 , against the Hartford Whalers . While chasing a puck at high speed , he lost control and crashed into the end boards after Hartford rookie Patrick Poulin shoved MacInnis with his stick . Three weeks after his return to action , on February 23 , 1993 , MacInnis set a Flames franchise record when he appeared in his 706th career game .
Following five consecutive seasons where the Flames failed to advance past the first round of the playoffs , both MacInnis and the team were looking for a change in the summer of 1994 . Though the Flames made an offer of C $ 2 @.@ 5 million per season for MacInnis , he instead signed an offer sheet with the St. Louis Blues for US $ 3 @.@ 5 million a season for four years , making him the fourth highest player in the NHL . As MacInnis was a restricted free agent , the Blues sent defenceman Phil Housley and two second round draft picks to the Flames in compensation while also receiving a fourth round selection back .
MacInnis said his decision to leave Calgary was not easy to make given his family was from the city . He claimed money was not the only reason he signed with the Blues , stating that he wanted a new challenge . He left Calgary after 11 full NHL seasons as the franchise 's all @-@ time leader in scoring with 822 points , and led in assists ( 603 ) , games played ( 803 ) , playoff assists ( 77 ) and playoff points ( 103 ) . He appeared in six All @-@ Star Games with Calgary and was named a league all @-@ star five times : twice on the first team and three times on the second . The team honoured MacInnis as the first player inducted into their " Forever a Flame " program in 2012 . His jersey number 2 was raised to the Saddledome rafters on February 27 , 2012 , but was not formally retired .
= = = St. Louis Blues = = =
Pneumonia and a late @-@ season shoulder injury limited MacInnis to 28 points in 32 games in 1994 – 95 , a season itself reduced to 48 games by a labour dispute . While he returned to play in the postseason , MacInnis required off @-@ season surgery to repair the damage to his shoulder . He returned to health in 1995 – 96 , appearing in all 82 games for the Blues . Early in his third season with the Blues , MacInnis played his 1,000th game in an October 23 , 1997 match @-@ up against the Vancouver Canucks . However he again suffered a separation of his surgically repaired shoulder in December 1997 , an injury that forced him out of the Blues lineup for three weeks .
MacInnis scored a goal and an assist in a 5 – 3 loss to the Detroit Red Wings on April 7 , 1998 to become just the sixth defenceman in NHL history to score 1 @,@ 000 points . After coming close several times , MacInnis finally won the Norris Trophy as the league 's top defenceman in 1998 – 99 . Early in the 2000 – 01 season , MacInnis recorded four assists in a 5 – 2 victory over the Florida Panthers to set a Blues franchise record for scoring by a defenceman . He reached the mark with his 300th point , scored in his 424th game with the organization .
When Chris Pronger broke his arm early in the 2002 – 03 NHL season , MacInnis was named interim captain for the remainder of the season . He completed the season as the league 's leader in scoring amongst defencemen with 68 points . Pronger insisted that MacInnis remain captain permanently when he returned for the 2003 – 04 season . MacInnis played only three games that season as vision problems he suffered during an October 2003 game against the Nashville Predators were diagnosed as being the result of a detached retina in one eye – the same eye in which he suffered a serious injury after being struck by a high stick in 2001 . He missed the remainder of the season as a result and after the 2004 – 05 NHL season was canceled due to a labour dispute , MacInnis felt that he could not return to the game at a high enough level to compete .
MacInnis announced his retirement as a player on September 9 , 2005 , but remained with the Blues organization as part of its marketing and hockey operations departments . Ending his career with 1 @,@ 274 points , MacInnis ranked third all @-@ time in goals , assists and points amongst defencemen , and played in six additional All @-@ Star Games as a member of the Blues . The team retired his jersey number 2 on April 9 , 2006 , and honoured him with a bronze statue out front of the Scottrade Center in 2009 . MacInnis was inducted to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 2007 . He was the first player from Nova Scotia so honoured , and was also inducted into the Nova Scotia Sport Hall of Fame and the St. Louis Sports Hall of Fame .
= = = International = = =
MacInnis was a member of the Canadian national team on four occasions . He first represented Canada at the 1990 Men 's World Ice Hockey Championships where he scored one goal and four points . One year later , he played in his only Canada Cup tournament . He scored two goals and four assists and was named a tournament all @-@ star as Canada won the title over the United States . He suffered a separated shoulder shortly before the 1998 Winter Olympics , and while it was feared he would be unavailable for the tournament as a result , recovered in time to be cleared to play . MacInnis scored two goals during the tournament , but Canada finished in fourth place after losing the bronze medal match to Finland following a semi @-@ final loss to the Czech Republic . MacInnis also participated in the 2002 Winter Olympics . Though he scored no points in the tournament , Canada defeated the United States to win the nation 's first gold medal in hockey in 50 years .
= = Playing style = =
MacInnis was best known for the power and strength of his slapshot . The Flames selected him in the 1981 Draft on the strength of his shot alone ; his skating ability was so poor when he arrived for his first training camp in Calgary he earned the nickname " Chopper " . While some reporters expected he would be a bust as a result , MacInnis said the patience the Flames showed him in his early days as a professional allowed him to develop into a more complete defenceman .
The power of his shot grew into legend on January 17 , 1984 , in a game against St. Louis . In his first full season with the Flames , MacInnis took a slapshot from just outside the Blues ' defensive zone that struck goaltender Mike Liut on the mask . The shot split Liut 's helmet while the puck fell into the net for a goal . The power of his shot , and the fear it inspired in his opposition , led to MacInnis ' success as an offensive @-@ defenceman , especially as a threat on the power play . He won the " Hardest Shot " competition at All @-@ Star Game skills competitions seven times between 1991 and 2003 . He occasionally topped 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) , including his win in the 2000 All @-@ Star Game .
Used primarily as a power play specialist in his first years as a professional , MacInnis worked at improving his overall game such that he was named a Norris Trophy finalist three consecutive seasons between 1989 and 1991 , and was the runner @-@ up to Ray Bourque in 1991 . He finally won the Norris Trophy as the league 's top defenceman in 1999 with the Blues . Former teammate Doug Gilmour praised MacInnis ' passing ability . MacInnis 's play developed to the point where he was as valued for his defensive ability on the penalty kill as he was his offence on the power play .
= = Off the ice = =
MacInnis married his wife Jackie shortly after winning the Stanley Cup in 1989 , and the couple have four children , Carson , Ryan , Lauren and Riley . MacInnis settled in St. Louis following his retirement , and in 2006 was named the Blues ' Vice President of Hockey Operations . He coaches his children 's minor hockey teams , and in 2008 – 09 coached the St. Louis Junior AAA Blues to a 73 – 3 – 2 record and the championship title at the 50th Quebec International Pee @-@ Wee Hockey Tournament . His son Ryan is a member of the Kitchener Rangers , and was drafted by the Arizona Coyotes in the 2014 NHL Entry Draft .
Though his career took him away from Nova Scotia , MacInnis remains involved with his hometown . In 2001 , he committed C $ 100 @,@ 000 towards a major renovation of the Port Hood Arena . The arena was renamed the Al MacInnis Sports Centre in his honour , and he hosts an annual golf tournament to help raise funds for the arena commission . On the day he was inducted into the Nova Scotia Sport Hall of Fame , he donated $ 100 @,@ 000 to the Inverness County Memorial Hospital in the memory of his parents .
= = Career statistics = =
Regular season and playoffs
International
= = Awards and honours = =
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= Delaware Route 100 =
Delaware Route 100 ( DE 100 ) is a state highway in New Castle County , Delaware . The route runs from DE 4 near Elsmere to the Pennsylvania border near Montchanin , where it continues into Pennsylvania as State Route 3100 ( SR 3100 , Chadds Ford Road ) . The road runs through suburban areas of northern New Castle County . It intersects with DE 2 in Elsmere and DE 34 north of Elsmere before forming separate concurrencies with DE 48 and DE 141 from west of Wilmington north to Greenville . In Greenville , there is an interchange with DE 52 . North of Greenville , DE 100 continues by itself to the Pennsylvania border , intersecting DE 92 in Montchanin . DE 100 was first designated in the 1930s to run from DE 52 to the Pennsylvania border , where it originally connected to Pennsylvania Route 100 ( PA 100 ) . By the 1970s , it was extended south to DE 4 . The route was realigned to follow parts of DE 48 and DE 141 by 1990 .
= = Route description = =
DE 100 begins at an intersection with DE 4 southwest of Wilmington , heading north on the one @-@ way pair of Race Street northbound and South Dupont Road southbound . The one @-@ way pair , which carries two lanes in each direction , passes through suburban residential areas . Both directions of the route join , with the route continuing northwest as South Dupont Road , a four @-@ lane divided highway . DE 100 curves north and enters Elsmere , where it runs through industrial areas and comes to a bridge over CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision . A short distance later , the route crosses DE 2 and becomes North Dupont Road , where it becomes an undivided road and passes over an East Penn Railroad line on a bridge . The road continues through wooded residential areas , leaving Elsmere and becoming South Dupont Road . The route reaches an intersection with the eastern terminus of DE 34 . Following this intersection , DE 100 passes to the east of a cemetery before reaching an intersection with DE 48 south of the Cab Calloway School of the Arts and Charter School of Wilmington .
At this point , DE 100 turns northwest to form a concurrency with DE 48 on four @-@ lane undivided Lancaster Pike , passing through business areas before crossing the East Penn Railroad . The road continues through residential and commercial areas , widening into a divided highway as it comes to an intersection with DE 141 . Here , DE 100 splits from DE 48 by turning northeast to join DE 141 on four @-@ lane divided Centre Road . The road runs through industrial areas , curving north and becoming a freeway past the Barley Mill Road intersection . The freeway curves northeast and passes under the East Penn Railroad before coming to a partial cloverleaf interchange with DE 52 in Greenville . Past this interchange , the road curves east and the freeway ends , with DE 100 splitting from DE 141 at an at @-@ grade intersection by heading north on two @-@ lane undivided Montchanin Road .
DE 100 continues north through wooded areas with fields and homes , crossing the East Penn Railroad line again . The road runs through Montchanin and passes to the east of the Wilmington Country Club and the Winterthur Museum and Country Estate before crossing the railroad tracks again . The route intersects the western terminus of DE 92 on the western edge of Brandywine Creek State Park . At this point , the road continues straight as DE 92 , with DE 100 turning north to remain on Montchanin Road . The road crosses under the East Penn Railroad again and curves northwest . DE 100 bends to the north again before reaching its northern terminus at the Pennsylvania border , where the road continues into that state as SR 3100 ( Chadds Ford Road ) . The Montchanin Road portion of DE 100 is part of the Brandywine Valley National Scenic Byway , a National Scenic Byway and Delaware Byway .
DE 100 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 41 @,@ 949 vehicles at the Barley Mill Road intersection along the DE 141 concurrency to a low of 2 @,@ 040 vehicles at the Pennsylvania border . The portion of DE 100 concurrent with DE 141 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
By 1920 , what is now DE 100 existed as a county road . The route north of Kennett Pike was proposed as a state highway by 1924 . The highway was paved by 1931 . By 1932 , the state highway had been completed from Elsmere north to the Kennett Pike while the remainder was still a county route . DE 100 was designated by 1938 to run from DE 52 in Greenville north to the Pennsylvania border , where it continued as PA 100 . The route was extended south to DE 4 by 1971 , following Dupont Road . DE 100 was realigned to bypass a portion of Dupont Road by following DE 48 and DE 141 by 1990 . In 2002 , the Montchanin Road portion of DE 100 was designated as part of the Brandywine Valley Scenic Highway in the Delaware Scenic and Historic Highways system ; it was designated a National Scenic Byway in 2005 . In 2003 , PA 100 was truncated in Pennsylvania . However , DE 100 remains unchanged . On February 24 , 2015 , the bridge carrying DE 100 over the East Penn Railroad in Elsmere was closed after concrete fell from the bridge deck onto the railroad tracks below . Emergency repairs took place and the bridge was expected to be reopened by the end of March .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in New Castle County .
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= Rudy Kay =
Jean @-@ Louis Cormier ( June 24 , 1942 – May 25 , 2008 ) was a Canadian professional wrestler best known by his ring name Rudy Kay . Cormier competed primarily in Canada and often formed a tag team with his brothers ; together , they are known as the Cormier wrestling family . He also worked behind the scenes , operating both the Eastern Sports Association ( ESA ) and its television program , International Wrestling . Kay held seven championships while wrestling for the ESA : five tag team titles while wrestling alongside his older brother Yvon ; the short @-@ lived Taped Fist Championship ; as well as the promotion 's most prestigious singles title , the North American Heavyweight Championship .
= = Career = =
Cormier competed in boxing as a teenager . He was then trained for a professional wrestling career by Yvon , who was known professionally as The Beast , and another wrestler named Dutchie the Spinner . During his early career , Cormier used the ring name Rudy LaBelle while touring Australia with The Beast . Back in North America , he was given the ring name Rudy Kay by a promoter who thought that Cormier looked almost identical to a retired wrestler who had used the name .
In 1969 , Cormier and Al Zinck formed the Eastern Sports Association ( ESA ) , which promoted a television program named International Wrestling ( IW ) . Several years later , Atlantic Grand Prix Wrestling , operated by Emile Dupré , took over the time slot from IW . In the ESA , the four Cormier brothers ( Yvon ; Leonce , who wrestled as Leo Burke ; Jean @-@ Louis , who used the ring name Rudy Kay ; and Romeo , who was inspired by Jean @-@ Louis to create the moniker Bobby Kay ) often aligned with each other in feuds . The opponent would face one brother , and then move on to face the rest in succession . Jean @-@ Louis also wrestled on occasional trips to Australia with his brother The Beast .
Cormier won his first title on July 29 , 1969 when he teamed with The Beast to win the ESA International Tag Team Championship . They defeated The Fabulous Kangaroos ( Al Costello and Don Kent ) to win the title but soon dropped it to Jos and Paul LeDuc . They won the title back later that summer in a rematch and held it until the end of the 1969 ESA season . Two years later , they regained the championship with a victory over Eric Pomeroy and Fred Sweetan . Their final reign together began on October 28 , 1975 with a win over Bob Brown and The Patriot . Once again , the brothers held the title until the end of the ESA wrestling season .
On November 18 that year , Rudy Kay also won the IW North American Heavyweight Championship by defeating Bob Brown . He was stripped of the title , however , because the ESA operated only during the summer months and the season ended without notice . He was unable to fulfill his obligation to defend it within 30 days.The ESA , which promoted shows until 1976 , operated during the summer because the venues were used for ice hockey during the other months . The following year , he won the vacant ESA Taped Fist Championship with a victory over Mad Dog Martel . When the ESA closed in 1977 , the title became part of Romeo Cormier ( Bobby Kay ) ' s Trans @-@ Canada Wrestling ( TCW ) . TCW closed later the same year , and the Taped Fist Championship was retired . His final championship win came in September 1976 ; he teamed with The Beast again and defeated The Mercenaries ( Mad Dog Martel and Frenchy Martin ) to win the ESA Maritimes Tag Team Championship . Later that month , Martel and Martin regained the title in a rematch . Cormier retired as a professional wrestler in 1982 .
= = Retirement = =
After retiring from wrestling , Cormier took a job with Federal Express , which he held for five years . He also underwent knee surgery to fix problems resulting from his wrestling career . Cormier had a wife , Claudette , and four children : daughters Monique and Michelle , and sons Jamie and Jason . On May 25 , 2008 , Cormier died of septicemia in Moncton , New Brunswick .
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Eastern Sports Association
ESA International Tag Team Championship ( 4 times ) – with The Beast
ESA Maritimes Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with The Beast
ESA Taped Fist Championship ( 1 time )
IW North American Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
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= Brown honeyeater =
The brown honeyeater ( Lichmera indistincta ) belongs to the honeyeaters , a group of birds found mainly in Australia and New Guinea which have highly developed brush @-@ tipped tongues adapted for nectar feeding . It is a medium @-@ small brownish bird , with yellow @-@ olive panels in the tail and wing and a yellow tuft behind the eye .
Widespread across western , northern and eastern Australia , the brown honeyeater occupies a range of habitats from mangroves to eucalypt woodlands . It is seasonally nomadic within its local area , following flowering food plants . While it usually forages alone , it also feeds in small groups , or flocks of mixed honeyeater species . Nectar and insects form its diet . It occupies the same breeding territory each year , and lays two or three eggs in a cup @-@ shaped nest woven from grass and soft bark . Both sexes contribute to nest building and feeding the young . It has a loud , clear , musical song , described as the best of all the honeyeaters .
While the brown honeyeater is declining in some areas such as the Wheatbelt region of Western Australia , overall its population levels and distribution are sufficient to have it described by the IUCN as being of least concern for conservation .
= = Taxonomy = =
The brown honeyeater was originally described by Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield in 1827 as Meliphaga indistincta . The species name indistincta is from the Latin word meaning " obscure " . Vigors and Horsfield were working from the bird collection of the Linnean Society in London , and they said of the brown honeyeater specimen , " It is however in very bad condition , and scarcely admits of a description . " Later included in the " catch @-@ all " genus Gliciphila , the brown honeyeater is now classified as a member of the genus Lichmera , from the Greek word meaning " to lick " or " to dart the tongue " , following Schodde ( 1975 ) , Sibley and Monroe ( 1990 ) and Christidis and Boles ( 1994 ) . As well as the nominate race Lichmera indistincta indistincta , a number of other sub @-@ species are recognised : ocularis ( derived from the Medieval Latin word " oculus " meaning eye ) , melvillensis ( named for Melville Island where it is found ) , limbatus ( from the Latin for " fringed " ) and nupta ( from the Latin " nubere " meaning to marry , or be married to ) . The Indonesian honeyeater Lichmera limbata is treated as a sub @-@ species of L. indistincta by some taxonomic authorities .
Molecular analysis has shown honeyeaters to be related to the Pardalotidae ( pardalotes ) , Acanthizidae ( Australian warblers , scrubwrens , thornbills , etc . ) , and the Maluridae ( Australian fairy @-@ wrens ) in a large Meliphagoidea superfamily .
= = Description = =
= = = Appearance = = =
The brown honeyeater is a medium @-@ small , plain grey @-@ brown honeyeater with a body length of 12 – 16 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 7 – 6 @.@ 3 in ) , a wingspan of 18 – 23 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 1 – 9 @.@ 1 in ) , and an average weight of 9 – 11 grams ( 0 @.@ 32 – 0 @.@ 39 oz ) . The female is slightly smaller than the male , but the sexes differ only slightly in appearance . The head , back , rump , and upper tail @-@ coverts are brown , and the wings a darker brown . The only distinguishing features are a small yellow patch behind the eye , which is indistinct in some birds , and dull yellow @-@ olive panels in the folded wings and tail . The brown honeyeater ’ s sexual dimorphism is slight . The adult male has a dark brownish @-@ grey forehead and crown , contrasting with a brownish nape . The forehead and crown of the adult female is a similar olive @-@ brown to the rest of the upper body . A juvenile bird is similar to the female , but may lack or show only a trace of the yellow tuft behind the eye . The bill is black , and is long , slender and curved slightly downwards , well adapted for probing deep tubular flowers . The gape in the male is black when breeding , and pale yellow at other times . The gape of the female is always pale yellow , and in the juvenile bright yellow and swollen . The iris is brown , and the feet and legs grey @-@ black .
The appearance of the various subspecies is uniform , with other races similar in size and plumage to the nominate race with slight variations in degrees of colouration and small differences in the length of the bill and the tail . Compared with L. i. indistincta , the male L. i. occularis has slightly darker feathers on the top of the head with a greater contrast between crown and nape , and a longer bill . L. i. melvillensis has a moderately darker throat and breast than indistincta , and the female has a shorter tail . In L. i. nupta the differences between the sexes are even slighter than in the nominate race .
= = = Vocalizations = = =
The nondescript brown honeyeater has a noteworthy song , usually described in superlatives . " A glorious voice , easily the best songster among Australian honeyeaters , " is how one study of West Australian birds noted . " As a singer it has no superior among the honeyeater family , or for that matter , among Australian birds , " said another report . It has a clear , rolling , musical call , rendered as sweet @-@ sweet @-@ quarty @-@ quarty , which is very loud for the size of the bird . Both sexes call , usually early in the morning , though the male calls throughout the day during the breeding season . The alarm call is a harsh ke @-@ ke given several times at short intervals .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The brown honeyeater is found in a wide range of wooded habitats , and is widespread across Australia . The nominate race ranges across a broad band from Newcastle on the New South Wales coast north and west to Queensland and the Top End to south @-@ western Western Australia . It is rarely seen in Sydney , where populations have declined since the late 1950s , though it is being recorded in suitable habitats such as Homebush Bay and Kurnell in small numbers , and is a vagrant to the Illawarra region . It is rare in South Australia , and not present in Victoria and Tasmania . Population densities range from 2 @.@ 3 birds per 1 hectare ( 2 @.@ 5 acres ) in the Kakadu National Park , to 0 @.@ 26 birds per hectare in Wellard in Western Australia .
L. i. ocularis is found in New Guinea , the Torres Strait Islands , and Cape York intergrading with the nominate race along the Gulf of Carpentaria river system . L. i. melvillensis inhabits the Tiwi Islands , while L. i. limbata is found in Bali and the Lesser Sundas , and L. i. nupta on the Aru Islands .
The brown honeyeater is seasonally nomadic across its local area in response to flowering food plants . For example , there are marked increases in numbers in Toowoomba in south @-@ east Queensland during winter , and in the Northern Territory the range contracts during the dry season . It is commonly found among mangroves in coastal areas including black mangroves ( Rhizophora mucronata ) . It is often in woodlands that merge into the mangroves , such as those dominated by Banksia , Melaleuca or Callistemon , and widespread in sclerophyll forests and eucalypt woodlands . In the arid and semi @-@ arid inland of Australia it is most often recorded in Acacia , Grevillea and Hakea shrubland along watercourses , and at bores , springs and drainage lines . It visits flowering shrubs in parks and gardens , and occurs in remnant patches of trees on travelling stock routes .
= = Behaviour = =
A busy , acrobatic bird , the brown honeyeater is frequently on the wing , hovering over flowers and pursuing insects in flight .
= = = Feeding = = =
The brown honeyeater feeds mainly in the foliage and flowers in the canopy of trees and shrubs , though it does use all levels of the habitat including the ground . It feeds singly and in pairs , but will gather in small groups or in mixed @-@ species feeding flocks with other honeyeaters , such as banded , yellow @-@ tinted , black @-@ chinned and rufous @-@ throated . Observations of foraging birds record the brown honeyeater feeding primarily on nectar , and taking some insects . Main sources of nectar include flowering mistletoe and mangroves , bloodwood , woollybutt , cajeput , and Banksia and Grevillea species . Nectar is primarily taken from flowers with cups of stamens , brush @-@ shaped inflorescences , or tubular flowers . The brown honeyeater will hover above small flowers while extracting nectar , perch on a stem for large single flowers , and , in the case of Banksia flowers , perch on unopened florets at the top of the inflorescence .
Insects were most often gleaned from leaves or bark , and sometimes caught by sallying or taken from the ground . Insects eaten include beetles , flies , ants , wasps and bees .
The brown honeyeater is more active in the early morning than at other times of the day ; flying more when visiting flowers at the time when nectar is most abundant . Its body mass decreases during the night , and then increases during the day with the greatest increase occurring during the important first hour of early morning foraging . It seems to make up around half of the overnight water loss during this hour . The energy that the brown honeyeater can potentially get from nectar exceeds its requirements in all seasons except winter , when it needs to be selective in the plants that are used , to balance energy intake and expenditure . It compensates for any lessening in nectar concentration by increasing the frequency of feeding .
= = = Breeding = = =
No courtship displays of the brown honeyeater have been recorded , other than increased singing from vantage points by the male . The pair usually nests solitarily in areas of low population density . In an area near Newcastle , New South Wales with a number of breeding pairs , all nests were at least 20 metres ( 66 ft ) apart . The same nesting territories are occupied each year , however it is not known if the territories , or the nests , are used by the same birds each year .
The breeding season varies markedly across the brown honeyeater ’ s range , with breeding recorded in one location or another in every month of the year . Breeding can occur two or more times a year if conditions are favourable . The nest is built in a variety of vegetation types , usually in dense foliage in the fork of a horizontal branch , often near water , and rarely more than 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) above ground . The nest is a small , deep , round cup , woven from small pieces of grass and soft bark , especially Melaleuca bark , bound with spider web and lined with plant down , such as from Banksias , or cow hair or wool . Both sexes contribute to the nest building , though the male also stands guard while the female is building the nest .
The eggs vary in shape , but most often are a rounded oval . They are white and lustreless , and sometimes have a pinkish or brownish tinge . They can be un @-@ marked , or spotted with faint reddish or brownish flecks . The eggs are approximately 17 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 67 in ) long and 13 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 51 in ) across , and laid in a clutch of two or three . The female incubates the eggs and broods the chicks alone , but both sexes feed the young and remove faecal sacs . The fledging period is thirteen or fourteen days , with around 44 % of nests where the outcome was known successfully fledging young .
Nests are known to be predated by green tree ants , which attack the newly hatched nestlings , and the pied currawong , which takes young from the nest . Nests are parasitized by the brush cuckoo , pallid cuckoo , and Horsfield 's bronze @-@ cuckoo .
= = Conservation status = =
The brown honeyeater population is declining in the Wheatbelt region of Western Australia as a result of the clearing of native vegetation . Numbers are increasing in urban areas , particularly in parks and gardens and around farms ; however , the new habitats have increased the incidences of death from cats , cars and collisions with windows . Overall the population is sufficiently large and widespread for the brown honeyeater to be considered by the IUCN to be of least concern for conservation .
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= Old Louisville =
Old Louisville is a historic district and neighborhood in central Louisville , Kentucky , USA . It is the third largest such district in the United States , and the largest preservation district featuring almost entirely Victorian architecture . It is also unique in that a majority of its structures are made of brick , and the neighborhood contains the highest concentration of residential homes with stained glass windows in the U.S. Many of the buildings are in the Victorian @-@ era styles of Romanesque , Queen Anne , Italianate , among others ; and a large number of blocks have had few or no buildings razed . There are also several 20th @-@ century buildings from 15 to 20 stories .
Old Louisville consists of about 48 city blocks and is located north of the University of Louisville 's main campus and south of Broadway and Downtown Louisville , in the central portion of the modern city . The neighborhood hosts the renowned St. James Court Art Show on the first weekend in October .
Despite its name , Old Louisville was actually built as a suburb of Louisville starting in the 1870s , nearly a century after Louisville was founded . It was initially called the Southern Extension , and the name Old Louisville did not come until the 1960s . Old Louisville was initially home to some of Louisville 's wealthiest residents , but saw a decline in the early and mid @-@ 20th century . Following revitalization efforts and gentrification , Old Louisville is currently home to a diverse population with a high concentration of students and young professionals .
= = History = =
Old Louisville is not actually the oldest part of Louisville . In fact , large @-@ scale development south of Broadway did not begin until the 1870s , nearly a century after what is now Downtown Louisville was first settled . The area was initially part of three different military land grants issued in 1773 , and throughout the early and mid @-@ 19th century the land passed through the hands of several speculators , meanwhile much of it was used as farmland . Some of the land south of Broadway was still in its natural state during this time , such as the 50 @-@ acre ( 200 @,@ 000 m2 ) tract between Broadway and Breckenridge , known as Jacob 's Woods , a popular picnic ground as late as 1845 . A major attraction was Oakland Race Track , near today 's Seventh and Ormsby , built in 1839 and an early forerunner to Churchill Downs .
Country estates had been built in the area as early as the 1830s , and some of Louisville 's great early mansions , predominantly in the Italianate style , were built along Broadway , very near Old Louisville , before the Civil War . Development from 1850 to 1870 occurred between Broadway and Kentucky Street , the northern extreme of what came to be called Old Louisville . North @-@ south city streets were extended throughout the area in the 1850s , and a mulecar line was extended down Fourth to Oak in 1865 .
The land south of Broadway that became Old Louisville was annexed by the city in 1868 , as a part of larger expansion efforts . This annexation moved the southern boundary of the city as far south as the city 's House of Refuge , an area which is now the University of Louisville campus and the southern border of Old Louisville . A year later , architect Gideon Shryock called the area " a growing and beautiful suburban locality " . By 1876 about a quarter of the area was occupied .
Development continued as lots were sold southward to present day Oak Street , about a third of the way between Broadway and the House of Refuge . The principal road through the suburb at this time was Central Plank Road , which became Third Street . The emerging area was called the Southern Extension by this time . Growth south of Oak was very slow until the Southern Exposition was held annually in the area from 1883 to 1887 .
At the urging of Courier @-@ Journal editor Henry Watterson , the city held the Southern Exposition , which in the words of Watterson , was meant to " advance the material welfare of the producing classes of the South and West . " It was held on 45 acres ( 180 @,@ 000 m2 ) at the heart of Old Louisville , where St. James Court and Central Park ( originally Dupont Square ) would eventually be located , and included a 600 by 900 @-@ foot ( 270 m ) enclosed exhibition building . The Exposition was opened by President Chester Arthur and attracted nearly one million visitors in its first year . The exhibition featured the first public display of Thomas Edison 's light bulb , as well as what was billed as the largest artificial lighting display in history with 4 @,@ 600 lamps , in a time when electric lighting was considered a novelty .
During the 1880s , after the exposition ended , the area between Oak and Hill Streets rapidly developed and became one of the city 's most fashionable neighborhoods . According to historian Young E. Allison , 260 homes valued at a total of $ 1 @.@ 6 million were constructed in Old Louisville from 1883 to 1886 . The dominant styles by this time were Queen Anne and Richardsonian Romanesque . An example of the latter , which was known for its turrets , towers and bay windows , was the Conrad house at St. James Court .
These styles became less prevalent in the 1890s as the remaining southern portions of Old Louisville , between Ormsby and the House of refuge , were filled in , predominantly with buildings in the Chateauesque and Renaissance Revival styles . This included one of Old Louisville 's most famous sections , St. James Court , developed starting in 1890 and envisioned as a haven for the upper class , and was completely occupied by 1905 . Described as " the epitome of Victorian eclecticism " , the area included houses in such styles as Venetian , Colonial , Gothic and others .
From 1890 to 1905 the area was home to the Amphitheatre Auditorium , which claimed the second largest stage in the United States and showcased many of the day 's best actors . The structure , located at the corner of 4th and Hill Streets , was razed after its owner , William Norton , Jr . , died . Another form of entertainment in the area was baseball , with the game first being played by 1860 and an early ballpark at Fourth and Ormsby emerging after the Civil War . By 1875 , a new park had been built near St. James Court .
Old Louisville is also home to the Ferguson Mansion , built by Edwin Hite Ferguson . Ferguson commissioned the Louisville architectural firm of Cobb and Dodd — the same firm responsible for designing the Seelbach Hotel and the new capitol building in Frankfort — to design his home in 1901 . Construction of the mansion took four years ( 1901 – 1905 ) and cost $ 100 @,@ 000 , which was approximately ten times the cost of the neighboring Victorian homes . At the time , the mansion was the most expensive home in Louisville . In the 1920s , the Fergusons sold the home to the Pearson family , and it served as the Pearson Funeral Home until the mid @-@ 1970s . The house also provided the headquarters for John Y. Brown , Jr . ' s successful 1979 gubernatorial campaign . In 1986 , the mansion became the headquarters of The Filson Historical Society .
In its peak in the late 19th century , Old Louisville was the center of Louisville 's social life , with nearly all persons listed in the Society Directory of Louisville having Old Louisville addresses . The directory even listed the reception days and hours of Old Louisville 's leading ladies , which varied by street , such as Tuesdays on Fourth Street or Thursdays on Second .
= = = Decline = = =
The area gradually declined as the affluent moved to newer streetcar suburbs , such as Cherokee Triangle , or built estates in areas east of Louisville recently connected by railroad , such as Anchorage and Glenview . Accelerated by the Great Depression , many of the large homes in Old Louisville were converted to boarding houses during the 1930s . The Ohio River flood of 1937 caused a great number of the remaining wealthy households to move above the flood plain .
The gradual abandonment of Old Louisville by the wealthy was a reflection of changing lifestyles brought on by technology . Many homes of Old Louisville were originally built as mansions that would require several servants to maintain . Because of the relatively high wages offered by manufacturing jobs , servants were no longer affordable to all but the wealthiest families by the mid @-@ 20th century . Interurban rail lines , and increasingly automobiles , meant that the wealthy no longer had to live so close to their businesses , and many chose to live in what had previously been summer homes in the county 's east end . The lifestyle that created Old Louisville was effectively obsolete .
During the years between World War I and World War II , many of the old mansions were hastily converted into apartments to house the growing labor supply , a practice encouraged by the federal government at the time through low @-@ interest loans . However , after World War II , with the housing shortage solved by large @-@ scale suburban development affordable to the middle class , vacancy rates in Old Louisville surged . To attract renters , landlords had to lower rents dramatically , attracting less affluent tenants with less funds to maintain the homes .
A large section of the neighborhood , from around Kentucky Street to Broadway , was razed . Many buildings south of Lee Street , and nearly all south of Avery Street ( renamed Cardinal Boulevard ) were razed for the construction of Noe Middle School , expansions to Manual High School and a major expansion of the University of Louisville , as well as to expand local industry east of Floyd Street . From 1965 to 1971 , 639 buildings were razed as a part of this effort . However , the plan did spur the restoration of over 100 buildings in other parts of Old Louisville .
During the 1960s many low income residents downtown who were displaced as a result of urban renewal moved into the newly converted apartments , especially on the north side of the neighborhood . The area was now considered drug ridden and undesirable by most Louisvillians . The very term Old Louisville , first becoming associated with the area in the 1940s , had mostly negative connotations initially , as historian Samuel W. Thomas put it , " In an Era where architectural styles were changing dramatically , old meant out of fashion " .
= = = Revitalization = = =
One of the first to take an active role in preserving and revitalizing Old Louisville was Courier @-@ Journal writer J. Douglass Nunn . In 1960 he began a vigorous public information campaign concerning the area . Nunn compared it to neighborhoods like D.C. ' s Georgetown and Boston 's Beacon Hill . In 1961 Nunn took a leave of absence from his job and started " Restoration , Inc . " , a group that restored ten homes in Old Louisville 's St. James Court in 1961 , spurring interest in preservation that would lead many local activists to move to the area . This effort also led to the first use of the name Old Louisville in print in that year , as a reflection of the interest in preservation . With the activists ' efforts the area was made into a historic preservation district in 1975 . The area has continued to improve , with new restaurants and shops opening and many students , and young professionals moving into the area . Property owners , who once cheaply converted the old houses to apartments , have invested more in improvements since the 1980s , and several properties have been converted into luxury condominiums . The median home value more than doubled between 1990 and 2000 , increasing at a faster rate than Louisville as a whole . This overall process of improvement and rising property values has been described as gentrification .
The area is now one of the most ethnically and economically diverse in Louisville . Crime is becoming less of a problem . While in 2003 there were 11 @.@ 5 crimes per 1 @,@ 000 residents , over twice the average for the city of Louisville as a whole , which was 5 @.@ 0 crimes per 1 @,@ 000 residents Old Louisville now has a similar number of calls for police assistance as other parts of Louisville . The Louisville Metro Police 4th Division is responsible for a large portion of Louisville beyond Old Louisville , but is conveniently located in Central Park in Old Louisville . It had 134 officers assigned to it in 2006 . Most calls are related to car break @-@ ins and non @-@ violent crimes . Murders are still rare , with one or two per year . Overall crime rates for both Old Louisville and the city as a whole increased sharply in 2005 over the 2004 rate , although there was a decline again the first half of 2006 .
= = Features and attractions = =
Old Louisville features the largest collection of pedestrian @-@ only streets of any U.S. neighborhood . Eleven such " courts " , where houses face each other across a grass median with sidewalks , were built in the neighborhood from 1891 to the 1920s . Most of the courts are centered off of 4th Street . Belgravia Court and Fountain Court were the first ones to be built in 1891 and are the most well known . Later ones included Reeser and Kensington ( 1910 ) , which were built with large Victorian styled apartments instead of single family homes ; and Eutropia and Rose Courts , which were the last ones built in the 1920s and featured small , single story houses . Belgravia and St. James Court were completely rehabilitated as a part of the urban renewal that began in the 1960s . These developments are apparently unique to Louisville .
Two of the three major four @-@ year universities in Louisville are located adjacent to Old Louisville , with Spalding University to the north and the University of Louisville to the south . DuPont Manual High School , a public magnet school , and Presentation Academy , an all @-@ girls Catholic high school , are two other well @-@ known schools located in Old Louisville .
The neighborhood contains The Filson Historical Society , Louisville 's Central Park , which features the Kentucky Shakespeare Festival every summer , the Actors Theatre of Louisville Production Studio , and the Conrad @-@ Caldwell House . The area of 6th and Hill Streets in the neighborhood was the setting of the best selling novel Mrs. Wiggs of the Cabbage Patch by Louisvillian Alice Hegan Rice . Today there is a non @-@ profit counseling and services center , named Cabbage Patch Settlement House for the novel , on 6th Street at Magnolia Avenue , which serves children of low @-@ income families . During the Christmas holiday season a number of private homes are toured in the Old Louisville Holiday Home Tour . With the publication of books about the spirited past of Old Louisville , the area has recently gained a reputation for being " the most haunted neighborhood in the country . "
Old Louisville 's boundaries are Kentucky Street to the north , Avery Street ( Cardinal Boulevard ) to the south , I @-@ 65 to the east , the CSX railroad tracks to the west . Originally , the neighborhood extended all the way to Broadway on the north , Attwood Street on the south , and Floyd Street on the East ; but the northern part was mostly razed for parking lots and light industry , the southern area between Attwood and Avery Streets ( now Cardinal Blvd ) was razed when the University of Louisville doubled the size of its main campus , and I @-@ 65 was built through the area in the 1960s , which created a physical barrier between it and Shelby Park neighborhood .
= = = Architecture = = =
Old Louisville is well known for its architecture , with styles ranging from Federal to Queen Anne . Very few antebellum buildings remain , and the most impressive buildings were built in the late 19th century . There are a few Italianate , Beaux @-@ Arts and Second Empire @-@ style houses , but Victorian styles dominate . Victorian Gothic styles are commonly seen . Many styles in Old Louisville are united by their use of red sandstone trim , which became popular by the 1880s to the point that the Courier @-@ Journal said " few new residences are going up in Louisville in which it is not being used " . Another common Victorian style is the Richardsonian .
Aside from the best represented styles of architecture listed above , Old Louisville also has several great examples of the Chateauesque style of architecture in select buildings throughout the area . For example , one of these examples is a residential building , a mansion , at 400 Belgravia Court , which is a " walking court " where the mansions face a park like walk rather than a street . This specific building was completed in 1897 and one of its first residents was William H. Wathen , M.D. , an eminent medical educator in Louisville from a family of successful distillers .
Although some portions have been razed , many entire blocks remain almost untouched , and historian Theodore M. Brown said " it remains the only nineteenth @-@ century segment of the city that is mostly intact " . As infills , some American Craftsman style houses can be found in Old Louisville .
= = = Tallest buildings = = =
= = Demographics = =
As of 2000 , the population of Old Louisville was 11 @,@ 043 , of which 55 @.@ 9 % are white , 35 @.@ 0 % are black , 6 @.@ 3 % are listed as other , and 2 @.@ 3 % are Hispanic . College graduates are 24 @.@ 5 % , people without a high school degree are 22 @.@ 6 % , and people with college experience without a bachelor 's degree are 28 @.@ 4 % . Females are 52 @.@ 3 % of the population , males are 47 @.@ 7 % . Households making less than $ 15 @,@ 000 a year are 40 @.@ 8 % ; although that is largely a function of the 27 % of residents who are full @-@ time college students . Ironically , Old Louisville has the youngest median age of any Louisville neighborhood and the highest percent of people between the ages of 20 @-@ 29 ( 25 % ) .
Old Louisville 's area is about 1 @.@ 7 square miles ( 4 @.@ 4 km2 ) , and its population density is 7 @,@ 800 persons per square mile . The best preserved portions , between Kentucky and Hill streets , have a density of over 10 @,@ 000 persons per square mile .
= = Regions = =
Old Louisville is broken up into five different census tracts by the US Census Bureau . There are stark differences revealed by the different tracts from North to South
In addition , there are eight different neighborhood associations , each of which provides different levels of infrastructure on each street . For example , on 4th Street the street lights are designed as old lamp posts and there are ornamented trash cans with a fleur @-@ de @-@ lis symbol at frequent intervals , while on St. James Court there are gas lamp posts , 3rd and 2nd Streets have small light posts on the sidewalks , Ouerbacker Court has cast iron decorative gates , and several other streets have basic infrastructure .
= = Culture = =
After years of decline with abandoned buildings and high elderly populations , the demographics of Old Louisville began to change noticeably in the 1990s . New residents were not just college students using the area as housing , but also young professionals who wanted to live in Old Louisville . The Courier @-@ Journal 's Velocity weekly has reported the area as a hip , emerging center of culture in Louisville . This change is reflected in numerous coffeehouses , restaurants and bars opening in Old Louisville in the 1990s and early 2000s targeting at the younger crowd .
Old Louisville is one of the most liberal neighborhoods in Louisville , as evidenced by the General Election results in 2004 , where it voted for John Kerry by a 60 % margin and against a proposal to amend the state constitution to define marriage as " between one man and one woman " by a 66 % margin ( the proposal passed 75 % to 25 % in Kentucky ) .
= = Images = =
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= The Making of the English Landscape =
The Making of the English Landscape is a 1955 book by the English local historian William George Hoskins . It is illustrated with 82 monochrome plates , mostly photographs by Hoskins himself , and 17 maps or plans . It has appeared in at least 35 editions and reprints in English and other languages .
The book is a landscape history of England and a seminal text in that discipline and in local history . The brief history of some one thousand years is widely used in local and environmental history courses .
Hoskins defines the theme of the book in the first chapter , arguing that a landscape historian needs to use botany , physical geography and natural history as well as historical knowledge to interpret any given scene fully . The remaining chapters describe how the English landscape was formed from the Anglo @-@ Saxon period onwards , starting c . 450 AD , and looking in detail at the mediaeval landscape , the depopulation following the Black Death , the Tudor period through to the splendour of the Georgian period , the parliamentary enclosures that affected much of the English midlands , the industrial revolution , the development of road , canal , and railway transport networks , and finally the growth of towns from Norman times onwards . There is little mention of cities . The concluding chapter however laments the damage done to the English countryside by " the villainous requirements of the new age " such as military airfields and arterial roads , describes the new England as barbaric , and invites the reader to contemplate the past .
The work has been widely admired , but also described as grandly emotive , populist , and openly anti @-@ modernist . Writers have praised the book for helping them understand and interpret the landscape in which they lived .
= = Book = =
= = = Overview = = =
The introduction sets out Hoskins ' stall with " No book exists to describe the manner in which the various landscapes of this country came to assume the shape and appearance they now have " , mentioning geology ( " only one aspect of the subject " ) , the clearing of woodlands , the reclaiming of moor and marsh , the creation of fields , roads , towns , country houses , mines , canals and railways : " in short , with everything that has altered the natural landscape . "
= = = Editions = = =
The first edition was published by Hodder and Stoughton in 1955 . They reprinted the book in 1956 , 1957 , 1960 , 1963 , 1965 , 1967 , 1969 , 1970 , 1971 , 1974 , 1977 . They issued a new edition in 1988 , a revised edition in 1992 , and a new edition in 2005 , reissued in 2006 . They published Korean and Japanese editions in 2008 .
In 1970 , Penguin Books published a paperback Pelican edition in England and a Penguin edition in the United States . Penguin reprinted in 1973 , 1974 , 1975 , 1977 , 1978 , 1979 , 1981 , 1983 , 1985 , 1986 , 1988 , 1991 , 2005 .
In 1977 , Book Club Associates published an edition in England .
In 1988 , Coronet Books and Guild Publishers published editions in England .
In 1992 , Teach Yourself Books published a paperback edition in England .
In 2005 , the Folio Society published an edition in England .
In 2013 , Little Toller books published a paperback edition in England .
= = = Illustrations = = =
The book is illustrated with 82 monochrome plates and 17 maps or plans , all uncredited except for some use of Ordnance Survey maps , and so apparently the work of Hoskins himself . These are closely integrated into the text ; for example , the text in chapter 1 is accompanied by a pair of diagrams showing how a holloway ( ' hollow way ' ) could be formed by the digging of a ' double ditch ' , i.e. a pair of raised earth banks either side of a ditch to mark the boundary of two estates , and supported by a photograph ( Plate 13 ) of a sunken lane in Devon , explained by Hoskins as a boundary , from probably the seventh century , between the Saxon estates of ( royal ) Silverton and Exeter Abbey . The photograph shows high hedgebanks in bright sunshine , dwarfing the figure of a woman in the middle distance .
= = Contents = =
The book covers its subject in 10 chapters :
= = = 1 . The Landscape before the English Settlement = = =
Hoskins uses the first few pages of this chapter as an introduction , beginning with praise for William Wordsworth 's A Guide through the District of the Lakes ( 1810 ) , and from which he quotes a passage in which the reader is asked to envisage " an image of the tides visiting and revisiting the friths , the main sea dashing against the bolder shore " . Hoskins writes that on a desolate moor one can feel oneself imaginatively back in time to the Bronze Age , but that there are now few such unaltered places left . He argues that the landscape historian " needs to be a botanist , a physical geographer , and a naturalist , as well as an historian " to understand a scene in full :
For what a many @-@ sided pleasure there is in looking at a wide view anywhere in England , not simply as a sun @-@ drenched whole , fading into unknown blue distances , like the view of the West Midland plain from the top of the Malvern Hills , or at a pleasant rural miniature like the crumpled Woburn ridge in homely Bedfordshire ; but in recognizing every one of its details name by name , in knowing how and when each came to be there , why it is just that colour , shape , or size , and not otherwise , and in seeing how the various patterns and parts fit together to make the whole scene .
The rest of the chapter covers Pre @-@ Roman , Western ( i.e. Celtic ) and Roman Britain . He estimates very roughly that 750 @,@ 000 acres at most were in use as arable or grassland in Roman times , compared to 27 million acres in 1914 .
= = = 2 . The English Settlement = = =
Hoskins describes how England was settled with Anglo @-@ Saxon people between c . 450 and 1066 AD , making the country a land of villages . Estate boundaries from this period survive in features such as sunken lanes and banks . The Scandinavian conquest of much of England from the late 9th century added more villages , though many with Scandinavian placename elements such as -by ( ' village ' ) may simply have been renamed Saxon settlements .
Many English villages were given their shape in this period , and almost all are described in some detail in the eleventh century Domesday Book . Hoskins identifies three major types of village : those around a green or central square , as at Finchingfield in Essex ; those along a single street , like Henley in Arden in Warwickshire ; and those consisting of apparently haphazardly scattered dwellings , like Middle Barton near Hoskins 's home in Oxfordshire .
= = = 3 . The Colonization of Mediaeval England = = =
This chapter looks at the mediaeval landscape from the Domesday Book onwards , with the section ' The Landscape in 1086 ' . The country had almost every village that exists today ; a typical one , Hoskins writes , had a small watermill and a church without a spire .
In ' The Clearing of the Woodlands ' , Hoskins argues that before the 15th century England must have looked like one great forest , but most of the woods were cleared for arable or pasture in the 12th and 13th centuries . Under Henry II perhaps a third of the country was royal forest .
Hoskins begins the section on ' Marsh , Fen , and Moor ' with the words " There are certain sheets of the one @-@ inch Ordnance Survey maps which one can sit down and read like a book for an hour on end , with growing pleasure and imaginative excitement " . One such section is of The Wash , rich in mediaeval detail . Marshes such as those in Lincolnshire , Norfolk and the Pevensey Levels were reclaimed at this time , whole communities working together , often under the Danelaw .
'Buildings in the landscape ' briefly describes abbeys , churches , mills , bridges and castles built to serve the growing population , which just before the Black Death had tripled since Domesday .
= = = 4 . The Black Death and after = = =
Hoskins describes the abandonment of villages from the bubonic plague of 1348 , the Black Death , which killed a third to a half of the population ( he states ) , and the subsequent new colonisation and building as the population eventually recovered . Marginal land such as the Breckland of Norfolk and Suffolk , never thickly populated , was abandoned . Many villages in counties such as Leicestershire were deserted . Villages such as Lower Ditchford in Gloucestershire can be seen today only as a ground @-@ plan from the air .
Between 1350 and 1500 , many new buildings appeared , especially churches with towers like Fotheringhay in Northamptonshire . Some fine bridges as at Wadebridge in Cornwall are from this period .
= = = 5 . Tudor to Georgian England = = =
Hoskins starts this chapter by observing that in 1500 in Tudor times there were roughly three sheep for every human being in England , perhaps 8 million sheep to two and a half million people . There were four million acres of hardwood forest , remembered now as Epping Forest , the Forest of Arden , Sherwood Forest , the Forest of Dean , Wychwood and many others . A village might be surrounded by a single enormous thousand acre field , shared amongst all the village 's farmers . There were extensive heaths and wild places , largely uninhabited , with " no industrial smoke , nothing faster on the roads than a horse , no incessant noises from the sky " . The first enclosures and the flowering of rural England , country houses and parks such as the magnificent Burghley House and Knole date from this period up to Georgian times .
= = = 6 . Parliamentary Enclosure and the Landscape = = =
In this chapter Hoskins describes the effects of enclosure on the landscape and on fields , hedgerows and trees , roads and farmhouses . He begins by quoting the rural poet John Clare : " Inclosure , thou 'rt a curse upon the land , and tasteless was the wretch who thy existence plann 'd " .
Parliamentary enclosures accounted for about 4 @.@ 5 million acres of what had been open fields , not counting the enclosure of common land and wild ' waste ' . In 1700 roughly half England 's arable land was already enclosed ; by the end of the enclosure process , almost all of it was . The revolution in the landscape began in about 1750 , affecting about 3 @,@ 000 parishes , especially in the English midlands . Between 1760 and 1800 there were 1 @,@ 479 enclosure acts , covering 2 @.@ 5 million acres ; another 1 @.@ 5 million acres were enclosed by 1844 , by more than a thousand further acts . Some counties such as Kent , Essex and Devon were little affected , having largely been enclosed much earlier , often directly from forest or moorland . Many miles of new straight hedgerows were laid to mark out the newly enclosed fields of the midlands ; in some areas such as Derbyshire , straight limestone walls were used instead . Many straight new roads were created at the same time . Farmhouses remained in the old villages at first , but new red @-@ brick Victorian ones were often built in the middle of their now enclosed land in due course .
= = = 7 . The Industrial Revolution and the Landscape = = =
Hoskins begins his chapter on industrialisation with the remark " England was still a peaceful agricultural country at the beginning of the seventeenth century . " He describes the early industrial landscape , water power and early mills , steam power and slums . He names transformative inventions such as Kay 's flying shuttle of 1733 and Hargreaves 's spinning jenny of 1767 , and comments that Matthew Boulton opened his steam engine factory " in the still unravished country " outside Birmingham in 1765 . He quotes a poem by Anna Seward lamenting the ravishing of Coalbrookdale , c . 1785 , and one by Wordsworth from The Excursion . He is critical of the industrial slums and the smoke and dirt of the Staffordshire Potteries . He emphasises the rapid growth of industrial towns like Preston , and of new towns like Middlesbrough , which went from a single farm in 1830 to over 50 @,@ 000 inhabitants in 1880 . However he appreciates the mining landscapes of Cornwall , including the gleaming white china clay pits of St Austell and the abandoned tin mines of St Cleer , commenting that " there is a point , as Arthur Young saw , when industrial ugliness becomes sublime " .
= = = 8 . Roads , Canals , and Railways = = =
Hoskins describes roads and trackways from the Iron Age ( like the Jurassic Way across the midlands , near his Oxfordshire home ) and Roman times ( like Akeman Street in the same area ) . He notes that the Fosse Way runs for miles in Gloucestershire away from any village , as the Anglo @-@ Saxons built villages away from large roads for safety . Still in his home area , he records that " the wide green track now called Dornford Lane " was built in the 10th century for supplies to be carted from the Anglo @-@ Saxon kings ' own estate at Barton . He goes on to describe the building of the canal network between roughly 1760 and 1825 , noting that just one town was created by the canals , Stourport . Soon afterwards , a much more widespread transport network transformed the English landscape : the railways . Hoskins devotes over a page to each of two quotations from Charles Dickens 's Dombey and Son , describing the construction in 1836 of a railway in Camden Town . He mentions , too , that Wordsworth campaigned against the railway from Kendal to Windermere , bringing trains into the heart of the Lake District , and that conservatives like Wordsworth " lost all along the line " .
= = = 9 . The Landscape of Towns = = =
The last chapter of the body of the book – if Chapter 10 is considered more or less an epilogue – covers towns seen as part of the English landscape . Hoskins justifies this on the grounds that understanding towns brings pleasure . He describes in turn planned towns , the open @-@ field town , and the market town . Towns were planned as early as Norman times , Abbot Baldwin planning Bury St Edmunds between 1066 and 1086 ; Stratford @-@ on @-@ Avon was laid out in 1196 . Another burst of town planning came with the spa towns in the late 18th century , and of new industrial towns like Middlesbrough and Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness in the mid 19th century . Open @-@ field towns like Nottingham , Leicester , and Stamford grew naturally in their own open fields , but were trapped by pasture rights from growing in the 19th century , giving Nottingham slums , and Leicester a problem that it just managed to solve , growing across its fields : while Stamford stopped growing entirely , becoming fossilised as what Hoskins calls a museum piece of a beautiful 17th and 18th century town . Finally , the market towns like Marlborough grew up around their often large and handsome market places , which are however of any number of shapes .
= = = 10 . The Landscape Today = = =
Hoskins concludes with a brief chapter , with one image , Plate 82 , " The completed English landscape " showing a tall tree in a wide open field , a strip of hedges and villages just visible in the distance . The chapter laments the damage caused to parts of the English landscape , mentioning bulldozers and tractors , nuclear bombers and by @-@ passes , and ends by celebrating again the wealth of detail within a few hundred yards of Hoskins ' study window at Steeple Barton .
= = Reception = =
= = = Contemporary = = =
The geographer E. G. R. Taylor , reviewing the book for the Royal Geographical Society in 1955 , wrote that Hoskins made the case for getting a strong pair of boots to learn landscape history clearly enough . Taylor compared the book to Dudley Stamp 's Man and the Land , published a few months earlier in 1955 , saying that Hoskins seemed to have missed it , but that given the differences in their approaches , they could be read side by side . She noted also that Hoskins did not talk about London though he covered town landscapes , and appeared unaware of urban geography . Her review ended by remarking that Hoskins " views the industrial revolution with mounting horror , and the industrialists themselves are bitterly chastised as ' completely and grotesquely insensitive . No scruples weakened their lust for money ; they made their money and left their muck . ' " She noted however that Hoskins had happily moved to " a quiet spot in Oxfordshire where he can forget the ' barbaric England of the scientists , the military men and the politicians ' and look out of his study window on to the past " , where , she wrote , he " draws for us a last tender and evocative picture of the ' gentle unravished English landscape . ' " Dr. Hoskins , she wrote , forgetting all the horrors , " reaches back through the centuries one by one and rediscovers Eden " .
= = = Modern = = =
Penelope Lively , writing in The Guardian , describes the book as
a marvellous , robust , opinionated account of the landscape as narrative , whether rural or urban , the visible record of what has gone before , once you know how to read it – or once he has told you how . You were to put on your walking boots and understand the country in which you lived . Plenty did , or tried to ; I did .
William Boyd , also in The Guardian , described the book as " an absolute trailblazer , a revolution . " He notes that W. H. Auden " revered " the book , and that reading Hoskins had enabled him to ' read ' a landscape as a " historical palimpsest " :
The familiar English countryside , in whatever regional variation , became a form of historical palimpsest – its evolving history there to be decoded and discerned for those who could look at it through the innovative lens that Hoskins provided . It was as if the landscape was all of a sudden an archaeological dig – hills and dales , woods and copses , fields and rivers , villages and roads ceased to be simple features of a view . Instead the whole history of English humankind and husbandry was on display , from the Holocene age to the latest horrors of agribusiness . And the book in which that history was written was the very land itself .
Local historian Graeme White , in The Medieval English Landscape , 1400 – 1540 , calls Hoskins ' book " brilliantly @-@ crafted " and observes that " Although this famously railed against the ' England of the arterial by @-@ pass , treeless and stinking of diesel oil ' – alone with much else belonging to the mid @-@ twentieth century – the fact that national car ownership more than doubled during the 1950s made this a subject whose time had come . "
Paul Johnson , writing in The Spectator , said that the book " was for me an eye @-@ opener , as it was for many people . It told us of the extent to which our landscape had been made by man , not God , and taught us to look much more observantly at it . "
= = = An assessment = = =
Matthew H. Johnson , writing a chapter on English culture and landscape in the edited book The Public Value of the Humanities , identifies " six key points " established by Hoskins :
1 . The landscape is of great antiquity ( " everything is much older than we think " )
2 . Landscapes often changed suddenly , as in the 18th century enclosures .
3 . Hoskins , following O. G. S. Crawford 's 1953 Archaeology in the Field , stressed we had to read the landscape using research to reveal its cultural value .
4 . Hoskins thus told a " grand and emotive story about that landscape . " Johnson compares this to J.R.R. Tolkien 's account in The Lord of the Rings when the hobbits return to a " despoiled and industrialized landscape of the Shire " .
5 . The narrative is populist , to be disseminated " to anyone who would listen . " The result was that it became part of English post @-@ war culture .
6 . It was " openly anti @-@ modernist " . In evidence , Johnson cites Hoskins 's " most famous passage " from the concluding chapter :
What else has happened in the immemorial landscape of the English countryside ? Airfields have flayed it bare … Poor devastated Lincolnshire and Suffolk ! And those long gentle lines of the dip @-@ slope of the Cotswolds , those misty uplands of the sheep @-@ grey oolite , how they have lent themselves to the villainous requirements of the new age ! Over them drones , day after day , the obscene shape of the atom @-@ bomber , laying a trail like a filthy slug upon Constable 's and Gainsborough 's sky . England of the Nissen @-@ hut , the " pre @-@ fab " , and the electric fence , of the high barbed wire around some unmentionable devilment ; England of the arterial by @-@ pass , treeless and stinking of diesel oil , murderous with lorries ; England of the bombing @-@ range wherever there was once silence … Barbaric England of the scientists , the military men , and the politicians ; let us turn away and contemplate the past before all is lost to the vandals .
= = Television = =
In 1972 the BBC broadcast an episode of the television programme Horizon on The Making of the English Landscape produced by Peter Jones , and featuring Hoskins as presenter . Although the programme was inspired by the original book , Hoskins wrote an 84 @-@ page illustrated BBC book , English Landscapes , to accompany the programme . Later in the 1970s , Jones went on to produce a series of 12 TV programmes for BBC2 , Landscapes of England , in which additional areas of the country were studied , leading to a further title , One Man 's England to accompany the series .
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= Seeing Red ( Dexter ) =
" Seeing Red " is the tenth episode of the first season of the American television drama series Dexter , which first aired on December 3 , 2006 on Showtime in the United States . The episode was written by Kevin R. Maynard and was directed by Michael Cuesta . In the episode , the Miami Metro Homicide Department team investigate a blood @-@ soaked crime scene , where blood spatter analyst Dexter Morgan ( Michael C. Hall ) is confronted by a repressed memory of a traumatic incident from his childhood . Meanwhile , Dexter 's girlfriend Rita Bennett ( Julie Benz ) is charged with assaulting her ex @-@ husband Paul Bennett ( Mark Pellegrino ) and risks losing custody of their children , while Det . Angel Batista ( David Zayas ) investigates a hunch that the Ice Truck Killer has an amputee fetish .
Scenes for " Seeing Red " were shot at several locations around Long Beach , California . Particular attention was paid to the cinematography and filming of the sequence of Dexter 's flashbacks to make them feel like " fragments of memory " . The episode received positive reviews from critics , with particular mention made to the scene in which Dexter hits Rita 's ex @-@ husband , Paul , in the head with a frying pan because of his threats about the lengths he will go to in order to protect his children .
= = Plot = =
When a key to a room at the Marina View Hotel is delivered inside a jar of blood to the Homicide Department , Sgt. James Doakes ( Erik King ) and Debra Morgan ( Jennifer Carpenter ) visit the hotel , where they find a room completely covered in blood . Dexter is sent in first to investigate , but seeing the blood @-@ covered room brings back a repressed memory from his childhood — Dexter at the age of three years sitting in a pool of blood — and he collapses and runs from the room . The forensics team surmises that the blood in the hotel room came from at least five different bodies , although none were in the room . Since there were only one set of footprints in the room , they assume that the victims were killed elsewhere and their blood spread around the room by the killer . Debra suggests that the Ice Truck Killer , who had five bloodless victims , may have been responsible .
Angel finds that he cannot stop talking about his divorce when trying to meet new women at a bar . After he meets a woman recovering from her own divorce , he has to leave her to speak to a prostitute whom he sees across the room with a prosthetic hand and fingernails painted in the same way as the Ice Truck Killer 's first victim . Working on a hunch that the Ice Truck Killer is an acrotomophiliac , Angel decides to speak to Debra 's boyfriend , Rudy Cooper , a prosthetics specialist and ( unbeknownst to anyone else ) the actual Ice Truck Killer . Rudy cooperates with the interview upon realizing that Angel does not know his identity . Later , Angel is stabbed in a parking lot by a masked man . Angel manages to elbow him in the face before two men scare the attacker off . Minutes later , Rudy - who had earlier fallen out with Debra due to secretly having dinner with Dexter - arrives with flowers . They kiss , but Rudy backs away complaining of a cut lip , suggesting that he was Angel 's attacker .
Rita finds out from a county sheriff that Paul , her abusive ex @-@ husband who attacked her the night before , is pressing charges against her for assault . She talks with a lawyer , who tells her that since she invited Paul into her house , she cannot prove that her intent was to defuse the situation . At a hearing , it is revealed that Rita violated her and Paul 's custody agreement , making Paul 's case against her even stronger . When Paul drops by Rita 's house to return their children , he threatens Dexter when the two are alone in the kitchen , and Dexter responds by hitting him with a frying pan . Paul loses consciousness , so Dexter drives his body back to Paul 's hotel and frames him for drug abuse . Dexter alerts the police and Paul is sent back to prison .
With encouragement from Rudy , Dexter decides to dig up his repressed memory rather than avoid it . He returns to the bloody hotel room , where he relives the memory , which he realizes was of the murder of his mother with a chainsaw , right in front of him , when he was three .
= = Production = =
Since Dexter 's producers try to shield the child actors as much as possible from the show 's dark subject matter , executive producer Daniel Cerone urged the mother of his son 's friend not to let her son audition to play a young Dexter , who is filmed sitting in a pool of blood . Erik King found the shot of the boy crying in the blood to be the creepiest moment of the first season . He described it as " very uncomfortable to watch , even when you know it 's not real and you know these kids are actors . " Cinematographer Romeo Tirone tightened the camera 's shutter angle when filming these scenes to make them " feel like fragments of memory - subjective , with tight close @-@ ups against an indistinct background . You don 't see all the details of the environment . " Series director Keith Gordon found these flashbacks " incredible " because he thought they were " like a Stanley Kubrick movie " .
Several scenes from the episode were filmed on September 28 , 2006 with a crew of 200 people in Long Beach , California at the Seaport Marina Hotel , along the Pacific Coast Highway , and on San Anseline Avenue . The Seaport Marina Hotel was used as the setting for Paul 's motel , while a house on San Anseline Avenue was used as Rita 's house .
= = Reception = =
The episode received positive reviews from critics . Eric Goldman of IGN reviewed " Seeing Red " warmly and gave the episode an " Outstanding " rating of 9 @.@ 0 / 10 . He thought that the scene wherein Dexter hits Paul was " one of the most jaw @-@ dropping , intense scenes yet " , and he liked that Angel 's " seeming separate " subplot was well @-@ linked to the main plotline of the episode . He noted the " fascinating dynamic " between Dexter and Rudy , sensing " interesting psycho @-@ sexual undercurrents " developing . TV Guide 's Paula Paige felt that " Seeing Red " proved that each episode of Dexter was a constant improvement on the last . She enjoyed Dexter 's manipulation by Rudy and found his solution to Paul 's threats " perfect " . Jonathan Toomey of TV Squad wrote that he was " in awe " of the episode . He was particularly impressed with Dexter 's choice to frame Paul rather than kill him , and a minor storyline involving Lt. María LaGuerta ( Lauren Vélez ) and her betrayal of her superior , Capt. Tom Matthews ( Geoff Pierson ) .
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= Parachutes ( album ) =
Parachutes is the debut studio album by the British alternative rock band Coldplay . It was released by Parlophone on 10 July 2000 in the United Kingdom . The album was produced by the band and British record producer Ken Nelson , excluding one track , " High Speed " , which was produced by Chris Allison . Parachutes has spawned the hit singles " Shiver " , " Yellow " , " Trouble " , and " Don 't Panic " .
The album was a commercial success , and was met with positive reviews . Upon release , the album quickly reached number one in the United Kingdom , and has since been certified 8 × Platinum . In the United States , the album peaked at number 51 on the Billboard 200 , and has since been certified 2 × Platinum . It won the Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album in 2002 , and has earned the band various accolades since its release . Parachutes is also the 19th best @-@ selling album of the 21st century in the United Kingdom , and won the Best British Album award at the 2001 Brit Awards . As of 2011 , it has sold around 8 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide .
= = Recording and production = =
The band started working on the album in 1999 and produced an EP with British record producer Chris Allison . Allison was asked to ' come in and give the band a bit of a direction sound wise . Both the band and the A & R department – both parties wanted that ' . Things got off to a productive start with the song ' High Speed ' , which ultimately proved good enough to make it onto the Parachutes album . Allison describes it thus : ' You 'll notice it is quite a bit different to the other tracks , because there are other sounds going on in it : we wanted to mix a soundscape in with the classic rock sound on that particular track . I thought ' High Speed ' was a really good marriage between the classic rock sound and the new sound that was developing out of it , something that was more atmospheric ' . Seven tracks in all were recorded during the sessions at Orinoco studios in London , three of them ended up on The Blue Room EP .
The band took a break to write more songs for the album . A few months later it was arranged that Allison and the band meet at a rehearsal room to start on the album proper . " They started up playing in the rehearsal room and they really weren 't together at all . And I was very honest with them , I just sort of said ' Look this simply isn 't good enough ' " . Allison adds , " The interesting , the most significant thing that did occur out of the fact that we didn 't end up starting the album on that day of the rehearsal was that Chris Martin had not written ' Yellow ' by that time " .
Several months later British record producer Ken Nelson was chosen , producing all but one song on Parachutes . He was introduced to Coldplay by his manager Pete Byrne ( who gave him a copy of the band 's Fierce Panda @-@ distributed debut single in 1999 ) . Nelson has claimed that , as soon as he heard vocalist Chris Martin 's voice on the song " Bigger Stronger " , he " realised that he was something special " . Nelson was offered the job while Coldplay were performing in Liverpool with English indie rock band Gomez ( whose debut album , Bring It On , was what he had produced at the time ) .
Coldplay initially planned to record Parachutes in the space of two weeks . However , tours and other live performances caused the recording to spread out between September 1999 and April – May 2000 . The band began work on the album at Rockfield Studios in Wales , Matrix Studios , and Wessex Sound Studios , although the majority of Parachutes ' tracks were recorded at Liverpool 's Parr Street Studios . The band worked in three studio rooms at Parr Street , and tracked much of the album in one of these rooms — the project studio which producer Ken Nelson describes as " basically a demo room " . The Chris Allison @-@ produced track " High Speed " was also included on the album , and originates from earlier sessions at Orinico Studios in London . The album was mixed by American engineer Michael Brauer in New York . Coldplay 's record label , Parlophone , had originally intended to use a mixing engineer for the tracks they picked as singles , but eventually hired Brauer to work on all songs on Parachutes except the song " High Speed " which was mixed by Chris Allison .
At the Liverpool concert where he was offered the production job Nelson had noted that Coldplay 's performance was " very very uptight [ ... ] they rushed through the set and it was quite difficult to listen to " . Once in the studio Nelson and the band went through each song , learning how to play the piece live and deciding what tempo to play it at in an attempt to get the group to " calm down " ( " Trouble " , for example , had to be reworked to eliminate the cacophony included in its early versions ) .
The album 's cover features a photograph of a globe taken with a disposable Kodak camera . The globe had been purchased from W H Smith for £ 10 ; it was featured in the music videos for " Shiver " and " Don 't Panic " , and also accompanied the band on their tours . The album was dedicated to drummer Will Champion 's mother , Dr. Sara Champion , who died of cancer in 2000 .
= = Music and style = =
Champion has explained that Nelson 's production style was liberating and allowed the band to feel at ease during the recording of Parachutes ( many songs from the album often featured slow tempos ) . The ensuing album was " a record 's worth of moody and atmospheric tunes " . As a nod to the moods created by the album , Champion has compared the song lyrics to the 1972 song " Perfect Day " by American rock singer @-@ songwriter Lou Reed , stating that the " lyrics are beautiful and they 're really , really happy , but the music is really , really sad . It 's that kind of thing , where you can create [ differing ] moods through the music and lyrics . "
Parachutes was recognised to have an alternative rock sound similar to English band Radiohead in their Bends era . In fact , it has been suggested that the album 's commercial success was due in part to a portion of Radiohead 's audience being alienated by the band 's experimental and more electronic @-@ influenced Kid A album .
= = Release and promotion = =
Parachutes was released on 10 July 2000 in the United Kingdom via record label Parlophone . In the United States , it was released on 7 November 2000 by record label Nettwerk . The album has been made available on various formats since its initial release ; both Parlophone and Nettwerk released it as a CD in 2000 , and it was also released as a cassette by newfound US label Capitol in 2001 . In the following year , Parlophone issued the album as an LP .
The main version of the album contains 10 tracks ; the tenth track , " Everything 's Not Lost " , segues to a hidden short track called " Life Is for Living " , clocking in for a total of 7 : 15 . The Japanese version of the album contains all main tracks , and the additional tracks " Careful Where You Stand " and " For You " .
Four singles were released from the album : " Shiver " , " Yellow " , " Trouble " , and " Don 't Panic " . " Shiver " served as lead single in the United Kingdom while " Yellow " was used in the United States . Upon the release of " Trouble " , Coldplay abandoned their initial plan of releasing " Don 't Panic " as the album 's fourth single , after they deemed three singles were enough for an album . Despite this , however , it was released as a single in some European regions .
Since its wide release , Parachutes has earned the band a large array of awards . The album won Best Album at the 2000 Q Awards , and was nominated at the 2000 Mercury Music Prize . The following year , the band earned Best Alternative Music Album at the Grammy Awards and Best British Album at the BRIT Awards .
= = Critical reception = =
Parachutes was released to generally favorable reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 72 , based on 20 reviews . In a contemporary review of the album , Michael Hubbard of musicOMH called it " an album of remarkable depth , especially when one considers the youthful ages of the band members . " NME stated that " all told , it 's incredible this is a debut album " and concluded that " accomplished , yet subtle , it works perfectly as a whole in a way all the production skills in the world couldn 't replicate . " Melody Maker hailed Parachutes as a " masterpiece " and " a defining musical statement of 2000 " , while James Oldham of Uncut felt that the album " more than justifies the plaudits heaped upon [ the band ] by the weekly music press " . The Guardian described the album as " one of the year 's most uplifting albums " , adding that it features " elegant songs , classic guitars and gorgeous singing " .
While noting that Parachutes " brings nothing new to the table " and that its " musical reference points are immediately recognizable and difficult to overlook " , Billboard stated that the band " seems talented enough to transcend this early identity crisis . " Matt Diehl of Rolling Stone opined that the album " ultimately rises above its influences to become a work of real transcendence " . In a retrospective write @-@ up , MacKenzie Wilson of AllMusic commented that Parachutes introduced the band as " young musicians still honing their sweet harmonies " , adding that the album " deserved the accolades it received because it followed the general rule when introducing decent pop songs : keep the emotion genuine and real . "
In a less enthusiastic review , Spencer Owen of Pitchfork Media called the album " harmless and pretty ... [ but ] nothing else " . Barry Walters , writing in The Village Voice , similarly writes that " there 's little on Parachutes that demands attention or punctures the pensive spell , and , unlike Travis 's , Coldplay 's hooks are slight . " In his Consumer Guide column for The Village Voice , Robert Christgau selected " Yellow " and " Don 't Panic " as " choice cuts " , indicating good songs on " an album that isn 't worth your time or money . " Setareh Yousefi of Stylus Magazine felt that " the finer moments of Parachutes are blended with some boring sappy songs " , with Martin 's " powerful voice " ultimately being " in many ways wasted on songs that are alright but not bewildering . "
= = Commercial performance = =
Parachutes performed well in the United Kingdom . The popularity of the songs in British clubs , pubs and sporting events bolstered the album to debut at number one on the UK Albums Chart . It has been certified eight @-@ times Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry , with sales of around 2 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 units , to date . In July 2011 , Parachutes climbed from No. 184 back to No. 48 in the album 's 318th charting week there . As of February 2012 , the album had sold 2 @,@ 559 @,@ 678 copies in the UK , making it the third biggest selling Coldplay album behind A Rush of Blood to the Head ( 2 @.@ 8 million ) and X & Y ( 2 @.@ 6 million ) .
Parachutes has reached number 51 on the US Billboard 200 , and has peaked at number one on the Billboard Heatseekers . Over two million copies have been shipped to the United States , leading to being certified two @-@ time Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . It has also been certified three @-@ time Platinum in Australia by the Australian Recording Industry Association , and two @-@ time Platinum in Canada by the Canadian Recording Industry Association .
= = Impact and legacy = =
According to the British trade paper Music Week , Parachutes was one of the most @-@ impressive debut albums ever , spawning the hit singles " Shiver " , " Yellow " , and " Trouble " . With nearly 2 @.@ 4 million units sold in the United Kingdom alone , it has placed at number 12 on the country 's list of 20 biggest @-@ selling albums of the 21st century . The album was placed at number 25 in Channel 4 's 100 greatest albums of all time , and in 2006 at number 33 in NME 's 100 greatest British albums . The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
Despite the album 's critical and commercial success , Chris Martin said that Coldplay didn 't like the album . He also commented that they look beyond Parachutes : " We know that 's terrible music and we always try to think about what we can do next . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Chris Martin , Jonny Buckland , Guy Berryman , and Will Champion .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Literature = = =
Roach , Martin ( 2003 ) . Coldplay : Nobody Said it was Easy . Omnibus Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 7119 @-@ 9810 @-@ 8 . Retrieved 9 September 2008 .
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= Joan of Arc ( Madonna song ) =
" Joan of Arc " is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Madonna from her thirteenth studio album Rebel Heart ( 2015 ) . It was written by Madonna , Toby Gad , Maureen McDonald and Larry Griffin Jr . , with production being done by Madonna , Gad , AFSHeeN and Josh Cumbee . The song 's demo was leaked onto the internet on December 17 , 2014 , with twelve other tracks from the album . Its final version was released on February 9 , 2015 with two other tracks on the iTunes store . " Joan of Arc " is the eighth track on Rebel Heart and has similarity to the demo version , but with a lift in its tempo during the chorus . It is a guitar @-@ led pop and electro @-@ folk ballad , with drums and guitars being added as the song 's instrumentation .
Lyrically , the song uses the metaphor of Joan of Arc to explain that even strong people have fragile hearts and can break down , showing that the air of self @-@ confidence that someone can carry through an entire life may be just a shield for insecurities . The lyrical content present on the song was compared to her compositions during her previous albums , Like a Prayer ( 1989 ) and Ray of Light ( 1998 ) , especially " Drowned World / Substitute for Love " from the latter . The song received positive reviews from most music critics , who commended her raw vocals , the revelatory lyrics that matched with the album 's thematic and noted it for being a highlight on the record . It charted in some European territories , peaking inside the top @-@ twenty in Hungary and the top @-@ forty in Spain and Sweden . Madonna performed the track in an acoustic version on The Ellen DeGeneres Show , where the performance received acclaim from critics , who noted an improvement on her vocals .
= = Background and release = =
During the recording process of her thirteenth studio album , Madonna enlisted several collaborators , with MoZella , Symbolyc One and Toby Gad being announced as new collaborators on the album in April 2014 . Madonna posted a photograph of the trio working with her in a recording studio on her Instagram account . She said on the photograph , " Having an Iconic Moment in the studio with Toby @-@ Mozilla and S1 . My throat hurts from singing , laughing and crying . " Gad worked with Madonna on fourteen songs , twelve appeared on the album 's multiple tracklists , with one being " Joan of Arc " . According to Gad , " The first week she was quite intimidating . It was like a test phase . You have to criticize , but you can 't really offend . But she also likes honest , harsh critics to say things as they are . It worked out really well and she got sweeter and sweeter . " In December 2014 , thirteen demos of tracks for the album , including " Joan of Arc " , were leaked to the Internet . The song was described as a " gentle ballad " . To avoid further leaks , Madonna released six completed tracks with the pre @-@ order for the album on the iTunes Store on December 20 , 2014 , as an " early Christmas gift " . On February 9 , 2015 , the singer released three other finished tracks , including the final version of " Joan of Arc " , as well as the album 's track list .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Joan of Arc " was written by Madonna , Toby Gad , MoZella and Symbolyc One ( S1 ) , with production being done by Madonna , Gad , AFSHeeN and Josh Cumbee . Gad was also responsible for programming , additional backing vocals and the song 's instruments , which were also played by AFSHeeN , Cumbee , Stephen Kozmeniuk , Dan Warner ( guitar ) and Lee Levin . The track was engineered and mixed by Demacio " Demo " Castellon with Gad and Angie Teo . " Joan of Arc " is a guitar @-@ led pop and electro @-@ folk ballad , which starts acoustic , similar to its demo version , but having a " new beat that lifts the BPMs considerably " in the chorus , with the added drums and guitars " turning [ it ] into a mid @-@ paced radio @-@ friendly pop [ song ] , " but preserving the " string @-@ laden bridge and acoustic denouement . " Madonna 's vocals were considered " hushed , vibrato @-@ tinged " , and " the rawest that [ her ] voice has sounded since ' Ray of Light ' during the opening lines .
Lyrically , the confessional song talks plainly and plaintively about the detachment and loneliness that Madonna feels in the face of the press , with the singer lamenting : " Each time they write a hateful word / dragging my soul into the dirt / I wanna die . " John Marrs of Gay Times compared the lyrical content of the song to Madonna 's " Drowned World / Substitute For Love " ( 1998 ) explaining that the lyrics are essentially autobiographical as well as talks about how her outspokenness had led to the media trying to " hurt her " . It also talks about how although Madonna is tough at heart , she still feels the " negativity " of the media . The chorus , which features skittering drums and strings , has Madonna simply saying : " I don 't wanna talk about it right now / even hearts made out of steel can break down . " In an interview for The New York Times , Madonna explained the lyrics that she did not have the conviction of Joan of Arc , and is still hurt by any negative words . She further elaborated for a Rolling Stone interview :
I 've always been drawn to her story . More than anything , drawn to her commitment to what she believed in . In the face of death , she did not back down . And that is a theme that resonates with me . And women need female role models like that . There 's not a lot . I mean , she was burned at the stake after leading her country to victory , after defeating the English . I mean , the idea that instead of celebrating her , they called her a heretic because she was dressed like a boy , and how could this person , this one girl , be so victorious and so clever to have the strategy and knowledge to wage , and win , a war ? There must be something wrong with her . OK , she 's a witch . Now we have to destroy her . And she didn 't back down , and I admire that .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received generally favorable reviews from music critics . Joey Lynch of Billboard compared the song 's demo to the studio versions , claiming that " The studio version of ' Joan of Arc ' is a massive improvement on the illegally leaked demo that preceded news of the album itself . [ ... ] Nowhere is this more apparent than on ' Joan of Arc , ' a solid album track that sounds 10 times better than the leaked version . " While reviewing the three tracks released prior to the album , Sam C. Mac of Slant Magazine called it " arguably the standout of the whole over @-@ blown affair , " noting that the song " sounded like a highlight even in its more acoustic demo form , but the album version is a full @-@ on stunner ... The song sounds a bit like a Cardigans leftover circa ' Long Gone Before Daylight ' . It 's the strongest ( anti- ) ballad of Madonna 's last few albums , and a strong argument for artists responding to the denigration of their art through the more considered medium of the art itself , rather than snap public statements . [ ... ] More than any of the previously released songs , ' Joan of Arc ' also establishes one of the foundational themes of Rebel Heart , albeit one not always evident when wading through the poorly sequenced album . " Adding to the previous review , Annie Zaleski of The A.V. Club praised the juxtapositions in the album 's lyrical content , which according to her , " make some of her most vulnerable , engaging work in years — in particular ' Joan of Arc ' . "
Ben Kelly of Attitude called it " a fresh sounding pop guitar tune treading new territory for her , and which could carry serious currency as a single , " while Nick Levine of Time Out labeled it " a sublime electro @-@ folk ballad . " Furthermore , Randall Roberts of Los Angeles Times considered it " the kind [ of song ] that can lift spirits to emotional heights . " Reviewing Rebel Heart for Now , journalist Kevin Ritchie named " Joan of Arc " as one of " the most ambitious and interesting [ song ] lyrically . " Amy Pettifer of The Quietus pointed out that " It could be a Taylor Swift song and that 's a compliment . " She also analysed that the Joan of Arc metaphor is " a bit of a stretch " , but it 's " the sweetest and catchiest song on the album thus far . " Music critic Alexis Petridis wrote in The Guardian that the song is one of the " indispensable moments " on the album , " on which the singer genuinely seems to be revealing her personal feelings and frailties " , saying that it is " cut from the same emotional cloth as Like a Prayer 's ' Promise to Try ' or ' Ray of Light ' ' s ' Drowned World / Substitute for Love ' . " John Marrs of Gay Times agreed with the ' Like a Prayer ' -style influence , noting that " [ v ] ocally and lyrically she could easily be channeling Eva Peron , so don ’ t cry for her too much . "
Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner reflected on the song 's lyrics that " [ Madonna ] is still very much a sensitive soul despite a hardened public persona . [ The singer ] acknowledging her mortality , for some reason , feels wholly more intriguing than suggestive rhetoric that belongs with her work back in the ' 90s . " Jamieson Cox of Time and Lauren Murphy of The Irish Times agreed that the song is one of the album 's highlights . Brennan Carley of Spin thought that the song " revels convincingly in its vulnerability " where as Lindsay Zoladz of New York cited " Joan of Arc " as one of the " most affecting songs " on the album for grappling with the feeling of being defeated and fatigued directly . Bradley Stern of MuuMuse was largely positive , declaring that the song " is possibly Madonna ’ s best ballad since ' Miles Away ' — or really since the Music or Ray of Light era . " On the other hand , Consequence of Sound 's Sasha Geffen had mixed feelings about the song , calling it a " lukewarm love [ track that ] couples easy , inoffensive melodies with historical Christian imagery . " Further criticism came from Saeed Saeed of The National about the " anaemic production " , while The New Zealand Herald 's Lydia Jenkin called it awfully pedestrian " .
= = Chart performance = =
After " Joan of Arc " was released with " Iconic " and " Hold Tight " on February 5 , 2015 , the song managed to reach number twenty on the Hungarian charts , while in Spain and Sweden the song peaked inside the top @-@ forty , reaching numbers twenty @-@ seven and thirty @-@ eight , respectively . In France , nine songs from Rebel Heart managed to enter the SNEP charts , with " Joan of Arc " being the second highest charting non @-@ single from the album , managing to peak at number seventy @-@ six , and peaking higher than the single " Bitch I 'm Madonna " ( which reached number 90 ) .
= = Live performances = =
Madonna performed " Joan of Arc " in an acoustic version for the first time during her week on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on March 18 , 2015 . Madonna was dressed in a sequined heart blouse , with the performed track being " slightly slower than the studio version , while parts of the song [ had a minimal production ] " . Mike Wass of Idolator praised the performance , calling it " a little too good to be true — but it 's nice to see Madonna showing her softer side " . Digital Journal reviewer Markos Papadatos wrote that it was " an outstanding vocal performance " , where Madonna " showcased tremendous control over her voice , and allows the lyrics to speak for themselves . Her delivery is emotional , vulnerable yet delicate . " Writing for The Inquisitr , Daryl Deino praised her vocal performance , saying that she " showed the world once again just what her voice is made of " , calling the version " beautiful " . Furthermore , Bradley Stern of MuuMuse also applauded the performance , calling " [ r ] eally great . Super vulnerable , super emotional ... and that chilly guitar finish was a wonderful surprise " . Madonna also added the song to the set list of her Tears of a Clown free concert in Australia — an intimate show where the singer combined a mix of acoustic music , comedy and storytelling . It was considered a " gorgeous ballad " by Cameron Adams of News.com.au website .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Management
Webo Girl Publishing , Inc . ( ASCAP ) / Atlas Music Publishing and Gadfly Songs ( ASCAP ) / EMI April Music , Inc. and Mo Zella Mo Music ( ASCAP ) / WB Music Corp.
Roc Nation Music and Vohndee 's Soul Music Publishing WB Music Corp. ( ASCAP ) .
Personnel
Management and personnel adapted from Madonna 's official website .
= = Charts = =
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= I Am ( Leona Lewis song ) =
" I Am " is a song by British singer and songwriter Leona Lewis from her fifth studio album , I Am ( 2015 ) . The song was written by Lewis , Toby Gad and Eg White , with Gad and White producing it . Lyrically , " I Am " is about the feelings and emotions experienced by Lewis following her departure from her former record label Syco and its boss , Simon Cowell . It is a dance @-@ influenced track which makes use of strings , piano and drums as part of its instrumentation . Its composition garnered comparisons to singers Avril Lavigne and Massive Attack . Island released " I Am " on 17 July 2015 as the lead single for the United Kingdom , but it is the second single to be released from the album overall . Remixes by Fastlane and DEVolution were also released . The track garnered a positive response from music critics , many of whom praised Lewis ' strong and emotive vocal performance and described it as a standout on the album . Lewis has performed the song live on The National Lottery : In It to Win It and at the BBC 's Radio 2 Live in Hyde Park festival .
= = Background and composition = =
" I Am " was written by Leona Lewis , Toby Gad and Eg White , with Gad and White producing the track , for Lewis 's fifth studio album of the same name ( 2015 ) . It was published by ASCAP and Atlas Music publishings ( on behalf of itself and Gadfly Songs ( ASCAP ) and Kobalt Music Group Ltd . White performed much of the song 's instrumentation , and is credited with playing the piano , drums , bass and bells , as well as the string and drum programming . The strings were recorded by White and Kristian Larsen in Studio A at Kensaltown Studios , and were arranged by White , transcribed by Clarissa Farran , and contracted by Hilary Skewes . The violins were played by Marije Johnston , Kotono Sato , Max Baillie , Bea Lovejoy , Warren Zielinksi , Janice Graham , Helen Paterson and Hannah Dawson . Meghan Cassidy and James Boyd played the viola , while David Cohen and Ben Chappell played the cello . " I Am " was mixed by Wez Clarke , with additional mixing carried out by Gad at Kite Music Studios in Los Angeles . The track 's audio was mastered by Tom Coyne at Sterling Sound studios in New York City , with assistance from Randy Merrill . Lewis provided all of the vocals for the track . For the acoustic version of " I Am " , Gad undertook all of the instrumentation and also performed the mixing .
" I Am " is a dance @-@ influenced song . Some critics believe the lyrics allude to Lewis ' emotions and feelings following her departure from Syco Records and Simon Cowell , her former label boss and friend . Digital Spy writer Lewis Corner felt that the title track had very few barriers , exemplified by the lyrics " I am , with or without you / I am , breathing without you / I am , somebody without you . " Lewis performs the lyrics over an instrumentation of " rousing " strings and breakbeats . As she sings " I won 't change for you , " a heavy drum beat and occasional piano chimes reminiscent of songs by Avril Lavigne are played .
= = Release and remixes = =
On 30 June 2015 , Lewis released a three @-@ minute teaser video with snippets of " I Am " , " Ladders , " Power " and " Thunder " . " I Am " was released as the second single from the album and lead single for the United Kingdom ; it was not promoted in the United States due to the decision to release the album 's third overall single " Thunder " as its lead single instead . The full length version of " I Am " premiered on BBC Radio 2 on 17 July 2015 . The same day , the track was made available as an automatic download for anyone who had previously pre @-@ ordered the album . A two @-@ track remix EP with dance remixes by Fastlane and DEVolution was also made available as a digital download on 17 July in the United Kingdom , Australia , France , Germany , Ireland , and New Zealand . " I Am " was added to BBC Radio 2 's B @-@ list playlist on 15 August .
= = Critical reception = =
Kathy Iandoli of Idolator highlighted " I Am " as a " gorgeous standout " example of Lewis ' ability to " just [ sing ] " a song as opposed to using auto @-@ tune on " Power " and over @-@ singing on " I Got You " . Lewis Corner of Digital Spy felt that the track put " Simon [ Cowell ] in his place in a way Louis Walsh could only dream of . " Brad O 'Mance for Popjustice likened the song to Massive Attack 's 1991 song " Unfinished Sympathy " " with a different song on top " , while Official Charts Company writer Rob Copsey described it as " gutsy and uplifting " . However , Michael Clemons of The Daily Reveille thought that while it was not a stand out track , it was a good listen . Chuck Campbell of Knoxville News Sentinel thought that the track 's lyrical theme , and the album 's theme as a whole , was flawed as a concept , writing " The problem with repeatedly declaring you don ’ t need the approval of someone who has wronged you is that your message is false . Clearly if Lewis indulges in six straight bitter songs about defiantly rebounding from a bad relationship ( which she does on “ I Am ” ) , she obviously craves validation from the very person ( or people ) who did her dirty . "
= = Live performance = =
Lewis performed " I Am " for the first time during a live showcase at the Hospital Club in London on 14 April 2015 . The singer premiered four other tracks from I Am including " Ladders " , " I Got You " , " Thank You " and " Fire Under My Feet " . Stefan Kyriazis of the Daily Star described " I Am " and " Ladders " as " instant crowd pleasers " . Lewis later performed the track live on The National Lottery : In It to Win It on 12 September 2015 , and again the following day at the BBC 's Radio 2 Live in Hyde Park festival . The set @-@ list also included performances of " Better in Time " , " Bleeding Love " , " Run " , " Fire Under My Feet " and " I Got You " . " I Am " is included as the opening song on her 2016 concert tour of the same name .
= = Track listings = =
" I Am " ( Album version ) – 3 : 42
" I Am " ( Acoustic album version ) – 3 : 26
" I Am " ( Fastlane remix ) – 4 : 44
" I Am " ( DEVolution remix ) – 4 : 51
= = Release history = =
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= SMS Kaiserin =
SMS Kaiserin was the third vessel of the Kaiser class of battleships of the Imperial German Navy . Kaiserin 's keel was laid in November 1910 at the Howaldtswerke dockyard in Kiel . She was launched on 11 November 1911 and was commissioned into the fleet on 14 May 1913 . The ship was equipped with ten 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns in five twin turrets , and had a top speed of 22 @.@ 1 knots ( 40 @.@ 9 km / h ; 25 @.@ 4 mph ) . Kaiserin was assigned to the III Battle Squadron and later the IV Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet for the majority of her career , including World War I.
Along with her four sister ships , Kaiser , Friedrich der Grosse , König Albert , and Prinzregent Luitpold , Kaiserin participated in all of the major fleet operations of World War I , including the Battle of Jutland on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . The ship was also involved in Operation Albion , an amphibious assault on the Russian @-@ held islands in the Gulf of Riga , in October 1917 . She later saw action during the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight in November 1917 .
After Germany 's defeat in the war and the signing of the Armistice in November 1918 , the Royal Navy interned Kaiserin and most of the capital ships of the High Seas Fleet in Scapa Flow . The ships were disarmed and reduced to skeleton crews while the Allied powers negotiated the final version of the Treaty of Versailles . On 21 June 1919 , the commander of the interned fleet , Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , ordered the fleet to be scuttled to ensure that the British would not be able to seize the ships . Kaiserin was raised in May 1936 and subsequently broken up for scrap .
= = Construction = =
Ordered under the contract name Ersatz Hagen as a replacement for the obsolete coastal defense ship Hagen , Kaiserin was laid down at the Howaldtswerke dockyard in Kiel in November 1910 . She was launched on 11 November 1911 , after which fitting @-@ out work was completed . At the launching ceremony , Admiral Hans von Koester gave a speech and Princess Victoria Louise christened the ship . A dockyard crew delivered the ship to the Navy on 13 May 1913 ; she was commissioned into the fleet the following day . During trials the ship 's turbine engines were damaged , and Kaiserin did not join the fleet until 13 December 1913 .
The ship was 172 @.@ 40 m ( 565 ft 7 in ) long overall and displaced a maximum of 27 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 27 @,@ 000 long tons ) . She had a beam of 29 m ( 95 ft 2 in ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 10 m ( 29 ft 10 in ) forward and 8 @.@ 80 m ( 28 ft 10 in ) aft . Kaiserin was powered by three sets of Parsons turbines , each of which drove a single propeller shaft ; they were supplied with steam by 16 coal @-@ fired boilers . The powerplant produced a top speed of 22 @.@ 1 knots ( 40 @.@ 9 km / h ; 25 @.@ 4 mph ) . She carried 3 @,@ 600 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 500 long tons ; 4 @,@ 000 short tons ) of coal , which enabled a maximum range of 7 @,@ 900 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 600 km ; 9 @,@ 100 mi ) at a cruising speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) .
Kaiserin was armed with a main battery of ten 30 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 50 guns in five twin turrets . The ship dispensed with the inefficient hexagonal turret arrangement of previous German battleships ; instead , three of the five turrets were mounted on the centerline , with two of them arranged in a superfiring pair aft . The other two turrets were placed en echelon amidships , such that both could fire on the broadside . The ship was also armed with fourteen 15 cm SK L / 45 guns in casemates amidships , eight 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 45 guns in casemates and four 8 @.@ 8 cm L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns . The ship 's armament was rounded out by five 50 cm ( 20 in ) torpedo tubes , all mounted in the hull .
= = Service history = =
After joining the III Battle Squadron in December 1913 , Kaiserin participated in the routine fleet training exercises . Squadron exercises were conducted in February , followed by fleet maneuvers , both in the North Sea . The fleet trained again in May , in both the North and Baltic Seas . Kaiserin left Germany on 7 July for the annual summer cruise to Norway , but was recalled prematurely on 22 July because of rising international tensions following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand . Upon returning to Germany , Kaiserin steamed to Brunsbüttel on 24 July , where she was the first battleship to traverse the recently deepened Kaiser Wilhelm Canal . The voyage required lightening , and in just under twelve hours Kaiserin exited the locks at Holtenau in Kiel where she met the rest of her squadron . On 31 July , the entire squadron returned to the North Sea via the Canal . At midnight on 4 August , the United Kingdom , with its powerful Grand Fleet , declared war on Germany .
Kaiserin was present during the first sortie by the German fleet into the North Sea , which took place on 2 – 3 November 1914 . No British forces were encountered during the operation . A second operation followed on 15 – 16 December . This sortie was the initiation of a strategy adopted by Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl , the commander of the High Seas Fleet . Admiral Ingenohl intended to use the battlecruisers of Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's I Scouting Group to raid British coastal towns to lure out portions of the Grand Fleet where they could be destroyed by the High Seas Fleet . Early on 15 December the fleet left port to raid the towns of Scarborough , Hartlepool , and Whitby . That evening , the German battle fleet of some twelve dreadnoughts — including Kaiserin and her four sisters — and eight pre @-@ dreadnoughts came to within 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) of an isolated squadron of six British battleships . However , skirmishes between the rival destroyer screens in the darkness convinced Ingenohl that he was faced with the entire Grand Fleet . Under orders from Kaiser Wilhelm II to avoid risking the fleet unnecessarily , Ingenohl broke off the engagement and turned the battle fleet back toward Germany .
Kaiserin went into the Baltic for squadron training from 23 to 29 January 1916 . Upon returning to the North Sea , the ship went into drydock in Wilhelmshaven for periodic maintenance , which lasted from 31 January to 20 February . The Kaiser removed Ingenohl from his post on 2 February , following the loss of SMS Blücher at the Battle of Dogger Bank the month before . Admiral Hugo von Pohl succeeded him as the commander of the fleet . Pohl continued the policy of sweeps into the North Sea to destroy isolated British formations . The fleet conducted a series of advances into the North Sea throughout 1915 ; Kaiserin was present for the sweeps on 17 to 18 May , 29 to 30 May , 10 August , 11 to 12 September , and 23 to 24 October . The III Squadron completed the year with another round of unit training in the Baltic from 5 to 20 December .
Pohl 's tenure as fleet commander was brief ; by January 1916 hepatic cancer had weakened him to the point where he was no longer able to carry out his duties . He was replaced by Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer in January . Scheer proposed a more aggressive policy designed to force a confrontation with the British Grand Fleet ; he received approval from the Kaiser in February . The first of Scheer 's operations was conducted the following month , on 5 to 7 March , with an uneventful sweep of the Hoofden . Kaiserin was also present during an advance to the Amrun Bank on 2 to 3 April . The fleet conducted another sortie on 21 to 22 April .
= = = Battle of Jutland = = =
Kaiserin was present during the fleet operation that resulted in the battle of Jutland which took place on 31 May and 1 June 1916 ; her commander at the time was Kapitän zur See ( KzS ) Karl Sievers . The German fleet again sought to draw out and isolate a portion of the Grand Fleet and destroy it before the main British fleet could retaliate . During the operation , Kaiserin was the second ship in the VI Division of III Squadron and the seventh ship in the line , directly astern of Kaiser and ahead of Prinzregent Luitpold . The VI Division was behind only the V Division , consisting of the four König @-@ class battleships . The eight battleships of the Helgoland- and Nassau classes assigned to the I and II Divisions in I Squadron followed the VI Division . The six elderly pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the III and IV Divisions , II Battle Squadron , formed the rear of the formation .
Shortly before 16 : 00 , the battlecruisers of I Scouting Group encountered the British 1st Battlecruiser Squadron under the command of Vice Admiral David Beatty . The opposing ships began an artillery duel that saw the destruction of Indefatigable , shortly after 17 : 00 , and Queen Mary , less than half an hour later . At 16 : 19 , Kaiserin was forced to temporarily stop the turbine on the center shaft , as the condenser had started leaking . The crew were able to restart the engine before Kaiserin came into action . By this time , the German battlecruisers were steaming south to draw the British ships toward the main body of the High Seas Fleet . At 17 : 30 , the crew of the leading German battleship , König , spotted both the I Scouting Group and the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron approaching . The German battlecruisers were steaming to starboard , while the British ships steamed to port . At 17 : 45 , Scheer ordered a two @-@ point turn to port to bring his ships closer to the British battlecruisers , and a minute later , the order to open fire was given .
At approximately 17 : 40 , the British light cruiser Nottingham fired a single torpedo at Kaiserin at the extreme range of at least 16 @,@ 500 yd ( 15 @,@ 100 m ) , which failed to find its target . After Scheer ordered the fleet to open fire , Kaiserin briefly engaged the battlecruiser New Zealand ; Kaiserin failed to score a hit and by 17 : 54 New Zealand and the rest of the British battlecruisers had increased speed and moved out of range . The British destroyers Nestor and Nomad , which had been disabled earlier in the engagement , lay directly in the path of the advancing High Seas Fleet . Kaiserin and her three sisters fired on Nomad with their secondary guns while the I Squadron battleships dispatched Nestor . At around 19 : 00 , the German battle line came into contact with the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron ; Kaiserin fired three salvos from her main battery at an unidentified four @-@ funneled cruiser but made no hits .
Shortly after 19 : 00 , a shell from the British battlecruiser Invincible disabled the German cruiser Wiesbaden ; Rear Admiral Behncke in König attempted to maneuver the III Squadron to cover the stricken cruiser . Simultaneously , the British 3rd and 4th Light Cruiser Squadrons began a torpedo attack on the German line ; while advancing to torpedo range , they smothered Wiesbaden with fire from their main guns . The eight III Squadron battleships fired on the British cruisers , but even sustained fire from the battleships ' main guns failed to drive off the British cruisers . The armored cruisers Defence , Warrior , and Black Prince joined in the attack on the crippled Wiesbaden . Between 19 : 14 and 19 : 17 , several German battleships and battlecruisers opened fire on Defence and Warrior . Kaiserin initially engaged one of the battleships in the British 5th Battle Squadron and scored a hit ; according to Kaiserin 's logs , the ship in question was Malaya . After three minutes firing at Malaya , Kaiserin shifted fire to Defence . In short succession , the German dreadnoughts hit Defence with several heavy caliber shells . One salvo penetrated the ship 's ammunition magazines and , in a tremendous explosion , destroyed the cruiser . After Defence exploded , Kaiserin shifted her fire to a target believed to be the battlecruiser Tiger . Heavy haze forced Kaiserin to check fire after two salvos .
By 20 : 00 , Scheer ordered the German line to complete a 180 @-@ degree turn eastward to disengage from the British fleet . The maneuver , conducted under heavy fire , caused disorganization in the German fleet . Kaiserin had come too close to Prinzregent Luitpold and was forced to haul out of line to starboard to avoid a collision . The latter vessel came up alongside Kaiserin at high speed . As a result , Kaiserin had to remain out of line and could not return to her assigned position . The turn reversed the order of the German line ; Kaiserin was now the seventh ship from the rear of the German line . At around 23 : 30 , the German fleet reorganized into the night cruising formation . Kaiserin was the eleventh ship , in the center of the 24 @-@ ship line .
After a series of night engagements between the leading battleships and British destroyers , the High Seas Fleet punched through the British light forces and reached Horns Reef by 04 : 00 on 1 June . The German fleet reached Wilhelmshaven a few hours later ; the I Squadron battleships took up defensive positions in the outer roadstead and Kaiserin , Kaiser , Prinzregent Luitpold , and Kronprinz stood ready just outside the entrance to Wilhelmshaven . The remainder of the battleships and battlecruisers entered Wilhelmshaven , where those that were still in fighting condition replenished their stocks of coal and ammunition . In the course of the battle , Kaiserin fired one @-@ hundred and sixty 30 @.@ 5 cm shells and one @-@ hundred and thirty @-@ five 15 cm rounds . She emerged from the battle completely unscathed .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
In early August , Kaiserin and the rest of the operational III Squadron units conducted divisional training in the Baltic . On 18 August , Scheer attempted a repeat of the 31 May operation ; the two serviceable German battlecruisers — Moltke and Von der Tann — supported by three dreadnoughts , were to bombard the coastal town of Sunderland in an attempt to draw out and destroy Beatty 's battlecruisers . The rest of the fleet , including Kaiser , would trail behind and provide cover . On the approach to the English coast , Scheer turned north after receiving a false report from a zeppelin about a British unit in the area . As a result , the bombardment was not carried out , and by 14 : 35 , Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's approach and so turned his forces around and retreated to German ports .
Another fleet advance followed on 18 to 20 October , though it ended without encountering any British units . Two weeks later , on 4 November , Kaiserin took part in an expedition to the western coast of Denmark to assist two U @-@ boats , U @-@ 20 and U @-@ 30 , that had become stranded there . The fleet was reorganized on 1 December ; the four König @-@ class battleships remained in III Squadron , along with the newly commissioned Bayern , while the five Kaiser @-@ class ships , including Kaiserin , were transferred to IV Squadron . While transiting the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal on 14 March 1917 , Kaiserin became grounded . One of her bilge keels was damaged and some 280 t ( 280 long tons ; 310 short tons ) of water entered the ship . Repairs were conducted at the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel from 15 to 18 March . Kaiserin returned to the North Sea on 30 March and remained there on guard duty until 8 June . On 9 June , she went to the Baltic for a month @-@ long series of exercises , which were completed on 2 July . She resumed guard duties in the German Bight on 3 July and continued in this role until 11 September , when Kaiserin was detached to join the special unit assigned to Operation Albion .
= = = Operation Albion = = =
In early September 1917 , following the German conquest of the Russian port of Riga , the German navy decided to eliminate the Russian naval forces that still held the Gulf of Riga . The Admiralstab ( the Navy High Command ) planned an operation to seize the Baltic island of Ösel , and specifically the Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe Peninsula . On 18 September , the order was issued for a joint operation with the army to capture Ösel and Moon Islands ; the primary naval component was to comprise the flagship , Moltke , along with the III and IV Battle Squadrons of the High Seas Fleet . Along with nine light cruisers , three torpedo boat flotillas , and dozens of mine warfare ships , the entire force numbered some 300 ships , supported by over 100 aircraft and six zeppelins . The invasion force amounted to approximately 24 @,@ 600 officers and enlisted men . By this time , the IV Battle Squadron had come under the command of Vice Admiral Wilhelm Souchon . Opposing the Germans were the old Russian pre @-@ dreadnoughts Slava and Tsesarevich , the armored cruisers Bayan , Admiral Makarov , and Diana , 26 destroyers , and several torpedo boats and gunboats . The garrison on Ösel numbered some 14 @,@ 000 men .
The operation began on the morning of 12 October , when Moltke and the III Squadron ships engaged Russian positions in Tagga Bay while Kaiserin and the rest of IV Squadron shelled Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe Peninsula on Ösel . Kaiserin , along with Kaiser and Prinzregent Luitpold , were tasked with silencing the Russian guns at Hundsort on Ösel , which had taken Moltke under fire . The ships opened fire at 05 : 44 , and by 07 : 45 , Russian firing had ceased and German troops were moving ashore . Two days later , Souchon left Tagga Bay with Kaiserin , Friedrich der Grosse , and Prinzregent Luitpold to support German ground forces advancing on the Sworbe Peninsula . Kaiserin was assigned to suppress a Russian battery at Zerel , though heavy fog delayed her from engaging her target . The Russians opened fire first , which was quickly returned by Kaiserin and König Albert . Friedrich der Grosse came to the two ships ' assistance ; the three battleships fired a total of 120 large @-@ caliber shells over the span of an hour . The fourth Russian salvo straddled Kaiserin , which began to steer erratically to avoid the Russian gunfire . The heavy firing prompted most of the Russian gun crews to flee their posts .
On the night of 15 October , Kaiserin and König Albert were sent to replenish their coal stocks in Putzig . On the 19th , they were briefly joined in Putzig by Friedrich der Grosse , which continued on to Arensburg with Moltke . The next morning , Vice Admiral Ehrhard Schmidt ordered the special naval unit to be dissolved and returned to the North Sea . In a communique to the naval headquarters , Schmidt noted that " Kaiserin and König Albert can immediately be detached from Putzig to the North Sea . " The two ships then proceeded to Kiel via Danzig ; after reaching Kiel , they transited the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal back to the North Sea .
= = = Final operations = = =
On 17 November 1917 , Kaiserin and Kaiser were assigned to provide cover for the II Scouting Group while it conducted a minesweeping operation in the North Sea . Significant British forces , including five battlecruisers and several light cruisers , attacked the II Scouting Group ; the two battleships immediately steamed to their assistance . In the ensuing Second Battle of Heligoland Bight , Kaiserin scored a hit on the light cruiser Caledon . The battlecruiser Repulse briefly engaged the German dreadnoughts , but both forces withdrew . After the action , Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter criticized Kaiserin 's commander , KzS Kurt Grasshoff , for lagging too far behind the minesweepers to provide adequate protection . He was subsequently relieved of command of the ship . Kaiserin went into drydock for maintenance on 22 December , and work lasted until 5 February 1918 . The ship participated in the fruitless advance to Norway on 23 – 25 April 1918 , which had been intended to intercept a heavily defended convoy between Britain and Norway ; faulty German intelligence prevented the Germans from catching the convoy . After returning to port , she resumed guard duties in the German Bight . The IV Squadron undertook another training exercise in the Baltic from 18 June to 13 August . A final round of drills took place on 22 – 28 October .
= = = Fate = = =
Kaiserin and her four sisters were to have taken part in a final fleet action at the end of October 1918 , days before the Armistice was to take effect . The bulk of the High Seas Fleet was to have sortied from its base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet ; Scheer — by now the Grand Admiral ( Großadmiral ) of the fleet — intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy . The goal was to improve Germany 's bargaining position in the imminent peace negotiations , despite the expected casualties . But many of the war @-@ weary sailors felt that the operation would disrupt the peace process and prolong the war . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation . Informed of the situation , the Kaiser stated , " I no longer have a navy . "
Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , the Allies interned most of the High Seas Fleet , under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , in the British naval base in Scapa Flow . Prior to the departure of the German fleet , Admiral Adolf von Trotha made clear to Reuter that he could not allow the Allies to seize the ships , under any circumstances . The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser Cardiff , which led the ships to the Allied fleet that was to escort the Germans to Scapa Flow . The massive fleet consisted of some 370 British , American , and French warships . Once the ships were interned , their guns were disabled through the removal of their breech blocks , and their crews were reduced to 200 officers and enlisted men .
The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Treaty of Versailles . Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the next opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . Kaiserin sank at 14 : 00 ; she was subsequently raised on 14 May 1936 and broken up later that year in Rosyth .
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= Betsimisaraka people =
The Betsimisaraka ( " the many inseparables " ) make up approximately fifteen percent of the Malagasy people and are the second largest ethnic group in Madagascar after the Merina . They occupy a large stretch of the eastern seabord of Madagascar , from Mananjary in the south to Antalaha in the north . The Betsimisaraka have a long history of extensive interaction with European seafarers and traders that produced a significant subset with mixed European @-@ Malagasy origins , termed the zana @-@ malata . European influence is evident in the local valse ( waltz ) and basesa musical genres , which are typically performed on the accordion . Tromba ( spirit possession ) ceremonies feature strongly in Betsimisaraka culture .
Through the late 17th century , the various clans of the eastern seaboard were governed by chieftans who typically ruled over one or two villages . A zana @-@ malata named Rastimilaho emerged to unite these clans under his rule in 1710 . His reign lasted 50 years and established a sense of common identity and stability throughout the kingdom , but his successors gradually weakened this union , leaving it vulnerable to the growing influence and presence of European and particularly French settlers , slave traders , missionaries and merchants . The fractured Betsimisaraka kingdom was easily colonized in 1817 by Radama I , king of Imerina who ruled from its capital at Antananarivo in the central highlands . The subjugation of the Betsimisaraka in the 19th century left the population relatively impoverished ; under colonization by the French ( 1896 @-@ 1960 ) a focused effort was made to increase access to education and paid employment working on French plantations . Production of former plantation crops like vanilla , ylang @-@ ylang , coconut oil and coffee remain the principal economic activity of the region beyond subsistence farming and fishing , although mining is also a source of income .
Culturally the Betsimisaraka can be divided into northern and southern sub @-@ groups . Many elements of culture are common across both groups , including respect for ancestors , spirit possession , the ritual sacrifice of zebu , and a patriarchal social structure . The groups are distinguished by linguistic sub @-@ dialects and various fady ( taboos ) , as well as certain funeral practices and other customs . The Betsimisaraka practice famadihana ( reburial ) and sambatra ( circumcision ) , and believe in sorcery and a wide range of supernatural forces . Many taboos and folktales revolve around lemurs and crocodiles , both of which are common throughout Betsimisaraka territory .
= = Ethnic identity = =
The Betsimisaraka constitute approximately 15 percent of the population of Madagascar and numbered over 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 in 2011 . A sub @-@ set of the population , the zana @-@ malata , has partly European origins resulting from generations of intermarriage between the local Malagasy population and European pirates , sailors and traders who docked or settled along the eastern coast . Like the Sakalava to the west , the Betsimisaraka are composed of numerous ethnic sub @-@ groups that formed a confederation in the early 18th century . Most Betsimisaraka are of mixed Bantu African and Asian Austronesian descent . The Betsimisaraka occupy a long , narrow band of territory that stretches along the east coast of Madagascar from Mananjary in the south to Antalaha in the north , including the island 's main port at Toamasina and the major towns of Fénérive Est and Maroansetra . They are often subdivided into northern Betsimisaraka ( Antavaratra ) and southern Betsimisaraka ( Antatsimo ) , separated by the Betanimena Betsimisaraka sub @-@ clan ( called the Tsikoa before around 1710 ) .
= = History = =
Until the beginning of the 18th century , the peoples who would constitute the core of the Betsimisaraka were organized into numerous clans under the authority of chiefs ( filohany ) who each typically ruled over no more than one or two villages . Those around Antongil Bay in the north held a comparatively more official position , with regalia of leadership attested since at least 1500 . The presence of natural bays along the northern coastline that became the port towns of Antongil , Titingue , Foulpointe , Fenerive and Tamatave favored the economic and political development of the Antavaratra Betsimisaraka ; the southern portion of this coastline , by contrast , lacked any areas suitable for ports . Villagers in the areas surrounding the ports exported rice , cattle , slaves and other goods to the nearby Mascarene Islands . The eastern ports ' strategic position for regional trade attracted the heaviest settlement of Europeans to this portion of the island , particularly including British and American pirates whose numbers dramatically increased from the 1680s to the 1720s along the coast from modern day Antsiranana in the north to Nosy Boraha and Foulpointe to the east . Intermarriage between these European pirates and the daughters of local chiefs produced a large mixed population termed zana @-@ malata .
Around 1700 the Tsikoa began uniting around a series of powerful leaders . Ramanano , the chief of Vatomandry , was elected in 1710 as the leader of the Tsikoa ( " those who are steadfast " ) and initiated invasions of the northern ports . According to oral histories , Ramanano established an armed militia at Vohimasina which he sent on incursions to burn neighboring villages , desecrate local tombs , and enslave the women and children , contributing to his reputation as a cruel and unpopular leader . A northern Betsimisaraka zana @-@ malata named Ratsimilaho , who was born to the daughter of a local filohany and a British pirate named Tom Tew around 1694 and had briefly traveled with his father to England and India , led a resistance to these invasions and successfully united his compatriots around this cause despite his young age . He captured Fenerive in 1712 , causing the Tsikoa to flee across soggy red fields of clay that stuck to their feet , earning them the new name of Betanimena ( " Many of Red Earth " ) . Ratsimilaho was elected king of all the Betsimisaraka and given a new name , Ramaromanompo ( " Lord Served by Many " ) at his capital at Foulpointe . He gave his northern compatriots the name Betsimisaraka to reaffirm their unity in the face of their enemies . He then negotiated peace with the Betanimena by offering their king control over the port of Tamatave , but this settlement fell apart after six months , leading Ratsimilaho to recapture Tamatave and force the Betanimena king to flee south . He established alliances with the southern Betsimisaraka and the neighboring Bezanozano , extending his authority over these areas by allowing local chiefs to maintain their power while offering tribute of rice , cattle and slaves ; by 1730 he was one of the most powerful kings of Madagascar . By the time of his death in 1754 , his moderate and stabilizing rule had provided nearly forty years of unity among the diverse clans within the Betsimisaraka political union . He also allied the Betsimisaraka with the other most powerful kingdom of the time , the Sakalava of the west coast , through marriage with Matave , the only daughter of Iboina king Andrianbaba .
Ratsimilaho 's son Zanahary succeeded him in 1755 . A despotic leader , Zanahary launched a series of attacks against villages under his authority and was assassinated by his own subjects in 1767 . Zanahary was succeeded by his son Iavy , who was detested for continuing his father 's practice of attacking villages under his control , and for enriching himself by cooperating with French slave traders . During the reign of Iavy , an eastern European adventurer named Maurice Benyowsky established a settlement in Betsimisaraka country and proclaimed himself king of Madagascar , persuading several local chieftains to no longer pay tribute to Iboina . This action provoked Sakalava ire , and in 1776 Sakalava soldiers invaded the area to punish the Betsimisaraka inhabitants and kill Benyowsky , but were ultimately unsuccessful in the latter goal . Zakavolo , Iavy 's son , succeeded his father upon his death in 1791 . European accounts disparage Zakavolo for insisting that they provide him with gifts , and for insulting them when the Europeans refused to meet his demands . His subjects deposed him in 1803 with the assistance of then Governor General Magallon , who administered the French island territories ; Zakavolo was eventually assassinated by his ex @-@ subjects . Throughout the decades following Ratsimilaho 's death , the French established control over Ile Sainte Marie and had established trading ports throughout Betsimisaraka territory . By 1810 a French envoy named Sylvain Roux effectively had economic control over the port city , although it was nominally governed by Zakavolo 's uncle Tsihala . A dispute among Tsihala 's male relatives over control of the city led to further fracturing of Betsimisaraka political unity , weakening the ability of the Betsimisaraka to unite against increasing foreign encroachment . He lost power the following year to another zana @-@ malata , Jean Rene , who maintained close cooperation with the French .
The Kingdom of Imerina in the island 's center had been rapidly unifying and expanding since the late 18th century . In 1817 , Merina king Radama I led an army of 25 @,@ 000 soldiers from Antananarivo to successfully capture Toamasina . Although Jean Rene was not complicit and had been given no forewarning of the military campaign , when Radama arrived the Europeans and zana @-@ malata were not expelled ; rather , Radama developed a cooperation with them to develop diplomatic and economic relations with the French as he had already done over the past decade with British missionaries in the Merina homeland of the central highlands . The The area was effectively colonized , with Merina garrisons established at ports and across the Betsimisaraka interior . The Betsimisaraka resented Merina domination and , not receiving assistance from the French as they had hoped , mounted an unsuccessful rebellion in 1825 . As Merina presence and authority in the former Betsimisaraka kingdom grew , many local farmers migrated to areas outside Merina control or sought employment with European settlers on plantations where they might be afforded some protection . Any remnants of the ruling line in Betsimisaraka were eliminated under Merina queen Ranavalona I , who ordered many nobles to undergo the deadly tangena trial by ordeal . Throughout her reign , cultural practices associated with Europeans were forbidden , including Christianity and Western musical instruments ; eventually all Europeans were expelled from the island for the duration of her reign . Her son , Radama II , lifted these restrictions and gradually European presence re @-@ emerged in Betsimisaraka territory as French entrepreneurs established plantations for growing export crops like vanilla , coffee , tea and coconuts . The growing number of Merina colonists from the turn of the 19th century and Europeans from the 1860s onward created competition for use of the ports traditionally under Betsimisaraka control , to such an extent that the local population was prohibited from trading to maximize profits for the Merina and Europeans . This severe economic constraint , coupled with the heavy Merina imposition of fanampoana ( unpaid labor in lieu of taxes ) , severely undermined the prosperity of the local population , who resisted by refusing to grow surplus crops that would only further enrich the outside traders . Others fled the settled life of their ancestral villages to take refuge in the forest in order to live outside Merina authority . Some of these formed into groups of bandits who plundered Merina trading parties along the east coast and mounted occasional raids further into Merina territory ; these groups also periodically attacked Merina settlers , European missionaries , government outposts and churches .
When the French colonized Madagascar in 1896 , initial Betsimisaraka satisfaction with the fall of the Merina government rapidly evolved into displeasure with French control . This led to an uprising the same year among Betsimisaraka , particularly including the bandits and other outlaws who had long been living according to their own law in the eastern rainforests ; the movement extended to the broader Betsimisaraka population , who mounted a strong resistance to French rule between 1897 @-@ 1899 . These efforts were eventually subdued . After regaining control , the French colonial authority took steps to address the repercussions of historical subjugation of the Betsimisaraka by the Merina kingdom , providing increased access to basic education as well as opportunities for paid labor at plantations , but often on former Betsimisaraka land that the French authorities had forced local inhabitants to relinquish to colonists .
In 1947 , a nationwide uprising against French colonial rule was initiated in Moramanga , a town in Bezanozano territory neighboring the Betsimisaraka . During the conflict , Betsimisaraka nationalists fought French and Senegalese soldiers in an unsuccessful attempt to regain control of the port at Tamatave , the island 's most important trading port . Betsimisaraka fighters and civilians suffered very heavy losses and some of the worst human rights abuses , including execution by being thrown alive from airplanes .
The country gained independence in 1960 . It was led throughout the Second Republic ( 1975 @-@ 1992 ) by Admiral Didier Ratsiraka , a Betsimisaraka . He was democratically elected president and again led the country from 1995 to 2001 during the Third Republic before being forced from power following contested 2001 presidential election by followers of Merina businessman and opposition leader Marc Ravalomanana . He remains an influential and controversial political figure in Madagascar . Ratsiraka 's nephew , Roland Ratsiraka , is likewise a significant political figure , having run for president and serving as mayor of Toamasina , the country 's main commercial port .
= = Society = =
The Betsimisaraka inhabit the eastern coast between Nosy Varaka and Antalaha . The historic capital of the Betsimisaraka kingdom was located at Fenoarivo Atsinanana . Social life revolves around the agricultural year , with preparation of fields beginning in October , the harvest of rice in May , and the winter months from June to September set aside for ancestor worship and other major rituals and customs .
There are clear gender divisions among the Betsimisaraka . When traveling by foot in a mixed gender group , it is forbidden for women to walk before men . Women are traditionally the ones to act as porters , carrying light items on the head and heavy items on the back ; if a woman is present , it is considered ridiculous for a man to carry something . When eating , men use a single spoon to fill their plates from the communal bowl and to eat the food on their plates , whereas women are required to use two separate spoons to fill their plates and to eat . Men are generally responsible for tilling the rice fields , obtaining food , gathering firewood and building the family home and furniture , and they engage in discussion and debate about public affairs . Women 's tasks include growing crops , weeding the rice fields and harvesting and processing the rice , fetching water , lighting the hearth fire and preparing daily meals , and weaving .
= = = Religious affiliation = = =
Religious rites and customs are traditionally presided over by a tangalamena officiant . Betsimisaraka communities widely believe in various supernatural creatures , including ghosts ( angatra ) , mermaids ( zazavavy an @-@ drano ) and the imp @-@ like kalamoro . Efforts to Christianize the local population began in the early 1800s but were largely unsuccessful at first . During the colonial period the influence of Christianity among the local population grew , but where it is practiced is often blended syncretically with traditional ancestor worship .
= = Culture = =
Although there are differences between the northern and southern Betsimisaraka , many major aspects of their culture are similar . Major customs among the Betsimisaraka include sambatra ( circumcision ) , folanaka ( the birth of a tenth child ) , ritual sacrifice of zebu for the ancestors , and celebrating the inauguration of a newly constructed house . Marriage , death , birth , the New Year and Independence Day are also communally celebrated . The practice of tromba ( ritual spirit possession ) is widespread among the Betsimisaraka . Both men and women act as mediums and spectators in these events .
The indigenous raffia plant was the base fiber for the clothing traditionally worn by the Betsimisaraka . Leaves of the raffia plant were combed to separate the fibers , which were knotted end to end to form strands that could then be woven together to form cloth . Among the various peoples who united under the Betsimisaraka confederation , women wore a short wrapper ( simbo ) , typically with a bandeau top ( akanjo ) , while men wore smocks . Traditional raffia clothing is still worn by some Betsimisaraka today .
The Betsimisaraka hold lemurs in high regard and tell several legends in which lemurs come to the aid of prominent Betsimisaraka figures . According to one story , a lemur saved the life of a Betsimisaraka ancestor from a grave peril . In another tale , a group of Betsimisaraka sought refuge in a forest from a marauding enemy group . Their enemies followed them into the forest , tracking the Betsimisaraka by what they believed to be the sound of their voices . Upon reaching the source of the sound they discovered a group of ghostly @-@ looking lemurs and , believing the Betsimisaraka had been transformed into animals by magic , fled the area in terror . The spirits of Betsimisaraka ancestors are believed to reside inside the bodies of lemurs . Consequently , in general it is forbidden for the Betsimisaraka to kill or eat lemurs , and it is obligatory to free a trapped lemur and to bury a dead lemur with the same rites as a person .
Crocodiles are also viewed with reverence and fear . At river banks where they are known to gather , it is not uncommon for Betsimisaraka villagers to throw them zebu hindquarters ( the most favored cut ) , whole geese and other offerings on a daily basis . Amulets for protection against crocodiles are commonly worn or thrown into the water in areas where the animals congregate . It is commonly believed that witches and sorcerers are closely linked with crocodiles , being capable of ordering them to kill others and of walking among them without being attacked . The Betsimisaraka believe witches and sorcerers appease crocodiles by feeding them rice at night , and some are accused of walking crocodiles through Betsimisaraka villages at midnight or even being married to the crocodiles , which they then enslave to do their bidding .
= = = Fady = = =
Among some Betsimisaraka it is considered fady for a brother to shake hands with his sister , or for young men to wear shoes during their father 's lifetime . Among many Betsimisaraka , the eel is considered sacred . It is forbidden to touch , fish or eat eel . Although many coastal Malagasy communities have a fady against the consumption of pork , this is not universal or common among the Betsimisaraka , who often keep pigs in their villages .
Complex taboos and rites are associated with a woman 's first childbirth . When about to give birth she is secluded in a special birthing house called a komby . The leaves she eats from and the waste produced by the newborn are kept in a special receptacle for seven days , at which point they are burned . The ash produced is rubbed on the forehead and cheeks of the mother and baby and must be worn for seven days . On the fifteenth day both are bathed in water in which lime or lemon leaves have soaked , a ritual called ranom @-@ boahangy ( bath of the leaves ) . The community gathers to drink rum and celebrate with wrestling matches , but the mother must stay in the komby is not allowed to consume anything other than saonjo greens and a chicken specially prepared for her . After this celebration she is required to leave the komby and can return to routine life .
Among the Betsimisaraka , like several other Malagasy ethnic groups , there is a fady against speaking the name of a chief after his death or any word that formed part of the name . The deceased leader was given a new name after death that all were required to use , and specific synonyms were selected to replace the words composing his name for use in regular conversation ; anyone who spoke the forbidden words would harshly punished or in some instances executed .
= = = Funeral rites = = =
Some Betsimisaraka , principally those living around Maroantsetra , practice the famadihana reburial ceremony , although in a simpler form than that practiced in the Highlands . Coffins are placed in tombs only in Southern Betsimisaraka ; in the north , they are placed under outdoor shelters . While in mourning , women will unbraid their hair and stop wearing their akanjo , while men no longer wear a hat ; the mourning period typically lasts two to four months depending on how closely related the individual was to the deceased .
= = = Dance and music = = =
The ceremonial dance music style most closely associated with the tromba among the Betsimisaraka is called basesa and is performed on accordion . The traditional basesa performed for tromba ceremonies uses kaiamba shakers to accentuate the rhythm ; lyrics are always sung in local Betsimisaraka dialect . The accompanying dance is performed with arms to the sides of the body and heavy foot movements . Contemporary basesa , which has been popularized across the island , is performed using a modern drum kit and electric guitar and bass with keyboard or accordion accompaniment , and the associated dance style has been influenced by dances performed to sega and kwassa kwassa music from Reunion Island . Basesa is also performed by the Antandroy , but among Betsimisaraka the style is performed significantly more slowly . Another major musical style specific to the region is valse , Malagasy interpretations of traditional European seafarers ' waltzes performed on accordion ; this genre is never performed during tromba ceremonies .
= = Language = =
The Betsimisaraka speak several dialects of the Malagasy language , which is a branch of the Malayo @-@ Polynesian language group derived from the Barito languages , spoken in southern Borneo .
= = Economy = =
The Betsimisaraka economy remains largely agricultural , with many cultivating vanilla and rice . Manioc , sweet potatoes , beans , taro , peanuts and a variety of greens are also commonly cultivated ; other staple crops include sugar cane , coffee , bananas , pineapples , avocado , breadfruit , mangoes , oranges and lychees . Cattle are not widely raised ; more commonly , the Betsimisaraka may catch and sell river crabs , shrimp and fish , small hedgehogs , various local insects or wild boar , birds and lemurs in the forest . They also produce and sell homemade sugarcane beer ( betsa ) and rum ( toaka ) . The production of spices for culinary use and for distillation into perfumes remains a major economic activity , with a perfume distillery located in Fenoarivo Atsinanana . Gold , garnet and other precious stones are also mined and exported from the Betsimisaraka region .
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= Derek Jeter =
Derek Sanderson Jeter ( / ˈdʒiːtər / JEE @-@ tər ) ( born June 26 , 1974 ) is an American former professional baseball shortstop who played 20 seasons in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) for the New York Yankees . A five @-@ time World Series champion , Jeter is regarded as a central figure of the Yankees ' success of the late 1990s and early 2000s for his hitting , baserunning , fielding , and leadership . He is the Yankees ' all @-@ time career leader in hits ( 3 @,@ 465 ) , doubles ( 544 ) , games played ( 2 @,@ 747 ) , stolen bases ( 358 ) , times on base ( 4 @,@ 716 ) , plate appearances ( 12 @,@ 602 ) and at bats ( 11 @,@ 195 ) . His accolades include 14 All @-@ Star selections , five Gold Glove Awards , five Silver Slugger Awards , two Hank Aaron Awards , and a Roberto Clemente Award . Jeter became the 28th player to reach 3 @,@ 000 hits and finished his career sixth all @-@ time in career hits and the all @-@ time MLB leader in hits by a shortstop .
The Yankees drafted Jeter out of high school in 1992 , and he debuted in the major leagues in 1995 . The following year , he became the Yankees ' starting shortstop , won the Rookie of the Year Award , and helped the team win the 1996 World Series . Jeter continued to contribute during the team 's championship seasons of 1998 – 2000 ; he finished third in voting for the American League ( AL ) Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) Award in 1998 , recorded multiple career @-@ high numbers in 1999 , and won both the All @-@ Star Game MVP and World Series MVP Awards in 2000 . He consistently placed among the AL leaders in hits and runs scored for most of his career , and served as the Yankees ' team captain from 2003 until his retirement in 2014 . Throughout his career , Jeter contributed reliably to the Yankees ' franchise successes . He holds many postseason records , and has a .321 batting average in the World Series . Jeter has earned the nicknames of " Captain Clutch " and " Mr. November " due to his outstanding play in the postseason .
Jeter is one of the most heavily marketed athletes of his generation and is involved in several product endorsements . His personal life and relationships with celebrities have drawn the attention of the media throughout his career . Teammates and opponents alike regard Jeter as a consummate professional and one of the best players of his generation .
= = Early life = =
Jeter was born in Pequannock Township , New Jersey , on June 26 , 1974 . His mother , Dorothy ( née Connors ) , an accountant , is of Irish , as well as some German and English , ancestry . His father , Sanderson Charles Jeter , Ph.D. , a substance abuse counselor , is African @-@ American . They met while serving in the United States Army in Germany . His father played baseball at Fisk University in Tennessee as a shortstop . When Jeter was a child , his parents made him sign a contract every year that defined acceptable and unacceptable forms of behavior . Dorothy instilled a positive attitude in her son , insisting that he not use the word " can 't " . It was a baseball family , and Jeter 's younger sister Sharlee ( born c . 1979 ) was a softball star in high school .
The Jeters lived in New Jersey until Derek was 4 years old , at which point they moved to Kalamazoo , Michigan . Jeter and Sharlee lived in Kalamazoo with their parents during the school year and spent their summers with their grandparents in New Jersey . Attending New York Yankees games with his grandparents , Jeter became a passionate fan of the team . Watching Yankees player Dave Winfield inspired him to pursue a career in baseball .
= = = High school = = =
Jeter attended Kalamazoo Central High School , where he ran cross country in the fall , played basketball in the winter and baseball in the spring . Jeter posted high batting averages for the school 's baseball team ; he batted .557 in his sophomore year and .508 as a junior . In his senior year , he batted .508 and compiled 23 runs batted in ( RBI ) , 21 walks , four home runs , a .637 on @-@ base percentage ( OBP ) , a .831 slugging percentage ( SLG ) , 12 stolen bases ( in 12 attempts ) , and only one strikeout .
Jeter received several honors after his senior season . These included an All @-@ State honorable mention , distinguishing him as one of the best high school baseball players in Michigan , the Kalamazoo Area B 'nai B 'rith Award for Scholar Athlete , the 1992 High School Player of the Year Award from the American Baseball Coaches Association , the 1992 Gatorade High School Player of the Year award , and USA Today 's High School Player of the Year . Kalamazoo Central High School inducted Jeter into its Athletic Hall of Fame in 2003 and renamed its baseball field in his honor in 2011 . Jeter 's baseball talents drew the attention of the University of Michigan , which offered him a baseball scholarship to attend and play college baseball for the Michigan Wolverines baseball team .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Draft = = =
As a scout for the Houston Astros , Hal Newhouser evaluated Jeter extensively before the 1992 MLB draft . The Astros held the first overall pick in the draft , and Newhouser , convinced that Jeter would anchor a winning team , lobbied team management to select him . The Astros feared that Jeter would insist on a salary bonus of at least $ 1 million to forgo his college scholarship for a professional contract , so they passed on him , instead choosing Cal State Fullerton outfielder Phil Nevin , who signed with Houston for $ 700 @,@ 000 . Newhouser felt so strongly about Jeter 's potential that he quit his job with the Astros in protest after they ignored his drafting advice .
The Yankees , who selected sixth , also rated Jeter highly . Yankees scout Dick Groch , assigned to scout in the Midwest , watched Jeter participate in an all @-@ star camp held at Western Michigan University . Though Yankees officials were concerned that Jeter would attend college instead of signing a professional contract , Groch convinced them to select him , saying , " the only place Derek Jeter 's going is to Cooperstown " . The second through fifth picks were Paul Shuey , B. J. Wallace ( who never played in the majors ) , Jeffrey Hammonds , and Chad Mottola ( 125 career MLB at @-@ bats and over 5 @,@ 000 at @-@ bats at AAA ) ; those five would combine for two All @-@ Star Game appearances ( Nevin and Hammonds ) . The Yankees drafted Jeter , who chose to turn pro , signing for $ 800 @,@ 000 .
= = = Minor leagues ( 1992 – 95 ) = = =
Jeter played four seasons in minor league baseball , then known as the National Association of Professional Baseball Leagues ( NAPBL ) . Jeter began the 1992 season with the Gulf Coast Yankees of the Rookie @-@ level Gulf Coast League , based in Tampa , Florida . In his first professional game , Jeter failed to get a hit in seven at @-@ bats , going 0 @-@ for @-@ 7 , while striking out five times . Jeter continued to struggle during the rest of the season , batting .202 in 47 games . Manager Gary Denbo benched Jeter in the season 's final game to ensure his average would not drop below .200 , known in baseball as the Mendoza Line . Frustrated by his lack of success and homesick , Jeter accrued $ 400 @-@ per @-@ month phone bills from daily calls to his parents .
The Yankees promoted Jeter to the Greensboro Hornets of the Class A South Atlantic League ( SAL ) to give him more at @-@ bats . He batted .247 in his first 11 games with Greensboro , and struggled defensively , making nine errors in 48 chances . Weighing 156 pounds ( 71 kg ) , Jeter had a scrawny appearance that did not match his reputation as the Yankees ' future leader . Jorge Posada and Andy Pettitte , who played for the Hornets that season , at first questioned the hype surrounding Jeter , but recognized his talent and poise .
Jeter focused the next offseason on his fielding . Baseball America rated Jeter among the top 100 prospects in baseball before the 1993 season , ranking him 44th . Returning to the Hornets in 1993 , his first full season of professional baseball , Jeter hit .295 with five home runs , 71 RBI and 18 stolen bases ; SAL managers voted him the " Most Outstanding Major League Prospect " in the league . He finished second in the SAL in triples ( 11 ) , third in hits ( 152 ) , and eleventh in batting average , and was named to the postseason All @-@ Star team . Jeter committed 56 errors , a SAL record . Despite this , he was voted the SAL 's Best Defensive Shortstop , Most Exciting Player , and Best Infield Arm by Baseball America .
Coming off his strong 1993 season , Baseball America rated Jeter as the 16th @-@ best prospect in baseball . Jeter played for the Tampa Yankees of the Class A @-@ Advanced Florida State League ( FSL ) , the Albany @-@ Colonie Yankees of the Class AA Eastern League , and the Columbus Clippers of the Class AAA International League during the 1994 season , combining to hit .344 with five home runs , 68 RBI , and steal 50 bases across the three levels . He was honored with the Minor League Player of the Year Award by Baseball America , The Sporting News , USA Today , and Topps / NAPBL . He was also named the most valuable player of the FSL .
Considered the fourth @-@ best prospect in baseball by Baseball America heading into the 1995 season , the Yankees projected Jeter as their starting shortstop . He suffered mild inflammation in his right shoulder in the Arizona Fall League after the conclusion of the 1994 regular season . As a precaution , the Yankees signed Tony Fernández to a two @-@ year contract . With Fernández the starting shortstop , the Yankees assigned Jeter to Class AAA . During the 1994 – 95 Major League Baseball strike , Gene Michael , the Yankees ' general manager , offered Jeter the opportunity to work out for the MLB team with replacement players in spring training before the 1995 season . Jeter denied receiving the offer , and did not cross the picket line .
= = = Major leagues ( 1995 – 2014 ) = = =
= = = = 1995 – 98 = = = =
Early in the 1995 season , Fernández and infielder Pat Kelly were injured . Consequently , Jeter made his MLB debut on May 29 , 1995 . Jeter was assigned uniform number 2 , which had been worn by Mike Gallego from 1992 to 1994 , one of only two single @-@ digit numbers available at the time . Batting ninth , he went hitless in five at bats , striking out once . The following day , he recorded his first two major league hits and scored his first two career runs . Jeter batted .250 and committed two errors in 13 games before being demoted to Class AAA Columbus ; Fernández replaced Jeter at shortstop . The Yankees advanced to the postseason in 1995 . Jeter traveled with the team during the 1995 American League Division Series ( ALDS ) , though he was not on the active roster . The Yankees lost to the Seattle Mariners .
After Fernández batted a disappointing .245 and appeared in only 108 games due to injuries in 1995 , newly hired Yankees manager Joe Torre asserted that Jeter would be the starting shortstop for the 1996 season , indicating that he hoped Jeter could bat .250 and be dependable defensively . Yankees owner George Steinbrenner , often skeptical of younger players , was not convinced . Clyde King , a close Steinbrenner advisor , observed Jeter for two days in spring training in 1996 , and came away with the impression that Jeter was not yet ready . To provide depth to the team at the shortstop position after an injury to Fernández , Steinbrenner approved a trade that would have sent pitcher Mariano Rivera to the Mariners for shortstop Félix Fermín , but Michael , by then the vice president of scouting , and assistant general manager Brian Cashman convinced Steinbrenner to give Jeter an opportunity .
Rated the sixth @-@ best prospect in baseball by Baseball America heading into the 1996 season , Jeter started on Opening Day , the first Yankee rookie to start as shortstop for the team since Tom Tresh in 1962 . He hit his first MLB home run that day . With his speed and ability to execute the hit and run , Jeter served as a complement to leadoff hitter Tim Raines while batting in the ninth spot in the batting order . Jeter had a successful rookie season , exceeding Torre 's expectations , as he hit for a .314 batting average , with 10 home runs , 104 runs scored , and 78 RBI . Receiving all 28 first @-@ place votes in the AL Rookie of the Year balloting , Jeter was the fifth unanimous choice for the award in its 50 @-@ year history .
The Yankees reached the 1996 postseason , and Torre batted Jeter in the leadoff spot in the lineup due to his strong performance . During Game 1 of the 1996 American League Championship Series ( ALCS ) , the Yankees trailed the Baltimore Orioles 4 – 3 in the 8th inning when Jeter hit a fly ball to right field that was ruled a home run by the umpires after twelve @-@ year @-@ old fan Jeffrey Maier reached over the wall to catch the ball . Though the ball would have remained in play if not for Maier , and could have been caught by Tony Tarasco , the home run stood as called , tying the game . It marked the first home run of Jeter 's postseason career . The Yankees won the game and defeated the Orioles in five games . Overall , Jeter batted .361 in the 1996 postseason , helping to lead the Yankees offensively with Bernie Williams , as Wade Boggs , Paul O 'Neill , and Tino Martinez struggled . The Yankees defeated the Atlanta Braves in the 1996 World Series to win their first championship since the 1978 World Series .
Following his Rookie of the Year campaign , Jeter headlined a group considered the " new crop " of shortstops , along with Alex Rodriguez and Nomar Garciaparra , as the careers of older shortstops such as Cal Ripken , Jr . , Barry Larkin , Ozzie Smith and Alan Trammell were concluding . Rodriguez , the first overall selection in the 1993 MLB draft , first contacted Jeter about his experiences as a high @-@ first round pick . The two became friends to the extent that The New York Times journalist Jack Curry commented " [ r ] arely have two higher @-@ profile opponents been as close " . Rodriguez described Jeter as being " like my brother " , even though they were on @-@ field adversaries .
Before the 1997 season , Jeter and the Yankees agreed on a $ 540 @,@ 000 contract with performance bonuses . Becoming the Yankees ' leadoff batter , Jeter batted .291 , with 10 home runs , 70 RBI , 116 runs , and 190 hits . Though he hit two home runs during the 1997 American League Division Series , the Yankees lost to the Cleveland Indians , three games to two .
Jeter earned $ 750 @,@ 000 for the 1998 season . That year , Jeter was selected for his first All @-@ Star Game . In the regular season , he batted .324 with a league @-@ leading 127 runs , 19 home runs , and 84 RBI , for a team that won 114 games during the regular season and is widely considered to be one of the greatest of all time . In the playoffs , Jeter hit only .176 in the 1998 ALDS and ALCS , but batted .353 in the World Series , as the Yankees defeated the San Diego Padres in four games . At season 's end , Jeter finished third in voting for the AL Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) Award .
= = = = 1999 – 2002 = = = =
Eligible for salary arbitration for the first time before the 1999 season , the arbitrator awarded Jeter a $ 5 million salary . Jeter led the AL in hits that season with 219 , while finishing second in the league in batting average ( .349 ) and runs scored ( 134 ) , appearing in his second All @-@ Star game that year . His season totals in batting average , runs , hits , runs batted in , doubles ( 37 ) , triples ( 9 ) , home runs ( 24 ) , SLG ( .552 ) , and OBP ( .438 ) are all personal bests . Jeter , who for part of the year hit third in the batting order , also drove in 102 runs , becoming only the second Yankee shortstop to do so , following Lyn Lary 's 107 RBI in 1931 . In the postseason , Jeter batted .455 in the ALDS , .350 in the ALCS , and .353 in the World Series , as the Yankees defeated the Braves to win another championship , Jeter 's third .
During the 1999 – 2000 offseason , the Yankees negotiated with Jeter , tentatively agreeing to a seven @-@ year , $ 118 @.@ 5 million contract . Steinbrenner did not want to set a record for the largest contract , and delayed a response while Juan González and the Detroit Tigers negotiated on a reported eight @-@ year , $ 143 million contract extension . When that agreement fell through , so did Jeter 's tentative deal . To avoid arbitration , Jeter and the Yankees agreed to a one @-@ year deal worth $ 10 million .
Jeter batted a team @-@ best .339 in the 2000 regular season and added 15 home runs , 73 RBI , 119 runs scored , and 22 stolen bases . In the 2000 MLB All @-@ Star Game , he recorded three hits , including a two @-@ run single that gave his team the lead and victory . The performance earned him the All @-@ Star Game MVP Award , the first time a Yankee won the award . During the postseason , he batted only .211 in the Division Series but rebounded to hit .318 in the Championship Series against the Seattle Mariners , and .409 in the World Series against the New York Mets . Jeter added two home runs , a triple , and two doubles in the World Series , including a leadoff home run on the first pitch of Game 4 and a triple later in the third inning . His home run in Game 5 tied the game and extended his World Series hitting streak to 14 games . The Yankees defeated the Mets in five games for their third consecutive title and fourth in Jeter 's first five full seasons . Jeter won the World Series MVP Award , becoming the only player to win the All @-@ Star Game MVP and World Series MVP Awards in the same season .
With one year remaining until he would become eligible for free agency , Jeter signed a ten @-@ year , $ 189 million contract before the 2001 season to remain with the Yankees . Alex Rodriguez had signed a ten @-@ year , $ 252 million contract with the Texas Rangers earlier in the offseason , setting the market for Jeter 's negotiations . Jeter became the second @-@ highest @-@ paid athlete across all team sports and auto racing , trailing only Rodriguez . The $ 18 @.@ 9 million average annual value of Jeter 's contract was the third @-@ highest in baseball , behind only Rodriguez ( $ 25 @.@ 2 million ) and Manny Ramirez ( $ 20 million ) .
In 2001 , Jeter posted another strong season , batting .311 with 21 home runs , 74 RBI , 110 runs scored , and 27 stolen bases , making his fourth All @-@ Star appearance . Jeter made a notable defensive assist in Game 3 of the 2001 American League Division Series against the Oakland Athletics . With Jeremy Giambi on first base , Oakland right fielder Terrence Long hit a double off Yankees pitcher Mike Mussina into the right @-@ field corner . As Giambi rounded third base and headed for home plate , Yankees right fielder Shane Spencer retrieved the ball and made a wild throw that missed cut @-@ off man Tino Martinez and dribbled down the first @-@ base line . Jeter ran from shortstop to grab the ball and flipped it backhanded to catcher Jorge Posada , rather than throwing it overhand . Posada tagged Giambi out on the leg just before he crossed home plate , preserving the Yankees ' one @-@ run lead . Facing elimination , the Yankees eventually won the game , as well as the series . The play , known as " The Flip " , was later voted seventh in Baseball Weekly 's 10 Most Amazing Plays of all time , and won the 2002 Best Play ESPY Award .
As a result of the September 11 attacks , the start of the playoffs was delayed and the season 's end was extended past the usual October timeframe . The Yankees advanced to the 2001 World Series to face the Arizona Diamondbacks . Game 4 marked the first time that any non @-@ exhibition MLB game had been played in the month of November . In extra innings , Jeter hit a game @-@ winning home run off of Byung @-@ Hyun Kim . The words " Mr. November " flashed on the scoreboard , alluding to former Yankee Reggie Jackson 's nickname , " Mr. October " . Despite the home run , Jeter slumped at the plate ; he denied injuries were a factor , though a fall into a photographer 's box trying to catch a foul ball may have aggravated an earlier hamstring injury . Jeter batted .148 in the World Series , as the Yankees lost in seven games .
Jeter batted .297 , with 18 home runs , 75 RBI , 124 runs scored , 191 hits , and a career @-@ best 32 stolen bases during the 2002 regular season . He led the majors in stolen base percentage ( 91 @.@ 4 % ) , getting caught only three times . He made his fifth All @-@ Star appearance . In the 2002 postseason , the Anaheim Angels defeated the Yankees in the ALDS on their way to winning the World Series .
= = = = 2003 – 08 = = = =
On Opening Day of the 2003 season , Jeter dislocated his left shoulder when he collided with Toronto Blue Jays catcher Ken Huckaby at third base . He was placed on the disabled list for six weeks and missed 36 games ; he had never played fewer than 148 games in the prior seven full seasons . Jeter returned to bat .324 , finishing third in batting average to Bill Mueller , who batted .326 . Ramirez finished second .
Steinbrenner named Jeter the captain of the Yankees on June 3 , 2003 , following eight seasons without a captain after Don Mattingly retired in 1995 . That postseason , Jeter batted .314 with two home runs , five RBI and 10 runs scored across 17 playoff games , including three hits in Game 3 of the 2003 World Series against the Florida Marlins – the only three hits Josh Beckett allowed during the game . Jeter committed a crucial error in a Game 6 loss , and the Marlins won the series in six games .
The Yankees acquired Rodriguez from the Texas Rangers during the 2003 – 04 offseason . Rodriguez had won two Gold Glove Awards at shortstop and was considered the best shortstop in baseball . Jeter — who had no Gold Gloves at the time — remained the team 's starting shortstop while Rodriguez moved to third base . Rodriguez 's fielding range allowed Jeter to cede ground to his right to Rodriguez and cheat to his left : fielding balls hit to his left is a weakness identified by scouts . The 2004 season began with Jeter mired in a slump , at one point getting only one hit in a span of 36 at @-@ bats ; through April , he batted .168 . His batting average improved to .277 by the All @-@ Star break in July .
Jeter made the All @-@ Star team and finished the season with a .292 average ; 23 home runs , the second @-@ most of his career ; 78 RBI ; 111 runs scored ; and a career @-@ best 44 doubles , which broke the Yankee single @-@ season record for doubles by a shortstop , besting Tony Kubek 's 38 in 1961 . He batted .316 with a team @-@ leading four RBI as the Yankees defeated the Minnesota Twins in the 2004 ALDS . Jeter struggled in the 2004 ALCS , batting .200 with one extra base hit , as the Yankees lost the series to the Red Sox in seven games , despite winning the first three games .
In the 12th inning of a tied game on July 1 , 2004 , against their rivals , the Boston Red Sox , Trot Nixon hit a pop fly down the left field line . Jeter ran from his position at shortstop and made an over @-@ the @-@ shoulder catch . He launched himself over the third @-@ base side railing and two rows of seats , receiving a lacerated chin and bruised face . The Yankees went on to win the game in the bottom of the 13th inning . This was voted the Play of the Year in the This Year in Baseball Awards competition , as voted on by fans at MLB.com. Following the 2004 season , Jeter was presented with his first Gold Glove Award ; his diving catch on July 1 was cited as a reason for the award . Though Jeter was fourth among shortstops in fielding percentage and errors , two traditional fielding statistics , critics pointed to his lower ratings in the more advanced sabermetric statistics , such as range factor and ultimate zone rating ( UZR ) .
Jeter was second in the AL in runs scored ( 122 ) in the 2005 season , and was third in the league in both at bats ( 654 ) and hits ( 202 ) . Though his critics continued to see Jeter as a liability defensively , he won his second consecutive Gold Glove in 2005 . Orlando Cabrera of the Angels had a higher fielding percentage and committed fewer errors , but voters noted that Jeter had more assists . Though Jeter batted .333 during the 2005 ALDS , the Yankees lost to the Angels .
For the 2006 season , the Yankees signed Johnny Damon to play center field and lead off , moving Jeter to the second position in the batting lineup . During the 2006 season , Jeter recorded his 2,000th career hit , becoming the eighth Yankee to reach the milestone . Jeter finished the season second in the AL in both batting average ( .343 ) and runs scored ( 118 ) , third in hits ( 214 ) , and fourth in OBP ( .417 ) , earning his seventh All @-@ Star selection . Jeter batted .500 with one home run in the 2006 ALDS , including a perfect 5 @-@ for @-@ 5 performance in Game 1 , making him the sixth player to record five hits in one postseason game . The Yankees lost to the Detroit Tigers , three games to one .
Many expected Jeter would win the AL MVP Award for 2006 . In a close vote , Jeter finished second in the voting to Justin Morneau of the Twins . It was his sixth top @-@ 10 finish in the MVP balloting in 11 full seasons through 2006 . Though he lost the MVP Award , he won the Hank Aaron Award , given for superior offensive performance . He also won his third consecutive Gold Glove Award .
Though the Yankees continued to struggle with postseason failures , Jeter remained a consistent contributor . During the 2007 season , Jeter was third in the AL with 203 hits , his third consecutive season and sixth overall , with at least 200 hits . He also finished ninth in batting average ( .322 ) . He was selected for his eighth All @-@ Star appearance . In the field , he was involved in turning a career @-@ high 104 double plays . He struggled during the 2007 ALDS , batting 3 @-@ for @-@ 17 ( .176 ) with one RBI , as the Indians defeated the Yankees .
Jeter hit his 400th career double on June 27 , 2008 , and his 200th home run on July 12 . Jeter 's slugging percentage ( SLG ) dropped to .410 in the 2008 season , his lowest mark since 1997 . His offense took an upward turn after May as he hit .322 with a .824 OPS after June 1 . Jeter was elected to his ninth All @-@ Star game as the starting shortstop . He finished the season with a .300 batting average .
Jeter tied Lou Gehrig 's record for hits at Yankee Stadium ( 1 @,@ 269 ) with a home run off Tampa Bay Rays pitcher David Price on September 14 , 2008 . On September 16 , he broke the record against Chicago White Sox pitcher Gavin Floyd . The Yankees were eliminated from postseason contention , the only full season in Jeter 's career where he did not compete in the playoffs . Following the final game in Yankee Stadium history , Jeter made a speech at the request of the Yankees , thanking the Yankees fans for their support — a moment later voted by fans as the Moment of the Year in MLB.com 's This Year in Baseball Awards :
From all of us up here , it 's a huge honor to put this uniform on every day and come out here and play . Every member of this organization , past and present , has been calling this place home for 85 years . There 's a lot of tradition , a lot of history and a lot of memories . The great thing about memories is you 're able to pass them along from generation to generation . Although things are going to change next year and we 're going to move across the street , there are a few things with the New York Yankees that never change . That 's pride , tradition and most of all , we have the greatest fans in the world . We 're relying on you to take the memories from this stadium and add them to the new memories we make at the new Yankee Stadium and continue to pass them on from generation to generation . We just want to take this moment to salute you , the greatest fans in the world .
= = = = 2009 – 13 = = = =
For the 2009 season , Yankees manager Joe Girardi switched Jeter and Damon in the batting order , with Damon moving to second and Jeter to the leadoff role . Jeter batted .334 , third @-@ best in the AL , with a .406 OBP , 18 home runs , 30 stolen bases in 35 attempts , 107 runs scored , and 212 hits ( second in MLB ) . Defensively , Jeter committed a career @-@ low eight errors , and his .986 fielding percentage was his career best . The addition of Gold Glove @-@ winning first baseman Mark Teixeira allowed second baseman Robinson Canó to shift his focus to his right , helping Jeter . During the season , the Sporting News named Jeter eighth on their list of the 50 greatest current players in baseball .
Jeter achieved two career hit milestones in the second half of the 2009 season . On August 16 , 2009 , against the Seattle Mariners , Jeter doubled down the right @-@ field line for his 2,675th hit as a shortstop , breaking Luis Aparicio 's previous major league record . Then , Jeter became the all @-@ time hits leader as a member of the Yankees ( 2 @,@ 722 ) , passing Lou Gehrig on September 11 , 2009 . The hit was a single off Baltimore Orioles pitcher Chris Tillman in the third inning .
In the 2009 postseason , Jeter batted .355 , including .407 in the 2009 World Series , as he won his fifth World Series championship . He was named Sportsman of the Year for 2009 by Sports Illustrated , and won the Roberto Clemente Award , Hank Aaron Award , and his fourth Gold Glove Award . Jeter also finished third in the AL MVP voting , behind Minnesota 's Joe Mauer and Yankee teammate Mark Teixeira . It was also the fifth championship for Pettitte , Posada , and Rivera , who along with Jeter were referred to as the " Core Four " .
In 2010 , Jeter , along with Posada and Rivera , became the first trio of teammates in any of the four major league sports in North America ( MLB , NFL , NBA , or NHL ) to play in at least 16 consecutive seasons on the same team as teammates . The 2010 season was statistically Jeter 's worst in many respects . The Yankee captain batted .270 with a .340 OBP and .370 SLG , all career lows , as he hit more ground balls than usual . Despite this , Jeter was elected to start at shortstop in the All @-@ Star Game . He rebounded to bat .342 in his last 79 at @-@ bats after making adjustments to his swing with the help of Kevin Long , the Yankees hitting coach , who had successfully helped Nick Swisher and Curtis Granderson make adjustments that improved their production . With Long , Jeter changed the way he strode with his left leg . Following the season , Jeter won his fifth Gold Glove award . Jeter committed six errors during the season , his lowest total in 15 full seasons .
After the 2010 season , Jeter became a free agent for the first time in his career . At age 36 , Jeter appeared to be in decline ; Joe Sheehan of Baseball Prospectus suggested that Jeter , once a " good , not great " shortstop , had declined to become " below average " defensively , to the extent that he would likely need to change positions ; Cashman later acknowledged that Jeter might need to shift to the outfield . Though Jeter stated that he wanted to remain with the Yankees , negotiations became tense . Jeter 's agent , Casey Close , stated that he was " baffled " by the Yankees ' approach to the negotiations , and Cashman , now the team 's general manager , responded publicly that Jeter should test the open market to ascertain his value , which angered Jeter . According to reports , Jeter initially sought a four @-@ year contract worth between $ 23 million and $ 25 million per season . He reached an agreement with the Yankees on a three @-@ year contract for $ 51 million with an option for a fourth year . He spent the offseason working with Long on adjustments to his swing .
The adjustments left Jeter frustrated , as he batted .242 in the first month of the 2011 season . As he struggled , it appeared that the 2011 season was the continuation of Jeter 's decline . Jeter broke Rickey Henderson 's franchise record for stolen bases when he stole his 327th base against the Mariners on May 28 , 2011 . He suffered a calf injury on June 13 that required his fifth stint on the 15 @-@ day disabled list , and his first since 2003 . At that point , he was batting .260 for the 2011 season with a .649 OPS . Rehabilitating from his injury in Tampa , Jeter worked on his swing with Denbo , his former minor league manager . With Denbo , Jeter returned to the mechanics he used in his minor league days . Following his activation from the disabled list , he hit .326 with an .806 OPS in his last 64 games of the season . Jeter finished the year with a .297 batting average , 6 home runs , 61 runs batted in , 84 runs , and 16 stolen bases . He credited the turnaround to his work with Denbo ; Long acknowledged that his attempt to adjust Jeter 's swing did not work .
On July 9 , 2011 , Jeter recorded his 3,000th career hit , a home run off of David Price of the Tampa Bay Rays . Jeter finished the day with five hits in five at @-@ bats , the second player to have five hits on the day he achieved his 3,000th hit ( the first was Craig Biggio ) . He also became the second player to hit a home run for his 3,000th hit , Wade Boggs having done so in 1999 . The last of Jeter 's five hits proved to be the game @-@ winning hit . He is the only member of the 3 @,@ 000 hit club to record all of his hits with the New York Yankees , and the only player to join the club as a Yankee . Jeter became the second player to reach 3 @,@ 000 career hits while still a regular shortstop ( the first was Honus Wagner ) . Only Ty Cobb , Hank Aaron , and Robin Yount were younger than Jeter on the day of their 3,000th hit . MLB and HBO produced Deter Jeter 3K , a documentary that profiled his path to 3 @,@ 000 hits and originally aired on July 28 , 2011 .
Fatigued from the stress of chasing 3 @,@ 000 career hits and wanting to rest his calf , Jeter opted not to attend the 2011 MLB All @-@ Star Game . Jeter and Posada played their 1,660th game together on July 14 , 2011 , breaking the previous franchise record of 1 @,@ 659 by Gehrig and Tony Lazzeri . Jeter played his 2,402nd game with the Yankees on August 29 , 2011 , breaking Mickey Mantle 's record for most games played as a Yankee . He finished the 2011 season with 162 hits , his 16th consecutive season with 150 hits , which tied him with Pete Rose for the second @-@ most consecutive 150 @-@ hit seasons , one behind Hank Aaron for the MLB record . Jeter was honored with the Lou Gehrig Memorial Award , given in recognition of charitable endeavors .
Despite continuing concerns about his age , the beginning of the 2012 season saw Jeter on a hot streak : he batted .411 through April 23 . Rodriguez commented that Jeter is playing as he did in 1999 , while Girardi said Jeter looks like he is 25 years old . In the 2012 MLB All @-@ Star Game , Jeter recorded his eleventh All @-@ Star hit , passing Mantle for the most All @-@ Star Game hits in Yankees history . Jeter went 1 @-@ for @-@ 2 in the game , moving into fourth all @-@ time with a .458 average among players with a minimum of 12 plate appearances in the All @-@ Star Game .
Jeter finished the 2012 season with the most hits in MLB ( 216 ) . Against the Tampa Bay Rays on September 14 of that year , he moved into the Top 10 on the all @-@ time hit list , surpassing Willie Mays by beating out an infield single for his 3,284th career hit . After hitting .364 in the 2012 ALDS , Jeter fractured his left ankle during Game 1 of the 2012 ALCS against the Detroit Tigers reaching for a ground ball , an injury which ended his season . Jeter had received a cortisone shot to treat a bone bruise in his left foot in September , which could have contributed to the break . Jeter had surgery on his broken left ankle on October 20 , with an expected recovery time of four to five months .
While rehabilitating , Jeter suffered a small crack in the area of his previous ankle fracture . As a result , Jeter began the 2013 season on the disabled list . The Yankees activated Jeter on July 11 , but after playing in one game , Jeter returned to the disabled list with a quadriceps strain . He returned to the Yankees lineup on July 28 , hitting a home run on the first pitch off of Matt Moore of Tampa Bay . Jeter was again placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list on August 5 due to a Grade 1 calf strain , and after a brief return to the lineup , he was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list for a third time on September 11 due to problems with his ankle , ending his season . On September 14 , 2013 Jeter was transferred to the 60 @-@ day disabled list . Jeter batted .190 in only 17 games played during the 2013 season .
= = = = Final season ( 2014 ) = = = =
Jeter re @-@ signed with the Yankees on a one @-@ year , $ 12 million contract for the 2014 season . Jeter announced on his Facebook page on February 12 , 2014 , that the 2014 season would be his last . During his final season , each opposing team honored Jeter with a gift during his final visit to their city , which has included donations to Jeter 's charity , the Turn 2 Foundation .
On July 10 , Jeter recorded his 1,000th career multi @-@ hit game , becoming the fourth player to do so . He was elected to start at shortstop in the 2014 All @-@ Star Game , and batted leadoff for the AL . Jeter went 2 for 2 , scored one run and received two standing ovations in the four innings he played at the 2014 All @-@ Star Game . As a result , Jeter 's .481 career All @-@ Star batting average ( 13 for 27 ) ranked him fifth all @-@ time ( among players with at least 10 at @-@ bats ) . At 40 , Jeter also became the oldest player to have two or more hits in an All @-@ Star Game . In July , Jeter broke Omar Vizquel 's MLB career record of 2 @,@ 609 games started at shortstop , and Gehrig 's franchise career record of 534 doubles . On July 17 , Derek scored the 1,900th run of his career becoming the 10th player in MLB history to do so . Jeter passed Carl Yastrzemski for seventh place on MLB 's all @-@ time career hit list on July 28 and on August 11 he passed Honus Wagner climbing to sixth on the all @-@ time hits list .
The Yankees honored Jeter with a pregame tribute on September 7 . Beginning with that day 's game , the Yankees wore a patch on their hats and uniforms honoring Jeter for the remainder of the season . In the final week of Jeter 's career , MLB Commissioner Bud Selig honored him as the 15th recipient of the Commissioner 's Historic Achievement Award for being " one of the most accomplished shortstops of all @-@ time " .
During Jeter 's final series at Yankee Stadium , Louisville Slugger announced they would retire their " P72 " model baseball bat , the bat Jeter uses , though it will be sold under the name " DJ2 " , in Jeter 's honor . The average ticket price for Jeter 's final home game , on September 25 , reached $ 830 on the secondary market . In his final game at Yankee Stadium , Jeter hit a walk @-@ off single against Orioles pitcher Evan Meek to win the game , 6 – 5 .
Jeter decided to play exclusively as the designated hitter in the final series of his career , at Fenway Park in Boston , so that his final memories of playing shortstop would be at Yankee Stadium . The Red Sox honored Jeter with a pregame ceremony including Red Sox retired stars Carl Yastrzemski , Jim Rice , Fred Lynn , Luis Tiant and Rico Petrocelli , the Boston Bruins ' Bobby Orr , New England Patriots receiver Troy Brown and the Boston Celtics ' Paul Pierce , while many Boston fans at Fenway Park loudly cheered for Jeter and gave him a standing ovation . In his final at @-@ bat , he hit an RBI infield single against Clay Buchholz , before being substituted for pinch runner Brian McCann ; he received an ovation from the Red Sox fans as he exited the field .
= = = World Baseball Classic = = =
Jeter started at shortstop for the United States national baseball team in the 2006 World Baseball Classic . He hit 9 @-@ for @-@ 20 ( .450 ) and scored five runs in six games . Only teammate Ken Griffey , Jr . ( .524 ) and Cuba 's Yoandy Garlobo ( .480 ) had a higher batting average with a minimum of 20 at @-@ bats . Jeter 's play earned him recognition as the shortstop selection on the All @-@ Tournament Team .
In the 2009 World Baseball Classic , Jeter again started at shortstop . He was named captain of the United States team by manager Davey Johnson , and he batted 8 @-@ for @-@ 29 ( .276 ) in eight games . Jeter and the United States team faced the Yankees at Steinbrenner Field in an exhibition game , the only time Jeter played against the Yankees .
= = Player profile = =
Jeter is considered to be one of the most consistent baseball players of all time . He played fewer than 145 games a season only three times in his career : when he dislocated his left shoulder on Opening Day 2003 ( 119 games ) , when he injured his calf in 2011 ( 131 games ) , and in 2013 when he struggled with a myriad of injuries ( 17 games ) . For his career , he averaged 204 hits , 113 runs scored and 21 stolen bases per 162 games . He is currently 6th on the all @-@ time hits list in Major League Baseball history . Highly competitive , Jeter once said , " If you 're going to play at all , you 're out to win . Baseball , board games , playing Jeopardy ! , I hate to lose . " Seen as one of the best players of his generation , sportswriters believe that Jeter will be inducted on the 1st ballot into the Baseball Hall of Fame following his retirement , and could be a unanimous selection .
An aggressive hitter , Jeter swings at most pitches in the strike zone , and many near it . Though right @-@ handed hitters often pull the ball into left field , Jeter 's signature inside @-@ out swing , dubbed the " Jeterian Swing " , results in most of his hits going to center and right field . Similarly , most of his home runs have been hit to right field than to center or to left , as his swing takes advantage of Yankee Stadium 's close right @-@ field fences .
Jeter is also known for his professionalism . In an age where professional athletes often find themselves in personal scandals , Jeter has mostly avoided major controversy in a high profile career in New York City while maintaining a strong work ethic . Due to his style of play , opponents and teammates hold Jeter in high esteem . A clubhouse leader , Jeter defuses confrontations between teammates .
= = = Postseason performance = = =
Jeter is noted for his postseason performances , and has earned the titles of " Captain Clutch " , and " Mr. November " due to his outstanding postseason play . He has a career .309 postseason batting average , and a .321 batting average in the World Series . Except for 2008 , 2013 and 2014 , the Yankees have been to the postseason every year since Jeter joined the team . Jeter holds MLB postseason records for games played ( 158 ) , plate appearances ( 734 ) , at @-@ bats ( 650 ) , hits ( 200 ) , singles ( 143 ) , doubles ( 32 ) , triples ( 5 ) , runs scored ( 111 ) , total bases ( 302 ) and strikeouts ( 135 ) . Jeter is also third in home runs ( 20 ) , fourth in runs batted in ( 61 ) , fifth in base on balls ( 66 ) and sixth in stolen bases ( 18 ) .
= = = Defense = = =
Jeter has won five Gold Glove Awards , trailing only Vizquel , Ozzie Smith , Luis Aparicio , Dave Concepción , and Mark Belanger for most by a shortstop . He is credited with positioning himself well and for a quick release when he throws the ball . One of his signature defensive plays is the " jump @-@ throw " , by which he leaps and throws to first base while moving towards third base .
Despite this , Jeter 's defense has been the subject of criticism from a number of sabermetricians , including Rob Neyer and the publication Baseball Prospectus . The 2006 book The Fielding Bible by John Dewan contains an essay by Bill James in which he concludes that Jeter " was probably the most ineffective defensive player in the major leagues , at any position " over his entire career . A 2008 study by researchers at the University of Pennsylvania found that , from 2002 through 2005 , Jeter was the worst defensive shortstop in MLB . Two sites that rely on advanced defensive statistics , FanGraphs.com and FieldingBible.com , rated Jeter below middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ pack status in 2010 , despite his receiving his fifth Gold Glove Award that season .
Jeter committed 18 errors in 2007 , his highest total since finishing with 24 in 2000 . After the season , Cashman and his staff saw Jeter 's defense as an area that needed to be addressed . At the Yankees ' request , Jeter embarked on a rigorous training program to combat the effects of age , by focusing on lateral movement and first @-@ step quickness . Jeter 's ultimate zone rating ( UZR ) improved from worst in the AL for shortstops in 2007 to close to league average in 2008 .
When asked to respond to criticism of his defense , Jeter replied : " I play in New York , man . Criticism is part of the game , you take criticism as a challenge . " Jeter further asserted that many defensive factors cannot be quantified . The controversy over Jeter 's fielding has become a flash point for the debate over whether the analyses of statistics or subjective observation is the better method to assess a player 's defensive ability , and for criticism of the Gold Glove Award .
= = Personal life = =
Jeter maintains homes in Marlboro Township , New Jersey ; Greenwood Lake , New York ; and the Davis Islands neighborhood of Tampa , Florida . He previously owned a penthouse apartment in Manhattan 's Trump World Tower . Regarding his official residence , Jeter settled a tax dispute with the New York State Department of Taxation and Finance in 2008 . New York State alleged that Jeter should have paid state income tax from 2001 to 2003 , as Jeter resided in the Manhattan apartment he bought in 2001 ; Jeter claimed to have established his residence in Tampa , Florida , in 1994 and that he was still a resident of Florida at the time . Florida has no state income tax .
Jeter 's personal life has been a frequent topic in gossip columns and celebrity magazines since his rookie year in 1996 . He had a well @-@ publicized relationship with singer Mariah Carey from 1997 to 1998 . Jeter also had a relationship with model Vida Guerra . Jeter has also dated former Miss Universe Lara Dutta , singer Joy Enriquez , television personality Vanessa Minnillo , and the actresses Jordana Brewster , Jessica Biel , Minka Kelly , and model Hannah Davis .
In December 2002 , Yankees owner George Steinbrenner criticized Jeter for staying out until 3 a.m. at a birthday party during the 2002 season , saying that his star shortstop " wasn 't totally focused " and that " it didn 't sit well " with him . The two mocked the incident in a May 2003 VISA commercial , similar to the manner in which Steinbrenner and former Yankees manager Billy Martin made light of their feud in a Miller Lite commercial during the 1970s .
Jeter and Davis became engaged in 2015 . She bought Jeter an Italian Mastiff named Kane for Christmas in 2014 . Jeter never had pets as a child , and attributed his fear of dogs to the movie Cujo . In July 2016 , Jeter and Davis were married .
= = Business interests = =
During his injury @-@ shortened 2013 season , Jeter arranged a partnership with Simon & Schuster to form an imprint called Jeter Publishing . He called it " the blueprint for postcareer " . It will begin publishing nonfiction books for adults , children 's picture books , elementary grade fiction , and books for children who are learning to read , and could lead to film and television productions .
On October 1 , 2014 , Jeter 's new website , ThePlayersTribune.com , appeared online ; it was billed as " a new media platform that will present the unfiltered voice of professional athletes , bringing fans closer to the games they love than ever before " . It was reported by the Tampa Bay Business Journal in March 2015 that Jeter had partnered with Concessions Tampa to bid for a space within the Tampa International Airport , and plans to open a restaurant named after his website .
Jeter also serves as a brand development officer for Luvo Inc . , and has investment interests in multi @-@ channel video network company , Whistle Sports Network . He explored purchasing the Buffalo Bills football team in 2014 .
= = Appearances outside of baseball = =
= = = Philanthropy = = =
Jeter created the Turn 2 Foundation , a charitable organization , in 1996 . It was established to help children and teenagers avoid drug and alcohol addiction , and to reward those who show high academic achievement . In 2012 , Jeter received an honorary doctorate from Siena College honoring him for his foundation 's work .
Jeter also serves as an ambassador for Weplay , a website designed to encourage children to get involved in sports .
= = = Endorsements = = =
Jeter has appeared in national ad campaigns for Nike , Gatorade , Fleet Bank , Ford , VISA , Discover Card , Florsheim , Gillette , Skippy , and XM Satellite Radio . He endorses a cologne named Driven , designed in collaboration with and distributed by Avon . Jeter has his own Jumpman shoe . To commemorate Jeter 's final year , the Jordan brand made a tribute commercial titled " # RE2PECT " , which had many baseball players ( such as Jon Lester ) and celebrities , even rival Boston Red Sox fans tip their caps .
In 2006 , Jeter was the second @-@ highest paid endorser in baseball , behind Ichiro Suzuki , who received endorsement deals in Japan . He was ranked as the most marketable player in baseball according to the 2003 , 2005 , and 2010 Sports Business Surveys . A 2011 list by the marketing firm Nielsen ranked Jeter as the most marketable player in baseball , accounting for personal attributes such as sincerity , approachability , experience , and influence .
= = = Other appearances = = =
Jeter has appeared on television as a guest actor in the sitcom Seinfeld in the episode titled , " The Abstinence " and Saturday Night Live , a late @-@ night live television sketch comedy and variety show , in episode 7 during season 27 . He had cameo appearances in the comedy films Anger Management and The Other Guys . Jeter was the subject of a 2005 segment on the TV news magazine 60 Minutes and a 2014 episode of Finding Your Roots , a Public Broadcasting Service ( PBS ) public television series . Jeter also appears as a character in the Broadway play Bronx Bombers . Jeter made an appearance alongside Peyton Manning to celebrate Saturday Night Live 's 40th Anniversary in February 2015 .
Video games have featured Jeter on their cover , including 2K Sports ' MLB 2K5 , MLB 2K6 , and MLB 2K7 , Acclaim Entertainment 's All @-@ Star Baseball series of video games , and Gameloft 's wireless phone baseball game , Derek Jeter Pro Baseball 2008 . A wax figure immortalizes Jeter at the Madame Tussauds Wax Museum in New York , and a sculpture at the Louisville Slugger Museum & Factory in Louisville , Kentucky .
= = Career highlights = =
= = = Awards = = =
In 2015 , Jeter was inducted into the New Jersey Hall of Fame .
= = = Statistical highlights = = =
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= Chroogomphus vinicolor =
Chroogomphus vinicolor , commonly known as the wine @-@ cap Chroogomphus or the pine spike , is a species of mushroom in the family Gomphidiaceae . Found in North America and the Dominican Republic , mushrooms grow on the ground under pine trees . Fruit bodies have reddish @-@ brown , shiny caps up to 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) wide atop tapered stems up to 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) long . The gills are thick , initially pale orange before turning blackish , and extend a short way down the length of the stem . Although the mushroom is edible , and sold in local markets in Mexico , it is not highly rated . Distinguishing this species from some other similar Chroogomphus species is difficult , as their morphology is similar , and cap coloration is too variable to be a reliable characteristic . C. vinicolor is differentiated from the European C. rutilus and the North American C. ochraceus by the thickness of its cystidial walls .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described as Gomphidius vinicolor in 1898 by American mycologist Charles Horton Peck , based on specimens collected near Lake Mohonk in Ulster County , New York . Peck noted a resemblance to Gomphidius roseus , which he thought was closely related . It was transferred to the newly created genus Chroogomphus by Orson K. Miller , Jr. in 1964 .
Molecular analysis of internal transcribed spacer DNA sequences shows that C. vinicolor groups in a clade with the closely related C. jamaicensis and C. pseudovinicolor . All of these species feature darkly @-@ amyloid flesh and thick @-@ walled cystidia . Based on this analysis , Miller considered C. jamaicensis to be insufficiently distinct genetically from C. vinicolor to warrant designation as a separate species ; however , as of 2012 , both MycoBank and Index Fungorum list it as a valid species .
The specific epithet vinicolor means " wine @-@ colored " . It is commonly known as the " wine @-@ cap Chroogomphus " or the " pine spike " .
= = Description = =
The fruit body of C. vinicolor has caps that are initially conical to convex before later flattening out , sometimes developing a small umbo , or a central depression ; the caps measure 2 – 10 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) wide . Its color is highly variable , ranging from wine @-@ red to reddish @-@ brown to orange @-@ brown or yellow @-@ brown . Wine @-@ red stains develop where the surface has dried or become rotten . The smooth cap surface is shiny , somewhat sticky when wet , and often radially streaked . The flesh is thick and orangish to ochraceous in color ; its taste and odor have been variously described as " not distinctive " or " pleasant " . The thick gills are decurrent ( attached to and extending a short ways down the stem ) , well spaced , ochraceous buff to pale orange when young , but turning to blackish after the spores mature . In his original description , Peck noted that the gills , when viewed with a hand lens , " appear velvety due to the abundant spores " . The fruit bodies are initially covered with a thin , web @-@ like partial veil that soon disappears as the cap expands . The cylindrical stem measures 2 @.@ 5 – 15 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) long by 0 @.@ 2 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick , and taper towards the base . It is ochraceous to wine red or reddish @-@ brown with a dry , smooth to fibrillose surface . The partial veil sometimes leaves an indistinct , thin fibrous ring on the upper stem .
The spore print is greyish @-@ black . Spores are narrowly elliptical to spindle @-@ shaped , smooth , and measure 17 – 23 by 4 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 5 μm . The cystidia are somewhat spindle @-@ shaped or narrowly club @-@ shaped , and measure 112 – 164 by 13 – 20 µm . They have characteristically thick walls , up to 7 @.@ 5 µm wide in the middle portion .
Although the mushroom is edible , and is often free of insect damage , it is not highly recommended , " except as " fillers " to include with the more flavorful species " . The flavor may improve with drying . C. vinicolor mushrooms are sold in local markets at Tetela del Volcan in the state of Morelos , Mexico . There is a report of this species causing a contact sensitivity , in which an individual who had handled the mushroom developed a burning sensation in the eyes and an itchy rash on the eyelid after rubbing the eyes .
= = = Similar species = = =
Two other Chroogomphus species with a morphology and coloration similar to C. vinicolor include C. rutilus and C. ochraceous . C. vinicolor is most reliably distinguished from these on the basis of having thick @-@ walled cystidia ( up to 5 – 7 @.@ 5 μm at the widest part ) . The other two species have been separated on the basis of color , with C. ochraceous having brighter colors ( yellowish @-@ orange to ochraceous ) than C. rutilus . Molecular analyses of European and North American collections suggest that C. rutilus is restricted to Europe , C. ochraceous only occurs in North America , and that cap coloration cannot be reliably used for species determination .
Another nearly identical species is C. jamaicensis , found in the Dominican Republic , Jamaica , and the Greater Antilles . It is distinguished microscopically by its slightly smaller spores measuring 17 – 20 by 4 @.@ 5 – 6 μm , cystidia with more uniformly thickened walls up to 5 μm thick , and cuticular hyphae that measure 2 – 5 μm wide . The fruit bodies of C. pseudovinicolor are more robust , with wooly or scaly reddish stems up to 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick . Further , this species tends to produce spore prints that are greener than those of C. vinicolor .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The mycorrhizal fungus sometimes fruits singly , but more often in scattered or groups on the ground under pines and other conifers . Fruiting usually occurs in the cooler weather of later summer and autumn . In coastal California , however , fruiting occurs in winter . It is often found near Suillus luteus and Suillus brevipes , and is known to parasitize the mycelium of both those and the truffle @-@ like Rhizopogon species . Chroogomphus vinicolor has a widespread range in North America , extending south to Mexico . It has also been recorded from the Dominican Republic .
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= Millepora alcicornis =
Millepora alcicornis , or sea ginger , is a species of colonial fire coral with a calcareous skeleton . It is found on shallow water coral reefs in the tropical west Atlantic Ocean . It shows a variety of different morphologies depending on its location . It feeds on plankton and derives part of its energy requirements from microalgae found within its tissues . It is an important member of the reef building community and subject to the same threats as other corals . It can cause painful stings to unwary divers .
= = Taxonomy = =
Millepora alcicornis is not a true coral in class Anthozoa but is in class Hydrozoa , and is more closely related to jellyfish than stony corals . Because of the variability in growth habit that this coral exhibits , it has been the subject of much confusion as to its taxonomy , being described under a number of different names from different localities . In 1898 , Hickson decided that the variations in morphology were due to environmental factors and that Millepora alcicornis was the valid name for all these species . This conclusion has since been questioned .
The species was first described by Linnaeus in 1758 , but his type locality is unknown . The scientific name comes from the Latin with Millepora meaning " thousand @-@ pored " and alcicornis meaning " elk @-@ horned " . It seems likely that the type locality is in fact the West Indies . Explaining this in 1941 Crossland wrote " I cannot resist the remark that the one thing quite certain about the many forms of Millepora is that none of them have any resemblance to an elk 's horn , except perhaps that from the West Indies " .
= = Description = =
The morphology of Millepora alcicornis is very variable . Most colonies probably start as encrusting forms and adopt a branching structure as they grow . The encrustations can become established on a variety of structures , not only on coral reefs and rocks but also on dead corals and the hulls of wrecked ships . Later development is in the form of plates or blades in habitats with much water movement such as the surf @-@ pounded outer edges of reefs . In calmer waters , such as in deep lagoons or more sheltered parts of the reef , a more upright , leafy or branched structure develops which can grow to 50 centimetres ( 20 in ) tall . The habit of growth is also influenced by the inclination of the surface on which the fire coral grows . On vertical surfaces , the encrusting bases are larger with longer perimeters and the density of branching is lower than it is on horizontal surfaces . The cylindrical branches usually grow in a single plane and span a range of hues from brown to pale , cream @-@ like yellow , while branch tips are white .
Embedded in the calcareous skeleton are numerous microscopic polyps . They are connected internally by a system of canals and are concealed behind pores in the skeleton , the surface of which is smooth and lacks the corallites of true stony corals . The polyps have specialist functions , the gastrozooids processing and digesting the food caught by the dactylzooids which are grouped around them . The gastrozooids are small and plump and extend four to six tentacle stubs through their pores but are otherwise invisible . The dactylzooids have hairlike tentacles covered in cnidoblasts . Stings from the cnidocysts immobilize an item of prey and the tentacles thrust it through the mouth of an adjacent gastrozooid , from where it passes into the stomach for digestion . The polyps also extrude the coenosteum , the calcareous material of which the skeleton is composed . The coenosteum contains certain symbiotic microalgae called zooxanthellae . These are photosynthetic organisms which provide their hosts with energy and in return benefit from a protective environment in a well lit position . About 75 % of the fire coral 's energy requirements are provided by the zooxanthellae .
= = Distribution = =
Millepora alcicornis is found in the Caribbean Sea , the Gulf of Mexico , Florida , the Cape Verde Islands and along the coast of Central and South America as far south as Brazil . It has also been found in Bermuda , but the morphology at that location is so different from that in the rest of its range that it may be a distinct species . It grows at depths of up to 40 metres ( 130 ft ) and is the only fire coral that often grows at depths greater than 10 metres ( 33 ft ) .
= = Biology = =
Millepora alcicornis feeds on plankton . The tentacles of the dactylzooids are normally extended all the time . If an object is waved about above the coral , it will cause the tentacles to retract and then the coral can be handled without experiencing the painful stings caused by the cnidocytes .
Reproduction is by either asexual or sexual means . Parts of the coral may get detached from the colony by a storm or other means , and some of these fragments may end up in suitable locations to grow into new colonies which will be genetically identical to the parent colony . This fragmentation is probably the most frequent method of reproduction . Alternatively , certain pores called ampullae contain polyps that bud off short @-@ lived , jellyfish @-@ like medusae , which separate from the colony . They produce gametes which , after fertilisation , develop into planula larvae . These drift with the currents as part of the zooplankton before settling out and developing into new colonies .
= = Ecology = =
A number of species of shrimp and fish take refuge among the branches of Millepora alcicornis , seemingly immune to the venom . Hawkfish in particular often perch on top of the fire coral , perhaps protected by their skinless pectoral fins . Perhaps unsurprisingly , Millepora alcicornis has few predators . The fireworm ( Hermodice carunculata ) sometimes grazes on it , but prefers other corals . Certain nudibranchs in the genus Phyllidia eat it as do filefish in the family Monacanthidae .
It has been found that when Millepora alcicornis grows in close proximity to an arborescent gorgonian sea fan , the fire coral becomes aggressive . It produces " attack " branches which grow out sideways towards the sea fan , develop into hand @-@ like structures and encircle and smother it . The fire coral then uses it as a substrate for new growth . Sometimes this new growth gets separated from the parent colony , and a new colony of fire coral is formed , genetically identical to the original one . This aggressive action is specific to gorgonians and does not happen in response to the close presence of other live or dead corals , other sessile invertebrates or open water . The fire coral seems to be able to detect the gorgonian 's presence as a result of water flowing over the surfaces of both .
= = Threats = =
Although not a true coral , Millepora alcicornis is subject to the same general threats that corals and coral reefs are facing . The greatest of these is global warming and the consequent rise in sea temperatures . Millepora alcicornis is one of the first corals to show bleaching as the symbiont zooxanthellae are killed . However , it is also more resilient than most and becomes re @-@ established by recruitment earlier than the scleractinian corals . Other general threats to reefs include ocean acidification , pollution , sedimentation , invasive species and other changes in species dynamics , coral diseases , fisheries , leisure activities and tourism . Small quantities of Millepora alcicornis are gathered for sale to collectors .
= = Human interactions = =
The cnidocytes of Millepora alcicornis are powerful enough to sting human skin . They can inject a venom that causes a painful burning sensation , skin eruptions , blisters and scarring . The toxin has been investigated and is a water @-@ soluble protein , 40 μg of which provides a median lethal dose to mice weighing 20 grams ( 0 @.@ 71 oz ) .
Millepora alcicornis has no commercial uses but is sometimes kept in reef aquaria . It requires high water movement and bright light to flourish and its health can be judged by its colour , a yellow hue showing health whereas a darker brown colour can indicate too little light . It can be difficult to control because it grows fast and spreads over other objects in the tank .
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= The Boat Race 1852 =
The 11th Boat Race took place on the River Thames on 3 April 1852 . Typically held annually , the event is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge . Former Cambridge cox Thomas Selby Egan coached Oxford , the first time that either crew had been trained by a member of the opposing university . The race was won by Oxford , their first Boat Race victory at Easter , who triumphed over Cambridge by nine lengths .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having defeated Cambridge , who were disqualified , in the previous race held in December 1849 . Cambridge led overall with seven wins to Oxford 's three .
The universities were unable to agree on a date for race in both 1850 and 1851 . The challenge to race from Cambridge was received by Oxford in December 1851 and was finally accepted that a race be conducted around Easter the following year . Oxford were coached by the former Cambridge cox Thomas Selby Egan , who had represented the Light Blues in the 1836 , 1839 and 1840 races , in protest at the use of watermen as Boat Race coaches . Oxford had prevented their use since 1841 but Cambridge would not do so until 1873 and were coached by the Thames waterman and world champion sculler Bob Coombes . It was the first time a crew was coached by a member of the other university .
The umpire for the race was Charles Jasper Selwyn and the starter was Edward Searle .
= = Crews = =
Three members of the Oxford crew had participated in the previous meeting of the universities in December 1849 , Houghton , Joseph William Chitty and the cox , Cotton . None of the Cambridge crew had Boat Race experience . The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 11 st 8 @.@ 5 lb ( 73 @.@ 5 kg ) , 2 pounds ( 0 @.@ 9 kg ) per rower more than their opponents .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start on the Surrey side of the river , handing the Middlesex station to Oxford . The race started under Searle 's command at 1.45pm with Oxford taking a slight lead . On the approach to Hammersmith Bridge the gap was closing and Oxford passed through the central arch . Cambridge , following Coombe 's advice , opted to shoot the bridge towards the Surrey side and in doing so " lost the stream " and allowed Oxford to extend their lead . By Barnes Bridge the lead was around four lengths , and Oxford kept increasing their margin , winning by nine lengths in a time of 21 minutes 36 seconds . It was their second consecutive victory and took the overall record to 7 – 4 in favour of Cambridge .
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= Fizeau experiment =
The Fizeau experiment was carried out by Hippolyte Fizeau in 1851 to measure the relative speeds of light in moving water . Fizeau used a special interferometer arrangement to measure the effect of movement of a medium upon the speed of light .
According to the theories prevailing at the time , light traveling through a moving medium would be dragged along by the medium , so that the measured speed of the light would be a simple sum of its speed through the medium plus the speed of the medium . Fizeau indeed detected a dragging effect , but the magnitude of the effect that he observed was far lower than expected . His results seemingly supported the partial aether @-@ drag hypothesis of Fresnel , a situation that was disconcerting to most physicists . Over half a century passed before a satisfactory explanation of Fizeau 's unexpected measurement was developed with the advent of Albert Einstein 's theory of special relativity . Einstein later pointed out the importance of the experiment for special relativity .
Although it is referred to as the Fizeau experiment , Fizeau was an active experimenter who carried out a wide variety of different experiments involving measuring the speed of light in various situations .
= = Experimental setup = =
A light ray emanating from the source S ′ is reflected by a beam splitter G and is collimated into a parallel beam by lens L. After passing the slits O1 and O2 , two rays of light travel through the tubes A1 and A2 , through which water is streaming back and forth as shown by the arrows . The rays reflect off a mirror m at the focus of lens L ′ , so that one ray always propagates in the same direction as the water stream , and the other ray opposite to the direction of the water stream . After passing back and forth through the tubes , both rays unite at S , where they produce interference fringes that can be visualized through the illustrated eyepiece . The interference pattern can be analyzed to determine the speed of light traveling along each leg of the tube .
= = Fresnel drag coefficient = =
Assume that water flows in the pipes with speed v. According to the non @-@ relativistic theory of the luminiferous aether , the speed of light should be increased when " dragged " along by the water , and decreased when " overcoming " the resistance of the water . The overall speed of a beam of light should be a simple additive sum of its speed through the water plus the speed of the water .
That is , if n is the index of refraction of water , so that c / n is the velocity of light in stationary water , then the predicted speed of light w in one arm would be
<formula>
and the predicted speed in the other arm would be
<formula>
Hence light traveling against the flow of water should be slower than light traveling with the flow of water .
The interference pattern between the two beams when the light is recombined at the observer depends upon the transit times over the two paths , and can be used to calculate the speed of light as a function of the speed of the water .
Fizeau found that
<formula>
In other words , light appeared to be dragged by the water , but the magnitude of the dragging was much lower than expected .
The Fizeau experiment forced physicists to accept the empirical validity of an old , theoretically unsatisfactory theory of Augustin @-@ Jean Fresnel ( 1818 ) that had been invoked to explain an 1810 experiment by Arago , namely , that a medium moving through the stationary aether drags light propagating through it with only a fraction of the medium 's speed , with a dragging coefficient f given by
<formula>
In 1895 , Hendrik Lorentz predicted the existence of an extra term due to dispersion :
<formula>
= = Repetitions = =
Albert A. Michelson and Edward W. Morley ( 1886 ) repeated Fizeau 's experiment with improved accuracy , addressing several concerns with Fizeau 's original experiment : ( 1 ) Deformation of the optical components in Fizeau 's apparatus could cause artifactual fringe displacement ; ( 2 ) observations were rushed , since the pressurized flow of water lasted only a short time ; ( 3 ) the laminar flow profile of water flowing through Fizeau 's small diameter tubes meant that only their central portions were available , resulting in faint fringes ; ( 4 ) there were uncertainties in Fizeau 's determination of flow rate across the diameter of the tubes . Michelson redesigned Fizeau 's apparatus with larger diameter tubes and a large reservoir providing three minutes of steady water flow . His common path interferometer design provided automatic compensation of path length , so that white light fringes were visible at once as soon as the optical elements were aligned . Topologically , the light path was that of a Sagnac interferometer with an even number of reflections in each light path . This offered extremely stable fringes superior to those from Fizeau 's design ( which used an odd number of reflections ) that were , to first order , completely insensitive to any movement of its optical components . The stability was such that it was possible for him to insert a glass plate at h or even to hold a lighted match in the light path without displacing the center of the fringe system . Using this apparatus , Michelson and Morley were able to completely confirm Fizeau 's results .
Other experiments were conducted by Pieter Zeeman in 1914 – 1915 . Using a scaled @-@ up version of Michelson 's apparatus connected directly to Amsterdam 's main water conduit , Zeeman was able to perform extended measurements using monochromatic light ranging from violet ( 4358 Å ) through red ( 6870 Å ) to confirm Lorentz 's modified coefficient . In 1910 , Franz Harress used a rotating device and overall confirmed Fresnel 's dragging coefficient . However , he additionally found a " systematic bias " in the data , which later turned out to be the Sagnac effect .
Since then , many experiments have been conducted measuring such dragging coefficients , often in combination with the Sagnac effect . For instance , in experiments using ring lasers together with rotating disks , or in neutron interferometric experiments . Also a transverse dragging effect was observed , i.e. when the medium is moving at right angles to the direction of the incident light .
= = Hoek experiment = =
An indirect confirmation of Fresnel 's dragging coefficient was provided by Martin Hoek ( 1868 ) . His apparatus was similar to Fizeau 's , though in his version only one arm contained an area filled with resting water , while the other arm was in the air . As seen by an observer resting in the aether , Earth and hence the water is in motion . So the following travel times of two light rays traveling in opposite directions were calculated by Hoek ( neglecting the transverse direction , see image ) :
The travel times are not the same , which should be indicated by an interference shift . However , if Fresnel 's dragging coefficient is applied to the water in the aether frame , the travel time difference ( to first order in v / c ) vanishes . Using different setups Hoek actually obtained a null result , confirming Fresnel 's dragging coefficient . ( For a similar experiment refuting the possibility of shielding the aether wind , see Hammar experiment ) .
In the particular version of the experiment shown here , Hoek used a prism P to disperse light from a slit into a spectrum which passed through a collimator C before entering the apparatus . With the apparatus oriented parallel to the hypothetical aether wind , Hoek expected the light in one circuit to be retarded 7 / 600 mm with respect to the other . Where this retardation represented an integral number of wavelengths , he expected to see constructive interference ; where this retardation represented a half @-@ integral number of wavelengths , he expected to see destructive interference . In the absence of dragging , his expectation was for the observed spectrum to be continuous with the apparatus oriented transversely to the aether wind , and to be banded with the apparatus oriented parallel to the aether wind . His actual experimental results were completely negative .
= = Controversy = =
Although Fresnel 's hypothesis was empirically successful in explaining Fizeau 's results , many leading experts in the field , including Fizeau himself ( 1851 ) , Éleuthère Mascart ( 1872 ) , Ketteler ( 1873 ) , Veltmann ( 1873 ) , and Lorentz ( 1886 ) were united in considering Fresnel 's partial aether @-@ dragging hypothesis to be on shaky theoretical grounds . For example , Veltmann ( 1870 ) demonstrated that Fresnel 's formula implies that the aether would have to be dragged by different amounts for different colors of light , since the index of refraction depends on wavelength ; Mascart ( 1872 ) demonstrated a similar result for polarized light traveling through a birefringent medium . In other words , the aether must be capable of sustaining different motions at the same time .
Fizeau 's dissatisfaction with the result of his own experiment is easily discerned in the conclusion to his report :
The success of the experiment seems to me to render the adoption of Fresnel 's hypothesis necessary , or at least the law which he found for the expression of the alteration of the velocity of light by the effect of motion of a body ; for although that law being found true may be a very strong proof in favour of the hypothesis of which it is only a consequence , perhaps the conception of Fresnel may appear so extraordinary , and in some respects so difficult , to admit , that other proofs and a profound examination on the part of geometricians will still be necessary before adopting it as an expression of the real facts of the case .
Despite the dissatisfaction of most physicists with Fresnel 's partial aether @-@ dragging hypothesis , repetitions and improvements to his experiment ( see sections above ) by others confirmed his results to high accuracy .
Besides the problems of the partial aether @-@ dragging hypothesis , another major problem arose with the Michelson – Morley experiment ( 1887 ) . In Fresnel 's theory , the aether is almost stationary , so the experiment should have given a positive result . However , the result of this experiment was negative . Thus from the viewpoint of the aether models at that time , the experimental situation was contradictory : On one hand , the aberration of light , the Fizeau experiment and the repetition by Michelson and Morley in 1886 appeared to support partial aether @-@ dragging . On the other hand , the Michelson – Morley experiment of 1887 appeared to prove that the aether is at rest with respect to Earth , apparently supporting the idea of complete aether @-@ dragging ( see aether drag hypothesis ) . So the very success of Fresnel 's hypothesis in explaining Fizeau 's results helped lead to a theoretical crisis , which was not resolved until the development of the theory of special relativity .
= = Lorentz 's interpretation = =
In 1892 , Hendrik Lorentz proposed a modification of Fresnel 's model , in which the aether is completely stationary . He succeeded in deriving Fresnel 's dragging coefficient as the result of an interaction between the moving water with an undragged aether . He also discovered that the transition from one to another reference frame could be simplified by using an auxiliary time variable which he called local time :
<formula>
In 1895 , Lorentz more generally explained Fresnel 's coefficient based on the concept of local time . However , Lorentz 's theory had the same fundamental problem as Fresnel 's : a stationary aether contradicted the Michelson – Morley experiment . So in 1892 Lorentz proposed that moving bodies contract in the direction of motion ( FitzGerald @-@ Lorentz contraction hypothesis , since George FitzGerald had already arrived in 1889 at this conclusion ) . The equations that he used to describe these effects were further developed by him until 1904 . These are now called the Lorentz transformations in his honor , and are identical in form to the equations that Einstein was later to derive from first principles . Unlike Einstein 's equations , however , Lorentz 's transformations were strictly ad hoc , their only justification being that they seemed to work .
= = Derivation in special relativity = =
Einstein showed how Lorentz 's equations could be derived as the logical outcome of a set of two simple starting postulates . In addition Einstein recognized that the stationary aether concept has no place in special relativity , and that the Lorentz transformation concerns the nature of space and time . Together with the moving magnet and conductor problem , the negative aether drift experiments , and the aberration of light , the Fizeau experiment was one of the key experimental results that shaped Einstein 's thinking about relativity . Robert S. Shankland reported some conversations with Einstein , in which Einstein emphasized the importance of the Fizeau experiment :
He continued to say the experimental results which had influenced him most were the observations of stellar aberration and Fizeau 's measurements on the speed of light in moving water . " They were enough , " he said .
Max von Laue ( 1907 ) demonstrated that the Fresnel drag coefficient can be easily explained as a natural consequence of the relativistic formula for addition of velocities , namely :
The speed of light in immobile water is c / n .
From the velocity composition law it follows that the speed of light observed in the laboratory , where water is flowing with speed v ( in the same direction as light ) is
<formula>
Thus the difference in speed is ( assuming v is small comparing to c , dropping higher order terms )
<formula> <formula>
This is accurate when v / c ≪ 1 , and agrees with the formula based upon Fizeau 's measurements , which satisfied the condition v / c ≪ 1 .
Fizeau 's experiment is hence supporting evidence for the collinear case of Einstein 's velocity addition formula .
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= R.V. College of Engineering =
Rashtreeya Vidyalaya College of Engineering ( RVCE or R.V. College of Engineering , Rāshtrīya Vidyālaya Tāntrika Mahāvidyālaya ) is a private technical co @-@ educational college located in Bangalore , Karnataka , India . Established in 1963 , RVCE has 11 departments in engineering , one school in architecture , and a Master of Computer Applications department . It is affiliated to the Visvesvaraya Technological University , Belgaum . The undergraduate courses are granted academic autonomy by the university . RVCE is accredited by the All India Council for Technical Education ( AICTE ) and all its departments are accredited by the National Board of Accreditation ( NBA ) . The college has twinning programs and tie ups with many institutions across the world , as well as collaborations with the industry . The annual festival of the college is called 8th Mile which is the most awaited event in the annual calendar .. The students of RVCE operate many student projects , most notable being the ones supported by the Indian Space Research Organisation ( ISRO ) , and the ones which participate in the competitions conducted by the Society of Automotive Engineers ( SAE ) .
= = Facilities = =
RVCE is spread over 53 acres ( 21 ha ) on the banks of the Vrishabhavati River in Bangalore , located on the Mysore Road , in between Bangalore University gate and Kengeri . The nearest commuter railway station is Jnanabharati Station , and the nearest major railway station is the Bangalore City Railway Station . The campus has a building for each undergraduate department , with the exception of the Biotechnology , Information Science , Instrumentation Technology and Master of Computer Applications departments , which are housed in a single building .
The college has a post office with postal identification as R.V. Vidyaniketan P.O , and a bank operated by ING on its campus . The canteen serves North Indian , South Indian and Chinese vegetarian cuisine . RVCE offers internet connectivity at its browsing center , with Wi @-@ fi access all over campus , along with copier facilities . The college also operates a health center .
= = = Hostels = = =
RVCE has 4 hostels on campus , namely the Cauvery Hostel for first year students , the Sir . M. Visvesvaraya Block for the final year students , and the Diamond Jubilee Block hostel for the rest of the students . The hostels on campus are completely meant for boys . The college , along with the managing trust ( RSST ) operates 4 other hostels in Bangalore located in locations like Jayanagar , J.P. Nagar , and Rajarajeshwari Nagar meant exclusively for the girls .
= = = Environmental initiatives = = =
A rainwater harvesting system sponsored by KPMG has been installed near the Telecommunication Engineering block , and a similar system is in place near the administrative block , the construction of which was supervised by the department of Civil engineering . Both the harvesting systems make use of a sump , and the stored water is typically used for gardening purposes .
= = Administration = =
The college is managed by the Rashtreeya Shikshana Samiti Trust located in Jayanagar , Bangalore , chaired by Dr. Panduranga Setty .
= = = Industry collaborations and MoUs = = =
The college has industry collaborations and Memorandums of Understanding ( MoU ) s with companies and universities . The college has tied up with universities in India , the United States , Germany , South Korea and Singapore . The college has twinning programs with many institutions including Konyang University , South Korea University of Wisconsin , Milwaukee ; West Virginia University ; University of Missouri ; Lamar University , all in the United States , Aachen University and University of Muenster in Germany ; ISMANS , France ; University of Sydney and University of Wollongong , both in Australia . The college also has ties with the Kuvempu University , Shimoga ; and Mangalore University .
In 2007 , RVCE signed a Memorandum of Understanding ( MoU ) with IT company Cognizant Technology Solutions to strengthen industry @-@ academia partnership . In October 2009 , Pace Embedded Systems opened a Embedded Systems lab at RVCE to train the students in Digital Television and Embedded Systems . The college also has industrial interactions with companies like ABB , Indian Space Research Organisation ( ISRO ) , Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike ( BBMP ) , DELL , WIPRO , Gas Turbine Research Establishment ( GTRE ) and the Indian Railways .
= = = Campus placements = = =
The college offers placement on campus for its students . A few of the companies which have visited the college for campus placements are Microsoft , Oracle , Google , Dell , Delphi , Intel , Yahoo , IBM , Caterpillar , Accenture , ABB , Citrix , Wipro , Tata Consultancy Services ( TCS ) , Infosys , Quest Global and Sasken .
= = Academic profile = =
All the engineering departments and the school of architecture are accredited by the AICTE and the National Board of Accreditation .
= = = Admission = = =
Students are admitted to undergraduate courses on basis of their merit in the Karnataka CET test , or in the COMED @-@ K undergraduate test . Students are also admitted through a management quota , which does not place merit requirements . There is a lateral entry scheme in place , by which students holding diploma degrees can enter directly to the second year of study in engineering . Students , upon graduating , receive a Bachelor of Engineering or a Bachelor of Architecture degree .
Students are admitted to postgraduate courses on basis of their GATE test scores , as well as on their Post Graduate Karnataka CET scores .
= = = Course content and Grading = = =
All the departments which have been conferred autonomous status set their own course content and grading system . RVCE follows the credit @-@ based system of performance evaluation , with proportional weighting of courses based on their importance . The total marks ( usually out of 100 ) form the basis of grades , with a grade value ( out of 10 ) assigned to a range of marks . For each semester , the students are graded by taking a weighted average from all the courses with their respective credit points . Each semester 's evaluation is done independently with a cumulative grade point average ( CGPA ) reflecting the average performance across semesters . The medium of instruction is English .
= = = Achievements = = =
RVCE has been recognised as a centre for excellence by the Union Government of India . In 2008 , the college had the highest number of gold medal @-@ winners among colleges affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University . The department of Mechanical engineering of RVCE is the state 's first degree programme in a private institution to be accredited by the National Board of Accreditation .
= = = Rankings = = =
R.V. College of Engineering has been ranked as the 35th best Engineering College of India in the Edu @-@ Rand Rankings of 2015 . The survey was done jointly by Edu , an Indian company and Rand Corporation , a non @-@ profit American thinktank .
= = = Departments and courses = = =
Undergraduate
These departments offer four year undergraduate courses in engineering . All of the undergraduate courses have been conferred autonomous status by the Visvesvaraya Technological University
Aerospace
Bio @-@ technology
Chemical Engineering
Civil Engineering
Computer Science And Engineering
Electronics and Communication Engineering
Electrical And Electronics Engineering
Industrial Engineering and Management
Information Science Engineering
Instrumentation Technology
Mechanical Engineering
Telecommunication Engineering
The School Of Architecture offers a 5 @-@ year course in architecture .
The allied departments of the college are the departments of Physics , Chemistry , Mathematics , Humanities , and that of placement and training .
Postgraduate
Master of Computer Applications
Master of Technology offered by departments of Computer Science , Information Science , Electronics and Communication and Mechanical Engineering
Master of Architecture
= = Student activities = =
= = = College festival = = =
8th Mile is the main annual techno @-@ cultural festival of the college and features inter @-@ college competitions and concerts each night , popularly known as " Pro @-@ shows " . Previous performers include KK , Indian Ocean , Usha Uthup , Raghu Dixit , Benny Dayal , Lagori , Thermal Projekt and Best Kept Secret .
= = = Department Events = = =
The Science Forum of the college , consisting of freshman students conducts Genesis , the intercollegiate festival . Apart from this , each department conducts its own festivals , some of them being Infinity ( Department of Information Science and Engineering ) , Impulse ( Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering ) , Vortex ( Department of Mechanical Engineering ) , Vantage ( Department of Instrumentation Technology ) , and Connect ( Department of Telecommunication Engineering ) . All of these are intercollegiate technical and cultural festivals .
= = = Cultural Activities = = =
The Cultural Activities Team overlooks the functioning of all cultural clubs in the college which are led by student and faculty heads . Footprints , the dance club of RVCE , conducts one of the largest college hip @-@ hop festivals called FLARE . RV Quizcorp , the quiz club of RVCE conducts the national level college and corporate quiz festival Under the Peepal Tree each year .
= = = Sports = = =
Cricket and Football are widely played across the college campus . The college has a cricket team , which has won major competitions like the Chamaraju Memorial inter @-@ collegiate tournament . The college 's football team has excelled in tournaments like the VTU South Zone football tournaments . Basketball is fast gaining popularity among the women , after the women 's team excelled in University tournaments , as well as other tournaments . The college Badminton team frequently excels in university @-@ level tournaments , having won many of them .
= = = Literary and language awareness = = =
R.V. College of Engineering has one of the best Debating Societies in India , . The R.V Debating Society ( RV DebSoc - as it is popularly known ) takes part in tournaments across the world , with success at tournaments such as the All Asians Intervarsity Tournament , UADC , ABP . The society also participates in inter varsity competitions held by Oxford University and Cambridge University . The society also won the 2011 Asian British Parliamentary Debate held at Dhaka , Bangladesh . Since its inception , the DebSoc has won many tournaments in India . RV DebSoc also hosts the R.V Debating Tournament , which receives participation from all over India . The RV Debating Society is proud of being one of the oldest and most active , successful clubs in R.V. College of Engineering .
Kannada Sangha is the club dedicated to spreading Kannada language and cultural awareness . The club conducts Kannada classes and holds a cultural fest every year .
= = = Entrepreneurship = = =
RVEcell , the entrepreneurship cell was started in 2006 by Pushkar Gejji , Kauser Johar and Piyush Gupta under the guidance of Prof N.S Narahari , Director Placement and Training . The cell promotes the spirit of entrepreneurship and provides a platform for the students to showcase their business talents . The organization conducts an annual business plan / ideas contest where entries are invited throughout Karnataka . The cell won the Best Microsite Award from National Entrepreneurship Network in 2006 .
= = = Social service = = =
The Rotaract Club of RVCE is affiliated to Rotary International District 3190 The club conducts blood donation camps , National pulse polio drives , tree plantation drives and eye check @-@ up camps . Raag is the youth club of RVCE . The club provides the students a platform to showcase their leadership skills , talents in music , art and craft and also literary interests by organizing college level events like Opinions , an open discussion forum . The club , along with the National Service Scheme unit of college , organizes visit to leprosariums and orphanages . It organizes an Eye Pledging Camp in association with the Lions Eye Bank , Bangalore .
= = Student projects = =
= = = STUDSAT = = =
A team of students of RVCE , along with students from some other colleges in the country and the Indian Space Research Organisation , teamed up to make the first pico satellite in India , called STUDSAT . The pico satellite was launched by the PSLV C @-@ 15 on 12 June 2010 from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota . The camera on board has a low resolution of 90 metres . The panchromatic images are designed to provide terrain information during the satellite 's short lifespan of six months to one year .
= = = SAE Events = = =
Ashwa , a Formula racing car . The car won the " Best Car from South Asia " award in the Formula Society of Automotive Engineers ( FSAE ) event in Germany . The team was also the first Indian team to compete in the FSAE event in 2005 in Australia , which won the " Best Value for Money " award . The project team has been awarded the " Young Achiever 2007 " award , an award instituted by the Rotary Midtown and the Brigade Group . Team Vyoma , a student group designs and manufactures UAVs ( Unmanned Aerial Vehicles ) to participate in Aerodesign competitions conducted by the Society of Automotive Engineers in Marietta , GA ; and in Brazil . The team is the first Asian team to compete in the Aerodesign competitions .
Team Helios Racing .. An All Terrain Vehicle ( ATV ) that can travel on muddy swamps and climb up hills was designed by a group of students from the Mechanical engineering department . The vehicle entered the " Mini BAJA Challenge " — an international challenge in Pretoria in October 2006 . Became the NATIONAL CHAMPIONS in an event called BAJA STUDENT INDIA in January 2015 .
= = = IEEE branch = = =
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ( IEEE ) operates a student branch in RVCE . It organises many events , some of them being a workshop LabVIEW ( Laboratory Virtual Instrumentation Engineering Workbench ) , which is a platform and development environment for a visual programming language from National Instruments , various paper presentation competitions , and a seminar competition .
= = = Robotics = = =
The Robotics team from the Instrumentation Technology Department won the " All India Robotics Challenge " at Shaastra 2007 The annual tech fest held at IIT Madras .
= = = Other projects = = =
Garuda , a fuel @-@ efficient , aerodynamic car , was designed by the Mechanical engineering students . The car reportedly gives a mileage of 180 kilometers per litre of fuel . Project Garuda members were the only team from India to participate in the Shell Eco Marathon held at Rockingham Raceway , Corby , UK . Project Garuda was awarded the `Most Persevering Team ' award , which is given to the best first @-@ time participant every year .
Eight students of the RV College of Engineering developed a vehicle consuming water as a fuel . Together , they have developed a water @-@ powered hybrid auto rickshaw . The team has developed an inexpensive and simple retrofit kit for auto rickshaws .
In June 2008 , the students developed a prototype of a hybrid @-@ electric vehicle that uses both electric energy and diesel mixed with bio @-@ diesel . According to The Hindu , this is the first indigenous hybrid @-@ electric prototype in the country and among very few prototypes to use bio @-@ diesel . The project , codenamed ‘ Chimera ' , was conceived and the prototype developed by the final year students of four engineering disciplines — Mechanical , Electrical and Computer science and Industrial engineering .
= = Notable alumni = =
Nikhil Prasad , winner of the Junior Orange Bowl tennis Championships held at Miami , USA . Anil Kumble , former captain of the Indian Test Cricket Team and winner of Arjuna Award in 1995 and Padma Shri Award in 2005 graduated from RVCE with a degree in Mechanical Engineering .
Another alumnus of the college is Table tennis player Chetan Baboor , who represented India in the 1992 Barcelona Olympics . Komati Venkata Reddy and P.G.R. Scindia , politicians from Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka respectively , are alumni of the college . Ashok Nayak , chairman of Hindustan Aeronautics Limited and noted Kannada singer Nanditha also call the college their alma mater .
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= Chef ( film ) =
Chef is a 2014 American comedy @-@ drama film written , produced , directed by and starring Jon Favreau , and co @-@ starring Sofía Vergara , John Leguizamo , Scarlett Johansson , Oliver Platt , Bobby Cannavale , Dustin Hoffman , and Robert Downey , Jr . Favreau plays a professional chef who , after a public altercation with a food critic , quits his job at a popular Los Angeles restaurant and returns to his home town of Miami to fix up a food truck . He reconnects with his ex @-@ wife and invites their young son to join him in driving the truck back to L.A. while selling Cubanos in various cities along the way .
Favreau wrote the script after directing several big @-@ budget films , wanting to go " back to basics " and to create a film about cooking . Food truck owner and chef Roy Choi served as a co @-@ producer and oversaw all of the menus and food prepared for the film . Principal photography took place in July 2013 in Los Angeles , Miami , Austin and New Orleans . Chef premiered at South by Southwest on March 7 , 2014 and was released theatrically on May 9 , 2014 by Open Road Films . It grossed over US $ 45 million at the box office and was well received by critics .
= = Plot = =
Miami @-@ born Carl Casper is the head chef of Gauloise in Brentwood , California . While popular with his kitchen staff and hostess Molly , the restaurant owner Riva wants Carl to stick to tired " classics " rather than innovative dishes . Carl has a strained relationship with his tech @-@ savvy preteen son Percy and rich ex @-@ wife Inez .
When Carl has a chance to prove his creative talents during a visit from prestigious critic and blogger Ramsey Michel , Riva demands that he stick with old favorites at the last minute , causing Carl to concede , leading to a scathing review . On Twitter , Carl insults Ramsey for the review , not realizing that his reply is public , and gains a large Twitter following . Carl comes up with an inspirational new menu that his staff loves and invites Ramsey to a " rematch " . After a confrontation with Riva as the owner wants the same old menu again , Carl walks out , quitting . At home , he prepares the menu he wanted to serve to Ramsey . Carl 's assistant becomes the interim chef and even the regular dishes become a disaster . Ramsey again starts to tweet negatively about Carl , leading Carl to go to the restaurant , where he angrily and publicly berates Ramsey .
Videos featuring Carl 's meltdown go viral , and his professional credibility evaporates . Molly and Inez encourage him to run a food truck . He accepts Inez 's invitation to Miami , where he spends some quality time with Percy and rediscovers his love for Cuban cuisine . Inez 's ex @-@ husband Marvin offers him a dilapidated food truck , and Carl reluctantly accepts . He also finds out that Marvin and Inez spent some time together after his divorce from Inez , which made him a little angry . He and Percy bond while restoring the truck and buying groceries and Carl buys him a chef 's knife . Martin , his friend from Gauloise , turns down his restaurant promotion to work with Carl , who has become an exuberant and passionate chef again .
The three drive the food truck across the country back to Los Angeles , serving top @-@ quality Cuban sandwiches and yuca fries . Percy finds ways to promote the food truck on social media websites , and the truck becomes successful in New Orleans and Austin , Texas , where the daily specials include items made with local ingredients such as po ' boys and barbecued brisket .
Back in Los Angeles , Carl realizes the importance of his relationship with his son and accepts Percy 's enthusiastic offer to help out on weekends and holidays . Ramsey visits the truck to explain that he wrote the bad review as he knew Carl 's creativity did not suit a restaurant which had been serving the same menu for years . He leaves with an offer to bankroll a new restaurant . In a flash @-@ forward set six months later , the new restaurant is a hit and closed for a private event : Carl and Inez remarry .
= = Cast = =
Jon Favreau as Carl Casper
Sofía Vergara as Inez
Emjay Anthony as Percy
John Leguizamo as Martin
Scarlett Johansson as Molly
Oliver Platt as Ramsey Michel
Bobby Cannavale as Tony
Amy Sedaris as Jen
Dustin Hoffman as Riva
Robert Downey , Jr. as Marvin
Russell Peters as Miami cop
Jose Caridad Hernandez , " Perico " as Abuelito
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Jon Favreau , the writer , director and star of Chef , wrote the film 's script in about two weeks . He had long wanted to make a film about food and chefs , and felt that the subject was suited to a small @-@ scale independent film rather than a big @-@ budget production . He cited Jiro Dreams of Sushi , Eat Drink Man Woman and Big Night as inspirations for creating a food @-@ centric film .
The script was semi @-@ autobiographical , incorporating parts of Favreau 's life into the main character , such as being a father while having a busy career and coming from a " broken home " . Favreau also drew a comparison between his career as a director and Carl 's career as a chef in the film , noting that he stepped down from directing major studio films to go " back to basics " and create Chef on a smaller budget , much like Carl 's resignation from a popular restaurant to work in a food truck .
Favreau contacted Roy Choi , a restaurateur who created the Kogi Korean BBQ food truck , to serve as a consultant on the film ; Choi was eventually promoted to co @-@ producer . While the film was in pre @-@ production , Favreau shadowed Choi in his restaurants and worked as part of Choi 's kitchen crew after training at a culinary school . Choi oversaw all of the menus prepared for the film and created the Cuban sandwiches that formed a central part of the storyline .
= = = Casting = = =
In addition to Favreau , the first actors cast in main roles were Sofía Vergara , John Leguizamo and Bobby Cannavale . It was announced that Robert Downey , Jr . — whom Favreau had previously directed in two Iron Man films — had joined the cast in May 2013 . Scarlett Johansson and Dustin Hoffman were cast later that month . Favreau felt that the film 's casting was one of its biggest successes , which provided him with " a tremendous amount of confidence " ; in particular , he was impressed by Emjay Anthony , who was ten years old at the time of filming .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography of the film began in July 2013 in Los Angeles . Subsequent filming took place in Miami , Austin and New Orleans — cities that Favreau chose to work into the story because they all " possess a rich food and music culture " . Specific filming locations in Miami included the Versailles restaurant , the Fontainebleau Hotel , and the Cuban restaurant Hoy Como Ayer in Little Havana . In New Orleans , some scenes were filmed at Café du Monde in the city 's French Quarter . In Austin , filming locations included Franklin Barbecue and Guero 's on South Congress . All food prepared for the shoot was eaten by members of the cast and crew after filming had finished .
= = Soundtrack = =
Milan Records released a Chef soundtrack on May 6 , 2014 , three days before the film 's release . The soundtrack is a combination of Latin jazz , New Orleans jazz and blues , which serve as background to the storyline as it moves through Miami , New Orleans and Austin , respectively . The film 's music was chosen by music supervisor Mathieu Schreyer , while the incidental music was scored by Lyle Workman .
Charts
= = Release = =
Chef premiered on March 7 , 2014 at South by Southwest , where it was the opening film of the festival and was attended by Favreau , Leguizamo , Anthony , and Platt . It was subsequently screened at the Tribeca Film Festival in April . On August 19 , Open Road Films announced to re @-@ release the film nationally on August 29 for a Labor Day weekend , which would grow 100 screens to 600 @-@ 800 .
= = = Box office = = =
The film was released theatrically on May 9 , 2014 , beginning in limited release in six theaters and expanding throughout May and June to a peak of 1 @,@ 298 theaters . Its total gross in the United States as of November 2 , 2014 is $ 31 @.@ 4 million .
Outside of the U.S. , Chef performed best in Australia ( earning $ 2 @.@ 8 million ) , the United Kingdom and Spain ( $ 2 @.@ 6 million in each country ) and Mexico ( earning a little over $ 1 million ) . In total , Chef has grossed almost $ 15 million outside America .
= = = Critical response = = =
Reviews for Chef have been positive . On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes , the film has a " certified fresh " rating of 86 % , based on 169 reviews , with the site 's consensus summarizing : " Chef 's charming cast and sharp , funny script add enough spice to make this feel @-@ good comedy a flavorful — if familiar — treat . " Metacritic gave the film a score of 68 out of 100 , based on 36 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars , describing it as " an artful surprise and an exuberant gift " and " deliciously entertaining , comic , touching and often bitingly true " . Ty Burr of the Boston Globe also awarded the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars ; he thought it was " funny and heartfelt " and that , despite its weaknesses , the strengths " overpower the parts of the meal that are undercooked " . Chicago Sun @-@ Times critic Richard Roeper gave Chef 3 out of 4 stars , finding it " funny , quirky and insightful , with a bounty of interesting supporting characters " but also noting the lack of plot and character development in some parts . Gary Goldstein of the Los Angeles Times gave particular praise to the " terrific supporting cast " and the script 's lack of cliché , such as in its presentation of family dynamics .
Joe Leydon from Variety found the film 's plot predictable and slow @-@ paced , but noted " the trip itself is never less than pleasant , and often extremely funny " . The New York Times ' Stephen Holden described Chef as " aggressively feel @-@ good " and " shallow but enjoyable " . Michael O 'Sullivan of The Washington Post gave the film 3 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars and found it " deeply satisfying , down to the soul " , praising the " incredible " food photography , the " colorful supporting cast " and the " wryly observant " humor , raving , " There 's nothing terribly profound about " Chef " . But its message — that relationships , like cooking , take a hands @-@ on approach — is a sweet and sustaining one . " San Francisco Chronicle film critic Mick LaSalle opined that Chef was Favreau 's best film to date , highlighting the " natural and convincing " chemistry between Favreau and Anthony and the " vivid " scenes featuring big @-@ name actors in small roles . USA Today 's Scott Bowles gave Chef 3 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars and called it " a nuanced side dish , a slow @-@ cooked film that 's one of the most heartwarming of the young year " . Ken Choy of Wide Lantern noted the structural problems but admitted , " If you ever saw the Kristen Bell sloth video on Ellen , that was me during the entire 2nd half of the movie . Non @-@ stop tears . It was happy @-@ crying because Favreau 's character was doing what he wanted . "
Slant Magazine critic Chris Cabin , however , gave Chef 1 @.@ 5 out of 4 stars and described it as Favreau 's " most self @-@ satisfied , safe , and compromised film to date " , chiefly criticizing the film 's lack of realism and credibility . Writing for The Village Voice , Amy Nicholson agreed that the storyline was implausible and summarized the film as " so charmingly middlebrow that it 's exactly the cinematic comfort food it mocks " . Indiewire 's Eric Kohn opined that with Chef , " Favreau has no sweeping thematic aims " , and that the end product was a " self @-@ indulgent vanity project " .
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= Banksia caleyi =
Banksia caleyi , commonly known as the red lantern banksia or Caley 's banksia , is a species of woody shrub of the family Proteaceae native to Western Australia . It generally grows as a dense shrub up to 2 m ( 7 ft ) tall , has serrated leaves and unusual red , pendent ( hanging ) inflorescences which are generally hidden in the foliage . First described by Scottish naturalist Robert Brown in 1830 , Banksia caleyi was named in honour of the English botanist George Caley . No subspecies are recognised . It is one of three or four related species with hanging inflorescences , which is an unusual feature within the genus .
Found south and east of the Stirling Ranges through to the vicinity of Jerramungup , Banksia caleyi grows in a habitat burnt by periodic bushfires . Plants are killed by fire and regenerate by seed afterwards . The species is classified as Not Threatened under the Wildlife Conservation Act of Western Australia . In contrast to other Western Australian banksias , it appears to have some resistance to dieback from the soil @-@ borne water mould Phytophthora cinnamomi , and is comparatively easy to grow in cultivation .
= = Description = =
Banksia caleyi grows as a many @-@ branched bushy shrub to 2 m ( 7 ft ) in height , with crumbly grey bark . Rarely , plants of up to 4 m ( 13 ft ) have been found . The new growth is hairy , and generally occurs in summer . The branchlets become smooth after around two years . The stiff leaves are narrowly wedge @-@ shaped ( cuneate ) and measure 5 – 14 cm ( 2 – 5 1 ⁄ 2 in ) in length by 1 @.@ 3 – 2 @.@ 4 cm ( 1 ⁄ 2 – 1 in ) wide . The leaf margins are serrated , with many teeth measuring 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 6 cm ( 1 ⁄ 8 – 1 ⁄ 4 in ) each .
Flowering takes place between September and January . The inflorescences hang down from the ends of three- to five @-@ year @-@ old branchlets deep within the shrub and measure 5 – 9 cm ( 2 – 3 1 ⁄ 2 in ) in length and roughly 7 cm ( 2 3 ⁄ 4 in ) in diameter . The flowers are cream at the base and deep pink to red in the upper half , and are brightest before anthesis and then gradually fade with age . The inflorescences eventually turn grey , the old flowers remaining as up to 25 large woody follicles develop . Oval in shape and covered with fine hair , the follicles can reach 4 cm ( 1 5 ⁄ 8 in ) long , 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 in ) high , and 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 in ) wide .
The obovate seed is 4 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 3 ⁄ 4 – 1 7 ⁄ 8 in ) long and fairly flattened , and is composed of the wedge @-@ shaped seed body proper , measuring 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 ⁄ 2 – 5 ⁄ 8 in ) long and 1 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 7 cm ( 5 ⁄ 8 in ) wide , and a papery wing . One side , termed the outer surface , is dark brown and wrinkled , while the other is black and smooth . Both surfaces sparkle slightly . The seeds are separated by a sturdy dark brown seed separator that is roughly the same shape as the seeds with a depression where the seed body sits adjacent to it in the follicle . Seedlings have cuneate cotyledons which measure 1 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 3 cm ( 3 ⁄ 8 – 1 ⁄ 2 in ) long and 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 4 cm ( 1 ⁄ 2 in ) wide . These are dull green with three veins , and the margin of the wedge may be red and crenulated ( lined with small teeth ) . The hypocotyl is red and measures 1 @.@ 5 – 2 cm ( 5 ⁄ 8 – 3 ⁄ 4 in ) high . Seedlings have hairy stems and leaves that are oppositely arranged ( arising from the stem in pairs ) that are obovate with triangular @-@ lobed serrate margins .
= = Taxonomy = =
Robert Brown formally described Banksia caleyi in his 1830 work Supplementum primum Prodromi florae Novae Hollandiae , naming it in honour of the English botanist George Caley . The type specimen was collected by William Baxter , inland from King George Sound on Western Australia 's south coast , in 1829 .
Carl Meissner placed B. caleyi in series Quercinae in his 1856 arrangement of the genus on account of its strongly dentate , cuneate to obovate leaves . As they were defined on leaf characters alone , all of Meissner 's series were highly heterogeneous . Meissner also described B. caleyi variety sinuosa from material collected by James Drummond , which was reviewed by Alex George and found to be no different from the other collections of B. caleyi . Drummond also collected material identified as B. caleyi that was named as a distinct species — Banksia aculeata — in 1981 . No subspecies of B. caleyi itself are recognised .
George Bentham published a thorough revision of Banksia in his landmark publication Flora Australiensis in 1870 . In Bentham 's arrangement , the number of recognised Banksia species was reduced from 60 to 46 . Bentham defined four sections based on leaf , style and pollen @-@ presenter characters . Banksia caleyi was placed in section Orthostylis . In his 1891 work Revisio Generum Plantarum , German botanist Otto Kuntze challenged the generic name Banksia L.f. , on the grounds that the name Banksia had previously been published in 1775 as Banksia J.R.Forst & G.Forst , referring to the genus now known as Pimelea . Kuntze proposed Sirmuellera as an alternative , republishing B. caleyi as Sirmuellera caleyi . The challenge failed , and Banksia L.f. was formally conserved in 1940 .
In his 1981 monograph The genus Banksia L.f. ( Proteaceae ) , Alex George placed B. caleyi in B. subg . Banksia because its inflorescence is a typical Banksia flower spike shape ; in B. sect . Banksia because of its straight styles ; and B. ser . Tetragonae because of its pendulous inflorescences . He considered its closest relative to be B. aculeata , which has narrower leaves with fewer , larger lobes ; longer perianths , which grade from red to cream rather than from cream to red ; shorter pistils ; and also differences in the follicles , seeds and flowering time .
In 1996 , Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published the results of a cladistic analysis of morphological characters of Banksia . They retained George 's subgenera and many of his series , but discarded his sections . George 's B. ser . Tetragonae was found to be monophyletic , and therefore retained ; and their analysis of the relationships within the series supported the placement of B. caleyi alongside B. aculeata .
B. caleyi 's placement in Thiele and Ladiges ' arrangement may be summarised as follows :
Banksia
B. subg . Isostylis ( 3 species )
B. elegans ( incertae sedis )
B. subg . Banksia
B. ser . Tetragonae
B. elderiana
B. lemanniana
B. caleyi
B. aculeata
The arrangement of Thiele and Ladiges was not accepted by George , and was discarded in his 1999 revision . Under George 's 1999 arrangement , B. caleyi 's placement was as follows :
Banksia
B. subg . Banksia
B. sect . Banksia
B. ser . Salicinae ( 11 species , 7 subspecies )
B. ser . Grandes ( 2 species )
B. ser . Banksia ( 8 species )
B. ser . Crocinae ( 4 species )
B. ser . Prostratae ( 6 species , 3 varieties )
B. ser . Cyrtostylis ( 13 species )
B. ser . Tetragonae
B. lemanniana
B. caleyi
B. aculeata
Since 1998 , Austin Mast has been publishing results of ongoing cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for the subtribe Banksiinae . His analyses suggest a phylogeny that is rather different from previous taxonomic arrangements , but support the placement of B. aculeata alongside B. caleyi in a clade corresponding closely with B. ser . Tetragonae .
Early in 2007 , Mast and Thiele initiated a rearrangement by transferring Dryandra to Banksia , and publishing B. subg . Spathulatae for the species having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons ; in this way they also redefined the autonym B. subg . Banksia . They have refrained from publishing a full arrangement of Banksia until DNA sampling of Dryandra is complete ; in the meantime , if Mast and Thiele 's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement , then B. caleyi is placed in B. subg . Banksia .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Banksia caleyi is found near the southern coast of Western Australia , from South Stirling to the West River and northeast to Pingrup . Some of its population lies within Fitzgerald River National Park . Often locally abundant , it is found in mallee woodland on white sand , gravel , and sandy clay , generally on flat or slightly undulating land . The annual rainfall is 550 – 600 mm ( 22 – 24 in ) . Banksia caleyi is classified as Not Threatened under the Wildlife Conservation Act of Western Australia .
= = Ecology = =
Like many plants in south @-@ west Western Australia , Banksia caleyi is adapted to an environment in which bushfire events are relatively frequent . Most Banksia species can be placed in one of two broad groups according to their response to fire : reseeders are killed by fire , but fire also triggers the release of their canopy seed bank , thus promoting recruitment of the next generation ; resprouters survive fire , resprouting from a lignotuber or , more rarely , epicormic buds protected by thick bark . B. caleyi belongs to the reseeder group . In the wild , seedlings take at least three to four years to reach flowering after bushfire . Non @-@ patchy fires occurring at intervals of less than seven years may wipe out local populations of reseeders .
Banksia caleyi has been shown to have a low susceptibility to dieback from the soil @-@ borne water mould Phytophthora cinnamomi , unlike many Western Australian banksias . The fungal pathogen Botryosphaeria ribis has been recovered from B. caleyi . The caterpillar of the dryandra moth ( Carthaea saturnioides ) feeds on the leaves , though it prefers to eat those of dryandra species that grow alongside it .
The upside @-@ down flower spikes drip nectar onto the ground or lower leaves , suggesting pollination by nonflying mammals which are attracted to the scent . Supporting this hypothesis , the spiky leaves seem to also prevent access to foragers not at ground level . Furthermore , the individual flower structure is similar to Banksia attenuata , for which the honey possum ( Tarsipes rostratus ) is a major pollinator .
= = Cultivation = =
Seeds do not require any treatment , and take 23 to 50 days to germinate in cultivation . Banksia caleyi is a medium- to slow @-@ growing plant , taking four to five years to flower from seed . The flowers are attractive but are obscured by the foliage . This species can grow in a range of soil types so long as they provide good drainage . The nominal soil pH range is from 6 to 7 @.@ 5 . It grows in full sun and partly shaded situations , and tolerates light pruning . Unlike many other Western Australian banksias , Banksia caleyi has had some degree of success in growing in more humid areas , such as Australia 's east coast . It attracts pygmy and honey possums in the garden .
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= Gerald Fischbach =
Gerald D. Fischbach ( born November 15 , 1938 ) is an American neuroscientist . He received his M.D. from the Weill Cornell Medical College of Cornell University in 1965 before beginning his research career at the National Institutes of Health in 1966 , where his research focused on the mechanisms of neuromuscular junctions . After his tenure at the National Institutes of Health , Fischbach was a professor at Harvard University Medical School from 1972 – 1981 and 1990 – 1998 and the Washington University School of Medicine from 1981 – 1990 . In 1998 , he was named the director of the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke before becoming the Vice President and Dean of the Health and Biomedical Sciences , the Dean of the Faculty of Medicine , and the Dean of the Faculty of Health Sciences at Columbia University from 2001 – 2006 . Gerald Fischbach currently serves as the scientific director overseeing the Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative . Throughout Fischbach 's career , much of his research has focused on the formation and function of the neuromuscular junction , which stemmed from his innovative use of cell culture to study synaptic mechanisms .
= = Education and experience = =
Fischbach attended Colgate University in Hamilton , NY , where he was a four @-@ year recipient of the New York State Regents Scholarship . He graduated magna cum laude with high honors in mathematics receiving a Bachelor of Arts degree in Mathematics and Chemistry . Fischbach was also elected a member of Colgate University ’ s Phi Beta Kappa chapter in 1960 . After graduating from Colgate University , Fischbach attended Weill Cornell Medical College of Cornell University , where he was a recipient of the New York State Medical Scholarship from 1962 to 1965 and the Polk Award for Undergraduate Research in 1965 , before graduating with his M.D. that same year . Additionally , Fischbach received an honorary master 's degree from Harvard University in 1978 and an honorary Doctor of Science degree from Colgate University in 2003 . After graduating medical school , Fischbach interned at the University of Washington hospital in Seattle , Washington before beginning his research career at the National Institutes of Health in 1966 . Fischbach is married to Ruth L. Fischbach , who currently serves as a Professor of Bioethics in Psychiatry at Columbia Presbyterian Medical Center . They have four children .
= = Research career = =
= = = National Institutes of Health 1966 – 1973 = = =
Fischbach began his research career at the National Institutes of Health , where he served as a senior surgeon at the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke ( NINDS ) before becoming a fellow at the National Institute of Child Health from 1966 to 1973 . Much of Fischbach ’ s research concentrated on the mechanisms controlling action potentials and synapses , from which he pioneered the use of neuron and muscle cell culture to study neuromuscular junctions . Fischbach used this technique to reconstruct neuromuscular junctions from dissociated spinal cord and muscle cells from chick embryos to show that functional synaptic connections reformed and were capable of sending spontaneous or induced action potentials . However , cultures containing isolated spinal cord cells were unable to send similar action potentials . This technique proved to be an important model for further studies to determine the essential mechanisms controlling neuromuscular junction development and maintenance . Towards the end of his tenure at the National Institutes of Health , Fischbach began to search for motor neuron molecules responsible for regulating the number of acetylcholine receptors on postsynaptic cells . This research project culminated in 1993 with the isolation of the ARIA ( acetylcholine receptor inducing activity ) protein , which is a member of the neuregulin family and is responsible for stimulating the production of acetylcholine receptors in postsynaptic muscle tissue .
= = = Harvard University 1973 – 1981 , 1990 – 1998 = = =
After his time at the National Institutes of Health , Fischbach obtained a position as an associate professor at Harvard Medical School 's Department of Pharmacology in 1973 . By 1978 he obtained tenure and became a full professor , and continued teaching at Harvard University for the next three years . After a nine @-@ year stint at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis , Missouri , he returned to Harvard to serve as the Nathan Marsh Pusey Professor of Neurobiology and Chairman of the Neurobiology Departments of both Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts General Hospital from 1990 to 1998 . During his years as an associate professor , he researched the development of precursor muscle cells , specifically the development of acetylcholine receptors on embryonic chick pectoral muscles . Later on he continued his research on ARIA that he started at the National Institutes of Health , specifically focusing on the expression of the protein 's isoforms and their effects on tyrosine kinases . In 1993 , Fischbach was involved with the founding of the Mind , Brain , Behavior Institute . This inter @-@ disciplinary program aims to research the different structures , evolution , and development of the nervous system in order to better understand human behavior .
= = = Washington University School of Medicine 1981 – 1990 = = =
Gerald Fischbach spent nine years at the Washington University School of Medicine , where he served as the Edison Professor of Neurobiology and Head of the Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology . During his time here , Fischbach continued his work on the ARIA protein . When ARIA isolated from chick embryo brain was applied to chicken myotubes , which are developing chicken muscle fibers , it was shown to increase the rate of insertion of acetylcholine receptors into chicken myotube membranes . This indicated ARIA could play a role in acetylcholine receptor insertion in neuromuscular junctions . Additionally , it was demonstrated that ARIA stimulated the transcription of α acetylcholine receptor subunits leading to an increase in α subunit messenger RNA ( mRNA ) and precursors , but had no effect on the mRNA levels of the γ or δ acetylcholine receptor subunits . This indicated that the amount α acetylcholine receptor subunit limits the synthesis and subsequent insertion of acetylcholine receptors into chicken myotube membranes .
In addition to his ARIA work , Fischbach also researched rapid desensitization of glutamate receptors in chicken spinal cord and rat hippocampal neurons . Using focal ionophoresis and pressure injections to apply glutamate and other agonists including NMDA , AMPA , and kainate to different regions of the neurons , he noticed that certain hot spots were desensitized more rapidly that other sites on the neuron . Fischbach and his collaborators hypothesized that these hot spots may be located at synapses between neurons , where clusters of glutamate receptors were present .
= = = National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke 1998 – 2001 = = =
Fischbach returned to the NIH in 1998 when he was named director of the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke ( NINDS ) , a division of the NIH that supports research on the brain and nervous system . While he was director , Fischbach oversaw a staff of more than 700 and an annual budget of about $ 800 million . This money was used to support research by private and public organizations across the country as well as scientists working in labs at NINDS . Fischbach accomplished many things while director of NINDS , one of which being helping to shape national policy on important neurological research issues . He received great praise for his time as director from both Harold Varmus , former director of the NIH and current director of the National Cancer Institute ( NCI ) , and Richard Klausner , former director of the NCI . Fischbach left NINDS is 2001 when he was named Columbia University 's Vice President for Health and Biomedical Sciences .
While at the NINDS , Fischbach researched the effects of neuregulin , which is a family of proteins including heregulin , neu differentiation factor , ARIA , and glial growth factor that are critical for vertebrate embryogenesis and specifically for the formation of vertebrate spinal cord oligodendrocytes . Fischbach and his colleagues noticed that oligodendrocytes failed to form in mice that were homozygous for the mutant neuregulin gene . However , when wild @-@ type neuregulin was added to homozygous mutant neuregulin explants ( isolated tissue cell cultures ) nine days after conception of the embryos , normal oligodendrocyte development occurred . This indicated that neuregulin is not necessary for the proliferation of oligodendrocyte multipotent precursor cells . Additionally , when IgB4 , a neuregulin inhibitor , is added to wild @-@ type explants , oligodendrocyte development failed to occur .
= = = Columbia University 2001 – 2006 = = =
After serving as the Director of the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke at the National Institute of Health , Gerald Fischbach was selected as the Vice President and Dean of the Health and Biomedical Sciences , the Dean of the Faculty of Medicine , and the Dean of the Faculty of Health Sciences at Columbia University in New York City . He served as the Dean for all three branches simultaneously . Fischbach was interviewed in 2001 by the newspaper for Columbia University Health Sciences , and there he stated that the mission of the University was " to use all its resources to reduce the burden of human disease . " He explained that this required interdisciplinary and collaborative work with the other departments and resources at Columbia University . The Health and Biomedical Sciences division at Columbia University includes the School of Nursing , the Joseph L. Mailman School of Public Health , the School of Dental Medicine , the College of Physicians and Surgeons , and the Audubon Business and Technology Center . The Audubon Center is the only research park that is affiliated with a university in New York City and holds the only incubator for business related to biotechnology .
The research Fischbach conducted at Columbia University stemmed from his previous work at Harvard University , Washington University and with the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke , National Institute of Health . The specialized focus of his research was on the influence trophic factors could have on the survival of nerve cells and the efficiency of synapses . After his arrival to Columbia , Fischbach was focused on the expression of neuregulin in regards to neuromuscular synapses , signaling pathways in the brain , transcription factors , as well as work on autism . His research on Neuregulin @-@ 1 revealed a possible function in CNS neurogenesis since the neuregulins were labeled throughout proliferation with an anti @-@ MAP2 antibody and an anti @-@ nestin antibody were suggested to have become neuron @-@ restricted progenitors . Some of his other research examined the relationship between neuregulin and expression of myosin heavy chain and transcription factors in human muscle . The research found that treatment including neuregulin increased the number of acetylcholine receptors on the surface of the myotube as well as an increase in the early growth response family for transcription factors . These findings impact the available knowledge regarding muscle spindle fiber formation , myosin heavy chains development , and the feasibility of mimicking muscle development processes in vitro .
= = Current research = =
= = = Simons Foundation 2006 – present = = =
In 2006 , Fischbach joined the Simons Foundation as the scientific director to oversee the Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative . The Simons Foundation is an organization founded by Jim Simons and his wife Marilyn , and has awarded $ 130 million for autism research as of 2008 . As scientific director , Fischbach collaborates with mathematicians , engineers , chemists , and neuroscientists to try and understand autism more completely . Currently , Fischbach oversees research focusing on the neurobiology of autism and how it can relate to finding a possible cure .
Additionally , Fischbach and his colleagues are working on the Simons Simplex Collection ( SSC ) , which is designed to identify genetic factors that increase the risk of autism . Over 100 researchers and 13 universities have interviewed and collected blood samples from more than 2000 families to look for a genetic linkage to autism . The majority of tested individuals have moderate to severe autistic symptoms and do not display high levels of intellectual disability . Additionally , autistic individuals from enrolled SSC families exhibit genetic deletions , duplications , and copy number variants ( CNVs ) that are not present in unaffected family members . Siblings serve as ideal control groups to identify unique CNVs associated with autism . Although CNVs are rare and are found in only up to 1 % autistic individuals , the presence of multiple CNVs in autistic individuals may account for a larger fraction of autism cases . Ultimately , the goal of the SSC is to expand the number of individuals enrolled in the program in hope of identifying penetrant CNVs , small de novo mutations , and single nucleotide polymorphisms that are linked to a higher risk of autism .
Along with this research , Fischbach and his colleagues at the Simons Foundation are studying diseases that have autistic features , such as Rett syndrome and Fragile X syndrome . The hope is that a better understanding of the central role of the synapse in autistic symptoms can be discovered as well as which specific regions of the brain are responsible for these behaviors . Within the next decade , the ultimate goal of this research is to determine the precise neural circuitry involved in autism and how it translates to the autistic behaviors displayed .
= = Honors and publications = =
= = = Awards and honors = = =
Fischbach has received the following awards :
1960 Phi Beta Kappa ( Colgate University )
1965 Polk Award for Undergraduate Research ( Cornell University )
1975 Mathilde Solowey Award in Neuroscience ( Foundation for Advanced Education in the Sciences : National Institute of Health )
1981 W. Alden Spencer Award ( College of Physicians and Surgeons , Columbia University )
1984 Elected to the National Academy of Sciences
1988 Elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
1988 – 1990 McKnight Endowment Fund for Neuroscience Senior Investigator Award
1990 Elected to the Institute of Medicine
1991 Elected to the European Academy of Sciences and Arts
1998 Foundation Ipsen Neuronal Plasticity Prize
2000 Dr. Nathan Davis Award
2003 Parkinson ’ s Disease Foundation Honor for Contributions
2003 Appointed to the Council for Foreign Relations
2004 Maroon Citation ( Colgate University )
= = = Selected publications = = =
Fischbach has authored or co @-@ authored over a hundred papers on his research work , which according to the Web of Science have been cited over 10 @,@ 000 times , giving him an h @-@ index of 57 . Some selected publications are :
Falls , Douglad ; Rosen , Kenneth ; Corfas , Gabriel ; Lane , William ; Fischbach , Gerald ( 1993 ) . " ARIA , a protein that stimulates acetylcholine receptor synthesis , is a member of the neu ligand family " . Cell 72 ( 5 ) : 801 – 813 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1016 / 0092 @-@ 8674 ( 93 ) 90407 @-@ H. PMID 8453670 .
Loeb , Jeffery ; Hmadcha , Abdelkrim ; Fischbach , Gerald ; Land , Susan ; Zakarian , Vaagn ( 2002 ) . " Neuregulin Expression at Neuromuscular Synapses is Modulated by Synaptic Activity and Neurotrophic Factors " . Journal of Neuroscience 22 ( 6 ) : 2206 – 2214 . PMID 11896160 .
Mann MA , Knipe DM , Fischbach GD , Fields BN ( 2002 ) . " Type 3 reovirus neuroinvation after intramuscular inoculation : direct invasion of nerve terminals and age @-@ dependent pathogenesis " . Virology . 303 ( 2 ) : 222 – 31 .
Jacobson C , Duggan D , and Fischbach G , ( 2004 ) . " Neuregulin induces the expression of transcription factors and myosin heavy chains typical of muscle spindles in cultured human muscle " . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America . 101 ( 33 ) : 12218 – 12223 .
Fischbach , Gerald ; Fischbach , Ruth ( 2004 ) . " Stem cells : science , policy , and ethics " . Journal of Clinical Investigation 114 ( 10 ) : 1364 – 1370 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1172 / JCI23549 . PMC 525749 . PMID 15545983 .
Liu Y , Ford B , Mann M , Fischbach G , ( 2005 ) . " Neuregulin @-@ 1 increases the proliferation of neuronal progenitors from embryonic neural stem cells " . Developmental Biology . 283 ( 2 ) : 437 – 445 .
Fischbach G , and Lord , C , ( 2010 ) . " The Simons Simplex Collection : A Resource for Identification of Autism Genetic Risk Factors " . Neuron . 68 ( 2 ) : 192 – 195 .
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= Battle of Nablus ( 1918 ) =
The Battle of Nablus took place , together with the Battle of Sharon during the set piece Battle of Megiddo between 19 and 25 September 1918 in the last months of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of the First World War . Fighting took place in the Judean Hills where the British Empire 's XX Corps attacked the Ottoman Empire 's Yildirim Army Group 's Seventh Army defending their line in front of Nablus . This battle was also fought on the right flank in the Jordan Valley , where Chaytor 's Force attacked and captured the Jordan River crossings , before attacking the Fourth Army at Es Salt and Amman capturing many thousands of prisoners and extensive territory . The Battle of Nablus began half a day after the main Battle of Sharon , which was fought on the Mediterranean section of the front line where the XXI Corps attacked the Eighth Army defending the line in front of Tulkarm and Tabsor and the Desert Mounted Corps which rode north to capture the Esdrealon Plain . Together these two battles , known as the Battle of Megiddo , began the Final Offensive of the war in the Sinai and Palestine campaign .
By the afternoon of 19 September , it was clear that the breakthrough attacks in the Battle of Sharon by the XXI Corps had been successful , and the XX Corps was ordered to begin the Battle of Nablus by attacking the well @-@ defended Ottoman front line , supported by an artillery barrage . These attacks continued late into the night and throughout the next day , until the early hours of 21 September when the continuing successful flanking attack by the XXI Corps , combined with the XX Corps assault and aerial bombing attacks , forced the Seventh and Eighth Armies to disengage . The Ottoman Seventh Army retreated from the Nablus area down the Wadi el Fara road towards the Jordan River , aiming to cross at the Jisr ed Damieh bridge , leaving a rearguard to defend Nablus . The town was captured by the XX Corps and the 5th Light Horse Brigade , while devastating aerial bombing of the Wadi el Fara road , blocked that line of retreat . As all objectives had now been won , no further attacks were required of the XX Corps , which captured thousands of prisoners in the area and at Nablus and Balata .
Defending the right flank and subsidiary to the Nablus battle , the Third Transjordan attack began on 22 September when Meldrum 's Force , a section of Chaytor 's Force captured the 53rd Ottoman Division on the Wadi el Fara road , running from Nablus to the bridge at Jisr ed Damieh over the Jordan River . Further sections of the retreating Seventh Army column were attacked and captured , during the subsequent battle for the bridge when several fords were also captured along with the bridge , cutting this main Ottoman line of retreat eastwards . As the Fourth Army began its retreat , Chaytor 's Force supported by reconnaissance and attacking aircraft , advanced from Jisr ed Damieh to the east to capture Es Salt on 23 September . This force continued its advance eastwards , to capture Amman on 25 September , after a strong Fourth Army rearguard was defeated there . The southern Hedjaz section of the Fourth Army was captured to the south of Amman , at Ziza on 29 September , ending military operations in the area .
Following the victory at Megiddo , the Final Offensive continued when Damascus was captured on 1 October , after several days of pursuit by the Desert Mounted Corps . A further pursuit resulted in the occupation of Homs . On 26 October , the attack at Haritan , north of Aleppo , was under @-@ way when the Armistice of Mudros was signed between the Allies and the Ottoman Empire , ending the Sinai and Palestine campaign .
= = Background = =
After the Ottoman Army 's defeat at the Battle of Beersheba , the loss to the Central Powers of southern Palestine , the retreat to the Judean Hills and the loss of Jerusalem at the end of 1917 , several Ottoman army commanders in Palestine were replaced . The Yildirim Army Group 's German commander , General Erich von Falkenhayn , was replaced by the German General Otto Liman von Sanders . The commander of the Eighth Army , Kress von Kressenstein , was replaced by Djevad Pasha and Cemal commander of the Ottoman Army , appointed Cemal Kucjuk Pasha to command the Fourth Army . Mustafa Kemal had resigned as commander of the Seventh Army in 1917 but was back by early September 1918 .
Following the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk in March 1918 , which ended the war on the Eastern Front between Imperial Russia and Imperial Germany , the main focus of the Ottoman Army turned to the Anatolian provinces and territories lost in 1877 – 1878 during the Russo @-@ Turkish War . The Ottoman Army embarked on a series of territorial conquests in the Caucasus beginning in northern Persia . Erzerum which had been captured by the Russians in 1916 , was retaken on 24 March 1918 , followed by Van on 5 April and later Batum , Kars and Tiflis . Reoccupation of these former possessions brought little strategic advantage to the Ottoman Empire , compared with the potential benefits of military success in Palestine .
Major offensive operations in Palestine also became a low priority for the British Army in March ; being postponed because of the Spring Offensive in France , but by July , it was clear that the German offensive had failed resulting in a return to the battle of attrition in the trenches . This coincided with the approach of the campaign season in Palestine . General Edmund Allenby , commander of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) was " very anxious to make a move in September " when he expected to capture Tulkarm and Nablus , the headquarters of the Seventh and Eighth Armies , along with the road to Jisr ed Damieh and Es Salt . " Another reason for moving to this line is that it will encourage both my own new Indian troops and my Arab Allies . "
= = = Reorganisation of EEF infantry = = =
To replace British losses suffered during the Spring Offensive the 52nd ( Lowland ) , the 74th ( Yeomanry ) Divisions and nine British infantry battalions from each of the 10th , 53rd , 60th and the 75th Divisions were sent to France between April and August 1918 . The resulting vacancies in the divisions were filled by British Indian Army battalions . The 75th Division had received the first Indian battalions in June 1917 . Infantry brigades were now reorganised with one British battalion and three Indian battalions . Except one brigade in the 53rd Division which had one South African and three Indian battalions . The British Indian Army 's 7th ( Meerut ) Division arrived from the campaign in Mesopotamia in January 1918 followed by the 3rd ( Lahore ) Division in April , 1918 . Only the 54th ( East Anglian ) Division remained , as previously , an all British division .
By April 1918 , 35 infantry and two pioneer battalions were being prepared to move to Palestine . Some of these battalions , numbered from 150 upwards , were formed by removing complete company 's from experienced regiments then serving in Mesopotamia and forming new battalions . The 2 / 151st Indian Infantry , was one such battalion formed from one company each from the 56th Punjabi Rifles , the 51st , 52nd and 53rd Sikhs . One regiment the 101st Grenadiers formed a second battalion by dividing itself into two with two experienced and two new companies in each battalion . The parent battalions also supplied first line transport and experienced officers with war time service . The 3 / 151st Indian Infantry , had the commanding officer , two other British and four Indian officers included in the 198 men transferred from the 38th Dogras . The sepoys transferred were also very experienced , in September 1918 the 2 / 151st Indian Infantry had to provide an honour guard for Allenby , among the men on parade , were some who had served on five different fronts since 1914 , and on eight pre war campaigns .
Of the 54 Indian battalions deployed to Palestine , 22 had recent experience of combat , but had each lost an experienced company , which had been replaced by recruits . Ten battalions were formed from experienced troops who had never fought or trained together . The other 22 had not seen any prior service in the war , in total almost a third of the troops were recruits . Within 44 Indian battalions , the " junior British officers were green , and most could not speak Hindustani . In one battalion only one Indian officer spoke English and only two British officers could communicate with their men . " Not all of the Indian battalions served in the infantry divisions , some were employed in defence of the lines of communication .
= = = Front line = = =
In September 1918 , the front line began near sea level on the Mediterranean coast about 12 miles ( 19 km ) north of Jaffa and Arsuf , extending about 15 miles ( 24 km ) south @-@ eastward across the Plain of Sharon , then eastward over the Judean Hills for about 15 miles ( 24 km ) , rising to 1 @,@ 500 – 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 460 – 610 m ) above sea level along the way . From the Judean Hills , the front line dropped down to 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) below sea level , to cross the Jordan Valley for approximately 18 miles ( 29 km ) , ending in the foothills of the Mountains of Gilead / Moab .
= = = Railway = = =
The Ottoman railway from Istanbul travelled south to Deraa where it branched into two lines . One line continued east of the Jordan River in a southerly direction to supply the Ottoman Fourth Army headquarters and the garrisons and forces scattered along the southern Hedjaz railway several hundred miles to the south . The second railway line turned westward to supply the Ottoman Seventh and the Eighth Armies in the Judean Hills . This second line crossed the Jordan at Jisr Mejamie , ran southwards down the west bank of the Jordan River to Beisan , then turned westward to run parallel to the front line in the Judean Hills , across the Esdraelon Plain to Afulah . From Afulah the railway forked again into two lines : a branch line running north – westerly to Haifa , while the main line turned south to Jenin . From Jenin the railway wound through a narrow pass in the foothills to climb to Messudieh Junction in the Judean Hills where it again branched into two lines . One line ran westward to Tulkarm and the Eighth Army headquarters before turning south to reach railhead behind the Eighth Army ' front line on the coastal plain , while the second line continued south – eastward to Nablus . Here , the headquarters of the Seventh Army was located , north of Jerusalem on the main road to Nazareth and Damascus .
= = Prelude = =
" Concentration , surprise , and speed were key elements in the blitzkrieg warfare planned by Allenby . " Victory at the Battle of Megiddo depended on the success of an intense British Empire artillery barrage to cover the front line infantry attack and drive a gap in the line so the cavalry could advance to quickly reach the Esdraelon Plain 50 miles ( 80 km ) away during the first day of battle . Control of the skies was achieved and maintained by destroying or dominating German aircraft activity and reconnaissances , and constant bombing raids by the Royal Flying Corps ( RAF ) and Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) on Afulah and the Seventh and Eighth Army headquarters at Tulkarm and Nablus respectively and cutting communications with their commander , Liman von Sanders at Nazareth .
During the first 36 hours of the Battle of Megiddo 's Battle of Sharon , between 04 : 30 on 19 September and 17 : 00 on 20 September , the German and Ottoman front line had been cut by infantry , and the cavalry had passed through the gap to reach their objectives at Afulah , Nazareth , and Beisan . Without communications , no combined action could be organized by the Ottoman forces . The continuing British Empire infantry attack from the south forced the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies in the Judean Hills to withdraw northwards towards Damascus , along the main roads and railways from Tulkarm and Nablus which ran through the Dothan Pass northwards to Jenin . Having captured the town , the 3rd Light Horse Brigade were to wait for them .
= = = British Empire deployments = = =
= = = = XX Corps = = = =
The XX Corps commanded by Lieutenant General Phillip Chetwode consisting of the 10th and 53rd Divisions , was deployed on both sides of the road from Jerusalem to Nablus , in the Judean Hills .
Chetwode was to capture Nablus by launching attacks on both Ottoman flanks , with the aim of converging about 7 miles ( 11 km ) to the north . The 10th Division on the left was to attack the inter @-@ army boundary with the XXI Corps 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) east of Furkhah , heading for Nablus along a spur parallel with the 53rd Division on the right , which was to move east following the watershed to the Wadi el Fara . Between these two divisions was a 7 miles ( 11 km ) gap lightly held by Watson 's Force ; a detachment improvised from Corps Troops ' 1 / 1st Worcestershire Yeomanry , two Pioneer battalions , and details from the Corps Reinforcement Camp .
= = = = Chaytor 's Force = = = =
On 5 September 1918 the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade took over the left sector of the valley defences , continuing active patrolling . And on " the 16th September the General Officer Commanding Anzac Mounted Division took over command of the whole of the Jordan Valley defences as well as Desert Mounted Corps camps at Talaat ed Dumm and Kilo 17 Jericho Jerusalem Road and Desert Mounted Corps Reinforcement Camp , Jerusalem , the force being designated ' Chaytor 's Force . ' "
Chaytor 's Force commanded by Major General Edward Chaytor , consisted of the Anzac Mounted Division , 20th Indian Brigade , 1st and 2nd Battalions British West Indies Regiment , 38th and 39th Battalions Royal Fusiliers ( Jewish Volunteers ) , A / 263 Battery Royal Field Artillery ( RFA ) , 195th Heavy Battery Royal Garrison Artillery ( RGA ) , 29th and 32nd Indian Artillery Mountain Batteries , No. 6 ( Medium ) Trench Mortar Battery , three anti – aircraft sections Royal Artillery ( RA ) , two sections of captured 75 mm Ottoman guns , one section of captured 5 @.@ 9 Ottoman guns and No. 35 Army Troops Company Royal Engineers ( RE ) .
On establishment , the force consisted of one mounted division , one infantry brigade and four infantry battalions ( equivalent to a second infantry brigade without brigade support troops or a command structure ) , five batteries , six sections of artillery and transport consisting of 20 lorries , 17 tractors , 34 trucks , 300 donkeys , 11 @,@ 000 horses and mules . Eight days later an additional 70 donkeys , 65 lorries in the 1040 Motor Transport Company , 110 camels in ' M ' Company Camel Transport Corps , were added .
Chaytor 's Force was detached from the Desert Mounted Corps for independent operations . Primary responsibilities included the continuing occupation of the Jordan Valley and the protection of the eastern flank of the EEF 's front line . Further , Chaytor 's Force was to exploit any withdrawal by the Ottoman Fourth Army from their positions at Shunet Nimrin , Es Salt and their headquarters at Amman .
= = = = Air support = = = =
On 18 September , the Royal Air Force 's 5th ( Corps ) Wing and the 40th ( Army ) Wing , both headquartered at Ramle , were deployed to the area and responsible for cooperation with artillery and contact patrols , tactical and strategic reconnaissance , photography , escorts , offensive patrols and bombing operations . No. 1 Squadron Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) , No. 111 Squadron RAF and a flight of No. 145 Squadron RAF were based at Ramle , while No. 144 Squadron RAF was based at Junction Station .
Tactical reconnaissance up to 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) in advance of the XXI Corps , XX Corps and Chaytor 's Force , was provided by corps squadrons ; No. 14 Squadron RAF operating out of Junction Station was assigned to XX Corps . Operating out of Sarona was No. 113 Squadron RAF , along with No. 21 Balloon Company , both assigned to XXI Corps . No. 142 Squadron RAF , also operating out of Sarona , had orders to move forward to Jenin aerodrome as soon as it was captured and was assigned to Desert Mounted Corps . One flight from No. 142 Squadron was attached to Chaytor 's Force and operated out of Jerusalem .
No. 1 Squadron ( AFC ) , consisting of Bristol Fighters , was to carry out bombing and strategic reconnaissance , as well as provide general oversight of the battlefield and report developments . Nos. 111 and 145 Squadrons of S.E.5a aircraft were to patrol over the main Jenin aerodrome all day , bombing and machine gunning targets in the area to prevent any aircraft leaving the aerodrome . No. 144 Squadron , consisting of D.H. 9 aircraft , was to bomb the Afulah telephone exchange and railway station , the Messudieh Junction railway lines , as well as the Ottoman Seventh Army headquarters and telephone exchange at Nablus . The newly arrived Handley – Page O @-@ 400 bomber ( armed with 16 112 pounds ( 51 kg ) bombs ) and piloted by the Australian , Ross Smith , was to support No. 144 Squadron 's bombing of Afulah .
= = = = Medical support = = = =
A total of 54 @,@ 800 beds were available in Palestine and Egypt , including convalescence and clearing hospitals ; 22 @,@ 524 beds were made available in Egypt , and a hospital centre in the Deir el Belah and Gaza region , along with stationary hospitals between Kantara and Ludd , could accommodate another 15 @,@ 000 casualties . No. 14 Australian General Hospital on the Suez Canal was full of malaria cases from the Jordan Valley with the overflow in the No. 31 British General Hospital at Abbassia , Cairo . The Australian Stationary Hospital at Mosacar only had a few beds available .
By August , casualty clearing stations or clearing hospitals were located at Ludd , at Jaffa and at Jerusalem , supported by medical stores depots at Ludd and Jerusalem .
= = = British Empire plan = = =
The timing of the attacks by the XX Corps and Chaytor 's Force were dependent on the progress made by the XXI Corps during 19 September .
Chetwode 's XX Corps would continue holding more than 20 miles ( 32 km ) of front in the Judean Hills , until the XXI Corps had succeeded in breaking through the Ottoman defences and was advancing north to its secondary objectives . Then , the 10th and the 53rd Divisions would launch their attacks on both sides of the road from Jerusalem to Nablus . In particular , the XX Corps right flank was to swing towards the north and north east of Nablus to capture all remaining escape routes eastwards from the Judean Hills to the Jordan River .
In the Jordan Valley , Chaytor 's Force would hold the occupied area and the right flank against attack by the Ottoman Fourth Army and prevent that force from withdrawing troops , which could be sent to reinforce the Seventh and Eighth Armies in the Judean Hills . When the Ottoman force began its withdrawal , they were to capture the Jisr ed Damieh bridge .
Allenby 's plan was focused on capturing the Ottoman line of communication and retreat between the Fourth Army east of the Jordan river and the Seventh and Eighth Armies in the Judean Hills west of the Jordan –
I am very anxious to make a move in September , on the lines which I have already indicated to you ... Nablus and Tulkeram are the Headquarters of the VII and VIII Armies , joined by a lateral line of railway . The possession by the Turks of the road Nablus – Jisr ed Damie – Es Salt is of great advantage to them ; and , until I get it , I can 't occupy Es Salt with my troops or the Arabs . Another reason for moving to this line is that it will encourage both my own new Indian troops and my Arab Allies .
Chaytor 's Force would then attack and pursue the Fourth Army , intercept and capture the 4 @,@ 600 strong garrison from Maan and capture Amman .
= = = Yildirim Army Group = = =
In August 1918 , the Yildirim Army Group commanded by von Sanders consisted of 40 @,@ 598 front line infantrymen , organised into twelve divisions and deployed along 90 kilometres ( 56 mi ) of front line . They were armed with 19 @,@ 819 rifles , 273 light and 696 heavy machine guns ; the high number of machine guns reflecting the Ottoman Army 's new tables of organization and the high machine gun component of the German Asia Corps .
The Ottoman front line in the Judean Hills was well entrenched south of Nablus in terrain which favoured defence . The area consisted of " very difficult and broken ground " in a rugged area of the Judean Hills . The defenders were supplied by two railways , one from Haifa and the main railway via Beisan across the Jordan to Deraa , Damascus and on to Istanbul as well as good roads from Haifa and Damascus , via Nazareth .
= = = = Eighth Army = = = =
The Eighth Army of 10 @,@ 000 soldiers supported by 157 artillery guns , with its headquarters at Tulkarm and commanded by Cevat Çobanlı , held a line from the Mediterranean coast just north of Arsuf to Furkhah in the Judean Hills . Its XXII Corps consisted of the 7th , 20th and 46th Infantry Divisions . The Asia Corps , also known as the " Left Wing Group " , consisted of the 16th and 19th Infantry Divisions , three German battalion groups from the German Pasha II Brigade and the 2nd Caucasian Cavalry Division , which was held in reserve . This corps – sized German formation was commanded by German Colonel von Oppen .
These divisions holding the front line from the Mediterranean Sea where they faced the XXI Corps , and into the Judean Hills where they faced the XX Corps , were highly regarded veteran formations in the Ottoman Army . In particular , the 7th and 19th Infantry Divisions , had fought with distinction in the Gallipoli Campaign as part of Esat Pasa 's III Corps .
= = = = Seventh Army = = = =
The Seventh Army of 7 @,@ 000 soldiers supported by 111 guns , and commanded by Mustafa Kemal Pasa , had its headquarters at Nablus . This army , comprising the III Corps ' 1st and 11th Infantry Divisions and the XXIII Corps ' 26th and 53rd Infantry Division , held the line in the Judean Hills from Furkhah eastwards to Baghalat 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) west north west of Jericho on the west bank of the Jordan River .
= = = = Fourth Army = = = =
The Fourth Army of 6 @,@ 000 infantry and 2 @,@ 000 cavalry supported by 74 guns , headquartered at Amman , was commanded by Cemal Kucjuk Pasha . The Fourth Army held the line from Baghalat , across the Jordan Valley and southwards along the Hedjaz railway , where an additional 6 @,@ 000 Ottoman soldiers , with 30 guns , were scattered from Maan southwards towards Mecca garrisoning the railway line . The Fourth Army was made up of two corps ; the VIII Corps ' 48th Infantry Division , a composite division which included a German battalion group , the Caucasus Cavalry Brigade and the division sized Serstal Group , while the II Corps ( known as the Seria Group or Jordan Group ) consisted of the 24th and the 62nd Infantry Divisions , with the 3rd Cavalry Division in reserve .
= = = = Reserves = = = =
The 2nd Caucasian Cavalry Division and the 3rd Cavalry Division were the only divisional formations available for reserve duty at the operational leval . They were held in reserve for the Eight and Fourth Armies respectively .
= = = = Other views of this force = = = =
An English language assessment describes the Fourth , Seventh and Eighth Ottoman Armies fighting strength as 26 @,@ 000 infantry , 2 @,@ 000 mounted troops and 372 guns . Another states the 45 miles ( 72 km ) of front line in the Judean Hills , was defended by 24 @,@ 000 Ottoman soldiers with 270 guns against the British Empire 's 22 @,@ 000 infantry , 3 @,@ 000 cavalry and 157 guns .
The nine infantry battalions of the 16th Infantry Division , had effective strengths equal to a British infantry company of between 100 and 250 men , while 150 to 200 men were " assigned " to the 19th Infantry Division battalions which had had between 500 and 600 men at Beersheba .
Claims have been made that the Ottoman armies were under strength , overstretched , " haemorrhaging " deserters , suffering greatly from a strained supply system and overwhelmingly outnumbered by two to one by the EEF . It is claimed the Ottoman supply system was so bad in February 1918 , that the normal daily ration for the Yildirim Army Group in Palestine , consisted of 125 grains ( 0 @.@ 29 oz ) of bread and boiled beans three times a day , without oil or any other condiment .
= = Battle = =
= = = Preliminary attack = = =
On 18 September , the 53rd Division attempted to seize the Samieh basin overlooking the Ottoman road system behind their front lines . From this watershed , the Wadi Samieh flowed gradually to the west into the Judean Hills and the Wadi el Auja flowed down steeply to the east into the Jordan River . The area was required for the construction of a road to link the British road system with the newly captured Ottoman road system . Some objectives were captured but a position known to the British as " Nairn Ridge " was held by the Ottomans until late on 19 September .
The 53rd Division 's attack began shortly after 18 : 30 on the evening of 18 September when three battalions of the 160th Brigade , with the 21st Punjabis as vanguard , moved down into Wadi es Samieh in a wide flanking manoeuvre across rocky terrain towards the rear of the Ottoman positions . After cresting the wadi , they turned to the left and attacked a series of Ottoman positions from the east capturing small posts until an artillery bombardment between 21 : 52 and 22 : 20 enabled them to continue their advance . At 22 : 30 , the 159th Brigade began its advance but almost immediately encountered strong Ottoman defences and the only five Hindustani @-@ speaking British officers were wounded . Despite the casualties , the brigade captured its objectives under the command of an Adjutant Captain . The 159th Brigade advanced again and captured the Hindhead position at 04 : 40 after a red rocket , from the 160th Brigade indicating it had captured most of their objectives , was sighted . Meanwhile , the 160th Brigade had met increasing machine gun and artillery fire until a five @-@ minute artillery bombardment at 04 : 45 enabled the capture of the Square Hill position . The southern end of Nairn Ridge was not captured , having " withstood three assaults " .
At 04 : 30 , intense bombardment by artillery , trench mortars and machine guns , targeted the German and Ottoman front and second line trenches ahead of XXI Corps towards the Mediterranean coast . Additional fire support came from three siege batteries , which provided counter @-@ battery fire , and the destroyers HMS Druid and HMS Forester , which fired on Ottoman trenches north of the Nahr el Faliq ; beginning the Battle of Sharon .
Nairn Ridge remained in Ottoman hands until about 19 : 00 on 19 September , when it was finally captured and the road works could begin , and the 53rd Division could start their attempt to block the line of retreat , to the Jordan River at Mafid Jozele .
= = = 19 September = = =
Instead of attempting a frontal assault on the strongly entrenched Ottoman positions , the two divisions of the XX Corps were to carry out a converging movement . The 10th Division on the left of the main road was to capture Nablus , while the 53rd Division on the right was to move east of Nablus along a watershed to cut the lines of retreat from the Judean Hills to the Jisr ed Damieh and converge on Nablus .
At 12 : 00 on 19 September , Chetwode received orders from GHQ to launch the XX Corps ' attack that night on both sides of the road to Nablus . At 19 : 45 after a 15 @-@ minute bombardment , the 10th Division was to begin the attack on the inter army boundary between the Asia Corps ( Eighth Ottoman Army ) and the Seventh Ottoman Army , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) east of Furkhah at the " western end of the Fukhah spur . " The 53rd Division 's attack , which would not begin until after they had captured Nairn Ridge , was to move eastwards following the watershed to the Wadi el Fara to block the Roman road to the Jordan River at Mafid Jozele .
Mustafa Kemal the commander of the Seventh Army reported to Liman that his army had repulsed practically all attacks on its front , but was about to withdraw to its second @-@ line position between Kefar Haris and Iskaka , to conform with von Oppen 's Asia Corps ( Eighth Army ) retirement .
The XX Corps artillery bombardment began at 19 : 30 and fifteen minutes later two battalions of the 29th Brigade ( 10th Division ) began to advance on either side of the Wadi Rashid against strongly entrenched Ottoman positions . After being reinforced and supported by a further artillery barrage , Furkhah village was captured and the advance continued towards Selfit , which was occupied in the " early hours of the morning " of 20 September .
Meanwhile , in the Jordan Valley , Chaytor 's Force faced stiff opposition from the Ottoman front line troops . As a consequence of progress made by the 160th Brigade during the afternoon of 19 September , one of the brigade 's mountain batteries was able to get in a position to fire on Bakr Ridge . At 14 : 25 , supported by the 160th Brigade 's battery , three companies of the 2nd Battalion British West Indies Regiment ( Chaytor 's Force ) destroyed Ottoman outposts and captured a ridge to the south of Bakr Ridge , despite intense artillery and machine gun fire . Under heavy fire , they dug in and held their position while two regiments of 2nd Light Horse Brigade were able to advance towards Shunet Nimrin .
= = = 20 September = = =
The 10th Division advanced 7 miles ( 11 km ) before dawn on 20 September , before encountering " solid resistance " which required artillery support , to defeat . Artillery support was delayed for some time due to the lack of a track to transport the guns . Meanwhile , the attack by the 53rd Division along the " ridge proved difficult to negotiate and progress was relatively slow . "
By 04 : 30 , the left column of the 10th Division was near Kefr Haris , while the right column was at Selfit , but further advances were slowed by effective Ottoman rearguards . On the right , the 29th Brigade launched an attack at 06 : 45 but met strong resistance from German machine gunners a mile north of Selfit . The 31st Brigade began their advance at 08 : 45 but were held up in the woods east of Haris and south of Kefar Haris . At 15 : 00 , the 29th and 31st Brigades renewed their attacks supported by artillery from the LXVII and LXVIII Brigades RFA . Haris was subsequently captured by an infantry charge into the village .
In the centre between the 10th and 53rd Divisions , Watson 's Force sent the 1 / 1st Worcestershire Yeomanry ( XX Corps Troops ) forward at 05 : 30 , to advance northwards up the Jerusalem to Nablus road . The road was found to be heavily mined ; two battalions of pioneers cleared 78 unexploded devices before the yeomanry advanced 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) where they were fired on . By the evening they had advanced 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) to Es Sawiye , encountering only small rearguards which were captured . The 10th Heavy Battery and 205th Siege Battery , pulled by four @-@ wheel @-@ drive lorries with ammunition and detachments in lorries , advanced as far up the road as possible , at a rate of 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) per hour to be in action by evening near El Lubban , south of Es Sawiye .
Strong Ottoman rearguards were encountered by the 53rd Division throughout the day which substantially slowed progress . At 04 : 40 , after a ten @-@ minute bombardment the 160th Brigade attacked Kh . Jibeit , but was counter @-@ attacked at 08 : 00 by a battalion of the Ottoman 109th Regiment , which drove them back with heavy losses . By 11 : 00 , the 158th Brigade was half way towards its objective 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) south of Kh . Birket el Qusr , but could not breach the defences without artillery support . However , between 12 : 25 and 12 : 45 the 160th Brigade succeeded in recapturing Kh . Jibeit and at 15 : 00 the 159th Brigade captured Ras et Tawil .
On the western bank of the Jordan River , the gains made on the previous day were consolidated and Bakr Ridge captured at dawn by the 2nd Battalion British West Indies Regiment . The 38th Battalion Royal Fusiliers faced heavy rifle and machine gun fire from Mellaha , which was still strongly held by Ottoman forces and in the late morning a large Ottoman force was seen south of Kh . Fusail . Jericho was shelled again in mid afternoon and at 19 : 00 the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade began their advance towards Tel sh edh Dhib . Meanwhile , on the eastern bank of the Jordan River , the 6th and 7th Light Horse Regiments ( 2nd Light Horse Brigade , Chaytor 's Force ) with a company of Patiala Infantry attacked well @-@ defended positions on the Ottoman left flank , but patrols towards Shunet Nimrin and Derbasi were shelled by guns from El Haud .
= = = General situation = = =
More than 40 hours after the fighting began , the EEF XXI Corps had forced the Ottoman Eighth Army from the coastal Plain of Sharon , and the Desert Mounted Corps had cut the Ottoman Seventh and remnants of the Eighth Armies main lines of communication and retreat at Jenin on the Esdrealon Plain .
By 17 : 00 20 September , about 25 @,@ 000 prisoners had been captured and the Eighth Ottoman Army had ceased to exist excepting von Oppen 's Asia Corps which , together with the Seventh Ottoman Army , withdrew north eastwards through the Judean Hills between Nablus and Beisan ( See Capture of Afulah and Beisan ) towards the Jordan River losing most of their guns and transport . The Desert Mounted Corps had already captured Lejjun , Afulah , Beisan and , at about 17 : 30 , Jenin , while Nazareth would be captured the following morning . The coastal Plain of Sharon had been " cleared " by the XXI Corps and the Desert Mounted Corps controlled all the main Ottoman lines of retreat . A group of 100 soldiers retreating from Mount Ephraim to Beisan were captured in the afternoon of 20 September , and 700 soldiers were captured in the evening , attempting to cross the line of piquets established in the Esdrealon Plain by the 4th Cavalry Division from Afulah to Beisan .
My Battle is a big one ; and , so far , very successful . I think I have taken some 10 @,@ 000 prisoners and 80 or 90 guns ... This morning my cavalry occupied Afuleh , and pushed thence rapidly south – eastwards , entered Beisan this evening , thus closing to the enemy his last line of escape .
My infantry yesterday captured Tulkeram , and are now pursuing the enemy eastwards to Nablus ... I was at Tulkaram today , and went along the Nablus road . It is strewn with broken lorries , wagons , dead Turks , horses and oxen ; mostly killed and smashed by our bombing aeroplanes .
The same bombing of fugitives , on crowded roads , continues today . I think I ought to capture all the Turks ' guns and the bulk of his Army ... My losses are not heavy , in proportion to the results gained . I hope to motor out , tomorrow , to see the Cavalry in Esdraelon . The Cavalry Headquarters are at Armageddon , at the present moment .
= = = 21 September = = =
Chetwode ordered the continuation of the XX Corps ' attacks ; the 10th Division was to capture Nablus , the 53rd Division was to advance towards the high ground north and north east of Nablus , in the direction of the Wadi el Fara road , to capture and control this line of retreat to the Jordan Valley .
At 23 : 30 20 September , the 29th and 31st Brigades of the 10th Division resumed their advance ; the 29th Brigade supported by the Hong Kong Battery with the LXVII and LXVIII Brigades RFA on the left . The 30th Brigade concentrated west of Selfit in preparation of a follow @-@ up advance through the 29th Brigade when it reached Quza on the Damascus road .
A strong Ottoman rearguard at Rujib , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south of Nablus , delayed the infantry attack for " no more than an hour " after which the defenders were outflanked from the east and the rearguard position captured at 11 : 00 . Most of the garrison had already retreated from Rujib when the 1 / 1st Worcestershire Yeomanry , the Corps Cavalry Regiment , galloped in and captured several hundred prisoners .
The Worcester Yeomanry continued their advance north east of Nablus to Askar where they were stalled by machine gun fire . The 31st Brigade advanced to the hills south of Nablus , while the 29th and 30th Brigades went on to Balata where they captured some prisoners , but by this time , fighting had already ceased and the Seventh Army was in full retreat .
Meanwhile , at Tabsor the 3rd ( Lahore ) Division ( XXI Corps ) continued a flanking advance to reach Rafidia at 05 : 00 , 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) west of Nablus on 21 September where they occupied a 5 @.@ 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) long line , which stretched to 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) east of Burqa .
= = = = Capture of Nablus = = = =
After cutting the railway north of Nablus , the 5th Light Horse Brigade ( attached to the 60th Division ) camped near Tulkarm for the night of 20 September . The brigade , consisting of the 14th and 15th Light Horse Regiments and the Régiment Mixte de Marche de Cavalerie , was ordered to assist in the capture of Nablus on the morning of 21 September . To reach Nablus , they had to negotiate around and through the wreckage caused by aerial bombing on the road from Tulkarm to Nablus . ( See Battle of Sharon ( 1918 ) and Battle of Tabsor ( 1918 ) for movements of this light horse brigade . )
Dead men and animals , torn about with ruthless bombs , swollen and distorted , stank fearfully . Many of the animals still lived in speechless agony , and some of the wretched wounded were in many cases pinned down by carrion , but there was no time to stop and help them . That was for others who came behind . War is hell , and looks well only in a picture show .
The 5th Light Horse Brigade with the 2nd Light Armoured Motor Battery , had advanced quickly along the Tulkarm @-@ to @-@ Nablus road to attack the last resistance outside Nablus and capture the town , between 800 and 900 prisoners and two field guns . The Régiment Mixte de Marche de Cavalerie , with two armoured cars , entered Nablus while the 14th Light Horse Regiment linked with the 29th and 30th Brigades ( 10th Division , XX Corps ) at Balata .
" [ T ] he 10th Division reached Nablus by noon , where they were met by the Fifth Australian Light Horse Brigade which had entered the town from the west at about the same time . " The light horse rode through the streets of Nablus ( the ancient Shechem ) and camped on the plain beyond the town , where they received orders to rejoin the Australian Mounted Division at Jenin .
Outflanked , Nablus fell to the French regiment , to the usual demonstrations of allegiance to the conquerors – of whatever side . The Turkish troops had abandoned it for the surrounding country and the civic leaders formally surrendered to Onslow . The 5th then collected about 900 of the former garrison in the hinterland .
Before advancing on Nablus and Balata , the 10th Division fought and marched for two days through the hills and gulleys of Mount Ephraim , suffering about 800 casualties but capturing 1 @,@ 223 prisoners .
Chetwode wrote :
I was able to motor into Nablus where I was joined by Allenby the same evening also in a motor , both of us being well ahead of our advance guards . The country was a mass of half starving bodies of Turks , some armed and some not , and it was quite ordinary to see an Indian havildar [ sergeant ] emerging from the mountains followed by 20 or 30 fully armed Turks who had surrendered to him .
Allenby wrote :
I cannot estimate total number of prisoners , but 18 @,@ 000 have been counted . I motored to Lejjun , today ; 65 miles N. of here , overlooking the plain of Esdraelon . A beautiful view across the flat vale . Nazareth , high in hills , to the N. ; Mount Tabor opposite ; Mount Gilboa to the E. , overlooking Jezreel . Some of the Indian cavalry got into Turks with the lance , in the plain yesterday , and killed many . I ... passed through thousands of prisoners today ...
= = = = Advance towards Wadi el Fara road = = = =
The 53rd Division maintained pressure during the day in an attempt to capture the high ground north and north east of Nablus to seal the lines of retreat to the Jordan River crossing at Jisr ed Damieh .
While the 160th Brigade guarded a water supply at Samiye , the 158th and 159th Brigades , advanced 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) , suffering 690 casualties but captured 1 @,@ 195 prisoners and nine guns . At 01 : 00 , the " 5 / 6th R. Welch Fusiliers " ' occupied Kh . Birket el Qusr unopposed . A follow @-@ up advance gained them ' Aqrabe at 10 : 45 and after a further 10 miles ( 16 km ) advance to the north , unopposed , it became apparent that enemy forces had disengaged . Chetwode sent orders to " stand fast " as an advance to the now blocked Wadi el Fara road was unnecessary . The road was subsequently bombarded by the RAF and artillery of ' A ' Battery LXVIII Brigade RFA , the 10th Heavy Battery and two batteries of the 103rd Brigade RGA .
= = = German and Ottoman retreat = = =
By early afternoon of 21 September , organised Yildirim Army Group resistance in the Judean Hills had ceased , most of the Ottoman Eighth Army had surrendered while the Seventh Army was retreating east down the Wadi el Fara road hoping to cross the Jordan River by the bridge at Jisr ed Damieh .
= = = = Liman von Sanders withdrawal = = = =
Liman von Sanders had no units available to stop the cavalry advance up the coast and across the Esdrealon Plain , Allenby 's attack having forced the Yildirim Army Group to retreat . In the early hours of 20 September , Liman fled from Nazareth to Damascus , via Tiberias , Samakh to Deraa . When he arrived in Deraa on the morning of 21 September he ordered the Fourth Army to withdraw to the Deraa @-@ to @-@ Irbid line without waiting for the southern Hedjaz troops .
= = = = Asia Corps = = = =
During the night of 20 / 21 September , the 16th and the 19th Divisions marched to the west of Nablus , under Liman von Sanders orders , where they linked up with von Oppen 's Asia Corps . The next morning , von Oppen reorganised the Asia Corps by amalgamating the remnants of the 702nd and 703rd Battalions into one , with a rifle company , a machine gun company and a trench mortar detachment , while the 701st Battalion with its machine gun company , six guns , a troop of cavalry , an infantry @-@ artillery platoon with two mountain guns or howitzers and a trench mortar section with four mortars and a cavalry squadron , remained intact .
At 10 : 00 , von Oppen was informed that the EEF was approaching Nablus and the Wadi el Fara road was blocked . Consequently , he decided to retreat via Beit Dejan 7 miles ( 11 km ) east south east of Nablus and cross the Jordan River at Jisr ed Damieh , but this route was cut shortly afterwards . Von Oppen then ordered a retreat without guns or baggage via Mount Ebal during 21 September , which was largely successful although they suffered some casualties when fired on by British Empire artillery. von Oppen bivouaced at Tammun , with the 16th and the 19th Divisions at Tubas , unaware that Desert Mounted Corps had already occupied Beisan .
On 22 September , with about 700 German and 1 @,@ 300 Ottoman soldiers of the 16th and 19th Divisions , von Oppen was moving northwards from Tubas towards Beisan when he learned it had already been captured . He decided to advance during the night of 22 September to Samakh where he correctly guessed Liman von Sanders would order a strong rearguard action ; however , Jevad , the commander of the Eighth Army , ordered him to cross the Jordan instead . Von Oppen successfully got all the Germans and some of the Ottoman soldiers across the Jordan River , before the 11th Cavalry Brigade attacked , capturing those who failed to cross the river .
= = = = Seventh Army = = = =
The Seventh Army retreated down the Wadi el Fara road towards the Jordan River abandoning its guns and transports . This large column of Ottoman soldiers was seen about 8 miles ( 13 km ) north of Nablus moving down the road towards Beisan and was heavily bombed and machine gunned by British and Australian aircraft . When the defile became blocked , the Ottoman forces were subjected to four hours of sustained attack , which destroyed at least 90 guns , 50 motor lorries and more than 1 @,@ 000 other vehicles . The remnants of the Army then turned north at ' Ain Shible , still moving towards Beisan , except for the Ottoman 53rd Division which managed to escape before the defile was blocked but were later captured by Chaytor 's Force in the Jordan Valley on 22 September . On 23 and 24 September , 1 @,@ 500 prisoners were captured by Chetwode 's XX Corps in the Judean Hills .
= = = Chaytor 's Force 21 – 25 September = = =
On 21 September , the Auckland Mounted Rifles Regiment advanced on the western bank of the Jordan River to capture Kh . Fasail on the road to Jisr ed Damieh . An Ottoman defensive line covering the Jisr ed Damieh bridge , was subsequently discovered and the Seventh Army was seen moving along the Wadi el Fara towards Jisr ed Damieh . At 23 : 30 , Meldrum 's force of the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade , mobile detachments of the 1st and 2nd Battalions of the British West Indies Regiment , the 29th Indian Mountain Battery and Ayrshire ( or Inverness ) Battery RHA , arrived at Kh . Fusail . Early in the morning of 22 September , Meldrum 's force captured the bridge at Jisr ed Damieh and the fords at Umm esh Shert and Mafid Jozele , cutting that line of retreat .
The Fourth Ottoman Army began to retreat towards Deraa during the night of 22 September , while Chaytor 's Force was advancing towards Es Salt . The New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade advanced up the Jisr ed Damieh track , the 1st Light Horse Brigade advanced up the Umm esh Shert track and the 2nd Light Horse Brigade moved round the southern flank of the Shunet Nimrin position , which had been evacuated . The three brigades converging on Es Salt , which was occupied during the evening of 23 September . The next day , Chaytor 's Force began their advance from Es Salt to attack Amman , which was captured on 25 September . The Southern Hedjaz II Corps of the Fourth Army was captured near Ziza on 29 September 1918 .
Chaytor 's Force suffered 27 killed , 7 missing , 105 wounded in battle and captured 10 @,@ 322 prisoners , 57 guns and 147 machine guns .
= = = Air support = = =
The Royal Air Force provided Allenby with timely aerial reconnaissance reports , and its attacks with bombs and machine guns spread " destruction , death , and terror behind the enemy 's lines . All the nerve @-@ centres had been paralysed by constant bombing . "
On 18 September the Royal Air Force 's 5th ( Corps ) Wing headquartered at Ramle was deployed to provide support with No. 14 Squadron attached to the XX Corps stationed at Junction Station and one flight of No. 142 Squadron being attached to Chaytor 's Force operating from Jerusalem . These aircraft were responsible for cooperation with artillery , contact patrols and tactical reconnaissance up to 10 @,@ 000 yards in advance of XX Corps and Chaytor 's Force .
One of the seven squadrons of the Palestine Brigade RAF , the Australian squadron had been allotted the Handley @-@ Page bomber three weeks before the offensive began . This squadron carried out bombing , offensive patrols and strategic reconnaissances , while the Handley – Page bomber piloted by Ross Smith bombed the central telephone exchange at Afulah , before the artillery bombardment signalled the beginning of battle .
Although aircraft flying over the Jisr ed Damieh to Beisan road , the Jisr ed Damieh bridge , Es Salt and Beisan as far as Tubas , reported all quiet at dawn on the morning of 20 September , RAF Bristol Fighters would later attack a convoy of 200 vehicles withdrawing from Nablus , blocking the road , causing many horses to bolt over a precipice on one side of the road while men scattered into the hills on the other side . The last reconnaissance on 20 September reported the whole Ottoman line alarmed , three large fires were burning at Nablus railway station and at the Balata supply dumps , while a brigade of British cavalry was seen entering Beisan .
Dawn aerial scouting on 21 September returned reports of the previous day 's attacks on roads leading towards the Jordan River , which was only a precursor to the follow up attacks that day . From midday on 22 September , and in particular from 15 : 00 to 18 : 00 , aerial reconnaissance found Ottoman troops at Es Salt and in the surrounding areas withdrawing towards Amman .
On 23 September , the first bombing formation attacked , expending large amounts of munitions on the retreating columns on the Es Salt to Amman road , returning about 07 : 00 when a rout resulted . Amman was attacked from the air during the day and retreating columns from Amman and another column moving from Es Salt to Amman were attacked . An Australian aircraft saw columns retreating from Deraa and Samakh , where trains appeared ready to leave for Damascus . By the afternoon of 24 September , virtually all the area west of Amman was clear of Ottoman soldiers but on 25 September a column moving from Amman was seen at Mafrak . The column was attacked between 6 : 00 and 08 : 00 by ten Australian aircraft , with attacks continuing throughout the day expending four tons of bombs and almost 20 @,@ 000 machine gun rounds .
= = Aftermath = =
On 23 and 24 September , troops from the Corps Cavalry Regiment and the Desert Mounted Corps cleared the hills between Nablus and Beisan capturing 1 @,@ 500 prisoners . In total , XX Corps captured 6 @,@ 851 prisoners , 140 guns , 1 @,@ 345 machine guns and automatic rifles suffering 1 @,@ 505 casualties in the process .
The remnants of the Ottoman II Corps , previously in the Maan region , surrendered to Chaytor 's Force at the end of September . By 29 September , the remaining soldiers of the Fourth , Seventh , and Eighth Ottoman Armies , in total 6 @,@ 000 men , were retreating towards Damascus .
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= SM UB @-@ 9 =
SM UB @-@ 9 was a German Type UB I submarine or U @-@ boat in the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. UB @-@ 9 was ordered in October 1914 and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in November . UB @-@ 9 was a little under 28 metres ( 92 ft ) in length and displaced between 127 and 141 tonnes ( 125 and 139 long tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . She carried two torpedoes for her two bow torpedo tubes and was also armed with a deck @-@ mounted machine gun . She was launched and commissioned as SM UB @-@ 9 in February 1915 .
UB @-@ 9 's commanding officer at commissioning only remained in charge of the ship for a week . Sources do not report any more commanding officers assigned through the end of the war , so it 's not clear if the submarine remained in commission . UB @-@ 9 was reported in use as a training vessel at Kiel in September 1915 . The U @-@ boat made no war patrols and sank no ships during the war , which may indicate that the vessel remained in a training role . At the end of the war , UB @-@ 9 was deemed unseaworthy and unable to surrender at Harwich with the rest of Germany 's U @-@ boat fleet . She remained in Germany where she was broken up by Dräger at Lübeck in 1919 .
= = Design and construction = =
After the German Army 's rapid advance along the North Sea coast in the earliest stages of World War I , the German Imperial Navy found itself without suitable submarines that could be operated in the narrow and shallow seas off Flanders . Project 34 , a design effort begun in mid @-@ August 1914 , produced the Type UB I design : a small submarine that could be shipped by rail to a port of operations and quickly assembled . Constrained by railroad size limitations , the UB I design called for a boat about 28 metres ( 92 ft ) long and displacing about 125 tonnes ( 123 long tons ) with two torpedo tubes .
UB @-@ 9 was the first of the initial allotment of seven submarines — numbered up to UB @-@ 15 — ordered on 15 October from AG Weser of Bremen , just shy of two months after planning for the class began . UB @-@ 9 was laid down by Weser in Bremen on 6 November . As built , UB @-@ 9 was 27 @.@ 88 metres ( 91 ft 6 in ) long , 3 @.@ 15 metres ( 10 ft 4 in ) abeam , and had a draft of 3 @.@ 03 metres ( 9 ft 11 in ) . She had a single 59 @-@ brake @-@ horsepower ( 44 kW ) Körting 4 @-@ cylinder diesel engine for surface travel , and a single 119 @-@ shaft @-@ horsepower ( 89 kW ) Siemens @-@ Schuckert electric motor for underwater travel , both attached to a single propeller shaft . Her top speeds were 7 @.@ 45 knots ( 13 @.@ 80 km / h ; 8 @.@ 57 mph ) , surfaced , and 6 @.@ 24 knots ( 11 @.@ 56 km / h ; 7 @.@ 18 mph ) , submerged . At more moderate speeds , she could sail up to 1 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 800 km ; 1 @,@ 700 mi ) on the surface before refueling , and up to 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) submerged before recharging her batteries . Like all boats of the class , UB @-@ 9 was rated to a diving depth of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) , and could completely submerge in 33 seconds .
UB @-@ 9 was armed with two 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedoes in two bow torpedo tubes . She was also outfitted for a single 8 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun on deck . UB @-@ 9 's standard complement consisted of one officer and thirteen enlisted men . After work on UB @-@ 9 was complete at the Weser yard , she was launched on 6 February 1915 .
= = Career = =
The submarine was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy as SM UB @-@ 9 on 18 February 1915 under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Wilhelm Werner , a 26 @-@ year @-@ old first @-@ time U @-@ boat commander . Wenninger was only in command of UB @-@ 9 for ten days . Sources do not indicate who , if anyone , succeeded him as commander of UB @-@ 9 , or if UB @-@ 9 remained in commission .
According to authors R. H. Gibson and Maurice Prendergast , UB @-@ 9 had been assigned to the Kiel Periscope School by September 1915 . Uboat.net reports that UB @-@ 9 ' undertook no war patrols and had no successes against enemy ships , which may indicate that the vessel remained in use only as a training vessel .
At the end of the war , the Allies required all German U @-@ boats to be sailed to Harwich for surrender . UB @-@ 9 was one of eight U @-@ boats deemed unseaworthy and allowed to remain in Germany . UB @-@ 9 was broken up by Dräger at Lübeck in 1919 .
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= George Meyer =
George A. Meyer ( born 1956 ) is an American producer and writer . Meyer is best known for his work on The Simpsons , where he led the group script rewrite sessions . He has been publicly credited with " thoroughly shap [ ing ] ... the comedic sensibility " of the show .
Raised in Tucson , Meyer attended Harvard University . There , after becoming president of the Harvard Lampoon , he graduated in 1978 with a degree in biochemistry . Abandoning plans to attend medical school , Meyer attempted to make money through dog racing but failed after two months . After a series of short @-@ term jobs he was hired in 1981 by David Letterman , on the advice of two of Meyer 's Harvard Lampoon cowriters , to join the writing team of his show Late Night with David Letterman .
Meyer left after two seasons and went on to write for The New Show , Not Necessarily the News and Saturday Night Live . Tired of life in New York , Meyer moved to Boulder , Colorado where he wrote a screenplay for a film for Letterman to star in . The project fell through and Meyer then founded the humor zine Army Man which garnered a strong following , although Meyer ended it after three issues . The producer Sam Simon was a fan and he hired Meyer to write for the animated sitcom The Simpsons in 1989 . He has held a number of positions on the show and also cowrote The Simpsons Movie . Meyer is in a relationship with the writer Maria Semple and the two have a daughter .
= = Early life and education = =
Born in Pennsylvania , United States in 1956 , Meyer grew up in Tucson , Arizona . He is the eldest of eight children in a Roman Catholic family of German ancestry . His parents both worked in the real estate business . Meyer has made jokes about his somewhat unhappy childhood , stating that one common argument in his household was " which family member ruined a holiday " , while his sister noted Meyer was frequently blamed for the family 's problems . Due to its size , family activities were limited so Meyer watched lots of television and read Mad magazine . He was an Eagle Scout and an altar boy and wrote for the student newspaper . He grew up hoping to one day become either a priest or ballplayer . He was disinterested in television , only finding humor in Get Smart and Batman , where he appreciated its " loopy , irreverent humor . "
Meyer attended Harvard University where he served as president of the Harvard Lampoon . The fact that people took humor " very seriously " at the Lampoon " changed [ Meyer 's ] life " . In 1977 , he and several other Lampoon staffers wrote The Harvard Lampoon Big Book of College Life ( ISBN 0385134460 ) , a volume commissioned by Doubleday . Aside from the Lampoon , his grades at Harvard were average and he suffered several bouts of depression . He graduated in 1978 with a degree in biochemistry and was accepted into medical school , but decided not to enroll .
Meyer commented on his Roman Catholic upbringing in a 2000 New Yorker profile :
" People talk about how horrible it is to be brought up Catholic , and it 's all true . The main thing was that there was no sense of proportion . I would chew a piece of gum at school , and the nun would say , ' Jesus is very angry with you about that , ' and on the wall behind her would be a dying , bleeding guy on a cross . That 's a horrifying image to throw at a little kid . You really could almost think that your talking in line , say , was on a par with killing Jesus . "
= = Career = =
After college , Meyer moved to Denver , Colorado , planning to " scientifically " win a fortune through dog racing . However , he ran out of money after two weeks . He then worked in a variety of jobs including as a substitute teacher , and a salesman in a clothing store , and also won $ 2 @,@ 000 on the game show Jeopardy ! . He at one point worked in a research lab as an assistant , studying glycoproteins " in the hope that they would prove the key to cell @-@ cell recognition . " Meanwhile , fellow Lampoon writers Tom Gammill and Max Pross suggested Meyer to comedian David Letterman who , along with head writer Merrill Markoe , hired him as a member of the writing staff on Letterman 's new late night show . Letterman noted : " Everything in his submission , down to the last little detail , was so beautifully honed . " Meyer wrote several recurring gags for the show , including " Crushing Things With A Steamroller " . His ambitions for the show were grandiose ; " I wanted to challenge the audience every night , stagger them with brilliance , blast them into a higher plane of existence , " he later explained .
Meyer left to write for The New Show in late 1983 , a short @-@ lived variety series from Saturday Night Live creator Lorne Michaels . He shared an office with writer Jack Handey , who he credited with giving him comedy advice . Following this , he joined the writing teams at Not Necessarily the News , and Saturday Night Live beginning in 1985 . He later called working on SNL an " exhilarating , frustrating , stressful , and indelible experience . " Meyer 's work was not well regarded among the SNL writers and producers . He said : " My stuff wasn 't very popular at Saturday Night . It was regarded as really fringey , and a lot of times my sketches would get cut . Sometimes they would get cut after dress rehearsal , and I would have the horrible experience of looking out and seeing a painter carefully touching up my set and getting it all ready to be smashed to pieces and sent to a landfill in Brooklyn . It was just a mismatch , although I didn 't realize it at the time . " He left the show in 1987 .
Meyer moved to Boulder , Colorado because he " just wanted to get as far from the New York environment as [ he ] could . " There , he wrote a film script for Letterman ; the project was dropped due to the success of Letterman 's show , although several of its jokes were later used in The Simpsons when no other ideas could be found . He spent time " skiing , going to poetry readings , and trying to meet girls from the University of Colorado . " He founded the humor zine Army Man ; he wrote the eight @-@ page first issue almost wholly by himself , publishing just 200 copies which he gave to his friends . Meyer had been disappointed by the decline of the National Lampoon and felt that there was no longer a magazine which has the sole purpose of being funny . By starting Army Man he " tried to make something that had no agenda other than to make you laugh . " He claimed that " [ he ] didn 't know what [ he ] was doing , " and reprinted material without obtaining permission , including a review of Cannonball Run II . He added : " I like to think that Army Man was somewhere between a real publication and a very irresponsible , lawbreaking zine . " Army Man gained a strong following and was listed on Rolling Stone 's " Hot List " in 1989 . Meyer noted : " The only rule was that the stuff had to be funny and pretty short . To me , the quintessential Army Man joke was one of John Swartzwelder 's : ' They can kill the Kennedys . Why can 't they make a cup of coffee that tastes good ? ' It 's a horrifying idea juxtaposed with something really banal @-@ and yet there 's a kind of logic to it . It 's illuminating because it 's kind of how Americans see things : Life 's a big jumble , but somehow it leads to something I can consume . I love that . " Meyer suspended publication with the third issue , after offers to take the magazine national made him fear that it would lose its best qualities . According to The Believer : " In comedy circles , [ Army Man has ] taken on almost mythological proportions . " This was met with varying reactions from Meyer , who felt " embarrassed when people build it up as this monumental work of comedy . It was just a silly little escapade , never meant to be enshrined . "
One reader was Sam Simon , a producer of the animated sitcom The Simpsons . He sent Meyer a compilation reel of Simpsons shorts from Fox variety show The Tracey Ullman Show that preceded the development of the series . Meyer turned down the job initially , but was offered a second chance to work as a creative consultant in the fall of 1989 , which he accepted . Simon hired Meyer along with Army Man contributors Swartzwelder and Jon Vitti . Meyer often played an active role in the show 's extensive group script rewriting sessions in the " rewrite room " a role he performed more than solo script work ; indeed he has only been credited for writing twelve episodes . A. O. Scott described him as the " guru " of the room . In the room , according to Mike Reiss , writers would " involuntarily glance at Meyer for approval when they pitch lines of their own " . By 1995 , Meyer became tired of the show 's lengthy writing schedule and decided to leave after the sixth season to work on a film or TV pilot script . He soon returned , however , as a consultant and later as a part of the writing staff again and an executive producer . In 2004 he noted : " It 's hard to leave The Simpsons . Every once in a while I get romantic notions that I should be doing something much more subterranean . Something like Army Man , or maybe guerrilla filmmaking . " He has attempted several TV projects that were not picked up . He left the show in 2006 , and received his final credits in season 17 . Meyer returned to co @-@ write the 2007 film adaptation of the show , The Simpsons Movie , which he later had mixed feelings about : " We worked so hard , and people liked it , but it still feels slapdash to me . ”
Meyer has been publicly credited with " thoroughly shap [ ing ] ... the comedic sensibility " of The Simpsons ; in 2000 , Mike Scully , the show runner for the series at the time , called him " the best comedy writer in Hollywood . " Scully said he was " the main reason " why The Simpsons [ was ] still so good after all these years . " Vitti has said Meyer 's " fingerprints are on nearly every script " and he " exerts as much influence on the show as anyone can without being one of the creators , " while recounting how " a show that you have the writer 's credit for will run , and the next day people will come up to you and tell you how great it was . Then they 'll mention their two favorite lines , and both of them will be George 's . " Bill Oakley noted Meyer has " he 's been there since the beginning adding thousands of jokes and plot twists , etc . , that everyone considers classic and brilliant .
Meyer has a " deep suspicion of social institutions and tradition in general , " which has affected the writing of his own episodes of The Simpsons such as " Homer the Heretic " , " Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington " and " Bart vs. Thanksgiving " . For his work on The Simpsons , Saturday Night Live and Late Night with David Letterman , Meyer has won and received multiple Primetime Emmy Award nominations , including the award for Outstanding Writing in a Variety Or Music Program in 1989 .
In addition to his work on The Simpsons , Meyer wrote , directed , and starred in his own play , Up Your Giggy , which ran for two weeks at a West Hollywood theater in 2002 . In 2005 , Meyer cowrote the TBS special Earth to America .
= = Personal life = =
Meyer is in a relationship with the writer Maria Semple . They lived together during the 1990s and broke up in 1999 , but later got back together . Their child , named Poppy Valentina after Valentina Tereshkova , was born in 2003 ; being a father gave Meyer a " sense of hopefulness " . They live in Seattle . Although raised a Catholic , Meyer hated it and later became agnostic . While working at The Simpsons he became an atheist , taking the advice of fellow writer Mike Reiss . He is a vegetarian , gambler , collector of space program memorabilia and practices yoga . Meyer is a fan of the Grateful Dead with Jerry Garcia being the " closest thing in Meyer 's life to a spiritual figure . " His sister Ann is married to Jon Vitti .
Meyer has a strong interest in the environment and notes that " the only organization that I really care about these days " is Conservation International . In 2005 , a newly discovered species of moss frogs from Sri Lanka was named Philautus poppiae after Meyer 's daughter Poppy , a tribute to Meyer 's and Semple 's dedication to the Global Amphibian Assessment .
In 2006 he wrote a comic , cautionary opinion piece about the environment for BBC News . It begins :
" Are you a hypocrite ? Because I certainly am . I 'm an animal lover who wears leather shoes ; a vegetarian who can 't resist smoked salmon . I badger my friends to see the Al Gore movie , but I also fly on fuel @-@ gulping jets . Great clouds of hypocrisy swirl around me . But even a fraud has feelings . And this summer , I 'm feeling uneasy ; I 'm starting to think that our culture 's frenzied and mindless assault on the last shreds of nature may not be the wisest course . "
= = Credits = =
Late Night with David Letterman ( 1982 – 1984 ) – writer
Not Necessarily the News ( 1983 – 1986 ) – writer
The New Show ( 1984 ) – writer
Saturday Night Live ( 1985 – 1987 ) – writer
Vanishing America ( 1986 ) – co @-@ writer ( with Rich Hall )
The Simpsons ( 1989 – 2006 ) – writer and producer
" The Crepes of Wrath " ( along with Sam Simon , John Swartzwelder and Jon Vitti )
" Bart vs. Thanksgiving "
" Blood Feud "
" Mr. Lisa Goes to Washington "
" Treehouse of Horror II " ( contributor )
" Separate Vocations "
" Homer the Heretic "
" Bart 's Inner Child "
" Sunday , Cruddy Sunday " ( along with Tom Martin , Brian Scully and Mike Scully )
" Brother 's Little Helper "
" Behind the Laughter " ( along with Tim Long , Mike Scully , and Matt Selman )
" The Parent Rap " ( along with Mike Scully )
The Edge ( 1992 – 1993 ) – writer
A.U.S.A. ( 2003 ) – consulting producer
Complete Savages ( 2004 – 2005 ) – producer
I ♥ Huckabees ( 2004 ) – Credited ( along with Maria Semple ) as " Formal Couple " .
Earth To America ( 2005 ) – cowriter
The Simpsons Movie ( 2007 ) – cowriter
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= Antimetric electrical network =
An antimetric electrical network is an electrical network that exhibits anti @-@ symmetrical electrical properties . The term is often encountered in filter theory , but it applies to general electrical network analysis . Antimetric is the diametrical opposite of symmetric ; it does not merely mean " asymmetric " ( i.e. , " lacking symmetry " ) . It is possible for networks to be symmetric or antimetric in their electrical properties without being physically or topologically symmetric or antimetric .
= = Definition = =
References to symmetry and antimetry of a network usually refer to the input impedances of a two @-@ port network when correctly terminated . A symmetric network will have two equal input impedances , Zi1 and Zi2 . For an antimetric network , the two impedances must be the dual of each other with respect to some nominal impedance R0 . That is ,
<formula>
or equivalently
<formula>
It is necessary for antimetry that the terminating impedances are also the dual of each other , but in many practical cases the two terminating impedances are resistors and are both equal to the nominal impedance R0 . Hence , they are both symmetric and antimetric at the same time .
= = Physical and electrical antimetry = =
Symmetric and antimetric networks are often also topologically symmetric and antimetric , respectively . The physical arrangement of their components and values are symmetric or antimetric as in the ladder example above . However , it is not a necessary condition for electrical antimetry . For example , if the example networks of figure 1 have an additional identical T @-@ section added to the left @-@ hand side as shown in figure 2 , then the networks remain topologically symmetric and antimetric . However , the network resulting from the application of Bartlett 's bisection theorem applied to the first T @-@ section in each network , as shown in figure 3 , are neither physically symmetric nor antimetric but retain their electrical symmetric ( in the first case ) and antimetric ( in the second case ) properties .
= = Two @-@ port parameters = =
The conditions for symmetry and antimetry can be stated in terms of two @-@ port parameters . For a two @-@ port network described by impedance parameters ( z @-@ parameters ) ,
<formula>
if the network is symmetric , and
<formula>
if the network is antimetric . Passive networks of the kind illustrated in this article are also reciprocal , which requires that
<formula>
and results in a z @-@ parameter matrix of ,
<formula>
for symmetric networks and
<formula>
for antimetric networks .
For a two @-@ port network described by scattering parameters ( S @-@ parameters ) ,
<formula>
if the network is symmetric , and
<formula>
if the network is antimetric . The condition for reciprocity is ,
<formula>
resulting in an S @-@ parameter matrix of ,
<formula>
for symmetric networks and
<formula>
for antimetric networks .
= = Applications = =
Some circuit designs naturally output antimetric networks . For instance , a low @-@ pass Butterworth filter implemented as a ladder network with an even number of elements will be antimetric . Similarly , a bandpass Butterworth with an even number of resonators will be antimetric , as will a Butterworth mechanical filter with an even number of mechanical resonators .
= = Glossary notes = =
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= Wormshill =
Wormshill ( / wɜːrmzˈhɪl / wurmz @-@ HILL ) , historically Wormsell , is a small village and civil parish within the Borough of Maidstone , Kent , England . The parish is approximately 7 miles ( 11 km ) south of the Swale and 8 miles ( 13 km ) east of Maidstone . The village of Frinsted lies 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 1 km ) to the east and Bicknor 1 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) to the north @-@ west ; while Hollingbourne is 3 miles ( 5 km ) to the south @-@ west . The village lies on an exposed high point of the North Downs , within the Kent Downs Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty .
Archaeological and toponymic evidence of Wormshill 's existence predates its appearance in the Domesday survey of 1086 . The village contains a number of heritage @-@ listed buildings , which include a Norman church , a public house and one of the oldest surviving post office buildings in the United Kingdom . The fields and woodland surrounding Wormshill have changed little in the past 500 years , and the village itself remains rural with a low population density compared to the national average . The population of 200 is a mixture of agricultural workers employed by local farms and professional residents who commute to nearby towns .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
Wormshill was listed under the name Godeselle in the Domesday Book of 1086 . The village is thought to be much older , its name deriving from the Anglo @-@ Saxon god Wōden ( a cognate with the Norse god , Odin ) and meaning " Woden 's Hill " . The area was also described in a paper in Archaeologia Cantiana , 1961 , as " Wormshill , an ancient possession of the Kings of Kent , the hill where they worshipped the heathen Woden " . The University of Nottingham 's Institute for Name @-@ Studies has offered the suggestion that the name means " shelter for a herd of pigs " .
The Latinised form , Wornesell , appears in the Kent Hundred Rolls of 1274 – 75 and in a mediaeval will recorded in September 1409 . A corruption of the name , Wormsell , is mentioned as the birthplace of a Cistercian Abbot at the nearby Boxley Abbey in 1474 ; a further variant , Wormysell , is found in a will of 1487 , and court papers concerning a land dispute in 1534 use the name Wormeshell .
= = = Early history = = =
A 1994 landscape survey identified woodland to the north of the village as having contained ancient flint tools and what appeared to be flint boundary markers , the latter apparently gathered from loose @-@ lying surface flints . The area around the village features ancient deneholes , or agricultural chalk mines , some of which are pre @-@ Roman . These holes , which may be up to 30 metres ( 98 ft ) deep , were often dug at the edges of fields , onto which the chalk marl would be spread . A Lower Palaeolithic ( Acheulian ) hand axe was unearthed in the garden of Blacksmiths cottage in the village . In 1966 , the remains of a U @-@ shaped mediaeval pastoral enclosure for controlling the movement of stock were recorded in woodland to the north of the village . The extensive woodland in the parish also meant that it was one of several sources of wooden planking for the piers of Rochester Bridge ( 16 miles ( 26 km ) away ) from the early 11th century ( and theoretically was still liable to do so until the passing of the Rochester Bridge Act in 1908 ) .
The parish of Wormshill was originally appended to the village and parish of Boughton Malherbe , since both had the same patron ; the patron of a parish was the land @-@ owner who often built the church on the estate and who had the right ( known as advowson ) to appoint the parish priest . The first recorded patron of Wormshill was Robert de Gatton , who owned the Manor of Wormsell during the reign of Henry III ( 1207 – 72 ) . From the Gatton family , the village passed by marriage in the 13th century to Sir Simon de Northwood , whose family crest appears in the stained glass of St Giles , the village 's only church , and whose name ( Norwood ) is given to the farm at the north of the village .
Patronage of the parish subsequently transferred through a number of landholding families , vesting by the 17th century with the prominent Kent family of Sir Charles Sedley , which at times held the barony of Aylesford . During this period the Tylden ( or Tilden ) family , believed to have had links to the Crusades of Richard I , were also significant landholders in the area in the early 17th century ; a memorial to William Tylden , who died in 1613 , rests in the north chancel of St Giles church . Around the same time in the late 16th century , recruits of Sir Francis Drake 's navy may have used a track , now known as Drake Lane , in the south west of the parish or camped nearby as they marched from the Weald of Kent to the dockyards at Sheerness .
Patronage is believed to have lapsed from the Sedley family to the Archbishop of Canterbury and then to Sir Joseph Aylosse before being conveyed by gift from a Mr. Serjeant Moses to the charity of the president and governors of Christ 's Hospital in London in gratitude for a University of Cambridge scholarship he had received . As late as 1798 the parish was still paying its traditional castle @-@ guard rent to Dover Castle and retained a court baron ; this fee was a substitute for a feudal obligation requiring the provision of knights to defend the castle .
Little ( if any ) information exists about the village 's population or demographics before 1801 ; however evidence from the first census indicates that the village grew steadily , reaching a peak in 1871 . A possible indication of the growth in the agricultural output of the village is the construction of two windmills ( possibly used for the production of oil from linseed or rapeseed ) marked at " Beddington " ( present @-@ day Bedmonton ) on Ordnance Survey drawings dated 1797 and an Ordnance Survey map published between 1819 and 1843 . The mills stood north and south of each other and were approximately 1 ⁄ 2 mile ( 800 m ) to the north @-@ west of the church . House building continued during the mid @-@ to @-@ late 19th century , together with a post office and school . Like much of rural Kent during the time of the Swing Riots ( 1830 ) , Wormshill experienced a degree of civil unrest and Home Office records indicate that " a large body of men , numbering 50 @-@ 100 " assembled at Wormshill with the purpose of " intimidation and to enforce demands on farmers ... inducing other labourers to join them " .
= = = 20th century = = =
Records indicate that at least one former resident of the village fought as part of the Australian contingent in the Gallipoli Campaign of the First World War . Private Frederick George Kite , born at Wormshill on 16 February 1894 , and educated at Wormshill and Milstead , enlisted on 8 September 1915 . Originally employed as a fireman , after training at Blackboy and Broadmeadows camps in Victoria , he sailed from Melbourne as part of the Australian Imperial Force , 16th Infantry Battalion aboard HMAT Ceramic A40 on 23 December 1914 . He participated in the landing at Gallipoli and was wounded in the left arm and shoulder , ending his active service .
During the Second World War , Wormshill joined a number of similar settlements in the region to form part of the anti @-@ invasion network . On the outskirts of the village , near the hamlet of Ringlestone , there are the remains of a zero station ( or Operational Base ) , a secret underground communications relay post operated by Auxiliary Units of the British Home Guard . In the event of a German invasion the zero station was to be used by defending forces to receive and transmit coded messages between a series of similar stations in the area as well as to the operational command headquarters at Hannington Hall in Wiltshire . A concealed underground concrete bunker , it was designed to be invisible from the surface and is located in woodland about 140 metres ( 150 yd ) from the road . Although its primary purpose was a communications post , the zero station was also designed to hold ammunition and explosives and provide living quarters for the radio equipment operators . Anecdotal evidence also indicates that anti @-@ aircraft guns were sited near the village and that a Bren gun emplacement was installed in the valley between Wormshill and Frinsted . A Diver Battery was located to the south west of the village . Forming part of the Kentish Gun Belt , designed to provide a defence to attacks by V @-@ 1 flying bombs or " doodlebugs " , it was armed with eight mobile 3 @.@ 7 @-@ inch guns , and manned by 424 Battery of 138 Regiment of the 40th Anti Aircraft Brigade . It was initially equipped with Predictor AA No.10 and No.3 Mark V radar , and was manned by 57 Brigade in July 1944 . There are records of a V @-@ 1 being shot down by a Supermarine Spitfire to the west of the village . Flt Lt A. R. Cruikshank is reported as having " Sited a Diver north of Ashford and attacked from astern at 100 yards range . Saw strikes and Diver fell and exploded in a field " . Villagers resident during the war also recall a V @-@ 1 being shot down in orchards near Norwood Farm and a fighter aircraft crashing in fields to the south of Yew Tree Farm . Roadside checkpoints were set up on the main routes into the village to the north and south and allied forces moving through the region camped overnight in the area , including a detachment of New Zealand troops in fields near Home Farm .
Following an initial decline in the population at the turn of the 20th century , more houses were constructed between the Great War and the Second World War and again in the 1950s and 1960s , adding to the cluster of cottages from the 19th century and earlier .
= = Governance = =
At the time of the Kent Hundred Rolls in 1275 , Wormshill was in the Hundred of Eyhorne , a regional sub @-@ division used in the Middle Ages by feudal and crown officials to administer communities . Although the Hundred of Eyhorne ( including Wormshill ) still exists , it is a mediaeval anachronism and no longer has any practical or administrative significance . In the 19th century , the village was within the lathe of Aylesford , the Bearsted petty sessional division and the Hollingbourne Rural District . The village was also incorporated into the Hollingbourne Poor Law Union ( a means of funding and administering the operation of the Poor Laws in the area ) . The parish of Wormshill in part sits astride the West Kent and East Kent divide , a demarcation which until 1814 applied to an administrative boundary for the purposes of the law courts ' Quarter Sessions . According to Edward Hasted ( writing in 1798 ) : " northward of the church , including the borough of Bedmanton , is in the division of East Kent , but the rest of it , including the church and village , is in that of West Kent " . This differs from the traditional distinction between Men of Kent and Kentish Men , which are separated by the River Medway , accordingly persons born in Wormshill would be Men of Kent .
Since 1975 , Wormshill has been administered within the North Downs ward and , together with surrounding communities , elects a representative councillor for the ward in the Borough of Maidstone . The incumbent councillor for the North Downs ward is Daphne Parvin . The village forms the central focus of the civil and church parishes of Wormshill . The parish chairman is Simon Bass . Wormshill is part of the parliamentary constituency of Faversham and Mid Kent , whose Member of Parliament is Hugh Robertson of the Conservative Party . It is also in the South East England constituency in the European Parliament .
= = Geography = =
At 51 ° 17 ′ 4 @.@ 2 ″ N 0 ° 41 ′ 44 @.@ 2 ″ E , the village is in central Kent , approximately 38 miles ( 61 km ) south @-@ east of London . The nearest town is Sittingbourne , 4 miles ( 6 km ) to the north . Wormshill is surrounded by villages and hamlets of a similar size , including Frinsted , Bicknor , Bedmonton and Hucking .
The village is on a high point of the North Downs . The nearby road intersection of Black Post is recorded on the Ordnance Survey maps at 191 metres ( 627 ft ) above sea level . The landscape is primarily characterised by undulating calcareous grassland and ancient deciduous woodland over chalk downland . The settlement itself ( as opposed to the wider parish ) is on a downland ridge between two shallow dip slope valleys that separate it from Bicknor to the north @-@ west and Frinsted to the east .
Wormshill 's elevated and exposed position on the North Downs means it occasionally experiences extreme weather conditions such as the heavy snowfalls of 11 – 14 January 1987 , March 2005 , February 2009 and January 2010 . In the late 18th century Hasted commented : " Being exposed to the northern aspect , it lies very bleak and cold . "
Much of the local woodland was devastated by the Great Storm of 1987 , which in October swept across south @-@ east England with hurricane @-@ force winds . A significant part of the exposed woodland to the north @-@ east of Wormshill was felled and , after replanting , has only recently shown signs of maturing . An ancient yew tree believed to have stood for several hundred years in the grounds of the house at Norwood Farm was destroyed along with other long @-@ standing trees . However , some 25 years later , the village displays few obvious signs of the damage .
The countryside around the village has been described as " an area where the whole landscape is a piece of history — a valley where time has stood still and the pattern of woods and fields is much as it was 500 years ago " . A designated ancient woodland lies to the north @-@ west of the village . Predominantly centred on Barrows Wood but also including High Wood and Trundle Wood , this is likely a remnant of the woodland described by Hasted : " ... at the northern boundary of the parish there is a considerable quantity of wood , consisting mostly of hazel and oak , with numbers of trees of the latter , interspersed among them , which are but small , never here growing to any size . " An ancient track that passes through the remnants of this woodland has been damaged by the use of off @-@ road vehicles leading to attempts by local landowners to block Drake Lane , a byway that runs through Drake Lane Wood in the south @-@ west of the parish and which may have been used by recruits of Sir Francis Drake 's navy . Deep water @-@ logged ruts in the track have resulted in the partial resurfacing of the route .
The village stretches primarily along a single carriageway road known as The Street . The north @-@ eastern end of The Street is a designated Conservation Area . The lack of development stems from its position within the Kent Downs Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty ( AONB ) and a Site of Nature Conservation Interest , which influences local planning laws and limits permission to build new housing . All development is subject to a high level of scrutiny ; any development that would adversely affect the natural beauty of the landscape will automatically be resisted , and large @-@ scale development proposals must be accompanied by an environmental impact assessment . The last major development was that of the residential cul @-@ de @-@ sac Draysfield .
= = Demography = =
The record in the Domesday Book does not give the population in 1086 , though several people are named . By the late 19th century the village and parish were described as :
WORMSHILL , a parish in Hollingbourn [ sic ] district , Kent ; 5 miles S by W of Sittingbourne r. station . It has a post @-@ office under Sittingbourne . Acres , 1 @,@ 467 . Real property , £ 1 @,@ 295 . Pop . , 253 . Houses , 46 . The property is divided among a few . The living is a rectory in the diocese of Canterbury . Value , £ 260 . * Patron , Christ 's Hospital , London . The church is plain . Charities , £ 12 .
Wormshill 's location remains rural . Because of geography and restrictions on development , building in the village has been scant since the 1960s and 1970s . In 1821 , the parish contained only 26 dwellings : by 2001 , the total number of houses had risen to 82 .
The rural nature of the area is indicated by a population density of approximately 0 @.@ 4 persons per hectare ( 1 person for every 6 @.@ 9 acres ) , compared to the average for the south @-@ east of England of 4 @.@ 2 persons per hectare ( 1 person for every 0 @.@ 6 acres ) .
The village has been recorded as a distinct parish unit for the purpose of census statistics since the first United Kingdom census in 1801 . The majority of the official population of 198 ( per United Kingdom Census 2001 ) is aged 45 or over and lives in homes comprising married family units . The total population has increased by around 40 people since 1801 however , during the past 200 years , it has fluctuated more widely within that range . In 1801 the population was 157 before peaking at 253 in 1861 . In 1901 census records indicate a parish population of either 163 or 169 .
Data for the ethnicity of the wider Maidstone area show that the population is around 97 percent white and that the remainder is of mixed , black , and Asian descent . Specific figures for Wormshill held by Kent County Council indicated in 2001 that all the villagers were of white ethnicity .
= = Economy = =
Wormshill includes two farms : Yew Tree Farm ( dairy farming ) at the south end of the village , and Norwood Farm ( fruit and other crops ) at the north end . A third farm , Home Farm appeared on late 19th and early 20th centuries Ordnance Survey maps in the centre of the village . This farm is no longer in use , but some outbuildings remain . Wormshill at one time included a blacksmith 's shop , which is recorded on Ordnance Survey maps until 1898 . According to the 1831 Census , 40 of the 48 adult males in the village were employed in the agricultural sector . Census records from the mid @-@ to @-@ late 19th century show a marked increase in the construction of new homes , representing the largest growth in the village for the next 100 years ; however , the 1901 Census still described the majority of workers as " labourers and servants " . The population spike between 1821 and 1901 is a trend typical to the general growth in the need for physical labour from parishes in the Kent downland agricultural region in the 19th century which was followed in the early 20th century by the increasing mechanisation of farming activity . Although the farms continue to employ from the village , as of 2008 Wormshill is largely a dormitory village , with residents employed in nearby towns or commuting to London . The socio @-@ economic classification of Census 2001 indicated that the most common occupations were " lower managerial and professional occupations " ( 21 @.@ 9 percent ) and " small employers and own account workers " ( 15 @.@ 2 percent ) .
= = Landmarks = =
Until the end of the 20th century , the village had a post office and general stores along with a public house , The Blacksmiths Arms , a Grade II listed building , in part of 17th century origin .
The original post office opened in 1847 and was run by church warden Tom Clements from a building next to the rectory . The building , which now forms part of a Grade II * listed private dwelling , is thought to be the second @-@ oldest surviving post office building in England with a service dating from 1847 . The post office briefly moved to another location in The Street under the stewardship of local schoolmistress Fanny Harris ( who operated the service from 1926 ) ; however , it returned to the original site in 1946 under the new sub @-@ postmistress Irene Bugden and was run as a small general stores until it closed in 1976 . Fanny Harris ( then 92 years old and the village 's oldest inhabitant ) and Robin Leigh @-@ Pemberton were passengers on the first postbus service on 4 March 1974 . A new post office and stores operated at a different property in the village for a further 20 years until it was closed in the 1990s . Today , the village retains only the Blacksmiths Arms and a traditional red post box .
In the 19th century , an additional public house existed at the northern edge of the village near Norwood Farm and was known as The Woodman 's Arms ( and possibly also as The Norwood Arms ) . The pub was recorded on Ordnance Survey maps of the village between 1870 and 1946 , but as of May 2012 , the building is a Grade II listed private dwelling . Other listed buildings in the village include the timber @-@ framed houses Norwood Manor and Blacksmiths Cottage . A large country house now known as Wormshill Court and bordered to the north and east by a brick wall includes the outbuildings of Manor Farm . The property is part of a large estate which has for several generations belonged to the Nightingale family . The house and farm is also shown on a map of 1636 and at that time appears to represent the only building in the village other than the church and the rectory . In 1858 a further map of the manor named the property Court Lodge Farm and included an inset plan showing the exchange of land between the governors of Christ 's Hospital and a Mr. Henry Hudson .
Wormshill retained its own telephone exchange until the 1990s , when it became part of the Maidstone exchange . A red telephone box remains in the village after residents insisted that it not be replaced with a modern design however the telephony was disconnected ( and the box sealed ) in November 2009 as a result of lack of use . An informal village noticeboard is on the side of an old flint and wood barn that was part of the former Home Farm . The post box and telephone box are at the same location . The telephone box is a listed building .
The Bredgar and Wormshill Light Railway attracts tourists and railway enthusiasts throughout the summer season . The railway is a narrow gauge light railway run between two small stations on about 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) of track built in woodland between Bredgar and Wormshill .
= = Transport = =
A number of ancient trackways including the Pilgrims ' Way and the North Downs Way ( now designated as footpaths or byways ) pass within a few miles of the village . Wormshill is not on any major roadways and has no rail service . No standard public transport facilities or taxicab operations exist in the village . A daily Postbus service , incorporated into the village postal delivery and collection timetable and which ran for 35 years , stopped on 14 November 2009 . It was one of the last remaining postbus services in the United Kingdom . The service , run by the Royal Mail and subsidised by the county council , began in March 1974 and collected residents from Wormshill and other villages en route to Sittingbourne . The closure of the only means of public transport to and from the village was controversial and , following a campaign by local councillors and journalists , the postbus was replaced by a temporary minibus service , funded by the county council . Royal Mail postal deliveries continue to be made to the village . The village lies between the M2 and M20 motorways , and the nearest railway station is at Harrietsham on the Maidstone Line , 3 @.@ 8 miles ( 6 km ) to the south by road .
= = Education = =
A small one @-@ roomed National school ( a school established by the National Society for Promoting Religious Education ) was built in the village in 1872 for about 30 children . However some evidence exists that it had " accommodation for forty @-@ two children and an average attendance of twenty @-@ eight " . The school was recorded on maps of the village until 1909 , although it was dissolved in 1930 ( school mistresses Miss Fanny Harris and Miss Pepper later ran the post office and general store from an outhouse at Flint Cottage ) . The building that housed the school has since been converted to a private dwelling . The school 's small playground was lined by lime trees planted in memory of a general at the end of the Boer Wars . As of November 2011 the lime trees are still there . The nearest primary school to the village is the Milstead and Frinsted Church of England School at Milstead . Secondary school pupils are educated in the towns of Sittingbourne or Maidstone .
= = Religion = =
The church , parts of which date back to the Norman era , is dedicated to Saint Giles and forms part of the united benefice of Bredgar , Milstead , Bicknor and Frinsted . The ecclesiastical parish of Wormshill is in the Diocese of Canterbury and the Sittingbourne deanery ( within the archdeaconry of Maidstone ) . As of December 2008 , the vicar was the Reverend John Smith . In 1995 , the church received a new ring of six bells after a campaign by villagers begun in 1944 by Michael Nightingale of Cromarty , who at age 16 opened a savings account with 10 shillings for the restoration of the church 's bells . Fifty years later , he completed the full peal of six bells : one of the six was original , and the other five were rescued from abandoned churches . The last major renovations of the church occurred in 1789 and 1901 . Of note within the church are a Norman font and Tudor pulpit . The church also contains a 13th century chest , first discovered in the early 20th century . The former rectory is now a private dwelling .
= = Community and culture = =
= = = Notable people = = =
A vicar at the Rectory of Wormshill in the 19th century , Reverend Josiah Disturnell , was the subject of a debate about exceptional human longevity ; it was claimed that he lived to age 107 . References to the rector 's memorial stone in the church ultimately provided evidence that his actual age of death was " either 91 or 93 " . Sir Henry Rew , a leading authority on agricultural economics , a former assistant secretary at the Ministry of Agriculture , Fisheries and Food and president of the Royal Statistical Society ( 1920 – 1922 ) died at his home in the village on 7 April 1929 .
= = = Filmography = = =
In January 2007 , the church and its surroundings were used as locations in the filming of an episode of EastEnders , broadcast in the United Kingdom over the Easter 2007 holiday season . The production crew added mock gravestones and a temporary Victorian @-@ style street lamp to the churchyard . Also featured were other locations in and near the village , including exterior shots of the Blacksmiths Arms combined with interior views of the nearby Ringlestone Inn .
= = = Recreation = = =
The village holds typical English rural festivals during the year . The spring and harvest festivals are horticultural shows that include the surrounding villages . The country fair ( or fête ) in the summer previously included traditional country games , stalls and attractions such as hay bale throwing , tug of war and a coconut shy , although the village has not held a fête since 2009 . Wormshill contains a community village hall and recreation ground , including a small playground . The 9th Sittingbourne ( Tunstall and Wormshill ) Scout Group are associated with the village and group meetings are occasionally held at the village hall . Wormshill , together with the united benefice villages of Bredgar , Milstead , Bicknor and Frinsted , also produces a free monthly Parish Magazine including village news , announcements and occasional articles . In common with a number of rural communities in the county , Wormshill also receives a weekly mobile library service run by Kent County Council .
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= Closing Time ( Doctor Who ) =
" Closing Time " is the twelfth and penultimate episode of the sixth series of the British science fiction television programme Doctor Who , and was first broadcast on BBC One on 24 September 2011 . It was written by Gareth Roberts and directed by Steve Hughs . It is a sequel to " The Lodger " , an episode Roberts wrote for the previous series .
In the episode , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) is going on a " farewell tour " before his impending death and visits his friend Craig ( James Corden ) , who has a new baby son , Alfie . Though not initially intending to stay , the Doctor becomes intrigued by a Cybermen invasion at a local department store .
Roberts and showrunner Steven Moffat wanted to bring Craig back , having enjoyed " The Lodger " and Corden 's performance . Though " Closing Time " was designed to be fun , with comedy built around the double act of Smith and Corden , it contains themes and an epilogue that lead into the finale . The episode marks the first appearance of the Cybermats in the revival of Doctor Who , and they were appropriately redesigned . Much of the episode was filmed in a department store and a private home in Cardiff at night , with shooting going early into the morning . " Closing Time " was watched by 6 @.@ 93 million viewers in the UK and received generally positive reviews from critics ; while the performances , comedy , and emotional moments were praised , many critics were not pleased with the usage of the Cybermen .
= = Plot = =
= = = Synopsis = = =
Nearly two hundred years have passed for the Doctor since he left Amy and Rory in " The God Complex " and he is on a farewell tour of his friends as he knows he has only one day to go before his death ( depicted in " The Impossible Astronaut " ) . He stops by Craig ( " The Lodger " ) , who is living with his girlfriend Sophie in a new home and is raising their baby , Alfie . Craig , struggling to care for Alfie alone while Sophie is away for the weekend , suspects the Doctor is investigating something alien . The Doctor prepares to leave , but he notices a strange electrical disturbance in the area and decides to investigate .
Craig , while at a new department store with Alfie , discovers the Doctor working in the toy area . The Doctor reveals that he has traced the electrical disturbances to the store and is using the job to allow him to investigate further , hearing rumours of the disappearance of several shop assistants and the sightings of a " silver rat " . The Doctor and Craig enter a lift and find themselves teleported to a Cyberman spacecraft . A Cyberman emerges from the darkness and comes towards them but the Doctor manages to reverse the teleporter and disable it . As Craig returns home , the Doctor sees Amy and Rory shopping but stays out of their sight .
With Craig 's help , the Doctor enters the store after hours and catches a Cybermat , which has been siphoning small amounts of energy to the spacecraft . The Doctor also encounters a malfunctioning Cyberman in the building 's basement , and is curious how it arrived in the store . At Craig 's house , while the two are distracted , the cybermat reactivates , but they are able to stop it , and the Doctor reprograms the unit to track down the Cybermen signal .
The Doctor leaves on his own to locate the Cybermen at the store but Craig shortly follows , bringing Alfie along . The Doctor finds the spaceship actually sits below the store , underground , accessed by a tunnel from a changing room . The ship has been slowly siphoning energy from the store 's power lines , reactivating its crew . The Doctor is captured by the Cybermen , who tell him that their ship crashed long ago but , with this new energy , will soon have enough power to convert the human race .
Craig , leaving Alfie with a store clerk , follows the Doctor into the tunnel , and is also captured and placed into a conversion machine . The Doctor reveals his own impending death and urges Craig to fight , but the conversion appears to be complete . Alfie 's cries over the closed @-@ circuit television echo in the ship . Craig , encouraged by the Doctor telling him that this is his chance to be a father , fights and reverses the conversion . The rest of the Cybermen painfully experience the emotions they have repressed from Craig 's struggle , and their circuits start to overload . The Doctor and Craig escape via the teleporter as the ship explodes , the blast contained by the cavern . Craig reunites with Alfie , while the Doctor slips away unseen . Craig returns home to find the Doctor already there , having used time travel to clean the house . The Doctor tells Craig that Alfie now has a much higher opinion of his dad . The Doctor leaves just before Sophie returns .
Nearby , the Doctor tells the TARDIS he knows this is his last trip in her and offers some parting words to a small group of children . In the far future , River Song , recently made a Doctor of Archaeology , reviews eyewitness accounts made by those children when they were adults , and also notes the date and location of the Doctor 's death . She is interrupted by Madame Kovarian and agents of the Silence . Kovarian tells River that she is still theirs , and will be the one to kill the Doctor . Against River 's will , they place her in an augmented astronaut 's suit and submerge her in Lake Silencio to await the Doctor .
= = = Continuity = = =
Two hundred years have passed for the Doctor since the events of " The God Complex " , taking him to the age his older self was in " The Impossible Astronaut " . He spent this time " waving through time " at Amy and Rory , which is seen at the beginning of " The Impossible Astronaut " . The Doctor takes the blue envelopes he uses to summon his companions from Craig 's flat and Craig gives him the Stetson he wears at the start of " The Impossible Astronaut " . From River Song 's perspective , the final scene takes place immediately before the picnic in " The Impossible Astronaut " , and she is confirmed to have been that episode 's eponymous astronaut .
Cybermats are shown for the first time in the revived series . In the classic series , they appeared in The Tomb of the Cybermen ( 1967 ) , The Wheel in Space ( 1968 ) , and Revenge of the Cybermen ( 1975 ) . The Doctor examines a toy and remarks , " Robot dog ; not as much fun as I remember , " alluding to K @-@ 9 , a robot dog who accompanied the Fourth Doctor . The Doctor claims to be able to " speak ' baby ' " , as he did in " A Good Man Goes to War " . The Doctor expresses his dislike for Craig 's " redecorated " house by using a line from the Second Doctor ( Patrick Troughton ) in The Three Doctors ( 1973 ) and The Five Doctors ( 1983 ) . The Doctor recites the mini @-@ poem " Not a rat , a cybermat " from the novelization of Revenge of the Cybermen .
Amy has become a minor celebrity , appearing in an ad for Petrichor perfume , with the tagline , " For the girl who 's tired of waiting . " The concept of petrichor was used as a psychic password in " The Doctor 's Wife " and means " the smell of dust after rain " . The Doctor frequently refers to Amy as " the girl who waited " . The perfume and tagline imply that the episode takes place after " The God Complex " . This conflicts with the date on Craig 's newspaper , 19 April 2011 , which is three days before the Doctor 's death at Lake Silencio .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and casting = = =
Writer Gareth Roberts said in an interview that he was considering bringing the character of Craig back when he saw James Corden 's performance in " The Lodger " , saying that " it already felt like he was one of the Who family " . Showrunner Steven Moffat was pleased with " The Lodger " , an episode he called " quite close to my heart " , and wanted to bring Craig back . He commented that it was a change of pace for Corden , who usually was cast as " the funny one " ; as Craig he is " the straight man to the wacky Doctor " . Director Steve Hughs compared the Doctor and Craig to famous comedic duos such as Laurel and Hardy , Abbott and Costello , and Simon Pegg and Nick Frost . Though most of the episode is intended to be fun , it also sets the stage for the finale and the Doctor 's upcoming death . The " serious " final scene , written by Moffat , concluded events in River 's life that had been hinted since " Flesh and Stone " . Other episode titles suggested by Roberts included " Everything Must Go " , " The Last Adventure " , and " Cyberman and a Baby " . A prequel , entitled " Up All Night " , is included as part of the Night and the Doctor series of mini @-@ episodes in the Series 6 DVD package .
It was also Roberts ' idea to bring back the Cybermen , because there were no other returning monsters in the series and he thought " there should be a sense of history about the Doctor 's final battle to save Earth before he heads off to meet his death " . He felt that this was consistent with the theme of " death and lingering darkness " that had run throughout the sixth series . Roberts wanted the audience to think that maybe Craig would really be converted . Moffat felt the " blowing the Cybermen up with love " conclusion was the Doctor Who version of a father bonding with his son . Roberts felt that the episode 's depiction of the Cybermen put it on the " silly / terrifying axis " that was common in Doctor Who .
Daisy Haggard 's reduced role as Sophie in the episode was due to her role in the play Becky Shaw at Almeida Theatre in London . This episode marks Lynda Baron 's third involvement with Doctor Who , having provided vocals for the " Ballad of the Last Chance Saloon " , heard in The Gunfighters ( 1966 ) , and the role of Wrack in Enlightenment ( 1983 ) . The accompanying Doctor Who Confidential to " Closing Time " is entitled " Open All Hours " in honour of Baron 's role in the sitcom of the same name . Radio 1 DJ Greg James appears in a non @-@ speaking cameo role , as a man shopping for lingerie . His character was nicknamed " Carlos " . Alfie was portrayed by seven different babies , usually paired in twins , because of strict rules about baby hours . Several dummies were used as well . Corden , who was about to become a father , learned tips from the mothers .
= = = Filming and effects = = =
Much of " Closing Time " was filmed in a department store in Cardiff . As the store had to be closed , they filmed over four or five nights , sometimes going until 6 : 00 in the morning . Hughs said it was a " drain " on the production team , while Corden recalled it made the cast and crew " lightheaded " and " hysterical " . Reportedly , the department store scenes were shot in March 2011 . The rest of the episode was filmed in a private home in Cardiff ; the couple who owned the house allowed the filming to take place in order for it to be an experience for their two young boys . Production at the house also went into the early hours of the morning . The window of the sliding door in the house that the Doctor jumps through to save Craig from the Cybermat was too small , so the production team built another one . The new door was too big for shatterglass ; instead , glass that breaks into chunks was used , wired with a small explosive that would crack the glass when Smith 's stuntman jumped through it . Hughs wanted it to look as if the audience was crashing through the window with the Doctor ; he spliced together shots of Smith filmed running up to the door , the stuntman jumping through it , and Smith landing with shards of glass thrown over him .
The Cybus Industries logo , which had been used on the Cybermen since their redesign for the revived series in " Rise of the Cybermen " / " The Age of Steel " ( 2006 ) , was covered up for the Cybermen in this episode as well as the ones which had previously appeared in " A Good Man Goes to War " . This is because the Cybermen from " Rise of the Cybermen " originated from a parallel universe , while the prime universe has its own Cybermen from the planet Mondas , as seen in the classic series . As the Cybermen that feature in " Closing Time " were barely surviving , the production team made them look broken down and as if they had been cannibalizing parts to survive . The suits were already worn to an extent , as they had been used so often in the five years since they were made . The Cyber Controller conversion equipment was built around Corden .
The Cybermats , which had not been seen on screen since 1975 's Revenge of the Cybermen , were redesigned to appear more high @-@ tech . The top was designed to recall the head of a Cyberman , and piranha @-@ like teeth were added to suggest that they were converted animals , just as Cybermen were converted humans . Three versions of the Cybermat were made . The first was simply a " stunt double " which did not have teeth and was meant for being thrown around or laid still . The second was a cable @-@ controlled " close @-@ up " version that had teeth and thrashed , and was used for when the characters handled it . Smith broke this one when he hit it with a frying pan in the scene where Craig is being attacked , and it was subsequently repaired with tape . The third was radio @-@ controlled to dash along the floor . The post @-@ production special effects team The Mill created a computer @-@ generated Cybermat that leapt up to attack Craig .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Closing Time " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 24 September 2011 , and in the United States on BBC America . It achieved overnight ratings of 5 @.@ 3 million viewers , coming in second for its time slot behind All @-@ Star Family Fortunes . When final consolidated figures were taken into account , the number rose to 6 @.@ 93 million , making it the second most watched programme of the day behind The X Factor . " Closing Time " was the fifth most @-@ downloaded programme of September on BBC 's online iPlayer . It was also given an Appreciation Index of 86 , considered " excellent " .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received generally positive reviews , with critics praising the comic interplay between Smith and Corden . Dan Martin of The Guardian questioned the decision to air a standalone episode as the penultimate show of the series , calling " Closing Time " " something of a curiosity " as well as writing positively about Smith and Corden 's " Laurel and Hardy act " . However , he felt that the Cybermen had been deprived of their menace . Martin later rated it the eighth best episode of the series , though the finale was not included in the list . Gavin Fuller of The Daily Telegraph awarded the episode three out of five stars , comparing Smith 's performance favourably to that of Patrick Troughton . Neela Debnath of The Independent said it was an " intriguing change of pace " and succeeded with " great comedic moments " and the " brilliant chemistry between the Doctor and Craig " . She praised Corden for excelling after his " average " performance in " The Lodger " .
Patrick Mulkern , writing for Radio Times , thought that the ending was an " emotional overload ... but what better way to deal with the emotionally deprived Cybermen ? " He was pleased with the " sweet cameo " from Amy and Rory and the " tense coda " with River Song and Kovarian . Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club gave " Closing Time " a grade of " B + " , feeling that the episode was more about small character moments than the Cybermen plot . Though he wrote it was not as strong as " The Lodger " , he praised the way it gave a break before the season finale to bring out the softer side of the Doctor . Digital Spy 's Morgan Jeffery praised Smith , Corden , and Lynda Baron as Val , and felt that it was a " relief " to have a fun episode after two emotional heavy ones . However , he did not think it was as good as " The Lodger " and thought the Cybermen were " wasted " , citing the conclusion of Craig blowing them up with love as " unsatisfactory " . Andrew Blair of Den of Geek defended the Cybermen in the episode , opining that the episode brought out the tragedy of them barely surviving and having to convert people mechanically without any emotional understanding of the situation .
IGN 's Matt Risley rated the episode 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 , praising the chemistry between Smith and Corden as well as Smith 's interaction with the baby , but was disappointed with the Cybermen , who he said " never really delivered on the threat or horror fans know they 're capable of " . SFX magazine reviewer Rob Power gave the episode three and a half out of five stars , saying it " [ worked ] wonders " as a light @-@ hearted episode before the finale and with " properly bad " Cybermen . Though he thought the Cyberman lacked " real menace " and Craig escaped in a " cheesy way " , he considered the main focus to be on the Doctor 's " farewell tour " and praised Smith 's performance . He thought that the moments of " sad @-@ eyed loneliness and resignation " added weight to " what would otherwise have been a paper @-@ thin episode " . Power also praised the ending for bringing things together for the finale , though he thought the final scene with River Song felt " a little tacked @-@ on " . Charlie Jane Anders writing for io9 described it as a " worthy sequel " and " welcome shot of comedy " and was positive towards the " sweet " exploration of the Doctor 's self @-@ loathing that proved the universe needed him . However , Anders was bothered by the running joke of the Doctor and Craig being mistaken for a gay couple and the stereotypes the episode relied on , such as the " clueless dad " and the ignorant shop girls . Christopher Hooton of Metro found the episode to be " soppy " and " sickly sweet " , criticising Corden for his " whooping " , " annoying " performance , the reliance on " slapstick capers " that " lurched a bit too close to the CBBC end of the spectrum " and the " jaunty [ and ] smug " soundtrack .
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= Saskatchewan Highway 5 =
Highway 5 is a major highway in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan . It begins in downtown Saskatoon and runs eastward to the Manitoba border near Togo , where it becomes Provincial Road 363 . The highway is approximately 393 kilometres ( 244 mi ) long . Between the early 1900s ( decade ) and 1976 , Provincial Highway 5 was a trans @-@ provincial highway travelling approximately 630 kilometres ( 390 mi ) in length . At this time it started at the Alberta border in Lloydminster and traveled east to the Manitoba border .
In the summer of 1970 , the section of highway between Lloydminster and Saskatoon was designated to be a portion of the Yellowhead Highway . This section of highway maintained the Highway 5 designation until 1976 , when it was redesignated as Highway 16 to maintain the same number through the four western provinces ( Manitoba followed suit the following year , redesignating its section of the Yellowhead Highway from PTH 4 to PTH 16 ) . This redesignation shortened the length of Highway 5 to its current length of 393 kilometres ( 244 mi ) .
Along the route are several heritage sites , an international bird watching area , saline lakes , as well as regional and provincial parks . Museums and historical markers commemorate the region 's history along the highway .
= = Route description = =
Highway 5 begins near downtown Saskatoon at Idylwyld Drive North ( Highway 11 and 12 ) , as 23rd Street East . Saskatoon is the most populous city located in central Saskatchewan , Canada , on the South Saskatchewan River , with a metropolitan population of 233 @,@ 923 . The highway starting terminus is the intersection of the Saskatoon Railway Station a national historic site classified as a Designated Heritage Railway Station . The Fairbanks Morse Warehouse is a municipal heritage property along 23rd St. E. The highway turns north in downtown Saskatoon at the Saskatoon Transit terminal which will soon be home to a $ 4 @.@ 2 million transit terminal on 23rd Street between Second and Third Avenues . Along 25th Street , there is an historic marker commemorating the King Edward School building the first home of Saskatoon 's city hall , and the Saskatoon World War memorial marker . The Meewasin Valley Trail follows the South Saskatchewan River through Saskatoon which is visible when Highway 5 traverses the University Bridge . At the top of the bridge is the University of Saskatchewan 's President 's Residence which was constructed between 1910 and 1913 . East of the residence are the Memorial Gates are a World War I memorial , the interment site of the Honourable Sir Frederick W. A. G. Haultain 's ashes , the entrance to the Royal University Hospital and University of Saskatchewan . It becomes College Drive after crossing the river , and at km 4 @.@ 4 , the road diverges into a divided or twinned highway with 2 lanes traveling in either direction across a meridian . Continuing east it intersects the Circle Drive city bypass route ( Highway 16 ) at an interchange that opened in 2006 . After a signalized intersection with Central Avenue and an interchange with McKercher Drive , Highway 5 leaves Saskatoon 's city limits at km 7 , but the city is directly beside the highway until km 10 , including a signalized intersection with the city 's McOrmond Drive .
According to the Atlas of Saskatchewan , the elevation around Saskatoon is between 500 to 600 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 to 2 @,@ 000 ft ) . Leaving Saskatoon , travel is through a moist mixed grassland ecoregion . Small Aspen groves surround sloughs which intersperse the glacial till landscape . The highway is paved between Saskatoon and Kamsack . Just outside the city limits , Highway 5 connects with Highway 41 at the site of a small commercial area that , as of 2007 , included the Sundown Drive @-@ In , one of Canada 's last operational drive @-@ in movie theatres . Highway 5 has been a divided highway through the College - Circle Dr. interchange remaining a divided highway until km 14 @.@ 0 . The remainder of the highway to the Manitoba border is an undivided highway . The communities of Strawberry Hills , Discovery Ridge and Settler 's Ridge are just off km 18 on Highway 5 . At km 21 , Highway 5 intersects Highway 316 .
Patience Lake is located at km 24 @.@ 3 and the Patience Lake potash mine is visible from Highway 5 . " Patience Lake is a shallow , permanent , hypersaline lake east of Saskatoon in an area of extensive potash extraction . " The Patience Lake underground potash mine opened in 1975 was thereafter closed in 1987 due to extensive flooding . A new solution mine was reopened in 1988 .
At km 41 , it intersects Highway 671 , near the town of St. Denis . At km 64 , it intersects Highway 2 , where it begins a 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) concurrency . Highway 5 continues east at km 70 .
The town of Peterson is at km 76 and Highway 670 is at km 87 . The ecoregion changes to aspen parkland . Grasslands are resident on the upper slopes , and aspen groves on the lower areas . There tend to be more aspen groves in the aspen parkland as compared to the mixed grassland area . At km 109 , the highway passes through the town of Dixon .
The city of Humboldt is at km 115 . Highway 5 also connects with Highway 20 in Humboldt . Humboldt is Saskatchewan 's newest city located 113 kilometres ( 70 mi ) east of Saskatoon . Humboldt incorporated as a city in 2000 . A new Humboldt tourist booth was opened in 1971 on the highway edge . Humboldt has many large murals depicting its German Catholic history located on building walls throughout the city . The Humboldt and District Museum and Gallery is located in a 1912 post office and customs office with its landmark tower clock which has been declared a national historic site .
The Carlton Trail Regional Economic Development Authority ( REDA ) coordinates and instigates economy in an area of rural municipalities ( RM ) and towns in central Saskatchewan around Humboldt . The main industries of this area are agricultural , manufacturing , processing concerns as well as potash mining . A more recent industry to the area is tourism .
Situated 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) west of Humboldt along Saskatchewan Highway 5 and two miles ( 3 km ) south is the Kloppenburg Wildlife Refuge . North of the city is the Humboldt 18 hole grass green golf course on Highway 5 . Original works by the painter , Count Berthold Von Imhoff , can be seen at churches located in Muenster and Humboldt . The establishment of St. Peter ’ s Colony and Abbacy , Muenster , Saskatchewan has been designated as a Canadian National Historic Event on June 8 , 2007 , by the Minister of the Environment .
After Humboldt , Highway 5 passes through the town of Muenster at km 123 and intersects with Highway 368 at km 125 .
Highway 667 is at km 135 , and the town of St. Gregor is at km 136 . It then passes through the town of Englefeld ( km 147 ) . The village of Englefeld has a 600 pounds ( 270 kg ) hog which was built to celebrate the 25th Annual Hogfest celebration . The historic Wood Mountain - Fort Qu 'Appelle Trail is marked with a point of interest marker . McNab Regional Park is located south of Watson featuring pool and golf course . Watson is located at the concurrency of Highway 5 and Highway 6 , the CanAm Highway . At the intersection with Highway 6 is Watson ( km 156 ) . Watson ( Vossen , NWT ) is known as the Industrial Crossroads of Saskatchewan being the midpoint between Regina , Saskatchewan , and Saskatoon . Watson celebrated its first Santa Claus Day in 1922 , and has erected a 25 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) -high Santa Claus to commemorate this event .
Highway 5 then passes through Wimmer ( km 165 ) , and Quill Lake ( km 175 ) . The village of Quill Lake features a large statue of a Canada Goose located at the intersection of Highway 5 and Main Street . The Highway 5 - Highway 35 junction features a historical plaque which commemorates the Touchwood Hills Hudson 's Bay Company fur trade post established in 1879 . The Carlton Trail and telegraph line are also remembered at this site where only a portion of the trail and the post cellar depression remain .
The highway continues east meeting with Highway 640 ( km 176 ) , Clair ( km 191 ) , and Paswegin ( km 199 ) . It enters the town of Wadena and intersects with Highway 35 at km 210 . Wadena Wildlife Wetlands and Wadena Museum and Nature Centre are features of Wadena , the Northern Gateway to the Quill Lakes International Bird Area . Wadena Wildlife Wetlands and Wadena Museum and Nature Centre are features of Wadena , the Northern Gateway to the Quill Lakes International Bird Area . These communities along with Quill Lake , “ Goose Capital of Saskatchewan ” , are all part of the Quill Lakes communities of Quill Lake .
Highway 5 's next minor intersections are at Kylemore and Highway 665 ( km 222 ) , Kuroki and Highway 38 ( km 232 ) , Highway 310 ( km 234 ) , Margo ( km 244 ) , Highway 617 and Invermay ( km 256 ) . Good Spirit REDA extends from Carlton Trail REDA to the Manitoba border , with its focus being tourism . The REDA is an agriculture based area around Good Spirit Provincial Park . Highway 755 connects with Rama ( km 268 ) and Theodore .
Rama was incorporated as a village in 1919 by John Berge . It is located on the edge of Spirit Creek , a tributary of Good Spirit Lake . Rama is home to St. Michaels church , a provincial historical site . Also at home in Rama is the Grotto of Our Lady of Lourdes and St. Anthony 's Church . A religious pilgrimage is held at the grotto each year on August 14 and 15 , persons of all faith are always welcome and all are free to have a self @-@ guided tour of the grotto and attend the annual pilgrimage .
Olysky ( Big Sky Farms ) runs large factory hog production facilities in the area .
The highway then leaves Rama and continues on through Dernic ( km 278 ) , Highway 47 and Buchanan ( km 286 ) . Good Spirit Lake Provincial Park is located south of Buchanan and south west of Canora . Camping facilities provide access to beaches , lake and a small area of sand dunes . Highway 5 continues through the appropriately named hamlet of Tiny and intersects with Highway 664 ( km 299 ) . To the north of Highway 664 is the Sturgis ski hill , as well as small heritage museums in both Sturgis and Preeceville . The junction with Highway 651 is at km 309 . The town of Canora , “ Heart of Good Spirit Country ” , is at km 311 , where Highway 5 has a 2 km concurrency with Highway 9 , the Saskota flyway . " Lesia " , a 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) statue of a traditionally dressed Ukrainian woman offering bread and salt to travelers at Canora . Also within Canora are the Canora Station House Museum , Ukrainian Heritage Museum and Canada 's Only Toy and Autograph Museum . Ukrainian Orthodox Heritage Church of the Holy Trinity in Canora was designated a heritage site in 1984 by the town of Canora and it underwent restoration . In the Good Spirit REDA , Canora features a flax straw processing plant , manufacturing plant , and meat processing plant .
The next few intersections on Highway 5 are at Highway 650 and Ross Junction ( km 319 ) , Mikado ( km 326 ) , and Veregin and Highway 637 ( km 339 ) . The town of Kamsack , at km 352 , is the last major town that Highway 5 passes through . Within Kamsack is the Kamsack Power House Museum which features local artifacts and historic memorabilia . The National Doukhobour Heritage Village is a historical attraction at Verigin . Highway 5 also intersects Highway 8 near Kamsack . The highway is paved between Saskatoon and Kamsack , and gravel and unpaved through Togo and onwards to the Manitoba border .
To the north of Highway 5 , and east of Kamsack is the Duck Mountain Provincial Park . This height of land location features Madge Lake , camping , fishing , and horse stables . The highest elevation is near the Manitoba border near Duck Mountain . Highway 5 travels south of Duck Mountain which has an elevation of between 700 to 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 300 to 2 @,@ 600 ft ) . Highway 5 then intersects Highway 57 at km 360 . From Highway 57 , the highway turns south and meanders to the southeast as it passes the access to the town of Coté ( km 365 ) and through the towns of Runnymede ( km 374 ) and Togo ( km 387 ) , where it also intersects Highway 357 and Highway 369 . The Manitoba border is at km 388 , where Highway 5 becomes Provincial Road 363 .
= = History = =
The early Red River cart trail traversed the North West Territory prairies between Portage la Prairie and Edmonton via Humboldt and Battleford , intersecting the future location of Highway 5 at Humboldt . The Dominion Government Telegraph Line was constructed in 1875 , which was parallel to the future Highway 5 .
Both Red River Cart trail and telegraph line were abandoned in the 1920s . In 1925 , Provincial Highway 5 , the Evergreen Route , followed the surveyed rail line route of the Canadian Northern Railway , later the Canadian National Railway . Provincial Highway 5 had a western terminus at Lloydminster located on the Alberta - Saskatchewan border . When the province was surveyed , the road evolved from a dirt road to a gravel road . This was finally improved to an all weather road known as Provincial Highway 5 from the Alberta – Saskatchewan border bypassing Saskatoon to the north , and continuing on to the Manitoba – Saskatchewan border . Just as the rail line went through Aberdeen , Warman , and Langham , so too did Provincial Highway 5 .
In 1925 , access from Saskatoon to Provincial Highway 5 was via Provincial Highway 12 which was a route due north of the city . The other connection was Provincial Highway 27 which traveled east and north from Saskatoon connecting to Provincial Highway 5 at the junction located at the town of Aberdeen . In the late 1950s and 1960s , the highway was straightened and widened . During this process , the current Saskatchewan Highway 5 connected Humboldt and Saskatoon in a more direct west and east highway . The old place names of Warman , Aberdeen , Vonda , Prudhomme , Dana , Bruno , and Carmel located on Provincial Highway 5 were no longer place names along Saskatchewan Highway 5 . Now the Highway 17 concurrency was the only north @-@ south stretch between Humboldt and Saskatoon and Meacham the only place name . On August 15 , 1970 the Yellowhead was opened for the northern Trans @-@ Canada route and the north western half of Provincial Highway 5 between Saskatoon and Lloydminster was designated as Saskatchewan Highway 16 , the Yellowhead route .
Travel along the Provincial Highway 5 before the 1940s would have been traveling on the square following the township road allowances , barbed wire fencing and rail lines . As the surveyed township roads were the easiest to travel , the first highway was designed on 90 @-@ degree , right @-@ angle corners as the distance traversed the prairie along range roads and township roads . 1926 Saskatchewan map
Highway 5 was constructed through Englefeld in 1961 . John Koenig was one of the first residents of Englefeld to own a car , a Ford touring car purchased in the 1920s .
= = = Upgrades = = =
Canadian Pacific Railway crossing lights were installed on Highway 5 at the east end of Humboldt . At the junction of Highway 20 and Highway 5 , there were traffic lights installed in 1973 . West Humboldt properties announced in the fall of 2008 that The Quill Centre will be opened in the fall of 2009 along Highway 5 .
Jan 3 , 1910 , was the first meeting of the RM of Blucher 343 . In 1911 , early homesteaders could choose to pay taxes at $ 9 @.@ 00 per quarter section of land or working off $ 4 @.@ 00 of this expense by constructing roads . A labourer and two horse team could earn 50 cents an hour and a four horse team with a driver was allotted 70 cents an hour .
A resurfacing improvement project was undertaken for an 11 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 3 mi ) stretch between Mikado and Canora . The $ 1 million project was completed the summer of 2001 . In the summer of 2000 , 13 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) received resurfacing improvements between Verigin and Mikado . In February 2003 , the Department of Highways awarded a tender to resurface 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) from Quill Lake and eastward . " We are maintaining our focus on building better highways . Work on this $ 940 @,@ 000 resurfacing project ... should be complete within two weeks " , said Highways and Transportation Minister Mark Wartman .
= = Intersections from west to east = =
|
= George H. D. Gossip =
George Hatfeild Dingley Gossip ( December 6 , 1841 – May 11 , 1907 ) was a minor American @-@ English chess master and writer . He competed in chess tournaments between 1870 and 1895 , playing against most of the world 's leading players , but with only modest success . The writer G. H. Diggle calls him " the King of Wooden Spoonists " because he usually finished last in strong tournaments . Gossip was also a noted writer . His treatise The Chess @-@ Player 's Manual — A Complete Guide to Chess , a 900 @-@ page tome published in 1874 after several years of work , was harshly received by the critics , largely because he had included a number of informal skittles games that he had ( atypically ) won against stronger players . As a result , Gossip developed a lifelong enmity toward chess critics , whom he often attacked ferociously in his books . However , his 1879 book Theory of the Chess Openings was well received . Wilhelm Steinitz , the first World Chess Champion , wrote that the 1888 edition of The Chess @-@ Player 's Manual was one of the best available books on the game . Thanks in part to a 122 @-@ page appendix by S. Lipschütz , it became one of the standard opening works of the time .
Gossip made his living primarily as a journalist , author , and translator . He wrote for publications in England , France , Australia , and the United States . At various times he resided in each of those countries , as well as in Germany and Canada . In 1898 and 1899 , two publishers issued Gossip 's sole book about a subject other than chess , The Jew of Chamant . Published under the pseudonym " Ivan Trepoff " , it was virulently antisemitic .
Chess writers have often mocked Gossip 's play , calling him a " grandpatzer " and the like . However , Kenneth Whyld , one of his previous critics , suggests that history may have judged him unfairly .
= = Early life and education = =
Gossip was born in New York City on December 6 , 1841 , to George Hatfeild Gossip , an Englishman , and his wife Mary Ellen Dingley Gossip , of New York . When he was sixteen months old , his mother died ; about two years later , he and his father moved to England . His aunt , Mrs. Reaston Rodes , raised him , apparently with little involvement by his father . Gossip grew up at Barlborough Hall , Derbyshire ( the Rodes family seat ) and at Hatfield , in Yorkshire . Both the Gossip and Rodes families are listed in Burke 's Landed Gentry . He was educated at Windermere College , Westmorland , and won a scholarship to Oxford University , but was unable to attend as his father , uncle , and aunts lost a lawsuit that ruined them financially . As a result , Gossip had to support himself through his own labors .
= = Non @-@ chess adult life = =
Gossip made his living primarily as a writer and translator , writing for newspapers and magazines on three continents . His profession is described in the 1871 , 1881 , and 1891 United Kingdom censuses , respectively , as a " translator of languages " , an " author of work on chess " , and a member of the " literary profession " . He lived for over five years in Paris , contributing to French publications . From 1879 to 1880 he was " employed occasionally as translator and otherwise " in The Times of London 's office in Paris . He also lived in Germany .
Gossip married Alicia ( the name is sometimes given as " Alice " ) , a music teacher from Dublin , in Jersey in 1868 . As of 1871 , they were living in London with their 11 @-@ month @-@ old son George and two servants . By 1881 , Gossip and his wife had moved to Ipswich , and had three more children : Helen ( born c . 1872 ) , Harold ( c . 1874 ) , and Mabel ( c . 1879 ) . After Gossip 's father died in 1882 , the Gossips and their four children emigrated to Australia , arriving in January 1883 . While in that country , Gossip wrote articles for the Sydney Star , Sydney Globe , Sydney Evening News , Town and Country Journal , The Advertiser ( Adelaide ) , and other publications . He contributed literary articles to Once a Month magazine ( Melbourne ) and the Sydney Quarterly Magazine .
Gossip moved to the United States in 1888 , departing in April from Sydney on the steamship Alameda . In May , the ship arrived in San Francisco , where , Gossip wrote , " I first set foot on my native soil after an absence of over forty years . " He wrote articles for the San Francisco Examiner on the " Chinese Question in Australia " and the San Francisco Chronicle on " Protection and Free Trade in New South Wales " .
His family apparently remained in Australia , where Alicia died of cancer in October 1888 . In 1894 , Gossip 's children Helen and Harold both married , in Victoria and Melbourne , respectively . Gossip 's grandson , George Hatfield Dingley Gossip , born in Sydney in 1897 , was a World War I flying ace for Australia , " shooting down six enemy aircraft while flying his Sopwith Camel along the Belgian coast " .
In 1889 , Gossip returned to Europe . By 1891 , he was living as a tenant in a London boarding house . In 1894 , he moved to Montreal , Canada . While living there , Gossip contributed articles to a newspaper in Manchester , England . The June 1895 British Chess Magazine ( BCM ) and June 1897 American Chess Magazine reported that he was living in Buffalo , New York .
Under the pseudonym " Ivan Trepoff " , Gossip wrote a book , The Jew of Chamant , which was published by Hausauer ( Buffalo ) in 1898 , and by F.T. Neely ( London and New York ) in 1899 . The two versions are subtitled , respectively , " or , the modern Monte Cristo " and " a romance of crime " . The book is intensely antisemitic . The author explains in its preface :
My object in the present work is to paint the rich Jew in his true colors , as the enemy of society ; to show that the Jew who steals millions , can , in Europe , at any rate , defy the laws with impunity , and that he almost invariably escapes punishment owing to improper occult influences , and the mighty power of Israelitish gold .
The chess literature is silent about the last decade of Gossip 's life . He died of heart disease on May 11 , 1907 , at the Railway Hotel in Liphook , England .
= = Chess career = =
By 1864 , Gossip was appearing in London chess circles , drawing a game against Joseph Henry Blackburne at a simultaneous exhibition in April . He played in a number of chess tournaments between 1870 and 1895 , usually with unimpressive results . At London 1870 , the Third British Chess Association Congress ( won by John Wisker after a playoff against Amos Burn ) , Gossip scored two of six possible points , finishing in a tie for fifth – sixth out of seven players . He had the consolation of handing Burn his only loss . At London 1872 ( won by Steinitz ahead of Johannes Zukertort and Blackburne ) , he scored just one out of seven , finishing seventh out of eight players .
Gossip won the 1873 – 74 correspondence chess tournament of the Chess @-@ Players Chronicle , after which he " was thought by some to be the strongest correspondence player known " . However , playing first board for England in an 1879 correspondence chess match against the United States , he lost all four of his games to Ellen Gilbert of Hartford , Connecticut . She " caused a sensation in the chess world " by announcing mate in 21 moves in one game , and mate in 35 moves in another . Gossip responded gallantly , dedicating his book Theory of the Chess Openings to her .
In 1874 , Gossip lost a match for the Championship Cup of the Provinces to Rev. John Owen , retiring because of illness after one win , two draws , and two losses . He won a local tournament at the Café de la Régence in Paris in 1880 . In 1882 , he beat Wordsworth Donisthorpe in a match held at Simpson 's Divan in London .
Gossip 's first significant success at over @-@ the @-@ board chess came at the 1883 London Vizayanagaram minor tournament . He scored 17 ½ out of 25 , tying for fifth – sixth place out of 26 players with Charles Ranken , who later co @-@ authored the treatise Chess Openings Ancient and Modern ( 1889 ) . Curt von Bardeleben won with 21 ½ points ; Isidor Gunsberg , who would narrowly lose an 1890 – 91 World Championship match to Steinitz , finished fourth with 19 points .
In 1885 Gossip , a year after emigrating to Australia , issued a challenge to any player in the Australian colonies to play a match with him for 20 pounds a side and the title of Australian champion . Frederick Karl Esling , a leading Melbourne player , accepted the challenge . Esling won the first game , and the second was adjourned in a position favorable to him . Gossip then pleaded illness and forfeited the match . Kenneth Whyld writes that the Australians probably considered Gossip a " whingeing Pom " .
An Australian commentator observes , " Gossip may not have been the most popular itinerant to venture to these shores in the nineteenth century , but when he announced his challenge ... he at least brought the question of an official Chess Champion of Australia before the chess playing fraternity " . In 1950 , when Esling was 90 , the Australian Chess Federation formally declared , belatedly , that he had become the first Australian Chess Champion by winning his 1885 match against Gossip . The Second Australian Chess Championship , a tournament , was held at Adelaide in 1887 . Gossip finished third with 6 ½ out of 9 , behind Henry Charlick ( 7 ½ points ) and Esling ( 7 points ) .
After returning to America in 1888 , Gossip obtained an appointment at the Columbia Chess Club . The following year , he represented England at the Sixth American Chess Congress ( New York 1889 ) , one of the greatest tournaments of the 19th century . The Congress , a double round robin that was one of the longest tournaments in history , was intended to select a challenger for the world championship title . There , Gossip had what G. H. Diggle calls " perhaps the best performance of his career " . He scored 13 ½ out of 38 ( 11 wins , 5 draws , 22 losses ) , finishing 17th – 18th out of 20 players . He won games from S. Lipschütz , Max Judd , Eugene Delmar , Jackson Showalter , William Pollock ( twice ) , Henry Bird ( twice ) , David Graham Baird , James Moore Hanham , and John Washington Baird . Mikhail Chigorin and Max Weiss tied for first with 29 points , edging out Gunsberg ( 28 ½ points ) .
Gossip was unable to repeat even this modest level of success in his final tournaments . He finished last in five consecutive strong events : the Master Section at London 1889 ( scoring 1 ½ out of 10 ; Bird won on tiebreak over Gunsberg ) ; the Meisterturnier ( Master Tournament ) at Breslau 1889 ( scoring three out of ten ; Siegbert Tarrasch won ) ; the Master Section of Manchester 1890 ( scoring four out of nineteen ; Tarrasch won ) ; the Master Tournament at London 1892 ( scoring 2 ½ out of 11 ; future World Champion Emanuel Lasker won ) ; and New York 1893 ( scoring 2 ½ out of 13 ; Lasker won with a perfect score ) . Gossip 's run of last @-@ place finishes moved Diggle to dub him " the King of Wooden Spoonists " . Gossip 's last event was a minor tournament in Skaneateles , New York in July – August 1895 , where he scored three out of six , finishing in a tie for third – fifth of seven players .
A report in the BCM in 1889 observed that Gossip suffered from great nervousness that prevented him from fully displaying his abilities at chess tournaments , where he had to stop his ears " to keep out the low hum inseparable from a large concourse of people " . Bird likewise wrote that minor distractions that he would not even notice would " drive ... Gossip to despair " . The BCM commentator accordingly believed that Gossip " would make a good stand in a single encounter with men who are much higher in the tournament than he is " .
Following his move to Montreal , Gossip in a letter to a friend dated October 20 , 1894 complained , " The French Canadian Chessplayers here are the poorest , meanest humbugs I ever met – all Jesuits . " He and Pollock played a match at the Montreal Chess Club in December 1894 and January 1895 ; each won six games , with five draws . This was an impressive result for Gossip " in view of Pollock 's undoubted strength " . Later in 1895 , Pollock finished 19th out of 22 players , scoring 8 out of 21 ( including wins over Tarrasch and Steinitz ) , at Hastings 1895 , arguably at that time the strongest tournament in history . Diggle writes that Gossip 's drawn match with Pollock vindicates the BCM 's 1889 observation that Gossip would be more at home in a match than a tournament .
Gossip was only a minor master , " a mediocre player who figured at or near the bottom of every better than average tourney in which he participated " . However , during his career he played tournament games against most of the world 's leading players , including World Champions Lasker and Steinitz ; World Championship challengers Zukertort , Tarrasch , Chigorin , and Gunsberg ; Louis Paulsen , Harry Nelson Pillsbury , and James Mason , all at some point ranked number 1 in the world by Chessmetrics ; Burn , Blackburne , Bird , and Cecil de Vere ( all ranked number 2 ) ; and Weiss and Wisker ( both ranked number 3 ) .
= = Chess books and articles = =
As of 1874 , Gossip was the chess editor of The Hornet . In that year , after several years ' work , he published his magnum opus , The Chess @-@ Player 's Manual — A Complete Guide to Chess . It was " a handsomely produced work with more than 800 of its 900 pages devoted to openings and illustrative games " . The book became the subject of biting criticism , largely because Gossip had included 27 illustrative games that he had won against leading players of the day , and only 12 games that he had lost . Steinitz later wrote :
Mr Gossip had practiced the unfair ruse of carefully preserving stray skittles games which he had happened to win or draw , generally after many defeats , against masters whose public records stood far above his own , ... thus leading the public to believe that the author stood on a par with them , or was even their superior .
According to Diggle , this edition of the book " failed utterly " . The harsh reception accorded it embittered Gossip against chess critics for the rest of his life .
In 1879 , Gossip published Theory of the Chess Openings , a shorter work more in the style of Modern Chess Openings , which sold out within six months . The preface and the concluding chapter of the book bitterly attacked the critics who had savaged his earlier treatise . This time the critics , " while deploring ' the outside slices of Mr. Gossip 's sandwich ' " , praised the main body of the work . William Wayte in the Chess Players Chronicle called the book " fairly in possession of the field among English elementary treatises " . Unfortunately for Gossip , he " was the victim of an act of gross piracy , as many copies forming no part of the edition printed by his orders were circulated in America and the ' pirates ' never brought to justice . "
While in Australia , Gossip wrote a chess column that appeared in Once a Month magazine from February to October 1885 .
A new edition of The Chess @-@ Player 's Manual was published in 1888 , this one with a 122 @-@ page appendix by Lipschütz . Steinitz wrote that " Mr Gossip has produced a useful work , which in some respects must be regarded even superior to that of Staunton or any other previous writers on the chess openings . ... But the most meritorious distinguishing feature of the Manual is the large collection of illustrative games by various first @-@ class masters , and in that respect Mr Gossip 's work stands second only to Signor Salvioli 's Teoria e Pratica among the analytical works in any language . " The following year , Steinitz cited it in The Modern Chess Instructor as one of the 12 principal authorities he had relied on in writing that treatise .
An anonymous reviewer in The New York Times called the new edition of The Chess @-@ Player 's Manual " probably the most convenient , trustworthy , and satisfactory chess book accessible in the English language " . The reviewer concluded that the games and problems in the volume would " afford great entertainment " to the casual enthusiast , " while for real students of chess ... it is very nearly indispensable " . He also praised " Mr. Lipschütz 's appendix , which brings the development of the openings almost down to date " . David Hooper and Kenneth Whyld write in The Oxford Companion to Chess that Lipschütz 's appendix " helped to make this one of the standard opening books of the time " . World Champion Bobby Fischer had a copy of The Chess @-@ Player 's Manual in his personal library , and cited it in his famous 1961 article " A Bust to the King 's Gambit " .
The June 1888 issue of Steinitz 's International Chess Magazine contained an article by Gossip that Robert John McCrary calls " a very illuminating , important , and detailed account of the state of San Francisco chess " . For the last few months of 1888 Gossip was listed as being on the " Editorial Staff " of the Columbia Chess Chronicle . Its December 29 , 1888 issue contained a lengthy article by him entitled " Chess in the Present Day " , which offered a broad sweep of chess history and the advances made by chess in the United States . Gossip called Paul Morphy and Steinitz " the two greatest chessplayers that have ever lived " and remarked that " no Englishman has yet attained , or probably ever will attain , to the eminence of chess champion of the world . ... The deep @-@ thinking German , the brilliant Frenchman and the versatile American have always been too much for sober , stolid John Bull . "
Gossip in 1891 published a second revised edition of his Theory of the Chess Openings , which Diggle calls " a handsome volume with an appendix of sixty @-@ one pages " . Characteristically , he devoted much of the appendix to criticizing his detractors and anticipating their further attacks .
Gossip also wrote the lesser @-@ known chess books The Chess Players ' Text Book ( 1889 ) , The Chess @-@ player 's Vade Mecum and Pocket Guide to the Openings ( 1891 ) , Modern Chess Brilliancies ( 1892 ) , The Chess Player 's Pocket Guide to Games at Odds ( 1893 ) , The Chess Pocket Manual ( 1894 ) , The Chess Player 's Mentor ( with Francis Joseph Lee , 1895 ) , The Complete Chess @-@ Guide ( with Lee , 1903 ) , Gossip 's Vest @-@ Pocket Chess Manual ( date unknown ; pictured at above left ) , and a collection of his own games , Games : G. H. D. Gossip versus Bezkrowny , Clerc , Donisthorpe , Gocher , Gunsberg , Hoffer , Owen , Sanders , Vines Played During the Last 10 Years in England & France ( 1882 , with Gunsberg and Steinitz ) .
= = Manner and reputation = =
Burn 's biographer Richard Forster notes that Gossip " was well @-@ known for his exaggerated self @-@ esteem " . Philip Sergeant in his book A Century of British Chess remarks that his " play was never quite up to his own estimate of it " . The New York Times portrays him at the Sixth American Chess Congress ( 1889 ) as follows :
Gossip , with his long , flowing beard , looks like one of the old @-@ time monks . He has a good @-@ shaped cranium , bald at the top , and is a little above the medium height . ... He believes himself to be one of the greatest chessplayers in the world , and thinks that if everything had gone on to his liking he could have beaten all the champions at the tournament . He is a deliberate player , but every now and then he takes a nip from a flask of brandy that generally stands on his table . He complained that his chair was too low , and he once attributed a defeat to that . Finally , he got a large ledger and sat upon it . He did , in fact , seem to derive some inspiration from its contents , for he played two or three excellent games afterward .
Diggle observes that Gossip " developed ' a happy knack of treading on other people 's corns ' by rushing into print " his occasional wins in offhand games against such leading players as Bird and Zukertort . He also vehemently denounced his critics and those with whom he disagreed . For example , in 1888 the Columbia Chess Chronicle quoted a lecture he had given two days before on the Steinitz Gambit . After condemning as " utterly worthless " the analysis of that opening published in two English periodicals , Gossip declaimed :
In order , therefore , to establish an important point of theory , and at the same time to prevent American chessplayers from being misled and deceived by the superficial analysis of incompetent British chess editors , whose object in condemning the Steinitz Gambit has obviously been mainly to depreciate the originality of its illustrious inventor , whom they invariably try to drag down to their own miserable level of shallow incompetency and self @-@ conceit , I submit the following variations which at any rate possess the undeniable merit of exposing the hollow analytical twaddle continually published in the two London journals above named .
Hooper and Whyld note Gossip 's " unusual talent for making enemies " and attribute the critical reception of his books to this , since in their opinion " his books were not significantly worse than the general run of the time , and they were better than , for example , those by Bird , who was popular " . They remark on his travels that , " Disliked in England , he travelled to Australia , the United States , and Canada , where he also became unpopular . " Some measure of his talent for stirring up controversy is provided by a letter Pollock wrote during their 1894 – 95 match :
I and Gossip are six each and may draw the match . He has proved a terrible crank and has had several games by forfeit , and one " cancelled " . He now has a libel suit against the chess column of the Herald . ... We have just agreed , per the committee , to call the match a draw . Whereby all parties are relieved .
Chess historian Edward Winter observes that " Gossip has always been a soft target for mockery " . He notes that Hooper and Whyld in the first edition ( 1984 ) of The Oxford Companion to Chess " treated him essentially as light relief " ; the second edition ( 1992 ) treated him more equitably , but like the first omitted any mention of his performance at New York 1889 . Yakov Damsky in The Batsford Book of Chess Records ( 2005 ) , addressing the question of which player " achieved the greatest negative distinction " on the international level , opines that Gossip " can probably feel safe from competition " . Mike Fox and Richard James in their book The Even More Complete Chess Addict ( 1993 ) write that , " Of players who 've entered chess history , perhaps the strongest claimant for the all @-@ time grandpatzer title is George Hatfeild Dingley Gossip ( 1841 – 1907 ) . George had a worse record in major tournaments than anyone in history ( last at Breslau 1889 , London 1889 , Manchester 1890 , London 1892 , and New York 1893 : a total of just four wins , 52 losses and 21 draws ) . " Like Hooper and Whyld , they overlook his result at New York 1889 , a major tournament where he won 11 games and finished above the bottom . In a 2001 article , Whyld himself takes notice of Gossip 's result at New York 1889 and suggests that " history has perhaps given him an unfair verdict " .
By Arpad Elo 's calculation , Gossip 's strength during his five @-@ year peak was equivalent to an Elo rating of 2310 . Today FIDE , the World Chess Federation , often awards the Grandmaster title to players with Elo ratings of 2500 and above , and the lesser International Master and FIDE Master titles to players rated at least 2400 and 2300 , respectively .
Another assessment system , Chessmetrics , calculates that Gossip 's highest rating was 2470 ( number 50 in the world ) in April 1889 . By comparison , the world 's three highest @-@ rated players at that time had Chessmetrics ratings over 2700 . Chessmetrics also ranks Gossip number 17 in the world during four one @-@ month periods between February and July 1873 , when opportunities for high @-@ level competition were much rarer . Like Diggle , Chessmetrics considers New York 1889 Gossip 's best individual performance , concluding that he scored 39 % against opponents with an average rating of 2595 , giving him a performance rating of 2539 for that tournament . In 1904 , the Deutsche Schachzeitung , on the basis of its tabulation of players ' percentage scores in all major international tournaments from London 1851 to Cambridge Springs 1904 , ranked Gossip the number 62 living player in the world .
Diggle writes that despite his faults , Gossip was " a man of dauntless courage and infinite capacity for hard work " , which enabled him to become a recognized author despite the disastrous reception that the first edition of his Chess @-@ Player 's Manual received . His literary style was vigorous , and shows him to be an educated and well @-@ read man .
= = Notable games = =
= = = Showalter vs. Gossip , New York 1889 = = =
The following game was played between future five @-@ time U.S. Champion Jackson Showalter ( White ) and Gossip ( Black ) at the Sixth American Chess Congress , New York 1889 .
1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.d4 exd4 4.Nxd4 Nf6 5.Nxc6 bxc6 6.Bd3 d5 7.e5 ? 7.exd5 is correct . 7 ... Ng4 8.O @-@ O Bc5 9.Bf4 9.h3 Nxe5 10.Re1 fails to 10 ... Qf6 11.Qe2 0 @-@ 0 ! 12.Qxe5 Qxf2 + 13.Kh1 Bxh3 ! 9 ... g5 ! 10.Bd2 White is already in serious trouble . 10.Bg3 is met by 10 ... h5 ! 11.h3 h4 ! 12.Bh2 Nxh2 13.Kxh2 g4 ! 14.hxg4 Qg5 15.Be2 Qf4 + 16.Kh1 ( or 16.Kg1 h3 ! ) 16 ... Bxf2 and wins . 10 ... Nxe5 11.Re1 Qe7 12.Nc3 Bd7 13.Qh5 O @-@ O @-@ O ! Since 13 ... h6 would still be answered by 14.Bxg5 , Gossip sacrifices the pawn , anticipating a killing attack along the g @-@ file . 14.Bxg5 f6 15.Bh4 Qg7 16.Ba6 + Kb8 17.Bg3 Rhg8 18.Qd1 Ng4 More accurate was 18 ... Bg4 followed by ... h5 , initiating the same attack that Black begins on his 20th move . 19.Bf1 Ne5 20.b4 Bg4 21.Qb1 ? 21.Be2 was better than this attempt at counterattack . 21 ... Bd4 22.Qb3 h5 ! 23.Rab1 h4 ! Steinitz writes , " The initiation of a masterly combination eight moves deep . " 24.Bxh4 ? 24.Bxe5 holds out longer . Now , writes Andrew Soltis , " Black crowned his play with one of the most beautiful combinations ever played " . 24 ... Nf3 + ! 25.gxf3 25.Kh1 Nxh4 leaves Black a piece ahead with a won game . 25 ... Bxf3 + 26.Bg3 Qxg3 + ! 27.hxg3 Rxg3 + 28.Kh2 If 28.Bg2 , Rxg2 + 29.Kf1 Rh2 and mates . 28 ... Bxf2 29.Bh3 Rxh3 + ! 0 – 1 30.Kxh3 is met by ... Rh8 mate .
Fred Reinfeld calls the game " a glorious masterpiece " . Steinitz proclaims , " One of the finest specimens of sacrificing play on record . Mr. Gossip deserves the highest praise for the ingenuity and depth of combination which he displayed in this game . " Soltis writes that " there were many raised eyebrows " when the tournament committee awarded the prize for the best @-@ played game not to Gossip for this game , but to Gunsberg for his win over Mason . After comparing the two games , Whyld writes , " The verdict seems clear . Gossip was robbed ! " Diggle states , " Gossip was , of course , the last man to keep quiet about this decision , and for once he had considerable public sympathy on his side . "
= = = Chigorin vs. Gossip , New York 1889 = = =
When facing world @-@ class opponents , Gossip more often fell victim to their combinations . A famous example is his loss , also at New York 1889 , to Mikhail Chigorin ( White ) , who lost world championship matches to Steinitz in 1889 and 1892 .
1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.c3 d5 3 ... Nf6 is the safest response if Black is not well versed in the ensuing complications — as Gossip proves not to be . 4.Qa4 f6 5.Bb5 Ne7 6.exd5 Qxd5 7.O @-@ O 7.d4 ! is the main line today . 7 ... Bd7 ? 7 ... e4 ! 8.Ne1 Bf5 9.f3 leads to equality . 8.d4 e4 9.Nfd2 Ng6 ? 9 ... f5 ! was correct . 10.Bc4 Qa5 11.Qb3 f5 ? 11 ... 0 @-@ 0 @-@ 0 ! was the best chance . 12.Bf7 + Ke7 ? Yet another mistake ; 12 ... Kd8 is forced . Yakov Damsky asks , " Just how many wrong moves is it possible to play ? " 13.Nc4 ! Setting up a problem @-@ like finish with a fatal double check two moves later . 13 ... Qa6 14.Bg5 + ! Kxf7 15.Nd6 # 1 – 0
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= USS Ajax ( 1864 ) =
Originally named USS Manayuk , after a town in Pennsylvania , USS Ajax was a single @-@ turreted Canonicus @-@ class monitor built for the Union Navy during the American Civil War . Completed after the end of the war , Ajax was laid up until 1871 , although she received her new name in 1869 . The ship was briefly activated in 1871 before a much longer commission began in 1874 – 75 . She was assigned to the North Atlantic Squadron during this time . Ajax was again placed in reserve in 1891 . The ship was on militia duty when the Spanish – American War began and she was recommissioned in 1898 to defend Baltimore , Maryland , although she was decommissioned later in the year before the necessary refit could be completed . Ajax was sold for scrap in 1899 .
= = Description and construction = =
The ship was 224 feet 6 inches ( 68 @.@ 4 m ) long overall , had a beam of 43 feet 8 inches ( 13 @.@ 3 m ) and had a maximum draft of 13 feet 3 inches ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) . Ajax had a tonnage of 1 @,@ 034 tons burthen and displaced 2 @,@ 100 long tons ( 2 @,@ 100 t ) . Her crew consisted of 100 officers and enlisted men .
Ajax was powered by a two @-@ cylinder horizontal vibrating @-@ lever steam engine that drove one propeller using steam generated by two Stimers horizontal fire @-@ tube boilers . The 320 @-@ indicated @-@ horsepower ( 240 kW ) engine gave the ship a top speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) . She carried 140 – 150 long tons ( 140 – 150 t ) of coal . Ajax 's main armament consisted of two smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading , 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) Dahlgren guns mounted in a single gun turret . Each gun weighed approximately 43 @,@ 000 pounds ( 20 @,@ 000 kg ) . They could fire a 350 @-@ pound ( 158 @.@ 8 kg ) shell up to a range of 2 @,@ 100 yards ( 1 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of + 7 ° .
The exposed sides of the hull were protected by five layers of 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) wrought iron plates , backed by wood . The armor of the gun turret and the pilot house consisted of ten layers of one @-@ inch plates . The ship 's deck was protected by armor 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) thick . A 5 @-@ by @-@ 15 @-@ inch ( 130 by 380 mm ) soft iron band was fitted around the base of the turret to prevent shells and fragments from jamming the turret as had happened during the First Battle of Charleston Harbor in April 1863 . The base of the funnel ( ship ) was protected to a height of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) by 8 inches ( 200 mm ) of armor . A " rifle screen " of 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ inch ( 13 mm ) armor 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) high was installed on the top of the turret to protected the crew against Confederate snipers based on a suggestion by Commander Tunis A. M. Craven , captain of her sister ship Tecumseh . The only known modification after the ship 's completion was the addition of a hurricane deck between the turret and the funnel sometime after the end of the Civil War .
The contract for construction of Ajax was signed by Snowden & Mason on 15 September 1862 , and the keel of the ship was laid down later in the year in their new shipyard at Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . The ship 's construction was delayed by multiple changes ordered while she was being built that reflected battle experience with earlier monitors . This included the rebuilding of the turrets and pilot houses to increase their armor thickness from 8 inches ( 203 mm ) to 10 inches and to replace the bolts that secured their armor plates together with rivets to prevent them from being knocked loose by the shock of impact from shells striking the turret . Other changes included deepening the hull by 18 inches ( 457 mm ) to increase the ship 's buoyancy , moving the position of the turret to balance the ship 's trim and replacing all of the ship 's deck armor . She was ready to be launched in April 1864 , but the very low level of the Ohio River rendered that impossible . She was finally launched on 18 December . While fitting out , Ajax was ripped loose from her moorings on 5 March 1865 and she had to be towed back to her berth . The following day she was towed to Mound City , Illinois where she arrived on 11 March . Snowden & Mason had to pay $ 7 @,@ 000 for the tow as well as ship 400 long tons ( 410 t ) of material needed to finish the ship .
The monitor joined her sisters Oneota and Catawba in ordinary opposite Cairo , Illinois when she was completed on 27 September 1865 , although they drew enough water that they had to be anchored in the main channel where they were often struck by debris , drifting ice , and were vulnerable to accidents . This was a persistent problem and the Navy finally decided to move the ships down to New Orleans in May 1866 . The ship was renamed Ajax on 15 June 1869 .
= = Service history = =
The monitor was briefly commissioned on 1 January 1871 , under the command of Lieutenant Commander Charles Love Franklin , and transferred to Key West , Florida to participate with the North Atlantic Squadron on coast defense maneuvers . She was decommissioned on 1 July 1871 and laid up at the Philadelphia Navy Yard . After a thorough overhaul , Ajax was recommissioned on 13 January 1874 , with Commander Joseph N. Miller in command . The ship was assigned to the North Atlantic Squadron and was based at Key West until she was decommissioned again on 27 July 1875 and laid up at Port Royal , South Carolina . Recommissioned on 5 November 1875 , the ship remained at Port Royal until moved to the James River . She was moored at Brandon , Virginia and at City Point , Virginia , before being placed in ordinary at Richmond , Virginia on 30 June 1891 .
On 26 September 1895 , Ajax was loaned to the New Jersey Naval Militia and moored at Camden , New Jersey . She was recommissioned for local defense duties on 9 July 1898 during the Spanish – American War in response to pressure from local politicians . The ship was intended for service at Baltimore , but she was decommissioned on 1 September 1898 before the necessary refit had been completed . Ajax was sold at the Philadelphia Navy Yard on 10 October 1899 .
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= Earth structure =
An earth structure is a building or other structure made largely from soil . Since soil is a widely available material , it has been used in construction since prehistoric times . It may be combined with other materials , compressed and / or baked to add strength . Soil is still an economical material for many applications , and may have low environmental impact both during and after construction .
Earth structure materials may be as simple as mud , or mud mixed with straw to make cob . Sturdy dwellings may be also built from sod or turf . Soil may be stabilized by the addition of lime or cement , and may be compacted into rammed earth . Construction is faster with pre @-@ formed adobe or mudbricks , compressed earth blocks , earthbags or fired clay bricks .
Types of earth structure include earth shelters , where a dwelling is wholly or partly embedded in the ground or encased in soil . Native American earth lodges are examples . Wattle and daub houses use a " wattle " of poles interwoven with sticks to provide stability for mud walls . Sod houses were built on the northwest coast of Europe , and later by European settlers on the North American prairies . Adobe or mud @-@ brick buildings are built around the world and include houses , apartment buildings , mosques and churches . Fujian Tulous are large fortified rammed earth buildings in southeastern China that shelter as many as 80 families . Other types of earth structure include mounds and pyramids used for religious purposes , levees , mechanically stabilized earth retaining walls , forts , trenches and embankment dams .
= = Soil = =
Soil is created from rock that has been chemically or physically weathered , transported , deposited and precipitated . Soil particles include sand , silt and clay . Sand particles are the largest at 2 to 0 @.@ 05 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 0787 to 0 @.@ 0020 in ) in diameter and clay the smallest at less than 0 @.@ 002 millimetres ( 7 @.@ 9 × 10 − 5 in ) in diameter . Both sand and silt are mostly inert rock particles , including quartz , calcite , feldspar and mica .
Clays typically are phyllosilicate minerals with a sheet @-@ like structure . The very small clay particles interact with each other physically and chemically . Even a small proportion of clay affects the physical properties of the soil much more than might be expected . Clays such as kaolinite do not expand or contract when wetted or dried , and are useful for brick @-@ making . Others , such as smectites , expand or contract considerably when wet or dry , and are not suitable for building .
Loam is a mix of sand , silt and clay in which none predominates . Soils are given different names depending on the relative proportions of sand , silt and clay such as " Silt Loam " , " Clay Loam " and " Silty Clay " . Loam construction , the subject of this article , referred to as adobe construction when it uses unfired clay bricks , is an ancient building technology . It was used in the early civilizations of the Mediterranean , Egypt and Mesopotamia , in the Indus , Ganges and Yellow river valleys , in Central and South America . As of 2005 about 1 @.@ 5 billion people lived in houses built of loam .
In recent years , interest in loam construction has revived in the developed world . It is seen as a way to minimize use of fossil fuels and pollution , particularly carbon dioxide , during manufacture , and to create a comfortable living environment through the high mass and high absorption of the material . The two main technologies are stamped or rammed earth , clay or loam , called pise de terre in French , and adobe , typically using sun @-@ dried bricks made of a mud and straw mixture .
= = Materials = =
Earth usually requires some sort of processing for use in construction . It may be combined with water to make mud , straw may be added , some form of stabilizing material such as lime or cement may be used to harden the earth , and the earth may be compacted to increase strength .
= = = Mud = = =
Coursed mud construction is one of the oldest approaches to building walls . Moist mud is formed by hand to make the base of a wall , and allowed to dry . More mud is added and allowed to dry to form successive courses until the wall is complete . With puddled mud , a hand @-@ made mud form is filled with wetter mud and allowed to dry . In Iran , puddled mud walls are called chine construction . Each course is about 18 to 24 inches ( 460 to 610 mm ) thick , and about 18 to 24 inches ( 460 to 610 mm ) high . Typically the technique is used for garden walls but not for house construction , presumably because of concern about the strength of walls made in this way . A drawback to the approach is that a lot of time can be spent waiting for each course to dry . Another technique , used in areas where wood is plentiful , is to build a wood frame house and to infill it with mud , primarily to provide insulation . In parts of England a similar technique was used with cob .
= = = Cob = = =
Cob , sometimes referred to as " monolithic adobe " , is a natural building material made from soil that includes clay , sand or small stones and an organic material such as straw . Cob walls are usually built up in courses , have no mortar joints and need 30 % or more clay in the soil . Cob can be used as in @-@ fill in post @-@ and @-@ beam buildings , but is often used for load bearing walls , and can bear up to two stories . A cob wall should be at least 16 inches ( 410 mm ) thick , and the ratio of width to height should be no more than one to ten . It will typically be plastered inside and out with a mix of lime , soil and sand . Cob is fireproof , and its thermal mass helps stabilize indoor temperatures . Tests have shown that cob has some resistance to seismic activity . However , building codes in the developed world may not recognize cob as an approved material .
= = = Sod or turf = = =
Cut sod bricks , called terrone in Spanish , can be used to make tough and durable walls . The sod is cut from soil that has a heavy mat of grass roots , which may be found in river bottom lands . It is stood on edge to dry before being used in construction . European settlers on the North American Prairies found that the sod least likely to deteriorate due to freezing or rain came from dried sloughs . Turf was once extensively used for the walls of houses in Ireland , Scotland and Iceland , where some turf houses may still be found . A turf house may last fifty years or longer if well @-@ maintained in a cold climate . The Icelanders find that the best quality turf is the Strengur , the top 5 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of the grass turf .
= = = Stabilized earth = = =
Clay is usually hard and strong when dry , but becomes very soft when it absorbs water . The dry clay helps hold an earth wall together , but if the wall is directly exposed to rain , or to water leaking down from the roof , it may become saturated and collapse . Earth may be " stabilized " to make it more weather resistant . The practice of stabilizing earth by adding burnt lime is centuries old . Portland cement or bitumen may also be added to earth intended for construction which adds strength , although the stabilized earth is not as strong as fired clay or concrete . Mixtures of cement and lime , or pozzolana and lime , may also be used for stabilization .
Preferably the sand content of the soil will be 65 % – 75 % . Soils with low clay content , or with no more than 15 % non @-@ expansive clay , are suitable for stabilized earth . The clay percentage may be reduced by adding sand , if available . If there is more than 15 % clay it may take more than 10 % cement to stabilize the soil , which adds to the cost . If earth contains little clay and holds 10 % or more cement , it is in effect concrete . Cement is not particularly environmentally friendly , since the manufacturing process generates large amounts of carbon dioxide . Low @-@ density stabilized earth will be porous and weak . The earth must therefore be compacted either by a machine that makes blocks or within the wall using the " rammed earth " technique .
= = = Rammed earth = = =
Rammed earth is a technique for building walls using natural raw materials such as earth , chalk , lime or gravel . A rammed earth wall is built by placing damp soil in a temporary form . The soil is manually or mechanically compacted and then the form is removed . Rammed earth is generally made without much water , and so does not need much time to dry as the building rises . It is susceptible to moisture , so must be laid on a course that stops rising dampness , must be roofed or covered to keep out water from above , and may need protection through some sort of plaster , paint or sheathing .
In China , rammed earth walls were built by the Longshan people in 2600 – 1900 BC , during the period when cities first appeared in the region . Thick sloping walls made of rammed earth became a characteristic of traditional Buddhist monasteries throughout the Himalayas and became very common in northern Indian areas such as Sikkim . The technique spread to the Middle East , and to North Africa , and the city of Carthage was built of rammed earth . From there the technology was brought to Europe by the Romans . Rammed earth structures may be long lasting . Most of the Great Wall of China was made from rammed earth , as was the Alhambra in the Kingdom of Granada . In Northern Europe there are rammed earth buildings up to seven stories high and two hundred years old .
= = = Concrete = = =
The Romans made durable concrete strong enough for load @-@ bearing walls . Roman concrete contains a rubble of broken bricks and rocks set in mortar . The mortar included lime and pozzolana , a volcanic material that contributed significantly to its strength . Roman concrete structures such as the Colosseum , completed in 80 AD , still stand . Their longevity may be explained by the fact that the builders used a relatively dry mix of mortar and aggregate and compacted it by pounding it down to eliminate air pockets . Although derived from earth products , concrete structures would not usually be considered earth structures .
= = Building units = =
= = = Mud brick or adobe brick = = =
Mudbricks or Adobe bricks are preformed modular masonry units of sun @-@ dried mud that were invented at different times in different parts of the world as civilization developed . Construction with bricks avoids the delays while each course of puddled mud dries . Wall murals show that adobe production techniques were highly advanced in Egypt by 2500 BC . Adobe construction is common throughout much of Africa today . Adobe bricks are traditionally made from sand and clay mixed with water to a plastic consistency , with straw or grass as a binder . The mud is prepared , placed in wooden forms , tamped and leveled , and then turned out of the mold to dry for several days . The bricks are then stood on end to air @-@ cure for a month or more .
In the southwest United States and Mexico adobe buildings had massive walls and were rarely more than two stories high . Adobe mission churches were never more than about 35 feet ( 11 m ) . Since adobe surfaces are fragile , coatings are used to protect them . These coatings , periodically renewed , have included mud plaster , lime plaster , whitewash or stucco . Adobe walls were historically made by laying the bricks with mud mortar , which swells and shrinks at the same rate as the bricks when wetted or dried , heated or cooled . Modern adobe may be stabilized with cement and bonded with cement mortars , but cement mortars will cause unstabilized adobe bricks to deteriorate due to the different rates of thermal expansion and contraction .
= = = Compressed earth block = = =
Compressed earth blocks ( CEB ) were traditionally made by using a stick to ram soil into a wooden mold . Today they are usually made from subsoil compressed in a hand @-@ operated or powered machine . In the developing world , manual machines can be a cost @-@ effective solution for making uniform building blocks , while the more complex and expensive motorized machines are less likely to be appropriate . Although labor @-@ intensive , CEB construction avoids the cost of buying and transporting materials . Block @-@ making machines may form blocks that have interlocking shapes to reduce the requirement for mortar . The block may have holes or grooves so rods such as bamboo can be inserted to improve earthquake resistance .
Suitable earth must be used , with enough clay to hold the block together and resist erosion , but not too much expansive clay . When the block has been made from stabilized earth , which contains cement , the concrete must be given perhaps three weeks to cure . During this time the blocks should be stacked and kept from drying out by sprinkling water over them . This may be a problem in hot , dry climates where water is scarce . Closely stacking the blocks and covering them with a polythene sheet may help reduce water loss .
= = = Earthbags = = =
Earthbag construction is a natural building technique that has evolved from historic military construction techniques for bunkers . Local subsoil of almost any composition can be used , although an adobe mix would be preferable . The soil is moistened so it will compact into a stable structure and packed into woven polypropylene or burlap sacks . Polypropylene sacks are better than burlap since they are both cheaper and more durable . The bags are laid in courses , with barbed wire between each course to prevent slipping . Each course is tamped after it is laid . The structure is thus similar to a rammed earth structure , and may be extremely strong . Earthbags may be used to make dome @-@ shaped buildings , and may also be used for retaining walls .
= = = Fired clay brick = = =
The technique of firing clay bricks in a kiln dates to about 3500 BC . Fired bricks were being used to build durable masonry across Europe , Asia and North Africa by 1200 BC and still remain an important building material . Modern fired clay bricks are formed from clays or shales , shaped and then fired in a kiln for 8 – 12 hours at a temperature of 900 – 1150 ° C. The result is a ceramic that is mainly composed of silica and alumina , with other ingredients such as quartz sand . The porosity of the brick depends on the materials and on the firing temperature and duration . The bricks may vary in color depending on the amount of iron and calcium carbonate in the materials used , and the amount of oxygen in the kiln . Bricks may decay due to crystallization of salts on the brick or in its pores , from frost action and from acidic gases .
Bricks are laid in courses bonded with mortar , a combination of Portland cement , lime and sand . A wall that is two bricks thick will include stretcher bricks with their long , narrow side exposed and header bricks crossing from side to side . There are various brickwork " bonds " , or patterns of stretchers and headers , including the English , Dutch and Flemish bonds .
= = Examples = =
= = = Earth sheltering = = =
Earth sheltering has been used for thousands of years to make energy @-@ efficient dwellings . There are various configurations . At one extreme , an earth sheltered dwelling is completely underground , with perhaps an open courtyard to provide air and light . An earth house may be set into a slope , with windows or door openings in one or more of its sides , or the building may be on ground level , but with earth mounded against the walls , and perhaps with an earth roof .
Pit houses made by Hohokam farmers between 100 and 900 AD , in what is now the southwest of the USA , were bermed structures , partially embedded in south @-@ facing slopes . Their successful design was used for hundreds of years . At Matmata , Tunisia , most of the ancient homes were built 12 metres ( 39 ft ) below ground level , and surrounded courtyards about 12 metres ( 39 ft ) square . The homes were reached through tunnels . Other examples of subterranean , semi @-@ subterranean or cliff @-@ based dwellings in both hot and cold climates are found in Turkey , northern China and the Himalayas , and the southwest USA . A number of Buddhist monasteries built from earth and other materials into cliff sides or caves in Himalayan areas such as Tibet , Bhutan , Nepal and northern India are often perilously placed . Starting in the 1970s , interest in the technique has revived in developed countries . By setting an earth house into the ground , the house will be cooler in the warm season and warmer in the cool season .
= = = Native American earth lodge = = =
An earth lodge is a circular building made by some of the Native Americans of North America . They have wood post and beam construction and are dome @-@ shaped . A typical structure would have four or more central posts planted in the ground and connected at the top by cross beams . The smoke hole would be left open in the center . Around the central structure there was a larger ring of shorter posts , also connected by cross beams . Rafters radiated from the central cross beams to the outside cross beams , and then split planks or beams formed the slanting or vertical side walls . The structure was covered by sticks and brush or grass , covered in turn by a heavy layer of earth or sod . Some groups plastered the whole structure with mud , which dried to form a shell .
= = = Wattle and daub = = =
Wattle and daub is an old building technique in which vines or smaller sticks are interwoven between upright poles , and then mud mixed with straw and grass is plastered over the wall . The technique is found around the world , from the Nile Delta to Japan , where bamboo was used to make the wattle . In Cahokia , now in Illinois , USA , wattle and daub houses were built with the floor lowered by 1 to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 30 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) below the ground . A variant of the technique is called bajareque in Colombia . In prehistoric Britain simple circular wattle and daub shelters were built wherever adequate clay was available . Wattle and daub is still found as the panels in timber @-@ framed buildings . Generally the walls are not structural , and in interior use the technique in the developed world was replaced by lath and plaster , and then by gypsum wallboard .
= = = Prairie sod house = = =
European pioneer farmers in the prairies of North America , where there is no wood for construction , often made their first home in a dug @-@ out cave in the side of a hill or ravine , with a covering over the entrance . When they had time , they would build a sod house . The farmer would use a plow to cut the sod into bricks 1 by 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 30 by 0 @.@ 61 m ) , which were then piled up to form the walls . The sod strips were piled grass @-@ side down , staggered in the same way as brickwork , in three side @-@ by @-@ side rows , resulting in a wall over 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) thick . The sod wall was built around door and window frames , and the corners of the wall were secured by rods driven vertically through them . The roof was made with poles or brush , covered with prairie grass , and then sealed with a layer of sod . Sod houses were strong and often lasted many years , but they were damp and dirty unless the interior walls were plastered . The roofs tended to leak , and sometimes collapsed in a rainstorm .
= = = Mud brick buildings = = =
There are innumerable examples of mud brick or adobe building around the world . The walled city of Shibam in Yemen , designated a World Heritage Site in 1982 , is known for its ten @-@ story unreinforced mud @-@ brick buildings . The Djinguereber Mosque of Timbuktu , Mali , was first built at the start of the 14th century AD ( 8th century AH ) from round mud bricks and a stone @-@ mud misture , and was rebuilt several times afterwards , steadily growing in size . Further south in Mali , the Great Mosque of Djenné , a dramatic example of Sahel mudbrick architecture. was built in 1907 , based on the design of an earlier Great Mosque first built on the site in 1280 . Mudbrick requires maintenance , and the fundamentalist ruler Seku Amadu had let the previous mosque collapse .
The Casa Grande Ruins , now a national monument in Arizona protected by a modern roof , is a massive four @-@ story adobe structure built by Hohokam people between 1200 and 1450 AD . The first European to record the great house was a Jesuit priest , Father Eusebio Kino , who visited the site in 1694 . At that time it had long been abandoned . By the time a temporary roof was installed in 1903 the adobe building had been standing empty and unmaintained for hundreds of years .
Huaca de la Luna in what is now northern Peru is a large adobe temple built by the Moche people . The building went through a series of construction phases , growing eventually to a height of about 32 metres ( 105 ft ) , with three main platforms , four plazas and many smaller rooms and enclosures . The walls were covered by striking multi @-@ colored murals and freizes ; those visible today date from about 400 – 610 AD .
= = = Toulous = = =
A Fujian Tulou is a type of rural dwelling of the Hakka people in the mountainous areas in southeastern Fujian , China . They were mostly built between the 13th and the 20th centuries . A tulou is a large , enclosed and fortified earth building , rectangular or circular , with very thick load @-@ bearing rammed earth walls between three and five stories high . A toulou might house up to 80 families . Smaller interior buildings are often enclosed by these huge peripheral walls which can contain halls , storehouses , wells and living areas . The structure resembles a small fortified city . The walls are formed by compacting earth mixed with stone , bamboo , wood and other readily available materials , and are to 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) thick . The result is a well @-@ lit , well @-@ ventilated , windproof and earthquake @-@ proof building that is warm in winter and cool in summer .
= = = Mounds and pyramids = = =
Ziggurats were elevated temples constructed by the Sumerians between the end of the 4th millennium BC and the 2nd millennium BC , rising in a series of terraces to a temple up to 200 feet ( 61 m ) above ground level . The Ziggurat of Ur contained about three million bricks , none more than 15 inches ( 380 mm ) in length , so construction would have been a huge project . The largest ziggurat was in Babylon , and is thought by some to be the Tower of Babel mentioned in the Bible . It was destroyed by Alexander the Great and only the foundations remain , but originally it stood 300 feet ( 91 m ) high on a base about 660 feet ( 200 m ) square . Sun @-@ dried bricks were used for the interior and kiln @-@ fired bricks for the facing . The bricks were held together by clay or bitumen .
Many pre @-@ Columbian Native American societies of ancient North America built large pyramidal earth structures known as platform mounds . Among the largest and best @-@ known of these structures is Monks Mound at the site of Cahokia in what became Illinois , completed around 1100 AD , which has a base larger than that of the Great Pyramid at Giza . Many of the mounds underwent multiple episodes of mound construction at periodic intervals , some becoming quite large . They are believed to have played a central role in the mound @-@ building peoples ' religious life and documented uses include semi @-@ public chief 's house platforms , public temple platforms , mortuary platforms , charnel house platforms , earth lodge / town house platforms , residence platforms , square ground and rotunda platforms , and dance platforms .
The 207 feet ( 63 m ) Pyramid of the Sun in Teotihuacan , Mexico , was started in 100 AD . The stone @-@ faced structure contains two million tons of rammed earth .
= = = Earthworks = = =
Earthworks are engineering works created through moving or processing quantities of soil or unformed rock . The material may be moved to another location and formed into a desired shape for a purpose . Levees , embankments and dams are types of earthwork . A levee , floodbank or stopbank is an elongated natural ridge or artificially constructed dirt fill wall that regulates water levels . It is usually earthen and often runs parallel to the course of a river in its floodplain or along low @-@ lying coastlines .
Mechanically stabilized earth ( MSE ) retaining walls may be used for embankments . MSE walls combine a concrete leveling pad , wall facing panels , coping , soil reinforcement and select backfill . A variety of designs of wall facing panels may be used . After the leveling pad has been laid and the first row of panels has been placed and braced , the first layer of earth backfill is brought in behind the wall and compacted . The first set of reinforcements is then laid over the earth . The reinforcements , which may be tensioned polymer or galvanized metal strips or grids , are attached to the facing panels . This process is repeated with successive layers of panels , earth and reinforcements . The panels are thus tied into the earth embankment to make a stable structure with balanced stresses .
Although construction using the basic principles of MSE has a long history , MSE was developed in its current form in the 1960s . The reinforcing elements used can vary but include steel and geosynthetics . The term MSE is usually used in the USA to distinguish it from " Reinforced Earth " , a trade name of the Reinforced Earth Company , but elsewhere Reinforced Soil is the generally accepted term . MSE construction is relatively fast and inexpensive , and although labor @-@ intensive , it does not demand high levels of skill . It is therefore suitable for developing as well as developed countries .
= = = Forts and trenches = = =
Earth has been used to construct fortifications for thousands of years , including strongholds and walls , often protected by ditches . Aerial photography in Europe has revealed traces of earth fortifications from the Roman era , and later medieval times . Offa 's Dyke is a huge earthwork that stretches along the disputed border between England and Wales . Little is known about the period or the builder , King Offa of Mercia , who died in 796 AD . An early timber and earth fortification might later be succeeded by a brick or stone structure on the same site .
Trenches were used by besieging forces to approach a fortification while protected from missiles . Sappers would build " saps " , or trenches , that zig @-@ zagged towards the fortress being attacked . They piled the excavated dirt to make a protective wall or gabion . The combined trench depth and gabion height might be 8 to 10 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 0 m ) . Sometimes the sap was a tunnel , dug several feet below the surface . Sappers were highly skilled and highly paid due to the extreme danger of their work .
In the American Civil War ( 1861 − 1865 ) trenches were used for defensive positions throughout the struggle , but played an increasingly important role in the campaigns of the last two years . Military earthworks perhaps culminated in the vast network of trenches built during World War I ( 1914 − 1918 ) that stretched from Switzerland to the North Sea by the end of 1914 . The two lines of trenches faced each other , manned by soldiers living in appalling conditions of cold , damp and filth . Conditions were worst in the Allied trenches . The Germans were more willing to accept the trenches as long @-@ term positions , and used concrete blocks to build secure shelters deep underground , often with electrical lighting and heating .
= = = Embankment dams = = =
An embankment dam is a massive artificial water barrier . It is typically created by the emplacement and compaction of a complex semi @-@ plastic mound of various compositions of soil , sand , clay and / or rock . It has a semi @-@ permanent waterproof natural covering for its surface , and a dense , waterproof core . This makes such a dam impervious to surface or seepage erosion . The force of the impoundment creates a downward thrust upon the mass of the dam , greatly increasing the weight of the dam on its foundation . This added force effectively seals and makes waterproof the underlying foundation of the dam , at the interface between the dam and its stream bed . Such a dam is composed of fragmented independent material particles . The friction and interaction of particles binds the particles together into a stable mass rather than by the use of a cementing substance .
The Syncrude Mildred Lake Tailings Dyke in Alberta , Canada , is an embankment dam about 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) long and from 40 to 88 metres ( 131 to 289 ft ) high . By volume of fill , as of 2001 it was believed to be the largest earth structure in the world .
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= The Frontline ( Irish TV series ) =
The Frontline is a topical debate television series in Ireland , which aired for 60 minutes every Monday night on RTÉ One at 22 : 30 . It debuted on Monday , 21 September 2009 . The Frontline replaced a similar political analysis show Questions and Answers . The programme features around an invited audience and featured guests .
Many public figures politicians have appeared on the series . Some incidents on the programme have attracted a large amount of media coverage . The programme has generally received positive reviews . The programme is broadcast from Studio 4 in RTÉ . The first programme received an audience share of 43 @.@ 4 % , with a viewing audience of 464 @,@ 000 . Later into the series 100 @,@ 000 fewer people watched it , watching The Apprentice instead . It won " Best Current Affairs programme " at the 7th Irish Film and Television Awards in February 2010 .
The show returned in September 2012 . However , RTÉ announced in October 2012 that the show would be revamped in early 2013 . In November 2012 , media reports indicated that this revamp would involve The Frontline being axed and replaced with Prime Time : Debate , and that the new show would be similar to The Frontline but under the Prime Time branding . The Frontline aired for the final time on 28 January 2013 .
= = Format = =
The Frontline was hosted by former The Late Late Show presenter and RTÉ Radio 1 presenter Pat Kenny . The programme runs for 60 minutes on Monday nights on RTÉ One . It was directed by David Donaghy and produced by Dave Nally . Studio 4 in the RTÉ Television Centre was the venue of the programme . That was also used for The Late Late Show .
The show differed from its predecessor Questions and Answers in that the show does not entirely focus on a panel . The show regularly featured one @-@ on @-@ one interviews with key political and social figures , such as the Minister for Finance and the Leader of the Labour Party , as well as specially themed shows . Other formats include a panel from various social and political backgrounds discussing political issues affecting Ireland and the wider world . The programme debates " the most important news stories of the week " . The programme also features debate on " major political , economic and social issues " . The programme also features some satire .
Steve Carson , head of programming in RTÉ Television , said the programme wouldn 't be a replica of the old format . An audience also features as part of the discussion similar to Questions and Answers .
For the beginning of the programme , Kenny " zips around the studio , microphone in hand " .
= = History = =
The first indication that Pat Kenny would present another television programme , was on the night he announced his departure from presenting The Late Late Show . By the time of presenting his last programme , it was announced a new current affairs programme would begin in autumn 2009 . It was later announced that it would be 21 September 2009 .
There was a high demand for tickets , which RTÉ described as phenomenal . 4 @,@ 000 applications were received for a capacity of 120 seats ( originally 60 for Questions and Answers , which was subsequently doubled ) . A public invitation for comments and ideas on topics was issued by the makers of the show .
The first programme had guests such as Eamon Dunphy , Fintan O 'Toole , Pat Farrell , Tom Parlon and Brian Lenihan , Minister for Finance . Audience members included small business people and mortgage holders . Lenihan talked about the proposed National Asset Management Agency and the purchase of € 28 billion in loans from Anglo Irish Bank .
As a result of cutbacks , RTÉ could only afford to spend € 2 on sandwiches per audience member .
The programme won " Best Current Affairs programme " at the 7th Irish Film and Television Awards on 20 February 2010 . Kenny accepted the award .
A special programme about the aftermath of sudden recession aired in May 2010 .
The programme returned to RTÉ One on 20 September 2010 .
= = = Ratings = = =
For the first two programmes , viewing figures were above the programme 's predecessor Questions and Answers . The first programme had an initial audience of 464 @,@ 000 viewers . Overall , the second programme reached an audience of 653 @,@ 000 . In November 2009 , the viewership was reduced to 333 @,@ 000 , less than the 493 @,@ 000 received by The Apprentice on TV3 When George Lee appeared on the programme explaining his resignation from politics on 8 February 2010 , the viewing figures were at 627 @,@ 000 .
The Frontline gained nearly 70 @,@ 000 viewers when TV3 temporarily replaced its rival Tonight with Vincent Browne with UK celebrity torture show I 'm a Celebrity ... Get Me Out of Here ! in November 2011 .
= = = Incidents = = =
On 2 November 2009 , Jack O 'Connor of SIPTU suggested that in the 2010 budget , " a reasonable level of tax " should be placed on " Trophy Houses " . Kenny responded by asking what is a trophy house . To this O 'Connor responded with " A house like yours , probably . " After some hesitation , Kenny quoted :
I built my house in 1988 . Like , why is that a trophy house ? I don ’ t want this kind of crap coming at me .
O 'Connor then apologised instantly .
The following week ( 9 November 2009 ) , during an interview with Mary Hanafin , Alan O 'Brien ( who has a conviction from 2006 for incitement to hatred ) , a member of the audience , spent three minutes accusing Kenny of " pontificating and moralising " people on social welfare , despite being in receipt of a € 600 @,@ 000 salary . Then referring to a previous court case involving Kenny , he concluded by saying , " Now I am going to sue an old woman for a field because I feel I might make a million or more . " After being removed by security , the programme continued .
Days before the 2011 presidential election , a debate was held between the candidates on The Frontline . A tweet was read out by Pat Kenny which caused Seán Gallagher , ahead on opinion polling , to falter on live television . Michael D. Higgins subsequently won the election . A member of Gallagher 's campaign team described it as an " earth shattering " moment for Seán Gallagher . Gallagher later took RTÉ to court over its role in the sabotage of his election campaign .
During the debate held on 21 May 2012 concerning the Irish European Fiscal Compact referendum , Pat Kenny got down on his hands and knees and shouted at a farmer in the audience to shut up . He also promised a debate on the CAP " in January " — scheduling of which would have occurred two months after it was announced that The Frontline had been axed .
= = Reception = =
The programme generally received a " big thumbs up " . Patrick Freyne of the Sunday Tribune described the programme , in his television review column , as " the People versus A Bunch of Bastards " . He also called it " slick , pacy and well @-@ researched " . Hilary Fannin writing in The Irish Times , predicted that the programme , in relation to the economy , " will [ not ] be allowed to debate much else in the months to come " . She also rated it as one of the best current affairs programmes in 2009 . The two reviewers said that , compared to The Late Late Show , Kenny was more " in his comfort zone " . Sarah Carey , also in The Irish Times , was disappointed by the tone of the programme even though Kenny was " thoroughly enjoying himself " . She said it was a televised version of Liveline .
Future President of Ireland Michael D. Higgins , then a Labour Party TD , said in February 2010 that The Frontline " degrade [ d ] politics " and called it a " really bad programme " .
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= Al @-@ Harith ibn Surayj =
Abu Hatim al @-@ Harith ibn Surayj ibn Yazid ibn Sawa ibn Ward ibn Murra ibn Sufyan ibn Mujashi ( Arabic : أبو حاتم الحارث بن سريج ) was an Arab leader of a large @-@ scale social rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate in Khurasan and Transoxiana . Harith 's rebellion began in 734 and represented the grievances of both the local Arab settlers as well as the native Iranian converts ( mawali ) , who were not recognized as equal to the Arab Muslims , against the Umayyad regime . Harith based his revolt on religious grounds and won over a large part of both the Arab settlers and the native population , but failed twice to capture the provincial capital of Marw . The rebellion was finally suppressed by Asad ibn Abdallah al @-@ Qasri in 736 . Along with a few supporters , Harith managed to escape capture and allied himself with the heathen Turgesh . Harith accompanied the Turgesh khagan Suluk in his invasion deep into Arab territory , which was decisively beaten back in the Battle of Kharistan in 737 . With Turgesh power collapsing thereafter , Harith remained in Transoxiana supported by the native princes . Asad 's successor , Nasr ibn Sayyar , campaigned against Harith and his native supporters , but eventually , hoping to use him to bolster his position in the Arab intertribal rivalries , Nasr secured for Harith a pardon from the Caliph . Harith returned to Marw in 745 . Soon however he raised a sizeable armed force and challenged Nasr 's authority , until he was killed in a clash with his ally Juday ' al @-@ Kirmani in 746 . His revolt weakened Arab power in Central Asia and facilitated the beginning of the Abbasid Revolution that would overthrow the Umayyads .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and start of the rebellion = = =
Harith was from the Tamim tribe belonging to the north Arab ( Mudari ) tribal supergroup , and hailed from Basra , where his father , Surayj , lived . He is first mentioned in 729 , when he distinguished himself for his bravery and self @-@ sacrifice against the Turgesh , saving the Arab army from annihilation at Baykand near Bukhara . Harith is next mentioned in 733 , when he led a protest in Lower Tokharistan against the commandeering of supplies from the province , already plagued by drought and famine , to feed the capital of Khurasan at Marw , by the governor Junayd ibn Abd al @-@ Rahman al @-@ Murri . Junayd had Harith flogged , but after Junayd died in early 734 , the discontent erupted into an open rebellion , with Harith at its head .
The motives and nature of Harith 's rebellion are debated . His public demands were phrased in religious terms , demanding the end of injustice through the " application of the Book and the sunna " by the government . Harith himself is said to have been a member of the obscure pietistic group known as Murji 'a , and to have led an ascetic life . In the words of the Arabist Meir J. Kister , he apparently had " a feeling of mission " and aimed to establish a " just government resembling that of the Prophet and the first Caliphs " . His movement shared many ideological and symbolic elements with contemporary Shi 'ite and Kharijite agitation directed against the Umayyad regime , including the use of black flags hearkening back to the banner of the Prophet and even the demand for theocratic rule by a member of the Prophet 's family . Harith 's movement was marked by an unusual idealism , however , and it is recorded that his adherents tried to persuade their opponents to join them through moral and religious invocations even during battles .
Harith advocated various reforms , the most prominent being the full legal equality of the native non @-@ Arab converts ( mawali ) with the Arab Muslims , echoing a long @-@ standing demand of the former , in conformity with the precepts of Islam . This had been attempted twice before , by the Caliph Umar II ( r . 717 – 720 ) and by the governors Asad ibn Abdallah al @-@ Qasri and Ashras ibn Abdallah al @-@ Sulami , but both times the resulting rise in conversions and concomitant drop in revenue ( as the numerous mawali would not have to pay the poll tax ) put an end to this , leading to a first rebellion in 728 under Abu al @-@ Sayda ' Salih ibn Tarif . Many of the groups and individuals associated with this first uprising would also participate in Harith 's movement . Harith was seen as a champion of the rights of the ʿajam ( non @-@ Arabs , especially Iranians ) , many of whom flocked to his banner , but he also had a large following from the disaffected among the Arabs themselves , especially his fellow Tamim and the Azd . Disaffection was widespread among the Khurasani Arabs due to the heavy casualties suffered against the Turgesh at the Battle of the Defile in 731 , as well as the dissemination of anti @-@ Umayyad propaganda by proto @-@ Shi 'ite groups . This was exacerbated by the resentment felt at the introduction of 20 @,@ 000 Iraqi troops into the province in the aftermath of the Defile , and the parallel order of Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al @-@ Malik ( r . 723 – 743 ) to disperse the older Arab settlers from Marw to other settlements so as to improve their defence against the Turgesh .
Thus it was that when the news of Junayd 's death reached the small town of Andkhuy in Guzgan , one of the remotest Arab outposts , the local Arab garrison followed Harith in rebellion . Junayd 's successor , Asim ibn Abdallah al @-@ Hilali , who had just arrived at Marw , tried to placate the rebels and sent emissaries to them , but Harith simply imprisoned them . As the revolt spread through the surrounding countryside , Harith , with a force of 4 @,@ 000 men , marched on Balkh , the chief city of Tokharistan , held by Nasr ibn Sayyar with 10 @,@ 000 troops . Although Nasr did not support Harith 's movement , such was the level of disaffection among the Khurasanis that he and his men offered little opposition . Balkh was captured by Harith 's men with ease , while Nasr and his troops withdrew from the scene and gave their support to neither Harith nor Asim . Soon after that , the Arab garrison at Marw al @-@ Rudh also joined with Harith 's forces . The autonomous native Hephthalite princes of Guzgan , Faryab and Talqan also seized the opportunity to join the revolt with their forces , hoping to re @-@ establish their independence and perhaps reduce the Arab power in Khurasan to a dependent principality around Marw .
Harith now turned his sights on Marw and set out for the capital , where also he had sympathizers . However , Asim managed to cement the loyalty of the wavering Khurasanis by threatening to abandon the city for Naysabur on the western fringes of Khurasan . There he would rely on the Qaysi tribesmen whose loyalty to the Umayyad regime was known , and ask for reinforcements from Syria . Coupled with the presence of the numerous natives in Harith 's army , which lent it the appearance of a foreign army , the local Arab elites chose to rally behind Asim . As it neared Marw , Harith 's army had swelled to some 60 @,@ 000 men as the mawali flocked to his banner , according to the report of al @-@ Tabari . Asim 's force was considerably smaller , and less eager : he had to pay them extra money in order to induce them to fight . Nevertheless , he marched out of Marw and took up positions behind a canal at Zarq , destroying its bridges . As Harith 's army approached and repaired the bridges , more than 2 @,@ 000 Arabs from his ranks deserted to Asim , evidently mistrusting the intentions of the native troops of Harith 's army . In the subsequent battle , Asim gained a major victory , as many of Harith 's troops drowned in the canal . As a result of this failure , most of the mawali and native princes abandoned Harith , whose army was reduced to a loyal core of some 3 @,@ 000 men . This forced Harith to accept a peace offer from Asim — who likewise could not count on the continued support of the Khurasani Arabs now that the danger from the natives had passed — and retired to Andkhuy . However , in the next year Harith renewed his revolt and marched again on Marw . Asim could not persuade the Khurasanis to fight for him , and was left with only some 1 @,@ 000 Syrians and Jazirans from his personal guard . Harith 's forces were not much larger either , being reduced to the garrison of Marw al @-@ Rudh . In the ensuing battle at the village of al @-@ Dandanqan near Marw , Asim again emerged victorious , forcing Harith to flee to Marw al @-@ Rudh .
Despite his victories , Asim 's position was still perilous . He was essentially reduced to Marw and the western , Qaysi regions of Khurasan around Naysabur . In addition , as he explained in a letter to the Caliph , as a Syrian , he faced difficulty in persuading the Khurasanis and even the Iraqi troops to fight under him against one of their own . Asim further requested that Khurasan be placed under the governor of Iraq , Khalid ibn Abdallah al @-@ Qasri , and that Syrian troops be dispatched into the province . In response , Khalid 's brother Asad ibn Abdallah al @-@ Qasri , who had already served before as governor of Khurasan , was sent to replace him . News of this , combined probably with pressure from the Khurasanis of Marw , led Asim to again conclude a truce with Harith . According to some accounts , he even agreed to join Harith in demanding from the Caliph the " application of the Book and the sunna " , and revolt should the Caliph refuse . Shaban rejects this story altogether , but Blankinship regards it as reliable , although he too considers it a mere tactical ploy to gain time by Asim .
= = = End of the rebellion , the Turgesh intervention and exile = = =
Asad arrived in Khurasan with 20 @,@ 000 Syrian troops , and immediately took the offensive against Harith . Asad 's campaign was costly , but after his first successes the Khurasani Arabs began to flock to him . Asad 's success was aided by his long @-@ standing personal relations with the local Arab tribal leaders , as well as by the continuing tribal rivalries : as a Yamani opposed to the Mudari Harith , he could count on the support of his fellow tribesmen — thus most of the Rabi 'ah , the traditional enemies of Harith 's Tamim tribe , son defected to him . Asad divided his forces , sending the Kufan and Syrian troops under Abd al @-@ Rahman ibn Na 'yum towards Marw Rudh , where Harith 's main army was located , while he himself with the Basrans and remaining Khurasanis marched on the fortresses of Amul and Zamm . The rebel forces at Amul surrendered and were pardoned , and the garrison of Balkh followed soon after . Harith himself abandoned Marw Rudh and retreated across the Oxus before Abd al @-@ Rahman , finding refuge with the princes of Tokharistan . With their aid , he laid siege to the major crossing point over the Oxus at Tirmidh . In the face of Harith 's forces , Asad 's troops dared not cross the Oxus but retreated to Balkh . However , the Tirmidh garrison managed to defeat Harith , who was weakened after a quarrel with the king of Khuttal , and who now retired eastwards to the mountains of Badakhshan . Asad followed up this success by persuading the garrison of Zamm to surrender on promises of amnesty and double pay , and by an unsuccessful expedition to recover Samarqand , which had been lost in the aftermath of the Defile .
In the next year , 736 , Asad 's forces cleared the mountains of Upper Tokharistan from the remnants of Harith 's supporters . The fortress of Tabushkhan , where many of Harith 's followers and relatives had found refuge , was besieged by Juday ' al @-@ Kirmani . After they surrendered , most of the men were executed , while the rest were sold into slavery . Harith himself on the other hand continued to escape capture . In 737 , Asad led his troops again north of the Oxus in a retaliatory campaign against Khuttal , whose ruler had allied himself with both Harith and the Turgesh . While the Arab troops were dispersed ravaging the countryside , the Turgesh khagan Suluk , responding to the pleas for help by the Khuttalan king , launched an attack that precipitated a headlong flight back by Asad 's army across the Oxus . The Turgesh followed after them and attacked and captured the Arab baggage train on 1 October , before both sides settled for winter quarters . Harith now emerged from hiding and joined the khagan .
Harith now counselled the khagan to take advantage of the dispersal of the Arab army to its winter quarters , and resume his advance . Following Harith 's advice , in early December the khagan led the Turgesh army , 30 @,@ 000 strong and comprising contingents from virtually every native ruler of Transoxiana and Upper Tokharistan , south , bypassing Balkh , into Guzgan , hoping to raise the Hephthalite princes of Lower Tokharistan in revolt as well . In this he failed , as the king of Guzgan joined Asad , who was approaching with what forces he could muster . Asad 's advance caught the khagan and Harith off guard : Asad came upon them near Kharistan when they were accompanied by only 4 @,@ 000 men , the rest having scattered to plunder and forage . In the ensuing Battle of Kharistan , Asad routed the Turgesh . Harith , who fought with distinction , and the khagan barely escaped themselves and fled north over the Oxus . Asad 's victory at Kharistan saved Arab rule in Central Asia . The Turgesh detachments south of the Oxus were largely destroyed piecemeal by Juday ' al @-@ Kirmani , ending the threat to Khurasan , and the loyalty of the native rulers of Tokharistan was cemented . The khagan ′ s prestige took a serious hit , which encouraged his domestic rivals , who were backed secretly by the Chinese . In early 738 , the tarkhan Kursul assassinated Suluk , whereupon the Turgesh realm collapsed in civil war . Asad too died soon after , and was succeeded by Nasr ibn Sayyar in July 738 .
Nothing is known of Harith 's activities during the next two years , but he evidently remained in northern Transoxiana , based at al @-@ Shash ( Tashkent ) and in close contact with the Turgesh . In 740 or 741 , after having consolidated his authority in Khurasan and carried out tax reforms that eased the social unrest , Nasr ibn Sayyar advanced into the middle Jaxartes valley , making for Shash . His campaign was part of Nasr 's efforts to re @-@ establish Arab control over Transoxiana , but , according to H.A.R. Gibb and Kister , the main objective was the expulsion of Harith from Shash , who might still unite the Turgesh and the native princes against the Arabs . In the event , Nasr was prevented from crossing the Jaxartes by an army composed of Turgesh , troops from Shash and Harith 's followers , and was forced to withdraw after a negotiated settlement , which among other terms stipulated the removal of Harith and his adherents to the remote town of Farab .
= = = Return to Khurasan , second rebellion and death = = =
Nasr 's campaigns and reforms consolidated Muslim rule over Khurasan and much of Transoxiana , but his success was fragile : the native princes resented their loss of autonomy and the increasing assimilation of their people by their Arab conquerors and sent embassies to the Chinese court for aid , while the rivalry between the Mudari and Yamani tribal groups , evident across the Muslim world , still divided the Arabs themselves . On the accession of the pro @-@ Yemenite caliph Yazid III in 744 , the Khurasani Yemenites supported Juday ' al @-@ Kirmani 's candidature as governor , and when this did not come about , they rebelled . Consequently , Nasr felt it necessary to bring Harith and his adherents back , to both strengthen his own position — Harith and his followers had a long history of enmity towards al @-@ Kirmani — and remove a potential source for another foreign invasion . Nasr secured a full pardon for Harith and his supporters from Yazid . Their confiscated property was returned , and the Caliph even promised to rule " according to the Book and the sunna " .
When Harith arrived at Marw in early July 745 , however , the situation had changed : Yazid was dead , a full @-@ blown civil war had erupted in Syria , and Nasr ibn Sayyar , although still occupying the position of governor , lacked authority . Although he recognized Marwan II ( r . 744 – 750 ) , most of his own followers did not accept Marwan as Caliph . Harith was quick to distance himself from Nasr : he refused the offer of a district governorship , and distributed the gifts he received among his supporters . Harith vocally denounced Marwan II , and was soon joined by 3 @,@ 000 of his fellow Tamimis , while his secretary , Jahm ibn Safwan , drummed up further support . Within a short time , he had become a graver threat to Nasr than al @-@ Kirmani . After attempts to negotiate an agreement proved fruitless , Nasr attacked Harith 's forces in March 746 , and scored a first victory over them , in which Jahm ibn Safwan fell . At this point , al @-@ Kirmani joined forces with Harith , and together they forced Nasr to abandon Marw and withdraw to Naysabur . The two allies entered the capital of Khurasan , but within days fell out and began fighting each other . In these clashes , Harith was killed , leaving al @-@ Kirmani the master of the city . The conflict between Nasr and al @-@ Kirmani continued , but was soon overtaken by events : exploiting the conditions of civil war , the Abbasids under Abu Muslim launched their own anti @-@ Umayyad revolt in Khurasan . Nasr ibn Sayyar tried to conclude an alliance with al @-@ Kirmani , but failed when the latter was murdered by one of Harith 's sons in revenge . Abu Muslim managed to exploit the situation to his advantage , and in early 748 , his men entered Marw , the first step in a war that would lead to the fall of the Umayyad dynasty and its replacement with the Abbasids two years later .
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= 1971 Scottish soldiers ' killings =
The three Scottish soldiers ' killings was an incident that took place in Northern Ireland during the Troubles . It happened on 10 March 1971 , when the Provisional Irish Republican Army shot dead three unarmed British Army soldiers of the 1st Battalion , Royal Highland Fusiliers . Two of the three were teenage brothers ; all three were from Scotland . They were killed off @-@ duty and in civilian clothes having been lured from a city @-@ centre bar in Belfast , driven to a remote location and shot whilst relieving themselves by the roadside . Whilst three British soldiers had been killed prior to this event , all three had been on @-@ duty and killed during rioting .
The deaths led to public mourning and protests against the Provisional IRA . Pressure to act precipitated a political crisis for the government of Northern Ireland , which led to the resignation of Northern Ireland Prime Minister James Chichester @-@ Clark . The British Army raised the minimum age needed to serve in Northern Ireland to 18 in response to this incident . In 2010 a memorial was dedicated to the three soldiers near to where they were killed in north Belfast .
= = Events = =
British troops had been deployed to Northern Ireland in 1969 for Operation Banner in response to a deteriorating security situation following the 1969 Northern Ireland riots . The British Army had become involved in the disturbances culminating in the Falls Curfew of July 1970 . The Provisional Irish Republican Army was created in December 1969 after a split from the Official Irish Republican Army . After the split , the Provisional IRA planned for an " all @-@ out offensive action against the British occupation " . Provisional IRA Chief of Staff Seán Mac Stíofáin decided they would " escalate , escalate and escalate " until the British agreed to go . The IRA Army Council sanctioned offensive operations against the British Army at the beginning of 1971 . In this year , Robert Curtis was the first British soldier shot and killed by the Provisional IRA , on 6 February 1971 , and two more soldiers were killed prior to 10 March .
Brothers John and Joseph McCaig from Ayr and Dougald McCaughey from Glasgow in Scotland ( ages 17 , 18 and 23 ) were privates serving with the 1st Battalion , The Royal Highland Fusiliers , stationed at Girdwood barracks in Belfast . The shootings occurred on 10 March 1971 after the three soldiers had been granted an afternoon pass which allowed them to leave their base . McCaughey 's younger brother was serving in the same unit but was on duty and unable to join them . The three soldiers were off @-@ duty , unarmed and in civilian clothes . They were drinking in " Mooney 's " , a Belfast city centre bar in Cornmarket , one of the safer areas of the city for soldiers at this stage in " the Troubles " . The three previous shootings that year had occurred in different circumstances , during rioting . One report said that the three Scottish soldiers were enticed into a car by Republican women who promised them a party . The three were taken to the White Brae , Squire 's Hill , off the Ligoniel Road in North Belfast . There they were murdered by Provisional IRA members ; two were shot in the back of the head and the other in the chest .
The inquest in August 1971 was not able to establish the exact sequence of events . It was established that all three were shot at very close range , probably in a line . All had been drinking , and Joseph was found to be severely intoxicated . The jury was told that the three were probably shot whilst relieving themselves beside the road . The coroner commented : " You may think that this was not only murder , but one of the vilest crimes ever heard of in living memory " . The bodies were heaped on top of each other with two beer glasses lying near to them . After failing to return to their barracks by 18 : 30 the three were listed as AWOL . Their bodies were found by children at 21 : 30 .
= = Aftermath = =
The day after the killings , British Home Secretary Reginald Maudling made a statement in the House of Commons in which he informed the house that security arrangements for off @-@ duty soldiers were being reviewed and suggested that the aim of the killers was to provoke the security forces into reprisals . He said that :
The battle now joined against the terrorists will be fought with the utmost vigour and determination . It is a battle against a small minority of armed and ruthless men whose strength lies not so much in their numbers as in their wickedness .
The funerals were held in Scotland with John and Joseph McCaig buried together in Ayr . Their older brother , serving with the Royal Marines in Singapore , was flown home for the service . That day , 20 @,@ 000 people attended rallies in Belfast and Carrickfergus . In Belfast , the cenotaph at the City Hall was the focus of the mourning with 10 @,@ 000 people attending including workers from factories in a gathering that stopped the traffic in the city centre . Many wept openly . The Reverend Ian Paisley led the mourners in laying dozens of wreaths . The crowd observed a two @-@ minute silence and sang a hymn and the national anthem .
The deaths lead to a crisis for the government of Northern Ireland with calls for increased security measures . Ian Paisley demanded the Stormont Government 's resignation , saying " We can no longer tolerate your weakness . You must go before the whole land is deluged with the blood of innocent men and women . " On 12 March , 4 @,@ 000 shipyard workers took to the streets of Belfast to demand internment . The Northern Ireland Prime Minister James Chichester @-@ Clark flew to London to request more troops , and when the numbers were not what he wanted , he resigned . On 23 March 1971 , Brian Faulkner was elected Ulster Unionist Party leader and was appointed Prime Minister the same day .
The British Army raised the minimum age for serving in Northern Ireland to 18 in response to the death of 17 @-@ year @-@ old John McCaig .
No one has been convicted of the killings . The Daily Mirror reported in November 2007 that three Provisional IRA men were responsible for the deaths : Martin Meehan ( died 2007 ) , Patrick McAdorey , and a third unnamed man . Meehan was questioned over the killings but was never charged . McAdorey was shot and killed in August 1971 during a gun battle in the Ardoyne area of Belfast . He was also suspected of the fatal shooting , hours before his own death , of Private Malcolm Hatton of the Green Howards . The case of the three soldiers is one of those being re @-@ examined by the Police Service of Northern Ireland 's Historical Enquiries Team .
= = Memorial = =
The mother of the two McCaig brothers visited the site of their deaths in May 1972 . She expressed a wish to leave a monument to her sons but was advised that it might well be damaged by vandals . She later said that she was touched by the wreaths and flowers that had been left at the spot .
In 2010 the Royal British Legion Oldpark / Cavehill branch in Belfast raised money from the sale of badges to erect a memorial to the men . On 28 May 2010 , a memorial stone was placed at the site of the killings on Squire 's Hill by the families and former regimental colleagues of the three soldiers . The next day a 15 @-@ foot obelisk incorporating carved images of the deceased was dedicated to the soldiers at nearby Ballysillan Avenue . A service of remembrance with regimental drums and colours was then held at Ballysillan leisure centre attended by around 1000 people including Lord Mayor of Belfast Naomi Long and North Belfast MP Nigel Dodds .
= = = Vandalism = = =
The memorial at White Brae , Ligoniel , that marks the place of the killings was vandalised in July 2011 . Sectarian graffiti was daubed on the memorial and the stones surrounding the memorial were scattered across the road . The ceremonial ropes were ripped off and the poppy wreaths that had been laid at a recent ceremony on 29 May 2011 to mark the first anniversary of the memorial 's opening were scattered across nearby fields . The memorial has been attacked on numerous occasions since , costing thousands to repair . Memorial vandalised again in hate crime . Since the erection of the memorial , there have been 23 attacks of vandalism .
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= Othnielosaurus =
Othnielosaurus is a genus of ornithischian dinosaur that lived about 155 to 148 million years ago , during the Late Jurassic @-@ age Morrison Formation of the western United States . It is named in honor of famed paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh , and was formerly assigned to the genus Laosaurus . This genus was coined to hold fossils formerly included in Othnielia , which is based on remains that may be too sparse to hold a name ; as such , it is part of decades of research to untangle the taxonomy left behind by Marsh and his rival Edward Drinker Cope from the Bone Wars . Othnielosaurus has usually been classified as a hypsilophodont , a type of generalized small bipedal herbivore or omnivore , although recent research has called this and the existence of a distinct group of hypsilophodonts into question .
= = Description = =
Othnielosaurus is known from material from all parts of the body , including two good skeletons , although the skull is still poorly known ( note that earlier references use a multitude of names for this material , with most of them since 1977 using Othnielia rex ) . Othnielosaurus was a small animal , 2 meters ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) or less in length and 10 kilograms ( 22 lb ) or less in weight . It was a bipedal dinosaur with short forelimbs and long hindlimbs with large processes for muscle attachments . The hands were short and broad with short fingers . From the partial type skull and the skull on the possible specimen " Barbara " , the head was small . It had small leaf @-@ shaped cheek teeth ( triangular and with small ridges and denticles lining the front and back edges ) , and premaxillary teeth with less ornamentation . Like several hypsilophodont or iguanodont @-@ grade ornithopods such as Hypsilophodon , Thescelosaurus , and Talenkauen , Othnielosaurus had thin plates lying along the ribs . Called intercostal plates , these structures were cartilaginous in origin .
= = Classification = =
Othnielosaurus ( previously under the names Laosaurus , Nanosaurus , and Othnielia ) has typically been regarded as a hypsilophodont ornithopod , a member of a nebulous and poorly defined group of small , running herbivorous dinosaurs . This was challenged by Robert Bakker et al. in 1990 . In their description of the new taxon Drinker nisti , they split Othnielia into two species ( O. rex and O. consors ) and placed " othnieliids " as more basal than hypsilophodontids . With recent analyses suggesting a paraphyletic Hypsilophodontidae , the general idea of " othnielids " as basal to other hypsilophodonts has been supported , although Drinker has been controversial because virtually nothing new has been published on it since its description . Other basal ornithopods have sometimes been linked to Othnielosaurus , particularly Hexinlusaurus , considered by at least one author to be a species of " Othnielia " , O. multidens . New studies concur with the hypothesis that Othnielosaurus is more basal than other traditional hypsilophodonts , but go even farther and remove the genus from Ornithopoda and the larger group Cerapoda , which also includes horned dinosaurs and domeheaded dinosaurs .
= = History and taxonomy = =
O.C. Marsh named several species and genera in the late 19th century that have come to be recognized as hypsilophodonts or hypsilophodont @-@ like animals , including Nanosaurus agilis ( possibly ) , " N. " rex , Laosaurus celer , L. consors , and L. gracilis . This taxonomy has become very complicated , with numerous attempts at revision in the years since .
In 1877 , Marsh named two species of Nanosaurus in separate publications , based on partial remains from the Morrison Formation of Garden Park , Colorado . One paper described N. agilis , based on YPM 1913 , with remains including impressions of a dentary , and postcranial bits including an ilium , thigh bones , shin bones , and a fibula . The other paper named N. rex , a second species which Marsh based on YPM 1915 ( also called 1925 in Galton , 2007 ) , a complete thigh bone . He regarded both species as small ( " fox @-@ sized " ) animals . He assigned this genus to the now @-@ abandoned family Nanosauridae .
The next year , he named the new genus Laosaurus on material collected by Samuel Wendell Williston from Como Bluff , Wyoming . Two species were named : the type species L. celer , based on parts of eleven vertebrae ( YPM 1875 ) ; and the " smaller " L. gracilis , originally based on a back vertebra 's centrum , a caudal centrum , and part of an ulna ( review by Peter Galton in 1983 finds the specimen to now consist of thirteen back and eight caudal centra , and portions of both hindlimbs ) .
A third species , L. consors , was established by Marsh in 1894 for YPM 1882 , which consists of most of one articulated skeleton and part of at least one other individual . The skull was only partially preserved , and the fact that the vertebrae were represented only by centra suggests a partially grown individual . Galton ( 1983 ) notes that much of the current mounted skeleton was restored in plaster , or had paint applied .
These animals attracted little professional attention until the 1970s and 1980s , when Peter Galton reviewed many the " hypsilophodonts " in a series of papers . In 1973 , he and Jim Jensen described a partial skeleton ( BYU ESM 163 as of Galton , 2007 ) missing the head , hands , and tail as Nanosaurus ( ? ) rex , which had been damaged by other collectors prior to description . By 1977 , he had determined that Nanosaurus agilis was quite different from N. rex and the new skeleton , and coined Othnielia for N. rex . The 1977 reference , somewhat buried in a paper concerning the transcontinental species of Dryosaurus , did not elaborate , but did assign Laosaurus consors and L. gracilis to the new genus , and considered L. celer a nomen nudum . The publication of Drinker further complicated matters .
Most recently , in 2007 Galton reevaluated Morrison Formation ornithischians and concluded that the femur on which " Nanosaurus " rex ( and by extension Othnielia ) is based is not diagnostic , and reassigned the BYU skeleton to Laosaurus consors , which is based on more diagnostic material . As the genus Laosaurus is also based on nondiagnostic material , he gave the species L. consors its own genus , Othnielosaurus . As a result , in practical terms , what had been thought of as Othnielia is now known as Othnielosaurus consors . Othnielia is not a synonym of Othnielosaurus , because they are based on different specimens ; however , the skeletons that had been used to describe and depict Othnielia were reassigned to Othnielosaurus , leaving the older name with only the original femur . The current status for the various species is as follows : Nanosaurus agilis is a possible basal ornithopod , " N. " rex ( Othnielia ) is a dubious basal ornithopod , Drinker nisti is its own tentatively valid taxon , L. consors is the type species for Othnielosaurus , and L. celer and L. gracilis are still considered dubious .
= = Paleobiology and paleoecology = =
Othnielosaurus was one of the smaller members of the diverse Morrison Formation dinosaur fauna , diminutive in comparison to the giant sauropods . The Morrison Formation is interpreted as a semiarid environment with distinct wet and dry seasons , and flat floodplains . Vegetation varied from river @-@ lining gallery forests of conifers , tree ferns , and ferns , to fern savannas with rare trees . It has been a rich fossil hunting ground , holding fossils of green algae , fungi , mosses , horsetails , ferns , cycads , ginkgoes , and several families of conifers . Other fossils discovered include bivalves , snails , ray @-@ finned fishes , frogs , salamanders , turtles , sphenodonts , lizards , terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphans , several species of pterosaur , numerous dinosaur species , and early mammals such as docodonts , multituberculates , symmetrodonts , and triconodonts . Such dinosaurs as the theropods Ceratosaurus , Allosaurus , Ornitholestes , and Torvosaurus , the sauropods Apatosaurus , Brachiosaurus , Camarasaurus , and Diplodocus , and the ornithischians Camptosaurus , Dryosaurus , and Stegosaurus are known from the Morrison . Othnielosaurus is present in stratigraphic zones 2 @-@ 5 .
Typically , Othnielosaurus has been interpreted like other hypsilophodonts as a small , swift herbivore , although Bakker ( 1986 ) interpreted the possibly related Nanosaurus as an omnivore . This idea has had some unofficial support , but little in the formal literature ; description of more complete skull remains will be needed to test this hypothesis .
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= Tapad =
Tapad Inc. is a venture @-@ funded startup company that develops and markets software and services for cross @-@ device advertising and content delivery . It uses algorithms to analyze internet and device data and predict whether two or more devices are owned by the same person . Participating websites and apps then cater their advertisements based on a collective knowledge of the user 's actions across all of their devices . Tapad was founded in 2010 by Are Traasdahl . It raised $ 1 @.@ 8 million in funding in June 2011 and another $ 6 @.@ 5 million in March 2013 . Telenor Group has on 29 January 2016 entered into an agreement to acquire approximately 95 % of Tapad Inc . The purchase price is USD 360 million , on a debt and cash @-@ free 100 % basis .
= = History = =
The idea for Tapad was conceived by cofounder and CEO Are Traasdahl at the Consumer Electronics Show ( CES ) . He saw attendees switching between televisions , laptops and smartphones and thought that brands should be able to cater their ads to individual users even as they switch between devices . Cofounder and CTO Dag Liodden , Traasdahl , and four others began developing algorithms for the software and founded Tapad in 2010 . It took almost a year for the company to obtain its first client , but afterwards the organization grew quickly . In 2011 , it raised $ 1 @.@ 8 million in funding and opened five more sales offices in major US cities . From mid @-@ 2012 to mid @-@ 2013 , the company hired 44 people and moved its headquarters to a larger office in New York City . Another $ 6 @.@ 5 million in funding was raised in March 2013 and $ 7 million was raised in July 2014 to fund additional expansion in Europe . An additional $ 18 @.@ 5 million in funding was raised in July 2015 .
On January 29 , 2016 , Telenor Group entered into an agreement to acquire about 95 percent of Tapad Inc. for $ 360 million .
= = Software and services = =
Tapad uses data such as cookie IDs , operating system IDs , IP addresses , online registrations and data from partnering publishers to develop a probability that different devices are shared by the same person or household . According to Tapad , none of the data contains personally identifiable information ( PII ) . In a data sample tested by Nielsen , Tapad accurately identified users across devices in 91 @.@ 2 % of cases . This is only slightly less than deterministic methods which require PII .
Tapad is used for advertising to consumers across devices , where a user is shown an ad on their mobile or tablet device based on websites they visited on a desktop or based on a usage behavior that matches an advertiser 's target audience . For example , if an Android phone visits a website shortly after a desktop PC from the same home network , Tapad will assess that there is a high probability that the two devices are operated by the same person and will show them similar ads on both devices . According to the company website , its services also include cross @-@ device analytics for things like location , timing , user behavior , and audience analysis .
In early 2015 , Tapad partnered with Placed , a company that specializes in the measurement of in @-@ store visitation by consumers , then introduced features and services that attempt to measure if an advertising campaign resulted in consumers visiting a business location . It also introduced TV Pulse , a product that uses data from first party data suppliers to attempt to measure the effect of digital advertising campaigns . Tapad ’ s Device Graph is also licensed to other technology companies and integrated into their products .
= = Privacy = =
Advertisements using Tapad usually feature a notification that explains the ad is being shown as a result of behavioral analysis and provide an opt @-@ out button in compliance with standards set by the Digital Advertising Alliance . The disclosure features are provided by Evidon , which Tapad partnered with in November 2011 . According to Forbes , Tapad 's " burgeoning success risks irking Congress , regulators and privacy advocates . " The company 's CEO says it shouldn 't be a problem , since it doesn 't collect personally identifiable information .
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= Tropical Storm Edouard ( 2008 ) =
Tropical Storm Edouard brought coastal and minor inland flooding to Louisiana and Texas in August 2008 . The fifth tropical cyclone and fifth named storm of the hurricane season , Edouard developed from a trough in the northern Gulf of Mexico on August 3 . After developing into a tropical depression , it gradually strengthened and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Edouard on August 4 . However , northerly wind shear initially halted any further significant intensification and also caused the storm to struggle to maintain deep convection over the center . Edouard eventually intensified further and peaked as a strong tropical storm with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) on August 5 . Shortly thereafter , the storm made landfall near Gilchrist , Texas later that day . Edouard quickly weakened and was downgraded to tropical depression by early on August 6 , six hours before degenerated into a remnant low pressure area .
Due to the relatively weak nature of the storm , impact was generally minor . Rip currents in Alabama and Florida led to five fatalities . The sixth death from the storm was also related to rough seas and occurred near the mouth of the Mississippi River in Louisiana . Storm surge and high tides also caused coastal flooding in the state , especially in Cameron Parish . Relatively strong winds left more than 2 @,@ 000 without electricity and damaged trees and the roofs of mobile homes . Storm surge caused coastal flooding in eastern Texas , particularly in the Gilchrist area . At least 25 homes sustained damage , while portions of a few major roads , such as Interstate 10 , were closed . Minor inland flooding occurred due to heavy rainfall , with a portion of Texas State Highway 36 being temporarily shutdown . Strong winds in the region damaged hundreds of homes , downed trees , and left about 300 @,@ 000 people without electricity . Overall , damage from Tropical Storm Edouard totaled slightly more than $ 550 @,@ 000 ( 2008 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 2 , 2008 , a trough entered the northern Gulf of Mexico , with a low pressure area developing near Apalachicola , Florida . The system maintained scattered deep convection across offshore waters and environmental conditions favored tropical cyclogenesis . The system tracked generally west @-@ southwestward , due to its position south of a subtropical ridge extending from Texas through Florida . On the afternoon of August 3 , a Hurricane Hunters flight into the system confirmed the development of a well @-@ defined center of circulation , slightly exposed from a disorganized area of thunderstorms . As a result , the system developed into Tropical Depression Five at 1200 UTC on August 3 , while located about 85 miles ( 140 km ) south of the mouth of the Mississippi River . Because the depression was initially located in an area of northerly wind shear and dry air , the National Hurricane Center forecast it to slowly intensify .
After a burst in deep convection late on August 3 , Hurricane Hunter data indicated flight level winds of 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) . At 0000 UTC on August 4 , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Edouard . Later that day , convection temporarily decreased around the center , though a brief convective flare up on its east side occurred early on August 5 . Due to decreasing westerly wind shear , the center was nearly surrounded by convection that afternoon . Further organization continued and at 1200 UTC on August 5 , Edouard attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 996 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) . Simultaneously , the storm made landfall at the McFaddin and Texas Point National Wildlife Refuges near Gilchrist , Texas at the same intensity . It weakened rapidly after moving inland and was downgraded to a tropical depression late on August 5 . Edouard then re @-@ curved northwest over eastern Texas , before degenerating into a remnant low pressure area at 0600 UTC on August 6 . The remnant low continued northwestward until dissipating over northern Texas early on August 7 .
= = Preparations = =
Several tropical cyclone warnings and watches were issued in association with Tropical Storm Edouard . At 2100 UTC on August 3 , a tropical storm watch was posted from Intracoastal City , Louisiana to Port O 'Connor , Texas . Simultaneously , a tropical storm warning was issued from Intracoastal City to the mouth of the Mississippi River in Louisiana . The tropical storm watch was upgraded to a hurricane watch early on August 4 . Around that time , the tropical storm warning was extended from the mouth of the Mississippi River to Cameron , Louisiana . At 0900 UTC on August 4 , the tropical storm warning was revised to reach San Luis Pass , Texas . The hurricane watch was modified from Grand Isle , Louisiana to Sargent , Texas . The tropical storm warning was extended to include the mouth of the Mississippi River to Port O 'Connor at 1500 UTC on August 5 . At that time , the tropical storm warning was modified again to stretch from San Luis Pass to Cameron . Late on August 5 , all tropical cyclones were discontinued .
In the Gulf of Mexico , Shell Oil evacuated about 40 workers from drilling operations . BP and Chevron also evacuated workers from platforms in the western and central Gulf , though neither predicted substantial effects on production . A few oil refineries on land were closed , such as one operated by Marathon Oil in Texas City , Texas . Governor of Texas Rick Perry issued a disaster declaration for 17 Texas counties that were threatened by Tropical Storm Edouard . Perry activated up to 1 @,@ 200 National Guard troops , a 70 member rescue team , six helicopters , and an incident management team that brings food and water to affected areas . Under the order , about 200 buses became available in San Antonio and Houston to help in evacuations . Dow Chemical shut down their plants in Clear Lake and La Porte . The United States Coast Guard also ceased cargo operations to the Galveston @-@ Houston area by late on August 4 . Governor of Louisiana Bobby Jindal declared a statewide emergency . In Cameron Parish , Louisiana the Office of Emergency Preparedness ordered a mandatory evacuation , where Sheriff 's deputies also erected roadblocks .
= = Impact = =
= = = Florida , Alabama , and Louisiana = = =
Rip currents in Florida and Alabama led to the deaths of five people , three of which occurred in Panama City , Florida . Along the coast , storm surge in Louisiana generally ran 4 to 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 5 m ) above normal , although a slightly higher tide was reported near Intracoastal City . Due to the storm surge , part of Louisiana Highway 82 was closed between Holly Beach and Johnson Bayou . Additionally , Interstate 10 was also flooded by storm surge . Minor flooding from the surge traveled up the Calcasieu River to Lake Charles , where water flooded a local yacht club . Low @-@ lying areas of Intracoastal City were flooded , disrupting marine industries . A man fell overboard from a shrimp boat in rough seas from Edouard near the mouth of the Mississippi River .
Three locations reported tropical storm force winds , including 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) on Timbalier Island , 54 mph ( 87 km / h ) in Calcasieu Pass , and 48 mph ( 77 km / h ) on Marsh Island . In Cameron , Vermilion , and Calcasieu Parishes , wind gusts were mainly between 40 and 60 mph ( 64 and 97 km / h ) , though a gust of 62 mph ( 100 km / h ) was observed at Calcasieu Pass . Winds severely damaged several mobile homes in Cameron , mostly from roofs being torn off . More than 3 @,@ 000 people were left without electricity in Cameron Calcasieu Parishes combined as winds downed trees and power lines . A few mobile homes in that parish sustained minor wind damage . In Vermilion Parish , a few trees and power lines were downed . Rainfall in Louisiana reached 3 @.@ 81 inches ( 97 mm ) at Hackberry ; at other locations , precipitation was mainly between 1 and 3 inches ( 25 and 76 mm ) . Overall , Edouard caused about $ 350 @,@ 000 in damage within the state of Louisiana .
= = = Texas = = =
Rainfall from Edouard peaked at 6 @.@ 48 inches ( 165 mm ) at Baytown , Texas , near Houston . In central Texas , a burst of thunderstorm activity near the storm 's center produced 6 @.@ 11 inches ( 155 mm ) of rain near Hamilton , Texas ; as a result , part of Texas State Highway 36 was closed due to flooding . Elsewhere , 3 to 5 inches ( 76 to 127 mm ) of precipitation was reported . The heavy rainfall was expected to help relieve persistent drought conditions in some locations . Winds gusted to over 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , peaking at over 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Furthermore , a wind gust of 71 mph ( 114 km / h ) was reported at Texas Point . Due to the high winds , falling trees and power lines left at least 300 @,@ 000 customers in Southeastern Texas without electricity , most of them in Jefferson County . Hundreds of homes also suffered damage .
Storm surge ranged between 2 and 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 60 – 1 @.@ 5 m ) along the coast . In addition , high surf battered the shore . Minor storm surge flooding along portions of the Bolivar Peninsula caused $ 95 @,@ 000 in damage . The coastal flooding forced the closure of and caused $ 5 @,@ 000 in damage to Interstate 10 in Chambers County . Near Baytown , water flooded a few garages . Additionally , at least 27 homes in Gilchrist flooded . Two mobile homes and fifteen single @-@ family homes had 6 inches ( 150 mm ) of water ; as much as 18 inches ( 460 mm ) of water was reported in ten other single @-@ family houses . At the McFaddin and Texas Point National Wildlife Refuges , losses in the park totaled to $ 100 @,@ 000 . Overall , effects from Tropical Storm Edouard in the state of Texas resulted in approximately $ 200 @,@ 000 in damage .
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= Italian cruiser Dogali =
Dogali was a unique protected cruiser built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1880s . Notably , she was the first warship equipped with triple @-@ expansion engines . The ship was originally ordered by the Greek Navy and named Salamis , but she was sold to the Regia Marina before she was completed and renamed for the Battle of Dogali . She was armed with a main battery of six 15 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns and reached a speed of 19 @.@ 66 knots ( 36 @.@ 41 km / h ; 22 @.@ 62 mph ) on her sea trials , making her one of the fastest cruisers at the time .
Dogali 's career was uneventful ; she served with the main Italian fleet for the first few years of her career and visited the United States in 1893 for the start of the World 's Columbian Exposition . In January 1908 , the ship was sold to Uruguay and renamed 25 de Agosto and later Montevideo . In 1914 , the cruiser was withdrawn from service , but she was not disposed of until 1932 when she was sold for scrap .
= = Design = =
Dogali was designed by the British naval architect William Henry White and built at the Armstrong Whitworth shipyard at Elswick . The ship was 76 @.@ 2 meters ( 250 ft ) long and had a beam of 11 @.@ 28 m ( 37 @.@ 0 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 42 m ( 14 @.@ 5 ft ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 050 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 020 long tons ; 2 @,@ 260 short tons ) . The ship was fitted with two pole masts , and originally , a sailing rig that was later removed . Revolving , armored spotting tops were mounted on the masts . She had a crew of 224 officers and enlisted men , though this was later increased to 247 .
Dogali was powered by two @-@ shaft triple @-@ expansion engines , the first set of this kind of machinery ever installed in a warship . Steam for the engines was provided by four coal @-@ fired cylindrical fire @-@ tube boilers that were trunked into two funnels on the centerline . The engines were rated at 5 @,@ 012 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 737 kW ) and could produce a top speed of 17 @.@ 68 knots ( 32 @.@ 74 km / h ; 20 @.@ 35 mph ) , though on trials her engines reached 7 @,@ 179 ihp ( 5 @,@ 353 kW ) and 19 @.@ 66 knots ( 36 @.@ 41 km / h ; 22 @.@ 62 mph ) . Dogali had a cruising radius of 4 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 400 km ; 4 @,@ 600 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . At the time of her commissioning , Dogali was among the fastest cruisers in the world .
The ship was armed with a main battery of six 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) L / 40 guns all mounted individually in sponsons , with two side by side forward , two astern , and one amidships on each broadside . These were Pattern M guns manufactured by Armstrong Whitworth , and they weighed 2 t ( 2 @.@ 0 long tons ; 2 @.@ 2 short tons ) apiece . Dogali was the only ship equipped with guns of this type . These were supplemented by a secondary battery of nine 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) L / 40 guns and six Gatling guns . She was also equipped with four 356 mm ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was 50 mm ( 2 in ) thick , and the conning tower had the same thickness of armor plating on the sides . The main guns were protected by 110 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) thick gun shields .
= = Service history = =
The keel for the new cruiser was laid down at Armstrong Whitworth on 13 February 1885 , and the completed hull was launched on 23 December that year . The ship was originally ordered by the Greek Navy and was to be named Salamis , but she was purchased by Italy during construction . She was first renamed Angelo Emo , and then Dogali before being commissioned on 28 April 1887 . In 1890 , Dogali participated in the annual fleet maneuvers in the First Squadron , along with the ironclad Lepanto , the protected cruiser Piemonte , and several torpedo boats . The exercises were conducted in the Tyrrhenian Sea , where the First Squadron was tasked with defending against an attacking " hostile " squadron .
Dogali and the protected cruisers Etna and Giovanni Bausan represented Italy at the international naval review in New York , held at the start of the World 's Columbian Exposition in Chicago . The Exposition marked the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus 's arrival in North America . Contingents from France , Germany , Britain , Spain , and several other nations also participated in the celebration . Later that year , Dogali and Giovanni Bausan were present in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil during the Revolta da Armada ( Revolt of the Fleet ) , along with cruisers from Britain , France , Germany , Spain , and Argentina . The foreign warships were all tasked with protecting the interests of their respective nationals in the area . On 1 February 1897 , Dogali was assigned to the Cruiser Squadron of the main Italian fleet , along with the cruisers Marco Polo , Umbria and Liguria .
In 1906 , while cruising in North American waters , Dogali stopped at the Pensacola Navy Yard , where she had some maintenance done on her engines . Later that year she was present for a ceremony in Capitán Pastene , Chile , a town founded by Italian immigrants . In January 1908 , the Italian government sold Dogali to Uruguay . She was renamed 25 de Agosto for the date Uruguay declared its independence . At the time , she was the largest warship in the Uruguayan Navy . In 1910 , the ship was renamed Montevideo after the country 's capital city . She was decommissioned in 1914 , but remained in the Uruguayan Navy 's inventory until 1932 , when the old cruiser was finally sold to be broken up .
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= Maryland Route 615 =
Maryland Route 615 ( MD 615 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . The state highway runs 4 @.@ 35 miles ( 7 @.@ 00 km ) from Interstate 70 ( I @-@ 70 ) and U.S. Route 40 ( US 40 ) east of Hancock north to the Pennsylvania state line , where the highway continues as State Route 2001 in Fulton County . MD 615 has two sections , an east – west section that closely parallels I @-@ 70 and US 40 and a north – south highway that follows Heavenly Acres Ridge . The ridge road was constructed as MD 615 in the mid @-@ 1930s . The east – west segment is part of the original alignment of US 40 constructed in the mid @-@ 1910s . After I @-@ 70 was constructed east of Hancock in the early 1960s , MD 615 was extended along the old alignment of US 40 parallel to the new freeway .
= = Route description = =
MD 615 begins at an intersection between Millstone Road , which continues east as a county highway , and the Exit 5 ramp from westbound I @-@ 70 and US 40 ( Eisenhower Memorial Highway ) . The state highway heads west , closely paralleling I @-@ 70 and US 40 to the south . At Hollow Road , MD 615 has a ramp to eastbound I @-@ 70 and US 40 ; the ramp also provides access to a parking lot for the Western Maryland Rail Trail and Chesapeake and Ohio Canal National Historical Park . The highway continues west until it intersects the ramps to and from I @-@ 70 and US 40 in the direction of Hancock . MD 615 's name changes to Heavenly Acres Ridge Road and curves north to climb out of the narrow valley of the Potomac River onto Heavenly Acres Ridge . The highway follows the ridge north to its terminus at an intersection with White Oak Ridge Road at the Pennsylvania state line . Heavenly Acres Ridge Road continues north as State Route 2001 in southeastern Fulton County .
= = History = =
The Millstone Road portion of MD 615 follows a narrow corridor on the north side of the Potomac River that has carried multiple modes of transportation between Hancock and Licking Creek , where the river valley opens up . In the early 20th century , this corridor featured the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal , the Western Maryland Railway , and the National Pike , which ran between the canal and the railroad . When the Maryland State Roads Commission constructed the state road between Hancock and Licking Creek in 1915 , the highway was placed on a new alignment north of the railroad tracks to eliminate four grade crossings . This highway was designated US 40 in 1927 . The Heavenly Acres Ridge portion of MD 615 was paved from US 40 to the Pennsylvania state line in 1936 . By 1939 , White Oak Ridge Road was also marked as MD 615 . White Oak Ridge Road retained the state highway designation until 1956 . In 1960 , US 40 was constructed parallel to its existing alignment as a freeway from the east end of Main Street in Hancock to what is now the eastern end of MD 615 . This upgrade included the modern ramps between the freeway and Millstone Road . This freeway was marked as I @-@ 70 in addition to US 40 in 1962 and MD 615 was extended south and east from Heavenly Acres Ridge Road along its modern extent .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in a sparsely populated area east of Hancock in Washington County .
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= Soviet – Albanian split =
The Soviet – Albanian split refers to the worsening of relations between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ( USSR ) and the People 's Republic of Albania , which occurred in the 1955 – 1961 period as a result of Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev 's rapprochement with Yugoslavia along with his " Secret Speech " and subsequent de @-@ Stalinization policies , including efforts to extend these policies into Albania as was occurring in other Eastern Bloc states at the time . The Albanian leadership under Enver Hoxha perceived Khrushchev 's policies as contrary to Marxist – Leninist doctrine and his denunciation of Joseph Stalin as an opportunistic act meant to legitimize revisionism within the international communist movement . Occurring within the context of the larger split between China and the USSR , the Soviet – Albanian split culminated in the rupturing of relations in 1961 .
= = Origins = =
The Communist Party of Albania ( known as the Party of Labour of Albania after 1948 ) was founded in November 1941 in the context of the foreign occupation of the country , with the majority of its members including its leader , Enver Hoxha , having no connection to the Comintern . Historian Jon Halliday has commented that " it was set up without any known direct contact with Moscow . It was not at all a ' Moscow creation ' ... the bulk of the founding leadership were middle @-@ class intellectuals on whom the strongest influences were Western intellectual traditions . " Albania furthermore was the only country in Eastern Europe which had liberated itself without the presence of the Red Army on its soil . A combination of these factors led Stalin to initially have been " both curious and suspicious about the only leader of a Communist regime in the Soviet bloc who escaped from any historical ties or contact with the Soviet Union . " This , Halliday continues , " was true not just of Hoxha as an individual , but of almost the entire leading group in Albania . " Despite this , however , Hoxha was " the quintessential Stalinist . Many of the descriptions Nikita Khrushchev used to denounce Josef Stalin ... could easily be applied to Enver Hoxha . "
Following Albania 's liberation on November 29 , 1944 the country 's economic and foreign policies were dominated by its neighbor Yugoslavia under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito , and Albania became in the words of historian Miranda Vickers a " sub @-@ satellite . " During this period ties with the Soviet Union remained limited , though formal diplomatic relations were established in December 1945 .
= = = Soviet – Yugoslav split = = =
Within the leadership of the Communist Party of Albania tensions arose between pro- and anti @-@ Yugoslav factions and personalities , with the former increasingly coming under attack by Koçi Xoxe , the head of the pro @-@ Yugoslav faction . Hoxha was threatened on the basis of his opposition to the pro @-@ Yugoslav line , as Xoxe 's final goal was to overthrow Hoxha and to incorporate Albania into Yugoslavia as its Seventh Republic . The Soviet – Yugoslav split in 1948 , however , had allowed Albania to break from Yugoslav dominance , and it became the first state to side with the Information Bureau ( better known in the West as the Cominform ) with its resolution attacking the Yugoslav leadership for allegedly pursuing a road of nationalist deviation and capitalist restoration . From that point onwards relations between Albania and the Soviet Union " remained quite close until March 5 , 1953 , " when Stalin died . In the words of historian Nicholas C. Pano , " by the beginning of 1949 , Albania had progressed from the status of a sub @-@ satellite to that of a full @-@ fledged satellite of the Soviet Union . " Albania became a member of Comecon in 1949 and the Warsaw Treaty upon its founding in 1955 . In addition the Soviets built a submarine base at Vlora in 1952 .
= = = Stalin 's death = = =
In his memoirs Hoxha recounts the apprehension he and others had about the post @-@ Stalin leadership , just days after Stalin 's death . " The way in which the death of Stalin was announced and his funeral ceremony was organized created the impression ... that many members of the Presidium of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union had been awaiting his death impatiently . " A meeting with Soviet leaders held in June that year further raised his suspicions about the intentions of the new leadership , as did a reduction in Soviet and Eastern Bloc aid to Albania early in 1954 as Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev " seemed to believe that the high cost of aid to support Albania was not worth the return in terms of Soviet strategic interests in the country . " Reacting to early post @-@ Stalin Soviet pressure on the East European countries to pursue economic and political reforms , Albania announced slight changes in planning priorities and some willingness to improve state relations with Yugoslavia as the Soviets were doing . There was also a reshuffling of political portfolios in line with the Soviet re @-@ emphasis on the principle of collective leadership .
Hoxha regarded Soviet pressure as acting in the service of ulterior , revisionist aims in an effort to unseat or otherwise undermine " Stalinist " leaders . Thus in a meeting with Khrushchev on the issue of collective leadership , he recalled that , " Khrushchev told us that the other sister parties had been told of the Soviet ' experience ' of who should be first secretary of the party and who prime minister in the countries of people 's democracy . ' We talked over these questions with the Polish comrades before the congress of their party , ' Khrushchev told us . ' We thrashed matters out thoroughly and thought that Comrade Bierut should remain chairman of the Council of Ministers and Comrade Ochab should be appointed first secretary of the party ... ' Hence , right from the start Khrushchev was for pushing Bierut aside in the leadership of the party ... [ the Soviets ] were giving the green light for all the revisionist elements , who , up till yesterday , were wriggling and keeping a low profile , awaiting the opportune moments . Now these moments were being created by Khrushchev who , with his actions , stands and ' new ideas ' , was becoming the inspirer and organizer of ' changes ' and ' reorganizations ' . "
= = Beginnings of the split = =
Jon Halliday has noted that , " On the surface , relations between Moscow and Tirana seemed good right up to the late 1950s " but that Khrushchev 's rapprochement with Yugoslavia in 1955 and his denunciation of Stalin in 1956 were the two main issues responsible for the deterioration of relations between the two states . In June 1954 Khrushchev sent a letter to the leaders of the parties of the Eastern Bloc in which the Cominform resolutions denouncing Yugoslavia in the 1948 – 49 period were criticized for allegedly forcing Tito and the rest of the Yugoslav leadership " into the arms of the United States and Great Britain and had led to Yugoslavia 's conclusion of a military pact with two NATO members . " Hoxha , however , disagreed with this view , later writing that " even if the Yugoslav leadership had been unjustly condemned in 1949 , as Khrushchev was claiming , nothing could permit or justify its falling into the lap of imperialism . "
In May 1955 Khrushchev led a Soviet delegation to the Yugoslav capital of Belgrade with the aim of rehabilitating Tito , a move which encouraged reformist and dissident trends in Eastern Europe . The Albanian government had received a letter two days before the Soviet delegation was to leave Moscow : in it , the Soviets requested that the Albanians approve a statement drawn up by Khrushchev in the name of the Information Bureau even though he had not convened it . The move was refused by the Albanians " on the grounds that there had been no change in the line of the Yugoslav leadership since it had been condemned by the 1948 resolution of communist and workers ' parties represented on the Bureau . " On May 25 the Central Committee of the Party of Labour sent a letter to its Soviet counterpart stating among other things that , " In our opinion such a hasty ( and ill @-@ considered ) decision on an issue of great importance and of principle " was conducted " without first making a profound analysis together with all the parties interested in this issue . " With only Albania among the Eastern Bloc states opposing Khrushchev 's move , the Soviets succeeded in unilaterally rehabilitating Tito 's standing within the international communist movement and apologized for past Soviet activities in relation to Yugoslavia .
= = = Twentieth Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union = = =
At the Twentieth Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in February 1956 Khrushchev issued , in addition to his main report , his " Secret Speech " denouncing Stalin . Hoxha later remarked of the Congress that , in addition to its attack on Stalin , " All the distortions of the major issues of principle , such as those about the character of our epoch , the roads of transition to socialism , peaceful coexistence , war and peace , the stand towards modern revisionism and towards imperialism , etc . , etc . , which later became the basis of the great , open polemic with modern revisionism , have their official beginning in Khrushchev 's report to the 20th Congress ... we saw how the Khrushchevites , in order to consolidate their power , operated allegedly with ' a great party spirit ' , ' free from the fear of Stalin ' ... Every good thing of the past was distorted , allegedly in light of the ' new situations ' , ' new developments ' , ' new roads and possibilities ' , in order to go ahead . "
A notable event at the Congress was the promotion of the policy of " peaceful coexistence " by Khrushchev , which officially was a policy to increase East @-@ West collaboration against the threat of nuclear war , but which anti @-@ revisionists believed " was merely a way to divide the world in to spheres of influence inside which each side would enjoy unquestioned supremacy . " One anti @-@ revisionist author described Khrushchev 's policy as follows : " Khrushchev made it clear that he was prepared to give up international class struggle , renouncing on behalf of the colonial peoples any right to liberate themselves from oppression and reassuring capitalist governments by emphasising ' peaceful transition to socialism ' or the Parliamentary road ... " He then quoted Khrushchev as saying that " ' if any mad man wanted war , we [ the Soviet Union and the United States ] , the two strongest countries in the world , would have but to shake our fingers to warn him off . ' "
= = = Third Congress of the Party of Labour of Albania = = =
One of Tito 's preconditions for improving relations with the Soviets was for a Soviet @-@ backed removal of " Stalinist " leaders in Eastern Europe , such as Mátyás Rákosi of Hungary and Valko Chervenkov of Bulgaria ; Hoxha was also an obvious target for removal due to his intransigent position on Yugoslavia . The Soviets sought without success to force Hoxha to rehabilitate Koçi Xoxe . In April 1956 a party conference was held in Tirana : various delegates , inspired by Khrushchev 's actions , attacked the line of the Party of Labour , calling for a review of the case of Xoxe along with other political and economic policies and phenomena . However , Hoxha entered the conference and managed to defeat these proposals . The Third Congress of the Party of Labour was convened a month later , electing a Central Committee and Politburo " composed of staunch Hoxha loyalists " while also demonstrating " Hoxha 's first public defiance of the Soviet Union " by refusing to rehabilitate Xoxe and other persons linked with , or otherwise supportive of , rapprochement with Yugoslavia .
Although the Third Party Congress did not openly criticize the 20th Party Congress of the CPSU in part because " the real aims of [ the Soviets ] were still not fully recognized " and there was a perceived need to keep intact the unity of the international communist movement , it did declare that the line of the Party of Labour which had been " followed up to now has been correct " and thus tacitly rejected Khrushchev 's " de @-@ Stalinization " policies .
Following the Hungarian Uprising in November 1956 relations between Albania and the Soviet Union improved somewhat due to Yugoslavia 's part in the event , which caused friction in Yugoslav @-@ Soviet relations . On November 7 Hoxha wrote an article for Pravda denouncing Tito for encouraging the activity of the rebels , though the Soviets rebuked Hoxha for his harsh tone soon after . Soviet efforts to improve relations with Yugoslavia resumed before long , prompting a further deterioration in Soviet – Albanian relations .
= = = 1957 plenum = = =
In a February 1957 speech to a plenum of the Central Committee of the Party subsequently published in the newspaper Zëri i Popullit , Hoxha defended Stalin 's legacy and attacked the Yugoslavs ( but not the Soviet leadership by name . ) He added that , " In blackening Stalin , the enemies are not concerned about him as a person , but their aim is to discredit the Soviet Union , the socialist system , and the international communist movement , consequently , to undermine the workers ' faith in socialism . "
As a result of the February plenum of 1957 , which was seen as directly rebuffing many post @-@ Stalin Soviet views , the Soviet leadership invited Hoxha to visit Moscow in April that year allegedly for consultations . Instead , Khrushchev called on Hoxha to rehabilitate and reinstate party members who had been sacked for their support of Yugoslavia and the theses of the 20th Party Congress ; Hoxha refused . In response to this Khrushchev accused Hoxha of sectarianism and of being " hell @-@ bent on pursuing Stalinist policies . " Hoxha later recalled the meeting as follows : Khrushchev advised the Albanians to improve their relations with Yugoslavia , to which Hoxha replied , " We have always wanted to have good relations with Yugoslavia , but to put it bluntly , we do not trust the Yugoslav leaders , because they speak against the social system in our countries and are opposed to the foundations of Marxism @-@ Leninism . In all their propaganda , they do not say one word against imperialism , on the contrary , [ they ] have joined the chorus of the Western powers against us . " He once more said that the Yugoslav leadership failed to understand " any of its grave mistakes and deviations , " to which Khrushchev replied that Yugoslavia did not betray Marxism – Leninism though it had " slipped " from its positions . " According to you , " Khrushchev continued , " we ought to return to what Stalin did , which caused all these things we know about . " The meeting became increasingly acrimonious and when the subject of rehabilitating disgraced Albanian politicians came up Khrushchev eventually concluded , " You are like Stalin who killed people , " to which Hoxha replied , " Stalin killed traitors , and we kill them , too . "
= = = Trade = = =
In an effort to persuade the Albanian leadership to reconcile itself with the Soviets , the USSR gave a credit of $ 160 million ruble loan to Albania in late 1957 for Albania 's Third Five @-@ Year Plan and among other things forgave $ 105 million in past debts Albania owed the Soviet Union . These efforts proved unsuccessful in persuading the Albanians to change their course . James S. O 'Donnell remarked that the Soviets , then in an early stage of the Sino @-@ Soviet split , may have also tried to demonstrate Soviet " generosity " in an effort to counteract the amount of trade Albania was conducting with the People 's Republic of China . Albania 's passive trade balance with China had grown from 4 @.@ 2 % in 1955 to 21 @.@ 6 % in 1957 .
= = = Moscow Conference = = =
Relations between the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia deteriorated further following Tito 's refusal to attend the 1957 International Conference of the Communist and Workers ' Parties , the goal of which was to establish the general line and common positions of the international communist movement . As Hoxha later wrote , " Khrushchev and Co. made feverish efforts not only to ensure that the League of Communists of Yugoslavia would take part as a ' party of a socialist country ' , but if possible also , to ensure that Tito would reach agreement with Khrushchev over the platform ... Each side wanted to exploit the meeting for its own aims : Khrushchev , to declare ' unity ' , even with painful concessions to satisfy and draw in Tito , while the latter , to urge the others to openly and finally abandon Marxism @-@ Leninism , the struggle against modern revisionism and any principled stand . " The Albanian delegation led by Hoxha worked with the Chinese and other like @-@ minded delegations to the Conference in drafting a declaration alongside the CPSU and the pro @-@ Soviet parties , with the resulting document being described by some Western observers as a compromise ; historian William E. Griffith wrote that " the statement leaned strongly toward the Russian position but usually was sufficiently ambiguous so that the Chinese and Albanians could ( and did ) interpret it in their favor . " In a notable example , the Albanian and Chinese view that revisionism was the " principal danger in the communist world " existed alongside the Soviet view that the Twentieth Party Congress " opened a new stage in the international communist movement , " but despite this the declaration was considered overall by both Albania and China as an ideological victory . In Hoxha 's view , " The whole concern of the Soviet Khrushchevites was ' to preserve unity ' , to keep the socialist countries and the communist parties of different countries in check ... They retreated , held back temporarily , in order to gather strength and take their revisionist revenge in the future . " O 'Donnell states that after the Moscow Conference any trouble in Soviet – Albanian relations " was kept strictly private " until June 1960 .
= = The split deepens = =
At the end of 1958 Comecon had begun to push for what was later termed an " international socialist division of labor , " in which Albania was relegated to " the task of supplying the member states with agricultural and mineral raw materials . " In May 1959 Khrushchev paid a visit to Albania with the aim of pressuring Albania 's leadership into building up Yugoslav – Albanian and Soviet – Albanian ties and also to , in the words of historian Miranda Vickers , " focus their economy on the growing of citrus fruits rather than concentrate on industrialization and the expansion of their oil industry ... Khrushchev 's visit was clouded by an atmosphere of mistrust , which culminated in a hurried departure two days earlier than scheduled . " According to Hoxha , Khrushchev displayed contempt for Albanian archaeology in Butrint and said to Rodion Malinovsky , the Soviet Defense Minister who was visiting the country with him , " Look , how marvelous this is ! An ideal base for our submarines could be built here . These old things [ reference to archaeological findings ] should be dug up and thrown into the sea ... We shall have the most ideal and most secure base in the Mediterranean . From here we can paralyze and attack everything . " He was also said to have remarked to Hoxha to turn his country " into a flourishing garden , " suggested he make it an attractive holiday spot for Soviet tourists , and that rather than produce grain , Albania should focus on growing oranges for export . Khrushchev allegedly said , " The Soviet Union has such an abundance of grain that the mice eat more than you can produce here . "
By the beginning of 1960 Albania and China had concurred " on such questions as Yugoslav revisionism , global strategy , and de @-@ Stalinization " and the Albanian leadership made " little secret of their sympathies for the Chinese stand . " With the Sino @-@ Soviet split also deepening the Soviet leadership began applying its first signs of economic pressure on Albania in March 1960 , stating its intention to alter a scholarship agreement for Albanians to study in the USSR in which the Soviets paid 60 % of tuition costs and upkeep for the students ; this threat was subsequently retracted on the eve of the Bucharest Conference in June that year , possibly in an attempt not to push Albania further into the Chinese orbit .
Early in June , however , Khrushchev met with Greek politician Sophocles Venizelos and reacted positively to the latter 's suggestion of greater autonomy for Greeks in Albania ; O 'Donnell comments that , " The obvious purpose of this discussion was to infuriate Enver Hoxha as Albanian @-@ Greek relations were strained at this time . It became known that Khrushchev had hinted to Venizelos that the Soviet Union would not be against territorial and / or political concessions to the Greeks by the Albanians ... It is likely that Khrushchev used the meeting with Venizelos as a way to pay back Hoxha for snubbing him during his visit to Albania . " Griffith comments that , " Hoxha viewed this move by Khrushchev as an implicit threat to partition Albania – the overwhelming traditional fear of all Albanian nationalists . "
= = = Bucharest Conference = = =
At the opening of the Bucharest Conference on June 21 , held on the occasion of the Third Congress of the Romanian Communist Party , Hoxha was not among the various heads of communist parties and states in attendance ; Politburo member Hysni Kapo took his place . The stated purpose of the Conference was to have " the character of a preliminary meeting of the representatives of the communist and workers ' parties , mainly for the purpose of ' exchanging opinions ' and taking a joint decision on the date and place of a future meeting of the communist and workers ' parties of the world . " In his memoirs Hoxha describes the Conference as being " putsch " and adds , " The revisionist renegades needed another meeting of international communism to gain approval for their old plan for the final legitimization of modern revisionism , " he did not attend because " [ we ] suspected that the problem of the differences which had emerged between China and the Soviet Union would be discussed ... we had heard only of one side of the argument , the Soviet side , and were not acquainted with the objections of the Chinese ... They had to be thrashed out thoroughly , had to be studied carefully , and time was required for this . Therefore our Party sent Comrade Hysni Kapo to Bucharest to discuss only the date of the future meeting , " for decisions besides this date were not to be taken at the Conference itself .
In the words of Nicholas C. Pano , " Khrushchev attempted to transform the Bucharest Conference into a communist summit meeting for the purpose of securing the condemnation of the Chinese " with Kapo being the only representative of a European party " to refrain from criticizing Peking , to attack Yugoslav revisionism , and to refuse to alter his stand on the Chinese and Yugoslav issues despite Soviet pressure . Khrushchev 's hopes of bringing the Albanians to heel by means of peaceful persuasion were certainly shattered by the time the Bucharest Conference had come to an end . " During the Conference Hoxha communicated with Kapo via radiogram , stating for instance on June 24 , in response to a lengthy document distributed at the Conference by the Soviets attacking the Chinese , " When you make your speech at the meeting you should declare : ' I am not authorized to make statements on these matters because our leadership knows that these matters will be discussed at the forthcoming Meeting of representatives of the parties , as we have all agreed . ' ... We understand your difficult situation , but don 't worry at all , for we are on the right road . "
= = = Hostilities = = =
After the Conference ended Khrushchev stepped up economic pressure on Albania , delaying a reply concerning 50 @,@ 000 tons of requested grain to offset an acute food shortage caused by drought , and then issuing significant reductions in the amount of grain shipments . According to an Albanian account , the Soviet Union began to " cut systematically all economic aid to Albania . It delayed and in some cases ceased altogether the delivery of goods and industrial equipment to Albania , refused to ship the grain our people were in urgent need of ... sell [ ing it ] not through clearing but in free currency ... stopped all supplies for the Albanian People 's Army , from food and clothing to weapons and technical equipment whose delivery had been approved by the Joint Command of the Warsaw Treaty . The countries of Eastern Europe , too , set out on the course of aggravating relations with the PRA [ People 's Republic of Albania ] and created a difficult situation by setting up a blockade on Albania jointly with the Soviet government . "
The Soviets also attempted to threaten the Albanians with force ; Andrei Grechko , then Commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Warsaw Treaty forces , remarked to an Albanian military delegation that they would not get military equipment agreed upon beforehand , saying , " You are only in the Warsaw Pact for the time being , anyway . " Attempts were made to inoculate anti @-@ government views in Albanian students studying abroad in the USSR and to convince the armed forces to go against the government . According to an Albanian account , the Soviet embassy in Albania also " carried out intensive diversionist activity in order to create an atmosphere of uncertainty and ideological confusion about the correct line of the PLA [ Party of Labour of Albania ] . " In July a military plot headed by Soviet @-@ trained Rear Admiral Teme Sejko was uncovered and the plotters executed .
= = = Pro @-@ Soviet faction in Albania = = =
Within the Party itself an effort was also made by pro @-@ Soviet elements to overthrow Hoxha . In June Politburo member Liri Belishova visited China , giving a speech on June 6 which , in the words of Griffith , " could hardly have made her pro @-@ Soviet sympathies clearer , " having been full of praise for the Soviet Union , with said praise being omitted when the text was published the day after in the Party newspaper Zëri i Popullit . While in China Belishova made contact with the Soviet embassy there , telling them what the Chinese had told her without authorization from the Albanian Politburo . Belishova and Koço Tashko , Chairman of the Central Auditing Committee , shared leadership of the pro @-@ Soviet faction . Foreign journalist Harry Hamm was told by Albanian functionaries that " Belishova and Tashko had never made any secret of their pro @-@ Soviet leanings , and that they had maintained their attitude long after the decision had been made to move closer to Peking 's general line . Their stubborn attitude was bound to lead to their expulsion from the Party and to their being relieved of all their offices . " Tashko , asked to speak on his own behalf , had his text prepared beforehand by the Soviet embassy and , having gotten confused , accidentally read the punctuation mark for a full stop in Russian amid a burst of laughter from those present . Both Belishova and Tashko were expelled from the Party in September .
= = = International Conference of the Communist and Workers ' Parties = = =
In October a preparatory Commission for the upcoming International Conference of the Communist and Workers ' Parties scheduled for November that year was held from October 1 – 21 , with the Albanian delegation being led by Hysni Kapo and Ramiz Alia . Alia later recalled that " the aim of the Soviets was to ensure that our Party did not come out against their party and Khrushchev , did not bring the fight out in the open , and speak about Bucharest and the contradictions which existed . To this end , they created around our delegation a harsh and dangerous atmosphere , in which open threats were combined with cunning flattery . " Hoxha once again communicated via radiogram , writing to Kapo on October 13 that , " We are not of the same opinion as those who are trying to smooth out the problems by means of phrases in resolutions or declarations ... We are for carrying the matter through to the end . If this is not understood , it means that the danger which the Khrushchev group represents for the world communist movement is not understood . It does not depend on us whether this group should continue in power or not , but it is essential that we , should expose this group with Khrushchev at the head , as they deserve ... we shall not allow ourselves to be impressed by those who say : ' How can one attack the glorious Soviet Union or the great Communist Party of Lenin for the faults of a few rascals ? ' We say : Precisely to defend the Soviet Union and the Party of Lenin , these ' rascals ' must be exposed , and there must be no toning down of criticism or covering up of the deviationists . "
On October 22 , after the work of the Commission had ended , Khrushchev invited the delegates to a dinner which , according to Alia , was used " to threaten those parties which might oppose the line of the Soviets in November . " He gave as an example an exchange between Soviet Politburo member Yekaterina Furtseva and Kapo , in which the former asked , " Are you Hysni Kapo ? ! I 've heard so much about you ... " Kapo replied , " For good or bad ? " to which Furtseva stated , " You have attacked the Soviet Union , but you are heading for trouble on that course , " getting " the reply she deserved " from Kapo , with Alia further writing that " her mission was just to transmit the signal . Throughout the whole dinner she did not speak to us again . "
From November 3 – 25 Enver Hoxha headed the Albanian delegation which would present its case at the Second International Conference of the Communist and Workers ' Parties together with Kapo , Alia , and others . Alia later noted , " The Soviets ' aim was to ensure that Comrade Enver did not speak openly in Moscow , that , at the most , he should restrict himself to general criticisms on a theoretical plane ... they brought all @-@ sided pressure to bear on our delegation ... even us [ ing ] the official reception for the celebration of November 7 against our delegation for these purposes . " On November 5 a 125 @-@ page letter was sent from the Central Committee of the CPSU to its Chinese counterpart ignoring the existence of Albania as a socialist country and " malign [ ing ] the Party of Labour of Albania . " Later noting this letter in regards to China , Hoxha wrote that , " They distributed this voluminous material against China before the meeting , in order to prepare the terrain and to brainwash the delegations of other parties , and to intimidate the Chinese , to compel them to take a moderate stand , if they would not submit . This anti @-@ Chinese material did not surprise us , but it strengthened the conviction we had in the correctness of the line and the Marxist @-@ Leninist stands of our Party in defence of the Communist Party of China . "
On November 10 , 1960 the second International Conference of the Communist and Workers ' Parties was convened . As Hoxha recalled , " In his speech Khrushchev expressed the revisionist views completely and attacked the Communist Party of China and the Party of Labour of Albania , as well as those who were going to follow these parties , but without mentioning any names ... wanted to keep all the communist and workers ' parties of the world under his conductor 's baton , under his dictate . " On November 12 a private meeting was held between members of the Albanian delegation including Hoxha and members of the Soviet leadership , which " showed that no compromise between them was possible . " During the meeting Hoxha noted that " [ The Soviet ambassador to Albania ] has asked to whom the Albanian army will be loyal . This question he addressed to our generals at the airport , in the presence of one of your generals . Our officers replied that our army would be loyal to Marxism @-@ Leninism , to the Party of Labour and socialism . " Khrushchev replied , " If our ambassador said such a thing , he was foolish . " Hoxha in turn replied , " He was no fool . He committed this ' foolishness ' following the Bucharest Meeting . " The subject eventually came to the Vlora naval base , which was the subject of a Soviet – Albanian dispute to become acute months later . Khrushchev threatened Hoxha , saying , " We can dismantle the base if you like . " Hoxha replied , " If you dismantle the base you will be making a big mistake . We have fought empty @-@ bellied and bare @-@ footed , but have never kowtowed to anybody . " As the meeting 's atmosphere became increasingly hostile Khrushchev declared , " You flare up in anger . You spat on me ; no one can talk to you . " The meeting ended after Kapo declared , " I do not agree that the talks should be conducted like this . "
Hoxha delivered his speech to the Conference on November 16 ; he " spoke of the tremendous Soviet pressures to which the Albanian party and government had been subjected after the Bucharest meeting ... The only crime his régime had committed , the Albanian leader added , was that it did not agree that the Chinese communist party should be summarily and unjustly condemned . For this it had been treated in a manner that was shabby , anti @-@ Marxist and uncomradely . Hoxha 's speech had a shattering effect on the Moscow gathering . " Amongst other things Hoxha said that , according to Khrushchev , the Party of Labour and Albania itself " should merely applaud and approve , but express no opinion of its own . But this is neither Marxist nor acceptable . Marxism @-@ Leninism has granted us the right to have our say , and no one can take this from us , either by means of political and economic pressure , or by means of threats and names they might call us . " According to Alia , Khrushchev " tried to appear calm " when first replying , reading his written text " almost mechanically " in regards to China but as soon as he began to reply to Hoxha 's speech " he lost his head and began to shout , scream and splutter . " Khrushchev was said to have angrily remarked , " Comrade Hoxha , you have poured a bucket of filth over me : you are going to have to wash it off again . " Jon Halliday states that , " On this occasion Hoxha truly succeeded in putting himself and Albania on the world map . His denunciation of Khrushchev made headlines round the world and even his harshest critics usually concede that Hoxha turned in an able performance and showed personal courage . " In retirement Khrushchev later recalled the Conference and said that Hoxha " bared his fangs at us even more menacingly than the Chinese themselves . After his speech , comrade Dolores Ibarruri , an old revolutionary and a devoted worker in the Communist movement , got up indignantly and said , very much to the point , that Hoxha was like a dog who bites the hand that feeds it . "
Alia relates that during the Conference a Soviet security officer had said to both him and Kapo that the Soviet leadership might have been contemplating Hoxha 's assassination . For this reason , as Hoxha relates in his memoirs , " The Khrushchevites were capable of anything and we took our own measures ... Hysni and Ramiz stayed on in Moscow , as they had to sign the declaration " while Hoxha left the Soviet Union by train and " arrived in Austria , went down by train through Italy and from Bari returned safe and sound to Tirana on our own aircraft and went directly to the reception organized on the occasion of the 28th and 29th of November . "
At the Conference itself the Albanian delegation played a leading role together with its Chinese counterpart in giving the draft declaration " Marxist @-@ Leninist content " and that , despite " serious flaws " ( in the view of these delegations ) " the Declaration eventually signed by the 81 parties was a repudiation of revisionist theses ... [ and ] condemned the Yugoslav form of ' international opportunism which is a concentrated expression of the theories of modern revisionism . ' ... the Soviet revisionists and the revisionists in other countries and parties demonstrated [ in the view of Albania and China ] their opportunistic character by completely disregarding the principles set forth in a document they had found it expedient to sign . "
On December 19 Hoxha delivered his report to a plenum of the Central Committee of the Party concerning the Moscow Conference , remarking on the mutual defenses Albania and China provided for each other at Bucharest and Moscow and adding , " In the future our Party will strengthen its ties and friendship with the Communist Party of China and the great Chinese people , always upholding the teachings of Marxism @-@ Leninism and the correct line always pursued by the Central Committee of our Party . "
= = Culmination = =
At the Fourth Congress of the Party of Labour held in February 1961 Hoxha declared — although still not mentioning the Soviets by name — that , " During the past few years , our Party and other Marxist @-@ Leninist parties have waged a successful struggle against the views of modern revisionists ... But in spite of all the crushing blows and defeats it has received , revisionism ... remains the main danger to the international communist movement ... a resolute and uncompromising struggle must be waged against revisionism until it is utterly destroyed . " According to an Albanian account , " Right after the 4th Congress of the PLA , when it became clear that its attempts at imposing its will on Albania were futile , the Soviet leadership cut off all the credits envisaged in the agreements between the two countries . " The Congress , which was the last one in which Soviet and East European representatives from other parties would attend , " confirmed that the rift with Russia was almost complete and the alliance between China and Albania an accomplished fact . "
On January 20 that year the Soviets announced that their oil specialists would be withdrawn within a seven- to ten @-@ day period . The Albanians later claimed that the specialists had sabotaged Albania 's oil installations before departing . Although Khrushchev had symbolically delivered blueprints for the Palace of Culture of Tirana on the occasion of his 1959 visit , all Soviet construction efforts on it ceased by April 1961 . A shipment of materials for the Palace , which arrived in Durrës , was " withdrawn at once on the pretext that the materials ' had been loaded by mistake and were not really intended for Albania . ' " On April 23 a Sino – Albanian trade agreement was concluded ; Soviet First Deputy Premier Alexei Kosygin sent a letter five days later which effectively signaled an end to Soviet – Albanian trade agreements . Among other things it stated that " It is understandable that the Albanian leadership cannot expect in the future that the USSR will help it as it has in the past , with aid from which only true friends and brothers have a right to benefit . " On August 19 the Soviet ambassador to Albania left Tirana " and was never to return . " On August 26 , " only five days before the beginning of the fall semester , " the Soviets canceled scholarships for Albanian students studying in the USSR ; these students given a deadline to leave by October . An Albanian account of the economy during this period states that , " The foreign specialists left unfinished about 40 important objects of the 2nd Five @-@ year Plan in the industrial sector alone . Difficulties increased even more after the cessation of military aid . Thus in the first years of the 3rd Five @-@ year Plan the fulfillment of the plan in many sectors of the economy was made very difficult and to a certain extent the development of the Albanian economy as a whole was impaired . "
Military pressure was stepped up still further ; during summer " the training of all Albanian officers , cadets , and noncoms in the Soviet Union or the East European satellite countries was brought to a stop . Since then , there has been not a single Albanian studying at a military academy in the Eastern Bloc . It has been impossible , therefore , for the Tirana Government to keep its army up @-@ to @-@ date on military theory . " In March Albania had not been invited to attend a meeting of the Warsaw Treaty states . Hoxha later recalled that " When we returned from Moscow [ in November 1960 ] , the provocations at the [ Vlora submarine ] base were increased and in order to exert pressure on and impress us , the Soviet deputy foreign minister , Firyubin , came to Tirana with two other ' deputies ' : the first deputy @-@ chief of the General Staff of the Soviet Army and Navy , Antonov , and the deputy chief of the Supreme Staff of the Soviet Navy , Sergeyev . They came allegedly ' to reach agreement ' , but in fact they brought us an ultimatum : The Vlora base must be put completely and solely under Soviet command , which was to be subordinate to the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Armed Forces of the Warsaw Treaty . "
An Albanian account describes the dispute as follows : " By violating the formal Albanian @-@ Soviet agreements signed in September 1957 an May 1959 , the Soviet government did everything in its power to put under its control this Albanian base which at the same time served the defence of the socialist countries ... On April 5 , 1961 , in a letter addressed to the governments of the Soviet Union and the East @-@ European states it resolutely reaffirmed that it accepted only one solution of the problem : the base of Vlora belonged to Albania and all the naval means that were its property should be handed over to Albanian crew as soon as possible . Any other solution was an act which would lead to the unilateral violation on the part of the Soviet Union of the existing Albanian @-@ Soviet agreements of the years 1957 and 1959 . " In May 1961 the Soviets began dismantling the base and tried to seize the submarines , seizing some Albanian ships undergoing repairs at Sevastopol in the process . As the Albanian account describes it , " The Soviet sailors and officers carried out numerous provocations , trying by all manner of means to create a pretext for the Soviet military intervention in Albania ... On May 26 , 1961 it seized in a demonstrative manner 8 submarines , the floating base ' Kotelnikov ' , as well as the Albanian warships that were laid for repair in the port of Sevastopol . On June 5 , 1961 the personnel of Soviet advisers left the base at Vlora , too . " Hoxha 's account is as follows : Admiral Vladimir Kasatonov of the Black Sea fleet " came to Tirana with the mission of seizing not only the eight submarines ... but even the submarines which we had taken over earlier . We told him bluntly : Either you hand the submarines over to us according to the agreement , or within a short time ( we set the date ) you must withdraw immediately from the bay ... He did not hand over the submarines , but went to Vlora , boarded the command submarine and lined up the others in fighting formation . We gave orders to close the Sazan Narrows and to train the guns on the Soviet ships . Admiral Kasatonov , who had wanted to frighten us , was frightened himself . He was caught like a rat in a trap and if he attempted to implement his plan he might find himself at the bottom of the sea . In these conditions the admiral was obliged to take only the submarines with Soviet crews , and he sailed out of the bay back home with his tail between his legs . "
At the Twenty @-@ Second Congress of the CPSU in October that year Khrushchev openly attacked the Albanian leadership , proclaiming Hoxha a " leftist nationalist deviationist " and calling for his overthrow , declaring that , " We are certain the time will come when the Albanian communists and the Albanian people will have their say , and then the Albanian leaders will have to answer for the harm they have done their country , their people and the cause of socialist construction in Albania . " He further stated that " The imperialists are always prepared to pay thirty pieces of silver to those who split the Communist ranks . " To this Hoxha replied in a November 7 speech , " the Albanian people and their Party of Labor will even live on grass if need be , but they will never sell themselves ' for 30 pieces of silver ' ... They would rather die honourably on their feet than live in shame on their knees . " Nicholas C. Pano noted that " [ Khrushchev 's ] pronouncements [ at the Twenty @-@ Second Congress ] , at least insofar as the Soviet leadership was concerned , had made the policies of de @-@ Stalinization , peaceful coexistence , and reconciliation with Yugoslavia adopted at the Twentieth Congress of the CPSU binding upon the members of the communist system . " Despite Albanian calls for the continued existence of state relations between the two countries , the Soviet government formally withdrew its ambassador on November 25 and on December 3 withdrew " the whole personnel of its embassy and commercial representation from the PRA , while at the same time demanding that the personnel of the Albanian embassy and the Albanian commercial adviser should leave the territory of the Soviet Union . " " Thus , " the Albanian account continues , " the Khrushchev revisionist group , consistent in its line , cut off all relations with socialist Albania at a time when it maintained contacts with and was drawing ever closer to the most reactionary regimes of the world . "
In a December 10 Zëri i Popullit article , Hoxha wrote that , " The real cause " of the break in diplomatic relations " must be sought in the revisionist views of Khrushchev and in his anti @-@ Marxist efforts to impose them on the other parties by any means ... with a view to silencing our Party , to subjugating it and giving a lesson to anyone that would dare to oppose him , Khrushchev extended the ideological disagreements to the field of state relations and began to behave with the PRA as towards an enemy country ... he aims to intimidate and subjugate the PLA , to shift it from its revolutionary Marxist @-@ Leninist positions , to shake the confidence of our people in the PLA and its leadership , to upset the feelings of friendship of the Albanian people towards the Soviet Union ... But Khrushchev is trying in vain ... Under the leadership of the PLA , the Albanian people have scored historic victories in the course of these twenty years : they liberated the country from the fascist invaders and established the people 's state power , reconstructed the war @-@ ravaged country , liquidated the centuries @-@ old backwardness and achieved great successes in the construction of socialist society ... Our Party is fighting for a great cause , for the truth of Marxism @-@ Leninism ... On this course , marching shoulder to shoulder with the sister Marxist @-@ Leninist parties and the fraternal peoples of the socialist countries , as well as with all the revolutionary forces of the world , our Party and people will score complete victory over the imperialist and revisionist enemies . Marxism @-@ Leninism cannot be vanquished ! Socialism and communism will triumph ! "
= = Subsequent developments = =
In his memoirs Khrushchev described the Albanian leadership as " monsters , " saying that , " The rift which developed between the Soviet Union and Albania stemmed mainly from the Albanians ' fear of democratisation . " The downfall of Khrushchev in 1964 saw Hoxha write an article for Zëri i Popullit in which he stated that , " Despite the fact that Khrushchev was the head of modern revisionism , his political liquidation as a person does not mean the liquidation of his political , ideological , economic and organizational course ... Khrushchevite revisionism is not dead , his ideology and policy expressed in the line of the 20th and 22nd Congresses of the CPSU are not liquidated . " In the view of William Ash , writing in support of the Albanian position , " The final proof of the correctness of Albania 's characterisation of Soviet revisionism came with the invasion and military occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1968 – ' Khrushchevism without Khrushchev ' , since Brezhnev who succeeded the deposed revisionist leader followed the same line . " An Albanian account discussing the invasion notes that , " Albania resolutely denounced this act , calling it ' an aggression of the fascist type ' which ' represented the greatest debasement of the honour and authority of the Soviet Union and the Soviet people on the part of the Khrushchevite revisionist Brezhnev @-@ Kosygin clique ' ... the Warsaw Treaty had completely been transformed from a means of defence into a means of aggression " and that , having been de facto excluded from the Pact since 1961 , " on September 13 , 1968 , at an extraordinary session the People 's Assembly of the People 's Republic of Albania decided to denounce this Treaty and exonerate Albania from any obligation deriving from it . " In the 1970s the alliance between Albania and China against perceived Soviet revisionism gradually began to break down , resulting in the Sino – Albanian split .
Writing in 1988 , Ramiz Alia reiterated the Albanian view that , " The revisionist current most dangerous to the world communist movement has been and still is Soviet revisionism " and that , " To oppose the Communist Party of the Soviet Union , which had great political and theoretical authority , meant to isolate oneself , at least for a time , from most of the communist parties of the world . Precisely here lies the heroism of the Party of Labour of Albania , the majesty of its decision , and its courage and determination for the cause of Marxism @-@ Leninism , for the cause of socialism and communism . "
In July 1990 , after the fall of the Eastern Bloc and political upheaval in Albania itself , Alia announced the restoration of diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union . In an official communiqué the Soviets " attributed the normalisation [ of diplomatic relations ] to the better political climate in Europe , and the state radio reported that , as the Soviet Union was on course for reform , ' there has been a marked trend recently towards democratisation of Albanian society ' . " In June 1991 the ruling Party of Labour became the social @-@ democratic Socialist Party , dropping its prior commitment to Marxism – Leninism , and in December 1991 the Soviet Union was dissolved .
= = = Books = = =
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= Sunshine of Your Love =
" Sunshine of Your Love " is a 1967 song by the British rock band Cream . With elements of hard rock , psychedelia , and pop , it is one of Cream 's best @-@ known and most popular songs . Cream bassist and vocalist Jack Bruce based it on a distinctive bass riff or repeated musical phrase he developed after attending a Jimi Hendrix concert . Guitarist Eric Clapton and lyricist Pete Brown later contributed to the song . Recording engineer Tom Dowd suggested the rhythm arrangement in which drummer Ginger Baker plays a distinctive tom @-@ tom drum rhythm , although Baker has claimed it was his idea .
The song was included on Cream 's second album Disraeli Gears in November 1967 , which was a best seller . Atco Records , the group 's American label , was initially unsure of the song 's potential . After recommendations by other label @-@ affiliated artists , it released an edited single version in January 1968 . The song became Cream 's first and highest charting American single and one of the most popular singles of 1968 . In September 1968 , it became a modest chart hit after being released in the UK .
Cream performed " Sunshine of Your Love " regularly in concert and several live recordings have been issued , including on the Royal Albert Hall London May 2 @-@ 3 @-@ 5 @-@ 6 , 2005 reunion album and video . Hendrix performed faster instrumental versions of the song , which he often dedicated to Cream . Several rock journals have placed the song on their greatest song lists , such as Rolling Stone , Q magazine , and VH1 . The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame included it on its list of the " 500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll " .
= = Composition = =
In early 1967 , Cream were writing and rehearsing songs for their second album . Their December 1966 debut album , Fresh Cream , was a mix of updated blues numbers and pop @-@ oriented rock songs . Inspired by recent developments in rock music , they began pursuing a more overtly psychedelic direction . " Sunshine of Your Love " began as a bass phrase or riff developed by Cream bassist Jack Bruce . Cream attended a concert on 29 January 1967 by the Jimi Hendrix Experience at the Saville Theatre in London . Cream guitarist Eric Clapton elaborated in a 1988 Rolling Stone magazine interview :
He [ Hendrix ] played this gig that was blinding . I don 't think Jack [ Bruce ] had really taken him in before ... and when he did see it that night , after the gig he went home and came up with the riff . It was strictly a dedication to Jimi . And then we wrote a song on top of it .
Music writers Covach and Boone describe the riff as blues @-@ derived , which uses a minor blues pentatonic scale with an added flattened fifth note ( or common blues scale ) . The song follows a blues chord progression ( I – IV – I ) during the first eight bars . Brown had a difficult time writing lyrics that fit the riff . After an all @-@ night session , Bruce played it on a standup bass while lyricist Pete Brown was staring out the window . Slowly , he started to write " It 's getting near dawn and lights close their tired eyes " , which is used in the first verse . Later , to break up the rhythm , Clapton wrote a refrain which also yielded the song 's title . It consists of eight @-@ bar sections using three chords , when the key shifts to the V chord ( I = V ) :
A bootleg recording from the Ricky @-@ Tick club in London before Cream recorded the song in the studio , shows " Sunshine of Your Love " with a beat common to rock for the period . Cream drummer Ginger Baker compared it to the uptempo " Hey Now , Princess " , another Bruce / Brown composition Cream recorded in March . He has claimed that he advised Bruce to slow it down and came up with the distinctive drum pattern which emphasises beats one and three ( typical rock drumming favours beats two and four and is known as the backbeat ) . However , Bruce and recording engineer Tom Dowd dispute Baker 's claim , which they say he only made much later . Dowd later explained
Where all the other songs that they [ Cream ] played were prepared , [ but ] this one song , they never found a pocket , they were never comfortable ... I said , ' You know , have you ever seen any American Westerns [ films that have ] the Indian beat , where the downbeat is the beat ? ' ... And when he [ Ginger ] started playing it that way , all of the parts came together and right away they were elated .
= = Recording = =
Cream performed their first American concerts in New York City in 1967 . Robert Stigwood , the group 's manager , booked them for a Murray the K package show at the RKO Manhattan Theatre from 25 March to 2 April 1967 . When it was finished , Stigwood arranged for a recording session with Ahmet Ertegun at Atlantic Studios . Bruce and Brown had a number of new songs in various stages of development and entered the studio on 3 April . Initially , Ertegun assigned Dowd to work with the trio . Dowd had worked with many of the biggest jazz and rhythm and blues musicians in the 1950s and 1960s . However , Cream was his first exposure to extreme volume levels . The group arrived at Atlantic with their concert setup of multiple Marshall amplifiers ( each 100 watts ) . Dowd was surprised by the amount of equipment accompanying the trio : " They recorded at ear @-@ shattering level ... Everyone I 'd worked with before was using Fender Deluxes [ about 20 watts ] or Twins [ about 80 watts ] — six- and seven @-@ piece bands that didn 't play as loud as this three piece did . "
Ertegun brought in producer Felix Pappalardi , whom he believed could work as a go @-@ between with the group and Dowd . They began with " Strange Brew " , " Tales of Brave Ulysses " , and " Sunshine of Your Love " . Ertegun previewed the demos and was unhappy , expecting more blues @-@ based material that was found on Fresh Cream . Jerry Wexler , Ertegun 's Atlantic Records partner , reportedly went as far as to call it " psychedelic hogwash " . However , Booker T. Jones ( producer and keyboardist of Booker T. & the M.G. ' s ) and Otis Redding ( both whose Stax recordings at the time were distributed by Atco parent Atlantic ) gave " Sunshine of Your Love " their wholehearted approval . Differences were smoothed over by the time Cream returned in May 1967 to finish recording the songs for Disraeli Gears .
With Pappalardi and Dowd , work continued on " Sunshine of Your Love " . For his guitar solo , Clapton used a sound known as the " woman tone " on his 1964 Gibson SG Standard . Author Mitch Gallagher describes it as a " smooth , dark , singing , sustaining sound " . It is one of the best @-@ known examples of the woman tone and quotes the melody from the perennial pop standard " Blue Moon " . By using the song 's major pentatonic scale , Clapton provides a contrast with the riff 's blues scale . A writer for the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame describes this as " creating a balance between the sun and the moon " . Baker plays much of the song on the tom @-@ toms , described as sounding African ( Schumacher ) and Native American ( Shapiro ) . Covach and Boone note he " concentrates on the lower tom sounds and uses an articulation and sound reminiscent of the jazz drumming in the Woody Herman or Benny Goodman bands " .
= = Releases and charts = =
" Sunshine of Your Love " was included as the second track on Disraeli Gears , which was released in November 1967 by Reaction Records in the UK and Atco Records in the US . At first , Atco did not see the song as a single ( " Strange Brew " , backed with " Tales of Brave Ulysses " had been released as a single in June 1967 ) . However , in January 1968 , the label issued an edited version of the song as the second single from the album , backed with " SWLABR " ( the running time was trimmed from 4 : 08 to 3 : 03 ) . It entered Billboard magazine 's Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart on 6 January 1968 and eventually reached number five in the Hot 100 . In the UK , the single was not released until September 1968 , after Cream had announced their impending breakup . Polydor Records issued the UK single , which reached number 25 in the charts .
The Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified the single gold on 26 September 1968 , signifying sales in excess of 500 @,@ 000 copies . In the US , it became one one the biggest selling singles of 1968 and one of the best @-@ selling at the time for the Atlantic group of labels .
As one of Cream 's most popular songs , several of the group 's compilation albums include the full @-@ length studio recording , such as Best of Cream , Heavy Cream , The Very Best of Cream , and the boxed set Those Were the Days .
= = Recognition and influence = =
In 2004 , the song ranked number 65 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the " 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " . In March 2005 , Q magazine placed " Sunshine of Your Love " at number 19 on its list of the " 100 Greatest Guitar Tracks Ever ! " In 2009 , VH1 included it at number 44 on its list of the " Top 100 Hard Rock Songs " . The song is on the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's list of the " 500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll " .
Ertegun later admitted that , while his tastes ran more to Robert Johnson ( Clapton had recorded Johnson 's " Ramblin ' on My Mind " with John Mayall , " Crossroads " with the Powerhouse , and " Four Until Late " with Cream ) , Cream 's and Pappalardi 's vision resulted in songs which had a much larger impact on the rock audiences of the time . Covach and Boone have identified " Sunshine of Your Love " as foreshadowing future trends in rock :
'Sunshine of Your Love ' , Cream 's best @-@ known song , is a culmination of the British adaptation of blues into rock and also the direct precursor of Led Zeppelin and heavy metal , where this type of blues @-@ based motivic riff and harmonic motions like A – C – G or E – G – A ( as in " Whole Lotta Love " ) serve as the basis for a seemingly endless number of songs .
= = Other recordings = =
Several live recordings of " Sunshine of Your Love " have been issued on Cream albums . These include a 24 October 1967 recording by the BBC ( BBC Sessions ) , 9 March 1968 at the Winterland Ballroom ( Live Cream Volume II ) , and 26 November 1968 at the Royal Albert Hall ( Cream 's Farewell Concert ) . A recording from Cream 's reunion show on 3 May 2005 is included on Royal Albert Hall London May 2 @-@ 3 @-@ 5 @-@ 6 , 2005 . During their post @-@ Cream careers , Clapton and Bruce have recorded several live performances of the song .
A variety of musicians have recorded " Sunshine of Your Love " . After Cream announced their breakup , Hendrix often performed it in concert as a tribute to the group , apparently unaware that they had dedicated the song to him . He played it as an instrumental and sometimes as part of a medley . A performance by the Experience on 4 January 1969 is one of the best @-@ known . During the live broadcast of A Happening for Lulu , a music variety show hosted by pop singer Lulu on BBC Television , the Experience suddenly broke with the programme . Hendrix announced , " We 'd like to stop playing this rubbish [ " Hey Joe " ] and dedicate a song to the Cream , regardless of what kind of group they may be in – dedicate this to Eric Clapton , Ginger Baker , and Jack Bruce " . As their performance of " Sunshine of Your Love " ran into the time allotted for Lulu 's closing number , the show 's producer and staff were frantically signalling for the Experience to stop . However , they continued playing and the show ended on a fade . Hendrix later apologised to Lulu , who thought the performance made for a great television moment .
Other artists include Spanky Wilson in 1968 and Ella Fitzgerald in 1969 ( on her album of the same name ) .
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= Atmosphere of Venus =
The atmosphere of Venus is the layer of gases surrounding Venus . It is composed primarily of carbon dioxide and is much denser and hotter than that of Earth . The temperature at the surface is 740 K ( 467 ° C , 872 ° F ) , and the pressure is 93 bar ( 9 @.@ 3 MPa ) . The Venusian atmosphere supports opaque clouds made of sulfuric acid , making optical Earth @-@ based and orbital observation of the surface impossible . Information about the topography has been obtained exclusively by radar imaging . Aside from carbon dioxide , the other main component is nitrogen . Other chemical compounds are present only in trace amounts .
Mikhail Lomonosov was the first person to hypothesize the existence of an atmosphere on Venus based on his observation of the transit of Venus of 1761 in a small observatory near his house in Saint Petersburg , Russia .
The atmosphere is in a state of vigorous circulation and super @-@ rotation . The whole atmosphere circles the planet in just four Earth days , much faster than the planet 's sidereal day of 243 days . The winds supporting super @-@ rotation blow as fast as 100 m / s ( ~ 360 km / h or 220 mph ) . Winds move at up to 60 times the speed of the planet 's rotation , while Earth 's fastest winds are only 10 % to 20 % rotation speed . On the other hand , the wind speed becomes increasingly slower as the elevation from the surface decreases , with the breeze barely reaching the speed of 10 km / h ( 2 @.@ 8 m / s ) on the surface . Near the poles are anticyclonic structures called polar vortices . Each vortex is double @-@ eyed and shows a characteristic S @-@ shaped pattern of clouds .
Unlike Earth , Venus lacks a magnetic field . Its ionosphere separates the atmosphere from outer space and the solar wind . This ionised layer excludes the solar magnetic field , giving Venus a distinct magnetic environment . This is considered Venus 's induced magnetosphere . Lighter gases , including water vapour , are continuously blown away by the solar wind through the induced magnetotail . It is speculated that the atmosphere of Venus up to around 4 billion years ago was more like that of the Earth with liquid water on the surface . A runaway greenhouse effect may have been caused by the evaporation of the surface water and subsequent rise of the levels of other greenhouse gases .
Despite the harsh conditions on the surface , the atmospheric pressure and temperature at about 50 km to 65 km above the surface of the planet is nearly the same as that of the Earth , making its upper atmosphere the most Earth @-@ like area in the Solar System , even more so than the surface of Mars . Due to the similarity in pressure and temperature and the fact that breathable air ( 21 % oxygen , 78 % nitrogen ) is a lifting gas on Venus in the same way that helium is a lifting gas on Earth , the upper atmosphere has been proposed as a location for both exploration and colonization .
On January 29 , 2013 , ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of the planet Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to " the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions . "
= = Structure and composition = =
= = = Composition = = =
The atmosphere of Venus is composed of 96 @.@ 5 % carbon dioxide , 3 @.@ 5 % nitrogen , and traces of other gases , most notably sulfur dioxide . The amount of nitrogen in the atmosphere is relatively small compared to the amount of carbon dioxide , but because the atmosphere is so much thicker than that on Earth , its total nitrogen content is roughly four times higher than Earth 's , even though on Earth nitrogen makes up about 78 % of the atmosphere .
The atmosphere contains a range of interesting compounds in small quantities , including some based on hydrogen , such as hydrogen chloride ( HCl ) and hydrogen fluoride ( HF ) . There is carbon monoxide , water vapour and molecular oxygen as well . Hydrogen is in relatively short supply in the Venusian atmosphere . A large amount of the planet 's hydrogen is theorised to have been lost to space , with the remainder being mostly bound up in sulfuric acid ( H2SO4 ) and hydrogen sulfide ( H2S ) . The loss of significant amounts of hydrogen is proved by a very high D – H ratio measured in the Venusian atmosphere . The ratio is about 0 @.@ 015 – 0 @.@ 025 , which is 100 – 150 times higher than the terrestrial value of 1 @.@ 6 × 10 − 4 . According to some measurements , in the upper atmosphere of Venus D / H ratio is 1 @.@ 5 higher than in the bulk atmosphere .
= = = Troposphere = = =
The atmosphere is divided into a number of sections depending on altitude . The densest part of the atmosphere , the troposphere , begins at the surface and extends upwards to 65 km . At the furnace @-@ like surface the winds are slow , but at the top of the troposphere the temperature and pressure reaches Earth @-@ like levels and clouds pick up speed to 100 m / s .
The atmospheric pressure at the surface of Venus is about 92 times that of the Earth , similar to the pressure found 910 metres below the surface of the ocean . The atmosphere has a mass of 4 @.@ 8 × 1020 kg , about 93 times the mass of the Earth 's total atmosphere . The density of the air at the surface is 67 kg / m3 , which is 6 @.@ 5 % that of liquid water on Earth . The pressure found on Venus 's surface is high enough that the carbon dioxide is technically no longer a gas , but a supercritical fluid . This supercritical carbon dioxide forms a kind of sea that covers the entire surface of Venus . This sea of supercritical carbon dioxide transfers heat very efficiently , buffering the temperature changes between night and day ( which last 56 terrestrial days ) .
The large amount of CO2 in the atmosphere together with water vapour and sulfur dioxide create a strong greenhouse effect , trapping solar energy and raising the surface temperature to around 740 K ( 467 ° C ) , hotter than any other planet in the Solar System , even that of Mercury despite being located farther out from the Sun and receiving only 25 % of the solar energy ( per unit area ) Mercury does . The average temperature on the surface is above the melting points of lead 600 K ( 327 ° C ) , tin 505 K ( 232 ° C ) , and zinc 693 K ( 420 ° C ) . The thick troposphere also makes the difference in temperature between the day and night side small , even though the slow retrograde rotation of the planet causes a single solar day to last 116 @.@ 5 Earth days . The surface of Venus spends 58 @.@ 3 days of darkness before the sun rises again behind the clouds .
The troposphere on Venus contains 99 % of the atmosphere by mass . Ninety percent of the atmosphere of Venus is within 28 km of the surface ; by comparison , 90 % of the atmosphere of Earth is within 10 km of the surface . At a height of 50 km the atmospheric pressure is approximately equal to that at the surface of Earth . On the night side of Venus clouds can still be found at 80 km above the surface .
The altitude of the troposphere most similar to Earth is near the tropopause — the boundary between troposphere and mesosphere . It is located slightly above 50 km . According to measurements by the Magellan and Venus Express probes , the altitude from 52 @.@ 5 to 54 km has a temperature between 293 K ( 20 ° C ) and 310 K ( 37 ° C ) , and the altitude at 49 @.@ 5 km above the surface is where the pressure becomes the same as Earth at sea level . As manned ships sent to Venus would be able to compensate for differences in temperature to a certain extent , anywhere from about 50 to 54 km or so above the surface would be the easiest altitude in which to base an exploration or colony , where the temperature would be in the crucial " liquid water " range of 273 K ( 0 ° C ) to 323 K ( 50 ° C ) and the air pressure the same as habitable regions of Earth . As CO2 is heavier than air , the colony 's air ( nitrogen and oxygen ) could keep the structure floating at that altitude like a dirigible .
= = = = Circulation = = = =
The circulation in Venus 's troposphere follows the so @-@ called cyclostrophic approximation . Its windspeeds are roughly determined by the balance of the pressure gradient and centrifugal forces in almost purely zonal flow . In contrast , the circulation in the Earth 's atmosphere is governed by the geostrophic balance . Venus 's windspeeds can be directly measured only in the upper troposphere ( tropopause ) , between 60 – 70 km , altitude , which corresponds to the upper cloud deck . The cloud motion is usually observed in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum , where the contrast between clouds is the highest . The linear wind speeds at this level are about 100 ± 10 m / s at lower than 50 ° latitude . They are retrograde in the sense that they blow in the direction of the retrograde rotation of the planet . The winds quickly decrease towards the higher latitudes , eventually reaching zero at the poles . Such strong cloud @-@ top winds cause a phenomenon known as the super @-@ rotation of the atmosphere . In other words , these high @-@ speed winds circle the whole planet faster than the planet itself rotates . The super @-@ rotation on Venus is differential , which means that the equatorial troposphere super @-@ rotates more slowly than the troposphere at the midlatitudes . The winds also have a strong vertical gradient . They decline deep in the troposphere with the rate of 3 m / s per km . The winds near the surface of Venus are much slower than that on Earth . They actually move at only a few kilometres per hour ( generally less than 2 m / s and with an average of 0 @.@ 3 to 1 @.@ 0 m / s ) , but due to the high density of the atmosphere at the surface , this is still enough to transport dust and small stones across the surface , much like a slow @-@ moving current of water .
All winds on Venus are ultimately driven by convection . Hot air rises in the equatorial zone , where solar heating is concentrated , and flows to the poles . Such an almost @-@ planetwide overturning of the troposphere is called Hadley circulation . However , the meridional air motions are much slower than zonal winds . The poleward limit of the planet wide Hadley cell on Venus is near ± 60 ° latitudes . Here air starts to descend and returns to the equator below the clouds . This interpretation is supported by the distribution of the carbon monoxide , which is also concentrated in the vicinity of ± 60 ° latitudes . Poleward of the Hadley cell a different pattern of circulation is observed . In the latitude range 60 ° – 70 ° cold polar collars exist . They are characterised by temperatures about 30 – 40 K lower than in the upper troposphere at nearby latitudes . The lower temperature is probably caused by the upwelling of the air in them and by the resulting adiabatic cooling . Such an interpretation is supported by the denser and higher clouds in the collars . The clouds lie at 70 – 72 km altitude in the collars — about 5 km higher than at the poles and low latitudes . A connection may exist between the cold collars and high speed midlatitude jets in which winds blow as fast as 140 m / s . Such jets are a natural consequence of the Hadley – type circulation and should exist on Venus between 55 – 60 ° latitude .
Odd structures known as polar vortices lie within the cold polar collars . They are giant hurricane @-@ like storms four times larger than their terrestrial analogs . Each vortex has two " eyes " — the centres of rotation , which are connected by distinct S @-@ shaped cloud structures . Such double eyed structures are also called polar dipoles . Vortexes rotate with the period of about 3 days in the direction of general super @-@ rotation of the atmosphere . The linear wind speeds are 35 – 50 m / s near their outer edges and zero at the poles . The temperature at the cloud @-@ tops in the polar vortexes are much higher than in the nearby polar collars reaching 250 K ( − 23 ° C ) . The conventional interpretation of the polar vortexes is that they are anticyclones with downwelling in the centre and upwelling in the cold polar collars . This type of circulation resembles the winter polar anticyclonic vortexes on Earth , especially the one found over Antarctica . The observations in the various infrared atmospheric windows indicate that the anticyclonic circulation observed near the poles may penetrate as deep as to 50 km altitude , i.e. to the base of the clouds . The polar upper troposphere and mesosphere are extremely dynamic ; large bright clouds may appear and disappear over the space of a few hours . One such event was observed by Venus Express between 9 and 13 January 2007 , when the south polar region became brighter by 30 % . This event was probably caused by an injection of sulfur dioxide into the mesosphere , which then condensed forming a bright haze . The two eyes in the vortexes have yet to be explained .
The first vortex on Venus was discovered at the north pole by the Pioneer Venus mission in 1978 . A discovery of the second large ' double @-@ eyed ' vortex at the south pole of Venus was made in the summer of 2006 by Venus Express , which came with no surprise .
= = = Upper atmosphere and ionosphere = = =
The mesosphere of Venus extends from 65 km to 120 km in height , and the thermosphere begins at around 120 , eventually reaching the upper limit of the atmosphere ( exosphere ) at about 220 to 350 km . The exosphere is the altitude at which the atmosphere becomes collisionless .
The mesosphere of Venus can be divided into two layers : the lower one between 62 – 73 km and the upper one between 73 – 95 km . In the first layer the temperature is nearly constant at 230 K ( − 43 ° C ) . This layer coincides with the upper cloud deck . In the second layer temperature starts to decrease again reaching about 165 K ( − 108 ° C ) at the altitude of 95 km , where mesopause begins . It is the coldest part of the Venusian dayside atmosphere . In the dayside mesopause , which serves as a boundary between the mesophere and thermosphere and is located between 95 – 120 km , temperature grows up to a constant — about 300 – 400 K ( 27 – 127 ° C ) — value prevalent in the thermosphere . In contrast the nightside Venusian thermosphere is the coldest place on Venus with temperature as low as 100 K ( − 173 ° C ) . It is even called a cryosphere .
The circulation patterns in the upper mesosphere and thermosphere of Venus are completely different from those in the lower atmosphere . At altitudes 90 – 150 km the Venusian air moves from the dayside to nightside of the planet , with upwelling over sunlit hemisphere and downwelling over dark hemisphere . The downwelling over the nightside causes adiabatic heating of the air , which forms a warm layer in the nightside mesosphere at the altitudes 90 – 120 km . The temperature of this layer — 230 K ( − 43 ° C ) is far higher than the typical temperature found in the nightside thermosphere — 100 K ( − 173 ° C ) . The air circulated from the dayside also carries oxygen atoms , which after recombination form excited molecules of oxygen in the long @-@ lived singlet state ( 1Δg ) , which then relax and emit infrared radiation at the wavelength 1 @.@ 27 μm . This radiation from the altitude range 90 – 100 km is often observed from the ground and spacecraft . The nightside upper mesosphere and thermosphere of Venus is also the source of non @-@ LTE ( non @-@ local thermodynamic equilibrium ) emissions of CO2 and NO molecules , which are responsible for the low temperature of the nightside thermosphere .
The Venus Express probe has shown through stellar occultation that the atmospheric haze extends much further up on the night side than the day side . On the day side the cloud deck has a thickness of 20 km and extends up to about 65 km , whereas on the night side the cloud deck in the form of a thick haze reaches up to 90 km in altitude — well into mesosphere , continuing even further to 105 km as a more transparent haze . In 2011 , the spacecraft discovered that Venus has a thin ozone layer at an altitude of 100 km .
Venus has an extended ionosphere located at altitudes 120 – 300 km . The ionosphere almost coincides with the thermosphere . The high levels of the ionization are maintained only over the dayside of the planet . Over the nightside the concentration of the electrons is almost zero . The ionosphere of Venus consists of three layers : v1 between 120 and 130 km , v2 between 140 and 160 km and v3 between 200 and 250 km . There may be an additional layer near 180 km . The maximum electron volume density ( number of electrons in a unit of volume ) 3 × 1011 m − 3 is reached in the v2 layer near the subsolar point . The upper boundary of the ionosphere — ionopause is located at altitudes 220 – 375 km and separates the plasma of the planetary origin from that of the induced magnetosphere . The main ionic species in the v1 and v2 layers is O2 + ion , whereas the v3 layer consists of O + ions . The ionospheric plasma is observed to be in motion ; solar photoionization on the dayside , and ion recombination on the nightside , are the processes mainly responsible for accelerating the plasma to the observed velocities . The plasma flow appears to be sufficient to maintain the nightside ionosphere at or near the observed median level of ion densities .
= = = Induced magnetosphere = = =
Venus is known not to have a magnetic field . The reason for its absence is not clear , but is probably related to the planet 's slow rotation or the lack of convection in the mantle . Venus only has an induced magnetosphere formed by the Sun 's magnetic field carried by the solar wind . This process can be understood as the field lines wrapping around an obstacle — Venus in this case . The induced magnetosphere of Venus has a bow shock , magnetosheath , magnetopause and magnetotail with the current sheet .
At the subsolar point the bow shock stands 1900 km ( 0 @.@ 3 Rv , where Rv is the radius of Venus ) above the surface of Venus . This distance was measured in 2007 near the solar activity minimum . Near the solar activity maximum it can be several times further from the planet . The magnetopause is located at the altitude of 300 km . The upper boundary of the ionosphere ( ionopause ) is near 250 km . Between the magnetopause and ionopause there exists a magnetic barrier — a local enhancement of the magnetic field , which prevents solar plasma from penetrating deeper into the Venusian atmosphere , at least near solar activity minimum . The magnetic field in the barrier reaches up to 40 nT . The magnetotail continues up to ten radiuses from the planet . It is the most active part of the Venusian magnetosphere . There are reconnection events and particle acceleration in the tail . The energies of electrons and ions in the magnetotail are around 100 eV and 1000 eV respectively .
Due to the lack of the intrinsic magnetic field on Venus , the solar wind penetrates relatively deep into the planetary exosphere and causes substantial atmosphere loss . The loss happens mainly via the magnetotail . Currently the main ion types being lost are O + , H + and He + . The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen losses is around 2 ( i.e. almost stoichiometric ) indicating the ongoing loss of water .
= = Clouds = =
Venusian clouds are thick and are composed of sulfur dioxide and droplets of sulfuric acid . These clouds reflect about 75 % of the sunlight that falls on them , which is what obscures the surface of Venus from optical imaging . The geometric albedo , a common measure of reflectivity , is the highest of any planet in the Solar System . This high reflectivity potentially enables any probe exploring the cloud tops sufficient solar energy such that solar cells can be fitted anywhere on the craft .
The cloud cover is such that typical surface light levels are similar to a partly cloudy day on Earth , around 5000 – 10000 lux . The equivalent visibility is about three kilometers . Note , that this will likely vary because of the prevailing wind conditions . At this level little to no solar energy could conceivably be collected by solar panels on a surface probe . In fact , due to the thick , highly reflective cloud cover the total solar energy received by the planet is less than that of the Earth .
Sulfuric acid is produced in the upper atmosphere by the sun 's photochemical action on carbon dioxide , sulfur dioxide , and water vapour . Ultraviolet photons of wavelengths less than 169 nm can photodissociate carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide and atomic oxygen . Atomic oxygen is highly reactive ; when it reacts with sulfur dioxide , a trace component of the Venusian atmosphere , the result is sulfur trioxide , which can combine with water vapour , another trace component of Venus 's atmosphere , to yield sulfuric acid .
CO2 → CO + O
SO2 + O → SO3
SO3 + H2O → H2SO4
Surface level humidity is less than 0 @.@ 1 % . Venus 's sulfuric acid rain never reaches the ground , but is evaporated by the heat before reaching the surface in a phenomenon known as virga . It is theorized that early volcanic activity released sulfur into the atmosphere and the high temperatures prevented it from being trapped into solid compounds on the surface as it was on the Earth .
The clouds of Venus are capable of producing lightning much like the clouds on Earth . The existence of lightning had been controversial outside of the former Soviet Union since the first suspected bursts were detected by the Soviet Venera probes . However , in 2006 – 2007 Venus Express was reported to detect whistler mode waves , which were attributed to lightning . Their intermittent appearance indicates a pattern associated with weather activity . The lightning rate is at least half of that on Earth .
In 2009 a prominent bright spot in the atmosphere was noted by an amateur astronomer and photographed by Venus Express . Its cause is currently unknown , with surface volcanism advanced as a possible explanation .
= = Possibility of life = =
Due to the harsh conditions on the surface , little of the planet has been explored ; in addition to the fact that life as currently understood may not necessarily be the same in other parts of the universe , the extent of the tenacity of life on Earth itself has not yet been shown . Creatures known as extremophiles exist on Earth , preferring extreme habitats . Thermophiles and hyperthermophiles thrive at temperatures reaching above the boiling point of water , acidophiles thrive at a pH level of 3 or below , polyextremophiles can survive a varied number of extreme conditions , and many other types of extremophiles exist on Earth . However , the surface temperature of Venus ( over 450 ° C ) is far beyond the extremophile range , which extends only tens of degrees beyond 100 ° C.
However , life could also exist in the cloud tops . It has been proposed that life on Venus could exist there , the same way that bacteria have been found living and reproducing in clouds on Earth . Microbes in the thick , cloudy atmosphere could be protected from solar radiation by the sulfur compounds in the air . The solar wind may provide a mechanism for the transfer of such microbiota from Venus to Earth .
The Venusian atmosphere has been found to be sufficiently out of equilibrium as to require further investigation . Analysis of data from the Venera , Pioneer , and Magellan missions has found the chemicals hydrogen sulfide ( H2S ) and sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) together in the upper atmosphere , as well as carbonyl sulfide ( OCS ) . The first two gases react with each other , implying that something must produce them . Although carbonyl sulfide is difficult to produce inorganically , it is present in the Venusian atmosphere . It should be noted , however , that the presence of carbonyl sulfide can be accounted for by the planet 's volcanism . In addition , one of the early Venera probes detected large amounts of toxic chlorine just below the Venusian cloud deck .
It has been proposed that microbes at this level could be soaking up ultraviolet light from the Sun as a source of energy , which could be a possible explanation for dark patches seen on UV images of the planet . Large , non @-@ spherical cloud particles have also been detected in the cloud decks . Recently , abundance and vertical distribution of these unknown ultraviolet absorber in the Venusian atmosphere has been investigated from analysis of Venus Monitoring Camera images . But their composition is still unknown .
= = Evolution = =
Through studies of the present cloud structure and geology of the surface combined with the fact that the luminosity of the Sun has increased by 25 % since around 3 @.@ 8 billion years ago , it is thought that the atmosphere of Venus up to around 4 billion years ago was more like that of Earth with liquid water on the surface . The runaway greenhouse effect may have been caused by the evaporation of the surface water and the rise of the levels of greenhouse gases that followed . Venus 's atmosphere has therefore received a great deal of attention from those studying climate change on Earth .
There are no geologic forms on the planet to suggest the presence of water over the past billion years . However , there is no reason to suppose that Venus was an exception to the processes that formed Earth and gave it its water during its early history , possibly from the original rocks that formed the planet or later on from comets . The common view among research scientists is that water would have existed for about 600 million years on the surface before evaporating , though some such as David Grinspoon believe that up to 2 billion years could also be plausible .
The early Earth during the Hadean eon is believed by most scientists to have had a Venus @-@ like atmosphere , with roughly 100 bar of CO2 and a surface temperature of 230 ° C , and possibly even sulfuric acid clouds , until about 4 @.@ 0 billion years ago , by which time plate tectonics were in full force and together with the early water oceans , removed the CO2 and sulfur from the atmosphere . Early Venus would thus most likely have had water oceans like the Earth , but any plate tectonics would have ended when Venus lost its oceans . Its surface is estimated to be about 500 million years old , so it would not be expected to show evidence of plate tectonics .
= = Observations and measurement from Earth = =
In 1761 , Russian polymath Mikhail Lomonosov observed an arc of light surrounding the part of Venus off the Sun 's disc at the beginning of the egress phase of the transit and concluded that Venus has an atmosphere . In 1940 , Rupert Wildt calculated that the amount of CO2 in the Venusian atmosphere would raise surface temperature above the boiling point for water . This was confirmed when Mariner 2 made radiometer measurements of the temperature in 1962 . In 1967 , Venera 4 confirmed that the atmosphere consisted primarily of carbon dioxide .
The upper atmosphere of Venus can be measured from Earth when the planet crosses the sun in a rare event known as a solar transit . The last solar transit of Venus occurred in 2012 . Using quantitative astronomical spectroscopy , scientists were able to analyse sunlight that passed through the planet 's atmosphere to reveal chemicals within it . As the technique to analyse light to discover information about a planet 's atmosphere only first showed results in 2001 , this was the first opportunity to gain conclusive results in this way on the atmosphere of Venus since observation of solar transits began . This solar transit was a rare opportunity considering the lack of information on the atmosphere between 65 and 85 km . The solar transit in 2004 enabled astronomers to gather a large amount of data useful not only in determining the composition of the upper atmosphere of Venus , but also in refining techniques used in searching for extrasolar planets . The atmosphere of mostly CO2 , absorbs near @-@ infrared radiation , making it easy to observe . During the 2004 transit , the absorption in the atmosphere as a function of wavelength revealed the properties of the gases at that altitude . The Doppler shift of the gases also enabled wind patterns to be measured .
A solar transit of Venus is an extremely rare event , and the last solar transit of the planet before 2004 was in 1882 . The most recent solar transit was in 2012 , however , the next one will not occur until 2117 .
= = Future exploration = =
The Venus Express spacecraft formerly in orbit around the planet probed deeper into the atmosphere using infrared imaging spectroscopy in the 1 – 5 µm spectral range . The JAXA probe Akatsuki , launched in May 2010 , was intended to study the planet for a period of two years , including the structure and activity of the atmosphere , but it failed to enter Venus orbit in December 2010 . A second attempt to achieve orbit succeeded 7 December 2015 . One of its five cameras known as the " IR2 " will be able to measure the atmosphere of the planet underneath its thick clouds , in addition to its movement and distribution of trace components . With a varied orbit from 300 to 60 @,@ 000 km , it will be able to take close @-@ up photographs of the planet , and should also confirm the presence of both active volcanoes as well as lightning .
The Venus In @-@ Situ Explorer , proposed by NASA 's New Frontiers program is a proposed probe which would aid in understanding the processes on the planet that led to climate change , as well as paving the way towards a later sample return mission .
Another craft called the Venus Mobile Explorer has been proposed by the Venus Exploration Analysis Group ( VEXAG ) to study the composition and isotopic measurements of the surface and the atmosphere , for about 90 days . A launch date has not yet been set .
= = = Proposed missions = = =
After missions discovered the reality of the harsh nature of the planet 's surface , attention shifted towards other targets such as Mars . There have been a number of proposed missions recently however , and many of these involve the little @-@ known upper atmosphere . The Soviet Vega program in 1985 dropped two balloons into the atmosphere , but these were battery @-@ powered and lasted for only about two Earth days each before running out of power and since then there has been no exploration of the upper atmosphere . In 2002 the NASA contractor Global Aerospace proposed a balloon that would be capable of staying in the upper atmosphere for hundreds of Earth days as opposed to two .
A solar flyer has also been proposed by Geoffrey A. Landis in place of a balloon , and the idea has been featured from time to time since the early 2000s . Venus has a high albedo , and reflects most of the sunlight that shines on it making the surface quite dark , the upper atmosphere at 60 km has an upward solar intensity of 90 % , meaning that solar panels on both the top and the bottom of a craft could be used with nearly equal efficiency . In addition to this , the slightly lower gravity , high air pressure and slow rotation allowing for perpetual solar power make this part of the planet ideal for exploration . The proposed flyer would operate best at an altitude where sunlight , air pressure , and wind speed would enable it to remain in the air perpetually , with slight dips down to lower altitudes for a few hours at a time before returning to higher altitudes . As sulfuric acid in the clouds at this height is not a threat for a properly shielded craft , this so @-@ called " solar flyer " would be able to measure the area in between 45 km and 60 km indefinitely , for however long it takes for mechanical error or unforeseen problems to cause it to fail . Landis also proposed that rovers similar to Spirit and Opportunity could possibly explore the surface , with the difference being that Venus surface rovers would be " dumb " rovers controlled by radio signals from computers located in the flyer above , only requiring parts such as motors and transistors to withstand the surface conditions , but not weaker parts involved in microelectronics that could not be made resistant to the heat , pressure and acidic conditions .
Russian space plan for 2006 – 2015 involves a launch of Venera @-@ D ( Venus @-@ D ) probe around 2024 . The main scientific goals of the Venera @-@ D mission are investigation of the structure and chemical composition of the atmosphere and investigation of the upper atmosphere , ionosphere , electrical activity , magnetosphere and escape rate .
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= Gyromancer =
Gyromancer is a puzzle and role @-@ playing video game developed by PopCap Games in collaboration with Square Enix . In the game , the player moves through a map of an enchanted forest , battling monsters using their own summoned monsters through a puzzle @-@ game battle based on PopCap 's Bejeweled Twist . In these battles , the player rotates groups of four in a grid of gems to line up three or more jewels of the same color ; when enough lines have been created damage is dealt to the enemy . Between battles , a story is told through a series of cutscenes , while the player and the summoned monsters gain experience and power using role @-@ playing game elements .
The initial idea for the game was inspired by Puzzle Quest : Challenge of the Warlords , a 2007 video game which members of both companies were playing at the time . The game was proposed to Square Enix half @-@ jokingly by PopCap 's chief creative officer Jason Kapalka during a meeting between the two companies in 2007 , and was released on the Xbox Live Arcade and on the Steam platform for Windows PCs by Square Enix on November 18 , 2009 . Gyromancer received a generally positive reception from reviewers . Critics took issue with perceived limited graphics , some aspects of the music , and a weak and confusing plot . Despite these flaws , in general they found the game to be fun and addictive , and to have a great deal of replay value .
= = Gameplay = =
Players assume the role of Rivel , an immortal summoner who ventures through the enchanted Aldemona Wood . He has been tasked to track down the rebel group Temperance , led by Quraist Kingsley , who have assassinated a member of the royal family . The forest at times magically seals itself , trapping visitors inside , and is rumored to hold a source of mystical power for which Quraist is searching . The game consists of twelve stages , which are large branching maps that allow the player to move from points represented by stars to adjacent points . Each stage contains its own objectives , from defeating beasts that block the player ’ s way , to solving puzzles before time runs out . Additional stages are available for purchase as downloadable content . There are multiple optional objectives per stage , in addition to a main goal . Many areas of each stage are initially blocked off , and can only be entered by replaying the stage later in the game .
While moving through the stages , the player encounters many monsters , and is forced to battle against them using one of their own monsters in a puzzle battle based on Bejeweled Twist . The creatures are " variations on fantasy archetypes " and include demons , giant spiders , giant frogs , and beasts inspired by Dungeons & Dragons . The player can only bring three creatures into a stage out of all of the ones that they have , and selects one of the three when a battle begins . A grid of different colored gems is displayed , and the player can select blocks of four jewels and rotate them clockwise . If a line of three or more identical gems is formed , the gems disappear , allowing all of the jewels above the now @-@ vacant spaces in the grid to fall down a row to replace them . New gems appear at the top of the screen to fill any holes in the grid . If new lines of gems are formed from this movement , the process repeats . Whenever lines are formed , a gauge is filled slightly for the player ; when it is full a special gem appears on the board . When that gem is formed into a line , damage is done to the enemy . The enemy also has a gauge , which is filled every time the player performs a rotation , and damage is dealt directly to the player when it is filled .
Later in the game , non @-@ rotatable gems can be found , and the player is punished for rotations that do not lead to a match by having the enemy 's gauge fill faster . The amount of damage that the player can take or deliver is dependent on the monster used in battle , and using a beast in battle earns experience points which can increase the power of that summon . Each monster has a corresponding color , and matching gems that are the same color as your chosen monster or the enemy makes your gauge fill faster or theirs slower . Enemy monsters can change gems on the board to skulls , which cause damage to the player if they are not lined up within a certain number of moves . After being defeated in a battle , enemy monsters are added to the list of creatures that the player chooses from when they start a stage . New monsters can also be found hidden in the stages , along with items that can be used during battles .
= = Development = =
The game was first thought up in 2007 during a meeting between PopCap and Square Enix , which had published several of PopCap 's games in Japan . Jason Kapalka , the co @-@ founder and chief creative officer of PopCap , claims that he " half @-@ jokingly " proposed a game collaboration between the two companies that would combine a role @-@ playing game with Bejeweled @-@ style gameplay , calling it “ Final Fantasy Bejeweled ” . Kapalka was envisioning creating a similar game to Puzzle Quest : Challenge of the Warlords , a 2007 video game which members of the development staff of both companies were playing at the time . The idea attracted the attention of Yuichi Murasawa , designer of Final Fantasy Tactics Advance , and the game began formal development . To differentiate the game from Puzzle Quest , the gameplay was based around Bejeweled Twist rather than Bejeweled , which Kopalka feels fit the art design of the game more . Other candidates considered were Zuma and Peggle , but they were dropped as the developers felt that they did not fit in with the combat theme . PopCap developed the early prototype for the game , then allowed Square Enix to complete the bulk of the work in designing and creating the game , especially in regards to the RPG aspects . Square Enix and PopCap announced the game on September 24 , 2009 . It was published by Square Enix on the Xbox Live Arcade and on the Steam platform for Windows PCs on November 18 , 2009 . A downloadable pack of maps and a pack of items were made available for sale a week after launch on November 23 , 2009 for both versions of the game .
The game was directed by Murasawa and produced by Yoshinori Kamei . The story was written by Kyoko Kitahara , who had previously worked on Final Fantasy Tactics Advance with Murasawa , and the art direction was led by Yuki Matsuzawa . The soundtrack was created by Tsuyoshi Sekito . Matsuzawa was asked to make the art style that of a " dark fantasy " and to focus more on making the visuals realistic rather than fantasy @-@ oriented , so that it would appeal more to players outside Japan .
= = Reception = =
Gyromancer received a generally positive reception from reviewers . While many critics noted its similarity to Puzzle Quest , the gameplay was still described as being " fun and addictive " by Brett Todd of GameSpot , and similar praises were made by Daemon Hattfield of IGN and Eurogamer 's Oli Welsh . Welsh claimed that it had a great deal of replay value , and praised the " surprisingly varied story missions " . Game Informer 's Matt Miller disagreed slightly , stating that while the game had some replay value , it was limited by the lack of depth to the RPG elements of the game . Although the paintings of the monsters and game world were rated highly by critics , the art direction itself was criticized . Todd called the graphics " murky and grainy " and noted the lack of animation in the battles or cutscenes , in which two @-@ dimensional pictures of the characters speaking " slide back and forth like cardboard cutouts " rather than perform realistic movements . Welsh added that the stage maps were " crudely portrayed " . Hattfield did not share those concerns , but did note say that they felt that the portraits of monsters were reused for different monsters too often . Miller disagreed completely with the other critics , saying that the game " looks great " and that " even the map screen between battles has a polished appearance " . A reviewer from GameTrailers also enjoyed the aesthetic of the game , saying that despite the " still images " and " simple effects " , the game made an " effort to look and sound the part " of a deeper game , which they felt would increase the player 's enjoyment .
The plot was similarly criticized , with Welsh calling it " endearing , largely unpronounceable rubbish " , while Hattfield termed it " not Gyromancer 's strong point " and " a bit hard to follow " . Miller dismissed it as " generic " and " lackluster " , while the GameTrailers reviewer said that it was " somewhat thrown together " . All the reviews , however , noted that the plot was largely irrelevant to the game next to the gameplay elements . Todd criticized the tutorial system as very inadequate , as well as the " beyond cheesy " music , a criticism that Hattfield left only to the " Japanese videogame metal during boss battles " , rather than the rest of Sekito 's " rousing orchestral tunes " . Overall , however , the reviewers felt that Gyromancer was a fun , casual game .
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= Secret Truths =
" Secret Truths " is the two @-@ part pilot episode of the American teen drama series South of Nowhere which premiered on November 4 , 2005 on The N in the United States . It was written by series creator Thomas W. Lynch and directed by Donna Deitch . The episode introduces three siblings — Spencer , Glen and Clay Carlin — who start at a new school after their family moves from a small town in Ohio to Los Angeles .
Lynch conceived South of Nowhere from the idea of a teenager 's coming out after hearing that his friend 's son had come out to his parents . Lynch pitched the premise to The N and was commissioned to write the pilot . After the casting process was complete , the episode was filmed in October 2004 , but when the show was picked up for a full season , Lynch decided to recast many of the characters and the pilot was shot again in July 2005 with the new cast . The premiere of the episode was promoted with branded MetroCards that were handed out to teenagers in Manhattan . Generally , critics reviewed the pilot positively , particularly commending its treatment of current social issues ; however , some critics found the show 's introduction of these issues to be forced and inauthentic .
= = Plot = =
After their mother Paula ( Maeve Quinlan ) takes on a new job , the Carlin family moves from a small town in Ohio to Los Angeles , California . The three Carlin siblings start at King High School , where they each try to fit in . Glen ( Chris Hunter ) , a talented basketball player , tries out for the school basketball team , upsetting the star player Aiden Dennison ( Matt Cohen ) and his cheerleader girlfriend Madison Duarte ( Valery Ortiz ) . Tensions between Glen and Aiden escalate into a locker room fight over Aiden 's ex @-@ girlfriend Ashley Davies ( Mandy Musgrave ) , and Glen takes the spotlight in his first game , leaving Aiden on the bench . Glen 's sister Spencer ( Gabrielle Christian ) joins the cheerleading squad but ends up doing little more than take orders from Madison . She befriends the rebellious Ashley , but when Ashley indicates her interest in girls , Spencer starts to avoid her , only to admit later that she enjoyed their time spent together . That night , though , she dreams of being taunted by the cheerleaders and called gay , although she denies it . Glen and Spencer 's adopted African American brother Clay ( Danso Gordon ) is smart but naïve , and he finds himself facing the racial tensions of LA that he never experienced in Ohio . After Clay strikes up a conversation with a girl named Chelsea Lewis ( Aasha Davis ) , he is beaten up by her ex @-@ boyfriend Dallas ( Marcus Brown ) when Clay tries to defend her . He then earns the respect of Sean Miller ( Austen Parros ) , who is cynical about the way African Americans are treated in society , and when they go driving they are pulled over by the police for " driving while black " .
At a school dance , Sean persuades Dallas to make peace with Clay while Clay dances with Chelsea . Spencer convinces Ashley to come despite her disdain for school dances , but when Madison sees them together , she alleges that Spencer is gay and kicks Spencer off the cheerleading squad . It is revealed that Ashley was once pregnant by Aiden and lost the baby in a miscarriage , and when Glen tries to force Spencer to leave , another fight breaks out between him and Aiden . Spencer and Ashley flee the dance with Aiden and end up at a lookout over LA .
= = Production = =
Thomas W. Lynch first had the idea for South of Nowhere when one of his close conservative friends told Lynch that his son had just come out to him . The man asked his son , " How do you know you 're gay ? " and the son responded , " How do you know you 're straight ? " When Lynch heard this , he says , he " knew there was a series in there about identity . " He wondered why such a noteworthy event — an adolescent 's coming out to their parents — had never before been explored as an ongoing subject on a television series . He " sat with the idea for a few days " and then wrote an outline of the show 's pilot over a few weeks . In an effort to maintain authenticity in depicting teenage experiences , Lynch spoke to high school counselors and asked drama students at a Los Angeles high school for feedback . He pitched the series — which he was then calling " Out " — to The N executives Amy Friedman and Essie Chambers , who then commissioned him to write the pilot script .
Gabrielle Christian first auditioned for the role of Spencer ( then called " Zooey " ) in July 2004 , though Lynch also had her read for Ashley 's part . Mandy Musgrave also auditioned for the role of Spencer , but Lynch liked her chemistry with Christian , so he paired the two up with Musgrave as Ashley . The pilot was first shot in October 2004 and directed by Rose Troche , but after the series was picked up by The N in January 2005 , Lynch decided to recast many of the characters . He said that " I didn 't pick [ Christian ] up right away , I had her keep re @-@ auditioning . ... I [ had ] to make sure that this combination [ was ] perfect . " Her contract was finally picked up in May 2005 and the pilot was re @-@ filmed with the new cast in July . Filming took place in Los Angeles , with a correctional facility used largely as the high school set . Donna Deitch , who directed the second version of the pilot but no subsequent South of Nowhere episodes said that the pilot is " something I 'm really , really proud of , because I think that show has a look , a style to it that really helps " . She felt that the style she set suited the material and was " fairly inventive " for a low @-@ budget series .
= = Promotion = =
Before the airing of the pilot , The N joined with marketing agency Mr. Youth LLC to promote the show amongst teenagers in Manhattan . On Thursday November 3 and Friday November 4 , 2005 , street teams with chest @-@ mounted televisions as well as branded Vespas were dispersed around lower Manhattan . They visited various high schools and offered South of Nowhere @-@ branded MetroCards to teenagers who were traveling south on the N subway line .
= = Reception = =
Most reviews of " Secret Truths " were positive , particularly praising its treatment of social issues . Maureen Ryan wrote for the Chicago Tribune that " The lack of either cutesyness or condescension shown by this program is promising . " She also commended that the pilot " doesn 't shy away " from issues pertaining to race , religion and sexuality . Kate Authur of The New York Times compared the pilot positively to other series , writing , " If you took the plot of Beverly Hills , 90210 ( a good @-@ looking Midwestern family moves to Los Angeles ) , combined it with the identity issues of Degrassi ( race , sexuality and class clash in a high school setting ) and added a splash of One Tree Hill 's basketball backdrop , you would get South of Nowhere ... That 's meant to be a compliment . " Alessandra Stanley , another critic for The New York Times , mentioned " Secret Truths " in a feature about racial issues on television . She felt that the pilot distinguished itself from other teen shows by including a subplot about race ; however , she still found it to be " constrained and politically correct " . Variety 's Brian Lowry gave the episode a lukewarm review , comparing it to other teen dramas . He wrote that " the web of relationships doesn 't feel particularly fresh , mirroring the recent spate of nighttime teen serials " , but he felt the pilot was an " edgier treatment " , noting that it " isn 't screwing around " by addressing topics including abortion , drugs , homosexuality and racism . Karman Kregloe of AfterEllen.com , a website focused on the portrayal of lesbians in the media , thought that the episode was " well @-@ written , and the storyline for each of the lead characters is compelling " . She praised the show greatly for its authentic portrayal of teenagers ' questioning of their sexuality and the " big step " taken towards promoting tolerance .
Other critics responded to the episode less positively . Joanna Weiss of The Boston Globe was more critical , feeling that the show " takes pains to introduce as many hot @-@ button issues as possible " to give the illusion of authenticity . She found the characters to be predictable and to only serve as " plot vehicles " . The Seattle Times ' Kay McFadden also found a main problem of the show in the characters , believing that the pilot was more focused on plot development than it was on character development . She felt that the show was slightly hypocritical in trying to educate viewers on moral values but at the same time emphasising its own sexual aspects , setting " a weird standard for young viewers " .
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= Kenilworth Castle =
Kenilworth Castle is located in the town of the same name in Warwickshire , England . Constructed from Norman through to Tudor times , the castle has been described by architectural historian Anthony Emery as " the finest surviving example of a semi @-@ royal palace of the later middle ages , significant for its scale , form and quality of workmanship " . Kenilworth has also played an important historical role . The castle was the subject of the six @-@ month @-@ long Siege of Kenilworth in 1266 , believed to be the longest siege in English history , and formed a base for Lancastrian operations in the Wars of the Roses . Kenilworth was also the scene of the removal of Edward II from the English throne , the French insult to Henry V in 1414 ( said by John Strecche to have encouraged the Agincourt campaign ) , and the Earl of Leicester 's lavish reception of Elizabeth I in 1575 .
The castle was built over several centuries . Founded in the 1120s around a powerful Norman great tower , the castle was significantly enlarged by King John at the beginning of the 13th century . Huge water defences were created by damming the local streams , and the resulting fortifications proved able to withstand assaults by land and water in 1266 . John of Gaunt spent lavishly in the late 14th century , turning the medieval castle into a palace fortress designed in the latest perpendicular style . The Earl of Leicester then expanded the castle once again , constructing new Tudor buildings and exploiting the medieval heritage of Kenilworth to produce a fashionable Renaissance palace .
Kenilworth was partly destroyed by Parliamentary forces in 1649 to prevent it being used as a military stronghold . Ruined , only two of its buildings remain habitable today . The castle became a tourist destination from the 18th century onwards , becoming famous in the Victorian period following the publishing of Sir Walter Scott 's novel Kenilworth in 1826 . English Heritage has managed the castle since 1984 . The castle is classed as a Grade I listed building and as a Scheduled Monument , and is open to the public .
= = Architecture and landscape = =
Although now ruined as a result of the slighting , or deliberate partial destruction , of the castle after the English Civil War , Kenilworth illustrates five centuries of English military and civil architecture . The castle is built almost entirely from local new red sandstone .
= = = Entrance and outer bailey wall = = =
To the south @-@ east of the main castle lie the Brays , a corruption of the French word braie , meaning an external fortification with palisades . Only earthworks and fragments of masonry remain of what was an extensive 13th @-@ century barbican structure including a stone wall and an external gatehouse guarding the main approach to the castle . The area now forms part of the car park for the castle . Beyond the Brays are the ruins of the Gallery Tower , a second gatehouse remodelled in the 15th century . The Gallery Tower originally guarded the 152 @-@ metre ( 500 @-@ ft ) long , narrow walled @-@ causeway that still runs from the Brays to the main castle . This causeway was called the Tiltyard , as it was used for tilting , or jousting , in medieval times . The Tiltyard causeway acted both as a dam and as part of the barbican defences . To the east of the Tiltyard is a lower area of marshy ground , originally flooded and called the Lower Pool , and to the west an area once called the Great Mere . The Great Mere is now drained and forms a meadow , but would originally have been a large lake covering around 100 acres ( 40 ha ) , dammed by the Tiltyard causeway .
The outer bailey of Kenilworth Castle is usually entered through Mortimer 's Tower , today a modest ruin but originally a Norman stone gatehouse , extended in the late 13th and 16th centuries . The outer bailey wall , long and relatively low , was mainly built by King John ; it has numerous buttresses but only a few towers , being designed to be primarily defended by the water system of the Great Mere and Lower Pool . The north side of the outer bailey wall was almost entirely destroyed during the slighting . Moving clockwise around the outer bailey from Mortimer 's Tower , the defences include a west @-@ facing watergate , which would originally have led onto the Great Mere ; the King 's gate , a late 17th @-@ century agricultural addition ; the Swan Tower , a late 13th @-@ century tower with 16th century additions named after the swans that lived on the Great Mere ; the early 13th @-@ century Lunn 's Tower ; and the 14th @-@ century Water Tower , so named because it overlooked the Lower Pool .
= = = Inner court = = =
Kenilworth 's inner court consists of a number of buildings set against a bailey wall , originally of Norman origin , exploiting the defensive value of a natural knoll that rises up steeply from the surrounding area . The 12th @-@ century great tower occupies the knoll itself and forms the north @-@ east corner of the bailey . Ruined during the slighting , the great tower is notable for its huge corner turrets , essentially hugely exaggerated Norman pilaster buttresses . Its walls are 5 metres ( 17 ft ) thick , and the towers 30 metres ( 100 ft ) high . Although Kenilworth 's great tower is larger , it is similar to that of Brandon Castle near Coventry ; both were built by the local Clinton family in the 1120s . The tower can be termed a hall keep , as it is longer than it is wide . The lowest floor is filled with earth , possibly taken from the earlier motte that may have been present on the site , and is further protected by a sloping stone plinth around the base . The tall Tudor windows at the top of the tower date from the 1570s .
Much of the northern part of the inner bailey was built by the 14th @-@ century noble John of Gaunt between 1372 and 1380 . This part of the castle is considered by historian Anthony Emery to be " the finest surviving example of a semi @-@ royal palace of the later middle ages , significant for its scale , form and quality of workmanship " . Gaunt 's architectural style emphasised rectangular design , the separation of ground floor service areas from the upper stories and a contrast of austere exteriors with lavish interiors , especially on the 1st floor of the inner bailey buildings . The result is considered " an early example of the perpendicular style " .
The most significant of Gaunt 's buildings is his great hall . The great hall replaced an earlier sequence of great halls on the same site , and was heavily influenced by Edward III 's design at Windsor Castle . The hall consists of a " ceremonial sequence of rooms " , approached by a particularly grand staircase , now lost . From the great hall , visitors could look out to admire the Great Mere or the inner court through huge windows . The undercroft to the hall , used by the service staff , was lit with slits , similar to design at the contemporary Wingfield Manor . The roof was built in 1376 by William Wintringham , producing the widest hall , unsupported by pillars , existing in England at the time . There is some debate amongst historians as to whether this roof was a hammerbeam design , a collar and truss @-@ brace design , or a combination of the two .
There was an early attempt at symmetry in the external appearance of the great hall – the Strong and Saintlowe Towers architecturally act as near symmetrical " wings " to the hall itself , while the plinth of the hall is designed to mirror that of the great tower opposite it . An unusual multi @-@ sided tower , the Oriel , provides a counterpoint to the main doorway of the hall and was intended for private entertainment by Gaunt away from the main festivities on major occasions . The Oriel tower is based on Edward III 's " La Rose " Tower at Windsor , which had a similar function . Gaunt 's Strong Tower is so named for being entirely vaulted in stone across all its floors , an unusual and robust design . The great hall influenced the design of Bolton and Raby castles , while the hall 's roof design became famous and was copied at Arundel Castle and Westminster Hall .
Other parts of the castle built by Gaunt include the southern range of state apartments , Gaunt 's Tower and the main kitchen . Although now extensively damaged , these share the same style as the great hall ; this would have unified the appearance of Gaunt 's palace in a distinct break from the more eclectic medieval tradition of design . Gaunt 's kitchen replaced the original 12th @-@ century kitchens , built alongside the great tower in a similar fashion to the arrangement at Conisbrough . Gaunt 's new kitchen was twice the size of that in equivalent castles , measuring 19 metres ( 66 ft ) by eight metres ( 28 ft ) .
The remainder of the inner court was built by Robert Dudley , the Earl of Leicester , in the 1570s . He built a tower now known as Leicester 's building on the south edge of the court as a guest wing , extending out beyond the inner bailey wall for extra space . Leicester 's building was four floors high and built in a fashionable contemporary Tudor style with " brittle , thin walls and grids of windows " . The building was intended to appear well @-@ proportioned alongside the ancient great tower , one of the reasons for its considerable height . Leicester 's building set the style for later Elizabethan country house design , especially in the Midlands , with Hardwick Hall being a classic example . Modern viewing platforms , installed in 2014 , provide views from Elizabeth I 's's former bedroom .
Leicester also built a loggia , or open gallery , beside the great keep to lead to the new formal gardens . The loggia was designed to elegantly frame the view as the observer slowly admired the gardens , and was a new design in the 16th century , only recently imported from Italy .
= = = Base , left @-@ hand and right @-@ hand courts = = =
The rest of Kenilworth Castle 's interior is divided into three areas : the base court , stretching between Mortimer 's Tower and Leicester 's gatehouse ; the left @-@ hand court , stretching south @-@ west around the outside of the inner court ; and the right @-@ hand court , to the north @-@ west of the inner court . The line of trees that cuts across the base court today is a relatively modern mid @-@ 19th century addition , and originally this court would have been more open , save for the collegiate chapel that once stood in front of the stables . Destroyed in 1524 , only the chapel 's foundations remain . Each of the courts was designed to be used for different purposes : the base court was considered a relatively public area , with the left and right courts used for more private occasions .
Leicester 's gatehouse was built on the north side of the base court , replacing an older gatehouse to provide a fashionable entrance from the direction of Coventry . The external design , with its symbolic towers and , originally , battlements , echoes a style popular a century or more before , closely resembling Kirby Muxloe and the Beauchamp gatehouse at Warwick Castle . By contrast the interior , with its contemporary wood panelling , is in the same , highly contemporary Elizabethan fashion of Leicester 's building in the inner court . Leicester 's gatehouse is one of the few parts of the castle to remain intact . The stables built by John Dudley in the 1550s also survive and lie along the east side of the base court . The stable block is a large building built mostly in stone , but with a timber @-@ framed , decoratively panelled first storey designed in an anachronistic , vernacular style . Both buildings could have easily been seen from Leicester 's building and were therefore on permanent display to visitors . Leciester 's intent may have been to create a deliberately anachronistic view across the base court , echoing the older ideals of chivalry and romance alongside the more modern aspects of the redesign of the castle .
= = = Garden and landscape = = =
Much of the right @-@ hand court of Kenilworth Castle is occupied by the castle garden . For most of Kenilworth 's history the role of the castle garden , used for entertainment , would have been very distinct from that of the surrounding chase , used primarily for hunting . From the 16th century onwards there were elaborate knot gardens in the base court . The gardens today are designed to reproduce as closely as possible the primarily historical record of their original appearance in 1575 , with a steep terrace along the south side of the gardens and steps leading down to eight square knot gardens . In Elizabethan gardens " the plants were almost incidental " , and instead the design focus was on sculptures , including four wooden obelisks painted to resemble porphyry and a marble fountain with a statue of two Greek mythological figures . A timber aviary contains a range of birds . The original garden was heavily influenced by the Italian Renaissance garden at Villa d 'Este .
To the north @-@ west of the castle are earthworks marking the spot of the " Pleasance " , created in 1414 by Henry V. The Pleasance was a banqueting house built in the style of a miniature castle . Surrounded by two diamond @-@ shaped moats with its own dock , the Pleasance was positioned on the far side of the Great Mere and had to be reached by boat . It resembled Richard II 's retreat at Sheen from the 1380s , and was later copied by his younger brother , Duke Humphrey of Gloucester , at Greenwich in the 1430s , as well by his son , John of Lancaster at Fulbrook . The Pleasance was eventually dismantled by Henry VIII and partially moved into the left @-@ hand court inside the castle itself , possibly to add to the anachronistic appearance . These elements were finally destroyed in the 1650s .
= = History = =
= = = 12th century = = =
Kenilworth Castle was founded in the early 1120s by Geoffrey de Clinton , Lord Chamberlain to Henry I. The castle 's original form is uncertain . It has been suggested that it consisted of a motte , an earthen mound surmounted by wooden buildings ; however , the stone great tower may have been part of the original design . Clinton was a local rival to Roger de Beaumont , the Earl of Warwick and owner of the neighbouring Warwick Castle , and the king made Clinton the sheriff in Warwickshire to act as a counterbalance to Beaumont 's power . Clinton had begun to lose the king 's favour after 1130 , and when he died in 1133 his son , also called Geoffrey , was only a minor . Geoffrey and his uncle William de Clinton were forced to come to terms with Beaumont ; this set @-@ back , and the difficult years of the Anarchy ( 1135 – 54 ) , delayed any further development of the castle .
Henry II succeeded to the throne at the end of the Anarchy but during the revolt of 1173 – 74 he faced a significant uprising led by his son , Henry , backed by the French crown . The conflict spread across England and Kenilworth was garrisoned by Henry II 's forces ; Geoffrey II de Clinton died in this period and the castle was taken fully into royal possession , a sign of its military importance . The Clintons themselves moved on to Buckinghamshire . By this point Kenilworth Castle consisted of the great keep , the inner bailey wall , a basic causeway across the smaller lake that preceded the creation of the Great Mere , and the local chase for hunting .
= = = 13th century = = =
Henry 's successor , Richard I , paid relatively little attention to Kenilworth , but under King John significant building resumed at the castle . When John was excommunicated in 1208 , he embarked on a programme of rebuilding and enhancing several major royal castles . These included Corfe , Odiham , Dover , Scarborough as well as Kenilworth . John spent £ 1 @,@ 115 on Kenilworth Castle between 1210 and 1216 , building the outer bailey wall in stone and improving the other defences , including creating Mortimer 's and Lunn 's Towers . He also significantly improved the castle 's water defences by damming the Finham and Inchford Brooks , creating the Great Mere . The result was to turn Kenilworth into one of the largest English castles of the time , with one of the largest artificial lake defences in England . John was forced to cede the castle to the baronial opposition as part of the guarantee of the Magna Carta , before it reverted to royal control early in the reign of his son , Henry III .
Henry III granted Kenilworth in 1244 to Simon de Montfort , Earl of Leicester , who later became a leader in the Second Barons ' War ( 1263 – 67 ) against the king , using Kenilworth as the centre of his operations . Initially the conflict went badly for King Henry , and after the Battle of Lewes in 1264 he was forced to sign the Mise of Lewes , under which his son , Prince Edward , was given over to the rebels as a hostage . Edward was taken back to Kenilworth , where chroniclers considered he was held in unduly harsh conditions . Released in early 1265 , Edward then defeated Montfort at the Battle of Evesham ; the surviving rebels under the leadership of Henry de Hastings , Montfort 's constable at Kenilworth , regrouped at the castle the following spring . Edward 's forces proceeded to lay siege to the rebels .
The Siege of Kenilworth Castle in 1266 was " probably the longest in English history " according to historian Norman Pounds , and at the time was also the largest siege to have occurred in England in terms of the number of soldiers involved . Simon de Monfort 's son , Simon VI de Montfort , promised in January 1266 to hand over the castle to the king . Five months later this had not happened , and Henry III laid siege to Kenilworth Castle on 21 June . Protected by the extensive water defences , the castle withstood the attack , despite Edward targeting the weaker north wall , employing huge siege towers and even attempting a night attack using barges brought from Chester . The distance between the royal trebuchets and the walls severely reduced their effectiveness , and heavier trebuchets had to be sent for from London . Papal intervention through the legate Ottobuono finally resulted in the compromise of the Dictum of Kenilworth , under which the rebels were allowed to re @-@ purchase their confiscated lands provided they surrendered the castle ; the siege ended on 14 December 1266 . The water defences at Kenilworth influenced the construction of later castles in Wales , most notably Caerphilly .
Henry granted Kenilworth to his son , Edmund Crouchback , in 1267 . Edmund held many tournaments at Kenilworth in the late 13th century , including a huge event in 1279 , presided over by the royal favourite Roger de Mortimer , in which a hundred knights competed for three days in the tiltyard in an event called " the Round Table " , in imitation of the popular Arthurian legends .
= = = 14th century = = =
Edmund Crouchback passed on the castle to his eldest son , Thomas , Earl of Lancaster , in 1298 . Lancaster married Alice de Lacy , which made him the richest nobleman in England . Kenilworth became the primary castle of the Lancaster estates , replacing Bolingbroke , and acted as both a social and a financial centre for Thomas . Thomas built the first great hall at the castle from 1314 to 1317 and constructed the Water Tower along the outer bailey , as well as increasing the size of the chase . Lancaster , with support from many of the other English barons , found himself in increasing opposition to Edward II . War broke out in 1322 , and Lancaster was captured at the Battle of Boroughbridge and executed . His estates , including Kenilworth , were confiscated by the crown . Edward and his wife , Isabella of France , spent Christmas 1323 at Kenilworth , amidst major celebrations .
In 1326 , however , Edward was deposed by an alliance of Isabella and her lover , Roger Mortimer . Edward was eventually captured by Isabella 's forces and the custody of the king was assigned to Henry , Earl of Lancaster , who had backed Isabella 's invasion . Henry , reoccupying most of the Lancaster lands , was made constable of Kenilworth and Edward was transported there in late 1326 ; Henry 's legal title to the castle was finally confirmed the following year . Kenilworth was chosen for this purpose by Isabella probably both because it was a major fortification , and also because of the symbolism of its former owners ' links to popular ideals of freedom and good government . Royal writs were issued in Edward 's name by Isabella from Kenilworth until the next year . A deputation of leading barons led by Bishop Orleton was then sent to Kenilworth to first persuade Edward to resign and , when that failed , to inform him that he had been deposed as king . Edward formally resigned as king in the great hall of the castle on 21 January 1326 . As the months went by , however , it became clear that Kenilworth was proving a less than ideal location to imprison Edward . The castle was in a prominent part of the Midlands , in an area that held several nobles who still supported Edward and were believed to be trying to rescue him . Henry 's loyalty was also coming under question . In due course , Isabella and Mortimer had Edward moved by night to Berkeley Castle , where he died shortly afterwards . Isabella continued to use Kenilworth as a royal castle until her fall from power in 1330 .
Henry of Grosmont , the Duke of Lancaster , inherited the castle from his father in 1345 and remodelled the great hall with a grander interior and roof . On his death Blanche of Lancaster inherited the castle . Blanche married John of Gaunt , the third son of Edward III ; their union , and combined resources , made John the second richest man in England next to the king himself . After Blanche 's death , John married Constance , who had a claim to the kingdom of Castile , and John styled himself the king of Castile and León . Kenilworth was one of the most important of his thirty or more castles in England . John began building at Kenilworth between 1373 and 1380 in a style designed to reinforce his royal claims in Iberia . John constructed a grander great hall , the Strong Tower , Saintlowe Tower , the state apartments and the new kitchen complex . When not campaigning abroad , John spent much of his time at Kenilworth and Leicester , and used Kenilworth even more after 1395 when his health began to decline . In his final years , John made extensive repairs to the whole of the castle complex .
= = = 15th century = = =
Many castles , especially royal castles were left to decay in the 15th century ; Kenilworth , however , continued to be used as a centre of choice , forming a late medieval " palace fortress " . Henry IV , John of Gaunt 's son , returned Kenilworth to royal ownership when he took the throne in 1399 and made extensive use of the castle . Henry V also used Kenilworth extensively , but preferred to stay in the Pleasance , the mock castle he had built on the other side of the Great Mere . According to the contemporary chronicler John Strecche , who lived at the neighbouring Kenilworth Priory , the French openly mocked Henry in 1414 by sending him a gift of tennis balls at Kenilworth . The French aim was to imply a lack of martial prowess ; according to Strecche , the gift spurred Henry 's decision to fight the Agincourt campaign . The account was used by Shakespeare as the basis for a scene in his play Henry V.
English castles , including Kenilworth , did not play a decisive role during the Wars of the Roses ( 1455 – 85 ) , which were fought primarily in the form of pitched battles between the rival factions of the Lancastrians and the Yorkists . With the mental collapse of King Henry VI , Queen Margaret used the Duchy of Lancaster lands in the Midlands , including Kenilworth , as one of her key bases of military support . Margaret removed Henry from London in 1456 for his own safety and until 1461 , Henry 's court divided almost all its time among Kenilworth , Leicester and Tutbury Castle for the purposes of protection . Kenilworth remained an important Lancastrian stronghold for the rest of the war , often acting as a military balance to the nearby castle of Warwick . With the victory of Henry VII at Bosworth , Kenilworth again received royal attention ; Henry visited frequently and had a tennis court constructed at the castle for his use . His son , Henry VIII , decided that Kenilworth should be maintained as a royal castle . He abandoned the Pleasance and had part of the timber construction moved into the base court of the castle .
= = = 16th century = = =
The castle remained in royal hands until it was given to John Dudley in 1553 . Dudley came to prominence under Henry VIII and became the leading political figure under Edward VI . Dudley was a patron of John Shute , an early exponent of classical architecture in England , and began the process of modernising Kenilworth . Before his execution in 1553 by Queen Mary for attempting to place Lady Jane Grey on the throne , Dudley had built the new stable block and widened the tiltyard to its current form .
Kenilworth was restored to Dudley 's son , Robert , Earl of Leicester , in 1563 , four years after the succession of Elizabeth I to the throne . Leicester 's lands in Warwickshire were worth between £ 500 – £ 700 but Leicester 's power and wealth , including monopolies and grants of new lands , depended ultimately on his remaining a favourite of the queen .
Leicester continued his father 's modernisation of Kenilworth , attempting to ensure that Kenilworth would attract the interest of Elizabeth during her regular tours around the country . Elizabeth visited in 1566 and 1568 , by which time Leicester had commissioned the royal architect Henry Hawthorne to produce plans for a dramatic , classical extension of the south side of the inner court . In the event this proved unachievable and instead Leicester employed William Spicer to rebuild and extend the castle so as to provide modern accommodation for the royal court and symbolically boost his own claims to noble heritage . After negotiation with his tenants , Leicester also increased the size of the chase once again . The result has been termed an English " Renaissance palace " .
Elizabeth viewed the partially finished results at Kenilworth in 1572 , but the complete effect of Leicester 's work was only apparent during the queen 's last visit in 1575 . Leicester was keen to impress Elizabeth in a final attempt to convince her to marry him , and no expense was spared . Elizabeth brought an entourage of thirty @-@ one barons and four hundred staff for the royal visit that lasted an exceptional nineteen days ; twenty horsemen a day arrived at the castle to communicate royal messages . Leicester entertained the Queen and much of the neighbouring region with pageants , fireworks , bear baiting , mystery plays , hunting and lavish banquets . The cost was reputed to have amounted to many thousand pounds , almost bankrupting Leicester , though it probably did not exceed £ 1 @,@ 700 in reality . The event was considered a huge success and formed the longest stay at such a property during any of Elizabeth 's tours , yet the queen did not decide to marry Leicester .
Kenilworth Castle was valued at £ 10 @,@ 401 in 1588 , when Leicester died without legitimate issue and heavily in debt . In accordance with his will , the castle passed first to his brother Ambrose , Earl of Warwick , and after the latter 's death in 1590 , to his illegitimate son , Sir Robert Dudley .
= = = 17th century = = =
Sir Robert Dudley , having tried and failed to establish his legitimacy in front of the Court of the Star Chamber , went to Italy in 1605 . In the same year Sir Thomas Chaloner , governor ( and from 1610 chamberlain ) to James I 's eldest son Prince Henry , was commissioned to oversee repairs to the castle and its grounds , including the planting of gardens , the restoration of fish @-@ ponds and improvement to the game park . During 1611 – 12 Dudley arranged to sell Kenilworth Castle to Henry , by then Prince of Wales . Henry died before completing the full purchase , which was finalised by his brother , Charles , who bought out the interest of Dudley 's abandoned wife , Alice Dudley . When Charles became king , he gave the castle to his wife , Henrietta Maria ; he bestowed the stewardship on Robert Carey , Earl of Monmouth , and after his death gave it to Carey 's sons Henry and Thomas . Kenilworth remained a popular location for both King James I and his son Charles , and accordingly was well maintained . The most famous royal visit occurred in 1624 , when Ben Jonson 's The Masque of Owls at Kenilworth was performed for Charles .
The First English Civil War broke out in 1642 . During its early campaigns , Kenilworth formed a useful counterbalance to the Parliamentary stronghold of Warwick . Kenilworth was used by Charles on his advance to Edgehill in October 1642 as a base for raids on Parliamentary strongholds in the Midlands . After the battle , however , the royalist garrison was withdrawn on the approach of Lord Brooke , and the castle was then garrisoned by parliamentary forces . In April 1643 the new governor of the castle , Hastings Ingram , was arrested as a suspected Royalist double agent . By January 1645 the Parliamentary forces in Coventry had strengthened their hold on the castle , and attempts by Royalist forces to dislodge them from Warwickshire failed . Security concerns continued after the end of the First Civil War in 1646 , and in 1649 Parliament ordered the slighting of Kenilworth . One wall of the great tower , various parts of the outer bailey and the battlements were destroyed , but not before the building was surveyed by the antiquarian William Dugdale , who published his results in 1656 .
Colonel Joseph Hawkesworth , responsible for the implementation of the slighting , acquired the estate for himself and converted Leicester 's gatehouse into a house ; part of the base court was turned into a farm , and many of the remaining buildings were stripped for their materials . In 1660 Charles II was restored to the throne , and Hawkesworth was promptly evicted from Kenilworth . The Queen Mother , Henrietta Maria , briefly regained the castle , with the Earls of Monmouth acting as stewards once again , but after her death King Charles II granted the castle to Sir Edward Hyde , whom he later created Baron Hyde of Hindon and Earl of Clarendon . The ruined castle continued to be used as a farm , with the gatehouse as the principal dwelling ; the King 's Gate was added to the outer bailey wall during this period for the use of farm workers .
= = = 18th and 19th centuries = = =
Kenilworth remained a ruin during the 18th and 19th centuries , still used as a farm but increasingly also popular as a tourist attraction . The first guidebook to the castle , A Concise history and description of Kenilworth Castle , was printed in 1777 with many later editions following in the coming decades . The castle 's cultural prominence increased after Sir Walter Scott wrote Kenilworth in 1821 describing the royal visit of Queen Elizabeth . Very loosely based on the events of 1575 , Scott 's story reinvented aspects of the castle and its history to tell the story of " the pathetic , beautiful , undisciplined heroine Amy Robsart and the steely Elizabeth I " . Although considered today as a less successful literary novel than some of his other historical works , it popularised Kenilworth Castle in the Victorian imagination as a romantic Elizabethan location . Kenilworth spawned " numerous stage adaptations and burlesques , at least eleven operas , popular redactions , and even a scene in a set of dioramas for home display " , including Sir Arthur Sullivan 's 1865 cantata The Masque at Kenilworth . J. M. W. Turner painted several watercolours of the castle .
The number of visitors increased , including Queen Victoria and Charles Dickens . Work was undertaken during the 19th century to protect the stonework from further decline , with particular efforts to remove ivy from the castle in the 1860s .
= = Today = =
The castle remained the property of the Clarendons until 1937 , when Lord Clarendon found the maintenance of the castle too expensive and sold Kenilworth to the industrialist Sir John Siddeley . Siddeley , whose tax accounting in the 1930s had been at least questionable , was keen to improve his public image and gave over the running of the castle , complete with a charitable donation , to the Commissioner of Works . In 1958 his son gave the castle itself to the town of Kenilworth and English Heritage has managed the property since 1984 . The castle is classed as a Grade I listed building and as a Scheduled Monument , and is open to the public .
Between 2005 – 09 English Heritage attempted to restore Kenilworth 's garden more closely to its Elizabethan form , using as a basis the description in the Langham letter and details from recent archaeological investigations . The reconstruction cost more than £ 2 million and was criticised by some archaeologists as being a " matter of simulation as much as reconstruction " , due to the limited amount of factual information on the nature of the original gardens . In 2008 plans were put forward to re @-@ create and flood the original Great Mere around the castle . As well as re @-@ creating the look of the castle it was hoped that a new mere would be part of the ongoing flood alleviation plan for the area and that the lake could be used for boating and other waterside recreations .
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= Environmental threats to the Great Barrier Reef =
The Great Barrier Reef is the world 's largest reef system , composed of roughly 2 @,@ 900 individual reefs and 940 islands and cays that stretch for 2 @,@ 300 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 616 mi ) and cover an area of approximately 344 @,@ 400 square kilometres ( 133 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . The reef is located in the Coral Sea , off the coast of Queensland in northeast Australia . A large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park .
According to the 2014 report of the Australian Government 's Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority ( GBRMPA ) , climate change is the most significant environmental threat to the Great Barrier Reef , while the other major environmental pressures are listed as decreased water quality from land @-@ based runoff , impacts from coastal development and some persistent impacts from fishing activities . The reef is also threatened by storms , coral bleaching and ocean acidification . The 2014 report also shows that , while numerous marine life species have recovered after previous declines , the strength of the dugong population is continuing to decline . Terry Hughes , Federation Fellow , ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies at James Cook University , wrote in a 14 August 2014 Conversation piece that harmful government policies and ongoing conflicts of interest over mining royalties are risks of an equivalent magnitude .
The GBRMPA consider climate change , poor water quality , coastal development , and some impacts from fishing to be the area 's major threats , but reef scientists Jon Day , Bob Pressey , Jon Brodie and Hughes stated that the " cumulative effects of many combined impacts " is the real issue .
In a Conversation Article , Mathieu Mongin , a biogeochemical modeller at CSIRO and colleagues mapped parts of the Great Barrier Reef that are most exposed to ocean acidification . This map of pH on the Great Barrier Reef presents the exposure to ocean acidification on each of the 3 @,@ 581 reefs , providing managers with the information they need to tailor management to individual reefs . The Great Barrier Reef is not a singular reef nor a physical barrier that prevents exchange between reefs ; it is a mixture of thousands of productive reefs and shallow areas lying on a continental shelf with complex oceanic circulation .
= = History = =
The Australian and Queensland Governments committed to act in partnership in 2007 to protect the reef , and water quality monitoring programmes were implemented . However , the World Wildlife Fund criticised the slow progress of the governments , raising a concern that as many as 700 reefs continued to be at risk from sediment runoff .
The Australian government then outlined further action after the WHC called for the completion of a strategic assessment of the Reef area in 2011 . The Committee also urged the government to use the assessment data to develop a long @-@ term plan for protecting the " Outstanding Universal Value " of the reef , which is the basis for its World Heritage listing . Again , criticisms emerged from the expert community — due to vague quantitative targets , the absence of clear , specific strategies , and no mention of the implications of climate change — but the significant efforts of both state and federal governments addressed key recommendations from the World Heritage Committee .
A 2012 UNESCO report , published by the World Heritage Committee ( WHC ) , then criticised the government 's management of the Great Barrier Reef , warning that the area could be downgraded to a world heritage site " in danger " unless major changes were implemented . The report expressed " extreme concern " at the rapid rate of coastal development , highlighting the construction of liquefied natural gas plants at Gladstone and Curtis Island , and recommended that thorough assessments are made before any new developments that could affect the reef are approved . UNESCO specifically recommended no new port development in Abbot Point , Gladstone , Hay Point , Mackay , and Townsville .
Australian Foreign Minister Julie Bishop informed the Australian media that she would use climate change talks , held in Lima , Peru , in December 2014 , to avoid the WHC — consisting of experts from 20 nations — applying the " in danger " listing in 2015 . Bishop believed that " no justification " existed for the downgrading :
It would send a message around the world that even if you meet all of the criteria set out by the world heritage committee , there is still a risk that they will place an area on the in @-@ danger list ... It [ downgrading ] would have significant implications for Australia but it would also set a very dangerous precedent for countries who don ’ t have the opportunity to take the action that Australia has .
To avoid the Great Barrier Reef being listed as " in danger " , the Queensland Government introduced the Ports Bill 2014 on 25 November 2014 . The Bill seeks to restrict further port development along the coast to Brisbane and four " Priority Port Development Areas " , with the latter including four ports identified by the WHC in its 2012 report . The Bill also restricts dredging over a decade @-@ long period , with the exception of priority ports . Additionally , the a long @-@ term sustainability plan and the expansion of water @-@ quality activities were introduced by state and federal governments , and their partner agencies .
However , in response to the Ports Bill , University of Queensland ( UQ ) academics said on 19 December 2014 that , although the issues are " not insurmountable " , " the health of the reef is still declining and consequently more needs to be done . " Australian Marine Conservation Society ( AMCS ) Great Barrier Reef campaign director Felicity Wishart was more damning and stated in a press release :
The new Ports Bill fails to rule out any currently proposed new dredging , the dumping of dredge spoil in the Reef ’ s waters and is silent on maintenance dredging across the region . The millions of tonnes of dredging and dumping for mega port developments that are in the pipeline will be able to go ahead under the Bill . Despite the establishment of four Priority Port Development Areas along the Reef ( Townsville , Abbot Point , Mackay / Hay Point and Gladstone ) , the Bill will still allow port expansion in Cairns . This fails to meet the recommendation by the World Heritage Committee that no new port developments be permitted outside of the existing port areas . The Bill contains no protections for the most northern section of the Reef or the Fitzroy Delta , and it does nothing to improve water quality in Reef waters , all matters which the World Heritage Committee wants action on .
= = Water quality = =
Water quality was first identified as a threat to the Great Barrier Reef in 1989 . Thirty " major rivers " and hundreds of small streams comprise the Great Barrier Reef catchment area , which covers 423 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 163 @,@ 000 sq mi ) of land . Queensland has several major urban centers on the coast including Cairns , Townsville , Mackay , Rockhampton and the industrial city of Gladstone . Dredging in the Port of Gladstone is raising concern after dead and diseased fish where found in the harbor . Cairns and Townsville are the largest of the coastal cities , with populations of approximately 150 @,@ 000 each .
There are many major water quality variables affecting coral reef health including water temperature , salinity , nutrients , suspended sediment concentrations , and pesticides . The species in the Great Barrier Reef area are adapted to tolerable variations in water quality however when critical thresholds are exceeded they may be adversely impacted . River discharges are the single biggest source of nutrients , providing significant pollution of the Reef during tropical flood events with over 90 % of this pollution being sourced from farms .
As of 1995 , water visibility had decreased to 10 metres .
Due to the range of human uses made of the water catchment area adjacent to the Great Barrier Reef , some 700 of the 3000 reefs are within a risk zone where water quality has declined due to the naturally acidic sediment and chemical runoff from farming . Coastal development and the loss of coastal wetlands — the latter acts as natural filter — are also major factors
Industries in the water catchment area are cotton growing , comprising approximately 262 km ² ; 340 dairy farms with an average area of 2 km ² each , 158 km ² cattle grazing , 288 km ² horticulture including banana growing , sugarcane farming , and cropping of approximately 8 @,@ 000 km ² wheat , 1 @,@ 200 km ² barley , and 6 @,@ 000 to 7000 km ² sorghum and maize . Fertiliser use in the cotton , dairy , beef , horticulture and sugar industries is essential to ensure productivity and profitability . However , fertiliser and byproducts from sugar cane harvesting methods form a component of surface runoff into the Great Barrier Reef lagoon .
The principal agricultural activity in the wet tropics is sugar cane farming , while cattle grazing is the primary industry in the dry tropics regions . Both are considered significant threats to high water quality . Copper , a common industrial pollutant in the waters of the Great Barrier Reef , has been shown to interfere with the development of coral polyps .
Flood plumes are flooding events associated with higher levels of nitrogen and phosphorus . In February 2007 , due to a monsoonal climate system , plumes of sediment runoff have been observed reaching to the out most regions of the reef .
Runoff is especially concerning in the region south of Cairns , as it receives over 3000 mm of rain per year and the reefs are less than 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) away from the coastline . Farm run off is polluted as a result of overgrazing and excessive fertilizer and pesticide use . Mud pollution has increased by 800 % and inorganic nitrogen pollution by 3 @,@ 000 % since the introduction of European farming practices on the Australian landscape . This pollution has been linked to a range of very significant risks to the reef system , including intensified outbreaks of the coral @-@ eating Crown of Thorns Starfish which contributed to a loss of 66 % of live coral cover on sampled reefs in 2000 .
It is thought that the mechanism behind excess nutrients affecting the reefs is due to increased light and oxygen competition from algae , but unless herbivory is unusually low , this will not create a phase shift from the Great Barrier Reef being primarily made up of coral to being primarily made up of algae .
It has been suggested that poor water quality due to excess nutrients encourages the spread of infectious diseases among corals . In general , the Great Barrier Reef is considered to have low incidences of coral diseases . Skeletal Eroding Band , a disease of bony corals caused by the protozoan Halofolliculina corallasia , affects 31 species of corals from six families on the reef . The long @-@ term monitoring program has found an increase in incidences of coral disease in the period 1999 @-@ 2002 , although they dispute the claim that on the Great Barrier Reef , coral diseases are caused by anthropogenic pollution .
Elevated nutrient concentrations result in a range of impacts on coral communities and under extreme conditions can result in a collapse . It also affects coral by promoting phytoplankton growth which increases the number of filter feeding organisms that compete for space . Excessive inputs of sediment from land to coral can lead to reef destruction through burial , disruption of recruitment success , or deleterious community shifts . Sediments affect coral by smothering them when particles settle out , reducing light availability and potentially reducing photosynthesis and growth . Coral reefs exist in seawater salinities from 25 to 42 % . Salinity impacts to corals are increased by other flood @-@ related stresses .
= = = Pollution from mining = = =
A freedom of information request by the Northern Queensland Conservation Council in 2014 showed that Queensland Nickel , owned by Australian politician Clive Palmer , discharged nitrate @-@ laden water into the Great Barrier Reef in 2009 and 2011 — releasing 516 tonnes ( 508 long tons ; 569 short tons ) of toxic waste water on the latter occasion . In June 2012 , Queensland Nickel stated it intended to release waste water , continuously for three months , " at least 100 times the allowed maximum level as well as heavy metals and other contaminants " . A GBRMPA briefing stated the company had " threatened a compensation claim of $ 6.4bn should the GBRMPA intend to exert authority over the company 's operations " . In response to the publicisation of the dumping incidents , the GBRMPA stated :
We have strongly encouraged the company to investigate options that do not entail releasing the material to the environment and to develop a management plan to eliminate this potential hazard ; however , GBRMPA does not have legislative control over how the Yabulu tailings dam is managed .
= = = Dumping = = =
Following a tour of the Great Barrier Reef area by WHC members , a 2012 UNESCO report , which criticised management of the Great Barrier Reef , specifically recommended no new port development outside the established areas of Abbot Point , Gladstone , Hay Point / Mackay , and Townsville . However , in December 2013 , Greg Hunt , the Australian environment minister , approved a plan for dredging to create three shipping terminals as part of the construction of a coalport . According to corresponding approval documents , the process will create around 3 million cubic metres of dredged seabed that will be dumped within the Great Barrier Reef marine park area .
On 31 January 2014 , the GBRMPA issued a dumping permit that will allow three million cubic metres of sea bed from Abbot Point , north of Bowen , to be transported and unloaded in the waters of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park . Potential significant harms have been identified in relation to dredge spoil and the process of churning up the sea floor in the area and exposing it to air : firstly , new research shows the finer particles of dredge spoil can cloud the water and block sunlight , thereby starving sea grass and coral up to distances of 80 km away from the point of origin due to the actions of wind and currents . Furthermore , dredge spoil can literally smother reef or sea grass to death , while storms can repeatedly resuspend these particles so that the harm caused is ongoing ; secondly , disturbed sea floor can release toxic substances into the surrounding environment .
The dredge spoil from the Abbot Point port project is to be dumped 24 kilometres ( 15 mi ) away , near Bowen in north Queensland , and the approval from the Authority will result in the production of an extra 70 million tonnes of coal annually , worth between A $ 1 @.@ 4 billion and $ 2 @.@ 8 billion . Authority chairman , Dr Russell Reichelt , stated after the confirmation of the approval :
This approval is in line with the agency 's view that port development along the Great Barrier Reef coastline should be limited to existing ports . As a deepwater port that has been in operation for nearly 30 years , Abbot Point is better placed than other ports along the Great Barrier Reef coastline to undertake expansion as the capital and maintenance dredging required will be significantly less than what would be required in other areas . It 's important to note the seafloor of the approved disposal area consists of sand , silt and clay and does not contain coral reefs or seagrass beds .
The approval was provided with a corresponding set of 47 new environmental conditions that include the following :
A long @-@ term water quality monitoring plan extending five years after the disposal activity is completed .
A heritage management plan to protect the Catalina second world war aircraft wreck in Abbot Bay .
The establishment of an independent dredging and disposal technical advice panel and a management response group , to include community representatives .
Numerous responses , including online petitions , were published in opposition to the proposal : Greenpeace launched the " Save the Reef " campaign in opposition to the dumping , which remained active with over 170 @,@ 000 signatures on 3 March 2014 ; in addition to an online petition that registered more than 250 @,@ 000 signatures on 3 March 2014 , political activist group GetUp ! are also funding a legal case in conjunction with non @-@ profit Environmental Defenders Office of Queensland ( EDO ) , which represents the North Queensland Conservation Council ; and " Fight for the Reef " , a partnership between World Wide Fund for Nature ( WWF ) -Australia and the Australian Marine Conservation Society ( AMCS ) , maintains a campaign that collects online donations to fund a " legal fighting team " , and displayed nearly 60 @,@ 000 supporters on its website on 11 May 2014 .
The legal fighting team of the WWF @-@ Australia and the AMCS received further support in April 2014 following the release of the " Sounds For The Reef " musical fundraising project . Produced by Straightup , the digital album features artists such as John Butler , The Herd , Sietta , Missy Higgins , The Cat Empire , Fat Freddys Drop , The Bamboos ( featuring Kylie Auldist ) and Resin Dogs . Released on 7 April , the album 's 21 songs were sold on the Bandcamp website .
Further support for the WWF @-@ Australia and AMCS partnership occurred in late April 2014 , when the Ben & Jerry 's ice cream company signed onto the " Fight for the Reef " campaign . In early April 2014 , the company withdrew the popular " Phish Food " flavour in Australia due to the aquatic association and the potential for awareness @-@ raising . The product withdrawal decision followed tours around select parts of the nation that involved Ben & Jerry 's representatives distributing free ice cream to highlight the reef damage issue .
In response , Minister for the Environment and Heritage Protection of Queensland Andrew Powell said that he would be contacting parent corporation Unilever , explaining , " The only people taking a scoop out of the reef is Ben and Jerry 's and Unilever . If you understand the facts , you 'd want to be boycotting Ben and Jerry 's " . The Australian public was also informed by Australian Ben & Jerry 's brand manager Kalli Swaik , who stated to the Brisbane Times newspaper : " Ben & Jerry 's believes that dredging and dumping in world heritage waters surrounding the marine park area will be detrimental to the reef ecology . It threatens the health of one of Australia 's most iconic treasures . "
A Queensland state senator , Matthew Canavan , confirmed that he raised the issue in writing with the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission ( ACCC ) and said to The Courier @-@ Mail :
Ben & Jerry 's can campaign on whatever issue they like but as a company they have an obligation to tell Australians the whole truth and nothing but the truth . Australia has strict laws to protect consumers against misleading and deceptive behavior . These mistruths could cost jobs and development in regional Queensland . It 's irresponsible behavior from a company that should know better .
= = Climate change = =
According to the GBRMPA in 2014 , the most significant threat to the status of the Great Barrier Reef is climate change , due to the consequential rise of sea temperatures , gradual ocean acidification and an increase in the number of " intense weather events " . Hughes writes of " the demonstrable failure of the state and Commonwealth " to address the issue of climate change in his August 2014 article . Furthermore , a temperature rise of between two and three degrees Celsius would result in 97 % of the Great Barrier Reef being bleached every year .
Reef scientist Terry Done has predicted that a one @-@ degree rise in global temperature would result in 82 % of the reef bleached — two degrees would result in 97 % , while three degrees would result in " total devastation " . A predictive model based on the 1998 and 2002 bleaching events has concurred that a temperature rise of three degrees would result in total coral mortality .
However , a few scientists hold that coral bleaching may in some cases be less of a problem than the mainstream believes . Professor Ridd , from James Cook University in Townsville was quoted in The Australian ( a conservative newspaper ) as saying ; " They are saying bleaching is the end of the world , but when you look into it , that is a highly dubious proposition " . Research by scientist Ray Berkelmans " ... has documented astonishing levels of recovery on the Keppel outcrops devastated by bleaching in 2006 . " A related article in The Australian newspaper goes on to explain that ; " Those that expel their zooxanthellae have a narrow opening to recolonise with new , temperature @-@ resistant algae before succumbing . In the Keppels in 2006 , Berkelmans and his team noticed that the dominant strain of zooxanthellae changed from light and heat @-@ sensitive type C2 , to more robust types D and C1 . "
Nevertheless , most coral reef researchers anticipate severely negative effects from climate change already occurring , and potentially disastrous effects as climate change worsens . The future of the Reef may well depend on how much the planet 's climate changes , and thus , on how high atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration levels are allowed to rise . On 2 September 2009 , a report by the Australian Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority revealed that if carbon dioxide levels reached 450 parts per million corals and reef habitats will be highly vulnerable . If carbon dioxide levels are managed at or below 380 parts per million they will be only moderately vulnerable and the reefs will remain coral @-@ dominated .
Global warming may have triggered the collapse of reef ecosystems throughout the tropics . Increased global temperatures are thought by some to bring more violent tropical storms , but reef systems are naturally resilient and recover from storm battering . Most people agree that an upward trend in temperature will cause much more coral bleaching ; others suggest that while reefs may die in certain areas , other areas will become habitable for corals , and new reefs will form . However , the rate at which the mass bleaching events occur is estimated to be much faster than reefs can recover from , or adjust to .
However , Kleypas et al. in their 2006 report suggest that the trend towards ocean acidification indicates that as the sea 's pH decreases , corals will become less able to secrete calcium carbonate . In 2009 , a study showed that Porites corals , the most robust on the Great Barrier Reef , have slowed down their growth by 14 @.@ 2 % since 1990 . It suggested that the cause was heat stress and a lower availability of dissolved calcium to the corals .
Climate change has implications for other forms of life on the Great Barrier Reef as well - some fish 's preferred temperature range lead them to seek new areas to live , thus causing chick mortality in seabirds that prey on the fish . Also , in sea turtles , higher temperatures mean that the sex ratio of their populations will change , as the sex of sea turtles is determined by temperature . The habitat of sea turtles will also shrink .
= = Crown of Thorns Starfish = =
The Crown @-@ of @-@ Thorns Starfish is a coral reef predator which preys on coral polyps by climbing onto them , extruding its stomach over them , and releasing digestive enzymes to absorb the liquified tissue . An individual adult of this species can eat up to six square meters of living reef in a single year . Geological evidence suggests that the Crown @-@ of @-@ Thorns Starfish has been part of the Great Barrier Reef 's ecology for " at least several thousand years " , but there is no geological evidence for Crown of Thorns outbreaks . Large outbreaks of these starfish can devastate reefs . In 2000 , an outbreak contributed to a loss of 66 % of live coral cover on sampled reefs in a study by the CRC Reefs Research Centre . Although large outbreaks of these starfish are believed to occur in natural cycles , human activity in and around the Great Barrier Reef can worsen the effects . Reduction of water quality associated with agriculture can cause the crown @-@ of @-@ thorns starfish larvae to thrive . Fertilizer runoff from farming increases the amount of phytoplankton available for the Crown of Thorns Starfish larvae to consume . A study by the Australian Institute of Marine Science showed that a doubling of the chlorophyll in the water leads to a tenfold increase in the crown @-@ of @-@ thorns starfish larvae 's survival rate . Overfishing of its natural predators , such as the Giant Triton , is also considered to contribute to an increase in the number of Crown of Thorns Starfish . The CRC Reef Research Centre defines an outbreak as when there are more than 30 adult starfish in an area of one hectare . There have been three large outbreaks of COTS on the reef since observation began , between 1962 and 1976 ; 1978 and 1991 ; 1993 and 2005 , and a fourth began in 2009 . Investigation is being undertaken into mimicking a chemical scent released by the COTS ' natural predator , the giant triton snail .
= = Overfishing = =
The unsustainable overfishing of keystone species , such as the Giant Triton and sharks , can cause disruption to food chains vital to life on the reef . Fishing also impacts the reef through increased pollution from boats , by @-@ catch of unwanted species ( such as dolphins and turtles ) and reef habitat destruction from trawling , anchors and nets . Overfishing of herbivore populations can cause algal growths on reefs . The Batfish Platax pinnatus has been observed to significantly reduce algal growths in studies simulating overfishing . Sharks are fished for their meat , and when they are part of bycatch , it is common to kill the shark and throw it overboard , as there is a belief that they interfere with fishing . As of 1 July 2004 , approximately one @-@ third of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park is protected from species removal of any kind , including fishing , without written permission . However , illegal poaching is not unknown in these no @-@ take zones . A 2015 study into coral trout on the Great Barrier Reef found that the no @-@ take zones had more coral trout and more coral trout larvae after tropical cyclone events , which helped replenish those areas sooner .
= = Shipping = =
Shipping accidents continue to be perceived as a threat , as several commercial shipping routes pass through the Great Barrier Reef . The GBRMPA estimates that about 6000 vessels greater than 50 metres ( 164 ft ) in length use the Great Barrier Reef as a route . From 1985 to 2001 , 11 collisions and 20 groundings occurred along the Great Barrier Reef shipping route , with human error identified as the leading cause of shipping accidents .
Reef pilots have stated that they consider the reef route safer than outside the reef in the event of mechanical failure , since a ship can sit safely while being repaired . The inner route is used by 75 % of all ships that travel over the Great Barrier Reef . As of 2007 , over 1 @,@ 600 known shipwrecks have occurred in the Great Barrier Reef region .
Waste and foreign species discharged from ships in ballast water ( when purging procedures are not followed ) are a biological hazard to the Great Barrier Reef . Tributyltin ( TBT ) compounds found in some antifouling paint on ship hulls leaches into seawater and is toxic to marine organisms and humans ; as of 2002 , efforts are underway to restrict its use .
In April 2010 , the bulk coal carrier Shen Neng 1 ran aground on the Great Barrier Reef , causing the largest grounding scar to date . The spill caused damage to a 400,000sqm section of the Great Barrier Reef and the use of oil dispersant resulted in oil spreading to reef islands 25 km away . In 2012 and 2013 , there were 9619 ship voyages through the Great Barrier Reef region , and this is forecast to increase 250 % over the next 20 years .
Over 9 @,@ 600 ship voyages occurred in the GBRMPA between 2012 and 2013 .
= = Oil = =
It was suspected that the Great Barrier Reef is the cap to an oil trap , after a 1923 paper suggested that it had the right rock formation to support " oilfields of great magnitude " . After the Commonwealth Petroleum Search Subsidies Act of 1957 , exploration activities increased in Queensland , including a well drilled at Wreck Island in the southern Great Barrier Reef in 1959 . In the 1960s , drilling for oil and gas was investigated throughout the Great Barrier Reef , by seismic and magnetic methods in the Torres Strait , along " the eastern seaboard of Cape York to Princess Charlotte Bay " and along the coast from Cooktown to Fraser Island . In the late 1960s , more exploratory wells were drilled near Wreck Island in the Capricorn Channel , and near Darnley Island in the Torres Strait , but " all results were dry " .
In 1970 , responding to concern about oil spills such as the Torrey Canyon , two Royal Commissions were ordered " into exploratory and production drilling for petroleum in the area of the Great Barrier Reef " . After the Royal Commissions , the federal and state governments ceased allowing petroleum drilling on the Great Barrier Reef . A study in 1990 concluded that the reef is too young to contain oil reserves . Oil drilling remains prohibited on the Great Barrier Reef , yet oil spills due to shipping routes are still a threat to the reef system , with a total of 282 oil spills between 1987 @-@ 2002 .
= = Tropical cyclones = =
Tropical cyclones are a cause of ecological disturbance to the Great Barrier Reef . The types of damage caused by tropical cyclones to the Great Barrier Reef is varied , including fragmentation , sediment plumes , and decreasing salinity following heavy rains ( Cyclone Joy ) . The patterns of reef damage are similarly ' patchy ' . From 1910 – 1999 , 170 cyclones ' paths came near or through the Great Barrier Reef . Most cyclones pass through the Great Barrier Reef within a day . In general , compact corals such as Porites fare better than branching corals under cyclone conditions . The major damage caused by Tropical Cyclone Larry was to underlying reef structures , and breakage and displacement of corals , which is overall consistent with previous tropical cyclone events . Severe tropical cyclones hit the Queensland coast every 200 to 300 years ; however , during the period 1969 – 1999 most cyclones in the region were very weak – category one or two on the Australian Bureau of Meteorology scale .
On 2 February 2011 , Severe Tropical Cyclone Yasi struck northern Queensland and caused severe damage to a stretch of hundreds of kilometres within the Great Barrier Reef . The corals could take a decade to recover fully . Cyclone Yasi had wind speeds of 290 kilometers per hour .
= = Other threats = =
On the second day of the 2013 round of the biennial training exercise ' Talisman Saber ' , in which 28 @,@ 000 US and Australian military personnel conduct joint activities over a three @-@ week period , four unarmed bombs were dropped into the Great Barrier Reef by two US AV @-@ 8B Harrier jets that were unable to land with the weight of the weapons . To minimize potential harm to the reef , the four bombs , weighing a total 1 @.@ 8 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 000 pounds ) , were dropped into more than 50 meters ( 164 ft ) of water away from the reef 's coral structures . The bomb drop was originally planned to occur at the Townshend Island bombing range , but after controllers reported that the area was not clear of hazards , the emergency jettison occurred . Australian senator Larissa Waters responded to the news by asking , " Have we gone completely mad ? Is this how we look after our World Heritage area now ? Letting a foreign power drop bombs on it ? "
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= Winslow Ames House =
The Winslow Ames House is a prefabricated modular International Style house in New London , Connecticut , United States . It was designed by Robert W. McLaughlin , Jr. and was built in 1933 . Winslow Ames , a professor of art history at Connecticut College and the art director of the Lyman Allyn Museum , had the home built after attending the Century of Progress Exposition in Chicago . Constructed for $ 7 @,@ 500 , the prefabricated house is one of two surviving Motohomes produced by McLaughlin 's company American Houses Inc . The modular house , comprising three rectangles and a flat roof , was constructed on a concrete slab with a welded steel framework . It was made with asbestos panels and features a core component that provides the heating and plumbing functions for the house . The other two modules feature two bedrooms and a one @-@ car garage .
Ames and his family resided in the house briefly , the Connecticut College acquired the house in 1949 and used it for faculty housing until 1986 . The house was in a state of disrepair by 1989 and was a hazard due to its construction with asbestos panels . It was slated to be demolished , but Ms. Hendrickson rallied supporter to the save the house after uncovering its history . A restoration and rehabilitation project was completed in 1994 and it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1995 . The other prefabricated house built by Ames , House at 130 Mohegan Avenue , was also added the National Register of Historic Places in 2009 .
= = Construction = =
The Winslow Ames House was unlike other homes of the 1930s , it is a modular home that was constructed on a concrete slab and constructed with a welded steel framework . The designer of the house was John B. McLaughlin Jr . , who co @-@ founded American Houses Inc. in 1932 . McLaughlin 's designs focused on inexpensive housing through mass production and new materials and technology . The International Style house was modular and intended to allow easy enlargement , dismantling and relocation of the structure if needed . The houses , termed " Motohomes " , featured modular " motounits " that contained heating and plumbing equipment . The use of steel in the prefabricated homes would later be limited by World War II , which made steel unavailable for civilian use . After the war , prefabricated homes were typically made of wood and offices were normally constructed of steel and concrete .
The house bears the name of Winslow Ames , a professor of art history at Connecticut College and the art director of the Lyman Allyn Museum . In 1933 , Ames decided to construct two houses on the museum @-@ owned property after seeing prefabricated homes at the Century of Progress Exposition in Chicago . Ames had a strong interest in the Modernism movement and believed such houses would become predominant . The Ames house cost $ 7 @,@ 500 , similar to other McLaughlin houses from 1933 and 1934 , which ranged from $ 3 @,@ 500 to $ 7 @,@ 500 each . Later , Ames and his family would briefly take up residence in the house . The other house , known as the " House at 130 Mohegan Avenue " would be added the National Register of Historic Places in 2009 .
The Winslow Ames house rests on a concrete foundation and has a welded steel skeleton . The walls were made of 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) white @-@ painted panels that were constructed of asbestos board over an insulating core . The two @-@ story house is composed of three rectangular modules , offset to create an irregular plan , with a flat roof structure . The largest block in the middle contains the service core with the kitchen and bathroom . The left block contains the main entry , stair hall and two bedrooms . The right block consists of the one @-@ car garage and its second story only covers its overlap with the middle block .
= = Use = =
The house was ready for occupancy in 1934 and was used by many tenants , but the Ames sold the house to the Connecticut College in 1949 . Sometime after its completion , Winslow Ames and his family lived in the house for a brief period . From 1949 to 1987 , the college used it for faculty housing . One of the tenets , Mary Kent , lived in the house with her husband and three children from 1958 through 1961 . Throughout its life the original furnace , kitchen cabinets , plumbing fixtures were replaced , but the core module has retained its purpose . The house fell into a state of disrepair , becoming an " eyesore " . By 1989 , the college was concerned with the asbestos in the building and obtained a permit to demolish the house ; the college intended to use the land for a boathouse . After its restoration was completed , the Connecticut College uses the house as an office and for meeting rooms .
= = Restoration = =
The house was saved through the efforts of Ms. Hendrickson , who uncovered the history surrounding the house and its designer . The house was a deemed a " rare survivor " because only one other Motohome remained in White Plains , New York . Hendrickson gathered supporters , including from the students and faculty of the college and New London Landmarks to save the house . The demolition was delayed and in May 1990 , the Connecticut Historical Commission gave the college $ 24 @,@ 000 . The college matched the funds , which were originally planned for its demolition . During the restoration , the asbestos board panels were covered over non @-@ asbestos panels that mimic the appearance of the original . A new roof was installed and the windows were replaced with vertical casement windows which were originally used . The interior and exterior of the house was coated with white paint , but the restoration did not revert the flooring to the original Masonite rectangles . The restoration project was completed in 1994 and it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1995 .
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= Seth Kinman =
Seth Kinman ( September 29 , 1815 – February 24 , 1888 ) was an early settler of Humboldt County , California , a hunter based in Fort Humboldt , a famous chair maker , and a nationally recognized entertainer . He stood over 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 83 m ) tall and was known for his hunting prowess and his brutality toward bears and Indians . Kinman claimed to have shot a total of over 800 grizzly bears , and , in a single month , over 50 elk . He was also a hotel keeper , barkeeper , and a musician who performed for President Lincoln on a fiddle made from the skull of a mule .
Known for his publicity seeking , Kinman appeared as a stereotypical mountain man dressed in buckskins on the U.S. east coast and selling cartes de visites of himself and his famous chairs . The chairs were made from elkhorns and grizzly bear skins and given to U.S. Presidents . Presidents so honored include James Buchanan , Abraham Lincoln , Andrew Johnson , and Rutherford Hayes . He may have had a special relationship with President Lincoln , appearing in at least two of Lincoln 's funeral corteges , and claiming to have witnessed Lincoln 's assassination .
His autobiography , dictated to a scribe in 1876 , was first published in 2010 and is noted for putting " the entertainment value of a story ahead of the strict facts . " His descriptions of events change with his retelling of them . Contemporary journalists and modern writers were clearly aware of the stories contained in the autobiography , " but each chooses which version to accept . "
= = Early life = =
Seth Kinman 's father , James Kinman , ran a ferry across the West Branch Susquehanna River in central Pennsylvania , in an area then called Uniontown , now called Allenwood in Gregg Township , Union County . James also was a millwright and an inn @-@ keeper , whose forebears were Quakers from Bucks County , Pennsylvania . Seth 's mother , Eleanor Bower Kinman , was of German descent whose family lived in Reading , Pennsylvania . Seth was born in Uniontown in 1815 . While in Pennsylvania , he learned to read and write , " I could form good letters with a pen but I never learned to spell well . " In 1830 his father took the family and migrated to Tazewell County , Illinois .
In his autobiography , Seth stated that his father fought in the Blackhawk War in Illinois in 1832 . He also claimed that his father and Abraham Lincoln fought together in the war , became friends afterward , and that Seth met the future president during Lincoln 's circuit @-@ riding days in Illinois . At about the same time the Kinmans acquired a rifle , known as " Old Cotton Bale , " that Seth kept throughout his life . The rifle had a 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) long barrel and " is supposed to have killed Gen 'l Peckenham " at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815 . With some skepticism , Anspach relates a long history of the rifle , gleaned from an 1864 local newspaper story on Kinman , of a renegade Kentucky sniper shooting the British general while carrying on a conversation with American General Andrew Jackson .
Seth spent ten years working in his father 's mill in Illinois , sawing lumber and grinding grain . After his father 's death in 1839 he sold the mill and tried farming . He married Anna Maria Sharpless , of Catawissa , Pennsylvania , in 1840 and they had five children together : James ( 1842 ) , Carlin , who is sometimes called Calvin ( 1846 ) , Austin ( 1847 ) , Ellen ( 1849 ) , and Roderick ( 1851 ) . Anna Maria and two of their sons , James and Austin , died during the winter of 1852 @-@ 53 , while Seth was in California .
By 1848 Kinman was operating the Eagle Hotel in Pekin , Illinois , on the Illinois River . The hotel was known less for its comforts than for Kinman 's rendition of the fiddle tune Arkansas Traveler .
A traveler came off a steamboat one day and went to the Eagle Hotel . There had been a little western " scrimmage " at the " Eagle " the night before , and though things had not been put in order , the proprietor , Seth Kinman , was sitting in front of the door , playing his favorite tune , the " Arkansaw Traveler " , with the greatest self @-@ satisfaction .
The stranger , stopping , said to Seth : " Are you the proprietor here ? " Seth , without resting his bow , replied- " Wall , I reckon I be , stranger " . " Do you keep tavern ? " " Of course I do : I keep tavern like h — l , " said Seth , fiddling away with all his might , " Just pile in : hang your freight on the floor , and make yourself at home . " " The boys , " continued Seth , " have been having a little fun , but if there is a whole table or plate in the house , I 'll get you some cold hash toward night . " The stranger didn 't like this peculiarly western reception , so took his departure , leaving Kinman still enjoying his violin .
= = Life in California = =
Kinman claimed to have migrated to California in 1849 during the great Gold Rush and worked as a gold miner in Pierson B. Reading 's party on the Trinity River near present day Douglas City . He then returned to Illinois for two years . In 1852 he travelled to California and explored the Humboldt Bay area , near present day Eureka , California . Humboldt Bay had been recently rediscovered by gold miners seeking a faster and cheaper route to transport supplies . An early settlement in the area was also named Uniontown , but is now known as Arcata . During this period , miners and their suppliers were often flush with gold , but had little to spend it on .
On Christmas , 1852 Kinman was hired to perform on fiddle at the then exorbitant amount of $ 50 , despite his lack of musical training . As described by a fellow ' 49er :
Seth Kinman , the noted hunter and antler chair @-@ maker , and myself were tendered fifty dollars each to preside as the orchestra for a Christmas ball at Uniontown in 1852 . Kinman 's repertoire consisted mainly of an alternation of the " Arkansaw Traveler " and " Hell on the Wabash " and mine was little more varied or pretentious . He responded . My conscience has not yet reached that level of elasticity .
Over the winter of 1852 @-@ 53 he lived in what is now Ferndale in the cabin of Stephen Shaw . His wife and two of their children died that winter , and he may have gone back to Illinois to bring back his mother and three remaining children by 1854 . In 1853 he started working as a hunter , feeding U.S. troops in Fort Humboldt . While at Fort Humboldt he met future president Ulysses S. Grant , and future General George Crook . According to tradition , about this time , he brought the first herd of cattle to Humboldt County .
Some events and their timing are unclear during this early period . Sources disagree on whether he brought his family to California from Illinois in 1852 or 1854 . Carranco dates Seth 's first return to Illinois starting in 1850 , with his return to California in August 1852 , his arrival in Humboldt County in February 1853 , another return to Illinois in September 1853 , and a trip back to California starting in May 1854 with his mother , two children , and a herd of cattle . Thus , in the course of the six years 1849 @-@ 1854 , he is believed to have crossed the Great Plains , Rocky Mountains , and the Sierra Nevada Mountains five times , travelling mostly on foot .
Kinman lived in several places in the county , including houses near Fern Cottage and a dairy farm on Bear River Ridge . He bought 80 acres ( 320 @,@ 000 m2 ) of farm or ranch land 1 mi ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) east of the future Table Bluff Lighthouse in October 1858 , and about 10 mi ( 16 km ) south of Fort Humboldt . This was the first purchase of land in the Humboldt Land District , which was established by an Act of Congress in March 1858 . He later built a hotel and bar on the site .
Kinman made his name first as a hunter , especially as a hunter of grizzly bears . California was noted for its large population of grizzlies . Seth 's son Carlin claimed that they once saw 40 grizzlies at one time . But by 1868 , the last grizzly in Humboldt County had been killed . While Kinman was on his way to deliver one of the presidential chairs , he met Methodist bishop and writer Oscar Penn Fitzgerald on a California steamboat . Fitzgerald recorded his impressions in the sketch The Ethics of Grizzly Hunting . He presented Kinman as a drunkard who cruelly abused Indians and grizzly bears .
His countenance was expressive of a mixture of brutality , cunning , and good humor . He was a thorough animal . Wild frontier life had not sublimated this old sinner in the way pictured by writers who romance about such things at a distance .
Kinman 's eyes made a special impression on Fitzgerald . Decades later he compared Kinman 's eyes to those of the California bandit Tiburcio Vásquez , " His eyes were nature 's special label of one of her malignest creations . Only in two other human beings have I ever seen such eyes as those .... It was the eye of a wild beast , the baleful glitter you have seen in the eyes of snakes , panthers , catamounts , or other creatures of the reptile or feline kind . "
During a gale on the night of January 5 – 6 , 1860 , Kinman was alerted by distress signals from the Northerner which had been breached by a submerged rock . Kinman tethered himself to the shore and waded into the surf to rescue passengers . In all , 70 people were saved by various means and 38 people perished . He was hailed as a hero and awarded a Bible and free life @-@ time passage on the Pacific Mail Steamship Company 's ships .
= = = Relations with Native Americans = = =
Native Americans in northern California suffered greatly at the hands of European @-@ Americans in the last half of the 19th century , and their population decline is often characterized as genocide . The Wiyot people , who lived around Humboldt Bay , were particularly hard hit . Their population declined from about 1 @,@ 500 @-@ 2 @,@ 000 in 1850 to about 200 in 1860 .
Kinman 's brutality was noted by James R. Duff , a fellow ' 49er , who described him as " an avowed enemy of the red man , ... ( who ) shot an Indian on sight . " Carranco states that " Seth always took an Indian along on a hunt - partly to carry the game , but primarily to serve as bear bait , " and concludes " sometimes he regarded them ( Indians ) as human beings ... other times , only as predatory animals to shoot at . " Kinman himself claimed to be an official Indian agent , though there is little evidence that he actually served in the position . He collected " Indian artifacts " including scalps , which he claimed to have taken himself .
Kinman was involved with the Wiyot people who lived on Table Bluff , near his farm . The Wiyot continue to live on Table Bluff on a small rancheria or reservation . The key event in Wiyot history was the February 25 – 26 , 1860 Wiyot Massacre on Indian Island , when over one hundred Wiyot were murdered in their sleep . At the same time there were massacres of the Wiyot at other sites , possibly including Table Bluff . Kinman has not been specifically identified as one of the murderers . Nevertheless , in May 1860 he was elected to represent Bear River at a county @-@ wide meeting ostensibly called to discuss ways to protect white settlers from the Indians . In 1864 he scouted for Captain William Hull 's California Volunteers , which according to Kinman , " slaughtered and captured Indians , and at one time they took as many as 160 captives to Fort Humboldt . "
= = = Life as an entertainer = = =
While delivering an elkhorn chair to President Buchanan in 1857 , Kinman said , " l awoke one fine morning and found myself famous . " He made use of this fame starting in the summer of 1861 , together with ventriloquist and magician J. G. Kenyon , by opening an exhibit , first in Eureka and then in San Francisco in August of that same year . Kinman displayed his " curiosities " including an elkhorn chair , mounted grizzly bears , several fiddles , and scalps , and gave a lecture .
How they shouted and yelled when I related some of my old ' bar ' stories and hair @-@ breadth escapes , and played on that fiddle made out of the skull bones . That got them ! I would wind up on the " Arkansas Traveler " and their enthusiasm wound up to the highest pitch . Before I fetched my ' bar ' , I would horrify them by telling them how the ' bar ' tore Indian children to pieces , and how I finally trapped the ' bar ' with a young dead Indian . Then the ' bar ' was led out by a chain , and he would dance before he unbuttoned himself and out stepped a man . Then I had to explain about the ' bar ' skin . Then I told the audience how I sawed off those Indian scalps the ladies looked horrified and aghast . Then I would tell about the Indian way of life . I would finish up by describing my elkhorn chair and how I had constructed it .
They then toured gold mining camps and the San Francisco Bay area as entertainers . Later he opened a traveling “ museums of curiosities ” in Eureka , San Francisco , Sacramento and Los Angeles .
During his trip to the East Coast in 1864 @-@ 1866 , Kinman exhibited his curiosities including his chairs , primarily in Pennsylvania and Illinois . He took a ten @-@ year @-@ old Native American boy , named Burtch or Burtchfield , with him on this trip , but Burtch died in December , 1864 . Kinman said that he took the boy on the trip because he had killed both of Burtch 's parents .
Kinman may have also displayed his chairs at the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition in 1876 . As late as 1885 , Kinman opened a museum in Los Angeles with his sons Carlin and Roderick .
= = Presidential chairs = =
Kinman first used the large number of elkhorns shed near his farm every year to create a fence . With the help of George Hill , about 1856 he created his first elkhorn chair , which he traded to Dr. Josiah Simpson of Fort Humboldt for a telescope . The construction of an elkhorn chair included using matching horns to make the front legs and arms of the chair . These horns interlocked with another matching pair , which formed the rear legs and the back of the chair . An elk @-@ hide seat was added , along with actual elk feet as the feet of the chair , and the horns were connected beneath the seat .
Inspired by the 1856 election of James Buchanan , a fellow Pennsylvanian , to the presidency , Kinman built his first presidential elkhorn chair and brought it to Washington .
I kill deer and elk meat up in Humboldt County . My range is from Bear Valley into Oregon . This winter I killed considerable meat so I thought I would take it easy and set about to make this cheer with a view of sending it on to Washington for Old Buck . After I got it finished , though , the boys up in our parts thought it enough to travel on ; so I thought I would try and go on with it to Washington myself , leaving my mother and four children behind , and started with nothing but my rifle and powder horn . Nobody has yet sot in this cheer , and never shall till after the President .
He arranged free passage on the ship Golden Age to Panama , then to New York , and finally to Washington . With some help from Peter Donahue and O.M. Wozencraft , on May 26 , 1857 , after an introduction from the Commissioner of Indian Affairs James W. Denver , Kinman presented the chair to Buchanan . The President was so pleased by the present that he bought Kinman a rifle and two pistols in return .
In 1861 he advertised that he had made a chair that he would present to Napoleon III . Later , because of French involvement in Mexico , he abandoned the idea . Kinman took two chairs on his 1864 trip to the East Coast for use in exhibitions .
Kinman 's presentation of an elkhorn chair to President Abraham Lincoln at 10 a.m. on Saturday , November 26 , 1864 was recorded by artist Alfred Waud , the only known picture of Lincoln accepting a gift . The drawing shows Lincoln examining Kinman 's rifle , which he called " Ol ' Cottonblossum . " Kinman also presented a fiddle made from the skull and a rib of his favorite mule and played the instrument .
Much to the amusement of Lincoln and other spectators , he played ' Essence of Old Virginia ' and ' John Brown ' on the bones of the mule . Lincoln said that if he could play the fiddle he would ask him for it , but since he could not , the fiddle would be better off in Mr. Kinman 's hands .
Within three weeks , Lincoln stated that he would prefer to eat Kinman 's chair , antlers and all , than to appoint a certain office @-@ seeker .
The following April , Kinman marched in President Lincoln 's funeral cortege in Washington .
Kinman was allegedly in Ford 's Theater the night of the assassination and witnessed the murder . He escorted Lincoln 's body on its way to burial as far as Columbus , Ohio . On April 26 , 1865 , the New York Times described Kinman in the funeral cortege in New York City : " Much attention was attracted to Mr. Kinman , who walked in a full hunting suit of buckskin and fur , rifle on shoulder . Mr. Kinman , it will be remembered , presented to Mr. Lincoln some time ago a chair made of California elk @-@ horn , and continuing his acquaintance with him , it is said , enjoyed quite a long conversation with him the very day before the murder . "
During his stays on the East Coast , many cartes de visites photographs of Kinman and his chairs were taken by Mathew Brady . Kinman claimed to have paid Brady $ 2 @,@ 100 in one three @-@ month period for photos at 8 cents apiece , which calculates to an unlikely amount of over 26 @,@ 000 photographs . Kinman sold these photographs , among other places , in the U.S. Capitol . He also toured the country , performing in his buckskins as a frontier story teller and fiddle player .
Kinman 's tour de force in presidential chairs was presented to President Andrew Johnson on September 8 , 1865 .
This was intended to surpass all his previous efforts , and was made from two grizzly bears captured by Seth . The four legs and claws were those of a huge grizzly and the back and sides ornamented with immense claws . The seat was soft and exceedingly comfortable , but the great feature of the chair was that , by touching a cord , the head of the monster grizzly bear with jaws extended , would dart out in front from under the seat , snapping and gnashing its teeth as natural as life .
Johnson kept the chair in his White House library , the Yellow Oval Room .
On September 18 , 1876 , Kinman presented an elkhorn chair to Governor Rutherford Hayes of Ohio , who was soon to become the President of the United States . The chair is now displayed in the Rutherford B. Hayes Presidential Center in Fremont , Ohio . He later gave a chair constructed of bearskin and other bear body parts to Hayes 's vice @-@ president William A. Wheeler .
= = Legacy = =
In 1876 , Kinman dictated his memoirs , but they were not published until 2010 . He also kept an extensive scrapbook of newspaper articles . About 1930 , a one @-@ time neighbor of Kinman , George Richmond , copied the memoirs and the scrapbook by hand . The original manuscript and scrapbook were then sent to a potential publisher or agent , and lost after his death . The published version is from Richmond 's copy . Richmond also recalled many of Kinman 's stories and collected others from Kinman 's family and friends , then retold these stories in a book now published as I 'm a Gonna Tell Ya a Yarn .
In his later years , Kinman lived in Table Bluff , California with his family , where he owned a hotel and bar . In 1886 , Kinman was preparing to send chairs to President Grover Cleveland and former presidential candidate General Winfield Scott Hancock . He died in 1888 after accidentally shooting himself in the leg . He was interred at Table Bluff Cemetery in Loleta , California , in his buckskin clothing .
Mrs. R.F. Herrick bought Kinman 's traveling museum collection of 186 items , including at least two of his famous chairs , and displayed them in San Francisco in 1893 . She then took the collection to Chicago to display them at the 1893 World 's Columbian Exposition , where she reportedly sold the individual items . The Clarke Historical Museum in Eureka displays a suit of his buckskins , complete with beaded moccasins , as well as a wooden chest he owned . The Ferndale Museum displays several Kinman items , including another of his buckskin suits .
= = Gallery = =
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= Veerapandiya Kattabomman ( film ) =
Veerapandiya Kattabomman ( English : Kattabomman , the Brave Warrior ) is a 1959 Indian Tamil @-@ language biographical film directed by B. R. Panthulu . The film 's screenplay was written by Ma . Po . Sivagnanam while its story and dialogue were written by Sakthi T. K. Krishnasamy . The film features Sivaji Ganesan , Gemini Ganesan , Padmini , S. Varalakshmi , and Ragini in the lead roles , with V. K. Ramasamy and Javar Seetharaman in pivotal supporting parts .
Produced and distributed by Panthulu under his banner , Padmini Pictures , Veerapandiya Kattabomman is loosely based on the story of the 18th century South Indian chieftain of the same name , who rose in rebellion against the East India Company . The film was an adaptation of the play Kattabomman , performed by Sivaji Ganesan 's troupe . Most of the film was shot in Jaipur . Veerapandiya Kattabomman is notable for being the first Tamil film to be shot in Technicolor .
Veerapandiya Kattabomman 's premiere was held in London on 10 May 1959 , and it was released in Tamil Nadu six days later . It became a critical and commercial success and had a theatrical run of 175 days . It was dubbed and released in Telugu as Veerapandiya Kattabrahmanna in 1959 and in Hindi as Amar Shaheed in 1960 . In addition to winning the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Tamil under the " Certificate of Merit " section , it was also the first Tamil film to receive international awards for Best Film , Best Actor , and Best Music Director at the 1960 Afro @-@ Asian Film Festival in Cairo . A digitally restored version of the film was released on 21 August 2015 .
= = Plot = =
Veerapandiya Kattabomman ( Sivaji Ganesan ) , the king of Panchalankurichi , is a brave fighter and a devotee of his family deity , Lord Murugan of Tiruchendur . On receiving the news of a robbery in his territory , Kattabomman and his retinue set out incognito to capture the robbers . When the robbers are captured , they confess that they had been hired by the British to create unrest in Kattabomman 's domain . They also tell him that the British had enticed the neighbouring chieftain , Ettappan ( V. K. Ramasamy ) , to help them in their endeavour to annexe Panchalankurichi . Ettappan was promised that an additional two villages would be added to his land by the British , as a price for his betrayal . Ettappan , in disguise , goes to Kattabomman 's court and tries to frighten him by extolling the omnipotence of the British . Kattabomman is indignant and tears off Ettappan 's fake beard , but spares him because he had come to his court as an ambassador .
At Chayalkudi , a village near Panchalankurichi , lives Vellaiyammal ( Padmini ) , who vows to marry the man who tames her pet bull . She takes her bull to participate in a Jallikattu game held at Panchalankurichi under Kattabomman 's patronage . All those who attempt to tame the bull fail . At Kattabomman 's call , his Commander @-@ in @-@ chief , Vellaiyathevan ( Gemini Ganesan ) , subdues the bull and wins Vellaiyammal 's love . Later , Kattabomman comes to know of their love and gets them married .
Kattabomman receives a message from Lord W. C. Jackson ( C. R. Parthiban ) , collector of Tirunelveli , who demands a meeting with Kattabomman at Ramanathapuram to discuss the payment of Kattabomman 's tribute . Captain Davison ( S. A. Kannan ) , Kattabomman 's British friend , advises him to go and see Jackson . Jackson , finding that Kattabomman has come to see him with his troops , demands to meet him alone . At the meeting , Jackson insults him and orders his arrest . Though surrounded by the British troops , Kattabomman fights his way out , but during his escape his Minister , Thanapathi Sivasubramaniam Pillai ( M. R. Santhanam ) , is captured by the British .
Some time later , Pillai is released . He brings news that Jackson has been transferred back to England on Davison 's recommendation . At Kattabomman 's court , a British messenger sent by Colonel Ooshington , Tirunelveli 's new collector , reports that Pillai and his men have looted their granaries and killed their men at Srivaikuntam . Pillai justifies his act , saying that he instructed his men to do it due to the famine conditions prevalent in their kingdom . Ashamed of Pillai 's act , Kattabomman accuses him of injustice . Pillai apologises and offers himself as a prisoner to the British , but Kattabomman refuses to hand Pillai over ; instead he offers money to the British as compensation for the looted rice . Ooshington does not agree and , with Major Bannerman 's ( Javar Seetharaman ) and Ettappan 's help , instigates the neighbouring rulers to attack Kattabomman . Bannerman is placed in charge of the British troops . He and Ettappan plan to attack Panchalankurichi when the people are away attending a festival in Tiruchendur . Kattabomman 's spy Sunderalingam ( A. Karunanidhi ) , overhears this and informs Kattabomman , who prepares for battle .
On the day of the battle , Vellaiyammal pleads Vellaiyathevan not to go because the previous night she had a nightmare , which was full of evil omens . Ignoring her entreaties , Vellaiyathevan sets out , and is killed in the ensuing battle . Vellaiyammal , on learning of his death , kills the man who killed him , avenging her husband 's death . She finds Vellaiyathevan 's corpse and , out of grief , falls dead on it . Bannerman 's troops attack Panchalankurichi with heavy artillery and Kattabomman 's army suffers badly . Kattabomman is wounded in the neck , but is saved by his brother , Oomaithurai ( O. A. K. Thevar ) . Sensing that the fort cannot survive another cannon barrage , Kattabomman and Oomaithurai flee to the adjoining kingdom of Kovilpatti . Pillai , disguising himself as Kattabomman , misleads the British soldiers who are on the trail of Kattabomman . From Kovilpatti , Kattabomman and Oomaithurai then flee to Pudukkottai . Thondaimaan , the king of Pudukkottai , is ordered by the British to capture Kattabomman and Oomaithurai . In fear of the British , Thondaimaan captures the two and hands them over . While Oomaithurai is jailed , Kattabomman faces a summary trial by the British and is hanged from a Tamarind tree at Kayatharu .
= = Cast = =
Lead actors
Sivaji Ganesan as Veerapandiya Kattabomman
Gemini Ganesan as Vellaiyathevan
Padmini as Vellaiyammal
S. Varalakshmi as Jakkamma
Ragini as Sundaravadivu
Supporting actors
V. K. Ramasamy as Ettappan
Javar Seetharaman as Major Bannerman
O. A. K. Thevar as Oomaithurai
M. R. Santhanam as Thanapathi Sivasubramaniam Pillai
A. Karunanidhi as Sunderalingam
S. A. Kannan as Captain Davison
C. R. Parthiban as Jackson Durai ( Lord W. C. Jackson )
Baby Kanchana as Meena
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The idea to make a film adaptation on the life of Veerapandiya Kattabomman occurred to many producers in the late 1940s , just after India 's freedom from the British Raj . In 1947 , soon after the British left India , a production company announced its intention to produce Kattabommu ( named after the rebel 's real name ) , a " mammoth production " which was to star P. U. Chinnappa ; this production did not materialise . Another attempt was initiated in 1953 by producer S. S. Vasan . A promotional poster announcing the project was released in Ananda Vikatan on 5 November 1953 . On 8 November 1953 , a notice was issued at Vasan 's production company , Gemini Studios , through Ananda Vikatan stating that anyone who had any useful information regarding Kattabomman and his exploits can send them to the studios ' storyboard department .
The concept of Veerapandiya Kattabomman began when Sivaji Ganesan and Sakthi T. K. Krishnasamy were travelling through Kayatharu , where Kattabomman was hanged . While there , Ganesan expressed a desire of doing a play based on Kattabomman 's life , to which Krishnasamy immediately agreed , and started to write the play . Coincidentally , Ganesan 's first exposure to the field of acting was when he saw a street play on Kattabomman ’ s life titled Kambalaththaar Kooththu . Krishnasamy completed writing the script for the play in a month 's time . The play was launched in Salem on 29 August 1957 . Ganesan had invested close to ₹ 50 @,@ 000 for the play 's sets and costumes .
On seeing the play , B. R. Panthulu decided to adapt it into a feature film and hired Krishnasamy to write the screenplay . G. Dharmarajan , who was the play 's set designer , was selected to do the same for the film . For the purpose of making the popular play into a film , a " History @-@ Film Format Research Group " was formed under the leadership of Ma . Po . Sivagnanam , with Krishnasamy , Panthulu , Ganesan , P. A. Kumar , K. Singamuthu , and S. Krishnaswamy as members .
= = = Production = = =
The Singapore @-@ based Indian Movie News stated in 1957 that when Ganesan heard of Vasan 's attempt to make a film adaptation on Kattabomman , he personally requested Vasan to abandon the project , adding that Vasan even lent Ganesan important research materials on Kattabomman . Film historian Randor Guy contradicted this in his 1997 book Starlight , Starbright : The Early Tamil Cinema by stating that writers like Kothamangalam Subbu and Veppathur Kittoo were employed by Vasan to conduct an extensive research on Kattabomman 's life , but the only eligible choice to play Kattabomman was Ganesan , who by then had become popular after Parasakthi ( 1952 ) . Guy noted that Ganesan was hesitant to play the role under Vasan 's direction as he was earlier rejected by Vasan for the role of a bodyguard in Chandralekha ( 1948 ) , which led to Vasan dropping the project . But later on , Ganesan acted in Irumbu Thirai ( 1960 ) , which was produced and directed by Vasan , and Motor Sundaram Pillai ( 1966 ) , which was produced by Vasan .
Ganesan originally offered the role of Vellaiyathevan to S. S. Rajendran , who declined it due to his commitment to the film Sivagangai Seemai ( 1959 ) . He later requested actress Savitri to ask her husband Gemini Ganesan to play the role , which she agreed to do despite being pregnant at that time . Gemini Ganesan was initially reluctant to accept the role , but eventually agreed . Padmini , O. A. K. Thevar , and V. K. Ramasamy were chosen to play Vellaiyammal , Oomaithurai and Ettappan respectively . S. Varalakshmi played Kattabomman 's wife , Jakkamma , and also worked as a playback singer . C. R. Parthiban played the role of Lord W. C. Jackson , and M. R. Santhanam played the minister , Thanapathi Sivasubramaniam Pillai . Kattabomman 's daughter in the film , Meena , was a fictional character created by Krishnasamy . The character was based on Krishnasamy 's own daughter , Mynavathi , who died when she was five years old . Krishnasamy initially refused to include the scene involving Meena 's death as it reminded him of his daughter , but finally did so reluctantly . The character was played by Baby Kanchana .
Principal photography began in October 1957 with a puja . Most of the film 's shooting took place at Jaipur . With help from Janakaraja , the man in charge of the cavalry division , the production unit of Veerapandiya Kattabomman managed to hire junior artistes to portray the cavalry soldiers for shooting the war scenes . When the film was being shot at Bharani Studios in 1958 , Adoor Gopalakrishnan , who witnessed the shooting that afternoon , recalled that after every take , the actors would rush out due to the intense heat on the set . He also stated , " The speed of the film was so low those days that one needed many , many lights for correct exposure . " Veerapandiya Kattabomman is notable for being the first Tamil film to be shot in Technicolor . Panthulu adopted American director Cecil B. DeMille 's tactic of personally introducing the film on camera . The final length of the film was 5 @,@ 512 metres ( 18 @,@ 084 ft ) .
= = Music = =
Veerapandiya Kattabomman 's original soundtrack album was composed by G. Ramanathan , with lyrics by Ku . Ma . Balasubramaniam . The soundtrack album was released on 1 December 1959 under the label of Saregama . The album became a major breakthrough for P. B. Srinivas , then a struggling playback singer . He was recruited by Ramanathan to sing the track " Inbam Pongum Vennila " , which was picturised on Gemini Ganesan and Padmini , with P. Susheela . The song " Pogaathe Pogaathe " is based on the Mukhari raga , " Manam Kanintharul " is based on the Kurinji raga , and " Singara Kanne " is based on the Brindavanasaranga raga . Theatre actor K. B. Chellamuthu was the violinist for the songs . A remix version of " Inbam Pongum Vennila " was done by Hiphop Tamizha for the film , Aambala ( 2015 ) .
According to S. R. Ashok Kumar of The Hindu , " Manam Kanintharul " and " Singara Kanne " , both of which were sung by Varalakshmi , " remained all time favourites . " On the song , " Pogaathe Pogaathe " , singer Charulatha Mani said that it was " a meandering , melancholic Mukhari . " She also labelled Ratnamala 's rendition of the song as " expressive " . Film critic Baradwaj Rangan of The Hindu , in his review of the film 's digital re @-@ release , said that Ramanathan 's music " is still superb , spanning the range from folksy to light to classical " .
Tracklist
All lyrics written by Ku . Ma . Balasubramaniam .
= = Release = =
Veerapandiya Kattabomman 's premiere was held in London on 10 May 1959 , and it was released in Tamil Nadu on 16 May 1959 . The film was a commercial success and achieved cult status in Tamil cinema , becoming a silver jubilee film . The film was dubbed and released in Telugu and Hindi as Veerapandiya Kattabrahmanna in 1959 , and Amar Shaheed in 1960 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Veerapandiya Kattabomman received positive reviews upon release . Ananda Vikatan , in its original review dated 24 May 1959 , wrote , " [ Veerapandiya ] Kattabomman will not leave the hearts of the people who have seen it ... Sivaji Ganesan has acted so well . This film adds pride to every person born as a Tamilian " . Baradwaj Rangan praised Ganesan 's performance , stating that " To watch Veerapandiya Kattabomman is to marvel at the shades and nuances an actor can infuse into oratory . " India Today stated in 2001 , " One doesn 't have to be well @-@ versed in Tamil to feel the fire in Veerapandiya Kattabomman . " Sri Lankan Canadian journalist D. B. S. Jeyaraj stated , " The first Tamil film which impacted on me greatly during childhood was [ Veerapandiya Kattabomman ] ... The magic of the movie to me at that time was the portrayal of Kattabomman by the doyen of Tamil actors , Sivaji Ganesan . The highlight of that performance was the powerful delivery of fiery dialogue by the film hero Kattabomman played by Sivaji . " N Sathiya Moorthy wrote for Rediff.com in 2001 , " [ Ganesan 's ] portrayal of Lord Shiva in [ Thiruvilaiyadal ] and of freedom @-@ fighters Veerapandia Kattabomman and Kappalottia Thamizhan V O Chidambaram have become symbolic of the very characters in the average Tamil mind across the world . "
Guy labelled Ganesan 's performance as " breathtaking " . Janani Karthik of The Times of India wrote , " Watch this [ film ] for the legendary actor 's performance , something that old @-@ timers remember even today " . Another review from the same newspaper stated , " This digitally restored version is far from perfect — there are instances when in the same scene , the colours seem to have been leached of the frames . The sound , too , feels a bit contemporary . And the casting of Indian actors to play the British characters feels dated and even amusing . But set these niggles aside and the film still retains its dramatic force . " L. K. Advani , currently one of the senior leaders of the Bharatiya Janata Party , said , " I have seen the Tamil movie of Veerapandia Kattabomman [ sic ] , acted by [ Sivaji ] Ganesan , many times . It is fresh in my memory . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Sivaji Ganesan 's performance as Kattabomman earned him an international award as the Best Actor at the 1960 Afro @-@ Asian Film Festival , held from 29 February to 11 March . The award was presented to him by Gamal Abdel Nasser , then the President of Egypt . It was Ganesan 's first award in his film career . It also made him the first Indian actor to receive an international award . On hearing of Ganesan 's return from Cairo after winning the Afro @-@ Asian Film Festival award for the Best Actor category in 1960 , fellow actor M. G. Ramachandran , who also served as the president of the South Indian Actors Guild organised a huge reception in Chennai to welcome him .
In his autobiography , Ganesan recalled that during the Afro @-@ Asian film festival , " I was called on stage and I went up a diminutive , five foot nothing , looking boyish with my build , whereas they had expected me to be a colossus , on seeing [ Veerapandiya ] Kattabomman , at least seven or eight feet tall ! Irrespective of this they gave me a standing ovation for five minutes . "
= = Historical inaccuracies = =
Veerapandiya Kattabomman has often been criticised because of its historical inaccuracies . Randor Guy stated in 2015 that a Tamil weekly even went to the extent of saying , " [ ... ] a new face called Kattabomman acted brilliantly as Sivaji Ganesan ! ” Poet Kannadasan said , " Kattabomman was not a real freedom fighter ; he was a Telugu and a robber . " He also stated that the Maruthu Pandiyars were the real freedom fighters and wrote a script about them , which was adapted into the film , Sivagangai Seemai . The film was released in the same month as Veerapandiya Kattabomman , but failed at the box office . Kannadasan 's statement was supported by writer Lena Tamizhvanan , who denounced Kattabomman 's glorification .
In Starlight , Starbright : The Early Tamil Cinema , Guy noted that according to East India Company records , Kattabomman was of Telugu ancestry , and that he was a strong and silent man , not of dash and daring as depicted in the film . Guy also noted that Ganesan portrayed Kattabomman as a " larger @-@ than @-@ life @-@ character , haranguing audiences in a high @-@ flown Tamil replete with literary flourishes " , as opposed to the real Kattabomman , who was not fluent in Tamil . Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema by Ashish Rajadhyaksha and Paul Willemen states , " A love interest has been added as well " , implying that the character of Vellaiyammal was fictional . Film historian S. Krishnaswamy , writing for The Hindu in 2001 , noted that the film was " historically far from accurate " and that it was " more like a costume drama or a mythological . "
In their 2010 book , Cinemas of South India : Culture , Resistance , Ideology , Sowmya Dechamma C. C. and Elavarthi Sathya Prakash state that Kattabomman 's Telugu identity is used in such a way that " while National historiography tries to elevate him , some versions of Tamil history seem to downgrade him . " In 2011 , S. Theodore Baskaran said , " Tamil films have scant regard for history . Almost always , they confuse between history and folklore , " and added , " Kattabomman was not even a king . His arsenal had just about three to four guns . " In 2014 , Ramu Manivannan , the HOD of politics and public administration at University of Madras , told The Times of India , " The popular images of [ historical ] characters have been constructed from oral descriptions and accounts . In some cases , the popular image overtakes the historical one as in the case of Sivaji Ganesan 's portrayal of Kattabomman on the screen " .
= = Legacy = =
Veerapandiya Kattabomman took Ganesan 's career to a higher level , so much so that Tamil people identified Kattabomman with him . The film also became a trendsetter for presenting freedom fighters in a heroic manner , thus creating a new perception of the value of independence . The film 's success encouraged many in Tamil cinema to make films based on freedom fighters and historical figures , notable of which include Kappalottiya Thamizhan ( 1961 ) and Bharathi ( 2000 ) . Veerapandiya Kattabomman was re @-@ released in 1984 during Ramachandran 's tenure as Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu . The film was granted tax exemption by the state government and was commercially successful at that time as well .
In 1970 , eleven years after the film 's release , Ganesan established a statue of Kattabomman at Kayatharu , where the rebel was hanged . A special postal cover designed by film historian and actor Mohan V. Raman was released on 16 May 2009 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the film 's release . The cover was jointly released by the Sivaji – Prabhu Charities trust and the Indo @-@ Russian Cultural and Friendship Society .
A. V. Ashok wrote for The Hindu , " It is no exaggeration to say that Sivaji 's heroic outpouring as Veerapandiya Kattabomman is an integral part of the Tamil cultural psyche . " Actor Sivakumar stated , " You can ’ t reproduce movies like Parasakthi , Pasamalar , Devadas , Veerapandiya Kattabomman or Ratha Kanneer [ ... ] By remaking such films , you are lowering yourself , while it enhances the original artists ’ image . " Suhasini Maniratnam listed Veerapandiya Kattabomman alongside Kappalottiya Thamizhan , Aayirathil Oruvan ( 1965 ) and Iruvar ( 1997 ) , as her favourite period films in Tamil . The Times of India included Veerapandiya Kattabomman in its list of " Top 5 Sivaji Ganesan films on his birthday " . An elephant that Ganesan presented to the Punnainallur Mariamman temple in 1960 was named " Vellaiyammal " , after the character from the film . It was later donated to the Brihadeeswarar Temple in 1980 .
In Outlook 's issue dated 20 October 2008 , Ganesan 's line , " Vari , vatti , kisthi ... Yaarai ketkirai vari ... Etharkku ketkirai vari . Vaanam polikirathu , bhumi vilaigirathu , unakken katta vendum vari .... " , ( Roughly translated in English as " Tributes , Tax , Loan , Interest . The rains pour from the sky , the land blossoms , why should I offer you money ? " ) which he speaks in the scene featuring him and C. R. Parthiban , was ranked at number 8 in the magazine 's list of the " 13 cheesiest , chalkiest lines in Indian cinema " . Dhananjayan noted the line also became a text book example of dialogue delivery for aspiring actors .
In April 2012 , Rediff included the film in its list " The A to Z of Tamil Cinema " . In a January 2015 interview with The Times of India , playwright Y. G. Mahendra said , " most character artists today lack variety [ ... ] Show me one actor in India currently who can do a Kattabomman , a VOC , a Vietnam Veedu , a Galatta Kalyanam and a Thiruvilayadal . " Actor Rana Daggubati , in an interview with Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of The Hindu , said that Ganesan 's performances as Kattabomman and Karna ( in the 1964 film Karnan ) served as inspirations for his role in Baahubali ( 2015 ) .
= = Re @-@ release = =
In 2012 , Raj Television Network announced that they would re @-@ release Veerapandiya Kattabomman in 3D in early 2013 , but that did not materialise . However , in March 2015 , Raj Television Network announced that they would release a digital 5 @.@ 1 surround sound version of the film in collaboration with Sai Ganesh Films , on an unspecified date in April , though it was eventually released on 21 August 2015 . The trailer of the digitised version was released on 20 March 2015 . Murali B. V. , coordinator of the production company , Sai Ganesh Films , which helped in the restoration and digitisation of the film 's original prints , told The New Indian Express that nine months were taken to clean the film prints and completely restore them for digitisation from the original 35 mm film prints with mono sound . The film collected ₹ 553 @,@ 000 in its opening weekend from 39 shows in Chennai .
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= German submarine U @-@ 41 ( 1939 ) =
The German submarine U @-@ 41 was a Type IXA U @-@ boat of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine that operated during World War II . She conducted three war patrols during her short career , two as part of the 6th U @-@ boat Flotilla and one as part of the 2nd flotilla . U @-@ 41 also sank five enemy vessels for a total of 22 @,@ 815 gross register tons ( GRT ) ; captured two more for a total of 2 @,@ 073 GRT and damaged one other of 8 @,@ 096 GRT .
On 5 February 1940 , U @-@ 41 was hit by depth charges from the British A class destroyer HMS Antelope after sinking two enemy merchant vessels and was sunk off the south coast of Ireland . All 49 of her crew members were lost with the boat .
= = Construction = =
U @-@ 41 was ordered by the Kriegsmarine on 21 November 1936 ( as part of Plan Z and in violation of the Treaty of Versailles ) . She was laid down on 27 November 1937 by AG Weser , Bremen as yard number 946 . She was launched on 28 January 1939 and commissioned on 22 April of that same year under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Gustav @-@ Adolf Mugler .
= = Design = =
As one of the eight original German Type IX submarines , later designated IXA , U @-@ 41 had a displacement of 1 @,@ 032 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 016 long tons ) when at the surface and 1 @,@ 153 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 135 long tons ) while submerged . The U @-@ boat had a total length of 76 @.@ 50 m ( 251 ft ) , a pressure hull length of 58 @.@ 75 m ( 192 ft 9 in ) , a beam of 6 @.@ 51 m ( 21 ft 4 in ) , a height of 9 @.@ 40 m ( 30 ft 10 in ) , and a draught of 4 @.@ 70 m ( 15 ft 5 in ) . The submarine was powered by two MAN M 9 V 40 / 46 supercharged four @-@ stroke , nine @-@ cylinder diesel engines producing a total of 4 @,@ 400 metric horsepower ( 3 @,@ 240 kW ; 4 @,@ 340 shp ) for use while surfaced , two Siemens @-@ Schuckert 2 GU 345 / 34 double @-@ acting electric motors producing a total of 1 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 740 kW ; 990 shp ) for use while submerged . She had two shafts and two 1 @.@ 92 m ( 6 ft ) propellers . The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 metres ( 750 ft ) .
The submarine had a maximum surface speed of 18 @.@ 2 knots ( 33 @.@ 7 km / h ; 20 @.@ 9 mph ) and a maximum submerged speed of 7 @.@ 7 knots ( 14 @.@ 3 km / h ; 8 @.@ 9 mph ) . When submerged , the boat could operate for 65 – 78 nautical miles ( 120 – 144 km ; 75 – 90 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) ; when surfaced , she could travel 10 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 400 km ; 12 @,@ 100 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . U @-@ 41 was fitted with six 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes ( four fitted at the bow and two at the stern ) , 22 torpedoes , one 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 13 in ) SK C / 32 naval gun , 180 rounds , and a 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) as well as a 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun . The boat had a complement of forty @-@ eight .
= = Service history = =
During her service in the Kriegsmarine , U @-@ 41 sank five commercial ships for 22 @,@ 815 gross register tons ( GRT ) ; damaged one commercial vessel of 8 @,@ 096 GRT and captured two ships totalling 2 @,@ 073 GRT .
= = = 1st Patrol = = =
U @-@ 41 left Wilhelmshaven on 19 August 1939 , before World War II began . Her first patrol involved traveling as far south as Portugal after entering the North Sea and circumnavigating the British Isles . During this patrol , two ships were captured : the Finnish Vega , of 974 tons , and the 1 @,@ 099 @-@ ton Suomen Poika . U @-@ 41 then returned to Wilhelmshaven , arriving on 17 September 1939 .
= = = 2nd Patrol = = =
U @-@ 41 left Wilhelmshaven with Mugler in command once again on 7 November 1939 . On 12 November , both the 275 ton British vessel Cresswell and the 11 @,@ 019 ton Norwegian ship Arne Kjøde were sunk by torpedoes . The 1 @,@ 351 @-@ ton British merchant vessel Darino went to the bottom on the 19th . The last enemy vessel to be sunk by U @-@ 41 was the French vessel Les Barges II . She displaced a total of 296 tons and was sunk by a single torpedo on 21 November . The U @-@ boat then returned to port on 7 December 1939 .
= = = 3rd Patrol = = =
U @-@ 41 left the port of Helgoland on 27 January 1940 with Mugler still in command . During her final patrol , one enemy ship was sunk and one was damaged ; both of these attacks took place on 5 February . The first ship that was hit was the 8 @,@ 096 @-@ ton Dutch vessel Ceronia . The Ceronia was damaged and the 9 @,@ 874 @-@ ton British ship Beaverburn was sunk . Nevertheless U @-@ 41 did not return to her home port , she was sunk on the same day .
= = = Fate = = =
Following the attacks on the Dutch Ceronia and the British Beaverburn on 5 February 1940 , U @-@ 41 was attacked by the British A class destroyer HMS Antelope with depth charges . She was hit and sunk off the south coast of Ireland . All 49 of her crew members were lost with the boat during the attack .
= = Summary of raiding history = =
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= Andreas Tegström =
Andreas Tegström ( born 18 January 1979 ) is a former Swedish footballer who played as a striker . He is most noted for playing with Norwegian Tippeligaen clubs Sandefjord and Fredrikstad .
Tegström wanted to become a professional ice hockey player while growing up , but he quit playing ice hockey and played football as an amateur for Tenhults IF and Husqvarna FF . He was brought to Sandefjord in 2005 and scored 14 goals in his first season ; the club won promotion to Tippeligaen . In Sandefjord 's first season in the top @-@ flight , Tegström scored ten goals in the league and played in the 2006 Norwegian Football Cup Final . The next season he moved to Fredrikstad , where he was not a regular player on the first team . He spent time on loan with Hønefoss in 2009 , and he returned to Sweden after the 2010 season when his contract with Fredrikstad expired . After two seasons with the Superettan side Jönköpings Södra , he rejoined Husqvarna FF before the 2013 season .
= = Early life = =
As a child , Tegström dreamed of becoming a professional ice hockey player in the NHL and for the Swedish national ice hockey team , Tre kronor . He played for HV71 , attended the hockey school in Jönköping , and played football as a hobby . After he quit playing hockey , he worked at the local Intersport store while playing football for Tenhults IF . He later joined Swedish football Division 2 side Husqvarna FF .
= = Club career = =
Tegström scored 22 goals in as many matches in 2004 , and was named Player of the Year in the 2004 Swedish football Division 2 . The same season , Husqvarna qualified for the promotion play @-@ off where they met Superettan side Mjällby . This match was attended by scouts from the Norwegian First Division side Sandefjord Fotball . Even though the Sandefjord envoys came to watch Mjällby 's Marcus Ekenberg , they were more impressed by Tegström — who was playing as a striker . Tegström was also wanted by Superettan sides Trelleborgs FF and Östers IF , but joined Sandefjord ahead of the 2005 season and signed a three @-@ year contract with the club .
= = = Sandefjord = = =
Tegström became an instant success at Sandefjord and contributed greatly to the club 's first @-@ ever promotion to the Tippeligaen , with a total of 14 goals when the club finished second in the 2005 Norwegian First Division . Tegström scored a hat @-@ trick in the decisive match , beating promotion @-@ challengers Moss 4 – 2 ; Tegström 's teammate Andreas Augustsson scored one goal . Tegström also impressed at the top @-@ flight in Norway , and after scoring five goals in the five first matches of the season he was the leading goalscorer in Tippeligaen , while his team was in fourth place despite being predicted to be in last place by every media outlet in Norway . When Sandefjord played Viking on 24 September 2006 , both teams were fighting against relegation and Tegström scored the match @-@ winning goal on a counter @-@ attack after dribbling past half the Viking defence — comparable to Maradona 's goal in the 1986 World Cup . Tegström scored ten goals and made five assists in the Tippeligaen , helping Sandefjord avoid relegation in their first year in the top @-@ flight . He also scored the first goal in the semi @-@ final of the 2006 Norwegian Football Cup , which Sandefjord won 5 – 2 against Rosenborg at Lerkendal Stadion and played in the 2006 Norwegian Football Cup Final , in which the team lost 3 – 0 to Fredrikstad .
After his performance for Sandefjord in 2006 , Expressen said that Tegström was wanted by several Norwegian , Danish and Dutch clubs , but signed a new contract with Sandefjord in December 2006 to the end of the 2009 season . Verdens Gang predicted that the Sandefjord team would finish 11th in the 2007 Tippeligaen , but stated that Tegström had to perform at the same level as in the previous season for Sandefjord to avoid relegation . Tegström scored one goal for Sandefjord in the 2007 season ; the team struggled throughout the season until it was relegated to the second tier . Tegström left Sandefjord half @-@ way through the season , when he was sold to Fredrikstad in August 2007 for 4 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) , according to Sandefjords Blad .
= = = Fredrikstad = = =
The same day his second child was born , Tegström scored a goal in his debut for Fredrikstad , a 2 – 0 victory against Stabæk on 3 September 2007 . He scored against Strømsgodset in October 2007 . The following season , Tegström played as a substitute and scored one goal in the 2 – 0 victory against Bodø / Glimt , with Fredrikstad leading the 2008 Tippeligaen after four matches . Tegström did not play much for Fredrikstad in the 2008 season because Tarik Elyounoussi and Garðar Jóhannsson were the preferred strikers in the starting lineup . Tegström secured the club 's first silver medals since 1972 when he scored two goals against Molde on 26 October 2008 ; he came on as a substitute in the 63rd minute of the match , which Fredrikstad won 2 – 1 .
Before the 2009 season , Fredrikstad told Tegström that he was not part of the club 's long @-@ term plans and that he was welcome to find another club . Fredrikstad turned down an offer from Stabæk to buy the striker . He did not start a single match in the pre @-@ season , but he came on as a substitute and scored a goal against Strømsgodset in the second match of the 2009 season . Tegström spent most of the 2009 season on the bench , but in the 2009 Norwegian Football Cup tie against Ranheim , he came on as a substitute and scored two goals in the extra time .
= = = Later career = = =
In August 2009 , he was loaned out to the First Division side Hønefoss until the end of the season , with an option to buy . In his first match for Hønefoss , Tegström scored a goal against Alta ; the game ended with a 2 – 0 victory . He scored a four goals in 12 matches for Hønefoss . After the season , he returned to Fredrikstad , which had been relegated to the First Division . He was troubled by injuries in his last season with Fredrikstad , and he started only nine matches . Jönköpings Södra wanted to buy Tegström during the summer , but he did not join the club until his contract with Fredrikstad expired after the 2010 season . After playing two seasons for the Superettan side , Tegström returned to Husqvarna ahead of the 2013 season , where in addition to playing for the team , he was hired as chief of marketing .
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= Mercedes McQueen =
Mercedes Maria Theresa Immaculata McQueen ( previously Owen , Fisher and Browning ) is a fictional character from the British Channel 4 soap opera Hollyoaks , played by Jennifer Metcalfe . She debuted on @-@ screen during the episode airing on 19 June 2006 as the first character to be introduced to the series by series producer , Bryan Kirkwood . In 2008 Metcalfe feared that the character was to be axed but was later reassured by the series producer that she would not be . Metcalfe later stated her intention to stay with the series . Mercedes is part of the McQueen family and is the longest serving McQueen on the series . On 26 August 2014 , it was revealed that Metcalfe had decided to quit the soap . In November 2014 , Mercedes was presumably stabbed to death , with her body discarded . However , Metcalfe returned to screens on 17 February 2015 in a surprise , unannounced twist which saw Mercedes revealed as alive and well , living in Nice , France . It was announced that Mercedes would make a full @-@ time return to the show in May 2015 . Following the various temporary breaks of Nicole Barber @-@ Lane ( who plays Mercedes ' mother , Myra McQueen ) , Metcalfe became the longest @-@ serving member of the McQueen family . On 21 January 2016 , the character went on another hiatus , as she once again departed the village for a considerable lengthy period of time , but she returned to Hollyoaks on 1 April 2016 .
" Mercedes is described as a " savvy , ballsy girl that can 't say no and is unapologetic about it " . She is played as having moments of happiness which she ruins for herself and as managing to justify " whatever she does that 's bad " . Throughout her time on the series , Mercedes ' storylines have centred on her relationships . These include her marriages to Russ Owen ( Stuart Manning ) , Malachy Fisher ( Glen Wallace ) and Paul Browning ( Joseph Thompson ) , with her second marriage involving her in an HIV storyline , an engagement to Riley Costello ( Rob Norbury ) and a committed relationship with Joe Roscoe ( Ayden Callaghan ) . She has also been central to several affairs which included Calvin Valentine ( Ricky Whittle ) , her sister 's husband , and Riley 's father Carl ( Paul Opacic ) . Following the revelation of her affair with Carl on her wedding day to Riley , Mercedes was at the centre of a kidnapping storyline when she was held against her will by Riley 's grandfather serial killer Silas Blissett ( Jeff Rawle ) before going into labour , giving birth to a boy as a result of the stress . Following her ordeal Mercedes briefly turned to prostitution . When Mitzeee ( Rachel Shenton ) grows close to Riley , Mercedes begins to stalk her . During the culmination of the plot , in " pure desperation " Mercedes stabs herself and Mitzeee is blamed . Mercedes friend , Lynsey Nolan ( Karen Hassan ) , discovers Mercedes ' stalking of Mitzeee and stabbing of herself . Lynsey is later murdered in a whodunit storyline with Mercedes becoming a suspect in her murder . It is later revealed Mercedes ' partner Doctor Browning killed Lynsey to protect Mercedes and in October 2013 , Mercedes , Cindy Cunningham ( Stephanie Waring ) and Lindsey Butterfield ( Sophie Austin ) attacked , murdered and covered up the murder of Browning . In the run @-@ up to her 2014 departure , Mercedes was involved in feuds with Freddie Roscoe ( Charlie Clapham ) and Grace Black ( Tamara Wall ) and mourning for her sister Carmel ( Gemma Merna ) . Since her return in February 2015 , her storylines included reuniting with her family , her relationship with Joe and delivering a stillborn son named Gabriel , exposing Lindsey Butterfield as the Gloved Hand Killer and Silas returning and targeting Mercedes again .
Metcalfe has received numerous awards and nominations for her portrayal of Mercedes . Metcalfe has been praised by the British press for her performance in the role . The character has also been praised and criticised by the British press , for her numerous relationships and affairs , her appearance , her status as a " slapper " and her penchant for finding herself in " terrifying situations . "
= = Character creation and casting = =
Mercedes was created by producer Bryan Kirkwood , as part of his rejuvenation of Hollyoaks in 2006 , which included the creation of his " brainchild " the McQueen family . She was the first character created by Kirkwood during his tenure as executive producer . Jennifer Metcalfe , who had previously been considered for the role of Clare Devine ( Gemma Bissix ) before Mercedes was created , successfully auditioned for the role . Kirkwood credited Metcalfe with making the character her own and with bringing Mercedes to life .
Metcalfe reported that she was " put forward for Hollyoaks " but had to audition eight times before she was offered the role . She later revealed that when creating the part she took " inspiration " from several places , most prominently from Eva Longoria 's role in Desperate Housewives as Gabrielle Solis . In 2008 , due to her character 's HIV scare , Metcalfe feared she was to going to be fired from the serial and had to seek reassurance from the producer that her fears were unfounded . In 2011 Metcalfe stated her plans to stay with the serial indefinitely , saying , " I never get bored or lose interest " with her storylines and scripts . In 2012 , Kirkwood said that due to Metcalfe being the first actress he cast in Hollyoaks he was " so chuffed that she 's becoming a real star " . He added that " telling stories for Mercedes is as exciting now as it was on day one " . In 2013 , Metcalfe revealed to The Mirror that she was proud of portraying the character " everyone loves to hate " . In May 2013 , Metcalfe signed a new contract keeping her on the soap for at least another year .
= = Development = =
= = = Characterisation = = =
Kirkwood branded Mercedes " a savvy , ballsy girl that can 't say no and is unapologetic about it " . Metcalfe has described Mercedes as someone who " hates every woman in Hollyoaks " except her own sisters , and as someone who talks too much and has a " mouth like a foghorn " . She went on to say that Mercedes " always looks after her family and would never do anything to deliberately hurt them . Mercedes ' heart is definitely in the right place " . Metcalfe observed that Mercedes is " completely mad " and she " just does whatever she feels like doing at the time . She doesn 't exactly think things through " . Metcalfe further explained that Mercedes did not " consider consequences " , which led her to unintentionally " destroy everything " . She elaborated on this , saying that Mercedes never has a happy ending " because she can 't . I don 't think with Mercedes there is ever a happy ending . Just when something might go her way or something 's going to go right for her , she destroys it " . She said that her character is " used to getting her own way " so she thought that despite her actions , " everything will turn out right in the end " . She opined that Mercedes was at her best in this state , being " minxy and destructive " . Metcalfe described Mercedes in this way : " Whatever she does that 's bad , she manages to justify in her head . She doesn 't have much self @-@ worth and she knows what she 's like " . Metcalfe also expressed the hope that Mercedes could be happy " free and single " . She explained that Mercedes was unable to remain happy , saying : " she has moments of happiness but ruins them herself " . She went on to explain that due to Mercedes ' first love having " messed her up " , Mercedes behaved " the way she is where men are concerned " . She further explained that Mercedes believed she could change but was disappointed when she could not . Metcalfe said , " When she says that she 's going to change , she actually means it ; she just can 't sustain it . "
A reporter for E4 's official website described Mercedes saying " She 's no angel but the Village would be far less entertaining without our Mercedes . This glamorous McQueen can 't seem to keep herself out of trouble – more often than not due to her tendency to hop into bed with those she shouldn 't ! " They later said Mercedes is invincible , as " no matter evils she perpetrates , somehow she still manages to come out smelling of roses " . Hollyoaks international broadcaster BBC America has described Mercedes stating : " Cocky , confident , and mean with a right hook , Mercedes McQueen isn 't afraid of anyone , especially not a man . She knows what effects her assets have on the opposite sex , and she always gets what she wants " . What 's on TV described her as the " man @-@ eater of the McQueen clan " who will not " take any nonsense " and is not " shy when it comes to a scrap ! " Digital Spy described Mercedes as " known for her fiery temper and sharp tongue " . Mercedes has also been described as " mouthy " , a " minx " , a " bitchy maneater " , " feisty " , " troubled " , " gorgeous " , a " sultry siren " and " spirited " by various media sources .
= = = Relationships = = =
= = = = Russ Owen = = = =
Despite Mercedes ' relationship with Russ Owen ( Stuart Manning ) , she had sex with Warren Fox ( Jamie Lomas ) and feeling guilty , proposed to Russ which he accepted . Metcalfe felt Mercedes might again stray with " Warren hanging around on the sidelines " although she hoped Mercedes would remain faithful to Russ . Mercedes and Russ marry despite the ceremony being interrupted by Louise Summers ( Roxanne McKee ) . Looking back at the wedding , Metcalfe commented that the wedding " didn 't go smoothly " . Warren was accused of attempting to murder Clare Devine ( Gemma Bissix ) , but his innocence and her infidelity was established when it was revealed that they were together the night Clare was attacked . Metcalfe said that " although Mercedes knew she was taking a risk by sleeping with Warren , she genuinely thought she 'd get away with it " . She opined that after her and Russ ' " honeymoon period " ended , Mercedes felt guilty and considered " spilling the beans " , although Metcalfe was not sure she would tell the truth about her affair with Russ .
During Russ ' trial , Mercedes decided to go to the court to testify for him due to Nancy Hayton ( Jessica Fox ) , who explained to Mercedes that her sister died because Justin Burton ( Chris Fountain ) was " too gutless to come forward and tell the truth " . This encouraged Mercedes to " take a long , hard look at herself " , and she realised that she was doing the same thing in the situation with Warren . On her way to the court however , Mercedes was " all over the place " . According to Metcalfe , everyone was shocked when Mercedes walked into the courtroom . She said that Mercedes was unsure of what she was going to tell the court , " but her alibi is vital to Warren 's case - his fate lies in her hands " . Metcalfe said that even if Mercedes and Russ ended their relationship , which they did shortly after she confessed the truth , would not matter because she believed that it would not take Mercedes " long before she goes back to her old ways " because " that 's just the type of person she is - Mercedes likes playing the field and having fun , and no man 's going to change her "
= = = = Tony Hutchinson = = = =
Although Tony Hutchinson ( Nick Pickard ) was in a relationship with Mercedes ' sister , Jacqui ( Claire Cooper ) , he and Mercedes had sex . Metcalfe explained this was because Mercedes was intoxicated and unaware of her actions , " but she was also furious at Jacqui for giving her a slap " . Metcalfe explained that when Mercedes woke up , she was in disbelief about the events of the previous night and felt " appalled " . She added that Mercedes did not fancy Tony and that they did not even like each other , which was why " neither of them can understand what happened between them " . Regarding Mercedes ' feelings about hurting Jacqui , Metcalfe stated : " Mercedes hates herself for it . She feels incredibly guilty and ashamed of what she 's done . It 's surprising Jacqui doesn 't guess something is wrong because Mercedes can 't look her in the eye " .
Mercedes discovered she has fallen pregnant , which left her " totally devastated " . Metcalfe expressed that Mercedes " felt bad enough about sleeping with Tony . Finding out she 's pregnant is a nightmare " . Mercedes informed Tony about the pregnancy , despite their dislike for each other , because she felt he had the right to know . According to Metcalfe , Mercedes considered giving her baby to her sister , since Jacqui was unable to have children but wanted to become a mother , but did not tell Jacqui the baby 's paternity . Metcalfe also felt that Mercedes decided against giving Jacqui the baby because Mercedes was unable to " cope " with the baby 's paternity , and would be more willing to give Jacqui the baby if Tony was not the father . When asked if Mercedes would keep the baby herself , Metcalfe said , " She would if it was Russ ' or maybe even the product of a one @-@ night stand . But Tony 's baby and all the baggage that comes with that ? No thanks ! " Mercedes decided to terminate the pregnancy . When asked how she thought Jacqui would react if she found out that Tony was the father , Metcalfe said Jacqui would " go a bit psycho " . She also said that it would take a long time for Jacqui to forgive Mercedes if she discovered the truth .
= = = = Malachy Fisher = = = =
Mercedes began a relationship with Malachy Fisher ( Glen Wallace ) . He proposed marriage to her , but she refused . Mercedes has sex with a stranger ; Metcalfe remarked , " Sex usually makes her forget about everything else that 's going on . But afterwards she still can 't stop thinking about Malachy , so she decides to go and see him to work out how she feels " . Mercedes subsequently accepted Malachy 's proposal and they marry . Mercedes found that she did not contract HIV from Malachy , but a Hollyoaks source described the news as " bitter sweet " because it was possible that her husband could die and leave her on her own . The source expanded on this , saying that if Mercedes had contracted HIV then the pair " would be going through everything together " .
Complications in Mercedes ' relationship with Malachy occurred when she begins an affair with Calvin Valentine ( Ricky Whittle ) while working with him at The Loft . Metcalfe expressed that she had initial " reservations " about the storyline which she felt was " far @-@ fetched " , adding that once she had begun filming the scenes she thought the plot was " brilliant " even though she felt Mercedes would be perceived as a " bitch " . Whittle expressed similar doubts , saying he felt it was " a bit out of character " for Calvin , although he felt the plot was " exciting " . At first the pair did not like each other , but after spending time together , they realised that there was more to their personalities than they initially thought . Whittle explained that the attraction between Mercedes and Calvin began " building " , to the point that she and Malachy have " a massive row " and Calvin comforts her ; Whittle stated that " the next thing you know they ’ re tearing each other ’ s clothes off " .
According to Metcalfe , Mercedes did not want to have an affair and was not " looking for someone else " , stating , " Malachy 's been working hard to provide for them and he hasn ’ t had a lot of time for her " . Turning to Calvin , she confided in him and they kiss . Whittle added that the affair had become more serious and their chemistry was " more than just physical " . Also according to Metcalfe , " Every three months Mercedes has to have an HIV test and , yes , it is making her resent Malachy a bit . She can ’ t help wondering what it would be like to be with someone like Calvin who isn 't HIV positive " , even though she felt " guilty " . When Mercedes learned that she has to be retested for HIV , she feared that the test would be positive . Initially , she did not tell Malachy about it , but eventually " snaps " at him , telling him she " won 't forgive him " if she has contracted HIV . The test was negative which was a " huge relief " for them .
Malachy later witnessed Mercedes and Calvin kissing but did not interrupt them . Wallace felt this was because he truly loved Mercedes and had accepted that " his life is much better with Mercedes in it " . Whittle explained that Malachy tested Mercedes and Calvin because he wanted to discover if " what he saw was a one @-@ off or more serious " . The pair failed the test and Mercedes , fearing that Malachy knew the truth , told Calvin that they had to end their affair , " but they simply can 't stay away from each other " . He added that the relationship could become more serious for Calvin as " he 's in danger of really falling for her " . Mercedes began to develop feelings for Calvin who did not expect Mercedes to develop " such deep feelings " for him . When Calvin rejected Mercedes she informed Calvin 's sister Sasha Valentine ( Nathalie Emmanuel ) that Calvin left Sasha 's then boyfriend Warren to die in a fire ; Sasha responded to the revelation by throwing Calvin out of their home . Not being able to " get past what happened with Warren " , Calvin and Carmel decide to end their relationship . Calvin confronted Mercedes , who " tells him that he 's ruined her life and warns that she 's going to do the same to him " .
Calvin and Carmel become reunited and plan to remarry . Metcalfe told a What 's on TV reporter that Mercedes was unable to accept Calvin loved Carmel more than her because " in her head he doesn 't . She can 't think rationally about this . Her thing for Calvin is an obsession now " . Mercedes tried to prevent the wedding going forward , including by anonymously threatening Calvin and by cancelling the wedding plans . Calvin discovered that Mercedes was behind the threats , and the pair go on to have a " day of passion " ; Metcalfe explained that their relationship is " all about the sex " . Mercedes tried everything to convince Calvin not to go through with the wedding . As Metcalfe stated , " They talk , shout and cry and she tells him she loves him " . Mercedes told Calvin , who " just sat there like a puppy , being manipulated by her " , that he should marry her instead , and he agreed and promised to tell Carmel . Mercedes later discovered that he has not told Carmel and she can not " believe he 's chosen Carmel over her " . Calvin was killed on his wedding day ; Metcalfe revealed to What 's on TV that Mercedes has " got it in her " to kill Calvin . She added that her character still loves Malachy , but Malachy and Mercedes end their relationship . Mercedes ' cousin Theresa ( Jorgie Porter ) was later found to have shot Calvin .
Mercedes lied that she has contracted HIV from Malachy who ends his relationship with Lynsey Nolan ( Karen Hassan ) to reunite with Mercedes . When Malachy discovered her lies , he hit Mercedes , who felt , according to Metcalfe , that she " deserved it " because she was " awful " and " the lies she told were just disgusting . She doesn 't resent Malachy for hitting her at all " . Mercedes reconciled with Malachy ; Metcalfe explained that Mercedes still loved Malachy but was unable to stay away from other men . She added that seeing Malachy with Lynsey helped Mercedes " realise " how much she loved him . After Malachy is injured in an explosion , Metcalfe explained that Mercedes regretted her affair with Calvin and she " desperately " wanted the chance to " make things work " with Malachy . She added that if he died , Mercedes would find it difficult to live with her guilt . If Malachy were to die Mercedes would be " devastated " as he was " the only positive thing in her life . [ ... ] She thinks that she 's nothing without him " . Malachy died . Metcalfe felt that when Malachy shielded Mercedes from the explosion by throwing himself over her it " proves to her how much he loves her . She knows that 's special and regrets she ever took him and his love granted " . Metcalfe felt that she and Wallace " had amazing storylines " , opining that Malachy 's death was the most emotional scene she had filmed while with the serial .
= = = = Riley and Carl Costello = = = =
Mercedes ' next relationship was with Riley Costello ( Rob Norbury ) ; their first romantic encounter occurred in the episodes following Malachy 's death . Metcalfe believed that this behaviour was typical of Mercedes . Malachy had died and rather than " moping " about she chooses to get on with her life . Riley filled the role of giving Mercedes some attention " when she needs it most " . The serial introduced complications with Riley and Mercedes ' relationship with the introduction of Riley 's father Carl ( Paul Opacic ) . Carl 's disapproval of Mercedes created tension between them and she " hits a nerve " by jibing Carl . Metcalfe explained that Mercedes asked Carl what he would do if she stayed with Riley . In an effort to " wind him up " , Mercedes suggested that she and Carl sleep together ; Metcalfe stated that it was " obvious he 's tempted " , and Mercedes and Carl start an affair . Opacic told a reporter from Inside Soap that Mercedes and Carl felt guilty about their tryst , but suggested that viewers keep watching to see if the two could " stay away from each other " . He added that while Riley believed Mercedes was " the girl of his dreams " , Carl believed that Mercedes was not " good enough " for his son .
Mercedes and Riley become engaged . Riley 's brother Seth ( Miles Higson ) discovered that she and his father had an affair , so she lied about falling pregnant to prevent the truth from coming out . On the advice from her mother Myra ( Nicole Barber @-@ Lane ) , Mercedes planned to fake a miscarriage , but Mercedes ' sister Jacqui discovered the affair and Mercedes ' intention to fake a miscarriage . Jacqui was " disgusted " and threatened to expose the affair ; Metcalfe commented that this left Mercedes feeling like her " world could collapse around her at any moment " . " On eggshells " after Jacqui 's discovery , Mercedes believed Jacqui would expose the affair . Metcalfe described Jacqui 's attitude towards Mercedes , stating , " Jacqui knows what Mercedes is , she knows what she 's like - but she resorts to judging her because she 's just trying to support her " . Metcalfe explained that if Jacqui kept the affair secret Mercedes would be " relieved " that she still has Riley , and although she would not immediately think of Carl , Mercedes was worried that " they could end up in bed together again " . Metcalfe went on to say that Mercedes " loves Riley " but " can 't help fancying Carl " , adding that for Mercedes " there 's a difference between love and lust " .
The Daily Star announced that after lying about being pregnant for several weeks , Mercedes was to launch a " vicious " attack on Mitzeee ( Rachel Shenton ) , saying she tried to make up for her " mistake " by " turning on the tears and apologising " . Metcalfe felt that Riley and Mercedes would " fall out big time " because of Mercedes ' attack on Mitzeee . Mercedes discovered she had actually become pregnant , but was unsure of the child 's paternity . Metcalfe commented that the storyline had " got interesting " due to Mercedes ' pregnancy . During the storyline Metcalfe wore a prosthetic baby bump which she found " uncomfortable " .
During the fourth series of the late night spinoff show Hollyoaks Later , Mercedes ' past was explored when she goes to Ibiza to celebrate her hen night . While there she was reunited with Johnny ( Chris Coghill ) , her first love . Metcalfe said this caused a " real mix of emotions for Mercedes " . She went on to elaborate that there was a lot her character wanted to say to Johnny but " at the same time she doesn 't see the point . There 's a lot of anger there . But there 's also a lot of excitement for Mercedes as she sees him again , because he was the guy who won her heart for the first time . The storyline also explains why Mercedes is the way she is now " . Mercedes and Johnny kissed , which Metcalfe said was them just " getting lost in the moment " and was partly due to Mercedes having doubts about Riley 's fidelity . She added that Mercedes and Johnny spend time " just talking and reliving the old times , especially how he won her over in the past " .
The storyline was concluded with a week 's worth of episodes focusing on the pair 's wedding and fallout . A trailer , which took over 15 hours to film , was produced to promote the episodes and featured several characters dressed in black and who could expose her affair with Carl , watching Mercedes go down the aisle . During the trailer Mercedes cried a black tear , done by the show 's make @-@ up artists putting black paint in Metcalfe 's eye . Norbury opined that Riley was caught up in planning the wedding , and that his feelings for Mercedes were " very strong " , adding that Riley " loves her to bits and he thinks that she 's everything " . In the lead up to the wedding it was shown that potential guests who could reveal the affair included Jacqui , Seth , Carl , Mercedes , Warren , Mitzeee and Doug Carter ( PJ Brennan ) .
On her wedding day to Riley Mercedes was the one who exposes the affair . Metcalfe said this was because when Mercedes looked into Riley 's eyes she " couldn 't help it " because of her love for him , and because Jacqui 's entrance " just tipped her over the edge " . Metcalfe went on to say that she did not think Mercedes " thought about it " when revealing the affair , but if she had thought it through she would not have revealed the secret . Metcalfe postulated that there would be " huge repercussions " from the events , explaining that her following storylines " all stem from the wedding " . Metcalfe added that she did not " fancy " the chances of a reunion for Mercedes and Riley although the actress would have liked one . Metcalfe commented that she " loved " the storyline and with working with Norbury .
= = = = Doctor Browning = = = =
Lynsey was found dead by Brendan Brady ( Emmett J. Scanlan ) . The death sparked a " whodunit storyline " with Mercedes in the frame for her murder . Digital Spy explained her motives stating , " Mercedes has also become increasingly deranged in recent weeks and wanted to keep Lynsey quiet after she discovered the truth about her stalking of Mitzeee " . A promotional image featuring Mercedes was later released by Hollyoaks which confirmed Mercedes as an official suspect in the mystery . Mercedes entered a relationship with Doctor Browning , who had previously paid her for sex , in an attempt to make Riley jealous . Smithwick told Daniel Kilkelly of Digital Spy that she " was nervous about the union of the dark soul mates , Mercy and Browning , but their chemistry is so watchable - that story is pretty dark " . Mercedes began to " fall for the charms " of Doctor Browning , believing she had " landed on her feet " when he invited her to a charity ball . Metcalfe commented that Mercedes began to think he could provide her with the WAG life style that she had always wanted . She added that Mercedes still had feelings for Riley and was " being very sneaky " in her attempts to win him back . She explained that Mercedes " still wants Riley back but , as we know , when she has everything she desires , she still craves a bit of danger " . Thompson elaborated on this , saying Mercedes " thinks she wants the quiet life with Riley , but Dr Browning offers an exciting alternative for her , he knows what makes her tick , and the two of them are excited by how dangerous the other is " . On Doctor Browning 's feelings for Mercedes , Thompson said : " he 's fallen for her and will do whatever it takes to be with her . He thinks if he spends enough time with Mercy , he 'll win her around " . When Doctor Browning witnessed Riley kiss Mercedes " it becomes a question of how much he can take " and he decided he must " make a quick move " to prevent them reuniting . To do this he takes Mercedes to a shooting range , Thompson explained that there she " realises there 's an undeniable connection between them " . He added that the couple are " kindred spirits " and Mercedes spending time with him made her rethink their relationship . Thompson said " it seemed to be written in the stars that Mercedes and Riley will get back together - but Dr Browning won 't let that happen " and to do this he threatened Riley . Thompson claimed that due to Doctor Browning having incriminating evidence showing that Mercedes discharged herself at the time Lynsey was murdered it gives him " real power , she thinks she 's in control , but she might just be underestimating Dr Browning ... " Metcalfe said that she feels Doctor Browning is Mercedes soul mate , explaining that " he gives as good as he gets and I think that 's really good for my character " . On who Mercedes loves more out of Doctor Browning and Riley , Metcalfe said " it 's Doctor Browning all the way for her , i think he really took her by storm and she absolutely adores him " . On 17 August 2012 during E4 's first look episode it was revealed Doctor Browning had killed Lynsey . Hollyoaks ' official website said Doctor Browning 's motives in killing Lynsey were " presumably to protect Mercedes " .
Mercedes and Riley reunite but when she discovers Riley does not love her she kidnaps Bobby in revenge and blames it on a Mitzeee , who has recently escaped from prison . Metcalfe said Mercedes does not have " any regrets whatsoever . I think she does what she does at the time for a reason and she 'll deal with the consequences later " . Mercedes is arrested when Myra reports her to the police . Riley is shortly after shot dead . Mercedes is put on trial for two counts of perverting the course of justice , one for the kidnap and one for stabbing herself . Digital Spy 's Kilkelly reported that Mercedes lawyer Jim McGinn ( Dan Tetsell ) would advise Mercedes to blame Riley for the crimes as he can not defend himself . Mercedes reluctantly agrees and tells the courtroom that Riley stabbed her and was abusive towards her . Metcalfe felt the scenes were " great to film " , adding that " the writers came up with some brilliant material " . However , she felt the scenes were " challenging " to film as Mercedes " completely breaks down and says how bad Riley was . From the audience 's point of view , it 's really going to be quite shocking " . The actress added that Mercedes " does feel guilty about it , but only as guilty as Mercedes can ever feel . So she gets over it very quickly ! " During the trial Jim suggests that Riley killed Lynsey and that Doctor Browning is innocent . Doctor Browning appears at the trial to give evidence , which Metcalfe revealed is " a total surprise . I don 't think she knows how she 'll react until she actually sees him , and when she does they 're back in that moment when he was dragged away from her . She really did fall for him hook , line and sinker " .
= = = Kidnap by Silas Blissett and prostitution = = =
On 16 October 2011 it was revealed that Mercedes ' next storyline , following straight on from her wedding to Riley , would focus on her kidnapping by serial killer Silas Blissett ( Jeff Rawle ) . On Mercedes ' wedding day Riley 's grandfather Silas kidnapped her in a " shock storyline twist " after Mercedes revealed her affair with Carl . Metcalfe had previously teased that Mercedes might have to watch her back around Silas in the future . Silas planned to hold Mercedes until after she gave birth . According to Metcalfe in a Digital Spy interview , Mercedes felt " pure fear " throughout her ordeal and that she " thinks that she 's going to die and she fears that her baby will die too " . Metcalfe opined that viewers would see Mercedes " go through different emotions " during her ordeal , explaining that she went from " begging " , to " breaking down crying " , to exhaustion . She added that the storyline was " a little bit " dark , but did not reveal whether or not Mercedes would survive her kidnapping . Metcalfe also stated that a special set was built in which the kidnapping scenes were filmed over five days .
On 19 December 2011 it was announced by Digital Spy that Mercedes would put her difficult year behind her and Lynsey would become a source of support for Mercedes . It was revealed that Mercedes would be tempted when a " charming doctor arrives on the scene and shows her the benefits of ' selling her services ' " . Mercedes began working as an escort ; Metcalfe explaining , " Mercedes signs up with an escort agency to try to earn some quick cash . She reckons it 's the only thing she 'll ever be good at , but it 's clear that she hasn 't stopped to think it all through " .
While Mercedes is on an escorting job , Lynsey confronted her and tried to convince Mercedes not to go through with it . Metcalfe told an Inside Soap reporter that this left Mercedes " devastated " as she has " built up the courage to go through with it " . Metcalfe went onto tease that things will get " darker " for her character . Mercedes became depressed and her sister Jacqui decided to help her . Mercedes attempted to seduce Jacqui 's husband Rhys Ashworth ( Andrew Moss ) , who told Jacqui . Cooper said Jacqui " knows what state of mind " Mercedes was in and " lays into " Mercedes , who revealed she has been working as a prostitute . Cooper explained Jacqui 's reaction is " pretty harsh " and that she thought Mercedes was a " promiscuous tart and a pathetic excuse for a woman " with " no morals " . Cooper said Jacqui had " given Mercedes chance after chance , and feels that she doesn 't deserve anything more " .
In another twist Mercedes discovered that Silas would not be put on trial and would instead be put in an institute for the insane . Metcalfe said this left her alter ego feeling " very let down " as a trial would be the opportunity for Mercedes to " tell the world about the terrible things Silas did and make sure that he got punished " . She went on to say that Mercedes felt like Silas was " getting away with it " . Metcalfe explained that Mercedes feared that Silas would escape and explained that Mercedes never recovered from her ordeal but did what she usually did : " put it in a box and tried to forget about it . If Mercedes dwelt on all the bad things she 's been through , she 'd go crazy . That box must be full now " .
Metcalfe told Katy Moon from Inside Soap that to forget about the situation Mercedes " wants to feel numb " and as a means of " escape " she called Doctor Browning ( Joe Thompson ) , which left her feeling " awful " . Metcalfe explained that Mercedes was in " self destruct mode " and she " hates herself " for having sex with Doctor Browning , although she does not take money this time . Metcalfe justified Mercedes ' actions by saying Mercedes was " looking for any distraction , any way to escape her demons " . Metcalfe told a journalist from The Sun 's magazine TV Buzz that Mercedes believes Doctor Browning " will help her move on " with her ordeal . Mercedes took a business man back to her hotel room where " things end badly " ; she locked herself in the bathroom and refused to come out . As Metcalfe explained , Lynsey soon arrived to comfort her , and came to her " rescue when she 's at her lowest point . Lynsey can see how broken Mercedes is " . On the friendship , Metcalfe said that the " characters are like chalk and cheese , which I think works well " , while Hassan said the characters " have this kind of prickly friendship " . She added that they have " a lot of things in common , but they ’ re very different people . It ’ s almost like they shouldn ’ t be friends , but opposites attract . Lynsey sees qualities in Mercy that she kind of wishes she had herself . Mercy ’ s very straight @-@ talking , she ’ s quite ballsy and calls a spade a spade , and sometimes Lynsey wishes she had a bit of that gusto . So I think that ’ s what attracts her to Mercy " . Both Metcalfe and Hassan praised the friendship between Mercedes and Lynsey , with Metcalfe saying she " loved " the friendship and enjoyed seeing her persona " form a good bond with Lynsey " while Hassan praised the chemistry between herself and Metcalfe .
Riley was " furious " when he discovered Mercedes ' escorting , and told her he did not want her around their son Bobby . Regarding Mercedes ' maternal feelings for Bobby , she stated , " Mercedes feels that when she 's getting closer to Riley , she can bond a bit more with Bobby as well . But when Riley forgets her , she finds it a lot more difficult to cope with Bobby " . Mercedes explained that she did not sleep with Doctor Browning for money this time , which calmed Riley down . Metcalfe said that Mercedes was " very honest and open " with Riley and that they were " very natural together " . The actress said Riley had begun to " see that she 's really damaged and has been affected by what 's happened a lot more than she 's letting on " . Metcalfe added that Riley felt sorry for Mercedes after seeing the " vulnerable Mercedes , the one who doesn 't hurt people " . Metcalfe said that Mercedes wanted Riley back , but if she could not , she wanted to prevent anyone else from getting the life Mercedes would have had if she had married Riley . She added that although Mercedes wanted Riley back she loved Malachy more , and believed that Malachy was the love of Mercedes ' life .
The actress said that if Mercedes discovered Riley 's relationship with Lynsey she would " feel utterly betrayed " . To cause tension between the friends Mercedes discovered Riley 's relationship with Lynsey . Metcalfe said that her character gets " such a shock " but because of Mercedes ' close friendship with Lynsey she " might not react the way people expect " . Metcalfe went on to say that she felt her character 's feelings for Riley have " gone beyond love ... it 's an obsession now " . She explained that Mercedes ' plan was " more destructive than winning him back " , and that she was " playing a game . The old Mercedes will be back shortly " .
= = = Stalking Mitzeee = = =
Mitzeee begins being stalked . Her portrayer Shenton said Mitzeee was unaware of who the stalker was and that " Mercedes hasn 't even crossed her mind . She thinks it 's a crazed fan " . The viewers learn that it was Mercedes . The stalking stopped but later was resumed when Mitzeee and Riley begin a relationship . Shenton explained that the stalker had a key to Mitzeee 's flat and had been watching her every move , and said that " not only has the stalker come back , but they 've come back on a whole new level " . Shenton added that at this point " Mitzeee definitely has no idea that it 's Mercedes - in fact , Mercedes is probably the last person that she 'd suspect . She actually thinks that it 's Lynsey and accuses her , because it seems to make sense " .
When Mitzeee realised Mercedes was her stalker , Mercedes knocked Mitzeee out after Mitzeee tries to stab her . Mercedes realised that she will be blamed for stalking Mitzeee so she stabbed herself to convince people Mitzeee was mad . Metcalfe said the situation was born through " pure desperation " . She said that " the thought of Mitzeee , Riley and Bobby as a family together was too much for her to take , and she just saw red . I don 't think it 's something that Mercedes thought about or planned - she wouldn 't have even dreamed of doing it to herself . But at the time , she saw it as the only way out of the situation " . Shenton explained that Mitzeee was worried due to the stalker so she decided to take some antidepressants and drink wine , which as she states " isn 't a great combination . " Shenton revealed that Mercedes arrived to see Mitzee who " still has no idea who the stalker really is , but as they 're talking , Mercedes says something that makes Mitzeee discover the truth - and she 's totally shocked . Mitzeee is petrified and picks up a knife in the kitchen . The next thing you know , Mitzeee wakes up after being unconscious [ ... ] The first thing she sees is Mercedes with a stab wound and there is blood everywhere . Mitzeee doesn 't have a clue whether she could have stabbed Mercedes , or if someone else came into the flat and did it " .
According to Metcalfe , during Mercedes ' hospitalisation and recuperation she " starts putting it on to get sympathy . She 's determined to get what she wants " . Metcalfe explained that Mercedes did not " feel guilt at all - she just wants Riley back and she 'll do whatever it takes to get him " . Metcalfe believed that it was easy for Mercedes to lie ; " hence why she does it so much and so well ! " Mercedes felt that she had to lie , and found it easy to cry if she needed to , " especially if it will benefit her " . Metcalfe was unsure whether the audience would start to hate her character because she believed that Mercedes was not hateful . She stated , " I hope I 've done a good job and people still feel sorry for her " . She said that " the viewers have still been feeling some sympathy for Mercedes . I was getting lots of tweets saying , ' I feel so sorry for Mercedes , she needs to get back with Riley ' and ' Mitzeee is being a bitch ' " . Metcalfe said that she was surprised by the fans ' strong reaction . Hollyoaks executive producer Emma Smithwick also said that Mercedes " gets away with blue murder [ ... ] and yet there 's so much love for that character " . Smithwick told Daniel Kilkelly of Digital Spy that Mercedes would get her comeuppance for framing Mitzeee , saying : " there most definitely will be a comeuppance . With the stabbing , she did it so coolly and lied about it so easily - that can 't last forever " . Smithwick explained that Mercedes is " driven by her insecurities . She thinks she loves Riley and will do what it takes to win him . That 's what it 's about ... winning . Mitzeee crossed her - she is dispensable but Riley ... well , Riley is the prize . Mercedes Fisher usually gets what she wants and men usually fall in line with her . I want to see what happens when they don 't ... "
= = = Stillbirth = = =
Daniel Kilkelly of Digital Spy exclusively reported a new storyline for Hollyoaks as Mercedes and Joe Roscoe 's ( Ayden Callaghan ) unborn baby would die before birth in scenes to air in early November 2015 . It was revealed the show had been working with stillbirth charities , Count the Kicks and Sands to produce various ways mothers can monitor their unborn baby 's progress . Rival soap opera , EastEnders , had produced a similar storyline when Shabnam Masood and Kush Kazemi ( Rakhee Thakrar and Davood Ghadami ) lost their son Zaair before he was born , but fans were reassured the storyline had been planned months prior to the announcement of EastEnders 's storyline . It was revealed Mercedes would first admit her fears to John Paul and they visited the hospital where a doctor would inform them that their son had died . Kilkelly teased that the storyline would see how Mercedes coped with the situation , how it affects Mercedes and Joe 's relationship , as well as seeing the permanent return of Myra .
Metcalfe spoke of the new storyline , saying how " honoured " she was to take part in the storyline as well as praising the writer , Anna Clements : " I 'm honoured to have been given this storyline to raise awareness of such an important cause . Count the Kicks is a fantastic charity , which aims to teach expectant mothers about noticing changes in their pregnancy to reduce the risk of stillbirth . And working with Sands has helped me understand how Mercedes would cope with life after her baby has died . Mercedes has already been through so much tragedy in her life , but the death of her son will show a much more fragile side to her character . The scripts are brilliantly written by Anna Clements and with the help of the two charities , I was able to really understand what Mercedes is going through . " Erica Stewart , the bereavement support services manager at Sands , said : " We 're pleased to have been approached by the researchers and writers at Hollyoaks for advice and help to ensure that this heartbreaking storyline is portrayed truthfully and sensitively . Stillbirth is not rare and it 's a tragedy that can happen to anyone . Sadly thousands of babies die each year in the UK . In 2013 , over 100 babies every week were stillborn or died soon after birth . For a show like Hollyoaks with a youth focus to be covering this devastating experience is a brilliant way of raising awareness of the issues surrounding baby death among a younger audience who may have not otherwise come across them . " Metcalfe later further discussed the storyline , revealing that when she read the scripts she had " a lump in my throat " , which made cry and when she had finished reading the scripts , she was " sat their sobbing " . She continued to say : " When it came to playing it on set I did minimal rehearsals because I didn 't want to wear out the true meaning of the words . " before praising the script writing , calling them " brilliant " and stating she did not have to work hard to find the " level of emotion " , " The words were all there on the page . I broke down every time . "
The week prior to the scenes airing , it was revealed that Mercedes ' relationship to Joe would run into trouble when her former fling Lockie Campbell ( Nick Rhys ) tells Joe that they had kissed the previous day . Mercedes then tells Joe he is not the baby 's father during an argument and unbeknown to Mercedes , he leaves for Canada . When Mercedes discovers their son has died , she realises she needs Joe more than anything and regrets her actions . It was revealed that Mercedes would rely on John Paul , Nana and Theresa to comfort her through the birth of her son , whom she names Gabriel . Mercedes would later be left delighted when her mother , Myra returned to support her through Gabriel 's funeral before choosing to stay in Hollyoaks .
Following the E4 airing of the episodes , Metcalfe received positive feedback from various fans on social network , Twitter . Fans commented such comments such as , " heartbreaking " , " well written and acted " , " amazing performance " and " it 's good to see soaps raising awareness on such a taboo subject " . Metcalfe responded to the comments , by tweeting she was " overwhelmed reading all the comments about tonight 's @ Hollyoaks and the stillbirth storyline . ❤ ️ " The charity that worked with Hollyoaks , Count the Kicks also praised the show and Metcalfe , tweeting : " Brilliant portrayal from the doctor and Mercedes on @ Hollyoaks , genuine and accurate . @ missjenjomet . " The charity also reminded parents to report any non @-@ movements in a bid to save lives . The show received 866k viewers on Channel 4 on 3 November , with 504k viewing the E4 airing following afterwards . The following day , on 4 November , the Channel 4 airing received 740k viewers and the E4 airing received 623k viewers .
= = Storylines = =
Mercedes meets Russ Owen ( Stuart Manning ) and flirts with him , angering his girlfriend , Sophie Burton ( Connie Powney ) . Mercedes develops feelings for Russ and they have sex . They begin a relationship after Sophie dies . Russ is diagnosed with a sexually transmitted infection and wrongly accuses Mercedes of having an affair . She is angry with Russ and sleeps with Warren Fox ( Jamie Lomas ) . Mercedes discovers that her mother , Myra ( Nicole Barber @-@ Lane ) , is the cause of infection and Russ apologieses to Mercedes . Mercedes sleeps with Warren once again and feeling guilty , proposes marriage to Russ . He agrees , revealing that he was also going to propose . On the night before their wedding , Mercedes becomes intoxicated and has sex with Warren for a third time . On the same night , someone attempts to murder Clare Cunningham ( Gemma Bissix ) and Warren is arrested . Warren tries to prove his innocence as he was with Mercedes , but she denies it . At the wedding , Louise Summers ( Roxanne McKee ) interrupts the proceedings and confronts Mercedes . Mercedes half sister , Tina ( Leah Hackett ) , lies and gives her an alibi . Mercedes and Russ then marry and Warren is charged with Clare 's attempted murder . Mercedes agrees to be a witness at Warren 's trial and explains their affair , with Russ listening on . Russ then ends their relationship .
Mercedes has sex with Tony Hutchinson ( Nick Pickard ) , the boyfriend of her sister , Jacqui ( Claire Cooper ) . Mercedes discovers she is pregnant with Tony 's child and plans to have an abortion . Jacqui discovers the affair and asks Mercedes if she can raise the child herself , as she is unable to have children . However , Mercedes has an abortion . Mercedes has a brief relationship with Rhys Ashworth ( Andrew Moss ) and is upset to learn that he is having an incestuous affair with his half sister , Beth Clement ( Sinéad Moynihan ) . Mercedes and Darren Osborne ( Ashley Taylor Dawson ) make a bet : Darren has to have sex with Hannah Ashworth ( Emma Rigby ) , and if he does Mercedes promises to have sex with him . Darren accompanies an intoxicated Hannah home and takes a photo of her with no top on . Mercedes refuses to believe Darren , but sends the photo of Hannah to Hannah 's boyfriend , Danny Valentine ( David Judge ) . Danny ends his relationship with Hannah and sleeps with Mercedes .
Mercedes begins a casual relationship with Malachy Fisher ( Glen Wallace ) and develops feelings for him . When Malachy is diagnosed HIV @-@ positive , he avoids Mercedes and she has sex with his brother , Kris Fisher ( Gerard McCarthy ) . Mercedes discovers that Malachy is HIV @-@ positive and slaps him . She walks home alone and is kidnapped by her half @-@ brother Niall Rafferty ( Barry Sloane ) , along with the rest of her family , and takes them to an abandoned church . Niall causes an explosion , but Mercedes escapes . Malachy later comforts Mercedes and he proposes to her , but she refuses . Malachy then leaves for Belfast . After having sex with a stranger , Mercedes realises that she loves Malachy and travels to Belfast , where she accepts his proposal . Mercedes and Malachy marry . Mercedes learns that she has not contracted HIV from Malachy . Calvin Valentine ( Ricky Whittle ) , the ex @-@ husband of Mercedes half sister , Carmel ( Gemma Merna ) , hires Mercedes as a barmaid at The Loft nightclub and they later kiss . Mercedes and Calvin have sex , unaware that Malachy has seen them . They begin an affair and Mercedes is jealous then Calvin reconciles with Carmel . Calvin and Carmel then plan to remarry . On the day of their wedding , Mercedes attempts to seduce Calvin , but he rejects her . Malachy 's former girlfriend , Cheryl Brady ( Bronagh Waugh ) , later reveals Calvin and Mercedes affair to Carmel . Malachy then ends his marriage to Mercedes .
Mercedes becomes jealous of Malachy and his new girlfriend , Lynsey Nolan ( Karen Hassan ) . Mercedes lies to Lynsey and tells her that she is HIV @-@ positive . Mercedes tells Malachy and they secretly plan to reconcile . Lynsey learns of this and discovers Mercedes lied . Lynsey tells Malachy , who punches Mercedes . Mercedes and Malachy reconcile . However , Malachy is badly injured in an explosion and Mercedes is forced to turn off his life support and he dies . Malachy 's family are forced by Myra to invite Mercedes to his funeral despite discovering her infidelity . Mercedes gets into an argument with Billy Alexander ( Richard Graham ) at her aunt Kathleen McQueen ( Alison Burrows ) ' s fundraising event , after she accuses him of touching her . Carmel apologizes for Mercedes 's behaviour and agrees to have lunch with Billy . When Billy visits Carmel , Myra slaps him and reveals that he is the father of Mercedes and Jacqui . He tells Mercedes and Jacqui that he needs a kidney transplant and that they are the only likely donors . When Mercedes and Jacqui refuse to be donors , Kathleen tells Billy that he is the father of her daughter Theresa McQueen ( Jorgie Porter ) , confirming that Theresa is actually Mercedes and Jacqui 's half sister . Billy is later revealed to not be needing a kidney , and that it is actually Mercedes ' half sister Emily Alexander ( Elizabeth Henstridge ) . However , Mercedes isn 't interested and declines to be a donor , although Jacqui later agrees to be a donor but is revealed not to be a match , and Billy and Emily leave .
Mercedes begins a relationship with Riley Costello ( Rob Norbury ) . Riley 's father , Carl ( Paul Opacic ) , takes an instant dislike to Mercedes . This causes tension between Mercedes and Carl and they have sex . Carl and Mercedes begin an affair and Riley later proposes to Mercedes , which she accepts . Carl 's son and Riley 's brother , Seth ( Miles Higson ) , discovers the affair and threatens to tell Riley . Mercedes tells Seth that he cannot reveal the affair because she is pregnant with Riley 's child . She later tells Myra that she lied and is not pregnant . Myra tells Mercedes to fake a miscarriage , which Mercedes refuses . Mercedes attends an awards evening with Riley , where he becomes intoxicated . He accepts an award and attempts to get Mercedes onto the podium , but her high heel shoes becomes trapped in the step . As Riley pulls her , she loses her balance and falls to the ground . Myra then declares that Mercedes is having a miscarriage . Mercedes is taken to hospital , where she is told that she is in fact twelve weeks pregnant . She explains to Myra that she is unsure of the child 's paternity . On her wedding day she reveals her affair to Riley . Riley 's grandfather , Silas Blissett ( Jeff Rawle ) , who is a serial killer , kidnaps Mercedes and holds her captive in a basement , planning to kill her when the baby , his great @-@ grandchild , is born . Silas is then arrested for four murders , leaving Mercedes chained up , alone where she goes into labour . Lynsey asks Silas to tell them where Mercedes is and he refuses to tell her . She taunts him and he reveals where Mercedes is . Riley finds Mercedes , who is about to give birth . Mercedes gives birth to a boy , who is put in an incubator because of breathing difficulties . Mercedes is hurt when , after the birth , Riley declares he wants nothing more to do with Mercedes or the baby . However he later continues to visit Mercedes and the baby who Mercedes names Bobby . Mercedes returns to live with the McQueens and after Riley refuses to see Bobby , Mercedes agrees to do a paternity test . The results confirm that Riley is Bobby 's biological father . Mercedes and Riley argue over Bobby until Riley is transferred to a football club in Leeds and Mercedes asks him to take Bobby with him .
Mercedes has sex with Doctor Paul Browning ( Joe Thompson ) who assumes she is a prostitute and pays her afterwards . Mercedes becomes a cleaner in a hospital along with Lynsey . Mercedes meets Doctor Browning at the hospital and he asks to keep seeing and paying Mercedes which she agrees to . Mercedes convinces Lynsey to help a patient who is DNR . Lynsey is blamed for the incident and Mercedes discovers Doctor Browning had not put the patient 's DNR request into their file . Mercedes discovers Doctor Browning is married and threatens him , telling him she will tell his wife of their relationship should he report Lynsey . Mercedes joins an escorting website . She is contacted by a client and arranges to meet him at a hotel . Lynsey finds Mercedes and stops her going ahead with it . Mercedes becomes depressed and Jacqui meets Riley , telling him if Mercedes were to see Bobby then she would feel better . Riley later arrives back in Hollyoaks village asking Mercedes to sign legal documents so he will have full custody of Bobby .
Mercedes and Riley agree to attend mediation , but Mercedes does not turn up as she gets drunk . Mercedes sees an online news article showing a picture of Riley and Mitzeee together and considers running away with Bobby , but instead attends Bobby 's christening service . She witnesses Riley and Mitzeee kissing in the car park and later confronts them . Riley tells her that it was only a kiss . Mercedes begins stalking Mitzeee who leaves the village temporarily . Mercedes learns Silas will not be put to trial and will be put in an institute for the insane . Mercedes tells people she is fine but begins having nightmares of her time imprisoned by Silas . Mercedes meets up with Doctor Browning and has sex with him . Mercedes begins escorting again and while meeting a client , locks herself in the bathroom . Lynsey arrives and comforts Mercedes .
Mitzeee and Riley begin a relationship . Mercedes continues to stalk Mitzeee . Mitzeee accuses Lynsey of being her stalker . Mitzeee becomes axious after noticing her stalker has been in the flat . Mercedes and Lynsey go to visit Mitzeee and after Mitzeee threatens them with a knife Lynsey leaves to find Riley . Mitzeee realises Mercedes is her stalker and they fight . Mitzeee drops the knife and Mercedes hits her over the head with a bottle , rendering her unconscious . Mercedes sees Lynsey and Riley returning to the flat and feeling desperate , stabs herself in the stomach in an attempt to turn Riley against Mitzeee . In hospital Mercedes tells Riley and her family that Mitzeee stabbed her . Lynsey discovers that Mercedes is Mitzeee 's stalker . Mercedes discharges herself from hospital to speak to Lynsey . However , Lynsey is found dead in her flat , having been murdered . Mercedes enters into a relationship with Doctor Browning to make Riely jealous . Jacqui calls Mercedes and tells her she has found Lynsey 's scarf in Doctor Browning 's drawer . He then confesses to killing Lynsey to protect Mercedes . She tries to run , but he kidnaps her and drives out of the village . Mercedes agrees to run away with him , but the police find them and arrest Doctor Browning .
Mercedes reunites with Riley and they agree to marry . Mitzeee escapes from a psychiatric hospital , she confronts Mercedes and threatens her with a knife . Carl returns and attempts to persuade Riley not to marry Mercedes . Mercedes hears a conversation between Riley and Carl in which Riley admits that he does not love Mercedes and that he recently had sex with Mitzeee . Angered , Mercedes kidnaps Bobby in an attempt to punish Riley . Mercedes accuses Mitzeee of kidnapping Bobby . Mercedes convinces Phoebe Jackson ( Mandip Gill ) to look after Bobby . Mercedes sends a letter to Riley asking for half a million pounds ransom money . When dropping off the ransom money , Riley sees Mercedes and accuses her of kidnapping Bobby . Realising Mercedes has kidnapped Bobby , Phoebe tells Riley . Mercedes takes Bobby to the rooftop of a building , threatening to throw herself and Bobby off . Mercedes gives Riley Bobby and she agrees to leave with the ransom money . They return to the McQueen household where Mercedes ' involvement in the kidnap is revealed by Phoebe . Myra reveals Mercedes ' stabbing of herself and calls the police who arrest Mercedes . Riley is shot and killed by Simon Walker ( Neil Newbon ) . In prison Mercedes shows further signs of mental illness , denying to herself that Riley has died . Mercedes is later taken to a psychiatric hospital . Doctor Browning pleads innocent in his trial . When Myra visits Mercedes , Mercedes appears distressed and asks Myra to help her . Myra contacts lawyer Jim . At the trial , Jim suggests Riley was abusive towards Mercedes and stabbed her . He also suggests that Lynsey knew of this so Riley killed her . Mercedes backs up the claims and tells the courtroom that Riley had threatened to kill her so she kidnapped Bobby to protect him from Riley . The jury give a not guilty verdict for both charges of perverting the course of justice and Mercedes is released . Myra tells Mercedes she can not come home and instead tells her to move in to Jacqui 's old flat that has recently been flooded .
After discharging Mercedes from hospital , Lynsey is found dead and Browning confirms her time of death . He forges Mercedes ' discharge papers so it appears as though she left hospital after Lynsey 's murder . He moves into the flat next door to Riley to be closer to Mercedes . He blackmails Mercedes with the papers and tells her that she can make Riley jealous if they pretend to be in a relationship . His wife , Helen Browning visits Mercedes and warns her that Browning will ruin her life . She has a black eye and Mercedes uses this to give Riley the impression that Browning has been hitting her . Doctor Browning says Mercedes is lying and she leaves him . Browning finds Mercedes and they share their secrets about bad deeds . He tells her that he loves her no matter what she has done and they become closer . When Mercedes finds out the truth about Browning killing Lynsey , Browning kidnaps her and drives off . He suggests that they go abroad and Mercedes agrees , but the police arrive and arrest him . Mercedes is shocked when Browning is released , blaming Lynsey 's murder on Riley . Browning surprises Mercedes on Christmas Eve and spends Christmas with Mercedes ' family . Mercedes is thrown out by her family and Browning proposes marriage to her which she accepts . Myra makes up with Mercedes after Browning leads her to believe she has cancer . Mercedes is nearly raped by Browning 's boss Davies after Browning offers Mercedes up to him for sex in exchange for his job being saved following the situation with Myra , but she is saved by Browning and he proposes to her .
Mercedes and Browning travel to Las Vegas . There she meets up with Clare Devine ( Gemma Bissix ) , who tells her that Browning tried to seduce her . They concoct a plan to extort money from Browning . Mercedes is helped by Clare to fake her disappearance and blackmail him for ransom money . When Mercedes realizes that Clare has been lying she decides to stop the scheme . However Clare knocks Mercedes unconscious and takes her hostage . Clare manages to take Doctor Browning prisoner and locks both Mercedes and him in a cage . She threatens them with two vicious dogs and Jacqui finds the ransom money . Clare is then sent to prison . Mercedes helps Jacqui fake her death , after she steals from criminal Trevor Royle ( Greg Wood ) and uncovers Trudy Ryan ( Danniella Westbrook ) ' s human trafficking circle . Mercedes stays with Jacqui , who has fled to Alicante , for a few days , before returning to the village . Myra discovers Browning is a murderer and attempts to end his relationship with Mercedes , starting up a hate campaign between the pair . Mercedes and her siblings are horrified when they learn Myra was killed by Browning , and Mercedes fights with him in The Loft over this and him attempting to kill Cindy Cunningham ( Stephanie Waring ) . Mercedes is nearly killed by Browning , but she is saved by the police and shouts verbal abuse as Browning is arrested . John Paul later reveals to the family that Myra faked her death to escape Browning and Trevor Royle 's clutches . Determined to get over the tragedy that has befallen her , Mercedes takes up Clare 's offer , after she is released from prison and makes amends with her , of a 30th birthday party at The Loft , unaware that Clare is secretly planning to blow the club up with Mercedes inside to get her revenge . However , Sinead O 'Connor ( Stephanie Davis ) believes the bag containing the bomb has money and takes it to Ste Hay ( Kieron Richardson ) ' s leaving party , causing a huge explosion at the block of flats when Clare detonates the bomb . Mercedes is furious and confronts Clare in the street , and a fight breaks out between the two women . Mercedes pushes Clare into the road and she is run over by a car and killed instantly .
Mercedes is shocked when the driver of the car gets out and is revealed as Browning , who has escaped from prison . He holds Mercedes prisoner and forces her into the car , driving off and leaving Clare 's body in the road . He takes her to the empty McQueen house and attempts to kill her , but Cindy and Lindsey Butterfield ( Sophie Austin ) arrive and Mercedes batters Browning with a shovel , killing him . The three women panic and put Browning 's body into bin liners , stashing it in the attic of the McQueen home . When they discover that the attic is going to have new insulation a few weeks later , the three women scramble to dispose of the body and enlist the help of Freddie Roscoe ( Charlie Clapham ) to hide the body . Mercedes and the others place Browning 's body in his car and push it off a cliff , making it appear that Browning had committed suicide after escaping prison . Cindy however panics and alerts the police to the car crash scene . Police officer Sam Lomax ( Lizzie Roper ) discovers that Mercedes , Cindy and Lindsey were involved in Browning 's murder and brings them in for questioning . When they all confess , she lets them go , explaining that she has had to make some decisions to get rid of bad people , and the three women are set free , and Sam disposes of the evidence .
Mercedes enjoys a fling with Freddie and then soon begin a relationship . The pair get into a feud with Grace Black ( Tamara Wall ) and Trevor over The Loft , which they work in and run . Mercedes is left angry and disappointed when she walks in on Lindsey and Freddie kissing . So when Mercedes discovers that Freddie killed Grace 's father Fraser Black ( Jesse Birdsall ) for his mistreatment of his mother , Sandy Roscoe ( Gillian Taylforth ) , she uses this information to blackmail him . She forms strong friendships with Cindy and Lindsey , whom she bonded with over Browning 's death , and helps Cindy 's daughter Holly Cunningham ( Amanda Clapham ) when she suspects Cindy has had a mental breakdown . Mercedes also helps Theresa , who is serving a prison sentence for Calvin 's murder after his brother Sonny Valentine ( Aaron Fontaine ) had tricked Carmel into reporting Theresa to the police , to escape by forcing a pregnant Theresa to fake labour . Mercedes enters the hospital dressed as a doctor and helps Theresa escape , but Sonny tracks them down . Myra , who has returned from Spain , knocks Sonny unconscious and the trio try to escape , but the police catch them and Theresa is returned to prison . Mercedes supports John Paul when he reveals that he was raped by one of his students , Finn O 'Connor ( Keith Rice ) and Mercedes starts a feud with Finn 's stepmother Diane O 'Connor ( Alex Fletcher ) , who protests Finn 's innocence . Mercedes , Myra , Nana and Carmel publicly embarrass Diane and support John Paul in court at Finn 's trial , when Finn protests his innocence and lies , claiming that John Paul molested him , but Finn is found guilty for the rape and sent to prison .
Carmel is killed in a train crash and a ring disappears from Carmel 's body . The McQueen family accuse Mercedes of stealing it . Porsche McQueen ( Twinnie Lee Moore ) eventually owns up to stealing it . Mercedes prepares to leave the village but she is stopped and stabbed by an unknown assailant in her home . Police find blood in the kitchen an launch a murder investigation . Freddie is arrested but later goes on the run with Lindsey . Grace is revealed to be Mercedes ' killer and carries on with a scheme to frame Freddie . Joe discovers the truth but Grace asks him to board a flight to France . He agrees and when he arrives at a villa Mercedes meets him and explains that she and Grace are framing Freddie for murder . She reveals that Grace stabbed her to make it look authentic and received money in exchange . Lindsey sees Grace talking to Mercedes via a webcam but the police accuse her of lying . When Phoebe is arrested for Mercedes ' murder after being framed by Lindsey , Mercedes threatens to come home if Grace does not secure Phoebe 's release .
Mercedes is smuggled back into Chester by Trevor after Grace is arrested and charged with her murder . Mercedes is later kidnapped by Freddie and he forces her to leave the village again , or he will kill her for real . Mercedes is caught in the garage by Phoebe , however , and she urges her to visit Nana in hospital after being trapped in a fire . When she visits Nana , Porsche slaps Mercedes and questions her on why she did what she did . Nana then tells Mercedes to leave the village and never return after everything she has put the family through . While Mercedes is leaving the hospital , she is caught by Trevor and he tells her that if she doesn 't stay in the village , then he will kill Phoebe . Mercedes apologize to her half @-@ brother John Paul for not attend his wedding with Ste , only discover that he already divorce with him .
Unknown to him Mercedes later becomes pregnant with Joe Roscoe 's ( Ayden Callaghan ) child , he is later admitted to hospital and loses the use of his legs after an attack from Robbie Roscoe ( Charlie Wernham ) his brother . Along with John Paul , Mercedes began to affair with their cousin Porsche 's husband Lockie Campbell . At the same time Mercedes slowly Starts to develop feelings for Joe , but is scared if she can stay faithful to him so she decides to go to Valencia with Freddie . She later decided not to go through with it and gets with Joe . Soon after , Mercedes and Joe broke up after a heated argument , ending with her declaring that the paternity of her baby wasn 't Joe . The same day Mercedes confided in John Paul about her fears for her unborn baby . Which leads them to go to the hospital to gain answers , but it is revealed that Mercedes baby had died and they asked her to prepare for induced labour . Mercedes is devastated and later goes to find Joe for support but is left even more heartbroken when Jason Roscoe tells her that he had left the village prior to their argument . She is left to face giving birth alone , but is relieved when her family arrive to support her , as she collapsed into their arms . After giving birth to her son who she decided to call Gabriel , Mercedes is left overwhelmed with grief and the funeral costs . So her half sister Theresa decided to help raise the cash by doing a naked photo shoot . However even after the money for the funeral had been gathered , Mercedes is still left heartbroken and distraught . Seeing her half sister in so much pain , Theresa decided to make a phone call to Mercedes mum , Myra , telling her that she should come home to support Mercedes when she needs her most . At Gabriel 's funeral , Mercedes is overwhelmed and disliked the flowers and music , so she kissed Gabriel 's coffin and walked out , leaving her family concerned . Myra finds Mercedes sitting on the outside bench , and comfronts her . Mercedes is delighted to see her and as they head home , she explains why she stormed out . When they enter the McQueen house , she is delighted to see that her family has arranged a mini memorial service for Gabriel . As she gets ready to say goodbye to Gabriel , she lets off a balloon into the sky and holds onto the teddy bear Theresa got her . After finding out from his brother , Robbie that Gabriel had died , Joe headed to the McQueen house and demanded to see Mercedes , but she refused to go and talk to him . After explaining to Myra why she didn 't want to see Joe , Myra urges her to tell Joe the truth . Mercedes later goes to find Joe at Gabriel 's grave , she almost tells him the truth , but can 't go thought with it , after he confessed he still loves her . She then realises that Joe has been hurt to much , and that she loves him so she doesn 't want to lose him . She then tells Myra that she will never tell Joe the truth . Mercedes and Joe then decide to go on holiday for a while to clear their heads .
On New Year 's Eve , Mercedes finally decides to tell Joe about Gabriel 's paternity . Joe breaks up with her , and sleeps with Lindsay . Lindsay believes that she and Joe are back together , but Joe has secretly met up with Mercedes at Gabriel 's grave and decided that Mercedes needs him more than ever , and they reconcile .
Cindy moves into the Roscoe house when it is revealed that she is a bigamist , and is married to Mac Nightingale ( David Easter ) as well as Dirk Savage ( David Kennedy ) . Lindsey develops a stomach bug , and Cindy jokes that she may be pregnant . Lindsey sees this as an opportunity to get Joe back , and steals a pregnancy test from Dee Valley Hospital . Lindsey then plants the test in the bathroom for Joe to find . Joe mistakenly believes Mercedes is the one who is pregnant . Mercedes states that she is not pregnant , and Lindsey reveals that it is her , but says a doctor from the hospital is the father . She secretly tells Joe he is the father , but Mercedes finds out that the doctor at the hospital hasn 't been anywhere near Lindsey , and he has had a vasectomy . Lindsey then tells Mercedes that Joe is the father when Mercedes confronts her . Joe tells Mercedes that it is true , but he still wants to be with her . Mercedes believes him , until Lindsey says that she belongs with Joe and they will finally have a brother or sister for JJ . Mercedes then breaks up with Joe , saying he has his perfect family with Lindsey and that she cannot ruin it as Lindsey can give him the baby that she couldn 't . She then sends a message to her brother , John Paul , explaining what had happened , she hugs him and leaves in a taxi .
Mercedes returns two months later , and is shocked to learn that Lindsey 's younger sister , Kim Butterfield ( Daisy Wood @-@ Davis ) , has been imprisoned for killing seven patients at the local hospital . However , after discussing the matter with Kim 's ex @-@ girlfriend Esther Bloom ( Jazmine Franks ) , herself a victim of the killer when they tried to murder her , they realise that Lindsey is the serial killer after an earring matching Lindsey 's was dropped when Esther was attacked . Mercedes confronts Lindsey with Cindy , and she confesses to the murders and attempted murders . Lindsey then strikes both Mercedes and Cindy with a large book , being escaping and adopting a disguise so that she is unrecognisable . Mercedes is desperate for Lindsey to be caught and so Joe 's baby son , JJ , not be abducted , and moves back in with Joe and Freddie .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Mercedes was selected as one of the " top 100 British soap characters " by industry experts for a poll run by What 's on TV entitled " Who is Soap 's Greatest Legend ? " , in which readers regularly vote for their favourite character . In her book Soap Stars , Debbie Foy featured Metcalfe and described Mercedes as " having a dangerous streak and is always causing trouble or has a scam on the go , she enjoys taking risks and usually seems to get what she wants " . Virgin Media listed Mercedes ' wedding to Russ amongst their list of " Soap 's biggest wedding day disasters " before adding that " McQueen weddings are full of drama , and Russ and Mercedes ' big day was no exception " . Virgin Media later profiled some of Hollyoaks ' " hottest females " in their opinion , and stated about Mercedes , " As one of the hottest ladies in Hollyoaks , with curves to die for , Mercedes has had more men than hot dinners . And now Malachy 's met his maker , we 're sure it won 't be long till Mercedes earns yet another notch on her bedpost " . The Liverpool Echo described Mercedes ' desire to marry saying , " Mercedes has finally got what she 's wanted for so long - a great big gleaming rock on her finger . Not that it matters who gave it to her , of course " . Anthony D. Langford from AfterElton praised Mercedes , saying he loved the character and had these affections " Because frankly , she scares the bejeezus out of me . This is one tough chick [ ... ] As hard edged as she is , it 's obvious she loves her brother dearly , and heaven help anyone who hurts a member of her family " .
Inside Soap 's Sarah praised Metcalfe 's performances as " love cheat Mercedes " , calling them " stellar " . On the character , a journalist from the Liverpool Echo said that " she 's got herself in to some ridiculous situations in the past , but mark Mercedes ' words , she will not be pushed around " . A writer for the Liverpool Daily Post commented that " say what you like about Mercedes , but she 's good at getting what she wants " . The Wirral News 's Laura Cox called Mercedes ' pairing with Riley " Hollyoaks ' favourite on @-@ off couple " before dubbing the storyline " dramatic " . She added that the storyline " kept viewers on tenterhooks " .
Jaci Stephen of the Daily Mail felt that Mercedes was one of " the two sexiest people in Hollyoaks " , that infidelity is part of her " family 's standards " , that " Mercedes all but has the word ' slapper ' tattooed on her forehead and looks as guilty as the Pope in a brothel " and that it was unfortunate that Mercedes would not " disappear into the sunset at 100mph " . Stephen commented that there were not " many occasions when Mercedes fails to get her kit off for at least one of the lads [ ... ] This time , Carl 's the victim / lucky recipient ( depending on your viewpoint ) when he sets out to prove that Mercedes is a slut . Blimey . With her track record , how much proof does anyone need ? " Stephen commented on Mercedes and Jacqui saying that if they " started charging for sex - they 'd never worry about money again . It would be a busman 's holiday for them . They could even make it a family business - slappersRus.com " . Stephen questioned whether Mercedes would " get her perfect wedding " and then answered , " Expect gunmen / bombs / fights / murders . Get her to the church on time , but make sure there ’ s a getaway car waiting , too " . When Mercedes was kidnapped , Stephen said that Mercedes was " very unlucky with being centre @-@ siege " . Stephen added that " Still , she 's been in more terrifying situations – actually , she 's only been in terrifying situations . Any chance of her just enjoying a double espresso once in a while ? " Stephen 's colleague Caroline Fitton commented on Mercedes ' doubts about whether she could bring Bobby up alone saying it was " entirely understandable " due to Mercedes being unable to restrain from regularly " changing clothes , cosmetics , jobs or men – let alone children " . Stephen felt that due to Mercedes ' recent behaviour she would have to chloroform her new boyfriend , adding that to Mercedes a " bloke 's a bloke , conscious or unconscious " .
Regarding the feud between Mercedes and Mitzeee , All About Soap columnist Laura Morgan commented that it was shocking that she felt sorry for Mercedes . She explained that even though Mercedes was " a nasty cow " because of the feud she was a " woman teetering on the verge of a massive meltdown " . Upon Mercedes telling Riley she has no need to be angry with Silas not sitting trial Morgan said she could tell Mercedes had been " knocked her for six " , adding that Mercedes could not " hide anything from us " . The journalist added that " Mercedes did what Mercedes does best and decided a randy hook @-@ up [ ... ] was just what she needed to get her mind off Silas . After slapping on the war paint and selecting her sluttiest outfit , minxy Merc headed to a grotty hotel " . She went on to explain that " Mercedes knows she ’ s sinking . She pretty much admitted it when the doc asked her if she hated him and she replied , “ I guess I hate myself a little more ... ” So why doesn ’ t she get some help before she totally and utterly loses the plot ? [ ... ] we ’ re missing our tart @-@ with @-@ a @-@ heart Mercedes . We want to see her flirting her way around the village again , but without her finger firmly on the self @-@ destruct button ... "
Stephen also commented on the feud , opining that while " Mercedes and Mitzeee are hardly Dynasty 's Alexis and Krystle , they are enjoying quite a good spat " . After Mercedes ' stalking of Mitzeee , Stephen went on to say : " No one could deny that Mercedes has had one heck of an exciting life . Siege victim , kidnap victim , depressive , stalker ... " Stephen urged Mercedes to realise that " there are other guys in the world apart from Riley . True , you 've had them all , but you could simply start going round the circuit again " . She added that Mercedes does not have much to lose in her life . After her stalking of Mitzeee , Mercedes went on to stab herself , on this Carena Crawford of All About Soap said the episode itself was a " huge shocker " due to Mercedes ' actions . Crawford added that when Mercedes realises she will be blamed for knocking Mitzeee unconscious she sees the knife and " mad Mercedes came up with the perfect plan and we winced as she plunged the blade into her own stomach , knowing everyone would think Mitzeee did it ! So now manipulative Mercedes has the upper hand over her rival [ ... ] After all , who ’ d suspect anyone of stabbing themselves – very few people are warped enough to do that " .
Stephen of the Daily Mail pondered whether Mercedes sleeps , saying " I can ’ t imagine her taking a rest from thinking about blokes long enough to enjoy a trip to the Land of Nod " . She added that Mercedes confiding secrets in Doctor Browning " served only to bring them closer . Usually , half a lager is all it takes to induce such a closeness , so I suppose we can call it progress " .
Langford from AfterElton praised Mercedes ' part in Lynsey 's murder storyline , saying he was " loving " Metcalfe as " scheming Mercedes " . He commented that he did not believe Mercedes killed Lynsey because " as crazy as Mercedes is , I don ’ t think she ’ s a killer , but watching her benefit from Lynsey ’ s murder by worming her way back into Riley ’ s life has been delicious to watch " . Langford said that he was " loving the dysfunctional affair between Mercedes and the bad Dr. Browning . Their scenes are hot and they are so suited for each other . The games they play with each other are a hoot " . He later added that Mercedes and Doctor Browning have " blistering " chemistry , saying that he is perfect for a " twisted girl like Mercedes . I loved their scenes — they were hot , hot , hot . I really thought they made a delicious and fun couple . But now it ’ s all ruined with Browning being a killer " . Morgan of All About Soap felt that Doctor Browning 's act of killing of Lynsey " was a crime of passion , but there ’ s no way Mercy is worth killing for " . Morgan later questioned why Mitzeee did not " just finish the job ? ! " when she threatened Mercedes with a knife .
After Riley proposed to Mercedes , Crawford commented that she does not " believe she really loves him . We still think this was all about winning for her " . Crawford added that she is " really hoping Mercedes is found out soon before Riley says his vows . Little Bobby needs a stable mother , not mental Mercy " . Stephen of the Daily Mail later questioned whether Mercedes will " bag Riley before she gets her bus pass at 60 ? " She added that Mercedes accusation that Mitzeee has kidnapped Bobby " is relative small fry " in comparison to her other recent misdemeanours . Morgan of All About Soap said that " the end of tonight ’ s episode was the moment fans had been patiently waited for – evil Mercedes was being carted off down the cop shop " . She added that Riley " come perilously close to pushing Mercedes over that rooftop , but that wouldn ’ t have been a bad thing , right ? " Following Mercedes ' trial , Crawford opined that she could not " quite believe she managed it , but she was cleared of all charges – will the mixed @-@ up McQueen ever get her comeuppance ? We ’ ll give Mercy her dues : she gave an outstanding performance in court – even we were left wondering if Riley had actually abused her – so a non @-@ the @-@ wiser jury had no chance against the wily woman " . She added that " someone needs to stand up to merciless Mercy " . Stephen felt that Myra deciding whether to give Mercedes another chance would be difficult as she would have to " manage to keep up with the many personalities the show has given the girl ? Short of turning her into a gay dwarf , there can ’ t be many transformations left " .
Many fans of the show were outraged when Mercedes was supposedly murdered by Freddie Roscoe in November 2014 , just a week after her sister Carmel died in a train crash . However , Jennifer Metcalfe stated that : ' Mercedes 's departure is totally shrouded in mystery . Running up to the week where she exits , she has really annoyed pretty much everyone in the village , so it 's ' who 's done it ? ' . The story line was billed as a complete mystery , as the viewers don 't completely know what happened between Mercedes and her killer on the night at the McQueen house , or whether or not she was actually dead .
= = = Accolades = = =
During her time on the serial Metcalfe has been nominated for a variety of awards for her portrayal of Mercedes . Metcalfe was nominated for " Sexiest Female " at the 2007 British Soap Awards . She was soon after nominated for " Best Bitch " and " Sexiest Female " at the 2007 Inside Soap Awards . In 2008 , at the British Soap Awards and the Digital Spy Soap Awards Metcalfe was nominated in the " Sexiest Female " category . Later that year , at the Inside Soap Awards , she was nominated for " Best Bitch " and " Sexiest Female " , the same year Niall terrorising the McQueen family was nominated for " Best Storyline " . At the 2009 British Soap Awards Metcalfe was nominated for " Best Actress " and " Sexiest Female " at the same time that Niall 's revenge on the McQueens was nominated for " Best Storyline " and the church explosion in which Mercedes was involved was nominated for " Spectacular Scene " . At the 2009 Inside Soap Awards Metcalfe was nominated for " Sexiest Female " and the conclusion to Niall 's revenge was nominated for " Best Storyline " ; the McQueen family also won the award for " Best Family " that year . At the 2010 All About Soap Bubble Awards Mercedes and Calvin were nominated for the " Fatal Attraction " award in the category of " Most sizzling couple " . [ 117 ] At the 2010 Inside Soap Awards Metcalfe was again nominated for the " Sexiest Female " award ; she was also nominated for " Sexiest Female " and " Best Actress " at the British Soap Awards ceremony . [ 118 ] [ 119 ] In 2011 Metcalfe was nominated in the category of " Sexiest Female " at the British Soap Awards and for " Best Actress " and " Sexiest Female " at the Inside Soap Awards . [ 120 ] [ 121 ] At the 2011 TRIC Awards Metcalfe was nominated for " TV Soap Personality " for her portrayal of Mercedes . [ 122 ] In 2012 Metcalfe was nominated for " Best Actress " at the TV Choice Awards , [ 123 ] " Sexiest Female " and " Best Actress " at the British Soap Awards , [ 124 ] and " Best Actress " , " Best Bitch " and " Sexiest Female " at the Inside Soap Awards . [ 125 ]
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= Georgi Kinkladze =
Georgi Kinkladze ( Georgian : გიორგი ქინქლაძე ; born 6 July 1973 ) , also spelled Georgiou , or Giorgi , or shortened to Gio , is a Georgian former footballer , who played as a playmaking midfielder . Born in the Georgian capital Tbilisi , his first professional club was Mretebi Tbilisi . In Georgia he won three league titles and two cups with Dinamo Tbilisi , and was named national player of the year twice . He first came to international prominence with his performances for the Georgian national team against Wales in 1994 and 1995 .
Kinladze transferred from Dinamo Tbilisi to English Premier League club Manchester City in 1995 , where his dribbling ability and spectacular goals made him a cult hero , winning the club 's Player of the Year award in two consecutive seasons . Kinkladze stayed with Manchester City despite relegation to the Football League First Division in 1996 , but the club continued to decline , and after a second relegation in 1998 he joined Dutch champions Ajax . Kinkladze was unable to settle in the Netherlands , and returned to England with Derby County a little over a year later . He spent four years at Derby , making nearly 100 appearances . After leaving Derby in 2003 , he became a journeyman footballer , having unsuccessful trials at several clubs before joining Cypriot club Anorthosis in 2004 , where he won a league championship medal . He finished his playing career with Russian club Rubin Kazan in 2006 .
= = Early life = =
Georgi Kinkladze was born on 6 July 1973 in Tbilisi , Georgia , which was then part of the Soviet Union . As a child , he lived in the Didube district of the city with his father , Robinzon ( an engineer ) , his mother Khatuna ( a teacher ) and his elder sister . Robinzon was keen to see his son succeed as a footballer , sometimes making him walk around the family home on his knees to strengthen his legs , and enrolled him for Dinamo Tbilisi 's junior side when he was six years old . Khatuna disapproved of some of her husband 's methods , instead taking Georgi to lessons in mtiuluri , a traditional Georgian ballet . Over the next few years , Kinkladze played in Dinamo Tbilisi 's youth teams , progressing as far as the reserve team , where he played alongside Shota Arveladze , who would later become his team @-@ mate at both senior and international level .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Early career = = =
When Georgian football formed leagues independent of Soviet competition in 1989 , a family friend arranged for Kinkladze to move to Mretebi Tbilisi , the first openly professional club in the Soviet Union . Mretebi Tbilisi were a smaller club playing at a lower level , but the move gave Kinkladze the opportunity to play first team football instead of playing for Dinamo 's second team . Kinkladze made his professional debut aged 16 , and immediately became a first team regular . In 1991 Kinkladze 's Mretebi won the Pirveli Liga , and won promotion to the highest division following a play @-@ off .
After a season in the top flight with Mretebi , Kinkladze was signed by Dinamo Tbilisi , the team he represented as a youth , for one million roubles . In September 1992 , shortly after signing for Dinamo , Kinkladze made his senior international debut , aged 19 . The match , against Azerbaijan , was the Georgian national side 's fourth since breaking from the Soviet Union in 1991 . Kinkladze 's youth @-@ level team @-@ mate Shota Arveladze also played in the match , and Kinkladze provided an assist for a goal by Arveladze .
In Kinkladze 's first season at the club , Dinamo won a league and cup double . However , due to the ongoing Georgian Civil War , during 1993 the Dinamo Tbilisi management sought to put their players in a more stable environment . As part of this , Kinkladze was sent on loan to 1 . FC Saarbrücken in Germany . Kinkladze made his Saarbrücken debut in a 2 . Bundesliga match against Tennis Borussia Berlin , a 2 – 2 draw on 4 March 1994 . He was unable to settle into the side at Saarbrücken , rarely playing a full 90 minutes , and was sent off in a 1 – 3 defeat to Hertha Berlin . At the end of the season , Kinkladze returned to Tbilisi to resume his career in Georgia , where he was named the national Player of the Year for 1993 . Dinamo president Merab Jordania was still uncomfortable with Kinkladze playing in Georgia amid political instability , and offered the player to Atlético Madrid for approximately £ 200 @,@ 000 ; they gave him a trial , but no contract . He then trained with Real Madrid 's reserves , where he caught the eye of Boca Juniors scouts , who took him to Argentina for a month 's loan . Kinkladze met his childhood hero Diego Maradona , but did not gain a permanent contract , as manager Silvio Marzolini regarded him as too similar to Boca 's Argentine international playmaker Alberto Márcico .
In September 1994 , Kinkladze was part of the Georgian team that played Moldova in Tbilisi . Italian clubs became interested in Kinkladze after seeing footage of his performance , and the Italian press nicknamed Kinkladze the " Rivera of the Black Sea " , but no concrete attempts to sign him took place . It was not until Manchester City chairman Francis Lee saw the recording that negotiations for a permanent move abroad occurred . Enthused by Kinkladze 's display , Lee contacted Jordania , securing an agreement that Manchester City would have first refusal should Dinamo wish to sell the player .
Two months later , Kinkladze scored his first international goal as Georgia defeated Wales 5 – 0 . Wales goalkeeper Neville Southall later said of the game " They murdered us ... [ Kinkladze ] was different class and the best player on the pitch by a mile . " When the teams met again at Cardiff Arms Park , scouts from several clubs saw Kinkladze score the only goal of the game with a 20 @-@ yard ( 18 m ) chip over Southall . In his last season with Dinamo , the team once again won the double . Kinkladze had scored 14 goals in 21 appearances , and clubs from several countries expressed interest in signing him . Jordania kept true to his agreement with Lee , and on 15 July 1995 , Kinkladze signed for Manchester City . The fee was generally reported as £ 2 million . After initial difficulties obtaining a work permit , Kinkladze made his debut for Manchester City against Tottenham Hotspur in a 1 – 1 draw on 19 August 1995 .
= = = Manchester City = = =
Manchester City 's form was poor during the 1995 – 96 season . The team failed to win a single league game in the first three months of the season , but Kinkladze quickly became a popular figure . Kinkladze 's first goal for the club occurred in a 1 – 0 win against Aston Villa , following a one @-@ two with Niall Quinn . Kinkladze was initially homesick , as he was living in a hotel and spoke little English . In an effort to resolve his homesickness , his mother moved to Manchester to provide him with familiar food . By the time Manchester City travelled to Middlesbrough on 9 December 1995 , press and supporters regarded Kinkladze as the star player of the Manchester City side . The match against Middlesbrough was billed as a contest between Kinkladze and the Brazilian playmaker Juninho . Kinkladze scored the opening goal with a solo effort , but the match ended 4 – 1 to Middlesbrough . However , the Middlesbrough fans subsequently voted Kinkladze the " Best Opposing Player of the Season " . On 16 March 1996 , Kinkladze scored a particularly spectacular goal in a 2 – 1 win against Southampton . Kinkladze beat five players before chipping the ball over Southampton goalkeeper Dave Beasant . The goal won BBC programme Match of the Day 's " Goal of the Month " , and placed second in the programme 's " Goal of the Season " competition .
On the final day of the season , Manchester City were relegated to the First Division , prompting transfer speculation linking Kinkladze to a number of clubs including Barcelona , Internazionale , Liverpool , and Celtic . However , he opted to stay at Manchester City , where he had been named Player of the Year for 1995 – 96 . The 1996 – 97 season proved a turbulent one for Manchester City , and over the course of the season , Kinkladze played for five different managers . With Keith Curle no longer at the club , Kinkladze became the main penalty taker , and also scored a number of goals from free @-@ kicks , including a 35 @-@ yard ( 32 m ) effort against Swindon Town described by English newspaper Manchester Evening News as " like a missile " . In the First Division , Kinkladze frequently had two or even three opposing players assigned to man mark him . Several teams chose to combat Kinkladze 's playmaking skill with robust tackles ; in one such match on 11 January 1997 , against Crystal Palace , Kinkladze had to be stretchered off following a challenge by David Hopkin . Manchester City finished the season well below the promotion places , and again , there was speculation that Kinkladze would leave the club . At the final match of the season on 3 May 1997 , a 3 – 2 win against Reading , Manchester City supporters campaigned to keep Kinkladze at the club , even though he was not playing in the match , due to injury . The campaign even extended to the half @-@ time advertisements on the scoreboard , the " adverts " being messages from supporter groups who had paid to display them . Kinkladze was named Player of the Year for the second consecutive season , and one month after the season ended , he announced his intention to stay at the club by signing a new three @-@ year contract . Kinkladze used the proceeds from his new contract to buy a Ferrari , though the car caused consternation among club officials . Their fears were realised on 29 October 1997 , when Kinkladze lost control of his vehicle and crashed into a motorway bridge in Hale . Kinkladze received back injuries requiring 30 stitches , and missed two matches as a result .
Manchester City 's downward trajectory toward the Second Division continued in the 1997 – 98 season , and on 17 February 1998 , manager Frank Clark was sacked . His replacement , Joe Royle , was appointed City manager on 18 February 1998 . He had a reputation for playing defensive midfielders , which led to his Everton team being nicknamed the " Dogs of War " . Royle viewed Kinkladze as an unaffordable luxury in a relegation battle , and in his first board meeting as Manchester City manager , he opened proceedings with the words " We have to sell Kinkladze " . After playing the first two games under Royle , a 1 – 2 loss on 18 February against Ipswich Town , and a 3 – 1 win against Swindon Town on 23 February , Kinkladze sustained an ankle injury , which sidelined him for a month . He made his return at Port Vale on 14 March , despite having taken little part in training in the preceding week . Port Vale were a team with a physically robust approach , and used the muddy conditions to their advantage . Kinkladze was played out of position on the right wing , much to his displeasure , and gave a performance that the Manchester Evening News summarised as " barely noticeable " . Vale defeated City 2 – 1 , and Royle severely criticised Kinkladze for a lack of effort , dropping him for the next six games . In 2005 , Royle explained his view of Kinkladze in his autobiography : " To the supporters he was the only positive in all that time . To me , he was a big negative . I am not saying that City 's ills were all down to Kinkladze , but there was too much about the whole Kinkladze cult phenomenon that wasn 't right ... too often since his arrival , the team had under @-@ performed . I couldn 't help deducing that contrary to popular opinion , he would be my weak link not my strong one . " With two games remaining , Manchester City were in the relegation places , and Kinkladze was restored to the starting lineup for the home match against Queens Park Rangers ( QPR ) . The QPR team contained Vinnie Jones , who had a violent reputation and played using the axiom " if their top geezer gets sorted out early doors , you win " . Jones tried to apply his philosophy to Kinkladze , even targeting him in the tunnel before the start of the match . Kinkladze opened the scoring with a free kick , but City could not maintain their lead . Defending described by The Observer 's reporter as a " calamity " culminated in an unusual own goal from Jamie Pollock , and meant the match ended in a 2 – 2 draw . City were relegated for the second time in three seasons despite a final day 5 – 2 win against Stoke City . In total , Kinkladze made 119 appearances for Manchester City , scoring 22 goals . He played regular international football during this period of his career , including in a 0 – 0 draw with three @-@ time World Cup winners Italy .
= = = Ajax = = =
Following transfer negotiations which had been ongoing in the final months of the season , Kinkladze left Manchester City for Dutch club Ajax for £ 5 million . The move brought a reunion with Shota Arveladze , with whom he shared a house in Amsterdam . However , Kinkladze 's spell at Ajax proved unsuccessful . He was originally signed as a replacement for Jari Litmanen , but Litmanen stayed at Ajax as his proposed move to Barcelona fell through . As a result , Kinkladze played in an unfamiliar left @-@ wing position . His league debut for Ajax came in a 2 – 0 win against Willem II on 23 August 1998 , but he made few starts . To compound matters , manager Morten Olsen was sacked early in the season , and a disagreement with replacement Jan Wouters resulted in Kinkladze losing his place in the team . " I could have been Maradona and he wouldn 't have changed the system to accommodate me " , Kinkladze recalled later . " I wasn 't playing football and that made my life hell . " He immediately started to look elsewhere . Several English top @-@ flight clubs showed interest in signing him , but were discouraged by work permit issues . His lack of regular playing time also resulted in him losing his place in the Georgian national team . Having failed to established himself in the first team and struggling with a succession of injuries , he made just 12 appearances for Ajax in his first season .
Kinkladze was not issued a squad number for his second season , and was made to train with the reserve team . In September 1999 , Kinkladze held transfer talks with Sheffield United , but no move materialised . Two months later , a return to England was secured in the form of a loan move to Derby County .
= = = Derby County = = =
As Kinkladze was not playing regular international football when he signed for Derby , he was not automatically entitled to a work permit , but a review panel gave him special dispensation , due to his previous contribution to English football . He made his debut on 28 November 1999 , coming on as a substitute for Avi Nimni in a 1 – 2 loss against Arsenal , the first of 14 loan appearances . He scored his first Derby goal on 4 March 2000 in a 4 – 0 win against Wimbledon . At the end of the season , the loan move was made permanent . The transfer fee of £ 3 million set a club record that stood until 2007 .
Kinkladze missed the start of the 2000 – 01 season due to a hernia operation , to the disappointment of Smith , who expected him to become a leading figure at the club . He returned to the side as a substitute against Middlesbrough on 6 September 2000 . With Derby 3 – 0 down , Kinkladze and Malcolm Christie were introduced in a double substitution . The pair then proved influential as Derby came back to draw the match 3 – 3 . During the next four months , Kinkladze was sometimes a starter and sometimes a substitute , rotating with Stefano Eranio , until a groin injury sustained in the return match with Middlesbrough kept Kinkladze out for two months . Over the season , Kinkladze " showed little of the brilliance he was bought in to deliver " and was named Derby 's biggest disappointment of the season by The Guardian . The match against Leeds United on 23 September 2000 was a rare success for him . He came on as a substitute with 17 minutes remaining and levelled the game 1 – 1 with a solo goal two minutes later , jinking between two defenders before curling a left @-@ foot shot beyond the goalkeeper . Derby struggled for most of the season , but avoided relegation . Kinkladze stayed at the club , since his injuries and inability to prove himself led to a lack of serious offers . Around this time , he married Louise Tai , a Mancunian . Louise then became a member of the Orthodox Church and was christened in Tbilisi , receiving a new name – Mariam . Their first child , Saba , was born in October 2001 .
For Kinkladze , the start of the 2001 – 02 season followed a similar pattern to the previous season , comprising a mixture of starts and substitute appearances . Jim Smith resigned from his managerial position at Derby on 7 October 2001 , leaving Kinkladze , a Smith favourite , bitterly disappointed . The appointment of new manager Colin Todd signalled a change in the club 's playing style . Todd did not favour flair players , and Kinkladze made only a single substitute appearance in Todd 's first two months in charge . Frustrated by a lack of opportunities , Kinkladze took the unusual step of using his lawyer to arrange a meeting with Todd to discuss his exclusion from the first team . Todd reacted by telling Kinkladze he could leave the club if he was unhappy . According to Kinkladze 's agent , Manchester City , as well as Spanish clubs Valencia , Mallorca and Málaga , were all interested in signing Kinkladze . However , Todd was sacked on 14 January 2002 with Derby second from bottom of the Premier League , and John Gregory was appointed as manager on 30 January 2002 . Kinkladze stayed at the club , playing regular first team football in the remainder of the season , but Derby continued to struggle , and Kinkladze endured relegation for the third time in his career . The club , who were £ 35 million in debt , started an end @-@ of @-@ season clear @-@ out to reduce their annual £ 17 million wage bill . Derby 's actions included off @-@ loading of some of the highest earners , and the manager informed Kinkladze that he had no future at the club . However , Kinkladze , whose contract ended in summer 2003 , was reluctant to leave the club and turned down a move to Turkish champions Galatasaray .
As the club continued its attempts to terminate Kinkladze 's contract , he trained with the reserve team up to 29 September 2002 , missing Derby 's first five matches of the 2002 – 03 season . He was brought back to the first team following two defeats , introduced as a substitute after an hour 's stalemate against Stoke City on 31 August . His introduction proved crucial in turning the game into a 2 – 0 win for Derby , as he took part in the build @-@ up of both goals . He then missed a number of matches through injuries , featuring in around half of Derby 's games in the remainder of 2002 . In October 2002 , Georgian national team manager Aleksandr Chivadze unexpectedly omitted Kinkladze and captain Georgi Nemsadze from the team for their match against Russia , causing a stir in Georgia . Kinkladze , surprised and disappointed , said : " When I was out of form , he constantly phoned me , asked me about my play and called me to the team . Now I 'm fit , scoring goals , but he didn 't call me and even didn 't phone . " Both Kinkladze and Nemsadze returned to the starting line @-@ up for the next European Championship qualifying match on against Ireland . By January , because of the financial crisis at Derby , Kinkladze had not been paid for more than three months . He intended to quit , but although his agent admitted interest from German side Hamburg and a second enquiry from Galatasaray , no move transpired and he remained at the club . He played for Derby more often in the second half of the season , and his form resulted in him being named the supporters Player of the Year . Derby finished the season in the bottom half of the table , and needed to reduce costs for the next season as their Premier League parachute payments had ended . As a result , Derby offered Kinkladze a one @-@ year contract , but on a wage one third of that of his previous contract . Kinkladze decided to turn down this contract extension proposal , desiring a move to a more successful club with a chance of winning trophies . To this end , he held talks with Liverpool in May 2003 . As contract negotiations with Derby did not reach a positive conclusion , Kinkladze left the club .
Without a club during pre @-@ season , Kinkladze trained with Portsmouth , where his former manager Jim Smith was on the managing staff . He played for Portsmouth in one pre @-@ season friendly , but Portsmouth decided instead to sign another former Manchester City playmaker , Eyal Berkovic . Over the next few months , he was linked with moves to Scottish clubs Dundee and Celtic , and later Leeds United , but none resulted in a contract offer . As a consequence , he had to train individually and lost his place in the national team again , this time before the return match against Russia . In December 2003 , Kinkladze went for a one @-@ week trial at Panathinaikos , following an invitation from Giannis Vardinogiannis , the owner of the Greek club . However , at the end of the trial , the club decided not to sign him . Six months later , he was linked with a move to Russian club Shinnik Yaroslavl , but again , he was not offered a contract .
= = = Anorthosis = = =
Kinkladze 's year and a half spell without a club came to an end in October 2004 . Kinkladze 's former international team @-@ mate Temuri Ketsbaia was player @-@ manager at financially troubled Cypriot team Anorthosis . Ketsbaia gave his old friend a chance to rebuild his career , offering him a contract to play for Anorthosis . He made his debut against title contenders APOEL on 21 November and marked it with a fine goal . He scored once more in a 5 – 0 home victory against Olympiakos Nicosia , and in February he was recalled to Georgia 's squad for the friendly against Lithuania . His contract was initially only for one season , but the club extended it for another year . Anorthosis ended the season successfully by winning the Cypriot championship and earned a place in the qualifying rounds of 2005 – 06 UEFA Champions League , where , thanks to the club 's good run , Kinkladze played five times . He started both legs of a 2 – 1 first round aggregate win against Dinamo Minsk , was twice a substitute in a 3 – 2 second round aggregate win against Süper Lig runners @-@ up Trabzonspor , and played the full 90 minutes in a 1 – 2 third round home defeat against Rangers . His display against Rangers caught the attention of Rubin Kazan ’ s manager Gurban Berdiýew , who invited him to join the Russian club . On 22 August 2005 , Kinkladze played his last game for Anorthosis against Omonia in the Cypriot Super Cup and two days later , on the day of the second leg of the tie against Rangers , he left to close a deal with Rubin . Ketsbaia said regarding the departure : " I don 't want players who have no wish to play for Anorthosis . As far as I 'm concerned the Kinkladze chapter is now closed . "
= = = Rubin Kazan = = =
Anorthosis and Rubin reached an agreement on 26 August . Kinkladze signed a contract until the end of the season , becoming the most decorated Georgian footballer to play in the Russian Premier League . He made his debut for Rubin the next day , playing the full 90 minutes in a 1 – 2 defeat against FC Rostov . On a personal level the debut was a successful one ; his corner kick was headed into the net by Vitalijs Astafjevs for Rubin 's goal . He had less remarkable performances in the next two games and was substituted both times . This did not affect Berdyev 's faith in him , and at a post @-@ match press conference he defended Kinkladze : " He needs time . He is an experienced player who , I think , will help the team . " The next game for Rubin was a 5 – 1 away win against low @-@ ranked Terek Grozny , and Kinkladze made a considerable contribution to it , scoring two goals and making two assists . Against Tom Tomsk , he was less successful . Kinkladze missed a late penalty , denying Rubin a vital victory . After the match Berdyev claimed he made a mistake in his choice of penalty taker .
Despite his misgivings Berdyev kept Kinkladze in the team , where he was used as one of three offensive midfielders in a 4 – 2 – 3 – 1 formation . Kinkladze , with his technical style and inclination for improvisation , brought more variety to the attacking play of the team , in contrast to the restrained style of play that Berdyev favoured . He provided an assist in four consecutive matches . The most important of these was against Zenit St. Petersburg , in a match that decided a place in the following year 's UEFA Cup . Subsequently , he received a recall to the Georgian national squad for friendlies against Bulgaria and Jordan . However , a muscle strain meant he missed both national team games and Rubin 's final league match . He ended the 2005 season with seven assists and two goals in nine appearances for Rubin .
Rubin delayed in offering Kinkladze a contract extension , leading Anorthosis to make an attempt to re @-@ sign him early in the pre @-@ season , but Kinkladze rejected the offer as he wished to stay at Rubin . By late December , Rubin expressed a desire to retain him but contract talks were delayed due to family reasons , and it took until mid @-@ January for a new one @-@ year contract to be agreed .
During his successful 2005 season , 32 @-@ year @-@ old Kinkladze said he hoped to play on well into his thirties . The 2006 season , however , was his last . He sustained an injury in Rubin 's first competitive match , a 1 – 0 cup match defeat against Shinnik which proved to be the last time he played a full match . A recurrence of an old injury meant he was sidelined for longer than expected , only making his return to full training in late May . Kinkladze continued to struggle to maintain fitness , making five further appearances for Rubin , two of which were starts . A match against Rostov on 20 August 2006 was the last of Kinkladze 's playing career . In September , he was called to the Georgia national team but did not play or appear on the substitutes ' bench . A short time later he had to undergo another course of medical treatment . He also passed a thorough medical examination , the results of which were reported as the deciding factor for his future at the club . In October , he was an unused substitute just once ; he and his compatriots were the subject of criticism from Rubin 's general director who announced to the press " there are questions about the Georgians in the team regarding their training and attitude to football " . In November , Kinkladze again suffered an injury and missed the remainder of the season .
After a disappointing year for Kinkladze , Rubin decided not to renew his contract . In January 2007 , he held talks with his previous club , Anorthosis , but the transfer never materialised . In an interview in August 2007 Kinkladze 's former international team @-@ mate Malkhaz Asatiani confirmed that Kinkladze had finished his career and settled in Moscow . Kinkladze later worked as a sports agent , and in August 2011 returned to his former club Anorthosis , where he was employed as Sports Director until an amicable departure in June 2012 .
= = Style of play = =
Kinkladze 's position was as a playmaking midfielder , typically playing further forward than the rest of the midfield . The main aim of the role is to create goalscoring chances , suiting a creative player like Kinkladze . Dribbling ability was generally viewed as one of Kinkladze 's strongest attributes , and his jinking runs with the ball resulted in some spectacular goals , most notably his " Goal of the Month " against Southampton . Set piece ability was another of Kinkladze 's strengths ; he regularly took corners and free kicks . He also took penalties ; seven of his Manchester City goals were scored from the spot , though he stopped taking penalties for the club following two consecutive misses in the 1997 – 98 season . Two of his nine goals for Georgia were also penalties .
Weaker points of Kinkladze 's game were those related to defending . He was not noted for tackling , which sometimes caused frustration for his managers ; Colin Todd remarked wistfully in 2001 that " Georgi has to understand that there is an art to tackling " . Unwillingness to tackle and accusations of a lack of effort were also the source of Joe Royle 's omission of Kinkladze from his Manchester City side .
On occasions , Kinkladze played as a second striker , a role with less positional responsibility . Periods when Kinkladze was used in this way included Frank Clark 's first months as Manchester City manager , and alongside Fabrizio Ravanelli at Derby County . Though a left @-@ footed player , he did not perform well when played as a left winger , and publicly expressed his distaste for playing in the position .
Over the course of his career he was Georgian Player of the Year twice , won the Club Player of the Year three times at English clubs , and has been described by a Russian football history as the brightest Georgian talent of the 1990s . In 2005 , he placed third in a BBC poll to find Manchester City 's all @-@ time " cult hero " .
= = Career statistics = =
A Includes FA Cup , League Cup , UEFA Champions League , UEFA Cup , Johan Cruijff Shield , CIS Cup and Cyprus Super Cup .
B Complete figures for the Georgian Cup are unavailable and thus excluded .
= = = International statistics = = =
= = = International goals = = =
Scores and results list Georgia 's goal tally first .
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= 3rd Battalion 3rd Marines =
3rd Battalion 3rd Marines , abbreviated as ( 3 / 3 ) , is an infantry battalion of the United States Marine Corps , based out of Kāne 'ohe , Hawai 'i . Known as either " Trinity " or " America 's Battalion " , the unit falls under the command of the 3rd Marine Regiment of the 3rd Marine Division . The unit consists of approximately 800 U.S. Marines and United States Navy sailors . Like most battalions of the U.S. Marine Corps , 3rd Battalion 3rd Marines is made up of three rifle companies ( India , Kilo , and Lima ) , a Headquarters and Services ( H & S ) company , and a weapons company . The battalion was originally formed at Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune , North Carolina in 1942 and saw action on both Bougainville and Guam during World War II , where it was awarded the first of its Presidential Unit Citations for " gallantry , determination , and esprit de corps in accomplishing its mission under extremely difficult and hazardous conditions " ; and the first of its Navy Unit Commendations for " outstanding service " . Marines in the battalion were also awarded one Medal of Honor and seven Navy Crosses during the war . Following World War II , 3rd Battalion was disbanded until 1951 , when it was reformed in California . The battalion was alerted for possible deployment during the 1956 Suez War and the 1958 intervention in Lebanon . In 1965 , the Marines of 3rd Battalion were deployed to the Vietnam War and participated in Operation Starlite , the first major Marine engagement of that conflict . The battalion continued to see major action through Vietnam and was rotated back to the United States in 1969 . Famous alumni from its time in Vietnam include Corporal Robert Emmett O 'Malley , the first Marine in Vietnam to be awarded the Medal of Honor , Oliver North , and John Ripley . Around the end of the Vietnam War , the Battalion was deactivated for a second time in 1974 .
In 1975 , 3rd Battalion was reformed for the third ( and last ) time at Marine Corps Base Hawaii . During this period , the battalion conducted numerous deployments in the Pacific and Indian Oceans . In 1983 , 3rd Battalion deployed off the coast of Lebanon for several weeks during a particularly tense period in the civil war . During the 1980s , the battalion was briefly commanded by Charles Krulak , later the 31st Commandant of the Marine Corps , who nicknamed 3rd Battalion 3rd Marines " America 's Battalion " because it was similar to the nickname used by the Dallas Cowboys . 3rd Battalion deployed again in 1990 as part of Operation Desert Shield and saw action at the Battle of Khafji and again during the liberation of Kuwait . In the early 21st century the battalion deployed overseas six times as part of the Global War on Terror : three times for Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan and three times for Operation Iraqi Freedom in Iraq . One Marine from the battalion , Dakota Meyer , was awarded the Medal of Honor during the Global War on Terror .
= = Organization = =
Like many infantry battalions in the Marine Corps , 3rd Battalion 3rd Marines consists of five companies : three Rifle Companies , a Headquarters and Service Company ( H & S ) , and a Weapons Company . The rifle companies are designed to act as maneuver elements for the battalion . With attachments they can also be employed independently for short periods of time . Each rifle company ideally consists of six officers and 176 enlisted personnel and is typically commanded by a Captain who is assisted by a First Sergeant . The three rifle companies in 3rd Battalion have traditionally been I Company , K Company , and L Company . Because the Marine Corps uses the NATO phonetic alphabet , these companies are commonly known as India , Kilo , and Lima . Prior to 1956 , under the Joint Army / Navy Phonetic Alphabet , they were known as Item , King , and Love . H & S Company provides combat service support and consists of the battalion staff , including the headquarters element , communications , medical , and service platoons . While not a combat unit itself , H & S provides the battalion with command and control , surveillance , target acquisition , and service support , making the battalion able to function independently without the direct involvement of a higher headquarters . Weapons Company provides fire support coordination , medium mortars , anti @-@ armor weapons , and heavy machine gun support for the rifle companies . Generally , these elements of Weapons Company are directly employed by the battalion , but may also be attached to the rifle companies .
= = World War II ( 1942 – 1945 ) = =
= = = Formation and Deployment ( 1942 – 1943 ) = = =
3rd Battalion 3rd Marines was activated on 1 June 1942 at New River , North Carolina as the 5th Training Battalion , Division Special Troops , 1st Marine Division , Fleet Marine Force . On 16 June , they were redesignated as the 3rd Battalion , 3rd Marines , Fleet Marine Force . From August to September 1942 , 3rd Battalion deployed with the rest of the 3rd Marine Regiment to Tutuila , American Samoa and was reassigned to the 2nd Marine Brigade . In 1943 , they were reassigned to the Fleet Marine Force . In May 1943 , they redeployed to Auckland , New Zealand and in June , were reassigned to the 3rd Marine Division . From July to August 1943 , they redeployed to the island of Guadalcanal to begin training in preparation for the invasion of Bougainville in November .
= = = Bougainville ( 1943 ) = = =
On 1 November 1943 , the 3rd Battalion landed at Cape Torokina with the rest of 3rd Marines , just east of the Koromokina River . While resistance was extremely light , the rough surf and dense jungle ( which in many places extended all the way to the water ) resulted in numerous landing craft being lost or damaged beyond repair . For the next two weeks , the battalion helped construct a series of trails that linked the beachhead with the advancing units , and made supply much easier . On 16 November the battalion reached the Numa Numa Trail and began probing for Japanese units On 18 November after a sharp firefight near a Japanese roadblock the battalion recovered a Japanese map with valuable intelligence on Japanese defenses . From 19 – 21 November 3rd Battalion continued probing for Japanese units , which had been identified as elements of the 23rd Infantry Regiment , and engaging in sporadic firefights . In the lead @-@ up to the Battle of Piva Forks , 3rd Battalion was able to seize critical high terrain that would give the Marines the advantage in the upcoming fight . The actual battle , from 22 – 26 November , saw some of the most vicious close combat experienced in the Pacific War as of that date . 3rd Battalion additionally suffered many casualties from unusually accurate Japanese mortar and artillery fire . Two days later , after 27 days of continuous action , 3rd Battalion was moved to a relatively quiet sector on the 3rd Division 's flank where it remained for the remainder of the operation .
In December , the 3rd Marine Division was relieved by the Army 's Americal Division and 3rd Battalion left Bougainville for Guadalcanal on Christmas Day , 1943 with the rest of the division . They left behind 36 of their comrades , including Corporal John Logan Jr. and Captain Robert Turnbull ( Lima Company ) , who were both awarded Navy Crosses during the Battle of Piva Forks . 165 other Marines from 3rd Battalion became casualties during the campaign . After Bougainville , 3rd Battalion conducted numerous training exercises on Guadalcanal from January to May 1944 in preparation for the invasion of Kavieng in April ( which was cancelled ) and the Marianas in June . While 3rd Marines was designated as the floating reserve for the initial invasion of Saipan , they were ultimately not landed and returned to Eniwetok for a three @-@ week stay prior to the invasion of Guam . During the interlude , the Marines of 3rd Battalion were primarily confined to their transport ship , the USS Warren .
= = = Guam ( 1944 ) = = =
On 21 July 1944 , around 0830 , 3rd Battalion hit the Asan beaches on Guam . Landing on the extreme left of the entire 3rd Marine Division , their mission was to take Chonito Cliff and Adelup Point , which marked the left flank of the division . Within minutes the Japanese defenders opened up with mortars and machine guns , hitting many 3rd Battalion Marines coming ashore . By 0912 battalion commander Lieutenant Colonel ( LtCol ) Ralph Houser reported many casualties caused by both mortars and sniper fire . Both Kilo and India Companies rushed the Chonito Cliffs but the Japanese defenders ( Elements of the 2d Battalion , 18th Regiment and 320th Independent Infantry Battalion ) resisted strongly , in some cases rolling grenades down the hillside . Supported by flamethrowers , half @-@ tracks , and armor from the 3rd Tank Battalion , 3rd Battalion fought a bloody , three @-@ hour battle up the side of Chonito Cliff . Houser then ordered Lima Company to flank the cliffs to the north by dashing down an exposed beach road . Having secured Chonito Cliff , the battalion then moved on to Adelup Point . The US Navy sent a destroyer to blast the Japanese caves at point @-@ blank range and 3rd Battalion flamethrowers burned out Japanese soldiers who still remained . After securing Adelup Point , 3rd Battalion finished the day providing flank security for the rest of the 3rd Marines during the Battle for Bundschu Ridge and became the only unit in the regiment to accomplish its objectives by the end of W @-@ Day .
The first night of 21 – 22 July , the Marines of 3rd Battalion came under a concerted counterattack by the survivors of the Japanese 320th Independent Infantry Battalion , as well as the 319th , committed by Japanese commander General Kiyoshi Shigematsu to retake the Chonito Cliffs . The Japanese managed to infiltrate past many 3rd Battalion units through ravines and dry river beds and briefly threatened to overrun the battalion command post . The fighting was so heavy that parts of the Division Reserve were committed and the destroyer USS McKee was unable to provide close fire support , as the Japanese and Marines were so closely intermingled . However the Marines held firm and managed to repulse the attack by 0830 . During the counterattack , a mortarman with Kilo Company , Private First Class ( PFC ) Luther Skaggs , Jr . , was critically wounded in the leg by a Japanese grenade . After applying a tourniquet , Skaggs continued to fight for another eight hours before moving unassisted to the rear where most of his leg was amputated . For this he became the first Marine from 3rd Battalion to be awarded the Medal of Honor . Over the next two days the 3rd Battalion fought a savage battle with the Japanese defenders for the Chonito Cliffs and Fonte Plateau area , as the battalion struggled to capture the Mt . Tenjo Road . On 23 July , 3rd Battalion seized the last ridge leading to the Fonte Plateau , provoking a heavy Japanese counterattack . LtCol Houser himself was seriously wounded in this engagement and the Executive Officer , Major Royal Bastian , took command . Then 3rd Battalion , now reinforced with tanks , took part in the assault on the Fonte Plateau on 25 July , seizing the key position after just an hour of fighting . The night of 25 – 26 July saw the climax of the fighting on Guam when the Japanese launched an all @-@ out counterattack against the Americans . In the 3rd Battalion 's sector , Japanese sailors of the 54th Keibitai launched a series of failed attacks against the now @-@ well defended Marine positions . Backed up with artillery , the Marines easily repulsed the Japanese .
On the morning of 31 July , 3rd Battalion proceeded east on the Mt . Tenjo road towards the island capital of Agana , which it liberated the same day after token resistance . By 1045 , 15 minutes after its platoons entered the city , 3rd Battalion had reached the central plaza and stopped at the northern outskirts by noon . Resuming the offensive at 1545 , 3rd Battalion pushed forward 1 @,@ 500 yards to seize key road junctions that led to the towns of Finegayan and Barrigada . For the remaining ten days of the campaign , the battalion marched northeast up the coast , encountering occasional Japanese resistance , until the island was declared secure on 10 August . However , the Japanese were not totally defeated . On 7 August , as 3rd Battalion led the regimental advance towards Road Junction 460 , Japanese artillery shells began landing among the advancing Marines . After Marines discovered the source of fire , a 75mm artillery piece , the Japanese fled . The final action by 3rd Battalion during the campaign was on 9 August when a nearby battalion came under heavy Japanese tank and infantry attack . Blazing a trail through the jungle , 3rd Battalion rushed towards the action but the Japanese tanks vanished before the battalion could arrive . Casualties for the 3rd Battalion were twice that of Bougainville , with 300 wounded and 97 killed .
= = = Iwo Jima and Japan ( 1945 ) = = =
Following the invasion of Guam , 3rd Battalion spent two months conducting ' mopping up ' operations on the island until November , when it received orders to prepare for operations against Iwo Jima . From November until February 1945 , they took part in a training regimen so serious that a fellow battalion later reported at least 20 % of its members were incapacitated due to foot and heat injuries . During the Battle of Iwo Jima , 3rd Battalion , as part of 3rd Marines , was kept offshore as the Expeditionary Troops reserve . However , despite numerous requests from other Marine officers , the 3rd Marines were never landed . After sitting off Iwo Jima in their transport ships for a month , the 3rd Marines were ordered to return to Guam on 5 March 1945 .
Back on Guam , 3rd Battalion began training for a landing on Miyako Jima , an island just south of Okinawa . Those orders were eventually cancelled , but the battalion still saw minor combat in 1945 , participating in two operations on Guam designed to capture Japanese soldiers still holding out in the hills . These sweeps took place in April and December 1945 . 3rd Battalion also began preparing for Operation Olympic , where as part of V Amphibious Corps , it would have landed at Kushikino , Kagoshima on Kyūshū . After the dropping of the atomic bombs in August 1945 , and Japan 's surrender , 3rd Battalion was detached from the 3rd Marine Division in November 1945 and deactivated the following month on 12 December 1945 . Shortly before it was deactivated , however , 3rd Battalion suffered the dubious honor of having the last American killed in World War II , when PFC W.C. Patrick Bates of Kilo Company was shot by a Japanese sniper on 14 December during a mopping up operation on Guam ( three months after the formal end of hostilities ) .
= = Early Cold War ( 1951 – 1965 ) = =
3rd Battalion 3rd Marines was reactivated at Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton in August 1951 as part of the 3rd Marine Brigade . In February 1952 , it took part in Lex @-@ Baker @-@ 1 , which was the first full @-@ scale Marine @-@ Navy exercise held on the West Coast since 1949 . In May , India Company participated in the ground portion of the Operation Buster @-@ Jangle atomic bomb tests in Nevada . In August , part of the battalion took part in an amphibious landing on Lake Washington as part of Seattle 's " Seafair . " Then in December , 3rd Battalion took part in one of the first exercises at Twentynine Palms , California . The entire 3rd Marine Division , including 3rd Battalion 3rd Marines , was transported more than 280 miles ( 451 km ) by truck between MCB Camp Pendleton and Twenty @-@ nine Palms . During the exercise , Third Battalion made a night airlift using over 60 helicopters .
In January 1953 , the unit deployed to the Marine Corps Air Station Kaneohe Bay on Oahu for six months of training , after which 3rd Battalion 3rd Marines returned to Pendleton . In August 1953 , 3rd Battalion deployed to Japan for training operations at Kin Beach , Okinawa and Iwo Jima . In October 1956 , 3rd Battalion was stationed in Japan when the Suez Crisis broke out . Though initially deployed to the Indian Ocean for possible action in Egypt and the surrounding region , the crisis was ultimately resolved . During this cruise , 3rd Battalion — designated Battalion Landing Team ( BLT ) 3 / 3 – visited Brunei Bay , Bombay , Karachi , and Singapore , before returning to Japan . In December 1956 , the entire 3rd Marine Regiment was deployed off of Indonesia because of civil strife in that country . In 1958 , 3rd Battalion was alerted for possible deployment to Lebanon , but its transports were turned back in the Indian Ocean to Okinawa . Four years later , in 1962 , the battalion deployed on the USS Bayfield to the Chinese coast to guard the Taiwanese islands of Quemoy Matsu .
= = Vietnam War ( 1965 – 1969 ) = =
= = = Deployment and Operation Starlite ( 1965 ) = = =
In January 1965 , the 2nd Battalion , 1st Marines at Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton , California deployed for a tour on Okinawa , Japan , where they were redesignated the 3rd Battalion , 3rd Marines . At the time the Marines of 3rd Battalion expected a typical 13 @-@ month deployment followed by a quick return to the States . However the battalion found itself caught up in the initial deployment of Marine units to Vietnam , and landed on 12 May along the coast south of Danang at Chu Lai . The battalion 's first major operation in the Vietnam War was Operation Starlite where they teamed up with units of the 7th Marines . Operation Starlite was aimed at destroying the 1st Viet Cong ( VC ) Regiment , which was preparing to attack Chu Lai from the Van Tuong peninsula . The fighting began on 18 August when the battalion conducted an amphibious landing just east of the VC positions . At first the attack was slowed by effective VC delaying tactics . However , 3rd Battalion eventually advanced to the outskirts of the village of An Cuong 2 . While attempting to clear the village , India Company came under intense fire from VC defending the village . When one squad under Corporal Robert Emmett O 'Malley was ambushed , O 'Malley jumped into a VC trench and personally killed eight Viet Cong . Wounded three times , O 'Malley refused to be evacuated until all his men were safe and was later awarded the Medal of Honor . India Company then had to fight its way back to the rest of the battalion through other Viet Cong units still operating in the area . Around 1200 , an H & S Company supply convoy bound for India Company was ambushed and a force sent to relieve them was also pinned down . The ordeal was covered by journalist Peter Arnett in his article " The Death of Supply Column 21 " . During the afternoon the situation was stabilized and the Viet Cong retreated that night , resulting in a tactical American victory . The United States had 52 Marines killed in Starlite . India Company lost 14 dead , including the company commander , and 53 wounded out of a force of 177 Marines . Three Navy Crosses were awarded to Marines from the battalion for actions during Starlite , including the battalion commander LtCol Joseph Muir .
= = = Search and Destroy Near Da Nang ( 1965 – 1966 ) = = =
Following Starlite 3rd Battalion continued to conduct regular sweeps and low @-@ level ( i.e. small unit ) combat operations against the Viet Cong ( usually the 1st VC Regiment ) in the greater Da Nang area . Among the casualties suffered during this period was LtCol Muir , who was killed when he stepped on an IED . In November they participated in an amphibious operation similar to Starlite called Blue Marlin ( II ) , which was carried out near Hoi An . Contact was irregular as the VC attempted to avoid a drawn @-@ out engagement and the battalion only had three Marines wounded . Then in December the battalion moved to the Que Son Valley for Operation Harvest Moon , preventing the VC from capturing the town . In March 1966 , 3rd Battalion participated in Operation Kings , officially a search and destroy mission in the An Hoa region , but really an attempt to create a long @-@ term occupation in a historic Viet Cong stronghold . However , any progress gained in Kings was immediately negated by the Buddhist Uprising just one week later in Da Nang . In July , the battalion acted as a blocking force during Operation Macon but did not see significant action . In August , 3rd Battalion left Vietnam for Okinawa . The battalion would not be gone long though , and in early October was stationed offshore as BLT 3 / 3 near the northern portion of I Corps to combat a possible North Vietnamese invasion across the Demilitarized Zone ( DMZ ) . The threat never materialized and BLT 3 / 3 returned to Vietnam later that month .
= = = The DMZ and Khe Sanh ( 1966 – 1967 ) = = =
In October 1966 , 3rd Battalion was deployed to combat the threat from the People 's Army of Vietnam ( PAVN ) in Quảng Trị Province . This would be a largely conventional fight , known as the " war against professionals " , that would continue until late 1968 . Supplies would be in constant short supply and Marines were constantly scavenging helmets , clothes , armor , and ammunition from their dead . In December , the battalion suffered a tragic case of friendly fire when a pair of F @-@ 4 Phantoms dropped several bombs in the middle of Mike Company , killing seventeen Marines and wounding a dozen others . Navy Corpsman Donald Rion was awarded a posthumous Silver Star for his efforts to treat the wounded , despite suffering a mortal wound himself . From February – April , the battalion took part in Operations Prairie II @-@ IV , which were a series of sweeps throughout Quảng Trị Province . On 2 March 1967 , Lima Company , then under the command of Captain John Ripley , stumbled into a PAVN regiment trying to cross the DMZ . 12 Marines were killed , 28 severely wounded , and nearly every other man in the fight , including Ripley , was hit . The PAVN suffered heavy casualties and retreated across the border .
In April , 3rd Battalion participated in a series of bloody engagements near Khe Sanh known as The Hill Fights . Activity near Khe Sanh had increased dramatically that spring and on 24 April , Bravo Company 1st Battalion 9th Marines was engaged by elements of the PAVN 18th Regiment dug in on Hills 881 North , 881 South , and 861 . 3rd Battalion , then a hybrid unit with companies from multiple battalions , was sent to assist . 3rd Battalion 's commander , LtCol Gary Wilder , believed he was only facing a small PAVN unit and counterattacked . Throughout the 25th , 3rd Battalion launched a series of piecemeal attacks on the hills , only to be repulsed with heavy losses . The 3rd Marine Division committed its reserve to the fighting and took Hill 861 on 26 April . On the night of 29 April , the PAVN replaced the battered 18th Regiment with the fresh 95th Regiment . The following day the Marines dropped 250 bombs and more than 1300 artillery rounds on Hill 881 . Mike Company was allowed by the PAVN to advance partially up the hill before opening fire . By the end of the battle , 46 Marines from the battalion were killed , half of them from Mike Company .
Throughout the late spring and early summer of 1967 the battalion helped keep open Route 9 , the supply route between Ca Lu Combat Base and Khe Sanh . After a firefight between a PAVN battalion and Mike Company in late July , the road was closed until 1968 . The battalion was also stricken by malaria during this time ; 206 3rd Battalion Marines contracted it . In the fall the battalion was put to work building and defending the McNamara Line , a series of fixed fortifications along the DMZ in an area known as Leatherneck Square ( The four corners were Cam Lộ , Con Thien , Gio Linh and Đông Hà ) . The PAVN repeatedly attacked the positions and twice 3rd Battalion had to come rescue elements of 2nd Battalion 4th Marines that were in danger of being overrun . 3rd Battalion would occupy several of those positions through May 1968 . From 29 December to 12 January elements of the battalion participated in the construction and defense of strongpoint Alpha 3 .
= = = Tet and Its Aftermath ( 1968 ) = = =
The first major combat for 3rd Battalion in 1968 came on 7 February , about a week after the Tet Offensive began , when Kilo Company engaged a PAVN battalion near Gio Linh . 29 Kilo Marines were killed , including PFC Robert Quick who was awarded a posthumous Navy Cross for deflecting a PAVN hand grenade . Another 31 were wounded , including PFC Craig Swartz who was wounded three times and received three purple hearts for his service . PAVN losses numbered at least 139 , with another 60 graves discovered by 3rd Battalion Marines three days later . That same month a platoon from Mike Company observed and damaged two PAVN PT @-@ 76 tanks near Alpha 3 , one of only three times they were encountered during the Vietnam War before 1972 . On 6 March , Mike Company blundered into the 27th Regiment of the PAVN 325th Division and had one @-@ third of the company put out of action in an all @-@ night engagement , including 14 Marines killed .
In early May the PAVN launched a new offensive known as the May Offensive or ‘ mini @-@ Tet ’ . During that time , on 8 May , 3rd Battalion overran a PAVN regimental command post in Leatherneck Square , suffering 102 casualties including 8 killed . On 22 May , Lima Company uncovered a North Vietnamese staging area near Alpha 3 and destroyed it in an action that involved elements of three other Marine battalions . Then on 26 May the battalion was moved east to Dai Do as part of Operation Napoleon @-@ Saline , in response to PAVN pressure on the supply lines to the 3rd Marine Division headquarters at Dong Ha . By the end of the month , 3rd Battalion had lost 53 Marines and had another 319 severely wounded , a casualty ratio of about one out of every two infantrymen in the field .
In June the battalion was placed in reserve as a ready @-@ reinforcement unit and consequently saw little combat . From July to September , 3rd Battalion operated all throughout the I Corps area of operations , moving its command post to ten different locations . Hundreds of Marines were also affected by cellulitis . Following President Johnson ’ s halt of the US bombing campaign on 1 November , 3rd Battalion Marines had to watch as the PAVN brazenly pushed large convoys of men and munitions south along the Ben Hai River . In one instance it took three days for the battalion to get approval for a single airstrike on a North Vietnamese convoy .
= = = Taylor Common and Redeployment ( 1969 ) = = =
In early 1969 , 3rd Battalion 3rd Marines was sent south of the DMZ for several months to join Task Force Yankee in Operation Taylor Common near An Hoa . This three @-@ month operation focused on destroying the primary base for PAVN forces operating across several provinces and 3rd Battalion was awarded a Navy Unit Commendation for its actions during the operation . Ten Marines from 3rd Battalion were killed during the operation ( out of 183 total US fatalities ) , and American forces captured numerous quantities of PAVN supplies . One Marine , Lance Corporal ( LCPL ) William R. Prom , was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for gallantry during Taylor Common .
In July 1969 , the battalion took part in Operations Virginia Ridge and Idaho Canyon , attempting to stop infiltrators from the PAVN 27th Regiment and 33rd Sapper Battalion from coming through the DMZ . The operation continued until September , when the 3rd Marine Regiment was ordered to stop operations in preparation for its redeployment back to the United States . The battalion began to depart on 7 October and had fully arrived at MCB Camp Pendleton by the end of 1969 . Many 3rd Battalion Marines with time still left on their tours of duty were transferred to other units . 3rd Battalion spent over 1 @,@ 600 days in Vietnam and conducted 48 combat operations , the most of any Marine battalion in the conflict . 653 Marines who served in 3rd Battalion 3rd Marines lost their lives during the Vietnam War or were killed while operating with other units . Nearly 2 @,@ 800 others were wounded .
= = Late Cold War ( 1969 – 1974 , 1975 – 1990 ) = =
The battalion relocated during October and November 1969 to MCB Camp Pendleton and was reassigned to the 5th Marine Amphibious Brigade . They were again reassigned in April 1971 to the 1st Marine Division . The battalion was deactivated 1 June 1974 .
3rd Battalion 3rd Marines was reactivated on 1 October 1975 at MCB Kaneohe Bay , Hawaii , and assigned to the 3rd Marine Division . Elements of the battalion deployed to the Western Pacific at various times during the 1970s and 1980s . In June 1979 , Mike Company was deactivated and Weapons Company was stood up . In February 1980 , following the Iran hostage crisis and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan , the battalion was deployed to the Persian Gulf on board the USS Okinawa and was also the back @-@ up force during Operation Eagle Claw . This deployment made 3rd Battalion the first American ground unit to enter the region since World War II .
In the summer of 1983 , the battalion was in Mombasa , Kenya as part of the 31st Marine Amphibious Unit ( MAU ) when the Joint Chiefs of Staff ordered it to the Mediterranean Sea to become part of the Multinational Force in Lebanon during the Lebanese Civil War . It arrived on 12 September and spent three weeks off the coast as a reserve force for the 24th MAU on the USS Tarawa ( LHA @-@ 1 ) . It departed on 9 October for the Indian Ocean , two weeks before the Beirut barracks bombing .
= = Gulf War ( 1990 – 1991 ) = =
= = = Defending Saudi Arabia ( 1990 – 1991 ) = = =
On 2 August 1990 , 3rd Battalion was completing a deployment at Camp Hansen on Okinawa when they were notified to be prepared to immediately redeploy to Saudi Arabia as a response to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait . No sooner had the battalion returned to Hawaii then it was shipped out again to Saudi Arabia as part of the 1st Marine Expeditionary Brigade . India Company deployed first on 15 August to Singapore to provide onboard security for Maritime Prepositioning ships bound for the port of Al Jubayl . On 1 September , the rest of the battalion arrived in Dahran . As one of the first Marine units in country , 3rd Battalion found itself defending a key position at Cement Ridge , about 90 kilometers away from the Kuwaiti border . With orders to hold against any Iraqi attack , 3rd Battalion spent most of the months of August and September digging defensive positions . In October , 3rd Battalion and 2nd Battalion 3rd Marines were designated " Task Force Taro " and moved to the extreme right flank of the Marine sector , bordering the King Abdul Aziz Brigade of the Saudi Arabian National Guard . Because of their close proximity , Taro was ordered to begin cross @-@ training with the Saudi forces . This cross @-@ training continued through January , when 3rd Battalion was moved forward to defend Al Mish 'ab along the Saudi coast and became the northernmost Marine combat force in Saudi Arabia . Tragically during this time the battalion lost two Marines , James Cunningham and Anthony Stewart , who were accidentally killed by negligent discharges .
= = = Desert Storm , Khafji , and Kuwait ( 1991 ) = = =
Operation Desert Storm began on 17 January 1991 , but for the first two weeks 3rd Battalion only conducted sporadic engagements with its Iraqi counterparts across the border . That all changed on 29 January , when several Iraqi divisions unexpectedly crossed the border and seized the Saudi town of Khafji , less than 15 kilometers north of 3rd Battalion 's position . During the attack the Executive Officer along with the Battalion Sergeant Major drove into the town on a rescue mission looking for two Army soldiers who had been captured . Although they were unable to find them , the Marines from 3rd Battalion did encounter an Iraqi patrol and exchanged rounds with them before escaping . While Saudi and Qatari units ultimately retook the town , 3rd Battalion played a vital role in both coordinating the attack and blocking further Iraqi advances southward . In addition , several heavy machine guns and forward air controllers from the battalion were shifted over to the Saudis and took place in the assault . From 19 – 21 February , 3rd Battalion moved from Al Mish 'ab to the forward assembly areas that it would be using to launch its attack into Kuwait . It was also during this period that 3rd Battalion was given its assignment for the ground offensive . Lacking heavy armor or motorized transport , the battalion ( along with 2 / 3 ) would infiltrate Iraqi positions along the Saudi border and provide flank security for the rest of the 1st Marine Division to make its assault into Kuwait . On the night of 22 February , 3rd Battalion crossed the border into Kuwait , infiltrating past Iraqi minefields , tank traps , and other obstacles . Like many American units , 3rd Battalion encountered no Iraqi resistance and the biggest threat to the Marines came from friendly fire . Throughout the ground war , the battalion advanced steadily northwards , encountering no resistance but taking plenty of prisoners . 3rd Battalion arrived outside the Kuwait International Airport around 27 February where a SCUD missile landed near the battalion 's command post . Several months later , 3rd Battalion returned to Hawaii , having suffered no combat casualties .
= = Post Cold @-@ War ( 1991 – 2004 ) = =
Between its participation in Desert Storm and the Afghan War , 3rd Battalion conducted multiple deployments around the Pacific Rim . In August 1991 the battalion participated in Operation Tafakula in Tonga , an international exercise involving elements of the French military and the Tongan defense services . In 1992 it conducted a Unit Deployment Program ( UDP ) to Okinawa . In 1993 India Company participated in Operation Golden Eagle in Australia . In 1994 the battalion conducted another UDP to both Camp Hansen on Okinawa and to Camp Fuji in Japan . On 8 June India Company participated in the 50th Anniversary of the Invasion of Saipan . In October 1994 3rd Battalion was reassigned to the 3rd Marine Division . In 1995 the battalion went to Fort Wainwright , Alaska for Operation Northern Edge , then spent the latter part of the year training at Camp Fuji and Okinawa . In 1997 it conducted another UDP to Okinawa and Pohang , Korea . During that time Weapons Company participated in Exercise Kennel Bear on Guam . Lima Company took part in Operation Valiant Mark with the 1st Guards Battalion of Singapore . In 1998 the battalion participated in Operation Southern Frontier in Australia , Kennel Bear in Okinawa , Forest Eagle / Freedom Banner in Korea , Forest Light on Kyushu , Japan , and Fuji ' 99 .
From 1999 – 2002 , 3rd Battalion conducted operations Crocodile ' 99 and Tandem Thrust ' 01 in Queensland and Townsend , Australia , Operation Tafakula in Tonga , and then conducted UDPs to Okinawa in 2000 and 2002 . In 2002 the battalion participated in Operation Millenium Edge on Tinian and Guam , then Balikatan 02 @-@ 2 in the Philippines , Borneo , Brunei , Korea , Australia , and Japan . In 2003 3rd Battalion became BLT 3 / 3 on the 31st MEU for the second half of the year . Based on the USS Essex , USS Fort McHenry , and USS Harpers Ferry , BLT 3 / 3 participated in ARGEX @-@ 03 in the Philippines , provided security for President George W. Bush on Bali , Indonesia , and also visited Japan , Australia , East Timor , and Hong Kong . In May and June 2004 Lima Company participated in Operation Cobra Gold II at Khorat , Thailand and other parts of the battalion participated in Operation Northern Edge JTF @-@ 510 in Alaska . In July the battalion took part in the annual exercise of RIMPAC in Hawaii .
= = War in Afghanistan ( 2004 – 2005 , 2010 – 2012 ) = =
= = = Regional Command East ( 2004 – 2005 ) = = =
In late 2004 , 3rd Battalion was notified it would be participating in Operation Enduring Freedom . On 31 October , the first Marines left Kaneohe Bay , Hawaii for an eight @-@ month deployment to eastern Afghanistan . While serving in Afghanistan , 3rd Battalion conducted Operation Spurs in February 2005 , where they were inserted into the Korangal valley and conducted both counterinsurgency and humanitarian operations . In March , 3rd Battalion launched a similar sweep called Operation Mavericks . During their time in Afghanistan , the Marines from 3rd Battalion engaged the Taliban in 22 firefights . In one of them the battalion suffered its only fatalities for the deployment when LCPL Nicholas Kirven and Corporal Richard Schoener were killed during a three @-@ hour firefight in Alishang which also resulted in twenty @-@ three Taliban killed . During the fighting , Lieutenant Stephen Boada was awarded the Silver Star for calmly directing bombing runs on Taliban positions , despite having been wounded several times . In May the battalion launched one final operation , Operation Celtics , in the Tora Bora region . The operation was for the most part uneventful , although NBC news journalist Ron Allen was almost killed while traveling with Kilo Company when his Humvee ran over an IED .
= = = Helmand Province ( 2010 – 2012 ) = = =
In mid @-@ May 2010 3rd Battalion began deploying to the Nawa @-@ I @-@ Barakzayi District in Helmand Province , relieving the 1st Battalion , 3rd Marines . Partnering with Afghan National Army soldiers from the 215th Corps , the battalion found itself in an area awash with money as the U.S. Agency for International Development was in the process of spending $ 30 million in an attempt to increase agricultural production ( and create jobs for thousands of otherwise @-@ potential Taliban recruits ) , but was also resulting in tensions between the local community council and tribal elders . In @-@ mid June , Lima Company took part in Operation New Dawn , establishing observation posts in southern Shorshork , an area in between Nawa and Marjeh . In late July , the battalion suffered the loss of Corporal Joe Wrighstman , who drowned in the Helmand River while attempting to save the life of an Afghan National policeman . Just days later 3 squads from 3 different platoons were ambushed by Taliban fighters in which they had to secure the crash site of Dealer 54 , an HMLA @-@ 369 helicopter which was shot down near Lashkar Gah while flying a close air support while supporting firefight 3rd Squad at PB Meinert . India Company became involved in fierce firefights engaging the enemy at times just meters away . Throughout India Company 's 7 @-@ month deployment they only called in 8 friendly evacuations after being engaged in over 92 Firefights and reported 74 enemy KIA . India Company operated out of | COP Spin Ghar | Patrol Base ( PB ) Jaker | PB Meinert | PB Poole | PB Skullet | PB Swenson | India Company 's Marines were highly Awarded for their actions in Helmand during their operations including First Sgt. William Pinkerton awarded The Bronze Star Combat V. First Sgt. Pinkerton led the company ’ s Marines from the front during 16 IED , 19 device , 14 cache finds and captured 6 insurgents . First Sgt. Pinkerton was first to push a squad to the Dealer 54s crash site through heavy Taliban Machine Gun fire and set up a safe perimeter to keep Taliban fighters from getting to downed pilots . Around this time , India Company conducted Operation Thresher and later Operation Mako in areas of Nawa District under heavy Taliban influence , finding several cache sites and taking some detainees . In September , while providing pre @-@ election security for the Afghan parliamentary elections the battalion suffered another loss when 1st Lieutenant Scott Fleming was shot and killed . Nevertheless , on election day Nawa District was the one location in Helmand Province with no reported Taliban attacks . Residents claimed that the Marines from 3rd Battalion had implemented good security measures and encouraged the people to cooperate with the government , preventing the Taliban from firing a single shot . By the end of 3rd Battalion 's deployment in the fall of 2010 , Nawa was regarded by many as " a model of counterinsurgency operations and the most stable district " in southern Afghanistan .
In October 2011 , 3rd Battalion deployed again to Helmand Province , this time to the Garmsir District . Located in southern Helmand , directly south of Nawa District , Garmsir was both a historically infiltration route for Taliban coming from Pakistan , and is considered to have a culture very similar to Pakistan 's . The deployment was marred by tragedy at the very beginning when the Chief of Police , LtCol Sayfullah Khan Rashidi , ( who had previously served as Nawa District 's Chief of Police during 3 / 3 's deployment there ) was killed along with two other Afghan National Police ( ANP ) by an IED on 6 November . Two days later , Hajji Abdullah Khan , an influential tribal elder with the Nurzai Tribe in the Sar Banadar area , was gunned down by a member of the Andar Tribe following a shura with 3rd Battalion Marines . Afghan Border Police ( ABP ) were able to arrest the murderer , who was then successfully prosecuted under Afghan law . A Taliban commander was also killed in Meyan Pashti around the same time . In mid @-@ December , a squad from Lima Company was able to rescue an entire Afghan family when their car plunged into the Helmand River . Starting in January 2012 , 3rd Battalion and elements of the 215th Corps of the Afghan National Army began a series of airborne assaults at sparsely @-@ populated and historically Taliban @-@ controlled areas in Garmsir . On 4 January they launched Operation Tageer Shamal ( Shifting Winds ) , aimed at clearing Taliban fighters from the western side of the Helmand River . On 10 February they followed up with Shahem Tofan ( Eagle Storm ) , a joint effort with the ABP aimed at interdicting smugglers moving through the desert in southeastern Garmsir . On 17 April , over 2 @,@ 200 Afghans went to the polls to elect the Garmsir District Community Council , which – due to increases in security – now represented the entire district instead of just the northern part . Four days later , on 21 April , a suicide bomber killed four Afghan Police in Garmsir ; while medevacing the police , a UH @-@ 60 Black Hawk helicopter crashed , killing all four aboard .
= = Iraq War ( 2006 – 2009 ) = =
= = = Al Anbar Province ( 2006 – 2008 ) = = =
In March 2006 , 3rd Battalion 3rd Marines conducted its first OIF deployment to Al Anbar province in western Iraq . They relieved the 3rd Battalion 1st Marines in the Haditha area and were based out of the Haditha Dam . This deployment was particularly sensitive , coming around the same time that news of the Haditha killings ( where Marines had killed 24 civilians in the same area the previous November ) broke in the United States . Once it arrived in Iraq , 3rd Battalion was given the mission of " fighting insurgents , working with locals to improve local economy and quality of life , and training Iraqi soldiers . " The Battalion was also partnered up with the 2nd Battalion , 2nd Brigade of the 7th Iraqi Army Division . 3rd Battalion attempted to secure Haditha by using an approach of " constant presence " . The battalion operated from a series of forward operating bases in the local cities of Haditha , Barwanah , Haqlaniyah , and Baghdadi from which the rifle and weapons companies sent out constant patrols to keep the insurgent groups off balance . However , the battalion was unable to create a working local police force , due to the overwhelming intimidation by insurgent groups . Battalion Commander LtCol Norm Cooling observed , " We didn 't have the manpower to control the [ main roads ] and hold Haditha . The Iraqi Army was as blind as we were . The insurgents killed anyone who spoke to us . " One group of 15 police volunteers was murdered by insurgents in Baghdadi in May . Then in June a Marine mistook a local tribal leader driving near a convoy for a possible suicide bomber and killed him . Another groups of Marines in the same city had more success when they cornered a band of insurgents in the Haqlaniyah Hotel and blew it up . By June , attacks against Marines in Haqlaniyah had become common , with their base getting mortared about twice a week and some insurgents getting close enough to throw grenades over the wall into the base . On 3 June three insurgents opened fire on the Haqlaniyah base but were quickly killed after a group of Marines led by Gunnery Sergeant Jim Lanham launched a hasty counterattack . In early September , 3rd Battalion launched a second effort to recruit police called Operation Guardian Tiger IV . This recruitment drive was more successful than its predecessors and also detained 30 suspected insurgents . On 6 October , 3rd Battalion 3rd Marines returned to Kaneohe Bay . During their time in Haditha the Marines from 3rd Battalion 3rd Marines conducted more than 8 @,@ 000 patrols , located 54 weapons caches and detained more than 800 suspected insurgents . The battalion had 11 Marines killed and 85 wounded .
The following year in August 2007 , the battalion made its second Iraq deployment , this time to the Fallujah area where they served under the Regimental Combat Team 6 during the closing phases of Operation Alljah . Their mission was to complete the Clear Hold Build operation in the areas of Karmah and Zaidon which the 2nd Battalion , 5th Marines and 2nd Battalion , 7th Marines had begun two months earlier . Karmah had become an important insurgent stronghold due its proximity both Baghdad and Fallujah . Unlike other cities , Karmah had no definable perimeter to hold , making it easy for outsiders to access . In addition , as insurgents were pushed out of Baghdad by other offensives they found it easy to flee to Karmah . In early September , Kilo Company moved into a cluster of villages northeast of Karmah that was the last major insurgent staging ground in Anbar . The insurgents fled without firing a shot . For the first few months the Marines took small @-@ arms and mortar fire nightly . A 20 @-@ minute attack on 5 October against the Iraqi Police station in Karmah was repulsed by Jim Lanham , now a First Sergeant . By late 2007 the Marines frequently found themselves mediating between sheiks , assisting locals with reconstruction projects , and mentoring the Iraqi police units in the area . One company commander , Captain Quintin Jones , observed that , " On one end I ’ m fighting , and on the other end I ’ m disputing between tribal leaders . The other part ( is ) trying to stimulate the economy . So , it ’ s a three @-@ block war here and it ’ s very , very dynamic . " The battalion spent more than $ 1 million on Karmah , including a city council and a medical clinic . On 1 December , the battalion staged an elaborate reopening of " Victory Circle " , or " The Lollipop " , the marketplace in the center of Karmah which had earlier been the scene of fierce fighting between Marines and insurgents . In February 2008 the battalion rotated back to the United States without suffering a single casualty .
= = = Task Force Military Police ( 2009 ) = = =
In April 2009 3 / 3 deployed for a third time to Iraq , this time to Al Asad Airbase in Al Anbar Province . On that deployment they made up Task Force Military Police ( TFMP ) . Task Force Military Police was a support unit fulfilling security responsibilities in Anbar Province , including conducting convoy security missions and detainee releases , running regional detention facilities , and also managing the military working dogs in Anbar Province . In addition , since November 2008 it had been tasked with securing Combat Outpost Heider in Rabiah , Nineveh Province , as part of Operation Defeat Al Qaeda in the North ( OPDAN ) . 3rd Battalion India Company was also augmented with Reserve Military Police Marines from MP Company , 4th Marine Division and Reserve Infantrymen from AT Battalion , Rochester NY . These Marines were formed into Alpha Company . These Marines of Alpha Company detained over 150 suspected terrorist at the Syria @-@ Rabiah / Iraq Border . Alpha Company maintained Syria @-@ Iraq border by combat patrols and spending time with local populous in market place winning their hearts and minds . Alpha Company out of Cop Heider only took pop shots and encountered 2 IEDs throughout the entire deployment . Their work on the border was gratefully appreciated and noted by President Obama . In late July , Marines from H & S and Kilo Company operated as Task Force Personnel Recovery where they participated and were responsible for the eventual recovery of a pilot , Navy Captain Scott Speicher , who had been missing in action since the 1991 Gulf War . President Barack Obama later said he was " grateful to the Marines who pursued the information that led to Captain Speicher 's recovery so that he can now come home . " The deployment was mostly uneventful and 3 / 3 was ultimately relieved by 3rd Battalion , 24th Marines , which was the last Marine infantry battalion to deploy to Iraq . En route back to the United States one of the companies was detained in Mumbai , India for two days . The battalion lost one Marine , LCPL Ray Spencer , who died in a nonhostile incident .
With the exception of Weapons Co. who was deployed back to Fallujah under 1st Battalion 7th Marines . To assist in combat operations , and turn over to Iraq authority .
= = Unit awards = =
Since the beginning of World War II , the United States military has honored various units for extraordinary heroism or outstanding non @-@ combat service . This information is compiled by the United States Marine Corps History Division and is certified by the Commandant of the Marine Corps .
= = America 's Battalion = =
According to research by the Marine Corps ' History and Museum Division , the name " America 's Battalion " originated in the mid @-@ 1980s when LtCol Charles Krulak was the battalion 's commanding officer . It comes from the nickname " America 's Team " , which was used by the Dallas Cowboys . Krulak , who was a big Cowboys fan , modified the nickname to apply to 3rd Battalion . According to Krulak , at one point a friend of his sent him a letter addressed to the " Commanding Officer , America 's Battalion " . With nothing else on the envelope , the United States Postal Service still managed to deliver the letter properly . Krulak commented that " if the U.S. Postal Service recognized 3rd Battalion 3rd Marines as ' America 's Battalion , ' then they certainly must be . " So from then on , he considered it ' official ' . 3rd Battalion is one of two battalions to have the nickname " America 's Battalion " , the other being 2nd Battalion 8th Marines based out of Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune .
= = Notable 3rd Battalion Marines = =
Among the many decorations for valor and bravery awarded to Marines from 3rd Battalion , five Medals of Honor and over twenty Navy Crosses have been awarded . In 1965 , Corporal Robert Emmett O 'Malley from India Company became the first Marine in the Vietnam War to be awarded the Medal of Honor . Two other Marines from 3rd Battalion 3rd Marines , Robert J. Modrzejewski ( 1958 – 1959 ) and Howard V. Lee ( 1959 – 1960 ) , would later be awarded the Medal of Honor in Vietnam while serving with other units . Colonel John Ripley ( hero of the bridge at Dong Ha ) was in command of Lima Company in 1967 , and the company was frequently referred to as " Ripley 's Raiders " . One of his platoon commanders was former Major League Baseball player Chuck Goggin . Oliver North served as a platoon commander in Kilo Company from 1968 – 1969 and Frank Tejeda , a Congressman from Texas , was a Kilo NCO for the same period . In 1979 , James Mattis served as commander of Kilo Company during the battalion 's deployment aboard a MEU in the Indian Ocean . Charles Krulak , the 31st Commandant of the Marine Corps , also commanded Lima Company during the Vietnam War and later served as Battalion Commander from 1983 – 1985 . Krulak is also credited with giving 3rd Battalion 3rd Marines the nickname " America 's Battalion " . In more recent years , War on Terror alumni include Medal of Honor recipient Dakota Meyer , Navy Cross recipient Luis Fonseca , Terminal Lance creator Maximilian Uriarte , The Duffel Blog creator Paul Szoldra , and Castra Praetoria milblogger Michael Burke .
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= Stew @-@ Roids =
" Stew @-@ Roids " is the 13th episode of the seventh season of the American animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on the Fox network on April 26 , 2009 . The episode features Stewie after he is attacked at an outdoor party by Joe 's infant daughter , Susie . While training Stewie , Peter injects him with performance @-@ enhancing drugs , and Stewie becomes incredibly muscular . Meanwhile , Chris becomes the fake boyfriend of popular student Connie D 'Amico . He begins to like her , and the two begin a serious relationship , leading him to become mean and self @-@ centered towards everyone around him .
The episode was written by Alec Sulkin and directed by Jerry Langford . It received mixed reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references , in addition to receiving criticism from the Parents Television Council . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed by 6 @.@ 80 million viewers on its original airdate . The episode featured guest performances by Wilhoit , Meredith Baxter @-@ Birney , Jeff Bergman , Gary Cole , Chace Crawford , Camille Guaty , Wentworth Miller and Mae Whitman along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series .
= = Plot = =
Joe and Bonnie host a backyard barbecue , where Joe 's baby daughter , Susie , gets into a fight with Stewie over a doll and attacks him . Upset by this , Peter takes Stewie to train at the local gymnasium . A trainer notices Stewie struggling with barbells and offers steroids . Peter injects the drugs into Stewie , who becomes incredibly buff and develops an aggressive personality , much to the horror of his family . Stewie becomes tormenting towards Brian . As time passes , Stewie 's drugs gradually wear off , much to his shock . His skin becomes incredibly loose and flabby . Stewie jumps out of his bedroom window to avoid Brian 's wrath , only to have his loosened skin help him glide to safety .
At school Meg tells Connie that since she heard her talking about High school musical and said that she watched the who 'll series . Then Connie tells her not to listen to wants she 's saying and that she was talking sarcastically and that she a loser for watching " High School Musical " . Elsewhere , Connie D 'Amico decides that she is tired of dating the popular boys and instead tries to find the least popular in school . At lunch Meg sitting with Chris , Meg sees that Lois packed her nothing but Chris 's crusts and a photo of her holding a turkey leg . Then Connie comes up to Chris and Meg and tells Meg that she has a good post and tells her to scram which Meg happily does . After that Connie tells Chris that he 's the biggest loser in the school and tells him to come to the school with him next week .
She settles on Chris almost immediately . During their first date , Chris reveals that he really likes Connie , who is surprised by his true heart and actually becomes attracted to him . Chris ' popularity increases at school , which leads to accolades by the jocks and other socially powerful students . Meg tries to use the relationship to gain popularity herself . Later , Chris and Connie plan a house party at the Griffins but Meg finds out that she isn 't invited as her breasts are big enough to meet demands . During the party Meg is crying in her room with Lois comforting her as she tries to make her go to the party but Meg says that she hates her life to which Lois stops caring as she happily goes to the party .
Down stairs Connie sees that Chris is cheating on her as he reveals that beating up a jewish kid ( possibly " Neil Goldman " ) made him popular and this results in conning getting. outcast . She turns to a reluctant Meg , who relents when a javelin thrown by Chris impales Meg 's shoulder . They publicly release a video of Chris dancing naked in his room in the style of Buffalo Bill from The Silence of the Lambs a reference to what Seth Green based Chris 's voice off . Chris quickly becomes unpopular , as Meg sees that Connie will never be her fried as she says that she can 't think about her in the tub . At dinner Chris tells Meg about his time being popular so Meg can forgive him , but Chris says how it was , as Stewie now normal says that " I flew today " .
= = Production = =
" Stew @-@ Roids " was written by series regular Alec Sulkin in his first writing job for the season . It was directed by former Mission Hill and The Oblongs director Jerry Langford , who had joined the show 's staff that season when he directed the episode " Tales of a Third Grade Nothing " . Series regulars Peter Shin and James Purdum served as supervising directors .
The role of Kevin Swanson has been portrayed by several people , including actor Jon Cryer in the second season episode " There 's Something About Paulie " , was revealed to have died in the Iraq War . This would later be developed more in the tenth season episode " Thanksgiving " , in which he was voiced by actor Scott Grimes .
In addition to the regular cast , actors Meredith Baxter @-@ Birney , Jeff Bergman , Gary Cole , Chace Crawford , Camille Guaty , Wentworth Miller , Mae Whitman and Lisa Wilhoit guest starred in the episode . The episode featured many of the show 's recurring guest voice actors including : Alexandra Breckenridge , Chris Cox , Ralph Garman , and writers Danny Smith , Alec Sulkin , and John Viener also made minor appearances . Recurring voice actors Jennifer Tilly and Patrick Warburton reprise their roles of Bonnie and Joe Swanson respectively .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode includes various cultural references , including Johnson & Johnson 's " No more tears " slogan . Peter is seen watching Spike TV . Stewie enters a fight with Susie over a Barbie doll . Stewie composes a song about his toned body , pronouncing the word body as " bah @-@ dy " a reference to the pronunciation of the word in John Mayer 's " Your Body Is a Wonderland " . Chris 's nude dance is a reference to a similar scene in The Silence Of The Lambs ; this is in itself an in @-@ joke as Chris Griffin 's voice was initially Seth Green 's impression of Buffalo Bill . Brian compares Stewie 's muscular body to actor Lou Ferrigno 's feces . Lois and Brian sit on the couch while they watch Lady and the Tramp and Michael Vick . Adam Sandler 's movie career is referenced . Folkloric figure Santa Claus is seen getting a DUI .
Chris says he hates classic rock stations because they always end up playing We Built This City from Starship . The radio station Chris tunes into is " Classic Rock 103 @.@ 7 WHTT " . WHTT was the callsign for the current Boston , MA radio station WODS , a classic hits station at the time that played the same music the fictional WHTT apparently airs before flipping to Top 40 in 2012 as 103 @.@ 3 Amp Radio . The station had the callsign from 1983 – 86 . This further references Boston influences on the TV show . Another station actually holds the callsigns now , 104 @.@ 1 WHTT @-@ FM in Buffalo , NY , with the same format . After Stewie is injected with steroids , he lifts a barbell on one side and says " I have the power ! " and the show then shifts scenes the same as in Masters of the Universe . It is mentioned that Connie is the key to One @-@ Eyed Willy ’ s gold , a reference to The Goonies . Paul Sorvino and Chazz Palminteri are seen acting in a fictional movie called " Distracting Trumpet " . After Stewie 's steroids injection wears off and he jumps out the bedroom window , the music playing is from the cartoon The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show .
= = Reception = =
In a slight drop from the previous week , " Stew @-@ Roids " was viewed in 6 @.@ 80 million homes in its original airing . It also received a 4 @.@ 0 / 6 in Nielsen ratings , the audience measurement systems developed to determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States .
Ahsan Haque of IGN gave the episode a score of 8 @.@ 2 out of 10 , commending Chris 's storyline and praising Stewie 's temporary build , but criticizing the staleness of Meg 's continued poor treatment . Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club gave a much more critical review giving the episode a grade of a C. Heisler stated that neither of the storylines " held any water " , because they were " ridiculously short " . He also commented : " I 'm starting to wonder if this show is even watchable anymore – 18 minutes of filler , 45 seconds of inspired silliness . "
The Parents Television Council , a frequent critic of Family Guy , named " Stew @-@ Roids " its " Worst TV Show of the Week " for the week ending August 28 , 2009 ; the review was based on a repeat airing . The PTC 's review cited the episode 's crude jokes , " tiresome pop culture cutaways " and " its conceit that its content is original . " The latter referred to the plotline about Chris 's sudden popularity at school and having a swelled ego as a result .
" Stew @-@ Roids " , along with the seven other episodes from Family Guy 's eighth season and seven from the seventh season , were released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on June 15 , 2010 . The sets included brief audio commentaries by Seth MacFarlane and various crew and cast members for several episodes , a collection of deleted scenes , a special mini @-@ feature which discussed the process behind animating " Road to the Multiverse " , and mini @-@ feature entitled " Family Guy Karaoke " .
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= Grover Cleveland =
Stephen Grover Cleveland ( March 18 , 1837 – June 24 , 1908 ) was the 22nd and 24th President of the United States . He was the winner of the popular vote for president three times – in 1884 , 1888 , and 1892 – and was one of the three Democrats ( with Andrew Johnson and Woodrow Wilson ) to serve as president during the era of Republican political domination dating from 1861 to 1933 . He is the only President in American history to serve two non @-@ consecutive terms in office .
Cleveland was the leader of the pro @-@ business Bourbon Democrats who opposed high tariffs , Free Silver , inflation , imperialism , and subsidies to business , farmers , or veterans . His crusade for political reform and fiscal conservatism made him an icon for American conservatives of the era . Cleveland won praise for his honesty , self @-@ reliance , integrity , and commitment to the principles of classical liberalism . He relentlessly fought political corruption , patronage , and bossism . As a reformer Cleveland had such prestige that the like @-@ minded wing of the Republican Party , called " Mugwumps " , largely bolted the GOP presidential ticket and swung to his support in the 1884 election .
As his second administration began , disaster hit the nation when the Panic of 1893 produced a severe national depression , which Cleveland was unable to reverse . It ruined his Democratic Party , opening the way for a Republican landslide in 1894 and for the agrarian and silverite seizure of the Democratic Party in 1896 . The result was a political realignment that ended the Third Party System and launched the Fourth Party System and the Progressive Era .
Cleveland was a formidable policymaker , and he also drew corresponding criticism . His intervention in the Pullman Strike of 1894 to keep the railroads moving angered labor unions nationwide in addition to the party in Illinois ; his support of the gold standard and opposition to Free Silver alienated the agrarian wing of the Democratic Party . Critics complained that Cleveland had little imagination and seemed overwhelmed by the nation 's economic disasters — depressions and strikes — in his second term . Even so , his reputation for probity and good character survived the troubles of his second term . Biographer Allan Nevins wrote : " [ I ] n Grover Cleveland the greatness lies in typical rather than unusual qualities . He had no endowments that thousands of men do not have . He possessed honesty , courage , firmness , independence , and common sense . But he possessed them to a degree other men do not . " Today , Cleveland is considered by most historians to have been a successful leader , generally ranked among the second tier of American presidents .
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood and family history = = =
Stephen Grover Cleveland was born on March 18 , 1837 , in Caldwell , New Jersey to Richard Falley Cleveland and Ann ( née Neal ) Cleveland . Cleveland 's father was a Presbyterian minister who was originally from Connecticut . His mother was from Baltimore and was the daughter of a bookseller . On his father 's side , Cleveland was descended from English ancestors , the first of the family having emigrated to Massachusetts from Cleveland , England in 1635 . On his mother 's side , he was descended from Anglo @-@ Irish Protestants and German Quakers from Philadelphia . He was distantly related to General Moses Cleaveland , after whom the city of Cleveland , Ohio , was named .
Cleveland , the fifth of nine children , was named Stephen Grover in honor of the first pastor of the First Presbyterian Church of Caldwell , where his father was pastor at the time . He became known as Grover in his adult life . In 1841 , the Cleveland family moved to Fayetteville , New York , where Grover spent much of his childhood . Neighbors later described him as " full of fun and inclined to play pranks , " and fond of outdoor sports .
In 1850 , Cleveland 's father took a pastorate in Clinton , Oneida County , New York , and the family relocated there . Despite his father 's dedication to his missionary work , the income was insufficient for the large family . Financial conditions forced him to remove Grover from school into a two @-@ year mercantile apprenticeship in Fayetteville . The experience was valuable and brief , and the living conditions quite austere . Grover returned to Clinton and his schooling at the completion of the apprentice contract . When the Clinton pastorate proved too arduous in 1853 , Cleveland 's father took an assignment in Holland Patent , New York , near Utica and the family moved again . Shortly after , he died .
= = = Education and moving west = = =
Cleveland received his elementary education at the Fayetteville Academy and the Clinton Liberal Academy . After his father died in 1853 , he again left school so as to help support his family . Later that year , Cleveland 's brother William was hired as a teacher at the New York Institute for the Blind in New York City , and William obtained a place for Cleveland as an assistant teacher . He returned home to Holland Patent at the end of 1854 , where an elder in his church offered to pay for his college education if he would promise to become a minister . Cleveland declined , and in 1855 he decided to move west . He stopped first in Buffalo , New York , where his uncle , Lewis F. Allen , gave him a clerical job . Allen was an important man in Buffalo , and he introduced his nephew to influential men there , including the partners in the law firm of Rogers , Bowen , and Rogers . Cleveland later took a clerkship with the firm , began to read the law , and was admitted to the bar in 1859 .
= = = Early career and the Civil War = = =
Cleveland worked for the Rogers firm for three years , then left in 1862 to start his own practice . In January 1863 , he was appointed assistant district attorney of Erie County . With the American Civil War raging , Congress passed the Conscription Act of 1863 , requiring able @-@ bodied men to serve in the army if called upon , or else to hire a substitute . Cleveland chose the latter course , paying $ 150 to George Benninsky , a thirty @-@ two @-@ year @-@ old Polish immigrant , to serve in his place .
As a lawyer , Cleveland became known for his single @-@ minded concentration and dedication to hard work . In 1866 , he successfully defended some participants in the Fenian raid , working on a pro bono basis ( free of charge ) . In 1868 , Cleveland attracted professional attention for his winning defense of a libel suit against the editor of Buffalo 's Commercial Advertiser . During this time , Cleveland assumed a lifestyle of simplicity , taking residence in a plain boarding house ; Cleveland dedicated his growing income instead to the support of his mother and younger sisters . While his personal quarters were austere , Cleveland enjoyed an active social life and " the easy @-@ going sociability of hotel @-@ lobbies and saloons . " He shunned the circles of higher society of Buffalo in which his uncle 's family traveled .
= = Political career in New York = =
= = = Sheriff of Erie County = = =
From his earliest involvement in politics , Cleveland aligned with the Democratic Party . He had a decided aversion to Republicans John Fremont and Abraham Lincoln , and the heads of the Rogers law firm were solid Democrats . In 1865 , he ran for District Attorney , losing narrowly to his friend and roommate , Lyman K. Bass , the Republican nominee . In 1870 , with the help of friend Oscar Folsom , Cleveland secured the Democratic nomination for Sheriff of Erie County , New York . He won the election by a 303 @-@ vote margin and took office on January 1 , 1871 at age 33 . While this new career took him away from the practice of law , it was rewarding in other ways : the fees were said to yield up to $ 40 @,@ 000 ( US $ 800 @,@ 000 today ) over the two @-@ year term .
Cleveland 's service as sheriff was unremarkable ; biographer Rexford Tugwell described the time in office as a waste for Cleveland politically . Cleveland was aware of graft in the sheriff 's office during his tenure and chose not to confront it . A notable incident of his term took place on September 6 , 1872 , when Patrick Morrissey was executed , who had been convicted of murdering his mother . As sheriff , Cleveland was responsible for either personally carrying out the execution or paying a deputy $ 10 to perform the task . In spite of reservations about the hanging , Cleveland executed Morrissey himself ; he hanged another murderer , John Gaffney , on February 14 , 1873 .
After his term as sheriff ended , Cleveland returned to his law practice , opening a firm with his friends Lyman K. Bass and Wilson S. Bissell . Elected to Congress in 1872 , Bass did not spend much time at the firm , but Cleveland and Bissell soon rose to the top of Buffalo 's legal community . Up to that point , Cleveland 's political career had been honorable and unexceptional . As biographer Allan Nevins wrote , " Probably no man in the country , on March 4 , 1881 , had less thought than this limited , simple , sturdy attorney of Buffalo that four years later he would be standing in Washington and taking the oath as President of the United States . "
It was during this period that Cleveland began a brief relationship with a widow , Maria Crofts Halpin , and later assumed responsibility for supporting her and a child born at the time . The matter became a campaign issue for the GOP in his first presidential campaign .
= = = Mayor of Buffalo = = =
In the 1870s , the municipal government in Buffalo had grown increasingly corrupt , with Democratic and Republican political machines cooperating to share the spoils of political office . In 1881 the Republicans nominated a slate of particularly disreputable machine politicians ; the Democrats saw the opportunity to gain the votes of disaffected Republicans by nominating a more honest candidate . The party leaders approached Cleveland , and he agreed to run for Mayor of Buffalo , provided that the rest of the ticket was to his liking . When the more notorious politicians were left off the Democratic ticket , Cleveland accepted the nomination . Cleveland was elected mayor with 15 @,@ 120 votes , as against 11 @,@ 528 for Milton C. Beebe , his opponent . He took office January 2 , 1882 .
Cleveland 's term as mayor was spent fighting the entrenched interests of the party machines . Among the acts that established his reputation was a veto of the street @-@ cleaning bill passed by the Common Council . The street @-@ cleaning contract was open for bids , and the Council selected the highest bidder at $ 422 @,@ 000 , rather than the lowest of $ 100 @,@ 000 less , because of the political connections of the bidder . While this sort of bipartisan graft had previously been tolerated in Buffalo , Mayor Cleveland would have none of it . His veto message said , " I regard it as the culmination of a most bare @-@ faced , impudent , and shameless scheme to betray the interests of the people , and to worse than squander the public money . " The Council reversed itself and awarded the contract to the lowest bidder . Cleveland also asked the state legislature to form a Commission to develop a plan to improve the sewer system in Buffalo at a much lower cost than previously proposed locally ; this plan was successfully adopted . For this , and other actions safeguarding public funds , Cleveland 's reputation as a leader willing to purge government corruption began to spread beyond Erie County .
= = = Governor of New York = = =
New York Democratic party officials began to consider Cleveland a possible nominee for governor . Daniel Manning , a party insider who admired Cleveland 's record , was instrumental in his candidacy . With a split in the state Republican party in 1882 , the Democratic party was considered to be at an advantage ; there were several contenders for that party 's nomination . The two leading Democratic candidates were Roswell P. Flower and Henry W. Slocum . Their factions deadlocked , and the convention could not agree on a nominee . Cleveland , in third place on the first ballot , picked up support in subsequent votes and emerged as the compromise choice . The Republican party remained divided against itself , and in the general election Cleveland emerged the victor , with 535 @,@ 318 votes to Republican nominee Charles J. Folger 's 342 @,@ 464 . Cleveland 's margin of victory was , at the time , the largest in a contested New York election ; the Democrats also picked up seats in both houses of the New York State Legislature .
Cleveland brought his opposition to needless spending to the governor 's office ; he promptly sent the legislature eight vetos in his first two months in office . The first to attract attention was his veto of a bill to reduce the fares on New York City elevated trains to five cents . The bill had broad support because the trains ' owner , Jay Gould , was unpopular , and his fare increases were widely denounced . Cleveland , however , saw the bill as unjust — Gould had taken over the railroads when they were failing and had made the system solvent again . Moreover , Cleveland believed that altering Gould 's franchise would violate the Contract Clause of the federal Constitution . Despite the initial popularity of the fare @-@ reduction bill , the newspapers praised Cleveland 's veto . Theodore Roosevelt , then a member of the Assembly , had reluctantly voted for the bill to which Cleveland objected , in a desire to punish the unscrupulous railroad barons . After the veto , Roosevelt reversed himself , as did many legislators , and the veto was sustained .
Cleveland 's defiance of political corruption won him popular acclaim , and the enmity of the influential Tammany Hall organization in New York City . Tammany , under its boss , John Kelly , had disapproved of Cleveland 's nomination as governor , and their resistance intensified after Cleveland openly opposed and prevented the re @-@ election of their point man in the State Senate , Thomas F. Grady . Cleveland also steadfastly opposed nominees of the Tammanyites , as well as bills passed as a result of their deal making . The loss of Tammany 's support was offset by the support of Theodore Roosevelt and other reform @-@ minded Republicans who helped Cleveland to pass several laws reforming municipal governments .
= = Election of 1884 = =
= = = Nomination for president = = =
The Republicans convened in Chicago and nominated former Speaker of the House James G. Blaine of Maine for president on the fourth ballot . Blaine 's nomination alienated many Republicans who viewed Blaine as ambitious and immoral . The GOP standard bearer was weakened by alienating the Mugwumps , and the Conkling faction , recently disenfranchised by President Arthur . Democratic party leaders saw the Republicans ' choice as an opportunity to win the White House for the first time since 1856 if the right candidate could be found .
Among the Democrats , Samuel J. Tilden was the initial front @-@ runner , having been the party 's nominee in the contested election of 1876 . After Tilden declined a nomination due to his poor health , his supporters shifted to several other contenders . Cleveland was among the leaders in early support , and Thomas F. Bayard of Delaware , Allen G. Thurman of Ohio , Samuel Freeman Miller of Iowa , and Benjamin Butler of Massachusetts also had considerable followings , along with various favorite sons . Each of the other candidates had hindrances to his nomination : Bayard had spoken in favor of secession in 1861 , making him unacceptable to Northerners ; Butler , conversely , was reviled throughout the South for his actions during the Civil War ; Thurman was generally well liked , but was growing old and infirm , and his views on the silver question were uncertain . Cleveland , too , had detractors — Tammany remained opposed to him — but the nature of his enemies made him still more friends . Cleveland led on the first ballot , with 392 votes out of 820 . On the second ballot , Tammany threw its support behind Butler , but the rest of the delegates shifted to Cleveland , who won . Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana was selected as his running mate .
= = = Campaign against Blaine = = =
Corruption in politics was the central issue in 1884 ; indeed , Blaine had over the span of his career been involved in several questionable deals . Cleveland 's reputation as an opponent of corruption proved the Democrats ' strongest asset . William C. Hudson created Cleveland 's contextual campaign slogan " A public office is a public trust . " Reform @-@ minded Republicans called " Mugwumps " denounced Blaine as corrupt and flocked to Cleveland . The Mugwumps , including such men as Carl Schurz and Henry Ward Beecher , were more concerned with morality than with party , and felt Cleveland was a kindred soul who would promote civil service reform and fight for efficiency in government . At the same time the Democrats gained support from the Mugwumps , they lost some blue @-@ collar workers to the Greenback @-@ Labor party , led by ex @-@ Democrat Benjamin Butler . In general , Cleveland abided by the precedent of minimizing presidential campaign travel and speechmaking ; Blaine became one of the first to break with that tradition .
The campaign focused on the candidates ' moral standards , as each side cast aspersions on their opponents . Cleveland 's supporters rehashed the old allegations that Blaine had corruptly influenced legislation in favor of the Little Rock and Fort Smith Railroad and the Union Pacific Railway , later profiting on the sale of bonds he owned in both companies . Although the stories of Blaine 's favors to the railroads had made the rounds eight years earlier , this time Blaine 's correspondence was discovered , making his earlier denials less plausible . On some of the most damaging correspondence , Blaine had written " Burn this letter " , giving Democrats the last line to their rallying cry : " Blaine , Blaine , James G. Blaine , the continental liar from the state of Maine , ' Burn this letter ! "
Commentator Jeff Jacoby notes that , " Not since George Washington had a candidate for President been so renowned for his rectitude . " The Republicans found a refutation buried in Cleveland 's past . Aided by sermons from an opportunistic preacher named George H. Ball , they charged that Cleveland had fathered an illegitimate child while he was a lawyer in Buffalo , and chanted , " Ma , Ma , where 's my Pa ? " When confronted with the scandal , Cleveland immediately instructed his supporters to " Above all , tell the truth . " Cleveland admitted to paying child support in 1874 to Maria Crofts Halpin , the woman who claimed he fathered her child , who she had named Oscar Folsom Cleveland . Halpin had been involved with several men at the time , including Cleveland 's friend and law partner , Oscar Folsom , for whom the child was named . Cleveland did not know which man was the father ; he assumed responsibility because he was the only bachelor among them . Shortly before the 1884 election , the Republican media published an affidavit from Halpin in which she stated that until she met Cleveland , her " life was pure and spotless " , and " there is not , and never was , a doubt as to the paternity of our child , and the attempt of Grover Cleveland , or his friends , to couple the name of Oscar Folsom , or any one else , with that boy , for that purpose is simply infamous and false . "
The electoral votes of closely contested New York , New Jersey , Indiana , and Connecticut would determine the election . In New York , the Tammany Democrats decided that they would gain more from supporting a Democrat they disliked than a Republican who would do nothing for them . Blaine hoped that he would have more support from Irish Americans than Republicans typically did ; while the Irish were mainly a Democratic constituency in the 19th century , Blaine 's mother was Irish Catholic , and he had been supportive of the Irish National Land League while he was Secretary of State . The Irish , a significant group in three of the swing states , did appear inclined to support Blaine until a Republican , Samuel D. Burchard , gave a speech pivotal for the Democrats , denouncing them as the party of " Rum , Romanism , and Rebellion . " The Democrats spread the word of this implied Catholic insult on the eve of the election . They also blistered Blaine for attending a banquet with some of New York City 's wealthiest men .
After the votes were counted , Cleveland narrowly won all four of the swing states , including New York by 1200 votes . While the popular vote total was close , with Cleveland winning by just one @-@ quarter of a percent , the electoral votes gave Cleveland a majority of 219 – 182 . Following the electoral victory , the " Ma , Ma ... " attack phrase gained a classic riposte : " Gone to the White House . Ha ! Ha ! Ha ! "
= = First term as president ( 1885 – 1889 ) = =
= = = Reform = = =
Soon after taking office , Cleveland was faced with the task of filling all the government jobs for which the president had the power of appointment . These jobs were typically filled under the spoils system , but Cleveland announced that he would not fire any Republican who was doing his job well , and would not appoint anyone solely on the basis of party service . He also used his appointment powers to reduce the number of federal employees , as many departments had become bloated with political time @-@ servers . Later in his term , as his fellow Democrats chafed at being excluded from the spoils , Cleveland began to replace more of the partisan Republican officeholders with Democrats . ; this was especially the case with policy making positions . While some of his decisions were influenced by party concerns , more of Cleveland 's appointments were decided by merit alone than was the case in his predecessors ' administrations .
Cleveland also reformed other parts of the government . In 1887 , he signed an act creating the Interstate Commerce Commission . He and Secretary of the Navy William C. Whitney undertook to modernize the navy and canceled construction contracts that had resulted in inferior ships . Cleveland angered railroad investors by ordering an investigation of western lands they held by government grant . Secretary of the Interior Lucius Q.C. Lamar charged that the rights of way for this land must be returned to the public because the railroads failed to extend their lines according to agreements . The lands were forfeited , resulting in the return of approximately 81 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 330 @,@ 000 km2 ) .
Cleveland was the first Democratic President subject to the Tenure of Office Act which originated in 1867 ; the act purported to require the Senate to approve the dismissal of any presidential appointee who was originally subject to its advice and consent . Cleveland objected to the act in principle and his steadfast refusal to abide by it prompted its fall into disfavor and led to its ultimate repeal in 1887 .
= = = Vetoes = = =
Cleveland faced a Republican Senate and often resorted to using his veto powers . He vetoed hundreds of private pension bills for American Civil War veterans , believing that if their pensions requests had already been rejected by the Pension Bureau , Congress should not attempt to override that decision . When Congress , pressured by the Grand Army of the Republic , passed a bill granting pensions for disabilities not caused by military service , Cleveland also vetoed that . Cleveland used the veto far more often than any president up to that time . In 1887 , Cleveland issued his most well @-@ known veto , that of the Texas Seed Bill . After a drought had ruined crops in several Texas counties , Congress appropriated $ 10 @,@ 000 to purchase seed grain for farmers there . Cleveland vetoed the expenditure . In his veto message , he espoused a theory of limited government :
I can find no warrant for such an appropriation in the Constitution , and I do not believe that the power and duty of the general government ought to be extended to the relief of individual suffering which is in no manner properly related to the public service or benefit . A prevalent tendency to disregard the limited mission of this power and duty should , I think , be steadfastly resisted , to the end that the lesson should be constantly enforced that , though the people support the government , the government should not support the people . The friendliness and charity of our countrymen can always be relied upon to relieve their fellow @-@ citizens in misfortune . This has been repeatedly and quite lately demonstrated . Federal aid in such cases encourages the expectation of paternal care on the part of the government and weakens the sturdiness of our national character , while it prevents the indulgence among our people of that kindly sentiment and conduct which strengthens the bonds of a common brotherhood .
= = = Silver = = =
One of the most volatile issues of the 1880s was whether the currency should be backed by gold and silver , or by gold alone . The issue cut across party lines , with western Republicans and southern Democrats joining together in the call for the free coinage of silver , and both parties ' representatives in the northeast holding firm for the gold standard . Because silver was worth less than its legal equivalent in gold , taxpayers paid their government bills in silver , while international creditors demanded payment in gold , resulting in a depletion of the nation 's gold supply .
Cleveland and Treasury Secretary Daniel Manning stood firmly on the side of the gold standard , and tried to reduce the amount of silver that the government was required to coin under the Bland @-@ Allison Act of 1878 . Cleveland unsuccessfully appealed to Congress to repeal this law before he was inaugurated . Angered Westerners and Southerners advocated for cheap money to help their poorer constituents . In reply , one of the foremost silverites , Richard P. Bland , introduced a bill in 1886 that would require the government to coin unlimited amounts of silver , inflating the then @-@ deflating currency . While Bland 's bill was defeated , so was a bill the administration favored that would repeal any silver coinage requirement . The result was a retention of the status quo , and a postponement of the resolution of the Free Silver issue .
= = = Tariffs = = =
Another contentious financial issue at the time was the protective tariff . While it had not been a central point in his campaign , Cleveland 's opinion on the tariff was that of most Democrats : that the tariff ought to be reduced . Republicans generally favored a high tariff to protect American industries . American tariffs had been high since the Civil War , and by the 1880s the tariff brought in so much revenue that the government was running a surplus .
In 1886 , a bill to reduce the tariff was narrowly defeated in the House . The tariff issue was emphasized in the Congressional elections that year , and the forces of protectionism increased their numbers in the Congress , but Cleveland continued to advocate tariff reform . As the surplus grew , Cleveland and the reformers called for a tariff for revenue only . His message to Congress in 1887 ( quoted at right ) highlighted the injustice of taking more money from the people than the government needed to pay its operating expenses . Republicans , as well as protectionist northern Democrats like Samuel J. Randall , believed that American industries would fail absent high tariffs , and continued to fight reform efforts . Roger Q. Mills , chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee , proposed a bill to reduce the tariff from about 47 % to about 40 % . After significant exertions by Cleveland and his allies , the bill passed the House . The Republican Senate failed to come to agreement with the Democratic House , and the bill died in the conference committee . Dispute over the tariff persisted into the 1888 presidential election .
= = = Foreign policy , 1885 – 1889 = = =
Cleveland was a committed non @-@ interventionist who had campaigned in opposition to expansion and imperialism . He refused to promote the previous administration 's Nicaragua canal treaty , and generally was less of an expansionist in foreign relations . Cleveland 's Secretary of State , Thomas F. Bayard , negotiated with Joseph Chamberlain of the United Kingdom over fishing rights in the waters off Canada , and struck a conciliatory note , despite the opposition of New England 's Republican Senators . Cleveland also withdrew from Senate consideration the Berlin Conference treaty which guaranteed an open door for U.S. interests in the Congo .
= = = Military policy , 1885 @-@ 1889 = = =
Cleveland 's military policy emphasized self @-@ defense and modernization . In 1885 Cleveland appointed the Board of Fortifications under Secretary of War William C. Endicott to recommend a new coastal fortification system for the United States . No improvements to US coastal defenses had been made since the late 1870s . The Board 's 1886 report recommended a massive $ 127 million construction program at 29 harbors and river estuaries , to include new breech @-@ loading rifled guns , mortars , and naval minefields . The Board and the program are usually called the Endicott Board and the Endicott Program . Most of the Board 's recommendations were implemented , and by 1910 27 locations were defended by over 70 forts . Many of the weapons remained in place until scrapped in World War II as they were replaced with new defenses . Endicott also proposed to Congress a system of examinations for Army officer promotions . For the Navy , the Cleveland administration spearheaded by Secretary of the Navy William Collins Whitney moved towards modernization , although no ships were constructed that could match the best European warships . Although completion of the four steel @-@ hulled warships begun under the previous administration was delayed due to a corruption investigation and subsequent bankruptcy of their building yard , these ships were completed in a timely manner in naval shipyards once the investigation was over . Sixteen additional steel @-@ hulled warships were ordered by the end of 1888 ; these ships later proved vital in the Spanish – American War of 1898 , and many served in World War I. These ships included the " second @-@ class battleships " Maine and Texas , designed to match modern armored ships recently acquired by South American countries from Europe , such as the Brazilian battleship Riachuelo . Eleven protected cruisers ( including the famous Olympia ) , one armored cruiser , and one monitor were also ordered , along with the experimental cruiser Vesuvius .
= = = Civil rights and immigration = = =
Cleveland , like a growing number of Northerners ( and nearly all white Southerners ) saw Reconstruction as a failed experiment , and was reluctant to use federal power to enforce the 15th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution , which guaranteed voting rights to African Americans . Though Cleveland appointed no black Americans to patronage jobs , he allowed Frederick Douglass to continue in his post as recorder of deeds in Washington , D.C. and appointed another black man to replace Douglass upon his resignation .
Although Cleveland had condemned the " outrages " against Chinese immigrants , he believed that Chinese immigrants were unwilling to assimilate into white society . Secretary of State Thomas F. Bayard negotiated an extension to the Chinese Exclusion Act , and Cleveland lobbied the Congress to pass the Scott Act , written by Congressman William Lawrence Scott , which prevented the return of Chinese immigrants who left the United States . The Scott Act easily passed both houses of Congress , and Cleveland signed it into law on October 1 , 1888 .
= = = Indian policy = = =
Cleveland viewed Native Americans as wards of the state , saying in his first inaugural address that " [ t ] his guardianship involves , on our part , efforts for the improvement of their condition and enforcement of their rights . " He encouraged the idea of cultural assimilation , pushing for the passage of the Dawes Act , which provided for distribution of Indian lands to individual members of tribes , rather than having them continued to be held in trust for the tribes by the federal government . While a conference of Native leaders endorsed the act , in practice the majority of Native Americans disapproved of it . Cleveland believed the Dawes Act would lift Native Americans out of poverty and encourage their assimilation into white society . It ultimately weakened the tribal governments and allowed individual Indians to sell land and keep the money .
In the month before Cleveland 's 1885 inauguration , President Arthur opened four million acres of Winnebago and Crow Creek Indian lands in the Dakota Territory to white settlement by executive order . Tens of thousands of settlers gathered at the border of these lands and prepared to take possession of them . Cleveland believed Arthur 's order to be in violation of treaties with the tribes , and rescinded it on April 17 of that year , ordering the settlers out of the territory . Cleveland sent in eighteen companies of Army troops to enforce the treaties and ordered General Philip Sheridan , at the time Commanding General of the U. S. Army , to investigate the matter .
= = = Marriage and children = = =
Cleveland entered the White House as a bachelor , and his sister Rose Cleveland joined him , to act as hostess for the first two years of his administration . However , unlike the previous bachelor president James Buchanan , Cleveland did not remain a bachelor for very long . In 1885 the daughter of Cleveland 's friend Oscar Folsom visited him in Washington . Frances Folsom was a student at Wells College . When she returned to school , President Cleveland received her mother 's permission to correspond with her , and they were soon engaged to be married . On June 2 , 1886 , Cleveland married Frances Folsom in the Blue Room at the White House . He was the second President to wed while in office , and has been the only President married in the White House . This marriage was unusual , since Cleveland was the executor of Oscar Folsom 's estate and had supervised Frances 's upbringing after her father 's death ; nevertheless , the public took no exception to the match . At 21 years , Frances Folsom Cleveland was the youngest First Lady in history , and the public soon warmed to her beauty and warm personality .
The Clevelands had five children : Ruth ( 1891 – 1904 ) , Esther ( 1893 – 1980 ) , Marion ( 1895 – 1977 ) , Richard Folsom ( 1897 – 1974 ) , and Francis Grover ( 1903 – 1995 ) . British philosopher Philippa Foot was their granddaughter .
= = = Administration and Cabinet = = =
= = = Judicial appointments = = =
During his first term , Cleveland successfully nominated two justices to the Supreme Court of the United States . The first , Lucius Q.C. Lamar , was a former Mississippi Senator who served in Cleveland 's Cabinet as Interior Secretary . When William Burnham Woods died , Cleveland nominated Lamar to his seat in late 1887 . While Lamar had been well liked as a Senator , his service under the Confederacy two decades earlier caused many Republicans to vote against him . Lamar 's nomination was confirmed by the narrow margin of 32 to 28 .
Chief Justice Morrison Waite died a few months later , and Cleveland nominated Melville Fuller to fill his seat on April 30 , 1888 . Fuller accepted . He had previously declined Cleveland 's nomination to the Civil Service Commission , preferring his Chicago law practice . The Senate Judiciary Committee spent several months examining the little @-@ known nominee , before the Senate confirmed the nomination 41 to 20 .
Cleveland nominated 41 lower federal court judges in addition to his four Supreme Court justices . These included two judges to the United States circuit courts , nine judges to the United States Courts of Appeals , and 30 judges to the United States district courts . Because Cleveland served terms both before and after Congress eliminated the circuit courts in favor of the Courts of Appeals , he is one of only two presidents to have appointed judges to both bodies . The other , Benjamin Harrison , was in office at the time that the change was made . Thus , all of Cleveland 's appointments to the circuit courts were made in his first term , and all of his appointments to the Courts of Appeals were made in his second .
= = Election of 1888 and return to private life = =
= = = Defeated by Harrison = = =
The Republicans nominated Benjamin Harrison of Indiana for President and Levi P. Morton of New York for Vice President . Cleveland was easily renominated at the Democratic convention in St. Louis . Vice President Hendricks having died in 1885 , the Democrats chose Allen G. Thurman of Ohio to be Cleveland 's new running mate .
The Republicans gained the upper hand in the campaign , as Cleveland 's campaign was poorly managed by Calvin S. Brice and William H. Barnum , whereas Harrison had engaged more aggressive fundraisers and tacticians in Matt Quay and John Wanamaker .
The Republicans campaigned heavily on the tariff issue , turning out protectionist voters in the important industrial states of the North . Further , the Democrats in New York were divided over the gubernatorial candidacy of David B. Hill , weakening Cleveland 's support in that swing state .
As in 1884 , the election focused on the swing states of New York , New Jersey , Connecticut , and Indiana . But unlike that year , when Cleveland had triumphed in all four , in 1888 he won only two , losing his home state of New York by 14 @,@ 373 votes . The Republicans won Indiana , largely as the result of a fraudulent voting practice known as Blocks of Five . Republican victory in that state , where Cleveland lost by just 2 @,@ 348 votes , was sufficient to propel Harrison to victory , despite his loss of the nationwide popular vote . Cleveland continued his duties diligently until the end of the term and began to look forward to return to private life .
= = = Private citizen for four years = = =
As Frances Cleveland left the White House , she told a staff member , " Now , Jerry , I want you to take good care of all the furniture and ornaments in the house , for I want to find everything just as it is now , when we come back again . " When asked when she would return , she responded , " We are coming back four years from today . " In the meantime , the Clevelands moved to New York City where Cleveland took a position with the law firm of Bangs , Stetson , Tracy , and MacVeigh . This affiliation was more of an office sharing arrangement , though quite compatible . Cleveland 's law practice brought only a moderate income , perhaps because Cleveland spent considerable time at the couple 's vacation home Grey Gables at Buzzard Bay , where fishing became his obsession . While they lived in New York , the Clevelands ' first child , Ruth , was born in 1891 .
The Harrison administration worked with Congress to pass the McKinley Tariff , an aggressively protectionist measure and the Sherman Silver Purchase Act , which increased money backed by silver ; these were among policies Cleveland deplored as dangerous to the nation 's financial health . At first he refrained from criticizing his successor , but by 1891 Cleveland felt compelled to speak out , addressing his concerns in an open letter to a meeting of reformers in New York . The " silver letter " thrust Cleveland 's name back into the spotlight just as the 1892 election was approaching .
= = Election of 1892 = =
= = = Democratic nomination = = =
Cleveland 's enduring reputation as chief executive and his recent pronouncements on the monetary issues made him a leading contender for the Democratic nomination . His leading opponent was David B. Hill , a Senator for New York . Hill united the anti @-@ Cleveland elements of the Democratic party — silverites , protectionists , and Tammany Hall — but was unable to create a coalition large enough to deny Cleveland the nomination . Despite some desperate maneuvering by Hill , Cleveland was nominated on the first ballot at the convention in Chicago . For vice president , the Democrats chose to balance the ticket with Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois , a silverite . Although the Cleveland forces preferred Isaac P. Gray of Indiana for vice president , they accepted the convention favorite . As a supporter of greenbacks and Free Silver to inflate the currency and alleviate economic distress in the rural districts , Stevenson balanced the otherwise hard @-@ money , gold @-@ standard ticket headed by Cleveland .
= = = Campaign against Harrison = = =
The Republicans re @-@ nominated President Harrison , making the 1892 election a rematch of the one four years earlier . Unlike the turbulent and controversial elections of 1876 , 1884 , and 1888 , the 1892 election was , according to Cleveland biographer Allan Nevins , " the cleanest , quietest , and most creditable in the memory of the post @-@ war generation , " in part because Harrison 's wife , Caroline , was dying of tuberculosis . Harrison did not personally campaign at all . Following Caroline Harrison 's death on October 25 , two weeks before the national election , Cleveland and all of the other candidates stopped campaigning , thus making Election Day a somber and quiet event for the whole country as well as the candidates .
The issue of the tariff worked to the Republicans ' advantage in 1888 . The legislative revisions of the past four years also made imported goods so expensive that now many voters favored tariff reform and were skeptical of big business . Many Westerners , traditionally Republican voters , defected to James Weaver , the candidate of the new Populist Party . Weaver promised Free Silver , generous veterans ' pensions , and an eight @-@ hour work day . The Tammany Hall Democrats adhered to the national ticket , allowing a united Democratic party to carry New York . At the campaign 's end , many Populists and labor supporters endorsed Cleveland after an attempt by the Carnegie Corporation to break the union during the Homestead strike in Pittsburgh and after a similar conflict between big business and labor at the Tennessee Coal and Iron Co . The final result was a victory for Cleveland by wide margins in both the popular and electoral votes , and it was Cleveland 's third consecutive popular vote plurality .
= = Second term as president ( 1893 – 1897 ) = =
= = = Economic panic and the silver issue = = =
Shortly after Cleveland 's second term began , the Panic of 1893 struck the stock market , and he soon faced an acute economic depression . The panic was worsened by the acute shortage of gold that resulted from the increased coinage of silver , and Cleveland called Congress into special session to deal with the problem . The debate over the coinage was as heated as ever , and the effects of the panic had driven more moderates to support repealing the coinage provisions of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act . Even so , the silverites rallied their following at a convention in Chicago , and the House of Representatives debated for fifteen weeks before passing the repeal by a considerable margin . In the Senate , the repeal of silver coinage was equally contentious . Cleveland , forced against his better judgment to lobby the Congress for repeal , convinced enough Democrats – and along with eastern Republicans , they formed a 48 – 37 majority for repeal . Depletion of the Treasury 's gold reserves continued , at a lesser rate , and subsequent bond issues replenished supplies of gold . At the time the repeal seemed a minor setback to silverites , but it marked the beginning of the end of silver as a basis for American currency .
= = = Tariff reform = = =
Having succeeded in reversing the Harrison administration 's silver policy , Cleveland sought next to reverse the effects of the McKinley tariff . The Wilson @-@ Gorman Tariff Act was introduced by West Virginian Representative William L. Wilson in December 1893 . After lengthy debate , the bill passed the House by a considerable margin . The bill proposed moderate downward revisions in the tariff , especially on raw materials . The shortfall in revenue was to be made up by an income tax of two percent on income above $ 4 @,@ 000 ( US $ 105 @,@ 000 today ) .
The bill was next considered in the Senate , where it faced stronger opposition from key Democrats led by Arthur Pue Gorman of Maryland , who insisted on more protection for their states ' industries than the Wilson bill allowed . The bill passed the Senate with more than 600 amendments attached that nullified most of the reforms . The Sugar Trust in particular lobbied for changes that favored it at the expense of the consumer . Cleveland was outraged with the final bill , and denounced it as a disgraceful product of the control of the Senate by trusts and business interests . Even so , he believed it was an improvement over the McKinley tariff and allowed it to become law without his signature .
= = = Voting rights = = =
In 1892 , Cleveland had campaigned against the Lodge Bill , which would have strengthened voting rights protections through the appointing of federal supervisors of congressional elections upon a petition from the citizens of any district . The Enforcement Act of 1871 had provided for a detailed federal overseeing of the electoral process , from registration to the certification of returns . Cleveland succeeded in ushering in the 1894 repeal of this law ( ch . 25 , 28 Stat . 36 ) . The pendulum thus swung from stronger attempts to protect voting rights to the repealing of voting rights protections ; this in turn led to unsuccessful attempts to have the federal courts protect voting rights in Giles v. Harris , 189 U.S. 475 ( 1903 ) , and Giles v. Teasley , 193 U.S. 146 ( 1904 ) .
= = = Labor unrest = = =
The Panic of 1893 had damaged labor conditions across the United States , and the victory of anti @-@ silver legislation worsened the mood of western laborers . A group of workingmen led by Jacob S. Coxey began to march east toward Washington , D.C. to protest Cleveland 's policies . This group , known as Coxey 's Army , agitated in favor of a national roads program to give jobs to workingmen , and a weakened currency to help farmers pay their debts . By the time they reached Washington , only a few hundred remained , and when they were arrested the next day for walking on the lawn of the United States Capitol , the group scattered . Even though Coxey 's Army may not have been a threat to the government , it signaled a growing dissatisfaction in the West with Eastern monetary policies .
= = = Pullman Strike = = =
The Pullman Strike had a significantly greater impact than Coxey 's Army . A strike began against the Pullman Company over low wages and twelve @-@ hour workdays , and sympathy strikes , led by American Railway Union leader Eugene V. Debs , soon followed . By June 1894 , 125 @,@ 000 railroad workers were on strike , paralyzing the nation 's commerce . Because the railroads carried the mail , and because several of the affected lines were in federal receivership , Cleveland believed a federal solution was appropriate . Cleveland obtained an injunction in federal court , and when the strikers refused to obey it , he sent federal troops into Chicago and 20 other rail centers . " If it takes the entire army and navy of the United States to deliver a postcard in Chicago " , he proclaimed , " that card will be delivered . " Most governors supported Cleveland except Democrat John P. Altgeld of Illinois , who became his bitter foe in 1896 . Leading newspapers of both parties applauded Cleveland 's actions , but the use of troops hardened the attitude of organized labor toward his administration .
Just before the 1894 election , Cleveland was warned by Francis Lynde Stetson , an advisor :
" We are on the eve of [ a ] very dark night , unless a return of commercial prosperity relieves popular discontent with what they believe [ is ] Democratic incompetence to make laws , and consequently [ discontent ] with Democratic Administrations anywhere and everywhere . "
The warning was appropriate , for in the Congressional elections , Republicans won their biggest landslide in decades , taking full control of the House , while the Populists lost most of their support . Cleveland 's factional enemies gained control of the Democratic Party in state after state , including full control in Illinois and Michigan , and made major gains in Ohio , Indiana , Iowa and other states . Wisconsin and Massachusetts were two of the few states that remained under the control of Cleveland 's allies . The Democratic opposition were close to controlling two @-@ thirds of the vote at the 1896 national convention , which they needed to nominate their own candidate . They failed for lack of unity and a national leader , as Illinois governor John Peter Altgeld had been born in Germany and was ineligible to be nominated for President .
= = = Foreign policy , 1893 – 1897 = = =
When Cleveland took office he faced the question of Hawaiian annexation . In his first term , he had supported free trade with Hawai 'i and accepted an amendment that gave the United States a coaling and naval station in Pearl Harbor . In the intervening four years , Honolulu businessmen of European and American ancestry had denounced Queen Liliuokalani as a tyrant who rejected constitutional government . In early 1893 they overthrew her , set up a republican government under Sanford B. Dole , and sought to join the United States . The Harrison administration had quickly agreed with representatives of the new government on a treaty of annexation and submitted it to the Senate for approval . Five days after taking office on March 9 , 1893 , Cleveland withdrew the treaty from the Senate and sent former Congressman James Henderson Blount to Hawai 'i to investigate the conditions there .
Cleveland agreed with Blount 's report , which found the populace to be opposed to annexation . Liliuokalani initially refused to grant amnesty as a condition of her reinstatement , saying that she would either execute or banish the current government in Honolulu , but Dole 's government refused to yield their position . By December 1893 , the matter was still unresolved , and Cleveland referred the issue to Congress . In his message to Congress , Cleveland rejected the idea of annexation and encouraged the Congress to continue the American tradition of non @-@ intervention ( see excerpt at right ) . The Senate , under Democratic control but opposed to Cleveland , commissioned and produced the Morgan Report , which contradicted Blount 's findings and found the overthrow was a completely internal affair . Cleveland dropped all talk of reinstating the Queen , and went on to recognize and maintain diplomatic relations with the new Republic of Hawaii .
Closer to home , Cleveland adopted a broad interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine that not only prohibited new European colonies , but also declared an American national interest in any matter of substance within the hemisphere . When Britain and Venezuela disagreed over the boundary between Venezuela and the colony of British Guiana , Cleveland and Secretary of State Richard Olney protested . British Prime Minister Lord Salisbury and the British ambassador to Washington , Julian Pauncefote , misjudged how important successful resolution of the dispute was to the American government , having prolonged the crisis before ultimately accepting the American demand for arbitration . A tribunal convened in Paris in 1898 to decide the matter , and in 1899 awarded the bulk of the disputed territory to British Guiana . But by standing with a Latin American nation against the encroachment of a colonial power , Cleveland improved relations with the United States ' southern neighbors , and at the same time , the cordial manner in which the negotiations were conducted also made for good relations with Britain .
= = = Military policy , 1893 @-@ 1897 = = =
The second Cleveland administration was as committed to military modernization as the first , and ordered the first ships of a navy capable of offensive action . Construction continued on the Endicott program of coastal fortifications begun under Cleveland 's first administration . The adoption of the Krag – Jørgensen rifle , the US Army 's first bolt @-@ action repeating rifle , was finalized . In 1895 @-@ 96 Secretary of the Navy Hilary A. Herbert , having recently adopted the aggressive naval strategy advocated by Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan , successfully proposed ordering five battleships ( the Kearsarge and Illinois classes ) and sixteen torpedo boats . Completion of these ships nearly doubled the Navy 's battleships and created a new torpedo boat force , which previously had only two boats . However , the battleships and seven of the torpedo boats were not completed until 1899 @-@ 1901 , after the Spanish – American War .
= = = Cancer = = =
In the midst of the fight for repeal of Free Silver coinage in 1893 , Cleveland sought the advice of the White House doctor , Dr. O 'Reilly , about soreness on the roof of his mouth and a crater @-@ like edge ulcer with a granulated surface on the left side of Cleveland 's hard palate . Samples of the tumor were sent anonymously to the army medical museum . The diagnosis was not a malignant cancer , but instead an epithelioma .
Cleveland decided to have surgery secretly , to avoid further panic that might worsen the financial depression . The surgery occurred on July 1 , to give Cleveland time to make a full recovery in time for the upcoming Congressional session . Under the guise of a vacation cruise , Cleveland and his surgeon , Dr. Joseph Bryant , left for New York . The surgeons operated aboard the Oneida , a yacht owned by Cleveland 's friend E. C. Benedict , as it sailed off Long Island . The surgery was conducted through the President 's mouth , to avoid any scars or other signs of surgery . The team , sedating Cleveland with nitrous oxide and ether , successfully removed parts of his upper left jaw and hard palate . The size of the tumor and the extent of the operation left Cleveland 's mouth disfigured . During another surgery , Cleveland was fitted with a hard rubber dental prosthesis that corrected his speech and restored his appearance . A cover story about the removal of two bad teeth kept the suspicious press placated . Even when a newspaper story appeared giving details of the actual operation , the participating surgeons discounted the severity of what transpired during Cleveland 's vacation . In 1917 , one of the surgeons present on the Oneida , Dr. William W. Keen , wrote an article detailing the operation .
Cleveland enjoyed many years of life after the tumor was removed , and there was some debate as to whether it was actually malignant . Several doctors , including Dr. Keen , stated after Cleveland 's death that the tumor was a carcinoma . Other suggestions included ameloblastoma or a benign salivary mixed tumor ( also known as a pleomorphic adenoma ) . In the 1980s , analysis of the specimen finally confirmed the tumor to be verrucous carcinoma , a low @-@ grade epithelial cancer with a low potential for metastasis .
= = = Administration and cabinet = = =
= = = Judicial appointments = = =
Cleveland 's trouble with the Senate hindered the success of his nominations to the Supreme Court in his second term . In 1893 , after the death of Samuel Blatchford , Cleveland nominated William B. Hornblower to the Court . Hornblower , the head of a New York City law firm , was thought to be a qualified appointee , but his campaign against a New York machine politician had made Senator David B. Hill his enemy . Further , Cleveland had not consulted the Senators before naming his appointee , leaving many who were already opposed to Cleveland on other grounds even more aggrieved . The Senate rejected Hornblower 's nomination on January 15 , 1894 , by a vote of 30 to 24 .
Cleveland continued to defy the Senate by next appointing Wheeler Hazard Peckham another New York attorney who had opposed Hill 's machine in that state . Hill used all of his influence to block Peckham 's confirmation , and on February 16 , 1894 , the Senate rejected the nomination by a vote of 32 to 41 . Reformers urged Cleveland to continue the fight against Hill and to nominate Frederic R. Coudert , but Cleveland acquiesced in an inoffensive choice , that of Senator Edward Douglass White of Louisiana , whose nomination was accepted unanimously . Later , in 1896 , another vacancy on the Court led Cleveland to consider Hornblower again , but he declined to be nominated . Instead , Cleveland nominated Rufus Wheeler Peckham , the brother of Wheeler Hazard Peckham , and the Senate confirmed the second Peckham easily .
= = = States admitted to the Union = = =
In Cleveland 's first term , no new states had been admitted in more than a decade , owing to Congressional Democrats ' reluctance to admit states they believed would send Republican members . When Harrison took office , he and the Republican Congress admitted six states — North Dakota , South Dakota , Montana , Washington , Idaho , and Wyoming — all of which were expected to send Republican delegations . Utah , however , was believed to be Democratic . This , combined with uncertainty about Mormon polygamy ( disavowed in 1890 ) , led it to be excluded from the new states . When Cleveland won election to a second term , he and the Democratic majority in the 53rd United States Congress passed an Enabling Act in 1894 that permitted Utah to apply for statehood . Utah joined the Union as the 45th state on January 4 , 1896 .
= = 1896 election and retirement = =
Cleveland 's agrarian and silverite enemies gained control of the Democratic party in 1896 , repudiated his administration and the gold standard , and nominated William Jennings Bryan on a Silver Platform . Cleveland silently supported the Gold Democrats ' third @-@ party ticket that promised to defend the gold standard , limit government and oppose high tariffs , but he declined their nomination for a third term . The party won only 100 @,@ 000 votes in the general election , and William McKinley , the Republican nominee , triumphed easily over Bryan . Agrarians nominated Bryan again in 1900 . In 1904 the conservatives , with Cleveland 's support , regained control of the Democratic Party and nominated Alton B. Parker .
After leaving the White House on March 4 , 1897 , Cleveland lived in retirement at his estate , Westland Mansion , in Princeton , New Jersey . For a time he was a trustee of Princeton University , and was one of the majority of trustees who preferred Dean West 's plans for the Graduate School and undergraduate living over those of Woodrow Wilson , then president of the university . Cleveland consulted occasionally with President Theodore Roosevelt ( 1901 – 1909 ) , but was financially unable to accept the chairmanship of the commission handling the Coal Strike of 1902 . Cleveland still made his views known in political matters . In a 1905 article in The Ladies Home Journal , Cleveland weighed in on the women 's suffrage movement , writing that " sensible and responsible women do not want to vote . The relative positions to be assumed by men and women in the working out of our civilization were assigned long ago by a higher intelligence . "
In 1906 , a group of New Jersey Democrats promoted Cleveland as a possible candidate for the United States Senate . The incumbent , John F. Dryden , was not seeking re @-@ election , and some Democrats felt that the former President could attract the votes of some disaffected Republican legislators who might be drawn to Cleveland 's statesmanship and conservatism .
Cleveland 's health had been declining for several years , and in the autumn of 1907 he fell seriously ill . In 1908 , he suffered a heart attack and died on June 24 at age 71 . His last words were , " I have tried so hard to do right . " He is buried in the Princeton Cemetery of the Nassau Presbyterian Church .
= = Honors and memorials = =
In his first term in office , Cleveland sought a summer house to escape the heat and smells of Washington , D.C. , near enough the capital . He secretly bought a farmhouse , Oak View ( or Oak Hill ) , in a rural upland part of the District of Columbia , in 1886 , and remodeled it into a Queen Anne style summer estate . He sold Oak View upon losing his bid for re @-@ election in 1888 . Not long thereafter , suburban residential development reached the area , which came to be known as Oak View , and then Cleveland Heights , and eventually Cleveland Park . The Clevelands are depicted in local murals .
Grover Cleveland Hall at Buffalo State College in Buffalo , New York . Cleveland Hall houses the offices of the college president , vice presidents , and other administrative functions and student services . Cleveland was a member of the first board of directors of the then Buffalo Normal School . Grover Cleveland Middle School in his birthplace , Caldwell , New Jersey , was named for him , as is Grover Cleveland High School in Buffalo , New York , and the town of Cleveland , Mississippi . Mount Cleveland , a volcano in Alaska , is also named after him . In 1895 he became the first U.S. President who was filmed .
The first U.S. postage stamp to honor Cleveland appeared in 1923 . This twelve @-@ cent issue accompanied a thirteen @-@ cent stamp in the same definitive series that depicted his old rival Benjamin Harrison . Cleveland 's only two subsequent stamp appearances have been in issues devoted to the full roster of U.S. Presidents , released , respectively , in 1938 and 1986 .
Cleveland 's portrait was on the U.S. $ 1000 bill of series 1928 and series 1934 . He also appeared on the first few issues of the $ 20 Federal Reserve Notes from 1914 . Since he was both the 22nd and 24th president , he was featured on two separate dollar coins released in 2012 as part of the Presidential $ 1 Coin Act of 2005 .
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= Before and After Science =
Before and After Science is the fifth studio album by British musician Brian Eno . Produced by Eno and Rhett Davies , it was originally released by Polydor Records in December 1977 . Guest musicians from the United Kingdom and Germany helped with the album , including members of Roxy Music , Free , Fairport Convention , Can and Cluster . Over one hundred tracks were written with only ten making the album 's final cut . The musical styles of the album range from energetic and jagged to more languid and pastoral .
The album marks Eno 's last foray into rock music for the 1970s as a solo artist , with all his remaining albums of the decade showcasing more of Eno 's avant @-@ garde and ambient music , which was hinted at on the second half of Before and After Science . The album was Eno 's second to chart in the United States . The song " King 's Lead Hat " , the title of which is an anagram for Talking Heads , was remixed and released as a single , although it didn 't chart in the United Kingdom . Critical response to the album has remained positive , with several critics calling it one of Eno 's best works .
= = Production = =
Unlike Eno 's previous albums , which were recorded in a very short time , Before and After Science was two years in the making . During this two @-@ year period , Eno was busy working on his solo ambient music albums Music for Films and Discreet Music . Due to the very positive critical reception accorded his previous rock music @-@ oriented album Another Green World , Eno was afraid of repeating himself but still wanted to release a high @-@ quality product .
As on previous rock @-@ based recordings , for Before and After Science Eno worked with a plethora of guest musicians . Several artists from German and British groups of the era contributed to the album , collaborating with Eno for the first time . Guitarist Fred Frith caught the attention of Brian Eno who was " excited by the timbral possibilities that [ Frith had ] been discovering " on his album Guitar Solos . Eno asked Frith to record with him , and this resulted in Frith playing guitar on the album . Jaki Liebezeit of the German krautrock group Can played drums for Eno on " Backwater " , while German ambient music group Cluster contributed to the songwriting and instrumentation of the track " By This River " . Eno had previously worked with Cluster on their album Cluster & Eno released in 1977 . Additional session musicians included Dave Mattacks of British folk band Fairport Convention , who contributed drums to " Kurt 's Rejoinder " and " Here He Comes " , and Andy Fraser of British blues rock band Free , who played drums on " King 's Lead Hat " .
Eno also had several musicians who he had worked with on previous solo albums return . Percy Jones of Brand X and Phil Collins of Brand X and Genesis , who had been on Eno 's two previous rock albums , played bass and drums respectively . Other contributors included Robert Fripp of King Crimson , Paul Rudolph of Hawkwind and Bill MacCormick and Phil Manzanera of Quiet Sun . Robert Wyatt went under the pseudonym of Shirley Williams and is credited on the album for " time " and " brush timbales " on " Through Hollow Lands " and " Kurt 's Rejoinder " respectively . Working extensively with the musicians and his instructional cards — the Oblique Strategies — during the two years working on the album , Eno wrote over one hundred songs .
= = Style = =
Jim DeRogatis , author of Turn on Your Mind : Four Decades of Great Psychedelic Rock , described the overall sound of Before and After Science as " the coldest and most clinical of Eno 's pop efforts " , while David Ross Smith of online music database AllMusic wrote that " Despite the album 's pop format , the sound is unique and strays far from the mainstream " . According to David Bowie 's biographer Thomas Jerome Seabrook , the album is " split between up @-@ tempo art @-@ rock on side one and more pastoral material on side two " , while Piotr Orlov of LA Weekly categorized it as an art pop record . The album 's opening tracks " No One Receiving " and " Backwater " start the album as upbeat and bouncy songs . " King 's Lead Hat " is an anagram of Talking Heads , a new wave group Eno had met after a concert in England when they were touring with Ramones . Eno would later produce Talking Heads ' second , third and fourth albums , including Remain in Light . The last five songs of the album have been described as having " an occasional pastoral quality " and being " pensive and atmospheric " .
Opposed to Another Green World 's music , which Eno described as " sky music " , Eno referred to the music of Before and After Science as " ocean music " . References to water in the lyrics appear in songs such as " Backwater " , " Julie With ... " and " By this River " . Author Simon Reynolds noted themes of " boredom " and " bliss " through the album , citing " Here He Comes " , about " a boy trying to vanish by floating through the sky through a different time " and " Spider and I " , about a boy watching the sky and dreaming about being carried away with a ship , as examples . Eno 's songwriting style was described as " a sound @-@ over @-@ sense approach " . Influenced by poet Kurt Schwitters , Eno consciously did not make songwriting or lyrics the main focus in the music . Tom Carson of Rolling Stone noted this style , stating that the lyrics are " only complementary variables " to the music on the album . Lester Bangs commented on Eno 's lyrical style on " Julie with ... " stating that the lyrics themes " could be a murderer 's ruminations , or simply a lovers ' retreat ... or Julie could be three years old " . Schwitters ' influence is also shown on the song " Kurt 's Rejoinder " , on which samples of Schwitters ' poem " Ursonate " can be heard .
= = Release = =
Before and After Science was released in December 1977 on Polydor in the United Kingdom and on Island in the United States . The first pressings of the album included four offset prints by Peter Schmidt . The back cover of the LP says " Fourteen Pictures " under the album title , referencing Eno 's ten songs and Peter Schmidt 's 4 prints . These prints included " The Road to the Crater " , " Look at September , look at October " , " The Other House " and " Four Years " . The album did not chart in the United Kingdom , but was Eno 's first album since Here Come the Warm Jets to chart in the United States , where it peaked at 171 on the Billboard Top LPs & Tapes chart . " King 's Lead Hat " was remixed and released as a single in January 1978 , featuring the b @-@ side " R.A.F. " , which is credited to " Eno & Snatch " . This single failed to chart in either the United Kingdom or the United States .
Before and After Science was re @-@ issued on compact disc through E.G. Records in January 1987 . In 2004 , Virgin Records began reissuing Eno 's albums in batches of four to five . The remastered digipak release of Before and After Science was released on 31 May 2004 in the United Kingdom and on 1 June 2004 in North America .
On a side note , the black @-@ and @-@ white album cover art was used by the Singapore government for an anti @-@ heroin campaign in the late 1970s . The image was used briefly on posters and then quickly changed , probably due to legal reasons .
= = Reception = =
On the album 's initial release , the album received very positive reviews from rock critics . Writing for Creem , Joe Fernbacher called the Before and After Science " the perfect Eno album " , while Mitchell Schneider wrote a positive review in Crawdaddy ! , stating that he couldn 't " remember the last time a record took such a hold of [ him ] — and gave [ him ] such an extreme case of vertigo , too " . In Down Beat , Russel Shaw wrote that " [ Before and After Science ] is another typically awesome , stunning and numbing Brian Eno album — the record Pink Floyd could make if they set their collective mind to it . " Tom Carson of Rolling Stone noted that the album " is less immediately ingratiating than either Taking Tiger Mountain or Here Come the Warm Jets . Still , the execution here is close to flawless , and despite Eno 's eclecticism , the disparate styles he employs connect brilliantly . " Critic Robert Christgau gave the album an A − rating , stating that he " didn 't like the murkiness of the quiet , largely instrumental reflections that take over side two " , but didn 't find that it " diminishes side one 's oblique , charming tour of the popular rhythms of the day " . In 1979 , Before and After Science was voted 12th best album of the year on the Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop critics poll for 1978 .
Modern reviews of Before and After Science have also been positive . David Ross Smith of AllMusic awarded the album the highest rating of five stars stating that it ranks alongside Here Come the Warm Jets and Another Green World " as the most essential Eno material " . The music webzine Tiny Mix Tapes awarded the album their highest rating , stating that it " is not only one of the best albums in Eno 's catalog , but of the 1970s as a whole " . The webzine Pitchfork Media gave Before and After Science a positive but less enthusiastic review , calling the album a " neutered star in search of fuel , boasting only ' King 's Lead Hat ' for the pop world , and the luminous pure prog @-@ jazz of ' Energy Fools the Magician ' for the out @-@ rock contingent " . Ten days later Pitchfork placed Before and After Science at number 100 on their list of " Top 100 Albums of the 1970s " , referring to it as a " lovely , charming album " and going on to state that , while " not formally groundbreaking , it 's frequently overlooked when discussing great albums from an era that 's romanticized as placing premiums on progression and innovation — and particularly in the context of Eno 's career , which is so full of both " .
The album was included in Robert Dimery 's 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Brian Eno , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
Musicians
Production
= = Chart performance = =
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= Chuck E. Cheese 's =
Chuck E. Cheese 's ( formerly Chuck E. Cheese 's Pizza Time Theatre and Chuck E. Cheese 's Pizza ) is a chain of American family entertainment centers and restaurants . The chain is the primary brand of CEC Entertainment , Inc. and is headquartered in Irving , Texas . The establishment serves pizza and other menu items , complemented by arcade games , amusement rides , and animatronic displays as a focus of entertainment for the entire family . The brand derives its name from its main animatronic character Chuck E. Cheese , a comedic mouse who sings and interacts with guests .
Chuck E. Cheese 's Pizza Time Theatre in San Jose , California , was the first location to open in 1977 . The concept was authored by Atari co @-@ founder Nolan Bushnell , credited with bringing video games such as Pong to the mainstream . The Pizza Time Theatre was the first family restaurant to integrate food , animated entertainment , and an indoor arcade . The chain merged with competitor Showbiz Pizza Place in 1984 , forming Showbiz Pizza Time , Inc . In the early 1990s , the company unified the two brands renaming every location to Chuck E. Cheese 's Pizza . They redesigned the logo in 1994 , dropping Pizza from each store 's name . In 1998 , Showbiz Pizza Time , Inc. became CEC Entertainment , Inc . , and the company operates 590 locations as of 2015 .
= = Corporate history = =
Chuck E. Cheese 's , originally referred to as Chuck E. Cheese ’ s Pizza Time Theater , was founded by Atari founder Nolan Bushnell who was seeking to expand the purview of video game arcades beyond more adult locations like pool halls to a kid and family friendly venue . Bushnell ’ s experience in the amusement park industry , as well as his fondness of The Walt Disney Company , was influential in the conceptualization of the Pizza Time Theatre concept . The first location opened in San Jose , California in 1977 , and was labeled as the first family restaurant to integrate food , cheap animated entertainment , and an indoor arcade . In 1978 , Bushnell purchased the Pizza Time Theatre concept from Atari 's then @-@ corporate parent , Warner Communications .
= = = Franchising = = =
As the restaurant became increasingly successful , he began to franchise , resulting in a co @-@ development agreement between Bushnell and Robert Brock of Topeka Inn Management in 1979 . The agreement handed Brock exclusive franchising rights for opening Pizza Time Theatres in sixteen states across the southern and midwestern United States , while also forming a company subdivision , " Pizza Show Biz " , to develop the Pizza Time Theatres .
= = = ShowBiz Pizza Place = = =
In November 1978 , Brock met Aaron Fechter of Creative Engineering , Inc . Concerned that Fechter ’ s animatronics would be too strong a competition for Bushnell ’ s work , Brock requested that Bushnell release him from the co @-@ development agreement , citing misrepresentation . In December 1979 , Brock and Fechter formed “ Showbiz Pizza Place Inc ” , severing Brock 's business relationship with Bushnell . ShowBiz Pizza Place was conceptually identical to Pizza Time Theatre in all aspects except for animation , which would be provided by Creative Engineering . Showbiz Pizza Place opened its first location on March 3 , 1980 , in Kansas City , Missouri .
Upon the opening of ShowBiz Pizza Place , Bushnell sued Brock and Topeka Inn Management over breach of contract . Brock immediately issued a counter @-@ suit against Bushnell , citing misrepresentation . The court case began in March 1980 , eventually settling out of court with Showbiz agreeing to pay Pizza Time Theatre a portion of its profits over the following decade . During this period , Topeka Inn Management also changed its name to Brock Hotel Corporation and moved its headquarters to Irving , Texas . Both restaurants experienced increased success as the video game industry became more robust , and , to maintain competition , both franchises continually modified and diversified their animatronic shows .
= = = Mergers and restructuring = = =
In 1981 , Pizza Time Theatre went public ; however , the evolving video game industry and the video game crash of 1983 resulted in significant losses for Pizza Time Theatre , which lost $ 15 million in 1983 , and by 1984 , Bushnell ’ s debts were insurmountable , resulting in the filing of Chapter 11 bankruptcy for Pizza Time Theatre Inc . Showbiz then bought the foundering company , recreating itself as Showbiz Pizza Time Inc .
After the merger , both restaurants continued operating under the different titles , while major financial restructuring had begun , eventually becoming publicly traded in 1989 , with sales increasing by 8 @.@ 3 % . During this period , Creative Engineering began to sever ties with ShowBiz Pizza Time ( they officially left the company in September 1990 ) , eventually resulting in the unification of its mixed characters . By 1992 , all restaurants assumed the name of Chuck E. Cheese ’ s Pizza . However , the name was changed to Chuck E. Cheese 's in 1995 after a 1994 redesigning of the concept . In 1998 , the company renamed itself CEC Entertainment , Inc .. Part of this renaming was related to a move from the NASDAQ to the NYSE . In 1999 , CEC Entertainment , Inc. bought out competitor Discovery Zone . Chuck E. Cheese 's celebrated its 30th anniversary in 2007 .
In February 2014 , Apollo Global Management acquired CEC Entertainment for $ 54 per share , or about US $ 950 million . There are 577 open locations throughout North America , South America , and the Middle East .
= = = Mascot redesign = = =
In 2012 , Chuck E. Cheese 's announced that their Chuck E. Cheese mascot would receive a major makeover to make the character look more like a rockstar . Jaret Reddick , lead singer of the musical group Bowling for Soup , was hired as the new voice of Chuck E. Cheese , who had been voiced by Duncan Brannan for many years .
The newly designed character was featured in a series of advertising campaign spots produced by Sugar Film Productions , Reel FX and BREED .
= = International expansion = =
In the early 80s , the restaurant opened in Australia under the name " Charlie Cheese 's Pizza Playhouse " due to the word " chuck " meaning to throw up in Australia .
During the early 80s , a Chuck E. Cheese opened at least one restaurant in Hong Kong , though they soon closed due to the 1984 bankruptcy .
= = Products = =
= = = Menu items = = =
While its primary focus is pizza , Chuck E. Cheese 's also offers cold @-@ cut sandwiches , buffalo wings , salad bars and desserts . Some stores are also used as " test " locations which feature new Chuck E. Cheese foods . Certain Chuck E. Cheese locations also offer beer and wine .
Starting on November 13 , 2012 , new gluten @-@ free menu items are available at more than 500 locations in the U.S. and Canada . This currently includes a choice of a personal @-@ size cheese pizza and an individual chocolate cupcake .
= = Entertainment = =
= = = Arcade and currency = = =
From the time of the company 's inception to today , one of the main draws for the stores has been the arcade . The arcade games primarily consist of either redemption games or video arcade games .
The brass tokens issued by the company for use in their arcades exist in numerous varieties , and are collected by exonumia enthusiasts . The company once tested a card access method for use with their arcade and skill games in one location . The test location would no longer use tokens , and instead use a refillable card to access credits , which replace tokens , and points , which replace tickets . However , this was later scrapped . It was tested under different names , including " Chuck E. ' s Super Discount Card " and " Chuck E. Token Card " . This method is currently being tested in some markets again . Instead of electronic tickets like the former cards , Patrons still carry paper tickets and the card just take the place of the metal tokens . CECE , or CEC Entertainment , has called the new system " Play Pass " .
= = = Animatronic figures = = =
Along with the arcade , the other main draw for the centers since the beginning was its animatronic show , until the mid @-@ 1990s . More recently , less attention has been placed on animatronics . However , there are now several different styles of animatronic shows in use within the company , depending on when the location opened , whether it was renovated , and other factors .
When the first location opened in 1977 , the animatronic characters were featured in framed portraits hanging on the walls of the main dining area , but they are no longer in use today . The show featured Crusty the cat ( the first character to face retirement as he was soon replaced with Mr. Munch in 1978 ) , Pasqually the singing chef , Jasper T. Jowls , the Warblettes , and the main focus of the show , Chuck E. Cheese . Later , restaurants also added " Cabaret " shows in separate rooms of each restaurant . They also frequently changed out the sole female character , named Helen Henny , in the main show . They achieved this by applying a cosmetic change to the existing robot , as well as a change of stage backdrop , to match the performer .
Beginning in 1998 , the company 's show installed into new stores , referred to as " Studio C " , consists of a single animated Chuck E. Cheese character alongside large television monitors , lighting effects , and interactive elements . The other characters appear as puppets on the TV screens . In some markets , the company has also tried a new store concept that omits the animated show entirely . This is the Circle of Lights stage which either consists of a live Chuck E. Cheese costume character or an animatronic in a futuristic light stage with large television monitors .
The members that currently perform in the animatronic show are :
Chuck E. Cheese — vocals
Helen Henny — vocals
Mr. Munch — vocals , keyboards
Jasper T. Jowls — vocals , guitar
Pasqually E. Pieplate — vocals , percussion
= = = Costumed shows = = =
There are two types of costumed shows used by Chuck E. Cheese 's : the LIVE ! show and the Road show . The LIVE ! show is performed at the front of the stage in the showroom , whenever a child is celebrating a birthday . The live show is a way of pumping up the crowd before a customized rendition of " Happy Birthday " is sung to the child that is celebrating the birthday ( " I say Happy , you say Birthday ... ) . A costumed Chuck E. Cheese dances with the guests and sings , while being accompanied by the cast members . The Road show is a performance by a costumed Chuck E. Cheese character , and is performed outside the normal showroom . Children are gathered via the public announcement system or by Chuck E. Cheese himself . Chuck E. Cheese wants the kids to dance in order to win free tickets . The free tickets are thrown at the end of the performance for all the kids that participated . Chuck E. comes out every hour on the half hour ( 12 : 30 , 1 : 30 , etc . ) . The songs Chuck E. and the kids dance to are usually well @-@ known classic songs such as " If You 're Happy and You Know It " and " Head , Shoulders , Knees , and Toes " .
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= French ship Vengeur du Peuple =
The Vengeur du Peuple ( " Avenger of the People " ) was a 74 @-@ gun ship of the line of the French Navy . Funded by a don des vaisseaux donation from the chamber of commerce of Marseille , she was launched in 1762 as Marseillois .
She took part in the naval operations in the American Revolutionary War in Admiral d 'Estaing 's squadron , duelling Preston in a single @-@ ship action on 11 August 1778 , taking part in the Battle of the Chesapeake where she duelled HMS Intrepid , and supporting the flagship Ville de Paris at the Battle of the Saintes . She also took part in the Battle of Saint Kitts .
After the French Revolution , she was renamed Vengeur du Peuple and took part in the Glorious First of June . There , she was disabled after a furious duel with HMS Brunswick and surrendered after losing hope of being rescued by a French ship . After a few hours , as British ships were beginning rescue operations , she listed and foundered , taking almost half her crew with her .
The sinking of Vengeur du Peuple was used as propaganda by the National Convention and Bertrand Barère , who gave birth to the legend that the crew had gone down with the ship fighting , rather than surrender . The Scottish historian Thomas Carlyle repeated the tale in his The French Revolution : A History , yielding a rebuttal by Rear @-@ Admiral John Griffiths , who had witnessed the events . Although discredited in naval history circles , the legend lived on as a folk tale , inspiring numerous representations and a fictional account by Jules Verne in Twenty Thousand Leagues Under The Sea .
= = Career = =
The French Navy had lost 29 ships during the Seven Years ' War , casualties being particularly high at the Battle of Lagos and the Battle of Quiberon Bay . To replace these losses , in 1761 the Duke of Choiseul launched subscriptions , called don des vaisseaux , whereby French individuals and organisations could donate to the Crown the funds necessary to build and equip a warship . 13 million livres were raised and 18 ships , including two three @-@ deckers , were built and named after their patrons . The Marseillois was funded by the chamber of commerce of Marseille , for 500 @,@ 000 livres .
Marseillois was ordered on 16 January 1762 , to be built in Toulon on a design by the engineer Coulomb , and named the same day by Louis XV , following the request of her patrons . The chamber of commerce of Marseille further requested that the ship be built in Marseille , but Coulomb determined that the harbour there was too shallow for the launch of a 74 @-@ gun ship , and the order for Marseillois was eventually confirmed at Toulon . There , lack of timber in the shipyards , that were already busy building Languedoc , Zélé and Bourgogne , delayed the construction of Marseillois until 1764 . Her building was directed by the engineer Chapelle .
She was launched on 16 July 1766 , and completed quickly , decorated by sculptures carved by Pierre Audibert . After her completion , she was put in reserve , where she would remain for 11 years . On 1 February 1778 , Marseillois was hove down for maintenance and repairs of her hull , which was found to be in " very good shape " , although her keel had hogged by 38 centimetres ( 15 in ) ; maintenance completed two days later , and she was commissioned under Captain Louis @-@ Armand de La Poype de Vertrieu .
= = = American Revolutionary War = = =
The outbreak of the American War of Independence had caused relations between France and Great Britain to deteriorate , and diplomatic ties were broken on 16 March 1778 . Admiral d 'Estaing took command of a squadron of thirteen ships of the line and four frigates in Toulon . Marseillois was assigned to this fleet , the first active service she would see . The fleet set sail on 18 April 1778 , crossed Gibraltar on 16 May , and arrived at the mouth of the Delaware River on 8 July .
= = = = Campaign of 1778 – 80 , La Poype de Vertrieu = = = =
The French squadron arrived unopposed off New York on 8 July . British forces there amounted to a squadron of nine smaller ships of the line and two frigates under Admiral Lord Howe ; in order to avoid battle with the more numerous and powerful French ships , Howe retreated under the protection of the strong defences of New York . D 'Estaing wished to press the attack , but his pilots advised that the harbour was too shallow for his ships , so the squadron spent two weeks at anchor blockading Howe , resupplying and conferring with the American government . On 22 July , he departed for Newport to join the American Revolutionaries , where he arrived on 28 July and anchored his fleet outside the harbour to better coordinate his attack with that of the Revolutionary land forces . Marseillois anchored in front of the main channel with most of the fleet , while Fantasque , Sagittaire and the frigates blockaded the Sakonnet River , and Protecteur and Provence blocked the Connecticut River .
On 8 August , the French squadron sailed into Newport harbour , Marseillois coming sixth in the line . They had begun to disembark troops the following day when Howe 's squadron arrived from New York . D 'Estaing found his anchored ships were now vulnerable to attacks from land batteries , warships and fireships , and cancelled the landing , putting to sea to challenge Howe in battle . Howe 's force moved off , pursued by the French . On 11 August the French closed in and the two fleets manoeuvred in preparation for a battle , but around 16 : 00 , a Nor 'easter storm broke out , scattering both fleets . Marseillois sustained damage to her rigging , losing her mizzen and her bowsprit , and was cut off from the bulk of the French squadron . The next day , around 20 : 00 , having only just erected jury rigging , she was attacked by the 50 @-@ gun HMS Preston , under William Hotham . The two ships duelled indecisively for one hour before parting . Marseillois rejoined the French fleet on 14 August .
Marseillois took part in the Battle of St. Lucia in September , coming third in the French line of battle , and was present at other encounters with the British fleets in the Caribbean theatre of the American Revolutionary War . The next year , on 6 July 1779 , Marseillois took part in the Battle of Grenada , sailing in the rear of the French fleet . Later in the year , she took part in the Siege of Savannah , where she was eighth in the line of battle .
The French fleet sustained damage at the Siege of Savannah and eventually returned to Europe . Marseillois returned to Toulon with Zélé , Sagittaire , Protecteur , and Experiment . During the campaign , 46 members of her crew had died ; of these , only three had been killed in combat .
La Poype de Vertrieu wrote his report and recommendations for the refitting of Marseillois on 24 December 1779 ; he found her a passable ship , but her high poop hindered her sailing when running , and he recommended improvements to the gun ports of the castles , which were obstructed and allowed only two guns on the quarterdeck and one on the forecastle to be used . Furthermore , substantial repairs on the rigging were needed , and she needed her hull heated to kill worms . La Poype de Vertrieu wrote " it appears that Marseillois shall never be an exceptional sailor , but I am convinced that she will give satisfaction " .
= = = = Campaign of 1780 , Albert de Rions = = = =
After the repairs had been completed , Captain d 'Albert de Rions was given command of Marseillois . She was appointed to a two @-@ ship squadron under Suffren , who had his flag on Zélé . They set sail on 19 May 1780 to patrol off Portugal , and joined up with a division under Beausset in Cadiz on 17 June .
On 6 November , Marseillois departed Cadiz with a joint Franco @-@ Spanish fleet under Admiral d 'Estaing , bound for Brest , where she arrived on 3 January 1781 .
= = = = Campaign of 1781 – 82 , Castellane Majastre = = = =
In Brest , command of Marseillois passed to Captain Henri @-@ César de Castellane Majastre , and she became part of a squadron under Admiral François Joseph Paul de Grasse . A young Pierre @-@ Charles Villeneuve served aboard as an ensign . On 22 March 1781 , the fleet sailed for America to reinforce D 'Estaing 's forces there , arriving off Martinique on 29 April . There , the fleet met the British forces under Admiral Hood , and the Battle of Fort Royal broke out , an inconclusive long @-@ ranged artillery duel that lasted until the British retreated the next day due to the damage sustained by HMS Intrepid , Centaur and Russell .
De Grasse put to sail on 5 July , bound for Saint @-@ Domingue where he arrived on 16 July . At Cap @-@ Français , the fleet joined with the frigate Concorde , under Captain de Tanouarn , which brought news of the status and plans of the Continental Army . Letters from Washington and Rochambeau requested that de Grasse set sail either to New York , or into Chesapeake Bay . Reinforcing his fleet with the squadron under Admiral de Monteil and with 3 @,@ 300 soldiers taken from the garrisons of the island , De Grasse decided to sail for the Chesapeake .
On 5 September 1781 , the French and British squadrons met in the Battle of the Chesapeake . Marseillois was in the van of the French squadron , and exchanged the first shots of the day with the 64 @-@ gun HMS Intrepid , under Captain Anthony Molloy . In early April , Marseillois took part in the four @-@ day Battle of the Saintes . She was sailing at the rear of the fleet , and the French and British ships were already trading shots for ten minutes when she took her position in the line of battle . Later in the afternoon , she maintained a position in the line ahead of the flagship Ville de Paris , and supported her until she struck her colours , at which point Admiral de Vaudreuil ordered the fleet to regroup and follow him to Saint @-@ Domingue . The fleet reached Cap @-@ Français in several waves , the main corps arriving on 25 April ; Marseillois , along with Hercule , Pluton and Éveillé , arrived on 11 May .
On 25 and 26 January 1782 , Marseillois took part in the Battle of Saint Kitts , where she held the 5th position in the line of battle . Marseillois returned to France at some point in 1782 , where she was listed on 1 September to be decommissioned .
= = = = Campaign of 1782 – 83 , Lombard = = = =
In October 1782 , she was hove down and coppered . She was then recommissioned in December 1782 in Brest under chevalier de Lombard , and was part of a two @-@ ship squadron along with Protecteur .
Negotiations for peace with England started in January 1783 , and Marseillois was decommissioned in Rochefort on 13 February 1783 . She remained in this state until 1794 , with some repairs being conducted in 1785 and 1788 .
= = = French Revolutionary War = = =
By February 1794 the still decommissioned , Marseillois had been renamed Vengeur du Peuple , probably a response to the participation of the city of Marseille in the Federalist revolts of 1793 . She was recommissioned in Rochefort , and on 24 March 1794 , Captain Jean François Renaudin took command . On 1 April 1794 , she sailed to Île @-@ d 'Aix , where she joined up with Pelletier , and on 11 April , the squadron sailed on again , reaching Brest on 18 April , having been joined en route by Jemmapes . Upon their arrival the ships were assigned to the squadron under Admiral Villaret de Joyeuse .
= = = = Glorious First of June = = = =
On 16 May 1794 , the fleet departed from Brest with the mission of protecting a convoy of ships carrying food to France , beginning the Atlantic campaign of May 1794 . On 1 June , the French squadron encountered the British fleet , in an engagement known as the Glorious First of June . Vengeur was third in the French line of battle , after the flagship Montagne and between Achille and Northumberland .
The British fleet approached the French line in an oblique manner , leading to individual engagements as the British ships attempted to break through at several points . Around 9 : 30 , the British flagship HMS Queen Charlotte cut the French line aft of Montagne , firing a devastating raking broadside that killed Montagne 's commander , Captain Bazire . The ship astern of Montagne , Jacobin , attempted to prevent Queen Charlotte breaking through by accelerating to close the gap between herself and her flagship ; this left a gap behind her , between Jacobin and Achille , that HMS Brunswick , under Captain John Harvey , attempted to exploit to cut the line and assist Queen Charlotte . Achille accelerated and closed the gap , and Brunswick turned her fire against Vengeur , while Achille engaged HMS Ramillies and Valiant .
Prevented from cutting the French line ahead of Achille , HMS Brunswick turned and tried to cross aft of her , between Achille and Vengeur . Seeing the manoeuvre , Renaudin also accelerated to close this new gap , and Brunswick and Vengeur collided , the anchor of Brunswick becoming entangled in the rigging of Vengeur . Vengeur fired an entire broadside at point @-@ blank range , but was then unable to fire her main batteries again , the ships being so close as to prevent French gunners from ramming ammunition into their guns ; in contrast , British gunners used rammers with semi @-@ rigid rope handles instead of wooden handles , and were able to reload and maintain a sustained fire , riddling Vengeur with holes . The fight went on for four hours , until Brunswick , after shattering the rudder of Vengeur to prevent her from manoeuvring , separated at 12 : 45 . Her fire also opened a large hole in the hull of Vengeur .
During the duel between Vengeur and Brunswick , the undamaged HMS Ramillies had approached and put herself in a favourable position to rake Vengeur , and was waiting for Brunswick to separate to open fire . When she did so , Ramillies fired two broadsides , leaving Vengeur with only her foremast standing , which fell half an hour later . Ramillies sustained some damage herself . Soon afterwards , seawater inundated the powder room of Vengeur , denying her all means of defence , and 250 of her crew were out of action . The Trente @-@ et @-@ un Mai closed in around 3 : 30 , attempting to provide assistance , but the proximity of several British sails endangered her so that she eventually sailed away .
Renaudin , seeing the hapless condition of his ship , ordered his flags hoisted half @-@ mast in surrender and distress around 14 : 00 , but after her surrender no British ship managed to get men aboard to take possession . This left Vengeur 's few remaining unwounded crew to attempt to salvage what they could . Ultimately the ship 's pumps became unmanageable , and Vengeur began to sink . Only the timely arrival of boats from the undamaged HMS Alfred and Culloden , as well as the services of the cutter Rattler , saved any of the Vengeur 's crew from drowning , these ships taking off nearly 500 sailors between them . Lieutenant John Winne of Rattler was especially commended for this hazardous work . By 18 : 15 , Vengeur was clearly beyond salvage and only the very worst of the wounded and the dead remained aboard , though some possibly stayed aboard in the hope of being rescued by a French ship rather than a British and avoid captivity .
Alfred rescued about 100 men ; Rattler , about 40 ; and Culloden , 127 , including Captain Renaudin , who abandoned his ship and left in the very first British boat . He was taken to Culloden and served a meal in the officers ' mess ; as he dined with his son and other French and British officers , a commotion was heard ; racing to the gallery of Culloden , the party witnessed Vengeur sink with the remaining wounded aboard . Figures of the casualties on Vengeur are not precisely known , but amount to approximately 250 killed during the battle , 106 drowned in the sinking , and 367 rescued by the British .
= = Legacy = =
The sinking of Vengeur du Peuple was exploited for political purposes in France , as several sailors were said to have cried " Vive la Nation , vive la République ! " ( " Long live the nation , long live the republic " ) from the bow of the ship as she foundered ; this was bloated out of proportion by French politicians , who added that the sailors had waved the tricolour , sung La Marseillaise in defiance , and even continued firing guns until water reached them while the ship foundered , to eventually sink with her rather than surrender . They also extrapolated that the entire crew had disappeared with the Vengeur , a claim disproved by the return of captured crewmembers as they were quickly released from British captivity .
The origin of the legend is a speech made by Bertrand Barère at the National Convention on 21 messidor ( 9 July ) , Rapport sur l 'héroïsme des Républicains montant le vaisseau le Vengeur , where he claimed that Vengeur had refused to surrender , nailing her flag , and that all the sailors had died with the ship , giving a last shout of " long live the Republic " and waving all sorts of flags and pennants while the ship disappeared .
Lord Howe denies the account entirely , claiming that it never occurred , a position followed by many British sources . Thomas Carlyle originally included the legend in his The French Revolution : A History , prompting Rear @-@ admiral John Griffiths – who , as a lieutenant on HMS Culloden at the time , had been an eyewitness to the sinking – to publicly challenge Carlyle 's tale . Carlyle set out to get to the bottom of the story , eventually unearthing the official report of Vengeur 's captain , Renaudin . Carlyle concluded that Barère had concocted a " cunningly devised fable " , and changed his account of the sinking of the Vengeur in subsequent editions .
The three most serious reports of the events are the report of Jean François Renaudin , captain of Vengeur , written in captivity on 1 Messidor an II ( 19 June 1794 ) , signed by Renaudin , Jean Hugine , Louis Rousseau , Pelet , Trouvée , Lussot and others , then in British custody in Tavistock ; the report of Cyprien Renaudin , first officer of Vengeur ( and cousin to Jean François Renaudin ) , which was found around 1929 in family archives ; and later accounts written in 1838 by Rear @-@ admiral John Griffiths , who had witnessed the event 44 years earlier .
In French drawings , Vengeur is often depicted as flying the Tricolour , which had been recently ordered by the Convention to be flown as battle ensign ; however , due to a lack of bunting in Brest , Villaret had not been able to distribute this flag to all his ships , and thus Vengeur probably still flew the white flag with a canton of three equal columns of red , white , and blue .
The notion that the ship would have nailed her flag and never surrendered , as Barère claimed , is never accounted in any of the reports . Though Jean François Renaudin never explicitly states that he surrendered , he does mention that he had his flag flown half @-@ mast in distress when he was surrounded by British ships , indicating that he was requesting assistance from the enemy . Griffiths observes that Vengeur was dismasted to the point that there would have been nothing on which to nail a flag anyway , and James makes mentions of Vengeur hoisting the Union Jack in submission .
The exact cause of the sinking was also the subject of dispute . Barère 's account describes Vengeur as sinking from the shots that would have holed her hull ; actually , Cyprien Renaudin mentions only two such holes in the lower hull of Vengeur and a noise " like a strong waterfall " at the poop , which he could not identify ; this is consistent with James ' account of " the Brunswick , by a few well @-@ directed shot , split the Vengeur 's rudder , and shattered her stern @-@ post ; besides making a large hole in her counter , through which the water rushed in great quantity . " In any case , the superstructures were very much battered , prompting Lieutenant Rotheram , of Culloden , to report that he " could not place a two @-@ feet rule in any direction , he thought , that would not touch two shot @-@ holes " . Claude Farrère attributes the sinking to ineptitude of the crew who had failed to close damaged lower gunports . The later study conducted by Captain Diaz de Soria in the 1950s suggests that water did enter from the gun ports of the lower battery , ripped off in the collision with Culloden and shattered by artillery fire , and that the crew failed to obstruct them with temporary contrivances . The panicking crew would have aggravated the situation by failing to man the pumps , explaining why it took four hours for Vengeur to sink between her surrender around 14 : 00 until her sinking between 18 : 00 and 18 : 30 .
The most debated point is the patriotic shouts , sometimes claimed to have been accompanied by singing of the Marseillaise . These shouts are denied entirely by Griffiths , but are mentioned in French accounts . Renaudin 's report does claim that sailors shouted " Vive la République " , but that it was in desperation for being unable to reach the British craft ; it does not mention any particular defiance in the intent , though , nor does it mention flags or La Marseillaise ; this position is followed by Troude and Farrère . Guérin proposes a variation , that knowing themselves doomed , the sailors remaining on Vengeur made a last display of patriotic and political fervour before dying . William James provides an alternative theory when he suggests that any person who behaved in such a manner on the stricken ship was acting under the influence of alcohol ; Troude , otherwise very critical of Barère 's account , vehemently dismissed this idea .
Captain Renaudin was said in a naval registry to have swum to safety . He had in fact abandoned his ship with the first British boat , leaving his men behind in disregard for military customs and the 1765 standing order that Captains had to be last to abandon ship , and though his account insinuates that he was on a boat close to Vengeur when she foundered , he was actually dining in the mess of Culloden at the moment of the sinking . In 1795 , Loutherbourg depicted the rescue of Vengeur 's crew by British ships in his large canvas of the battle , Lord Howe 's action , or the Glorious First of June .
= = = Contemporary reactions in France = = =
The speech of 9 July by Barère at the National Convention inflamed the nation , and as it specifically encouraged artists to exalt the story , poets like Ponce @-@ Denis Écouchard @-@ Lebrun and Marie @-@ Joseph Chenier composed eulogies to commemorate the event , wrote new words for existing songs , and even produced a three @-@ act opera .
Barère had the following decree passed at the National Convention on 21 June 1794 :
The reappearance of the purportedly sunk crew , and the Thermidorian reaction , prevented the completion of this programme .
Captain Renaudin was posthumously promoted to contre @-@ amiral on 29 August 1794 ; he was later exchanged for the captain of HMS Thames , Captain James Cotes . On 10 September 1794 , Jean @-@ Jacques Bréard declared before the Convention :
In spite of these facts , the myth lived on : in his Histoire de la révolution française , Adolphe Thiers wrote an account repeating Barère 's version , where Vengeur refused to surrender . In 1847 Alphonse de Lamartine even invented the story that Renaudin had been killed heroically , cut in half by a cannon shot like Dupetit @-@ Thouars .
Some reports however indicate that the legend was not seriously accepted : Carlyle suggests one near @-@ eyewitness French account amounted to " not a recantation of an impudent amazing falsehood , but to some vague faint murmur or whimper of admission that it is probably false " . Captain Diaz de Soria relates the story , probably apocryphal , that in 1840 , the Prince of Joinville , while decorating the purported last survivor of Vengeur , would have told him " we do this for the legend , my good man : nations , after all , live only of legends " . In 1857 , Guérin wrote " one wonders how , after that , history could remain so credulous " .
= = = Jules Verne 's depiction = = =
In Twenty Thousand Leagues Under The Sea , published in 1870 , Jules Verne reported the incident with its revolutionary slant :
= = = Models = = =
At least two models of Vengeur du Peuple are known . One , a scrimshaw model crafted by a prisoner of war , is on display at Vancouver Maritime Museum .
The other is a 1 / 55th arsenal model realised by master Boubénec between 1951 and 1952 , under the direction of Captain Diaz de Soria . It was built from the plans of the hull and rafter of the ship , though sculptures were undocumented and had to be reconstituted from drawings . It is currently on display at the Musée de la Marine et de l 'Économie de Marseille .
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= She Shoulda Said No ! =
" She Shoulda Said ' No ' ! " ( also known as Wild Weed ; Marijuana , the Devil 's Weed ; The Story of Lila Leeds and Her Exposé of the Marijuana Racket ; and The Devil 's Weed ) is a 1949 exploitation film that follows in the spirit of morality tales such as the 1936 films Reefer Madness and Marihuana . Directed by Sam Newfield ( using the pseudonym " Sherman Scott " ) and starring Lila Leeds , it was originally produced to capitalize on the arrest of Leeds and Robert Mitchum on a charge of marijuana conspiracy . The film was issued under many titles ; it struggled to find a distributor until film presenter Kroger Babb picked up the rights , reissuing it as The Story of Lila Leeds and Her Exposé of the Marijuana Racket . Its relative success came only after the promotional posters were redone and a story fabricated that the film was being presented in conjunction with the United States Treasury .
= = Plot = =
Leeds ' character is " Anne Lester " , a young orphan who is trying to pay for her brother 's college education . After meeting Markey , a drug dealer , Anne begins to believe that she must smoke marijuana to fit in with her friends . She then goes to a " tea party " , where she tries the drug for the first time . She is unaffected by the initial experiment , and loses her fear of drugs as she continues to smoke .
Anne 's drug use results in the loss of many of her inhibitions , and the film shows her actions under the influence , including scenes implying sexual promiscuity . As the film progresses , she is fired from her job and begins selling drugs for Markey . Her brother hangs himself when he learns of her new job , and she is arrested and given a tour of the various psychiatric wards and jails that drug users end up in . Finally , after 50 days in jail , she is released , cleaned up and ready to cooperate with the authorities regarding Markey .
= = Production and marketing = =
The film itself is semi @-@ biographical , its story following what Leeds herself experienced . The film was inspired by the highly publicized arrest of movie stars Robert Mitchum and Leeds for marijuana possession . On September 1 , 1948 , the actors , along with two others , were arrested after being caught smoking marijuana at the home of Leeds in the early morning , and were charged with the felony of narcotics possession . Public empathy for Mitchum resulted in the charge being downgraded to the lesser one of conspiracy to possess marijuana , and his sentence of sixty days in jail was set aside in 1951 . Leeds , however , was sentenced to sixty days in prison and placed on probation for five years .
Upon her release , Leeds struggled to find work in Hollywood , and signed on to star in Wild Weed . During publicity for the film in 1949 , Leeds , who had been 21 at the time of the arrest , said that appearing in the picture would keep other people her age from trying drugs , but in 1952 she confided in Collier 's that she " only had one offer . . . which was an obvious attempt to capitalize on the Mitchum case notoriety . I took it . I was broke . " The film gained approval from the Federal Bureau of Narcotics to use the drug references , a standard practice at the time even though the Bureau had no power to censor the films . The film used its plot to push many of the beliefs of the time : that drug @-@ using youth would turn to crime and the theory of " marijuana as a gateway drug " . The latter was a leading argument for drug prohibition during the era , and an argument that Leeds herself made , based on her own history with marijuana and heroin .
Via Franklin Productions , Kay filmed the production in six days , a common occurrence given that most films of the era were shot with a quick turnaround . Eureka Productions initially distributed the film , but it struggled to find an audience until Kroger Babb 's Hallmark Productions acquired the rights for distribution . Babb initially marketed the film under the title The Story of Lila Leeds and Her Exposé of the Marijuana Racket , but failed to achieve success with that title and eventually changed it to " She Shoulda Said ' No ' ! " . He pushed the sensuality of Leeds with new promotional photographs and a new tagline : " How Bad Can a Good Girl Get ... without losing her virtue or respect ? ? ? " , while sending letters to local communities falsely claiming that the United States Treasury Department implored Hallmark to release the film " in as many towns and cities as possible in the shortest possible length of time " as a public service . The square @-@ up misleadingly stated that the producers wished to " publicly acknowledge the splendid cooperation of the Nation 's narcotic experts and Government departments , who aided in various ways the success of this production . . . . If its presentation saves but one young girl or boy from becoming a ' dope fiend ' – then its story has been well told . "
Babb , who gained notoriety for his various marketing gimmicks , occasionally had Leeds make appearances and give lectures at showings of the film . Babb often booked the movie as a midnight presentation twice a week in the same town ; David F. Friedman , who would later use the film in his own double @-@ billings , attributed the distribution plan to a film that was so low in quality that Babb wanted to cash in and move to his next stop as fast as possible .
= = Reception = =
According to Friedman , Babb 's presentations of the film made more money than any other film the same theater would showcase over a typical film 's full booking . While actual dollar figures are not available because of the nature of the genre ( which was known for poor record keeping and unconventional distribution practices ) , the general financial success of " She Shoulda Said ' No ' ! " prompted producers , in 1951 , to import a similar film from Argentina titled The Marihuana Story . That film , about a doctor who goes undercover into the world of drug addicts to learn about his wife 's death only to become addicted to marijuana himself , was not as successful as other exploitation @-@ style efforts as the public was more concerned about drug use by younger people .
" She Shoulda Said ' No ' ! " was not well @-@ received critically upon its initial release , with The New York Times saying " [ n ] ever did vice seem so devoid of enchantment . " Production and distribution of drug films slowed considerably following the film 's run until Frank Sinatra 's The Man with the Golden Arm forced changes to the Production Code , which was a studio @-@ based system which regulated various aspects of objectionable content in films .
The film achieved some attention due to its B movie status over the years , being featured in a number of film compilations while continuing to focus on the salacious material as a selling point . In 1993 , a VHS version was released as part of " David Friedman 's Roadshow Rarities " , the twenty @-@ ninth volume in the Something Weird video series . Alpha Video Distributors released the film on DVD in 2006 .
= = Cast = =
Alan Baxter – Markey
Lyle Talbot – Captain Hayes
Lila Leeds – Ann
Michael Whelan – Treanor
Mary Ellen Popel – Rita
Doug Blackley – Lieutenant Mason
David Holt – Bob Lester
Don Harvey – Lieutenant Tyne
David Gorcey – Ricky
Jack Elam – Raymond
Dick Cogan – Edmunds
Knox Manning – Narrator
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= The Girls of the Ghetto =
The Girls of the Ghetto is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film focuses on Bella , who works in a sweatshop and save enough money to have her little sisters emigrate to New York . John Magie encounters one of the girls and urges to attend classes . During an outbreak of fever , John is suddenly taken ill and Bella nurses him back to health . At the time of its production , the term " ghetto " was a buzzword and the focus of the hardworking Jewess struggling to survive was a focus of other 1910 productions . The film was released on July 19 , 1910 , and received criticism for not having the character appear to be Jewish and incorrectly portraying her place of work as a sweatshop . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from July 23 , 1910 . It states : " Bella is an immigrant girl doing sweatshop work in the ghetto of a great city . But by saving for some time , she manages to get enough money to send to the old country for her two little sisters . She meets them at Ellis Island and escorts them across Battery Park to their new home . The three girls live with an uncle and aunt in one poor room in a tenement . The smallest of the sisters while playing on the sidewalk one day gets lost and suddenly finds herself in Chinatown . She is dismayed at the entirely strange surroundings , and is weeping bitterly when found by John Magie , a young settlement worker . He dries her tears and takes her safely to her sweatshop home . John is at once attracted by Bella , whom he meets for the first time when he brings the little one back . He does the family many little kindnesses , bringing them flowers and books , and induces the girls to attend the classes at the settlement . While teaching his class one evening , John is suddenly attacked with a fever , which is epidemic at that time . All his pupils flee from him in fear , except Bella , who remains and nurses him back to health . Upon his recovery John makes Bella his wife and they take up together the work of bringing knowledge and happiness to the poor of the East Side [ of New York City ] . "
= = Cast = =
Marie Eline as an immigrant 's child
Anna Rosemond
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . Lonergan was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . J. Hoberman , author of Bridge of Light : Yiddish Film Between Two Worlds , writes that the Lower East Side had reached a total population of 540 @,@ 000 and the world " ghetto " became a buzzword . Other 1910 films on the subject included Yankee 's The Ghetto Seamstress and D. W. Griffith 's A Child of the Ghetto . Patricia Erens , author of The Jew in American Cinema says these films highlight the hard @-@ working Jewess in melodramatic situations that are only resolved with improbable solutions . The setting for the film included scenes in Manhattan 's Chinatown and was advertised as " a study of settlement conditions in the great East Side of New York City . It was produced right in the heart of the ghetto to assure a faithful presentation of East Side localities and life . Representatives of all races and nationalities pass through the picture , from the slow @-@ stepping Russian to the gliding Chinee . " Some of the details of the production were recorded due to the flaws in the depicting a sweatshop and the fact the Hebrew characters are not recognizable as Hebrews .
The film director and the cameraman are unknown , but the " Thanhouser Kid " Marie Eline and Anna Rosemond are known credits . Members cast may have included the leading players of the Thanhouser productions Frank H. Crane and Violet Heming . Despite the lack of production details , the quality of the Thanhouser films in general stood out amongst the Independent producers . An editorial by " The Spectator " in The New York Dramatic Mirror contained specific praise for Thanhouser productions by stating , " ... practically all other Independent American companies , excepting Thanhouser , show haste and lack of thought in their production . Crude stories are crudely handled , giving the impression that they are rushed through in a hurry - anything to get a thousand feet of negative ready for the market . Such pictures , of course , do not cost much to produce , but they are not of a class to make reputation . The Thanhouser company , alone of the Independents , shows a consistent effort to do things worthwhile ... " The editorial warned that American audiences were not subject to be entertained by the novelty of moving images and cautioned the Independents that there was distinct danger in quantity over quality . The editorial was written by Frank E. Woods of the American Biograph Company , a Licensed company , and like the publication itself had a considerable slant to the Licensed companies .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1000 feet long , was released on July 19 , 1910 . The film had a wide national release with known advertisements by theaters found in Indiana , Nebraska , Missouri , Pennsylvania , North Carolina , and Texas .
This production was met with negative attention by film critics . A reviewer in the The Moving Picture News wrote , " There isn 't a lot to the story , but the acting is of the class which still finds favor with the public . The pictures taken in Chinatown do not go quite far enough in depicting East Side conditions ; the photography of these particular scenes is not the ideal of Thanhouser productions ... " The New York Dramatic Mirror was more moderate in its criticism by identifying specific faults with the portrayal , but found that the story to be good and the parts well @-@ acted . The Morning Telegraph offered similar criticism , " The story of this picture is fairly good , but the details are wrong . In the first place , the producers evidently never were in a sweatshop , or else they would not have representing a sweatshop a store like a custom tailor shop , doing a thriving business . The people who are supposed to be Hebrews hardly resemble them . The next objection is when the settlement worker falls into a faint , the girl is very slow in picking him up . The story tells of a poor immigrant Hebrew girl who falls in love with a settlement worker , who returns her affection , which finally results in their marriage . " Some advertisements would bill the production as seeing the other side of New York City life .
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= Jim Thorpe =
James Francis " Jim " Thorpe ( Sac and Fox ( Sauk ) : Wa @-@ Tho @-@ Huk , translated as " Bright Path " ; May 22 , 1887 – March 28 , 1953 ) was a Sac and Fox athlete of Native American and European ancestry . Considered one of the most versatile athletes of modern sports , he won Olympic gold medals in the 1912 pentathlon and decathlon , played American football ( collegiate and professional ) , and also played professional baseball and basketball . He lost his Olympic titles after it was found he was paid for playing two seasons of semi @-@ professional baseball before competing in the Olympics , thus violating the amateurism rules that were then in place . In 1983 , 30 years after his death , the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) restored his Olympic medals .
Thorpe grew up in the Sac and Fox Nation in Oklahoma . He played as part of several all American Indian teams throughout his career , and " barnstormed " as a professional basketball player with a team composed entirely of American Indians .
From 1920 to 1921 , Thorpe was nominally the first president of the American Professional Football Association ( APFA ) , which would become the National Football League ( NFL ) in 1922 .
He played professional sports until age 41 , the end of his sports career coinciding with the start of the Great Depression . Thorpe struggled to earn a living after that , working several odd jobs . Thorpe suffered from alcoholism , and lived his last years in failing health and poverty .
In a poll of sports fans conducted by ABC Sports , Thorpe was voted the Greatest Athlete of the Twentieth Century out of 15 other athletes including Muhammad Ali , Babe Ruth , Jesse Owens , Wayne Gretzky , Jack Nicklaus , and Michael Jordan .
= = Early life = =
Information about Thorpe 's birth , name and ethnic background varies widely . He was baptized " Jacobus Franciscus Thorpe " in the Catholic Church . Thorpe was born in Indian Territory , but no birth certificate has been found . He was generally considered to have been born on May 22 , 1887 , near the town of Prague , Oklahoma . Thorpe himself said in an article in The Shawnee News @-@ Star in 1949 that he was born May 28 , 1888 , on his mother 's allotment " near and south of Bellemont – Pottawatomie County – along the banks of the North Fork River ... hope this will clear up the inquiries as to my birthplace . " However , most biographers believe that he was born on May 22 , 1887 , as that is what is listed on his baptismal certificate . Bellemont was a small community , now disappeared , on the line between Pottawatomie and Lincoln Counties . While the town of Prague , Lincoln County , now claims to be the birthplace of Thorpe , there is no evidence that Thorpe himself called Prague his hometown . All his personal references were either Shawnee ( the county seat of Pottawatomie County and about ten miles ( 16 km ) southwest of his birthplace ) or " Pott County " . The Sac and Fox agency is in Stroud , Lincoln County , which could cause some of the confusion .
Thorpe 's parents were both of mixed @-@ race ancestry . His father , Hiram Thorpe , had an Irish father and a Sac and Fox Indian mother . His mother , Charlotte Vieux , had a French father and a Potawatomi mother , a descendant of Chief Louis Vieux . He was raised as a Sac and Fox , and his native name , Wa @-@ Tho @-@ Huk , translated as " path lit by great flash of lightning " or , more simply , " Bright Path " . As was the custom for Sac and Fox , he was named for something occurring around the time of his birth , in this case the light brightening the path to the cabin where he was born . Thorpe 's parents were both Roman Catholic , a faith which Thorpe observed throughout his adult life .
Thorpe attended the Sac and Fox Indian Agency school in Stroud , Oklahoma , with his twin brother , Charlie . Charlie helped him through school until he succumbed to a bout of pneumonia when they were nine years old . He ran away from school several times . His father then sent him to the Haskell Institute , an Indian boarding school in Lawrence , Kansas , so that he would not run away again . When his mother died of childbirth complications two years later , he became depressed . After several arguments with his father , he left home to work on a horse ranch .
In 1904 the sixteen @-@ year @-@ old Thorpe returned to his father and decided to attend Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Carlisle , Pennsylvania . There his athletic ability was recognized and he was coached by Glenn Scobey " Pop " Warner , one of the most influential coaches of early American football history . Later that year he became orphaned after Hiram Thorpe died from gangrene poisoning after being wounded in a hunting accident , and Jim again dropped out of school . He resumed farm work for a few years and then returned to Carlisle Indian Industrial School .
= = Amateur career = =
= = = College career = = =
Thorpe began his athletic career at Carlisle in 1907 when he walked past the track and beat all the school 's high jumpers with an impromptu 5 @-@ ft 9 @-@ in jump still in street clothes . His earliest recorded track and field results come from 1907 . He also competed in football , baseball , lacrosse and even ballroom dancing , winning the 1912 intercollegiate ballroom dancing championship .
Pop Warner was hesitant to allow Thorpe , his best track and field athlete , to compete in a physical game such as football . Thorpe , however , convinced Warner to let him try some rushing plays in practice against the school team 's defense ; Warner assumed he would be tackled easily and give up the idea . Thorpe " ran around past and through them not once , but twice " . He then walked over to Warner and said " Nobody is going to tackle Jim " , while flipping him the ball .
Thorpe gained nationwide attention for the first time in 1911 . As a running back , defensive back , placekicker and punter , Thorpe scored all his team 's points — four field goals and a touchdown — in an 18 – 15 upset of Harvard , a top ranked team in those early days of the National Collegiate Athletic Association . His team finished the season 11 – 1 . In 1912 Carlisle won the national collegiate championship largely as a result of his efforts – he scored 25 touchdowns and 198 points during the season .
Carlisle 's 1912 record included a 27 – 6 victory over Army . In that game , Thorpe 's 92 @-@ yard touchdown was nullified by a teammate 's penalty , but on the next play Thorpe rushed for a 97 @-@ yard touchdown . Future President Dwight Eisenhower , who played against him that season , recalled of Thorpe in a 1961 speech :
" Here and there , there are some people who are supremely endowed . My memory goes back to Jim Thorpe . He never practiced in his life , and he could do anything better than any other football player I ever saw . "
He was awarded All @-@ American honors in both 1911 and 1912 .
Football was – and would remain – Thorpe 's favorite sport . He competed only sporadically in track and field , even though this turned out to be the sport in which he gained his greatest fame .
In the spring of 1912 , he started training for the Olympics . He had confined his efforts to jumps , hurdles and shot @-@ puts , but now added pole vaulting , javelin , discus , hammer and 56 lb weight . In the Olympic trials held at Celtic Park in New York , his all @-@ round ability stood out in all these events and so he riveted a claim to a place on the team that went to Sweden .
= = = Olympic career = = =
For the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm , Sweden , two new multi @-@ event disciplines were included , the pentathlon and the decathlon . A pentathlon , based on the ancient Greek event , had been introduced at the 1906 Summer Olympics . The 1912 version consisted of the long jump , javelin throw , 200 @-@ meter dash , discus throw and 1500 @-@ meter run .
The decathlon was a relatively new event in modern athletics , although it had been part of American track meets since the 1880s and a version had been featured on the program of the 1904 St. Louis Olympics . The events of the new decathlon differed slightly from the American version . Both seemed appropriate for Thorpe , who was so versatile that he served as Carlisle 's one @-@ man team in several track meets . According to his obituary in The New York Times he could run the 100 @-@ yard dash in 10 seconds flat , the 220 in 21 @.@ 8 seconds , the 440 in 51 @.@ 8 seconds , the 880 in 1 : 57 , the mile in 4 : 35 , the 120 @-@ yard high hurdles in 15 seconds , and the 220 @-@ yard low hurdles in 24 seconds . He could long jump 23 ft 6 in and high @-@ jump 6 ft 5 in . He could pole vault 11 feet , put the shot 47 ft 9 in , throw the javelin 163 feet , and throw the discus 136 feet .
Thorpe entered the U.S. Olympic trials for both the pentathlon and the decathlon . He won the awards easily , winning three events , and was named to the pentathlon team , which also included future International Olympic Committee president Avery Brundage . There were only a few candidates for the decathlon team , however , and the trials were cancelled .
His schedule in the Olympics was busy . Along with the decathlon and pentathlon , he competed in the long jump and high jump . The first competition was the pentathlon . He won four of the five events and placed third in the javelin , an event he had not competed in before 1912 . Although the pentathlon was primarily decided on place points , points were also earned for the marks achieved in the individual events . He won the gold medal . That same day , he qualified for the high jump final in which he placed fourth , and also took seventh place in the long jump . Even more remarkably , because someone had stolen his shoes just before he was due to compete , he found some discarded ones in a rubbish bin and won his medals wearing them . He is shown in the 1912 photo wearing two different shoes and extra socks because one shoe was too big .
Thorpe 's final event was the decathlon , his first — and as it turned out , his only — Olympic decathlon . Strong competition from local favorite Hugo Wieslander was expected . Thorpe , however , easily defeated Wieslander by more than 700 points . He placed in the top four in all ten events , and his Olympic record of 8 @,@ 413 points would stand for nearly two decades . Overall , Thorpe won eight of the 15 individual events comprising the pentathlon and decathlon .
As was the custom of the day , the medals were presented to the athletes during the closing ceremonies of the games . Along with the two gold medals , Thorpe also received two challenge prizes , which were donated by King Gustav V of Sweden for the decathlon and Czar Nicholas II of Russia for the pentathlon . Several sources recount that , when awarding Thorpe his prize , King Gustav said , " You , sir , are the greatest athlete in the world " , to which Thorpe replied , " Thanks , King " . Contemporary sources from 1912 are lacking , suggesting that the story was apocryphal , however . The anecdote appeared in newspapers as early as 1948 , 36 years after his appearance in the Olympics , and in books as early as 1952 .
Thorpe 's successes had not gone unnoticed at home , and he was honored with a ticker @-@ tape parade on Broadway . He remembered later , " I heard people yelling my name , and I couldn 't realize how one fellow could have so many friends . "
Apart from his track and field appearances , he also played in one of two exhibition baseball games at the 1912 Olympics , which featured two teams composed of U.S. track and field athletes . It was not Thorpe 's first try at baseball , as the public would soon learn .
= = = All @-@ Around Champion = = =
After his victories at the Olympic Games in Sweden , on September 2 , 1912 , he returned to Celtic Park , the home of the Irish American Athletic Club , in Queens , New York ( where he had qualified four months earlier for the Olympic Games ) , to compete in the Amateur Athletic Union 's All @-@ Around Championship . Competing against Bruno Brodd of the Irish American Athletic Club and J. Bredemus of Princeton University , he won seven of the ten events contested and came in second in the remaining three . With a total point score of 7 @,@ 476 points , Thorpe broke the previous record of 7 @,@ 385 points set in 1909 , ( also set at Celtic Park ) , by Martin Sheridan , the champion athlete of the Irish American Athletic Club . Sheridan , a five @-@ time Olympic gold medalist , was present to watch his record broken , approached Thorpe after the event and shook his hand saying , " Jim , my boy , you 're a great man . I never expect to look upon a finer athlete . " He told a reporter from New York World , " Thorpe is the greatest athlete that ever lived . He has me beaten fifty ways . Even when I was in my prime , I could not do what he did today . "
= = = Controversy = = =
In 1912 , strict rules regarding amateurism were in effect for athletes participating in the Olympics . Athletes who received money prizes for competitions , were sports teachers or had competed previously against professionals were not considered amateurs and were barred from competition .
In late January 1913 , the Worcester Telegram published a story announcing that Thorpe had played professional baseball , and other U.S. newspapers followed up the story . Thorpe had indeed played professional baseball in the Eastern Carolina League for Rocky Mount , North Carolina , in 1909 and 1910 , receiving meager pay ; reportedly as little as US $ 2 ( $ 51 today ) per game and as much as US $ 35 ( $ 889 today ) per week . College players , in fact , regularly spent summers playing professionally but most used aliases , unlike Thorpe .
Although the public didn 't seem to care much about Thorpe 's past , the Amateur Athletic Union ( AAU ) , and especially its secretary James Edward Sullivan , took the case very seriously . Thorpe wrote a letter to Sullivan , in which he admitted playing professional baseball :
I hope I will be partly excused by the fact that I was simply an Indian schoolboy and did not know all about such things . In fact , I did not know that I was doing wrong , because I was doing what I knew several other college men had done , except that they did not use their own names ...
His letter didn 't help . The AAU decided to withdraw Thorpe 's amateur status retroactively and asked the International Olympic Commission ( IOC ) to do the same . Later that year , the IOC unanimously decided to strip Thorpe of his Olympic titles , medals and awards and declare him a professional .
Although Thorpe had played for money , the AAU and IOC did not follow the rules for disqualification . The rulebook for the 1912 Olympics stated that protests had to be made " within " 30 days from the closing ceremonies of the games . The first newspaper reports did not appear until January 1913 , about six months after the Stockholm Games had concluded . There is also some evidence that Thorpe 's amateur status had been questioned long before the Olympics , but the AAU had ignored the issue until being confronted with it in 1913 .
The only positive element of this affair for Thorpe was that , as soon as the news was reported that he had been declared a professional , he received offers from professional sports clubs .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Baseball free agent = = =
Because the minor league team that last held Jim Thorpe 's contract had disbanded in 1910 , he found himself in the rare position of being a sought after free agent at the major league level during the era of the reserve clause , and thus had a choice of baseball teams for which to play . In January 1913 , he turned down a starting position with the American League cellar @-@ dwelling St. Louis Browns , choosing instead to join the 1912 National League champion New York Giants , who , with Thorpe playing in 19 of their 151 games , would repeat as the 1913 National League champions . Immediately following the Giants ' October loss in the 1913 World Series , Thorpe and the Giants joined the Chicago White Sox for a world tour . Barnstorming across the United States and then around the world , Thorpe was the celebrity of the tour . Thorpe 's presence increased the publicity , attendance and gate receipts for the tour . He met with Pope Pius X and Abbas II Hilmi Bey ( the last Khedive of Egypt ) , and played before 20 @,@ 000 people in London including King George V. While in Rome , he was filmed wrestling with another baseball player on the floor of the Colosseum , although no known copy of that film has survived .
= = = Baseball , football , and basketball = = =
Thorpe signed with the New York Giants baseball club in 1913 and played sporadically with them as an outfielder for three seasons . After playing in the minor leagues with the Milwaukee Brewers in 1916 , he returned to the Giants in 1917 but was sold to the Cincinnati Reds early in the season . In the " double no @-@ hitter " between Fred Toney of the Reds and Hippo Vaughn of the Chicago Cubs , Thorpe drove in the winning run in the 10th inning . Late in the season , he was sold back to the Giants . Again , he played sporadically for them in 1918 before being traded to the Boston Braves on May 21 , 1919 , for Pat Ragan . In his career , he amassed 91 runs scored , 82 runs batted in and a .252 batting average over 289 games . He continued to play minor league baseball until 1922 .
But Thorpe had not abandoned football either . He first played professional football in 1913 as a member of the Indiana @-@ based Pine Village Pros , a team that had a several @-@ season winning streak against local teams during the 1910s . He then signed with the Canton Bulldogs in 1915 . They paid him $ 250 ( $ 5 @,@ 848 today ) a game , a tremendous wage at the time . Before signing him Canton was averaging 1 @,@ 200 fans a game , but 8 @,@ 000 showed up for his debut against the Massillon Tigers . The team won titles in 1916 , 1917 , and 1919 . He reportedly ended the 1919 championship game by kicking a wind @-@ assisted 95 @-@ yard punt from his team 's own 5 @-@ yard line , effectively putting the game out of reach . In 1920 , the Bulldogs were one of 14 teams to form the American Professional Football Association ( APFA ) , which would become the National Football League ( NFL ) two years later . Thorpe was nominally the APFA 's first president , but spent most of the year playing for Canton and a year later was replaced as president by Joseph Carr . He continued to play for Canton , coaching the team as well . Between 1921 and 1923 , he helped organize and played for the Oorang Indians ( LaRue , Ohio ) , an all @-@ Native American team . Although the team 's record was 3 – 6 in 1922 , and 1 – 10 in 1923 , he played well and was selected for the Green Bay Press @-@ Gazette 's first All @-@ NFL team in 1923 , which would later be formally recognized by the NFL as the league 's official All @-@ NFL team in 1931 ) .
Thorpe never played for an NFL championship team . He retired from professional football at age 41 , having played 52 NFL games for six teams from 1920 to 1928 .
Until 2005 , most of Thorpe 's biographers were unaware of his basketball career until a ticket discovered in an old book that year documented his career in basketball . By 1926 , he was the main feature of the " World Famous Indians " of LaRue which sponsored traveling football , baseball and basketball teams . " Jim Thorpe and His World @-@ Famous Indians " barnstormed for at least two years ( 1927 – 28 ) in parts of New York and Pennsylvania as well as Marion , Ohio . Although pictures of Thorpe in his WFI basketball uniform were printed on postcards and published in newspapers , this period of his life was not well documented .
= = Marriage and family = =
Thorpe married three times and had eight children ( one of whom died in childhood ) . In 1913 Thorpe married Iva M. Miller , whom he had met at Carlisle . In 1917 Iva and Thorpe bought a house now known as the Jim Thorpe House in Yale , Oklahoma , and lived there until 1923 . They had four children : Gail Margaret ( October 31 , 1917 – June 3 , 2005 ) , James F. ( May 8 , 1918 – September 28 , 1919 ) , Charlotte Marie ( September 16 , 1919 – December 8 , 1998 ) and Grace Frances ( December 10 , 1921 – April 1 , 2008 ) . Miller filed for divorce from Thorpe in 1925 , claiming desertion .
In 1926 Thorpe married Freeda Verona Kirkpatrick ( September 19 , 1905 – March 2 , 2007 ) . She was working for the manager of the baseball team for which he was playing at the time . They had four sons : Carl Phillip ( May 1 , 1927 – March 18 , 1986 ) , a lieutenant colonel in the U.S. Army , William K. , Richard A. and John R. " Jack " ( June 29 , 1937 – February 22 , 2011 ) . Kirkpatrick divorced Thorpe in 1941 after 15 years of marriage .
Lastly , Thorpe married Patricia Gladys Evelyn " Patsy " Askew ( née Woodbury ) on June 2 , 1945 ; she was with him when he died .
= = Later life = =
After his athletic career , Thorpe struggled to provide for his family . He found it difficult to work a non @-@ sports @-@ related job and never held a job for an extended period of time . During the Great Depression in particular , he had various jobs , among others as an extra for several movies , usually playing an American Indian chief in Westerns . He also worked as a construction worker , a doorman ( bouncer ) , a security guard and a ditch digger , and briefly joined the United States Merchant Marine in 1945 . Thorpe was a chronic alcoholic during his later life .
He ran out of money sometime in the early 1950s . When hospitalized for lip cancer in 1950 , he was admitted as a charity case . At a press conference announcing the procedure , his wife , Patricia , wept and pleaded for help , saying , " We 're broke ... Jim has nothing but his name and his memories . He has spent money on his own people and has given it away . He has often been exploited . "
= = Death = =
In early 1953 , Thorpe went into heart failure for the third time while dining with Patricia in their home in Lomita , California . He was briefly revived by artificial respiration and spoke to those around him , but lost consciousness shortly afterward and died on March 28 at the age of 65 .
= = Racism = =
Thorpe , whose parents were both half Caucasian , was raised as an American Indian . His accomplishments occurred during a period of severe racial inequality in the United States . It has often been suggested that his medals were stripped because of his ethnicity . While it is difficult to prove this , the public comment at the time largely reflected this view . At the time Thorpe won his gold medals , not all Native Americans were recognized as U.S. citizens . ( The U.S. government had wanted them to make concessions to adopt European @-@ American ways to receive such recognition . ) Citizenship was not granted to all American Indians until 1924 .
While Thorpe attended Carlisle , students ' ethnicity was used for marketing purposes . The football team was called the Indians . A photograph of Thorpe and the 1911 football team emphasized racial differences among the competing athletes ; the inscription on the most important game ball of that season reads , " 1911 , Indians 18 , Harvard 15 . " Additionally , the school and journalists often categorized sporting competitions as conflicts of Indians against whites ; newspaper headings such as " Indians Scalp Army 27 – 6 " or " Jim Thorpe on Rampage " made stereotypical journalistic play of the Indian background of Carlisle 's football team . The first notice of Thorpe in the The New York Times was headlined " Indian Thorpe in Olympiad ; Redskin from Carlisle Will Strive for Place on American Team . " His accomplishments were described in a similar racial context by other newspapers and sportswriters throughout his life .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Olympic awards reinstated = = =
Over the years , supporters of Thorpe attempted to have his Olympic titles reinstated . US Olympic officials , including former teammate and later president of the IOC Avery Brundage , rebuffed several attempts , with Brundage once saying , " Ignorance is no excuse . " Most persistent were the author Robert Wheeler and his wife , Florence Ridlon . They succeeded in having the AAU and United States Olympic Committee overturn its decision and restore Thorpe 's amateur status before 1913 .
In 1982 , Wheeler and Ridlon established the Jim Thorpe Foundation and gained support from the U.S. Congress . Armed with this support and evidence from 1912 proving that Thorpe 's disqualification had occurred after the 30 @-@ day time period allowed by Olympics rules , they succeeded in making the case to the IOC . In October 1982 , the IOC Executive Committee approved Thorpe 's reinstatement . In an unusual ruling , they declared that Thorpe was co @-@ champion with Ferdinand Bie and Wieslander , although both of these athletes had always said they considered Thorpe to be the only champion . In a ceremony on January 18 , 1983 , the IOC presented two of Thorpe 's children , Gale and Bill , with commemorative medals . Thorpe 's original medals had been held in museums , but they had been stolen and have never been recovered .
= = = Honors = = =
Thorpe 's monument , featuring the quote from Gustav V ( " You , sir , are the greatest athlete in the world . " ) , still stands near the town named for him , Jim Thorpe , Pennsylvania . The grave rests on mounds of soil from Thorpe 's native Oklahoma and from the stadium in which he won his Olympic medals .
Thorpe 's achievements received great acclaim from sports journalists , both during his lifetime and since his death . In 1950 an Associated Press poll of almost 400 sportswriters and broadcasters voted Thorpe the " greatest athlete " of the first half of the 20th century . That same year , the Associated Press named Thorpe the " greatest American football player " of the first half of the century . In 1999 , the Associated Press placed him third on its list of the top athletes of the century , following Babe Ruth and Michael Jordan . ESPN ranked Thorpe seventh on their list of best North American athletes of the century .
Thorpe was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1963 , one of seventeen players in the charter class . Thorpe is memorialized in the Pro Football Hall of Fame rotunda with a larger @-@ than @-@ life statue . He was also inducted into halls of fame for college football , American Olympic teams , and the national track and field competition .
President Richard Nixon , as authorized by U.S. Senate Joint Resolution 73 , proclaimed Monday , April 16 , 1973 , as " Jim Thorpe Day " to promote the nationwide recognition of Thorpe . In 1986 , the Jim Thorpe Association established an award with Thorpe 's name . The Jim Thorpe Award is given annually to the best defensive back in college football . The annual Thorpe Cup athletics meeting is named in his honor . The United States Postal Service issued a 32 ¢ stamp on 3 February 1998 as part of the Celebrate the Century stamp sheet series .
In 2015 proposed designs for the 2018 Native American dollar coin featuring Thorpe were released .
= = = Jim Thorpe , Pennsylvania = = =
After Thorpe 's funeral was held at St. Benedict 's Catholic Church in Shawnee , Oklahoma , his body was lying in state at Fairview Cemetery after citizens had paid to have it moved to Shawnee by train from California . The people were in a fund raising effort to erect a permanent monument and burial place for Thorpe at the town 's Athletic Park . Local officials had asked the state legislature for funding but were turned down so they doubled their efforts to raise the money on their own . Meanwhile , Thorpe 's third wife , unbeknownst to the rest of his family , " stole " Thorpe 's body and had it shipped to Pennsylvania when she heard that the small Pennsylvania towns of Mauch Chunk and East Mauch Chunk were seeking to attract business . She made a deal with officials which , according to Thorpe 's son Jack , was done by Patricia for monetary considerations . The towns bought Thorpe 's remains , erected a monument to him , merged , and renamed the newly united town in his honor Jim Thorpe , Pennsylvania even though Thorpe had never been there . The monument site contains his tomb , two statues of him in athletic poses , and historical markers describing his life story .
The town of Shawnee , disappointed that they were unable to honor the man who considered Shawnee his hometown , named their football field in his honor .
In June 2010 , Jack Thorpe filed a federal lawsuit against the borough of Jim Thorpe , seeking to have his father 's remains returned to his homeland and re @-@ interred near other family members in Oklahoma . Citing the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act , Jack was arguing to bring his father 's remains to the reservation in Oklahoma , where they would be buried near those of his father , sisters and brother , a mile from the place he was born . He claimed that the agreement between his stepmother and Jim Thorpe , Pa . , borough officials was made against the wishes of other family members who want him buried in Native American land . Jack Thorpe died at 73 on February 22 , 2011 .
In April 2013 , U.S. District Judge Richard Caputo ruled that Jim Thorpe borough in northeastern Pennsylvania amounts to a museum under the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act ( " NAGPRA " ) . A lawyer for Bill and Richard Thorpe said the men would pursue the legal process to have their father returned to Sac and Fox land in central Oklahoma .
On October 23 , 2014 , the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit reversed Judge Caputo 's ruling . The appeals court held that Jim Thorpe borough is not a " museum " , as that term is used in NAGPRA , and that the plaintiffs therefore could not invoke that federal statute to seek reinterment of Thorpe 's remains . It directed the trial court to enter a judgment in favor of the borough . The appeals court noted that although the plaintiffs were free to ask a Pennsylvania state court to order reinternment of Thorpe 's remains under state law , there is " great reluctance " under Pennsylvania state law to order reinternment .
On October 5 , 2015 , the United States Supreme Court refused to hear the matter , effectively bringing the legal process to an end .
= = In film = =
In the 1930s , Thorpe appeared in several short films and features . Usually , his roles were cameo appearances as an Indian , although in the 1932 comedy , Always Kickin , Thorpe was prominently cast in a speaking part as himself , a kicking coach teaching young football players to drop @-@ kick . In 1931 , during the Great Depression , he sold the film rights to his life story to MGM for $ 1 @,@ 500 ( $ 23 @,@ 000 today ) . The movie included archival footage of the 1912 and 1932 Olympics , as well as a banquet in which Thorpe was honored . Thorpe was seen in some long shots in the film ; and one scene showed him as a coaching assistant . It was also distributed in the United Kingdom , where it was called Man of Bronze .
Thorpe had a cameo appearance in the 1940 film Knute Rockne , All American . Late in the film , he tells Pat O 'Brien ( playing Knute Rockne ) at the halftime of a game , " Two minutes , Rock ! " He is referenced by O 'Brien earlier in the film , as a player you could build a team around . He played a member of the Navajo band in the 1950 film Wagon Master .
Thorpe was memorialized in the Warner Bros. film Jim Thorpe – All @-@ American ( 1951 ) starring Burt Lancaster , with Billy Gray performing as Thorpe as a child . The film was directed by Michael Curtiz . Although there were rumors that Thorpe received no money , he was paid $ 15 @,@ 000 by Warner Bros. plus a $ 2 @,@ 500 donation toward an annuity for him by the studio head of publicity .
He is mentioned twice in Disney 's 1973 film The World 's Greatest Athlete .
Thorpe is featured as a ghost figure in the 1994 film WindRunner : A Spirited Journey , where he is portrayed by Russell Means .
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= Tong Yabghu Qaghan =
Tong Yabghu Qaghan ( died 628 ) ( also known as T 'ung Yabghu , Ton Yabghu , Tong Yabghu Khagan , Tun Yabghu , and Tong Yabğu , Traditional Chinese 統葉護可汗 , Simplified Chinese : 统叶护可汗 , pinyin Tǒngyèhù Kěhán , Wade @-@ Giles : t 'ung @-@ yeh @-@ hu k 'o @-@ han ) was khagan of the Western Turkic Khaganate from 618 to 628 AD . His name is usually translated as " Tiger Yabgu " in Old Turkic . Another interpretation of his name is " sufficiency " or " completeness " . He was the brother of Sheguy ( r . 611 @-@ 618 ) , the previous khagan of the western Göktürks , and was a member of the Ashina clan . Tong Yabghu 's reign is generally regarded as the zenith of the Western Göktürk Khaganate .
= = Reign = =
Tong Yabghu maintained close relations with the Tang Dynasty of China , and may have married into the Imperial family . The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang visited the western Göktürk capital Suyab in modern Kyrgyzstan and left a description of the khagan . Scholars believe the khagan described by Xuanzang was Tong Yabghu . Gao and La Vaissière argue that the khagan Xuanzang met was his son Si Yabghu , rather than Tong Yabghu . Xuanzang described the khagan as follows :
The khan wore a green satin robe ; his hair , which was ten feet long , was free . A band of white silk wound round his forehead and hung down behind . The ministers of the presence , numbering two hundred in number , all wearing embroidered robes , stood on his right and left . The rest of his military retinue [ was ] clothed in fur , serge and fine wool , the spears and standards and bows in order , and the riders of camels and horses stretched far out of [ sight ] .
According to the Old Book of Tang , Tong Yabghu 's reign was once considered as the golden age of Western Göktürk Khaganate :
Tong Yehu Kaghan is a man of bravery and astuteness . He is good at art of war . Thus he controlled Tiele tribes to the north , confronted Persia to the west , connected with Kasmira ( nowadays Kashmir ) to the south . All countries are subjected to him . He controlled ten thousands of men with arrow and bow , establishing his power over the western region . He occupied the land of Wusun and moved his tent to Qianquan north of Tashkent . All of the princes of western region assumed the Turk office of Jielifa . Tong Yehu Kaghan also sent a Tutun to monitor them for imposition . The power of Western Turks had never reached such a state before " .
= = Alleged Campaigns against Persia = =
Tong Yabghu 's empire fought with the Sassanids of Iran . In the early 620 's the khagan 's nephew Böri Shad led a series of raids across the Caucasus Mountains into Persian territory . Many scholars have identified Tong Yabghu as the Ziebel mentioned in Byzantine sources as having ( as khagan of the Khazars ) campaigned with the Emperor Heraclius in the Caucasus against the Sassanid Persian Empire in 627 @-@ 628 . It has long been maintained by some scholars , including Chavannes , Uchida , Gao and Xue Zhongzeng that Tong Yabghu cannot be positively identified with Ziebel ( or any Khazar ruler ) and may actually have died as early as 626 . These scholars point to discrepancies in the dates between Byzantine and Chinese sources and argue that definitively conflating Ziebel with Tong Yabghu is an exaggeration of the extant evidence . The latest research on this topic proves that they were right : if Tong indeed died in 628 , Ziebel is to be identified with Sipi khagan , Tong Yabghu 's uncle , who murdered him and rose briefly to the throne . Sipi was by then pronounced Zibil and he was a small kaghan in charge of the western part of Tong Yabghu 's empire , exactly as Ziebel was according to the Byzantine sources . Ziebel is described as the brother of Tong in the Byzantine sources , and as his uncle in the Chinese sources , a discrepancy which long precluded the identification . However uncle and elder brother is the same word in ancient Turkish , äçi , and the Chinese sources could not rendered this double meaning with their very precise system of kinship names .
= = Governance = =
Tong Yabghu appointed governors or tuduns to manage the various tribes and people under his overlordship . In all likelihood Tong Yabghu 's nephew Böri Shad , and son of Zibil / Ziebel was the commander of the Khazars , the westernmost of the tribes owing allegiance to the Western Göktürks ; this branch of the family may have provided the Khazars with their first khagans in the mid seventh century .
= = Death = =
In ca . 630 he was murdered by Zibil , his uncle and a partisan of Dula clan . Following the death of Tong Yabghu , the might of the Western Göktürks largely collapsed . Although the khaganate lingered for a few decades before falling to the Chinese Empire , many of the client tribes became independent and a number of successor states , including the Khazar Khaganate and Great Bulgaria , became independent .
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= Jayne Mansfield in popular culture =
Actress , singer , Playmate and stage show performer Jayne Mansfield , despite her limited success in Hollywood , had an enormous impact on popular culture of the late 1950s and has remained a popular subject in popular culture ever since . During a period between 1956 and 1957 , there were about 122 @,@ 000 lines of copy and 2 @,@ 500 photographs that appeared in newspapers . Dennis Russel , in an article on her in the St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture ( 1999 ) , said that " Although many people have never seen her movies , Jayne Mansfield remains , long after her death , one of the most recognizable icons of 1950s celebrity culture . " In the 2004 novel Child of My Heart by Alice McDermott , a National Book Award winning writer , the 1950s is referred to as " in those Marilyn Monroe / Jayne Mansfield days " . R. L. Rutsky and Bill Osgerby has claimed that it was Mansfield along with Marilyn Monroe and Brigitte Bardot who made the bikini popular .
M. Thomas Inge describes Mansfield , Monroe and Jane Russell as personification of the bad girl in popular culture , as opposed to Doris Day , Debbie Reynolds , Natalie Wood personifying the good girl . Mansfield , Monroe and Barbara Windsor have been described as representations of a historical juncture of sexuality in comedy and popular culture . Evangelist Billy Graham once said , " This country knows more about Jayne Mansfield 's statistics than the Second Commandment . " As late as the mid @-@ 1980s she remained one of the biggest TV draws . As an indication of her impact on popular culture today , more than two generations later , there are numerous cultural references to the Hollywood sex symbol and Playboy Playmate in recent films , books , TV and music . Numerous show biz people were dubbed Jayne Mansfield over the time , including Italian actress Marisa Allasio and professional wrestler Missy Hyatt .
= = Life and career = =
Mansfield 's public persona and career image became another subject in popular culture . Francesca Lia Block 's Weetzie Bat books often refer to Mansfield ; their characters Dirk and Weetzie watch The Girl Can 't Help It , and the Witch Baby 's mother is part of a sinister cult that masquerades as a Jayne Mansfield fan club . In Lynda Curnyn 's 2004 novel , Bombshell , the character Grace is advised not to become a Jayne Mansfield when it is suspected that she is pregnant without a boyfriend or a husband . Mansfield 's films and events of her life also became subjects of inspiration in popular culture . In the 1963 movie , The Stripper , the aspiring stripper Lila Green , played by Joanne Woodward , is mistaken as Mansfield . In the 2005 novel Who Wrote the Book of Love ? by Lee Siegel , Lucky Lee , an American boy in Southern California in the 1950s , becomes infatuated with Marilyn Monroe and Mansfield in his journey through sexual enlightenment . In the book Lucky Lee uses famous quotes from films and literature - like " Wow ! What a body ! " and " Me Tarzan , you Jayne ! " In the book it is spelled Jayne instead of Jane , to make a pun to allude to Mansfield . Dutch writer Jan Cremer wrote a large part of his autobiographical novel I , Jan Cremer – III about their relationship .
She remains a recurring character in works of fiction . In the eleventh episode of the second season of TV series Goodnight Sweetheart - titled Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea ( 1993 ) - Diana Kent plays the role of Mansfield in a time travel story . In the same episode John Evans plays the role of Winston Churchill . She also was a character in Underworld , a 2005 novel by Don DeLillo . In a 2002 detective novel by Max Allan Collins , Chicago Confidential , the series private investigator Nathan Heller falls in love with Mansfield , becomes friends with Frank Sinatra and is threatened by Joseph McCarthy .
Mansfield also features in numerous works of art and entertainment in general . She is mentioned in the third sketch of the 48th show of the second season of The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show ( also featuring Wailing Whale episodes 5 & 6 ) , which was first released on May 13 , 1961 . Mansfield also helped unveil a Rocky & Bullwinkle statue on Sunset Boulevard . On the Married ... with Children season 3 episode " A Dump of My Own , " Al Bundy says that when he was young he had two dreams and one of them was to become an astronaut and land on the planet Jayne Mansfield . In the episode of Frasier , " The Impossible Dream " , Mansfield is mentioned by Marty , stating that an example of a fun dream would be in the jungle with Jayne Mansfield and her getting bit by a snake . In the 2001 film Vixen Highway , Ann Tait plays the role of a Dr. Jayne Mansfield . Writer @-@ artist Jack Kirby of Marvel Comics drew inspiration from the strong @-@ woman image of Jayne Mansfield in designing the character Susan Storm of the Fantastic Four .
= = Publicity stunts = =
Mansfield 's publicity antics are another recurring theme in popular culture . On the season 32 episode of Saturday Night Live hosted by Alec Baldwin ( with musical guest Christina Aguilera ) , one of the commercial bumpers has Alec Baldwin PhotoShopped into the famous picture of Sophia Loren staring at Mansfield 's chest at Romanoff 's in Beverly Hills . It was a direct reference to publicity stunt of Mansfield in April 1957 intended to deflect attention from Loren during a dinner party in the Italian star 's honor . Photographs of the encounter were published around the world . The most famous image showed Loren raising a contemptuous eyebrow at the American actress who , sitting between Loren and her dinner companion , Clifton Webb , had leaned over the table , allowing her breasts to spill over her low neckline and exposing one nipple . The photo of Sophia Loren sitting next to Jayne Mansfield and regarding her cleavage inspired other photographers too . In 1993 , Daniela Federici created an homage with Anna Nicole Smith as Mansfield and New York City DJ Sky Nellor as Loren for a Guess Jeans campaign . Later , Mark Seliger took a picture named Heidi Klum at Romanoff 's with Heidi Klum in a reproduction of the restaurant set . The meeting between Mansfield and Anton LaVey , the founder and high priest of the Church of Satan , was a much publicized and oft quoted event of her life , as well as the history of the Church .
= = Death = =
The fatal motor accident that killed Mansfield and spread the rumors of her decapitation had been the subject of many plots and scenes . In the film To Wong Foo , Thanks for Everything ! Julie Newmar , Miss Vida Boheme ( Patrick Swayze ) remarked while trying out a vintage yellow convertible , " I feel like Miss Jayne Mansfield in this car ! " Noxeema Jackson ( Wesley Snipes ) replied " Uh oh , Jayne Mansfield , not a good auto reference . " In Severance : Stories , the 2006 story book containing 62 postmortem monologues , each 240 @-@ words long , by Robert Olen Butler , a Pulitzer Award winning writer , Mansfield 's death is included along with James Dean , John the Baptist , Maximilien Robespierre , Marie Antoinette , Cicero and others . The underride guard , a strong bar made of steel tubing fitted underneath the rear portion of a semi @-@ trailer , is also known as a Mansfield bar , commemorating her accident that occurred before the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act required underride guards on semi @-@ trailers .
In the 1994 film Leprechaun 2 , directed by Rodman Flender , a character degrades the leprechaun by saying , " If hearing the actual sound of Jayne Mansfield 's head being severed from her body is too intense for you , well then , you know , more power to ya . " The accident is also referred to in the 1998 film One of Them . In Money , Love : A Novel by Brad Barkley , the character Roman organizes a show of Celebrity Death Cars , including that of Dean and Mansfield , to win back his love interest Gladys . In the song Movie Star by the rock band Cracker sang , " Well the movie star , well she crashed her car , but everyone said she was beautiful even without her head , everyone said she was dangerous " , making an allusion to the accident . In the 2003 single , " Overdrive , " Katy Rose sang , " I 'm sitting in Jayne Mansfield 's car . " The Hollywood Forever Cemetery , where her cenotaph is located , is described as one of the sights to see in California by the regional tourist guide by Lonely Planet . In the episode In Escrow of Dead Like Me , George orders a " Jayne Mansfield " for breakfast . When Kiffany the waitress gives George her order it is a pastry in the shape of breasts with blueberries as nipples . Daisy refers to the breakfast as " ... blueberry muffins with their tops cut off , " making reference to the urban legend of how Mansfield died .
In David Cronenberg 's 1996 film Crash ( based on J. G. Ballard 's 1973 novel of the same name ) , a male stunt driver dressed as Mansfield recreates her fatal accident , killing himself in the process . His partner , a fellow celebrity @-@ crash aficionado , comes across the scene of the wreck and says , " You did the Jayne Mansfield crash without me ? " Differing from the book , the storyline of the film revolves around these two partners recreating fatal celebrity disasters , in the name of a project they call retrospectives , including those of James Dean , Grace Kelly , Albert Camus and John F. Kennedy . The film was nominated for the Golden Palm at the Cannes Film Festival , it instead won the Special Jury Prize for daring , audacity , and originality .
= = Anatomy = =
Physical features of the " voluptuous " actress became subjects of humor or fascination in popular culture in a number of ways . In a 1950s Trans World Airlines ( TWA ) advertisement Mansfield is shown in a low @-@ cut bodice , facing TWA crews , with the copy reading " quite ... roomy ... perfect " . She came to be known as " the Cleavage Queen " and " the Queen of Sex and Bosom " . As early as in 1959 , Harry Carlson , co @-@ founder of Fraternity Records , marketed Jayne Mansfield water bottles shaped after her curves .
Her bosom was so much a part of her public persona that talk @-@ show host Jack Paar once welcomed the actress to The Tonight Show by saying , " Here they are , Jayne Mansfield " , a line written for Paar by Dick Cavett which became the title of her biography by Raymond Strait . Joan Jacobs Brumberg describes the 1950s as " an era distinguished by its worship of full @-@ breasted women " and attributes the paradigm shift to Mansfield and Monroe . Almost half a century after her death , a biographer of Nikolaus Pevsner ( a German @-@ born writer on British architecture ) , noted the improbable coincidence that Pevsner and Mansfield had once stayed at the same hotel in Bolton , Lancashire . There , she had " electrified the dining room with her imposing bosom " . Patricia Vettel @-@ Becker makes that observation more specific by attributing the phenomenon to Playboy and the appearance of Mansfield and Monroe in the magazine . Anita Ekberg and Bettie Page are also added to the list of catalysts besides Mansfield and Monroe . Drawing on the Freudian concept of fetishism , British science fiction writer and socio @-@ cultural commentator J. G. Ballard commented that Mae West , Mansfield and Monroe 's breasts " loomed across the horizon of popular consciousness . "
Only Hearts founder and head designer Helena Stuart commented , " She was the first one that was really that big . Without the bra , it wouldn 't have worked . There was a whole lot there to be held in and pushed up . " It has been claimed that her bosom was a major force behind the development of the 1950s brassieres , including the " Whirlpool bra " , Cuties , the " Shutter bra " , the " Action bra " , latex pads , cleavage revealing designs and uplift outline .
In the short story by Graham Greene , May we borrow your husband ? , a character comments on her breasts as , " Everybody could grow them big except me . I am no Jayne Mansfield , I can tell you . " In the 2001 fiction and poetry collection of Zaffi Gousopoulos , The I. V. Lounge Reader , a character tries out lipsticks in Mansfield colors and lifting underwear to emphasize her femininity . " All women aspire to be Jayne Mansfield " , says a character in Drake Worthington 's 2002 book , St. Vincent 's Manhattan , while trying out a bra . In the Seinfeld episode " The Implant " Jerry quips " you know that Jayne Mansfield had some big breasts ! " to girlfriend Sidra ( Teri Hatcher ) as he tries to figure out if her breasts are in fact real . Mansfield Domes are the unofficial names of two prominent granite mounds located in Yosemite National Park . In Toni Morrison 's Beloved a character comments " Yeah , while I 'm nursing . I feel like Jayne Mansfield " when her son comments on how big her breasts are .
Mansfield 's derrière is also repeatedly referred to in popular culture . On an episode of Gilmore Girls , Lorelai goes fishing with Alex . She catches a fish , brings it home and names it Jayne Mansfield because she had a " great tail switch . " In a sketch entitled The Worst Job I Ever ' Ad in the 1976 LP Derek and Clive Live by comedians Peter Cook and Dudley Moore , known as Derek and Clive , Clive ( Cook ) had the terrible job of retrieving lobsters from Mansfield 's derrière . In The Broom of the System , a novel by David Foster Wallace , much of the story happens in East Corinth , a Cleveland suburb designed to look like Mansfield 's curves from a bird 's eye view .
= = Musical inspiration = =
Mansfield became an inspiration for musicians in the punk rock genre . The Mansfields , a punk band , who take their name from the actress , released titles " Jayne 's Laugh " and " Jayne Mansfield Was A Punk " . St. Jayne , a punk band from Cleveland , Ohio was also named after her . Another band of the genre called itself Jane Mansfield 's Head in 1980s . In 1989 , the band L.A. Guns released " The Ballad of Jayne " and the next year the cyberpunk band Sigue Sigue Sputnik released " Hey Jane Mansfield Superstar ! " . Masons , punk band form Tucson , Arizona , toured in 2000 playing three songs dedicated to her — " Bombshell , " " Crash My Car " and " The Witch . " The Motors , a British pub rock / punk band , had their billboard campaign I lost my head over The Motors , which featured a picture of Jayne Mansfield , banned . German punk band The Bates has recorded a tune called " The Lips of Jayne Mansfield , " featured in the 1990 album Shake . The Dave Brothers , a punk rock band in the late 1990s had a Sunday show on radio station KRCL ( 106 FM , later taken over by KCGL ) called the Church of Jayne Mansfield and distributed her posters for promotion . The Village Voice , a newspaper , compared punk pornographer Bruce LaBruce to Mansfield . Marc Bolan , one of the most influential artists of glam rock that spawned the punk , compared the demise of Elvis Presley to Jayne Mansfield . The Japanese female garage punk band The 5 @.@ 6 @.@ 7 @.@ 8 's wrote a song titled " I Walk Like Jayne Mansfield , " which is featured in the movie Kill Bill Vol . 1 , directed by Quentin Tarantino . Katy Rose mentions Mansfield in her song " Overdrive . "
The alternative rock band Siouxsie and the Banshees picked the title of Billboard Top 100 hit single " Kiss Them for Me " ( included in their 1991 's album Superstition ) from Mansfield 's 1957 film Kiss Them for Me . Lyrics of the song uses Mansfield 's catchword " divoon " , and refers to her heart @-@ shaped swimming pool , her love of champagne and parties , and to the grisly automobile accident which claimed her life in 1967 . In Grok , a novel by Tom Maremaa , a character plays the CD and asks , " Yes , kiss them for me — I may be delayed . " Too Hot To Handle , the UFO song considered to one of the top 500 heavy metal songs , takes its title from a Jayne Mansfield film . Mansfield is also alluded in the song " The Actor " by Robbie Williams , from the album " Rudebox " . Alternative rock band The Chills released " 16 Heartthrobs " as a memorial to Mansfield .
= = Magazines = =
The magazine that ignited her career , Playboy , featured her on numerous issues . It has been conjectured that Playboy was a pioneer in starting an American " breast fetish " which has exaggerated the importance of large breasts , in which both Jayne Mansfield and Marilyn Monroe , featured in the early issues of the magazine , played significant roles . Playboy ' pictorials of Mansfield and Monroe were part of the emerging trend that gave birth to the large @-@ breasted feminine ideal and men 's magazines including Rogue , Nugget and Dude . Numerous other magazines featured her on the cover . These include : Hollywood Studio Magazine : Then And Now ( May 1987 , Volume 20 , No. 5 . ) , Life Magazine ( April 23 , 1956 ) , Modern Man : The Adult Picture Magazine ( March 1966 ) , Photo @-@ Rama Magazine ( Volume 6 , No. 16 ) and Playboy ( June 1963 ) .
= = Poems = =
The poem " Elegy for Jayne Mansfield , July 1967 " , by Karen Lindsey , was included in the feminist anthology Sisterhood is Powerful : An Anthology of Writings From The Women 's Liberation Movement , edited by Robin Morgan .
= = Playboy = =
She posed nude for the February 1955 issue of Playboy , an event that helped launch Mansfield 's career and increased the magazine 's circulation ; Playboy had begun publishing from publisher – editor Hugh Hefner 's kitchen the year before . In 1964 , the magazine repeated the pictorial . Photos from that pictorial was reprinted in a number of Playboy issues , including : December 1965 ( " The Playboy Portfolio of Sex Stars " ) , January 1979 ( " 25 Beautiful Years " ) , January 1984 ( " 30 Memorable Years " ) , January 1989 ( " Women Of The Fifties " ) , January 1994 ( " Remember Jayne " ) , November 1996 ( " Playboy Gallery " ) , August 1999 ( " Playboy 's Sex Stars of the Century " ; Special edition ) , and January 2000 ( " Centerfolds Of The Century " ) . In the Lee Siegel novel Who Wrote the Book of Love ? , the character Lucky Lee turns the issue of Playboy into a bribe to meet a girl .
It was 1963 when , unexpectedly , Hugh Hefner noticed photographs Bill Kobrin took of Jayne Mansfield and asked him to shoot her centerfold for Playboy . In June that year , her naked pictures from the set of the film Promises ! Promises ! in a series of photographs published in a Playboy pictorial ( titled The Nudest Jayne Mansfield ) . The pictorial was printed with a description that went , " enjoying the luxuries of a bubble bath and a double bed " . It included pictures that shows Mansfield staring at her breast , as does T.C. Jones ( Babbette , a female impersonator hair stylist ) , then grasping it in her hand and lifting it high . That issue of the magazine was banned , and Hugh Hefner , the publisher , was arrested by Chicago Police , in June 1963 , the only time in his life The trial resulted in a hung jury that voted 7 to 5 for acquittal . Copies of the issue reportedly sold for as much as $ 10 each . Since that Jayne Mansfield fiasco , Playboy was scrutinized by the Customs Department issue @-@ by @-@ issue until 1967 , and they found 51 issues out of 51 objectionable . The heavy publicity of Promises ! Promises ! in the July 1963 issue of Playboy and advanced blurbs on Playboy put Mansfield 's name out as a major box office draw , though reviews of the film were next to disastrous .
Playboy issues featuring Mansfield include February 1955 ( Playmate of the Month ) , February 1956 , February 1957 , February 1958 , December 1958 , February 1960 ( The best of Jayne Mansfield ) , June 1963 ( the issue that had Hugh Hefner arrested ) , Annual 1964 ( first issue of The best of Playboy ) , December 1965 , Newsstand Special 1989 ( 100 Beautiful Women ) , January 1994 and Newsstand Special 1999 ( 45th Anniversary Special ) , as well as the Playboy calendar in 1959 . In the February 1958 issue of the magazine the pictorial titled " The nude Jayne Mansfield " included pictures of a teen @-@ age , brunette Jayne posing nude for an art class and her pictures with Sophia Loren .
= = Biographies = =
In 1980 , a TV film was made on her life — The Jayne Mansfield Story — which was nominated for three Emmy Awards in the categories for hair , makeup and costume . In the film directed by Dick Lowry , Mansfield is played by Loni Anderson and her husband Mickey Hargitay is played by Arnold Schwarzenegger . She was featured in the A & E Television Networks TV series Biography in an episode titled Jayne Mansfield : Blonde Ambition . The TV series won an Emmy Award in outstanding non @-@ fiction TV series category in 2001 . A & E again featured her life in another TV serial titled Dangerous Curves in 1999 . In 1988 , her story and archival footage was a part of TV documentary Hollywood Sex Symbols . The first film documentary on her , The Wild , Wild World of Jayne Mansfield , started with herself working in the film , but it was finished in 1968 after her death and had to make use of archival footage . Fans of trash documentaries made a cult out of this film .
Numerous books has been written on her life and career . These include : Jayne Mansfield ( May Mann ; Pocket ; 1974 ) , Jayne Mansfield : A biography ( May Mann ; Abelard @-@ Schuman ; 1974 ) , The tragic secret life of Jayne Mansfield ( Raymond Strait ; Regnery ; 1974 ) , Jayne Mansfield and the American fifties ( Martha Saxton ; Houghton Mifflin ; 1975 ) , Jayne Mansfield ( Jean @-@ Pierre Jackson ; Edilig ; 1984 ) , Sexbomb : The Life and Death of Jayne Mansfield ( Guus Luitjters , Gerard Timmer ; Citadel ; 1988 ) , Here They Are Jayne Mansfield ( Raymond Strait , S.P.I. Books ; 1992 ) , Jayne Mansfield Vs . Mamie Van Doren : Battle of the Blondes ( A Pictorial History ) ( Alan Betrock ; Shake Books ; 1993 ) , Jayne Mansfield : A Bio @-@ Bibliography ( Jocelyn Faris ; Greenwood Press ; 1994 ) , Man Enough to Be Woman ( Jayne County , Rupert Smith ; Serpent 's Tail ; 1996 ) , Sex Lives of the Hollywood Goddesses 2 ( Nigel Cawthorne ; Prion ; 2004 ) , Diamonds to Dust : The Life and Death of Jayne Mansfield ( Frank Ferruccio ; Outskirts Press ; 2007 , and Did Success Spoil Jayne Mansfield ? : Her Life in Pictures & Text ( Frank Ferruccio ; Outskirts Press ; 2010 ) .
There are currently plans to make a new film of Mansfield 's life , although little progress has been made . Over the years several directors including Gus Van Sant , Brian DePalma and Catherine Hardwicke have expressed interest in making a biopic of Mansfield . Universal is apparently planning a film and reportedly has a list of actresses and models being considered to play Mansfield , including Ashley Benson , Sienna Miller , Holly Madison , Kate Upton , Kelly Rohrbach , Marisa Miller , Dakota Blue Richards , Hailey Clauson , Holly Willoughby and Charlotte McKinney .
= = Documentary appearance = =
After Mansfield 's death , the documentary The Wild , Wild World of Jayne Mansfield ( 1968 ) included nude scenes from the film and pages from the Playboy pictorial , along with scenes from her other films including Too Hot to Handle ( 1960 ) , The Loves of Hercules ( 1960 ) and L 'Amore Primitivo ( 1964 ) . Promises ! Promises ! was presented for the first time on television in its uncut form in 1984 on the Playboy Channel . A VHS release soon followed but was only briefly in print . On February 14 , 2006 , VCI Video released the film on DVD with extras such as original trailers and a gallery of stills from the Playboy issue along with never before released lobby cards .
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= The Interview ( 2014 film ) =
The Interview is a 2014 American political satire comedy film directed by Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg . It is their second directorial work , following This Is the End ( 2013 ) . The screenplay is by Dan Sterling , based upon a story he co @-@ authored with Rogen and Goldberg . The film stars Rogen and James Franco as journalists who set up an interview with North Korean leader Kim Jong @-@ un ( Randall Park ) , and are recruited by the CIA to assassinate him .
Rogen and Goldberg developed the idea for The Interview in the late 2000s , with Kim Jong @-@ il as the original assassination target . In 2011 , after Jong @-@ il 's death , Jong @-@ un replaced him as the North Korean leader . Rogen and Goldberg re @-@ developed the script with the focus on Jong @-@ un 's character . The announcement for the film was made in March 2013 , along with the beginning of pre @-@ production . Principal photography took place in Vancouver from October to December 2013 .
In June 2014 , the North Korean government threatened action against the United States if Columbia Pictures released the film . Columbia delayed the release from October to December , and reportedly re @-@ edited the film to make it more acceptable to North Korea . In November , the computer systems of parent company Sony Pictures Entertainment were hacked by the " Guardians of Peace " , a group the FBI claims has ties to North Korea . The group also threatened terrorist attacks against cinemas that showed the film . Major cinema chains opted not to release the film , leading Sony to release it for online rental and purchase on December 24 , 2014 , followed by a limited release at select cinemas the next day .
The Interview grossed $ 40 million in digital rentals , making it Sony 's most successful digital release , and earned an additional $ 11 @.@ 2 million worldwide at the box office on a $ 44 million budget . It received mixed reviews for its humor and subject matter , although critics praised the performances of Rogen , Franco , Park and Diana Bang .
= = Plot = =
Dave Skylark , host of the talk show Skylark Tonight , interviews celebrities about personal topics and gossip . After Dave and his crew celebrate their 1,000th episode , Aaron Rapaport , the show 's producer , is upset by a person from the same business , criticizing Skylark Tonight as not being a real news program as it only covers entertainment and gossips . A while later Aaron reveals his concern and urge for change , which Dave agrees . Dave discovers that North Korean leader Kim Jong @-@ un is a fan of Skylark Tonight , prompting Aaron to arrange an interview . Aaron travels to rural China to receive instructions from Sook @-@ yin Park , the North Korean chief propagandist , and Aaron accepts the task of interviewing Kim , on behalf of Dave .
The next day , CIA Agent Lacey shows up at Dave and Aaron 's place , proposing that Dave and Aaron assassinate Kim using a transdermal strip that will expose Kim to ricin via handshake ; they reluctantly agree . Dave carries the Ricin Strip hidden inside a pack of gum . Upon their arrival in the presidential palace in Pyongyang , they are introduced to security officers Koh and Yu ; Koh discovers the ricin strip and chews it , believing it to be gum . Lacey airdrops two more strips from a UAV and Aaron smuggles them into the palace by hiding the container in his rectum , escaping a Siberian tiger in the process .
Dave spends the day with Kim , playing basketball and partying . Kim persuades Dave that he is misunderstood as a cruel dictator and as a failed administrator , and they become friends . At dinner , Koh has a seizure and inadvertently kills Yu before dying . The next morning , Dave feels guilty and discards one of the ricin strips , then thwarts Aaron 's attempt to poison Kim with the second strip . After a dinner mourning the death of Kim 's bodyguards , Dave witnesses Kim 's malicious side ; and after taking a walk and discovering that a nearby grocery store is merely a façade , Dave realizes that Kim has been lying to him .
At the same time , during attempted sex with Aaron , who still has the ricin band in his hand , Sook @-@ yin reveals that she despises Kim and apologizes for defending the regime . Dave , Aaron , and Sook @-@ yin form a plan to break Kim 's cult of personality by causing him to cry on air . During the internationally televised interview with Kim , Dave addresses increasingly sensitive topics and challenges Kim 's need for his father 's approval . Despite his initial resistance , Kim eventually cries uncontrollably and soils himself after Dave sings " Firework " ( having learned of Kim 's fondness of Katy Perry earlier ) , ruining his reputation . Sook @-@ yin and Aaron seize control of the broadcasting center and fend off guards trying to halt the broadcast .
Kim shoots Dave , who survives due to a bulletproof vest under his shirt . Dave , Aaron , and Sook @-@ yin regroup and escape the presidential palace , hijacking Kim 's Soviet tank to get to their pickup point . Kim boards a helicopter and pursues the group with the military . He prepares nuclear missiles , but before he can issue the command to launch , Dave fires a shell from the tank and destroys Kim 's helicopter , killing everyone on board . With the immediate threat over , Sook guides Dave and Aaron to an escape route , and they are rescued by SEAL Team Six members disguised as Korean People 's Army troops . Back in the US , Dave writes a book about his experience , and North Korea moves toward becoming a denuclearized democracy with Sook @-@ yin as interim leader .
= = Cast = =
Seth Rogen as Aaron Rapaport
James Franco as Dave Skylark
Lizzy Caplan as Agent Lacey
Randall Park as Kim Jong @-@ un
Diana Bang as Sook @-@ yin Park
Timothy Simons as Malcolm
Reese Alexander as Agent Botwin
Anders Holm as Jake
James Yi as Officer Koh
Paul Bae as Officer Yu
Geoff Gustafson as Cole
Charles Rahi Chun as General Jong
The film also features cameos from Eminem , Rob Lowe , Bill Maher , Seth Meyers , Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt , Ben Schwartz , Brian Williams , and Scott Pelley . Iggy Azalea , Nicki Minaj , Emma Stone , Zac Efron , and Guy Fieri appear in the title graphic for Skylark Tonight .
In November 2014 , following a cyber @-@ attack that stole and leaked company information , it was revealed that Rogen and Franco were reported to have been paid $ 8 @.@ 4 million and $ 6 @.@ 5 million respectively from the $ 44 million budgeted film . Hackers also revealed that Kevin Federline was paid $ 5 @,@ 000 for a cameo appearance . According to documents , Jay @-@ Z and Beyoncé were reportedly paid $ 10 @,@ 000 each to cameo , but do not appear in the film .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg developed the idea for The Interview in late 2000 , joking about what would happen if a journalist was required to assassinate a world leader . Initially , screenwriter Dan Sterling wrote his script based on a fake dictator from a fake country , but Rogen , Goldberg , and Sony executives asked him to rewrite the script focusing on Jong @-@ un . The screenplay was then titled Kill Kim Jong Un . They picked North Korea leader Kim Jong @-@ il , but put the project on hold until Jong @-@ il died and his son Kim Jong @-@ un assumed power in 2011 . Development resumed when Rogen and Goldberg realized that Jong @-@ un is closer to their own age , which they felt would be more humorous . To write the story , co @-@ written with Daily Show writer Dan Sterling , they researched meticulously by reading non @-@ fiction books and watching video footage about North Korea . The script was later reviewed by an employee in the State Department . Rogen and Goldberg aimed to make the project more relevant and satirical than their previous films while retaining toilet humor . They were pleased when former NBA star Dennis Rodman visited North Korea , as it reinforced their belief that the premise of the film was realistic .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
In March 2013 , it was announced that Rogen and Goldberg would direct a comedy film for Columbia Pictures in which Rogen would star alongside James Franco , with Franco playing a talk @-@ show host and Rogen playing his producer . Rogen and Goldberg were on board to produce along with James Weaver through Point Grey Pictures , while Columbia was said to finance the $ 30 million budgeted film . Lizzy Caplan joined the film 's cast in October 2013 . Caplan signed on to play Agent Lacey , a CIA agent who tries to get Franco 's character to assassinate the Korean prime minister . Randall Park and Timothy Simons signed on to co @-@ star later that month . Park plays the North Korean prime minister Kim Jong @-@ Un and Simons the director of the talk show . Park was the first to audition for the role of Kim and got the part immediately . Before filming began , Park gained 15 pounds and shaved his head to resemble Jong @-@ un 's crew cut . His role was praised by critics . Although Rogen and Goldberg wrote the character of Kim as " robotic and strict " , Park instead played it " sheepish and shy " , which they found more humorous . Diana Bang was cast as Sook @-@ yin Park , for which she was well received by critics .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography on the film began in Vancouver , British Columbia , on October 10 , 2013 , and concluded on December 20 , 2013 . There are hundreds of visual effects in the film ; a crowd scene at the Pyongyang airport , for example , was digitally manipulated with a shot from 22 Jump Street .
= = Pre @-@ release reaction = =
In June 2014 , The Guardian reported that the film had " touched a nerve " within the North Korean government , as they are " notoriously paranoid about perceived threats to their safety . " The Korean Central News Agency ( KCNA ) , the state news agency of North Korea , reported that their government promised " stern " and " merciless " retaliation if the film was released . KCNA said that the release of a film portraying the assassination of the North Korean leader would not be allowed and it would be considered the " most blatant act of terrorism and war . " The next month , North Korea 's United Nations ambassador Ja Song @-@ nam condemned the film , describing its production and distribution as " an act of war " and because of Kim 's assassination in the film , " the most undisguised sponsoring of terrorism " . The Guardian described Song @-@ nam 's comments as " perfect publicity for the movie . " Later in July , KCNA wrote to U.S. President Barack Obama , asking to have the film pulled . Shortly before the planned release of the film on December 25 , 2014 , screenwriter Dan Sterling told Creative Screenwriting : " I couldn 't believe that the most infamous man in the world knew about my script – but most importantly , I would never want something I wrote to lead to some kind of humanitarian disaster . I would be horrified if anyone got hurt over this . "
= = Release = =
= = = Delay and changes = = =
In August 2014 , Sony delayed the film 's release from October 10 to December 25 , 2014 . Sony made post @-@ production alterations to the film to modify its portrayal of North Korea , including modifying the designs of buttons worn by characters , originally modeled after real North Korean military buttons praising the country 's leaders , and cutting a portion of Kim Jong @-@ un 's death scene .
= = = Sony Pictures Entertainment hack and threats = = =
On November 24 , 2014 , an anonymous group identifying themselves as the " Guardians of Peace " hacked the computer networks of Columbia Pictures ' parent company Sony Pictures Entertainment . The hackers leaked internal emails , employee records and several recent and unreleased Sony Pictures films , including Annie , Mr. Turner , Still Alice , and To Write Love on Her Arms . The North Korean government denied involvement in the hack . On December 8 , the hackers leaked further materials , including a demand that Sony pull " the movie of terrorism " , widely interpreted as referring to The Interview .
On December 16 , 2014 , the hackers issued a warning to movie @-@ goers , threatening to attack the New York premiere of The Interview and any other cinema showing it on its theatrical release . Two further messages , allegedly from the Guardians of Peace , were released on December 18 . One , sent in a private message to Sony executives , said that the hackers would not release further information if Sony never releases the film and removed its presence from the internet . The other , posted to Pastebin , a web application used for text storage which the Guardians of Peace had used for previous messages , stated that Sony had " suffered enough " and could release The Interview , but only if Kim Jong @-@ un 's death scene was not " too happy " . The message also threatened that if Sony made another film antagonizing North Korea , the hackers " will be here ready to fight " .
= = = Distribution = = =
Rogen predicted that the film would make its way to North Korea , stating that " we were told one of the reasons they 're so against the movie is that they 're afraid it 'll actually get into North Korea . They do have bootlegs and stuff . Maybe the tapes will make their way to North Korea and cause a revolution . " Business Insider reported via Free North Korea Radio that there was high demand for bootleg copies of the film in North Korea . The South Korean human rights organizations Fighters for a Free North Korea and Human Rights Foundation , largely made up of North Korean defectors , planned to distribute DVD copies of The Interview via balloon drops . The groups had previously air @-@ dropped offline copies of the Korean Wikipedia into North Korea on a bootable USB memory device . The balloon drop was postponed after the North Korean government referred to the plan as a de facto " declaration of war . "
On December 10 , Sony Pictures Entertainment Japan announced that the film would not be released in Japan as live @-@ action comedy films do not often perform well in the market ; in the Asia @-@ Pacific region , the film would be released only in Australia and New Zealand .
= = = Cancellation of wide theatrical release = = =
The premiere was held in Los Angeles on December 11 , 2014 . The film scheduled a wide release in the UK and Ireland on February 6 , 2015 . Following the hackers ' threats on December 16 , Rogen and Franco canceled scheduled publicity appearances and Sony pulled all television advertising . The National Association of Theater Owners said that they would not object to cinema owners delaying the film to ensure the safety of movie @-@ goers . Shortly afterwards , the ArcLight and Carmike cinema chains announced that they would not screen the film .
On December 17 , Sony canceled the New York City premiere . Later that day , other major theater chains including AMC , Cinemark , Cineplex , Regal and Southern Theatres either delayed or canceled screenings of the film . The chains reportedly came under pressure from the malls where many theaters are located , which feared that the terror threat would harm their holiday sales . They also feared expensive lawsuits in the event of an attack ; Cinemark , for instance , contended that it could not have foreseen the 2012 Aurora shooting , which took place at one of its multiplexes , a defense that would not hold in the event of an attack at a screening of The Interview .
The cancellation affected other films portraying North Korea . An Alamo Drafthouse Cinema location in Dallas planned to hold a free screening of Team America : World Police , which satirizes Kim Jong @-@ un 's father Kim Jong @-@ il , in place of its previously scheduled screening of The Interview ; Paramount Pictures refused to permit the screening . New Regency pulled out of a planned film adaptation of the graphic novel Pyongyang starring Steve Carell ; Carell declared it a " sad day for creative expression " .
Sony received criticism for canceling the wide release . Guardian film critic Peter Bradshaw wrote that it was an " unprecedented defeat on American turf " , but that " North Korea will find that their bullying edict will haunt them . " In the Capital and Gizmodo suggested the cancellation caused a Streisand effect , whereby the attempt to remove or censor a work has the unintended consequence of publicizing it more widely . In a press conference , U.S. President Barack Obama said that though he was sympathetic to Sony 's need to protect employees , he thought Sony had " made a mistake . We cannot have a society in which some dictator in some place can start imposing censorship in the United States . I wish they 'd spoken to me first . I would have told them : do not get into the pattern in which you are intimidated . "
According to Sony Pictures Entertainment CEO Michael Lynton , the cancellation of the wide release was a response to the refusal of cinema chains to screen the film , not the hackers ' threats , and that Sony would seek other ways to distribute the film . Sony released a statement saying that the company " is and always has been strongly committed to the First Amendment ... Free expression should never be suppressed by threats and extortion . "
= = = Revised release = = =
After the wide release cancellation , Sony considered other ways to release the film , citing pressure from the film industry , theater owners , and the White House . On NBC 's Meet the Press on December 21 , Sony 's legal counsel David Boies noted that the company was still committed to releasing the movie . Sony planned a limited release for December 25 , 2014 , at more than three hundred American independent and arthouse cinemas . Lynton stated that Sony was trying to show the film to the largest audience by securing as many theaters as they could .
Sony released The Interview for rental or purchase in the United States through the streaming services Google Play , Xbox Video , and YouTube on December 24 , 2014 . It was also available for a limited time on SeeTheInterview.com , a website operated by the stealth startup Kernel.com , which Sony previously worked with to market The Fifth Wave . Within hours , The Interview spread to file sharing websites after a security hole allowed people to download rather than stream the movie . TorrentFreak estimated that The Interview had been downloaded illegally via torrents at least 1 @.@ 5 million times in just two days . On December 27 , the North Korean National Defence Commission released a statement accusing President Obama of forcing Sony to distribute the film . The film was released on iTunes on December 28 .
In the first week of January 2015 , Sony announced The Interview would receive a wide theatrical release in the United Kingdom and Ireland on February 6 , but it would not be distributed digitally in the UK . The film became available for streaming on Netflix on January 24 .
= = = Home media = = =
Sony released the film on Blu @-@ ray Disc and DVD on February 17 , 2015 . The home release was packaged as the " Freedom Edition " , and included 90 minutes of deleted scenes , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurettes , a blooper reel , feature commentary with directors Rogen and Goldberg , and a special episode of Naked and Afraid featuring Rogen and Franco . As of July 21 , 2015 , the film had earned over $ 6 @.@ 7 million in sales in the US .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office and online rentals = = =
The Interview opened to a limited release in the United States on December 25 , 2014 , across 331 theaters and earned over $ 1 million on its opening day . Variety called the opening gross " an impressive launch for a title playing in only about 300 independent theaters in the U.S. " It went on to earn over $ 1 @.@ 8 million in its opening weekend , and by the end of its run on January 25 , 2015 , had grossed $ 6 @.@ 1 million at the box office .
Within four days of its online release on December 24 , 2014 , The Interview earned over $ 15 million through online rentals and purchases . It became Sony Pictures ' highest @-@ grossing online release , outselling Arbitrage ( $ 14 million ) , Bachelorette ( $ 8 @.@ 2 million ) , and Snowpiercer ( $ 7 million ) . It is the top @-@ selling Google Play and YouTube film of 2014 . By January 20 , 2015 , the film had earned more than $ 40 million from online sales and rentals .
Sony expected The Interview to break even through video @-@ on @-@ demand sales and saving millions of dollars on marketing . The National Association of Theater Owners contended that Sony would lose at least $ 30 million due to poor box office performance .
= = = Critical response = = =
On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes , the film holds a 52 % approval rating , based on 132 reviews , with an average rating of 5 @.@ 6 / 10 . The site 's consensus reads : " Unfortunately overshadowed by controversy ( and under @-@ screened as a result ) , The Interview 's screenplay offers middling laughs bolstered by its two likable leads . " On Metacritic , the film has a score of 52 out of 100 , based on 33 critics , indicating " mixed or average reviews " .
IGN 's Roth Cornet wrote that " though it 's unlikely to stand out as one of the shrewdest political satires of its time , [ it ] is a clever , unrestrained and — most importantly — sidesplitting parody that pokes fun at both a vapid media and one of the world 's most dangerous dictators . " Edward Douglas of ComingSoon.net said the film was " hilarious , but it will probably get us nuked " . Jordan Hoffman of The Guardian gave the film three out of five stars and wrote that " if this unessential but agreeable movie really triggered an international response , this is life reflecting art in a major way . "
Scott Foundas of Variety panned the film as " cinematic waterboarding " and " about as funny as a communist food shortage , and just as protracted " , but praised the performances of Randall Park and Diana Bang . Mike Hale of The New York Times also praised Park and Bang , but wrote that " after seeing The Interview and the ruckus its mere existence has caused , the only sensible reaction is amazement at the huge disconnect between the innocuousness of the film and the viciousness of the response . "
= = = Political response = = =
In the wake of the Sony Pictures Entertainment hack , leaks revealed e @-@ mails between Sony Pictures Entertainment CEO Michael Lynton and RAND Corporation defense analyst Bruce Bennett from June 2014 . Bennett advised against toning down The Interview 's graphic Jong @-@ un death scene , in the hope that it would " start some real thinking in South Korea and , I believe , in the North once the DVD leaks into the North " . Bennett expressed his view that " the only resolution I can see to the North Korean nuclear and other threats is for the North Korean government to eventually go away " , which he felt would be likeliest to occur following an assassination of Kim . Lynton replied that a senior figure in the United States Department of State agreed . Bennett responded that the office of Robert R. King , U.S. Special Envoy for North Korean Human Rights Issues , had determined that the North Korean statements had been " typical North Korean bullying , likely without follow @-@ up " .
In an interview with CNN , Bennett said Lynton sits on the board of trustees of the RAND Corporation , which had asked Bennett to talk to Lynton and give his opinion on the film . Bennett felt The Interview was " coarse " and " over the top " , but that " the depiction of Kim Jong @-@ un was a picture that needed to get into North Korea . There are a lot of people in prison camps in North Korea who need to take advantage of a change of thinking in the north . " Bennett felt that if the DVD were smuggled into the country it might have an effect " over time " . Bennett contacted the Special Envoy for North Korean Human Rights Issues , a personal friend of his , who " took the standard government approach : we don 't tell industry what to do " . Jen Psaki , a spokesperson for the United States Department of State , confirmed that Daniel R. Russel , the U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs , had spoken to Sony executives ; she reiterated that " entertainers are free to make movies of their choosing , and we are not involved in that " .
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= Strepsirrhini =
Strepsirrhini or Strepsirhini ( / ˌstrɛpsəˈraɪniː / ; STREP @-@ sə @-@ RY @-@ nee ) is a suborder of primates that includes the lemuriform primates , which consist of the lemurs of Madagascar , galagos ( " bushbabies " ) and pottos from Africa , and the lorises from India and southeast Asia . Also belonging to the suborder are the extinct adapiform primates , a diverse and widespread group that thrived during the Eocene ( 56 to 34 million years ago [ mya ] ) in Europe , North America , and Asia , but disappeared from most of the Northern Hemisphere as the climate cooled . The last of the adapiforms died out at the end of the Miocene ( ~ 7 mya ) . Adapiforms are sometimes referred to as being " lemur @-@ like " , although the diversity of both lemurs and adapiforms does not support this comparison . The two leading taxonomic classifications for the suborder divide living strepsirrhine primates into either two superfamilies ( Lemuroidea and Lorisoidea ) within the infraorder Lemuriformes or two infraorders , Lemuriformes and Lorisiformes . The suborder represents a related group , and replaced the widely used and now obsolete suborder Prosimii ( " prosimians " ) , which included strepsirrhines and tarsiers , a grouping based primarily on shared anatomical traits . Today , Strepsirrhini excludes the tarsiers , which are now grouped in the other major primate suborder , Haplorhini , along with the monkeys and apes ( simians or anthropoids ) . Strepsirrhines are often inappropriately referred to as " living fossils " . Instead , they have evolved for millions of years under natural selection , and have diversified to fill many ecological niches . Some of their traits may be derived from ancestral primates , while others are unique to strepsirrhines .
Strepsirrhines are defined by their wet nose or rhinarium . They also have a smaller brain than comparably sized simians , large olfactory lobes for smell , a vomeronasal organ to detect pheromones , and a bicornuate uterus with an epitheliochorial placenta . Their eyes contain a reflective layer to improve their night vision , and their eye sockets include a ring of bone around the eye , but they lack a wall of thin bone behind it . Strepsirrhine primates produce their own vitamin C , whereas haplorhine primates must obtain it from their diets . Lemuriform primates are characterized by a toothcomb , a specialized set of teeth in the front , lower part of the mouth mostly used for combing fur during grooming . Often , the toothcomb is incorrectly used to characterize all strepsirrhines . Instead , it is unique to lemuriforms and is not seen among adapiforms . Lemuriforms groom orally , and also possess a grooming claw on the second toe of each foot for scratching in areas that are inaccessible to the mouth and tongue . It is unclear whether adapiforms possessed grooming claws .
The taxonomy of strepsirrhines is controversial and has a complicated history . Confused taxonomic terminology and oversimplified anatomical comparisons have created misconceptions about primate and strepsirrhine phylogeny , illustrated by the media attention surrounding the single " Ida " fossil in 2009 . Strepsirrhines diverged from the haplorhine primates near the beginning of the primate radiation between 55 and 90 mya . Older divergence dates are based on genetic analysis estimates , while younger dates are based on the scarce fossil record . Lemuriform primates may have evolved from either cercamoniines or sivaladapids , both of which were adapiforms that may have originated in Asia . They were once thought to have evolved from adapids , a more specialized and younger branch of adapiform primarily from Europe . Lemurs rafted to Madagascar between 47 and 54 mya , whereas the lorises split from the African galagos around 40 mya and later colonized Asia . Both living and extinct strepsirrhines are behaviorally diverse , although all are primarily arboreal ( tree @-@ dwelling ) . Most living lemuriforms are nocturnal , while most extinct adapiforms were diurnal . Both living and extinct groups primarily fed on fruit , leaves , and insects . Many of today 's strepsirrhines are endangered due to habitat destruction , hunting for bushmeat , and live capture for the exotic pet trade .
= = Etymology = =
The taxonomic name Strepsirrhini derives from the Greek στρεψίς ( strepsis or " a turning [ inward ] ) " and ῥινός ( rhinos or " nose " ) , which refers to the appearance of the sinuous ( comma @-@ shaped ) nostrils on the rhinarium or wet nose . The name was first used by French naturalist Étienne Geoffroy Saint @-@ Hilaire in 1812 as a subordinal rank comparable to Platyrrhini ( New World monkeys ) and Catarrhini ( Old World monkeys ) . In his description , he mentioned " Les narines terminales et sinueuses " ( " Nostrils terminal and winding " ) .
When British zoologist Reginald Innes Pocock revived Strepsirrhini and defined Haplorhini in 1918 , he omitted the second " r " from both ( " Strepsirhini " and " Haplorhini " instead of " Strepsirrhini " and " Haplorrhini " ) , although he did not remove the second " r " from Platyrrhini or Catarrhini , both of which were also named by É . Geoffroy in 1812 . Following Pocock , many researchers continued to spell Strepsirrhini with a single " r " until primatologists Paulina Jenkins and Prue Napier pointed out the error in 1987 .
= = Evolutionary history = =
Strepsirrhines include the extinct adapiforms and the lemuriform primates , which include lemurs and lorisoids ( lorises , pottos , and galagos ) . The lemuriforms , and particularly the lemurs of Madagascar , are often portrayed inappropriately as " living fossils " or as examples of " basal " , or " inferior " primates . These views have historically hindered the understanding of mammalian evolution and the evolution of strepsirrhine traits , such as their reliance on smell ( olfaction ) , characteristics of their skeletal anatomy , and their brain size , which is relatively small . In the case of lemurs , natural selection has driven this isolated population of primates to diversify significantly and fill a rich variety of ecological niches , despite their smaller and less complex brains compared to simians .
The origin of the earliest primates , from which both the strepsirrhines and haplorhines ( simians and tarsiers ) evolved , is a mystery . Both their place of origin and the group from which they evolved are uncertain . Although the fossil record demonstrating their initial radiation across the Northern Hemisphere is very detailed , the fossil record from the tropics — where primates most likely evolved — is very poor , particularly around the time that primates and other major clades ( groups consisting of an ancestor and all its descendants ) of eutherian mammals were first appearing . Consequently , geneticists and primatologists have used genetic analyses to determine the relatedness between primate lineages and the amount of time since they diverged . Using this molecular clock , divergence dates for the major primate lineages have suggested that primates evolved more than 80 – 90 mya , nearly 40 million years before the first primates appear in the fossil record .
The early primates include both nocturnal and diurnal small @-@ bodied species , and all were arboreal , with hands and feet specially adapted for maneuvering on small branches . Plesiadapiforms from the early Paleocene are sometimes considered " archaic primates " because their teeth resembled those of early primates , and because they possessed arboreal adaptations , such as a divergent hallux ( big toe ) . Although plesiadapiforms were closely related to primates , they may represent a paraphyletic group from which primates may or may not have directly evolved , and some genera may have been more closely related to colugos , also known as dermopterans or " flying lemurs " , which are thought to be closely related to primates .
The first true primates ( euprimates ) do not appear in the fossil record until the early Eocene ( ~ 55 mya ) , at which point they radiated across the Northern Hemisphere during a brief period of rapid global warming known as the Paleocene – Eocene Thermal Maximum . These first primates included Cantius , Donrussellia , Altanius , and Teilhardina on the northern continents , as well as the more questionable ( and fragmentary ) fossil Altiatlasius from Paleocene Africa . These earliest fossil primates are often divided into two groups , adapiforms ( sometimes called adapids , or adapoids ) and omomyiforms ( or omomyids — suspected relatives of tarsiers ) . Both appeared suddenly in the fossil record without transitional forms to indicate ancestry , and both groups were rich in diversity and were widespread throughout the Eocene . Although few fossils of extant primate groups — lemuriforms , tarsiers , or simians — are known from the Early to Middle Eocene , evidence from genetics and newer fossil finds suggest they may have been present during this early adaptive radiation . The divergence between strepsirrhines , simians , and tarsiers likely followed almost immediately after primates first evolved .
= = = Adapiform evolution = = =
Adapiforms are extinct strepsirrhines that shared many anatomical similarities with lemuriforms . They are sometimes referred to as lemur @-@ like primates , although the diversity of both lemurs and adapiforms do not support this analogy . Like living strepsirrhines , adapiforms were extremely diverse , with at least 30 genera and 80 species known from the fossil record as of the early 2000s . They diversified across Laurasia during the Eocene , some reaching North America via a land bridge . They were among the most common mammals found in the fossil beds from that time . A few rare species have also been found in northern Africa . The most basal of the adapiforms include the genera Cantius from North America and Europe and Donrussellia from Europe . The latter bears the most ancestral traits , so it is often considered a sister group or stem group of the other adapiforms .
Adapiforms are often divided into three major groups :
Adapids were most commonly found in Europe , although the oldest specimens ( Adapoides from middle Eocene China ) indicate that they most likely evolved in Asia and immigrated . They died out in Europe during the Grande Coupure , part of a significant extinction event at the end of the Eocene .
Notharctids , which most closely resembled some of Madagascar 's lemurs , come from Europe and North America . The European branch is often referred to as cercamoniines . The North American branch thrived during the Eocene , but did not survive into the Oligocene . Like the adapids , the European branch were also extinct by the end of the Eocene .
Sivaladapids of southern and eastern Asia are best known from the Miocene , and the only adapiforms to survive past the Eocene / Oligocene boundary ( ~ 34 mya ) . Their relationship to the other adapiforms remains unclear . They had vanished before the end of the Miocene ( ~ 7 mya ) .
The relationship between adapiform and lemuriform primates has not been clearly demonstrated , so the position of adapiforms as a paraphyletic stem group is questionable . Both molecular clock data and new fossil finds suggest that the lemuriform divergence from the other primates and the subsequent lemur @-@ lorisoid split both predate the appearance of adapiforms in the early Eocene . Yet new calibration methods may reconcile the discrepancies between the molecular clock and the fossil record , favoring more recent divergence dates . The fossil record suggests that the strepsirrhine adapiforms and the haplorhine omomyiforms had been evolving independently before the early Eocene , although their most basal members share enough dental similarities to suggest that they diverged during the Paleocene ( 66 – 55 mya ) .
= = = Lemuriform evolution = = =
Lemuriform origins are unclear and debated . American paleontologist Philip Gingerich proposed that lemuriform primates evolved from one of several genera of European adapids based on similarities between the front lower teeth of adapids and the toothcomb of extant lemuriforms ; however , this view is not strongly supported due to a lack of clear transitional fossils . Instead , lemuriforms may be descended from a very early branch of Asian cercamoniines or sivaladapids that immigrated to northern Africa .
Until discoveries of three 40 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old fossil lorisoids ( Karanisia , Saharagalago , and Wadilemur ) in the El Fayum deposits of Egypt between 1997 and 2005 , the oldest known lemuriforms had come from the early Miocene ( ~ 20 mya ) of Kenya and Uganda . These newer finds demonstrate that lemuriform primates were present during the middle Eocene in Afro @-@ Arabia and that the lemuriform lineage and all other strepsirrhine taxa had diverged before then . Djebelemur from Tunisia dates to the late early or early middle Eocene ( 52 to 46 mya ) and has been considered a cercamoniine , but also may have been a stem lemuriform . Azibiids from Algeria date to roughly the same time and may be a sister group of the djebelemurids . Together with Plesiopithecus from the late Eocene Egypt , the three may qualify as the stem lemuriforms from Africa .
Molecular clock estimates indicate that lemurs and the lorisoids diverged in Africa during the Paleocene , approximately 62 mya . Between 47 and 54 mya , lemurs dispersed to Madagascar by rafting . In isolation , the lemurs diversified and filled the niches often filled by monkeys and apes today . In Africa , the lorises and galagos diverged during the Eocene , approximately 40 mya . Unlike the lemurs in Madagascar , they have had to compete with monkeys and apes , as well as other mammals .
= = Taxonomic classification = =
Strepsirrhine primates were first grouped under the genus Lemur by Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae published in 1758 . At the time , only three species were recognized , one of which ( the colugo ) is no longer recognized as a primate . In 1785 , Dutch naturalist Pieter Boddaert divided the genus Lemur into two genera : Prosimia for the lemurs , colugos , and tarsiers and Tardigradus for the lorises . Ten years later , É . Geoffroy and Georges Cuvier grouped the tarsiers and galagos due to similarities in their hindlimb morphology , a view supported by German zoologist Johann Karl Wilhelm Illiger , who placed them in the family Macrotarsi while placing the lemurs and tarsiers in the family Prosimia ( Prosimii ) in 1811 . The use of the tarsier @-@ galago classification continued for many years until 1898 , when Dutch zoologist Ambrosius Hubrecht demonstrated two different types of placentation ( formation of a placenta ) in the two groups .
English comparative anatomist William Henry Flower created the suborder Lemuroidea in 1883 to distinguish these primates from the simians , which were grouped under English biologist St. George Jackson Mivart 's suborder Anthropoidea ( = Simiiformes ) . According to Flower , the suborder Lemuroidea contained the families Lemuridae ( lemurs , lorises , and galagos ) , Chiromyidae ( aye @-@ aye ) , and Tarsiidae ( tarsiers ) . Lemuroidea was later replaced by Illiger 's suborder Prosimii . Many years earlier , in 1812 , É . Geoffroy first named the suborder Strepsirrhini , in which he included the tarsiers . This taxonomy went unnoticed until 1918 , when Pocock compared the structure of the nose and reinstated the use of the suborder Strepsirrhini , while also moving the tarsiers and the simians into a new suborder , Haplorhini . It was not until 1953 , when British anatomist William Charles Osman Hill wrote an entire volume on strepsirrhine anatomy , that Pocock 's taxonomic suggestion became noticed and more widely used . Since then , primate taxonomy has shifted between Strepsirrhini @-@ Haplorhini and Prosimii @-@ Anthropoidea multiple times .
Most of the academic literature provides a basic framework for primate taxonomy , usually including several potential taxonomic schemes . Although most experts agree upon phylogeny , many disagree about nearly every level of primate classification .
= = = Subordinal controversies = = =
The most commonly recurring debate in primatology during the 1970s , 1980s , and early 2000s concerned the phylogenetic position of tarsiers compared to both simians and the other prosimians . Tarsiers are most often placed in either the suborder Haplorhini with the simians or in the suborder Prosimii with the strepsirrhines . Prosimii is one of the two traditional primate suborders and is based on evolutionary grades ( groups united by anatomical traits ) rather than phylogenetic clades , while the Strepsirrhini @-@ Haplorrhini taxonomy was based on evolutionary relationships . Yet both systems persist because the Prosimii @-@ Anthropoidea taxonomy is familiar and frequently seen in the research literature and textbooks .
Strepsirrhines are traditionally characterized by several symplesiomorphic ( ancestral ) traits not shared with the simians , particularly the rhinarium . Other symplesiomorphies include long snouts , convoluted maxilloturbinals , relatively large olfactory bulbs , and smaller brains . The toothcomb is a synapomorphy ( shared , derived trait ) seen among lemuriforms , although it is frequently and incorrectly used to define the strepsirrhine clade . Strepsirrhine primates are also united in possessing an epitheliochorial placenta . Unlike the tarsiers and simians , strepsirrhines are capable of producing their own vitamin C and do not need it supplied in their diet . Further genetic evidence for the relationship between tarsiers and simians as a haplorhine clade is the shared possession of three SINE markers .
Because of their historically mixed assemblages which included tarsiers and close relatives of primates , both Prosimii and Strepsirrhini have been considered wastebasket taxa for " lower primates " . Regardless , the strepsirrhine and haplorrhine clades are generally accepted and viewed as the preferred taxonomic division . Yet , tarsiers still closely resemble both strepsirrhines and simians in different ways , and since the early split between strepsirrhines , tarsiers , and simians is ancient and hard to resolve , a third taxonomic arrangement with three suborders is sometimes used : Prosimii , Tarsiiformes , and Anthropoidea . More often , the term " prosimian " is no longer used in official taxonomy , but is still used to illustrate the behavioral ecology of tarsiers relative to the other primates .
In addition to the controversy over tarsiers , the debate over the origins of simians once called the strepsirrhine clade into question . Arguments for an evolutionary link between adapiforms and simians made by paleontologists Gingerich , Elwyn L. Simons , Tab Rasmussen , and others could have potentially excluded adapiforms from Strepsirrhini . In 1975 , Gingerich proposed a new suborder , Simiolemuriformes , to suggest that strepsirrhines are more closely related to simians than tarsiers . However , no clear relationship between the two had been demonstrated by the early 2000s . The idea reemerged briefly in 2009 during the media attention surrounding Darwinius masillae ( dubbed " Ida " ) , a cercamoniine from Germany that was touted as a " missing link between humans and earlier primates " ( simians and adapiforms ) . However , the cladistic analysis was flawed and the phylogenetic inferences and terminology were vague . Although the authors noted that Darwinius was not a " fossil lemur " , they did emphasize the absence of a toothcomb , which adapiforms did not possess .
= = = Infraordinal classification and clade terminology = = =
Within Strepsirrhini , two common classifications include either two infraorders ( Adapiformes and Lemuriformes ) or three infraorders ( Adapiformes , Lemuriformes , Lorisiformes ) . A less common taxonomy places the aye @-@ aye ( Daubentoniidae ) in its own infraorder , Chiromyiformes . In some cases , plesiadapiforms are included within the order Primates , in which case Euprimates is sometimes treated as a suborder , with Strepsirrhini becoming an infraorder , and the Lemuriformes and others become parvorders . Regardless of the infraordinal taxonomy , Strepsirrhini is composed of three ranked superfamilies and 14 families , seven of which are extinct . Three of these extinct families included the recently extinct giant lemurs of Madagascar , many of which died out within the last 1 @,@ 000 years following human arrival on the island .
When Strepsirrhini is divided into two infraorders , the clade containing all toothcombed primates can be called " lemuriforms " . When it is divided into three infraorders , the term " lemuriforms " refers only to Madagascar 's lemurs , and the toothcombed primates are referred to as either " crown strepsirrhines " or " extant strepsirrhines " . Confusion of this specific terminology with the general term " strepsirrhine " , along with oversimplified anatomical comparisons and vague phylogenetic inferences , can lead to misconceptions about primate phylogeny and misunderstandings about primates from the Eocene , as seen with the media coverage of Darwinius . Because the skeletons of adapiforms share strong similarities with those of lemurs and lorises , researchers have often referred to them as " primitive " strepsirrhines , lemur ancestors , or a sister group to the living strepsirrhines . They are included in Strepsirrhini , and are considered basal members of the clade . Although their status as true primates is not questioned , the questionable relationship between adapiforms and other living and fossil primates leads to multiple classifications within Strepsirrhini . Often , adapiforms are placed in their own infraorder due to anatomical differences with lemuriforms and their unclear relationship . When shared traits with lemuriforms ( which may or may not be synapomorphic ) are emphasized , they are sometimes reduced to families within the infraorder Lemuriformes ( or superfamily Lemuroidea ) .
The first fossil primate described was the adapiform Adapis parisiensis by French naturalist Georges Cuvier in 1821 , who compared it to a hyrax ( " le Daman " ) , then considered a member of a now obsolete group called pachyderms . It was not recognized as a primate until it was reevaluated in the early 1870s . Originally , adapiforms were all included under the family Adapidae , which was divided into two or three subfamilies : Adapinae , Notharctinae , and sometimes Sivaladapinae . All North American adapiforms were lumped under Notharctinae , while the Old World forms were usually assigned to Adapinae . Around the 1990s , two distinct groups of European " adapids " began to emerge , based on differences in the postcranial skeleton and the teeth . One of these two European forms was identified as cercamoniines , which were allied with the notharctids found mostly in North America , while the other group falls into the traditional adapid classification . The three major adapiform divisions are now typically regarded as three families within Adapiformes ( Notharctidae , Adapidae and Sivaladapidae ) , but other divisions ranging from one to five families are used as well .
= = Anatomy and physiology = =
All lemuriforms possess a specialized dental structure called a toothcomb , with the exception of the aye @-@ aye , in which the structure has been modified into two continually growing ( hypselodont ) incisors ( or canine teeth ) , similar to those of rodents . The toothcomb consists of either two or four procumbent lower incisors and procumbent lower canine teeth followed by a canine @-@ shaped premolar . It is used to comb the fur during oral grooming . Shed hairs that accumulate between the teeth of the toothcomb are removed by the sublingua or " under @-@ tongue " . Lemuriforms also possess a grooming claw on the second digit of each foot for scratching . Adapiforms did not possess a toothcomb . Instead , their lower incisors varied in orientation — from somewhat procumbent to somewhat vertical — and the lower canines were projected upwards and were often prominent . Adapiforms may have had a grooming claw , but there is little evidence of this .
Like all primates , strepsirrhine orbits ( eye sockets ) have a postorbital bar , a protective ring of bone created by a connection between the frontal and zygomatic bones . Both living and extinct strepsirrhines lack a thin wall of bone behind the eye , referred to as postorbital closure , which is only seen in haplorhine primates . Although the eyes of strepsirrhines point forward , giving stereoscopic vision , the orbits do not face fully forward . Among living strepsirrhines , most or all species are thought to possess a reflective layer behind the retina of the eye , called a tapetum lucidum , which improves vision in low light , but they lack a fovea , which improves day vision . This differs from tarsiers , which lack a tapetum lucidum but possess a fovea .
Strepsirrhine primates have a brain relatively comparable to or slightly larger in size than most mammals . Compared to simians , however , they have a relatively small brain @-@ to @-@ body size ratio . Strepsirrhines are also traditionally noted for their unfused mandibular symphysis ( two halves of the lower jaw ) , however , fusion of the mandibular symphysis was common in adapiforms , notably Notharctus . Also , several extinct giant lemurs exhibited a fused mandibular symphysis .
Many nocturnal species have large , independently movable ears , although there are significant differences in sizes and shapes of the ear between species . The structure of the middle and inner ear of strepsirrhines differs between the lemurs and lorisoids . In lemurs , the tympanic cavity , which surrounds the middle ear , is expanded . This leaves the ectotympanic ring , which supports the eardrum , free within the auditory bulla . This trait is also seen in adapiforms . In lorisoids , however , the tympanic cavity is smaller and the ectotympanic ring becomes attached to the edge of the auditory bulla . The tympanic cavity in lorisoids also has two accessory air spaces , which are not present in lemurs . Both lorisoids and cheirogaleid lemurs have replaced the internal carotid artery with an enlarged ascending pharyngeal artery . Strepsirrhines also possess distinctive features in their tarsus ( ankle bones ) that differentiate them from haplorhines , such as a sloping talo @-@ fibular facet ( the face where the talus bone and fibula meet ) and a difference in the location of the position of the flexor fibularis tendon on the talus . These differences give strepsirrhines the ability to make more complex rotations of the ankle and indicate that their feet are habitually inverted , or turned inward , an adaptation for grasping vertical supports .
Sexual dichromatism ( different coloration patterns between males and females ) can be seen in most brown lemur species , but otherwise lemurs show very little if any difference in body size or weight between sexes . This lack of sexual dimorphism is not characteristic of all strepsirrhines . Some adapiforms were sexually dimorphic , with males bearing a larger sagittal crest ( a ridge of bone on the top of the skull to which jaw muscles attach ) and canine teeth . Lorisoids exhibit some sexual dimorphism , but males are typically no more than 20 percent larger than females .
= = = Rhinarium and olfaction = = =
Strepsirrhines have a long snout that ends in a moist and touch @-@ sensitive rhinarium , similar to that of dogs and many other mammals . The rhinarium is surrounded by vibrissae that are also sensitive to touch . Convoluted maxilloturbinals on the inside of their nose filter , warm , and moisten the incoming air , while olfactory receptors of the main olfactory system lining the ethmoturbinals detect airborne smells . The olfactory bulbs of lemurs are comparable in size to those of other arboreal mammals .
The surface of the rhinarium does not have any olfactory receptors , so it is not used for smell in terms of detecting volatile substances . Instead , it has sensitive touch receptors ( Merkel cells ) . The rhinarium , upper lip , and gums are tightly connected by a fold of mucous membrane called the philtrum , which runs from the tip of the nose to the mouth . The upper lip is constrained by this connection and has fewer nerves to control movement , which leaves it less mobile than the upper lips of simians . The philtrum creates a gap ( diastema ) between the roots of the first two upper incisors .
The strepsirrhine rhinarium can collect relatively non @-@ volatile , fluid @-@ based chemicals ( traditionally categorized as pheromones ) and transmit them to the vomeronasal organ ( VNO ) , which is located below and in front of the nasal cavity , above the mouth . The VNO is an encased duct @-@ like structure made of cartilage and is isolated from the air passing through the nasal cavity . The VNO is connected to the mouth through nasopalatine ducts ( which communicate via the incisive foramen ) , which pass through the hard palate at the top , front of the mouth . Fluids traveling from the rhinarium to the mouth and then up the nasopalatine ducts to the VNO are detected , and information is relayed to the accessory olfactory bulb , which is relatively large in strepsirrhines . From the accessory olfactory bulb , information is sent to the amygdala , which handles emotions , and then to the hypothalamus , which handles basic body functions and metabolic processes . This neural pathway differs from that used by the main olfactory system .
All lemuriforms have a VNO , as do tarsiers and some New World monkeys . Adapiforms exhibit the gap between the upper incisors , which indicates the presence of a VNO , but there is some disagreement over whether or not they possessed a rhinarium .
= = = Reproductive physiology = = =
Extant strepsirrhines have an epitheliochorial placenta , where the maternal blood does not come in direct contact with the fetal chorion like it does in the hemochorial placenta of haplorhines . The strepsirrhine uterus has two distinct chambers ( bicornuate ) . Despite having similar gestation periods to comparably sized haplorhines , fetal growth rates are generally slower in strepsirrhines , which results in newborn offspring that are as little as one @-@ third the size of haplorhine newborns . Extant strepsirrhines also have a lower basal metabolic rate , which elevates in females during gestation , putting greater demands on the mother .
Most primates have two mammary glands , but the number and positions vary between species within strepsirrhines . Lorises have two pairs , while others , like the ring @-@ tailed lemur , have one pair on the chest ( pectoral ) . The aye @-@ aye also has two mammary glands , but they are located near the groin ( inguinal ) . In females , the clitoris is sometimes enlarged and pendulous , resembling the male penis , which can make gender identification difficult for human observers . The clitoris may also have a bony structure in it , similar to the baculum ( penis bone ) in males . Most male primates have a baculum , but it is typically larger in strepsirrhines and usually forked at the tip .
= = Behavior = =
Approximately three @-@ quarters of all extant strepsirrhine species are nocturnal , sleeping in nests made from dead leaves or tree hollows during the day . All of the lorisoids from continental Africa and Asia are nocturnal , a circumstance that minimizes their competition with the simian primates of the region , which are diurnal . The lemurs of Madagascar , living in the absence of simians , are more variable in their activity cycles . The aye @-@ aye , mouse lemurs , woolly lemurs , and sportive lemurs are nocturnal , while ring @-@ tailed lemurs and most of their kin , sifakas , and indri are diurnal . Yet some or all of the brown lemurs ( Eulemur ) are cathemeral , which means they may be active during the day or night , depending on factors such as temperature and predation . Many extant strepsirrhines are well adapted for nocturnal activity due to their relatively large eyes ; large , movable ears ; sensitive tactile hairs ; strong sense of smell ; and the tapetum lucidum behind the retina . Among the adapiforms , most are considered diurnal , with the exception of Pronycticebus and Godinotia from Middle Eocene Europe , both of which had large orbits that suggest nocturnality .
Reproduction in most strepsirrhine species tends to be seasonal , particularly in lemurs . Key factors that affect seasonal reproduction include the length of the wet season , subsequent food availability , and the maturation time of the species . Like other primates , strepsirrhines are relatively slow breeders compared to other mammals . Their gestation period and interbirth intervals are usually long , and the young develop slowly , just like in haplorhine primates . Unlike simians , some strepsirrhines produce two or three offspring , although some produce only a single offspring . Those that produce multiple offspring tend to build nests for their young . These two traits are thought to be plesiomorphic ( ancestral ) for primates . The young are precocial ( relatively mature and mobile ) at birth , but not as coordinated as ungulates ( hoofed mammals ) . Infant care by the mother is relatively prolonged compared to many other mammals , and in some cases , the infants cling to the mother 's fur with their hands and feet .
Despite their relatively smaller brains compared to other primates , lemurs have demonstrated levels of technical intelligence in problem solving that are comparable to those seen in simians . However , their social intelligence differs , often emphasizing within @-@ group competition over cooperation , which may be due to adaptations for their unpredictable environment . Although lemurs have not been observed using objects as tools in the wild , they can be trained to use objects as tools in captivity and demonstrate a basic understanding about the functional properties of the objects they are using .
= = = Social systems and communication = = =
The nocturnal strepsirrhines have been traditionally described as " solitary " , although this term is no longer favored by the researchers who study them . Many are considered " solitary foragers " , but many exhibit complex and diverse social organization , often overlapping home ranges , initiating social contact at night , and sharing sleeping sites during the day . Even the mating systems are variable , as seen in wooly lemurs , which live in monogamous breeding pairs . Because of this social diversity among these solitary but social primates , whose level of social interaction is comparable to that of diurnal simians , alternative classifications have been proposed to emphasize their gregarious , dispersed , or solitary nature .
Among extant strepsirrhines , only the diurnal and cathemeral lemurs have evolved to live in multi @-@ male / multi @-@ female groups , comparable to most living simians . This social trait , seen in two extant lemur families ( Indriidae and Lemuridae ) , is thought to have evolved independently . Group sizes are smaller in social lemurs than in simians , and despite the similarities , the community structures differ . Female dominance , which is rare in simians , is fairly common in lemurs . Strepsirrhines spend a considerable amount of time grooming each other ( allogrooming ) . When lemuriform primates groom , they lick the fur and then comb it with their toothcomb . They also use their grooming claw to scratch places they cannot reach with their mouth .
Like New World monkeys , strepsirrhines rely on scent marking for much of their communication . This involves smearing secretions from epidermal scent glands on tree branches , along with urine and feces . In some cases , strepsirrhines may anoint themselves with urine ( urine washing ) . Body postures and gestures may be used , although the long snout , non @-@ mobile lips , and reduced facial enervation restrict the use of facial expressions in strepsirrhines . Short @-@ range calls , long @-@ range calls , and alarm calls are also used . Nocturnal species are more constrained by the lack of light , so their communication systems differ from those of diurnal species , often using long @-@ range calls to claim their territory .
= = = Locomotion = = =
Living strepsirrhines are predominantly arboreal , with only the ring @-@ tailed lemur spending considerable time on the ground . Most species move around quadrupedally ( on four legs ) in the trees , including five genera of smaller , nocturnal lemurs . Galagos , indriids , sportive lemurs , and bamboo lemurs leap from vertical surfaces , and the indriids are highly specialized for vertical clinging and leaping . Lorises are slow @-@ moving , deliberate climbers .
Analyses of extinct adapiforms postcranial skeletons suggest a variety of locomotor behavior . The European adapids Adapis , Palaeolemur , and Leptadapis shared adaptations for slow climbing like the lorises , although they may have been quadrupedal runners like small New World monkeys . Both Notharctus and Smilodectes from North America and Europolemur from Europe exhibit limb proportions and joint surfaces comparable to vertical clinging and leaping lemurs , but were not as specialized as indriids for vertical clinging , suggesting that they ran along branches and did not leap as much . Notharctids Cantius and Pronycticebus appear to have been agile arboreal quadrupeds , with adaptations comparable to the brown lemurs .
= = = Diet = = =
Primates primarily feed on fruits ( including seeds ) , leaves ( including flowers ) , and animal prey ( arthropods , small vertebrates , and eggs ) . Diets vary markedly between strepsirrhine species . Like other leaf @-@ eating ( folivorous ) primates , some strepsirrhines can digest cellulose and hemicellulose . Some strepsirrhines , such as the galagos , slender lorises , and angwantibos are primarily insectivorous . Other species , such as fork @-@ marked lemurs and needle @-@ clawed bushbabies , specialize on tree gum , while indriids , sportive lemurs , and bamboo lemurs are folivores . Many strepsirrhines are frugivores ( fruit eaters ) , and others , like the ring @-@ tailed lemur and mouse lemurs , are omnivores , eating a mix of fruit , leaves , and animal matter .
Among the adapiforms , frugivory seems to have been the most common diet , particularly for medium @-@ sized to large species , such as Cantius , Pelycodus and Cercamonius . Folivory was also common among the medium and large @-@ sized adapiforms , including Smilodectes , Notharctus , Adapis and Leptadapis . Sharp cusps on the teeth of some of the smaller adapiforms , such as Anchomomys and Donrussellia , indicate that they were either partly or primarily insectivorous .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Before their extinction , adapiform primates were primarily found across North America , Asia , and Europe , with a few species in Africa . They flourished during the Eocene when those regions were more tropical in nature , and they disappeared when the climate became cooler and drier . Today , the lemuriforms are confined in the tropics , ranging between 28 ° S to 26 ° N latitude . Lorises are found both in equatorial Africa and Southeast Asia , while the galagos are limited to the forests and woodlands of sub @-@ Saharan Africa . Lemurs are endemic to Madagascar , although much of their diversity and habitat has been lost due to recent human activity .
As with nearly all primates , strepsirrhines typically reside in tropical rainforests . These habitats allow strepsirrhines and other primates to evolve diverse communities of sympatric species . In the eastern rainforests of Madagascar , as many as 11 or 12 species share the same forests , and prior to human arrival , some forests had nearly double that diversity . Several species of lemur are found in drier , seasonal forests , including the spiny forest on the southern tip of the island , although the lemur communities in these regions are not as rich .
= = Conservation = =
Like all other primates , strepsirrhines face an elevated risk of extinction due to human activity , particularly deforestation in tropical regions . Much of their habitat has been converted for human use , such as agriculture and pasture . The threats facing strepsirrhine primates fall into three main categories : habitat destruction , hunting ( for bushmeat or traditional medicine ) , and live capture for export or local exotic pet trade . Although hunting is often prohibited , the laws protecting them are rarely enforced . In Madagascar , local taboos known as fady sometimes help protect lemur species , although some are still hunted for traditional medicine .
In 2012 , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) announced that lemurs were the " most endangered mammals " , due largely to elevated illegal logging and hunting following a political crisis in 2009 . In Southeast Asia , slow lorises are threatened by the exotic pet trade and traditional medicine , in addition to habitat destruction . Both lemurs and slow lorises are protected from commercial international trade under CITES Appendix I.
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= Jews =
The Jews ( / dʒuːz / ; Hebrew : יְהוּדִים ISO 259 @-@ 3 Yehudim , Israeli pronunciation [ jehuˈdim ] ) , also known as the Jewish people , are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites , or Hebrews , of the Ancient Near East . Jewish ethnicity , nationhood and religion are strongly interrelated , as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation , while its observance varies from strict observance to complete nonobservance .
Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE , in the part of the Levant known as the Land of Israel . The Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel , associated with the god El , somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE ( Late Bronze Age ) . The Israelites , as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population , consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel , and the Kingdom of Judah . Some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as ' Hebrews ' . Though few sources in the Bible mention the exilic periods in detail , the experience of diaspora life , from the Ancient Egyptian rule over the Levant , to Assyrian Captivity and Exile , to Babylonian Captivity and Exile , to Seleucid Imperial rule , to the Roman occupation , and the historical relations between Israelites and their homeland , became a major feature of Jewish history , identity and memory .
The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16 @.@ 7 million prior to World War II , but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust . Since then the population has slowly risen again , and as of 2015 was estimated at 14 @.@ 3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank , or less than 0 @.@ 2 % of the total world population ( roughly one in every 514 people ) . According to the report , about 43 % of all Jews reside in Israel ( 6 @.@ 2 million ) , and 40 % in the United States ( 5 @.@ 7 million ) , with most of the remainder living in Europe ( 1 @.@ 4 million ) and Canada ( 0 @.@ 4 million ) . These numbers include all those who self @-@ identified as Jews in a socio @-@ demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household . The exact world Jewish population , however , is difficult to measure . In addition to issues with census methodology , disputes among proponents of halakhic , secular , political , and ancestral identification factors regarding who is a Jew may affect the figure considerably depending on the source . Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population . The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and Basic Laws . Its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it .
Despite their small percentage of the world 's population , Jews have significantly influenced and contributed to human progress in many fields , including philosophy , ethics , literature , business , fine arts and architecture , music , theatre and cinema , medicine , as well as science and technology , both historically and in modern times .
= = Name and etymology = =
The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw , Iewe . These terms derive from Old French giu , earlier juieu , which had elided ( dropped ) the letter " d " from the Medieval Latin Iudaeus , which , like the New Testament Greek term Ioudaios , meant both Jews and Judeans / " of Judea " .
The Greek term was originally a loan from Aramaic Y 'hūdāi , corresponding to Hebrew : יְהוּדִי , Yehudi ( sg . ) ; יְהוּדִים , Yehudim ( pl . ) , in origin the term for a member of the tribe of Judah or the people of the kingdom of Judah . According to the Hebrew Bible , the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah , the fourth son of Jacob .
The Hebrew word for Jew , יְהוּדִי ISO 259 @-@ 3 Yhudi , is pronounced [ jehuˈdi ] , with the stress on the final syllable , in Israeli Hebrew , in its basic form . The Ladino name is ג ׳ ודיו , Djudio ( sg . ) ; ג ׳ ודיוס , Djudios ( pl . ) ; Yiddish : ייִד Yid ( sg . ) ; ייִדן , Yidn ( pl . ) .
The etymological equivalent is in use in other languages , e.g. , يَهُودِيّ yahūdī ( sg . ) , al @-@ yahūd ( pl . ) , and بَنُو اِسرَائِيل banū isrāʼīl in Arabic , " Jude " in German , " judeu " in Portuguese , " juif " in French , " jøde " in Danish and Norwegian , " judío " in Spanish , " jood " in Dutch , etc . , but derivations of the word " Hebrew " are also in use to describe a Jew , e.g. , in Italian ( Ebreo ) , in Persian ( " Ebri / Ebrani " ( Persian : عبری / عبرانی ) ) and Russian ( Еврей , Yevrey ) . The German word " Jude " is pronounced [ ˈjuːdə ] , the corresponding adjective " jüdisch " [ ˈjyːdɪʃ ] ( Jewish ) is the origin of the word " Yiddish " . ( See Jewish ethnonyms for a full overview . )
According to The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language , Fourth Edition ( 2000 ) :
It is widely recognized that the attributive use of the noun Jew , in phrases such as Jew lawyer or Jew ethics , is both vulgar and highly offensive . In such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility . Some people , however , have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun , a practice that carries risks of its own . In a sentence such as There are now several Jews on the council , which is unobjectionable , the substitution of a circumlocution like Jewish people or persons of Jewish background may in itself cause offense for seeming to imply that Jew has a negative connotation when used as a noun .
= = Origins = =
According to the Hebrew Bible narrative , Jewish ancestry is traced back to the Biblical patriarchs such as Abraham , Isaac and Jacob , and the Biblical matriarchs Sarah , Rebecca , Leah , and Rachel , who lived in Canaan around the 18th century BCE . Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacob 's son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself . The patriarchs ' descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses , traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE , after which the Israelites conquered Canaan .
Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story , with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites ' inspiring national myth narrative . The Israelites and their culture , according to the modern archaeological account , did not overtake the region by force , but instead branched out of the Canaanite peoples and culture through the development of a distinct monolatristic — and later monotheistic — religion centered on Yahweh , one of the Ancient Canaanite deities . The growth of Yahweh @-@ centric belief , along with a number of cultic practices , gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group , setting them apart from other Canaanites . The Canaanites themselves are archeologically attested in the Middle Bronze Age , while the Hebrew language is the last extant member of the Canaanite languages . In the Iron Age I period ( 1200 – 1000 BCE ) Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature .
Although the Israelites were divided into Twelve Tribes , the Jews ( being one offshoot of the Israelites , another being the Samaritans ) are traditionally said to descend mostly from the Israelite tribes of Judah ( from where the Jews derive their ethnonym ) and Benjamin , and partially from the tribe of Levi , who had together formed the ancient Kingdom of Judah , and the remnants of the northern Kingdom of Israel who migrated to the Kingdom of Judah and assimilated after the 720s BCE , when the Kingdom of Israel was conquered by the Neo @-@ Assyrian Empire .
Israelites enjoyed political independence twice in ancient history , first during the periods of the Biblical judges followed by the United Monarchy . After the fall of the United Monarchy the land was divided into Israel and Judah . The term Jew originated from the Roman " Judean " and denoted someone from the southern kingdom of Judah . The shift of ethnonym from " Israelites " to " Jews " ( inhabitant of Judah ) , although not contained in the Torah , is made explicit in the Book of Esther ( 4th century BCE ) , a book in the Ketuvim , the third section of the Jewish Tanakh . In 587 BC Nebuchadnezzar II , King of the Neo @-@ Babylonian Empire , besieged Jerusalem , destroyed the First Temple , and deported the most prominent citizens of Judah . In 586 BC , Judah itself ceased to be an independent kingdom , and its remaining Jews were left stateless . The Babylonian exile ended in 539 BCE when the Achaemenid Empire conquered Babylon and Cyrus the Great allowed the exiled Jews to return to Yehud and rebuild their Temple . The Second Temple was completed in 515 BCE . Yehud province was a peaceful part of the Achaemenid Empire until the fall of the Empire in c . 333 BCE to Alexander the Great . Jews were also politically independent during the Hasmonean dynasty spanning from 140 to 37 BCE and to some degree under the Herodian dynasty from 37 BCE to 6 CE . Since the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE , most Jews have lived in diaspora . As an ethnic minority in every country in which they live ( except Israel ) , they have frequently experienced persecution throughout history , resulting in a population that has fluctuated both in numbers and distribution over the centuries .
Genetic studies on Jews show that most Jews worldwide bear a common genetic heritage which originates in the Middle East , and that they bear their strongest resemblance to the peoples of the Fertile Crescent . The genetic composition of different Jewish groups shows that Jews share a common genetic pool dating back 4 @,@ 000 years , as a marker of their common ancestral origin . Despite their long @-@ term separation , Jews maintained a common culture , tradition , and language .
= = Judaism = =
The Jewish people and the religion of Judaism are strongly interrelated . Converts to Judaism typically have a status within the Jewish ethnos equal to those born into it . Conversion is not encouraged by mainstream Judaism , and is considered a difficult task . A significant portion of conversions are undertaken by children of mixed marriages , or by would @-@ be or current spouses of Jews .
The Hebrew Bible , a religious interpretation of the traditions and early national history of the Jews , established the first of the Abrahamic religions , which are now practiced by 54 % of the world . Judaism guides its adherents in both practice and belief , and has been called not only a religion , but also a " way of life , " which has made drawing a clear distinction between Judaism , Jewish culture , and Jewish identity rather difficult . Throughout history , in eras and places as diverse as the ancient Hellenic world , in Europe before and after The Age of Enlightenment ( see Haskalah ) , in Islamic Spain and Portugal , in North Africa and the Middle East , India , China , or the contemporary United States and Israel , cultural phenomena have developed that are in some sense characteristically Jewish without being at all specifically religious . Some factors in this come from within Judaism , others from the interaction of Jews or specific communities of Jews with their surroundings , others from the inner social and cultural dynamics of the community , as opposed to from the religion itself . This phenomenon has led to considerably different Jewish cultures unique to their own communities .
= = Babylon and Rome = =
After the destruction of the Second Temple Judaism lost much of its sectarian nature . Nevertheless , a significant Hellenized Diaspora remained , centered in Alexandria , at the time the largest urban Jewish community in the world . Hellenism was a force not just in the Diaspora but also in the Land of Israel over a long period of time . Generally , scholars view Rabbinic Judaism as having been meaningfully influenced by Hellenism .
Without a Temple , Greek speaking Jews no longer looked to Jerusalem in the way they had before . Judaism separated into a linguistically Greek and a Hebrew / Aramaic sphere . The theology and religious texts of each community were distinctively different . Hellenized Judaism never developed yeshivas to study the Oral Law . Rabbinic Judaism ( centered in the Land of Israel and Babylon ) almost entirely ignores the Hellenized Diaspora in its writings . Hellenized Judaism eventually disappeared as its practitioners assimilated into Greco @-@ Roman culture , leaving a strong Rabbinic eastern Diaspora with large centers of learning in Babylon .
By the first century , the Jewish community in Babylonia , to which Jews migrated after the Babylonian conquest as well as after the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE , already held a speedily growing population of an estimated one million Jews , which increased to an estimated two million between the years 200 CE and 500 CE , both by natural growth and by immigration of more Jews from the Land of Israel , making up about one @-@ sixth of the world Jewish population at that era . The 13th @-@ century author Bar Hebraeus gave a figure of 6 @,@ 944 @,@ 000 Jews in the Roman world Salo Wittmayer Baron considered the figure convincing . The figure of seven million within and one million outside the Roman world in the mid @-@ first century became widely accepted , including by Louis Feldman . However , contemporary scholars now accept that Bar Hebraeus based his figure on a census of total Roman citizens . The figure of 6 @,@ 944 @,@ 000 being recorded in Eusebius ' Chronicon . Louis Feldman , previously an active supporter of the figure , now states that he and Baron were mistaken . Feldman 's views on active Jewish missionizing have also changed . While viewing classical Judaism as being receptive to converts , especially from the second century BCE through the first century CE , he points to a lack of either missionizing tracts or records of the names of rabbis who sought converts , as evidence for the lack of active Jewish missionizing . Feldman maintains that conversion to Judaism was common and the Jewish population was large both within the Land of Israel and in the Diaspora . Other historians believe that conversion during the Roman era was limited in number and did not account for much of the Jewish population growth , due to various factors such as the illegality of male conversion to Judaism in the Roman world from the mid @-@ second century . Another factor that made conversion difficult in the Roman world was the halakhic requirement of circumcision , a requirement that proselytizing Christianity quickly dropped . The Fiscus Judaicus , a tax imposed on Jews in 70 CE and relaxed to exclude Christians in 96 CE , also limited Judaism 's appeal .
= = Who is a Jew ? = =
Judaism shares some of the characteristics of a nation , an ethnicity , a religion , and a culture , making the definition of who is a Jew vary slightly depending on whether a religious or national approach to identity is used . Generally , in modern secular usage Jews include three groups : people who were born to a Jewish family regardless of whether or not they follow the religion , those who have some Jewish ancestral background or lineage ( sometimes including those who do not have strictly matrilineal descent ) , and people without any Jewish ancestral background or lineage who have formally converted to Judaism and therefore are followers of the religion .
Historical definitions of Jewish identity have traditionally been based on halakhic definitions of matrilineal descent , and halakhic conversions . Historical definitions of who is a Jew date back to the codification of the Oral Torah into the Babylonian Talmud , around 200 CE . Interpretations of sections of the Tanakh , such as Deuteronomy 7 : 1 – 5 , by Jewish sages , are used as a warning against intermarriage between Jews and Canaanites because " [ the non @-@ Jewish husband ] will cause your child to turn away from Me and they will worship the gods ( i.e. , idols ) of others . " Leviticus 24 : 10 says that the son in a marriage between a Hebrew woman and an Egyptian man is " of the community of Israel . " This is complemented by Ezra 10 : 2 – 3 , where Israelites returning from Babylon vow to put aside their gentile wives and their children . Since the anti @-@ religious Haskalah movement of the late 18th and 19th centuries , halakhic interpretations of Jewish identity have been challenged .
According to historian Shaye J. D. Cohen , the status of the offspring of mixed marriages was determined patrilineally in the Bible . He brings two likely explanations for the change in Mishnaic times : first , the Mishnah may have been applying the same logic to mixed marriages as it had applied to other mixtures ( Kil 'ayim ) . Thus , a mixed marriage is forbidden as is the union of a horse and a donkey , and in both unions the offspring are judged matrilineally . Second , the Tannaim may have been influenced by Roman law , which dictated that when a parent could not contract a legal marriage , offspring would follow the mother .
= = Ethnic divisions = =
Within the world 's Jewish population there are distinct ethnic divisions , most of which are primarily the result of geographic branching from an originating Israelite population , and subsequent independent evolutions . An array of Jewish communities was established by Jewish settlers in various places around the Old World , often at great distances from one another , resulting in effective and often long @-@ term isolation . During the millennia of the Jewish diaspora the communities would develop under the influence of their local environments : political , cultural , natural , and populational . Today , manifestations of these differences among the Jews can be observed in Jewish cultural expressions of each community , including Jewish linguistic diversity , culinary preferences , liturgical practices , religious interpretations , as well as degrees and sources of genetic admixture .
Jews are often identified as belonging to one of two major groups : the Ashkenazim and the Sephardim . Ashkenazim , or " Germanics " ( Ashkenaz meaning " Germany " in Hebrew ) , are so named denoting their German Jewish cultural and geographical origins , while Sephardim , or " Hispanics " ( Sefarad meaning " Spain / Hispania " or " Iberia " in Hebrew ) , are so named denoting their Spanish / Portuguese Jewish cultural and geographic origins . The more common term in Israel for many of those broadly called Sephardim , is Mizrahim ( lit . " Easterners " , Mizrach being " East " in Hebrew ) , that is , in reference to the diverse collection of Middle Eastern and North African Jews who are often , as a group , referred to collectively as Sephardim ( together with Sephardim proper ) for liturgical reasons , although Mizrahi Jewish groups and Sephardi Jews proper are ethnically distinct .
Smaller groups include , but are not restricted to , Indian Jews such as the Bene Israel , Bnei Menashe , Cochin Jews , and Bene Ephraim ; the Romaniotes of Greece ; the Italian Jews ( " Italkim " or " Bené Roma " ) ; the Teimanim from Yemen ; various African Jews , including most numerously the Beta Israel of Ethiopia ; and Chinese Jews , most notably the Kaifeng Jews , as well as various other distinct but now almost extinct communities .
The divisions between all these groups are approximate and their boundaries are not always clear . The Mizrahim for example , are a heterogeneous collection of North African , Central Asian , Caucasian , and Middle Eastern Jewish communities that are no closer related to each other than they are to any of the earlier mentioned Jewish groups . In modern usage , however , the Mizrahim are sometimes termed Sephardi due to similar styles of liturgy , despite independent development from Sephardim proper . Thus , among Mizrahim there are Egyptian Jews , Iraqi Jews , Lebanese Jews , Kurdish Jews , Libyan Jews , Syrian Jews , Bukharian Jews , Mountain Jews , Georgian Jews , Iranian Jews and various others . The Teimanim from Yemen are sometimes included , although their style of liturgy is unique and they differ in respect to the admixture found among them to that found in Mizrahim . In addition , there is a differentiation made between Sephardi migrants who established themselves in the Middle East and North Africa after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain and Portugal in the 1490s and the pre @-@ existing Jewish communities in those regions .
Ashkenazi Jews represent the bulk of modern Jewry , with at least 70 % of Jews worldwide ( and up to 90 % prior to World War II and the Holocaust ) . As a result of their emigration from Europe , Ashkenazim also represent the overwhelming majority of Jews in the New World continents , in countries such as the United States , Canada , Argentina , Australia , and Brazil . In France , the immigration of Jews from Algeria ( Sephardim ) has led them to outnumber the Ashkenazim . Only in Israel is the Jewish population representative of all groups , a melting pot independent of each group 's proportion within the overall world Jewish population .
= = Languages = =
Hebrew is the liturgical language of Judaism ( termed lashon ha @-@ kodesh , " the holy tongue " ) , the language in which most of the Hebrew scriptures ( Tanakh ) were composed , and the daily speech of the Jewish people for centuries . By the 5th century BCE , Aramaic , a closely related tongue , joined Hebrew as the spoken language in Judea . By the 3rd century BCE , some Jews of the diaspora were speaking Greek . Others , such as in the Jewish communities of Babylonia , were speaking Hebrew and Aramaic , the languages of the Babylonian Talmud . These languages were also used by the Jews of Israel at that time .
For centuries , Jews worldwide have spoken the local or dominant languages of the regions they migrated to , often developing distinctive dialectal forms or branches that became independent languages . Yiddish is the Judæo @-@ German language developed by Ashkenazi Jews who migrated to Central Europe . Ladino is the Judæo @-@ Spanish language developed by Sephardic Jews who migrated to the Iberian peninsula . Due to many factors , including the impact of the Holocaust on European Jewry , the Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries , and widespread emigration from other Jewish communities around the world , ancient and distinct Jewish languages of several communities , including Judæo @-@ Georgian , Judæo @-@ Arabic , Judæo @-@ Berber , Krymchak , Judæo @-@ Malayalam and many others , have largely fallen out of use .
For over sixteen centuries Hebrew was used almost exclusively as a liturgical language , and as the language in which most books had been written on Judaism , with a few speaking only Hebrew on the Sabbath . Hebrew was revived as a spoken language by Eliezer ben Yehuda , who arrived in Palestine in 1881 . It had not been used as a mother tongue since Tannaic times . Modern Hebrew is now one of the two official languages of the State of Israel along with Modern Standard Arabic .
Despite efforts to revive Hebrew as the national language of the Jewish people , knowledge of the language is not commonly possessed by Jews worldwide and English has emerged as the lingua franca of the Jewish diaspora . Although many Jews once had sufficient knowledge of Hebrew to study the classic literature , and Jewish languages like Yiddish and Ladino were commonly used as recently as the early 20th century , most Jews lack such knowledge today and English has by and large superseded most Jewish vernaculars . The three most commonly spoken languages among Jews today are Hebrew , English , and Russian . Some Romance languages , particularly French and Spanish , are also widely used . Yiddish has been spoken by more Jews in history than any other language , but it is far less used today following the Holocaust and the adoption of Modern Hebrew by the Zionist movement and the State of Israel . In some places , the mother language of the Jewish community differs from that of the general population or the dominant group . For example , in Quebec , the Ashkenazic majority has adopted English , while the Sephardic minority uses French as its primary language . Similarly , South African Jews adopted English rather than Afrikaans . Due to both Czarist and Soviet policies , Russian has superseded Yiddish as the language of Russian Jews , but these policies have also affected neighboring communities . Today , Russian is the first language for many Jewish communities in a number of Post @-@ Soviet states , such as Ukraine and Uzbekistan , as well as for Ashkenazic Jews in Azerbaijan , Georgia , and Tajikistan . Although communities in North Africa today are small and dwindling , Jews there had shifted from a multilingual group to a monolingual one ( or nearly so ) , speaking French in Algeria , Morocco , and the city of Tunis , while most North Africans continue to use Arabic as their mother tongue .
= = Genetic studies = =
Y DNA studies tend to imply a small number of founders in an old population whose members parted and followed different migration paths . In most Jewish populations , these male line ancestors appear to have been mainly Middle Eastern . For example , Ashkenazi Jews share more common paternal lineages with other Jewish and Middle Eastern groups than with non @-@ Jewish populations in areas where Jews lived in Eastern Europe , Germany and the French Rhine Valley . This is consistent with Jewish traditions in placing most Jewish paternal origins in the region of the Middle East . Conversely , the maternal lineages of Jewish populations , studied by looking at mitochondrial DNA , are generally more heterogeneous . Scholars such as Harry Ostrer and Raphael Falk believe this indicates that many Jewish males found new mates from European and other communities in the places where they migrated in the diaspora after fleeing ancient Israel . In contrast , Behar has found evidence that about 40 % of Ashkenazi Jews originate maternally from just four female founders , who were of Middle Eastern origin . The populations of Sephardi and Mizrahi Jewish communities " showed no evidence for a narrow founder effect . " Subsequent studies carried out by Feder et al. confirmed the large portion of non @-@ local maternal origin among Ashkenazi Jews . Reflecting on their findings related to the maternal origin of Ashkenazi Jews , the authors conclude " Clearly , the differences between Jews and non @-@ Jews are far larger than those observed among the Jewish communities . Hence , differences between the Jewish communities can be overlooked when non @-@ Jews are included in the comparisons . "
Studies of autosomal DNA , which look at the entire DNA mixture , have become increasingly important as the technology develops . They show that Jewish populations have tended to form relatively closely related groups in independent communities , with most in a community sharing significant ancestry in common . For Jewish populations of the diaspora , the genetic composition of Ashkenazi , Sephardi , and Mizrahi Jewish populations show a predominant amount of shared Middle Eastern ancestry . According to Behar , the most parsimonious explanation for this shared Middle Eastern ancestry is that it is " consistent with the historical formulation of the Jewish people as descending from ancient Hebrew and Israelite residents of the Levant " and " the dispersion of the people of ancient Israel throughout the Old World " . North African , Italian and others of Iberian origin show variable frequencies of admixture with non @-@ Jewish historical host populations among the maternal lines . In the case of Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews ( in particular Moroccan Jews ) , who are closely related , the source of non @-@ Jewish admixture is mainly southern European , while Mizrahi Jews show evidence of admixture with other Middle Eastern populations and Sub @-@ Saharan Africans . Behar et al. have remarked on an especially close relationship of Ashkenazi Jews and modern Italians . Jews were found to be more closely related to groups in the north of the Fertile Crescent ( Kurds , Turks , and Armenians ) than to Arabs .
The studies also show that the Sephardic Bnei Anusim ( descendants of the " anusim " forced converts to Catholicism ) of Iberia ( estimated at about 19 @.@ 8 % of modern Iberia ) and Ibero @-@ America ( estimated at least 10 % of modern Ibero @-@ America ) have Sephardic Jewish origins within the last few centuries , while the Bene Israel and Cochin Jews of India , Beta Israel of Ethiopia , and a portion of the Lemba people of Southern Africa , despite more closely resembling the local populations of their native countries , also have some more remote ancient Jewish descent .
= = Demographics = =
= = = Population centers = = =
According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics there were 13 @,@ 421 @,@ 000 Jews worldwide in 2009 , roughly 0 @.@ 19 % of the world 's population at the time .
According to the 2007 estimates of The Jewish People Policy Planning Institute , the world 's Jewish population is 13 @.@ 2 million . Adherents.com cites figures ranging from 12 to 18 million . These statistics incorporate both practicing Jews affiliated with synagogues and the Jewish community , and approximately 4 @.@ 5 million unaffiliated and secular Jews .
According to Sergio DellaPergola , a demographer of the Jewish population , in 2015 there were about 6 @.@ 3 million Jews in Israel , 5 @.@ 7 million in the United States , and 2 @.@ 3 million in the rest of the world .
= = = = Israel = = = =
Israel , the Jewish nation @-@ state , is the only country in which Jews make up a majority of the citizens . Israel was established as an independent democratic and Jewish state on May 14 , 1948 . Of the 120 members in its parliament , the Knesset , as of 2016 , 14 members of the Knesset are Arab citizens of Israel ( not including the Druze ) , most representing Arab political parties . One of Israel 's Supreme Court judges is also an Arab citizen of Israel .
Between 1948 and 1958 , the Jewish population rose from 800 @,@ 000 to two million . Currently , Jews account for 75 @.@ 4 % of the Israeli population , or 6 million people . The early years of the State of Israel were marked by the mass immigration of Holocaust survivors in the aftermath of the Holocaust and Jews fleeing Arab lands . Israel also has a large population of Ethiopian Jews , many of whom were airlifted to Israel in the late 1980s and early 1990s . Between 1974 and 1979 nearly 227 @,@ 258 immigrants arrived in Israel , about half being from the Soviet Union . This period also saw an increase in immigration to Israel from Western Europe , Latin America , and North America .
A trickle of immigrants from other communities has also arrived , including Indian Jews and others , as well as some descendants of Ashkenazi Holocaust survivors who had settled in countries such as the United States , Argentina , Australia , Chile , and South Africa . Some Jews have emigrated from Israel elsewhere , because of economic problems or disillusionment with political conditions and the continuing Arab @-@ Israeli conflict . Jewish Israeli emigrants are known as yordim .
= = = = Diaspora ( outside Israel ) = = = =
The waves of immigration to the United States and elsewhere at the turn of the 19th century , the founding of Zionism and later events , including pogroms in Russia , the massacre of European Jewry during the Holocaust , and the founding of the state of Israel , with the subsequent Jewish exodus from Arab lands , all resulted in substantial shifts in the population centers of world Jewry by the end of the 20th century .
More than half of the Jews live in the Diaspora ( see Population table ) . Currently , the largest Jewish community outside Israel , and either the largest or second @-@ largest Jewish community in the world , is located in the United States , with 5 @.@ 2 million to 6 @.@ 4 million Jews by various estimates . Elsewhere in the Americas , there are also large Jewish populations in Canada ( 315 @,@ 000 ) , Argentina ( 180 @,@ 000 @-@ 300 @,@ 000 ) , and Brazil ( 196 @,@ 000 @-@ 600 @,@ 000 ) , and smaller populations in Mexico , Uruguay , Venezuela , Chile , Colombia and several other countries ( see History of the Jews in Latin America ) . Demographers disagree on whether the United States has a larger Jewish population than Israel , with many maintaining that Israel surpassed the United States in Jewish population during the 2000s , while others maintain that the United States still has the largest Jewish population in the world . Currently , a major national Jewish population survey is planned to ascertain whether or not Israel has overtaken the United States in Jewish population .
Western Europe 's largest Jewish community , and the third @-@ largest Jewish community in the world , can be found in France , home to between 483 @,@ 000 and 500 @,@ 000 Jews , the majority of whom are immigrants or refugees from North African Arab countries such as Algeria , Morocco , and Tunisia ( or their descendants ) . The United Kingdom has a Jewish community of 292 @,@ 000 . In Eastern Europe , there are anywhere from 350 @,@ 000 to one million Jews living in the former Soviet Union , but exact figures are difficult to establish . In Germany , the 102 @,@ 000 Jews registered with the Jewish community are a slowly declining population , despite the immigration of tens of thousands of Jews from the former Soviet Union since the fall of the Berlin Wall . Thousands of Israelis also live in Germany , either permanently or temporarily , for economic reasons .
Prior to 1948 , approximately 800 @,@ 000 Jews were living in lands which now make up the Arab world ( excluding Israel ) . Of these , just under two @-@ thirds lived in the French @-@ controlled Maghreb region , 15 – 20 % in the Kingdom of Iraq , approximately 10 % in the Kingdom of Egypt and approximately 7 % in the Kingdom of Yemen . A further 200 @,@ 000 lived in Pahlavi Iran and the Republic of Turkey . Today , around 26 @,@ 000 Jews live in Arab countries and around 30 @,@ 000 in Iran and Turkey . A small @-@ scale exodus had begun in many countries in the early decades of the 20th century , although the only substantial aliyah came from Yemen and Syria . The exodus from Arab and Muslim countries took place primarily from 1948 . The first large @-@ scale exoduses took place in the late 1940s and early 1950s , primarily in Iraq , Yemen and Libya , with up to 90 % of these communities leaving within a few years . The peak of the exodus from Egypt occurred in 1956 . The exodus in the Maghreb countries peaked in the 1960s . Lebanon was the only Arab country to see a temporary increase in its Jewish population during this period , due to an influx of refugees from other Arab countries , although by the mid @-@ 1970s the Jewish community of Lebanon had also dwindled . In the aftermath of the exodus wave from Arab states , an additional migration of Iranian Jews peaked in the 1980s when around 80 % of Iranian Jews left the country .
Outside Europe , the Americas , the Middle East , and the rest of Asia , there are significant Jewish populations in Australia ( 112 @,@ 500 ) and South Africa ( 70 @,@ 000 ) . There is also a 7 @,@ 500 @-@ strong community in New Zealand .
= = = Demographic changes = = =
= = = = Assimilation = = = =
Since at least the time of the Ancient Greeks , a proportion of Jews have assimilated into the wider non @-@ Jewish society around them , by either choice or force , ceasing to practice Judaism and losing their Jewish identity . Assimilation took place in all areas , and during all time periods , with some Jewish communities , for example the Kaifeng Jews of China , disappearing entirely . The advent of the Jewish Enlightenment of the 18th century ( see Haskalah ) and the subsequent emancipation of the Jewish populations of Europe and America in the 19th century , accelerated the situation , encouraging Jews to increasingly participate in , and become part of , secular society . The result has been a growing trend of assimilation , as Jews marry non @-@ Jewish spouses and stop participating in the Jewish community .
Rates of interreligious marriage vary widely : In the United States , it is just under 50 % , in the United Kingdom , around 53 % ; in France ; around 30 % , and in Australia and Mexico , as low as 10 % . In the United States , only about a third of children from intermarriages affiliate with Jewish religious practice . The result is that most countries in the Diaspora have steady or slightly declining religiously Jewish populations as Jews continue to assimilate into the countries in which they live .
= = = = War and persecution = = = =
The Jewish people and Judaism have experienced various persecutions throughout Jewish history . During Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages the Roman Empire ( in its later phases known as the Byzantine Empire ) repeatedly repressed the Jewish population , first by ejecting them from their homelands during the pagan Roman era and later by officially establishing them as second @-@ class citizens during the Christian Roman era .
According to James Carroll , " Jews accounted for 10 % of the total population of the Roman Empire . By that ratio , if other factors had not intervened , there would be 200 million Jews in the world today , instead of something like 13 million . "
Later in medieval Western Europe , further persecutions of Jews by Christians occurred , notably during the Crusades — when Jews all over Germany were massacred — and a series of expulsions from the Kingdom of England , Germany , France , and , in the largest expulsion of all , Spain and Portugal after the Reconquista ( the Catholic Reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula ) , where both unbaptized Sephardic Jews and the ruling Muslim Moors were expelled .
In the Papal States , which existed until 1870 , Jews were required to live only in specified neighborhoods called ghettos .
Islam and Judaism have a complex relationship . Traditionally Jews and Christians living in Muslim lands , known as dhimmis , were allowed to practice their religions and administer their internal affairs , but they were subject to certain conditions . They had to pay the jizya ( a per capita tax imposed on free adult non @-@ Muslim males ) to the Islamic state . Dhimmis had an inferior status under Islamic rule . They had several social and legal disabilities such as prohibitions against bearing arms or giving testimony in courts in cases involving Muslims . Many of the disabilities were highly symbolic . The one described by Bernard Lewis as " most degrading " was the requirement of distinctive clothing , not found in the Quran or hadith but invented in early medieval Baghdad ; its enforcement was highly erratic . On the other hand , Jews rarely faced martyrdom or exile , or forced compulsion to change their religion , and they were mostly free in their choice of residence and profession .
Notable exceptions include the massacre of Jews and forcible conversion of some Jews by the rulers of the Almohad dynasty in Al @-@ Andalus in the 12th century , as well as in Islamic Persia , and the forced confinement of Moroccan Jews to walled quarters known as mellahs beginning from the 15th century and especially in the early 19th century . In modern times , it has become commonplace for standard antisemitic themes to be conflated with anti @-@ Zionist publications and pronouncements of Islamic movements such as Hezbollah and Hamas , in the pronouncements of various agencies of the Islamic Republic of Iran , and even in the newspapers and other publications of Turkish Refah Partisi . "
Throughout history , many rulers , empires and nations have oppressed their Jewish populations or sought to eliminate them entirely . Methods employed ranged from expulsion to outright genocide ; within nations , often the threat of these extreme methods was sufficient to silence dissent . The history of antisemitism includes the First Crusade which resulted in the massacre of Jews ; the Spanish Inquisition ( led by Tomás de Torquemada ) and the Portuguese Inquisition , with their persecution and autos @-@ da @-@ fé against the New Christians and Marrano Jews ; the Bohdan Chmielnicki Cossack massacres in Ukraine ; the Pogroms backed by the Russian Tsars ; as well as expulsions from Spain , Portugal , England , France , Germany , and other countries in which the Jews had settled . According to a 2008 study published in the American Journal of Human Genetics , 19 @.@ 8 % of the modern Iberian population has Sephardic Jewish ancestry , indicating that the number of conversos may have been much higher than originally thought .
The persecution reached a peak in Nazi Germany 's Final Solution , which led to the Holocaust and the slaughter of approximately 6 million Jews . Of the world 's 15 million Jews in 1939 , more than a third were killed in the Holocaust . The Holocaust — the state @-@ led systematic persecution and genocide of European Jews ( and certain communities of North African Jews in European controlled North Africa ) and other minority groups of Europe during World War II by Germany and its collaborators remains the most notable modern @-@ day persecution of Jews . The persecution and genocide were accomplished in stages . Legislation to remove the Jews from civil society was enacted years before the outbreak of World War II . Concentration camps were established in which inmates were used as slave labour until they died of exhaustion or disease . Where the Third Reich conquered new territory in Eastern Europe , specialized units called Einsatzgruppen murdered Jews and political opponents in mass shootings . Jews and Roma were crammed into ghettos before being transported hundreds of miles by freight train to extermination camps where , if they survived the journey , the majority of them were killed in gas chambers . Virtually every arm of Germany 's bureaucracy was involved in the logistics of the mass murder , turning the country into what one Holocaust scholar has called " a genocidal nation . "
= = = = Migrations = = = =
Throughout Jewish history , Jews have repeatedly been directly or indirectly expelled from both their original homeland , the Land of Israel , and many of the areas in which they have settled . This experience as refugees has shaped Jewish identity and religious practice in many ways , and is thus a major element of Jewish history . The incomplete list of major and other noteworthy migrations that follows includes numerous instances of expulsion or departure under duress :
The mythical patriarch Abraham is described as a migrant to the land of Canaan from Ur of the Chaldees after an attempt on his life by King Nimrod .
The Children of Israel , in the Biblical story whose historicity is uncertain , undertook the Exodus ( meaning " departure " or " exit " in Greek ) from ancient Egypt , as recorded in the Book of Exodus .
Assyrian policy was to deport and displace conquered peoples , and it is estimated some 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 among captive populations suffered this dislocation over 3 centuries of Assyrian rule . With regard to Israel , Tiglath @-@ Pileser III claims he deported 80 % of the population of Lower Galilee , some 13 @,@ 520 people . Some 27 @,@ 000 Israelites , 20 @-@ 25 % of the population of the Kingdom of Israel , were described as being deported by Sargon II , and were replaced by other deported populations and sent into permanent exile by Assyria , initially to the Upper Mesopotamian provinces of the Assyrian Empire ,
Between 10 @,@ 000 and 80 @,@ 000 people from the Kingdom of Judah were exiled by Babylonia , then returned to Judea by Cyrus the Great of the Persian Achaemenid Empire , and then many were exiled again by the Roman Empire .
The 2 @,@ 000 year dispersion of the Jewish diaspora beginning under the Roman Empire , as Jews were spread throughout the Roman world and , driven from land to land , settled wherever they could live freely enough to practice their religion . Over the course of the diaspora the center of Jewish life moved from Babylonia to the Iberian Peninsula to Poland to the United States and , as a result of Zionism , back to Israel .
Many expulsions during the Middle Ages and Enlightenment in Europe , including : 1290 , 16 @,@ 000 Jews were expelled from England , see the ( Statute of Jewry ) ; in 1396 , 100 @,@ 000 from France ; in 1421 thousands were expelled from Austria . Many of these Jews settled in Eastern Europe , especially Poland .
Following the Spanish Inquisition in 1492 , the Spanish population of around 200 @,@ 000 Sephardic Jews were expelled by the Spanish crown and Catholic church , followed by expulsions in 1493 in Sicily ( 37 @,@ 000 Jews ) and Portugal in 1496 . The expelled Jews fled mainly to the Ottoman Empire , the Netherlands , and North Africa , others migrating to Southern Europe and the Middle East .
During the 19th century , France 's policies of equal citizenship regardless of religion led to the immigration of Jews ( especially from Eastern and Central Europe ) .
The arrival of millions of Jews in the New World , including immigration of over two million Eastern European Jews to the United States from 1880 to 1925 , see History of the Jews in the United States and History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union .
The pogroms in Eastern Europe , the rise of modern antisemitism , the Holocaust , and the rise of Arab nationalism all served to fuel the movements and migrations of huge segments of Jewry from land to land and continent to continent , until they arrived back in large numbers at their original historical homeland in Israel .
The Islamic Revolution of Iran caused many Iranian Jews to flee Iran . Most found refuge in the US ( particularly Los Angeles ) and Israel . Smaller communities of Persian Jews exist in Canada and Western Europe .
When the Soviet Union collapsed , many of the Jews in the affected territory ( who had been refuseniks ) were suddenly allowed to leave . This produced a wave of migration to Israel in the early 1990s .
= = = = Growth = = = =
Israel is the only country with a Jewish population that is consistently growing through natural population growth , although the Jewish populations of other countries , in Europe and North America , have recently increased through immigration . In the Diaspora , in almost every country the Jewish population in general is either declining or steady , but Orthodox and Haredi Jewish communities , whose members often shun birth control for religious reasons , have experienced rapid population growth .
Orthodox and Conservative Judaism discourage proselytism to non @-@ Jews , but many Jewish groups have tried to reach out to the assimilated Jewish communities of the Diaspora in order for them to reconnect to their Jewish roots . Additionally , while in principle Reform Judaism favors seeking new members for the faith , this position has not translated into active proselytism , instead taking the form of an effort to reach out to non @-@ Jewish spouses of intermarried couples .
There is also a trend of Orthodox movements pursuing secular Jews in order to give them a stronger Jewish identity so there is less chance of intermarriage . As a result of the efforts by these and other Jewish groups over the past 25 years , there has been a trend ( known as the Baal Teshuva movement ) for secular Jews to become more religiously observant , though the demographic implications of the trend are unknown . Additionally , there is also a growing rate of conversion to Jews by Choice of gentiles who make the decision to head in the direction of becoming Jews .
= = Leadership = =
There is no single governing body for the Jewish community , nor a single authority with responsibility for religious doctrine . Instead , a variety of secular and religious institutions at the local , national , and international levels lead various parts of the Jewish community on a variety of issues .
= = Notable individuals = =
Jews have made a myriad of contributions to humanity in a broad and diverse range of fields , including the sciences , arts , politics , and business . Although Jews comprise only 0 @.@ 2 % of the world 's population , over 20 % of Nobel Prize laureates have been Jewish , with multiple winners in each category .
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= M. C. Escher =
Maurits Cornelis Escher ( Dutch pronunciation : [ ˈmʌurɪts kɔrˈneːlɪs ˈɛʃər ] ; 17 June 1898 – 27 March 1972 ) was a Dutch graphic artist who made mathematically inspired woodcuts , lithographs , and mezzotints .
Early in his career he drew inspiration from nature , making studies of insects , landscapes , and plants such as lichens , all of which he reused as details in his artworks . He travelled in Italy and Spain , sketching buildings , townscapes , architecture and the tilings of the Alhambra and La Mezquita , Cordoba , and became steadily more interested in their mathematical structure .
His work features mathematical objects and operations including impossible objects , explorations of infinity , reflection , symmetry , perspective , truncated and stellated polyhedra , hyperbolic geometry , and tessellations . Although Escher considered that he had no mathematical ability , he interacted with mathematicians George Pólya , Roger Penrose , and Harold Coxeter ; read mathematical papers by these authors and by the crystallographer Friedrich Haag ; and conducted his own original research into tessellation .
Escher 's art became popular , both among scientists and mathematicians , and in popular culture . Apart from being used in a variety of technical papers , his work has appeared on the covers of many books and albums . He featured as one of the major inspirations of Douglas Hofstadter 's 1979 book Gödel , Escher , Bach .
= = Early life = =
Maurits Cornelis Escher was born on 17 June 1898 in Leeuwarden , Friesland , in a house that forms part of the Princessehof Ceramics Museum today . He was the youngest son of the civil engineer George Arnold Escher and his second wife , Sara Gleichman . In 1903 , the family moved to Arnhem , where he attended primary and secondary school until 1918 . Known to his friends and family as " Mauk " , he was a sickly child , and was placed in a special school at the age of seven ; he failed the second grade . Although he excelled at drawing , his grades were generally poor . He also took carpentry and piano lessons until he was thirteen years old .
In 1918 , he went to the Technical College of Delft . From 1919 to 1922 , Escher attended the Haarlem School of Architecture and Decorative Arts , learning drawing and the art of making woodcuts . He briefly studied architecture , but he failed a number of subjects ( partly due to a persistent skin infection ) and switched to decorative arts , studying under the graphic artist Samuel Jessurun de Mesquita .
= = Study journeys = =
In 1922 , an important year of his life , Escher traveled through Italy , visiting Florence , San Gimignano , Volterra , Siena , Ravello . In the same year he traveled through Spain , visiting Madrid , Toledo , and Granada . He was impressed by the Italian countryside , and in Granada by the Moorish architecture of the fourteenth @-@ century Alhambra . The intricate decorative designs of the Alhambra , based on geometrical symmetries featuring interlocking repetitive patterns in the coloured tiles or sculpted into the walls and ceilings , triggered his interest in the mathematics of tessellation , and became a powerful influence on his work .
Escher returned to Italy , and lived in Rome from 1923 to 1935 . While in Italy , Escher met Jetta Umiker , whom he married in 1924 . The couple settled in Rome where their first son , Giorgio ( George ) Arnaldo Escher , named after his grandfather , was born . Escher and Jetta later had two more sons : Arthur and Jan.
He travelled frequently , visiting ( among other places ) Viterbo in 1926 , the Abruzzi in 1927 and 1929 , Corsica in 1928 and 1933 , Calabria in 1930 , the Amalfi coast in 1931 and 1934 , Cargano and Sicily in 1932 and 1935 . The townscapes and landscapes of these places feature prominently in his artworks . In May and June 1936 , Escher travelled back to Spain , revisiting the Alhambra and spending days at a time making detailed drawings of its mosaic patterns . It was here that he became fascinated to the point of obsession with tessellation , explaining :
It remains an extremely absorbing activity , a real mania to which I have become addicted , and from which I sometimes find it hard to tear myself away .
The sketches he made in the Alhambra formed a major source for his work from that time on . He also studied the architecture of the Mezquita , the Moorish mosque of Cordoba . This turned out to be the last of his long study journeys ; after 1937 , his artworks were created in his studio rather than in the field . His art correspondingly changed sharply from being mainly observational , with a strong emphasis on the realistic details of things seen in nature and architecture , to being the product of his geometric analysis and his visual imagination . All the same , even his early work already shows his interest in the nature of space , the unusual , perspective , and multiple points of view .
= = Later life = =
In 1935 , the political climate in Italy ( under Mussolini ) became unacceptable to Escher . He had no interest in politics , finding it impossible to involve himself with any ideals other than the expressions of his own concepts through his own particular medium , but he was averse to fanaticism and hypocrisy . When his eldest son , George , was forced at the age of nine to wear a Ballila uniform in school , the family left Italy and moved to Château @-@ d 'Œx , Switzerland , where they remained for two years .
The Netherlands post office had Escher design a semi @-@ postal stamp for the " Air Fund " in 1935 and again in 1949 he designed Netherlands stamps . These were for the 75th anniversary of the Universal Postal Union ; a different design was used by Surinam and the Netherlands Antilles for the same commemoration .
Escher , who had been very fond of and inspired by the landscapes in Italy , was decidedly unhappy in Switzerland . In 1937 , the family moved again , to Uccle ( Ukkel ) , a suburb of Brussels , Belgium . World War II forced them to move in January 1941 , this time to Baarn , Netherlands , where Escher lived until 1970 . Most of Escher 's best @-@ known works date from this period . The sometimes cloudy , cold and wet weather of the Netherlands allowed him to focus intently on his work . After 1953 , Escher lectured widely . A planned series of lectures in North America in 1962 was cancelled after an illness , and he stopped creating artworks for a time , but the illustrations and text for the lectures were later published as part of the book Escher on Escher . He was awarded the Knighthood of the Order of Orange @-@ Nassau in 1955 .
In July 1969 he finished his last work , a large woodcut with threefold rotational symmetry called Snakes , in which snakes wind through a pattern of linked rings . These shrink to infinity toward both the center and the edge of a circle . It was exceptionally elaborate , being printed using three blocks , each rotated three times about the center of the image and precisely aligned to avoid gaps and overlaps , for a total of nine print operations for each finished print . The image encapsulates Escher 's love of symmetry , of interlocking patterns , and at the end of his life , of his approach to infinity . The care Escher took in creating and printing this woodcut can be seen in a video recording .
Escher moved to the Rosa Spier Huis in Laren in 1970 , an artists ' retirement home in which he had his own studio . He died there on 27 March 1972 , aged 73 . He is buried at the New Cemetery in Baarn .
= = Mathematically @-@ inspired work = =
Escher 's work is inescapably mathematical . This has caused a disconnect between his full @-@ on popular fame and the lack of esteem with which he has been viewed in the art world . His originality and mastery of graphic techniques is respected , but his works have been thought too intellectual and insufficiently lyrical . Movements such as conceptual art have to a degree reversed the art world 's attitude to intellectuality and lyricism , but this did not rehabilitate Escher because traditional critics still disliked his narrative themes and his use of perspective . However , these same qualities made his work highly attractive to the public . Escher is not the first artist to explore mathematical themes : Parmigianino ( 1503 – 1540 ) had explored spherical geometry and reflection in his 1524 Self @-@ portrait in a Convex Mirror , depicting his own image in a curved mirror , while William Hogarth 's 1754 Satire on False Perspective , foreshadows Escher 's playful exploration of errors in perspective . Another early artistic forerunner is Giovanni Battista Piranesi ( 1720 – 1778 ) , whose dark " fantastical " prints such as The Drawbridge in his Carceri ( " Prisons " ) sequence depict perspectives into complex architecture with many stairs and ramps , peopled by walking figures . Only with 20th century movements such as Cubism , De Stijl , Dadaism and Surrealism did mainstream art start to explore Escher @-@ like ways of looking at the world with multiple simultaneous viewpoints . However , while Escher had much in common with , for example , Magritte 's surrealism , he did not make contact with any of these movements .
= = = Tessellation = = =
In his early years , Escher sketched landscapes and nature . He also sketched insects such as ants , bees , grasshoppers and mantises , which appeared frequently in his later work . His early love of Roman and Italian landscapes and of nature created an interest in tessellation , which he called Regular Division of the Plane ; this became the title of his 1958 book , complete with reproductions of a series of woodcuts based on tessellations of the plane , in which he described the systematic buildup of mathematical designs in his artworks . He wrote " Mathematicians have opened the gate leading to an extensive domain . "
After his 1936 journey to the Alhambra and to La Mezquita , Cordoba , where he sketched the Moorish architecture and the tessellated mosaic decorations , Escher began to explore the properties and possibilities of tessellation using geometric grids as the basis for his sketches . He then extended these to form complex interlocking designs , for example with animals such as birds , fish , and reptiles . One of his first attempts at a tessellation was his pencil , India ink and watercolour Study of Regular Division of the Plane with Reptiles ( 1939 ) , constructed on a hexagonal grid . The heads of the red , green and white reptiles meet at a vertex ; the tails , legs and sides of the animals exactly interlock . It was used as the basis for his 1943 lithograph Reptiles .
His first study of mathematics began with papers by George Pólya and by the crystallographer Friedrich Haag on plane symmetry groups , sent to him by his brother Berend ( known as Beer ) . He carefully studied the 17 wallpaper groups , and created periodic tilings with 43 drawings of different types of symmetry . From this point on he developed a mathematical approach to expressions of symmetry in his art works using his own notation . Starting in 1937 , he created woodcuts based on the 17 groups . His Metamorphosis I ( 1937 ) began a series of designs that told a story through the use of pictures . In Metamorphosis I , he transformed convex polygons into regular patterns in a plane to form a human motif . He extended the approach in his piece Metamorphosis III , which is four metres long .
In 1941 and 1942 , Escher summarized his findings for his own artistic use in a sketchbook , which he labeled ( following Haag ) Regelmatige vlakverdeling in asymmetrische congruente veelhoeken ( " Regular division of the plane with asymmetric congruent polygons " ) . The mathematician Doris Schattschneider unequivocally described this notebook as recording " a methodical investigation that can only be termed mathematical research . " She defined the research questions he was following as
( 1 ) What are the possible shapes for a tile that can produce a regular division of the plane , that is , a tile that can fill the plane with its congruent images such that every tile is surrounded in the same manner ?
( 2 ) Moreover , in what ways are the edges of such a tile related to each other by isometries ?
= = = Geometries = = =
Although Escher did not have mathematical training — his understanding of mathematics was largely visual and intuitive — his art had a strong mathematical component , and several of the worlds which he drew were built around impossible objects After 1924 , Escher turned to sketching landscapes in Italy and Corsica with irregular perspectives that are impossible in natural form . His first print of an impossible reality was Still Life and Street ( 1937 ) ; impossible stairs and multiple visual and gravitational perspectives feature in popular works such as Relativity ( 1953 ) . House of Stairs ( 1951 ) attracted the interest of the mathematician Roger Penrose and his father the biologist Lionel Penrose . In 1956 they published a paper , " Impossible Objects : A Special Type of Visual Illusion " and later sent Escher a copy . Escher replied , admiring the Penroses ' continuously rising flights of steps , and enclosed a print of Ascending and Descending ( 1960 ) . The paper also contained the tribar or Penrose triangle , which Escher used repeatedly in his lithograph of a building that appears to function as a perpetual motion machine , Waterfall ( 1961 ) .
Escher was interested enough in Hieronymus Bosch 's 1500 triptych The Garden of Earthly Delights to recreate part of its right @-@ hand panel , Hell , as a lithograph in 1935 . He reused the figure of a Mediaeval woman in a two @-@ pointed headdress and a long gown in his lithograph Belvedere in 1958 ; the image is , like many of his other " extraordinary invented places " , peopled with " jesters , knaves and contemplators " . Escher was thus not only interested in possible or impossible geometry , but was in his own words a " reality enthusiast " ; he combined " formal astonishment with a vivid and idiosyncratic vision . "
Escher worked primarily in the media of lithographs and woodcuts , though the few mezzotints he made are considered to be masterpieces of the technique . In his graphic art , he portrayed mathematical relationships among shapes , figures and space . Integrated into his prints were mirror images of cones , spheres , cubes , rings and spirals .
Escher was also fascinated by mathematical objects like the Möbius strip , which has only one surface . His wood engraving Möbius Strip II ( 1963 ) depicts a chain of ants marching for ever around over what at any one place are the two opposite faces of the object — which are seen on inspection to be parts of the strip 's single surface . In Escher 's own words
An endless ring @-@ shaped band usually has two distinct surfaces , one inside and one outside . Yet on this strip nine red ants crawl after each other and travel the front side as well as the reverse side . Therefore the strip has only one surface .
The mathematical influence in his work became prominent after 1936 , when , having boldly asked the Adria Shipping Company if he could sail with them as travelling artist in return for making drawings of their ships , they surprisingly agreed , and he sailed the Mediterranean , becoming interested in order and symmetry . Escher described this journey , including his repeat visit to the Alhambra , as " the richest source of inspiration I have ever tapped . "
Escher 's interest in curvilinear perspective was encouraged by his friend and " kindred spirit " the art historian and artist Albert Flocon , in another example of constructive mutual influence . Flocon identified Escher as a " thinking artist " alongside Piero della Francesca , Leonardo da Vinci , Albrecht Dürer , Wenzel Jamnitzer , Abraham Bosse , Girard Desargues , and Père Nicon . Flocon was delighted by Escher 's Grafiek en tekeningen ( " Graphics in Drawing " ) , which he read in 1959 . This stimulated Flocon and André Barre to correspond with Escher , and to write the book La Perspective curviligne ( " Curvilinear perspective " ) .
= = = Platonic and other solids = = =
Escher often incorporated three @-@ dimensional objects such as the Platonic solids such as spheres , tetrahedons and cubes into his works , as well as mathematical objects like cylinders and stellated polyhedra . In the print Reptiles , he combined two and three @-@ dimensional images . In one of his papers , Escher emphasized the importance of dimensionality :
The flat shape irritates me - I feel like telling my objects , you are too fictitious , lying there next to each other static and frozen : do something , come off the paper and show me what you are capable of ! ... So I make them come out of the plane . ... My objects ... may finally return to the plane and disappear into their place of origin .
Escher 's artwork is especially well liked by mathematicians like Doris Schattschneider and scientists like Roger Penrose , who enjoy his use of polyhedra and geometric distortions . For example , in Gravitation , animals climb around a stellated dodecahedron .
The two towers of Waterfall 's impossible building are topped with compound polyhedra , one a compound of three cubes , the other a stellated rhombic dodecahedron known as Escher 's solid . Escher had used this solid in his 1948 woodcut Stars , which also contains all five of the Platonic solids and various stellated solids , representing stars ; the central solid is animated by chameleons climbing through the frame as it whirls in space . Escher possessed a 6 cm refracting telescope and was a keen enough amateur astronomer to have recorded observations of binary stars .
= = = Levels of reality = = =
Escher 's artistic expression was created from images in his mind , rather than directly from observations and travels to other countries . His interest in the multiple levels of reality in art is seen in works such as Drawing Hands ( 1948 ) , where two hands are shown , each drawing the other . The critic Steven Poole commented that
It is a neat depiction of one of Escher 's enduring fascinations : the contrast between the two @-@ dimensional flatness of a sheet of paper and the illusion of three @-@ dimensional volume that can be created with certain marks . In Drawing Hands , space and the flat plane coexist , each born from and returning to the other , the black magic of the artistic illusion made creepily manifest .
= = = Infinity and hyperbolic geometry = = =
In 1954 , the International Congress of Mathematicians met in Amsterdam , and N. G. de Bruin organized a display of Escher 's work at the Stedelijk Museum for the participants . Both Roger Penrose and H. S. M. Coxeter were deeply impressed with Escher 's intuitive grasp of mathematics . Inspired by Relativity , Penrose devised his tribar , and his father , Lionel Penrose , devised an endless staircase . Roger Penrose sent sketches of both objects to Escher , and the cycle of invention was closed when Escher then created the perpetual motion machine of Waterfall and the endless march of the monk @-@ figures of Ascending and Descending . In 1957 , Coxeter obtained Escher 's permission to use two of his drawings in his paper " Crystal symmetry and its generalizations " . He sent Escher a copy of the paper ; Escher recorded that Coxeter 's figure of a hyperbolic tessellation " gave me quite a shock " : the infinite regular repetition of the tiles in the hyperbolic plane , growing rapidly smaller towards the edge of the circle , was precisely what he wanted to allow him to represent infinity on a two @-@ dimensional plane .
Escher carefully studied Coxeter 's figure , marking it up to analyse the successively smaller circles with which ( he deduced ) it had been constructed . He then constructed a diagram , which he sent to Coxeter , showing his analysis ; Coxeter confirmed it was correct , but disappointed Escher with his highly technical reply . All the same , Escher persisted with hyperbolic tiling , which he called " Coxetering " . Among the results were the series of wood engravings Circle Limit I – IV . In 1959 , Coxeter published his finding that these works were extraordinarily accurate : " Escher got it absolutely right to the millimeter . "
= = Legacy = =
Escher 's special way of thinking and rich graphics have had a continuous influence in mathematics and art , as well as in popular culture .
= = = In art collections = = =
The Escher intellectual property is controlled by the M.C. Escher Company . Exhibitions of his artworks are managed separately by the M.C. Escher Foundation .
The primary institutional collections of original works by M.C. Escher are the Escher Museum in The Hague ; the National Gallery of Art ( Washington , DC ) ; the National Gallery of Canada ( Ottawa ) ; the Israel Museum ( Jerusalem ) ; and the Huis ten Bosch ( Nagasaki , Japan ) .
= = = Exhibitions = = =
Despite wide popular interest , Escher was for long somewhat neglected in the art world ; even in his native Netherlands , he was 70 before a retrospective exhibition was held . In the twenty @-@ first century , major exhibitions have been held in cities across the world . An exhibition of his work in Rio de Janeiro however attracted more than 573 @,@ 000 visitors in 2011 ; its daily visitor count of 9 @,@ 677 made it the most visited museum exhibition of the year , anywhere in the world . No major exhibition of Escher 's work was held in Britain until 2015 , when the Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art ran one in Edinburgh from June to September 2015 , moving in October 2015 to the Dulwich Picture Gallery , London . A major retrospective exhibition has been organized in Italy in 2015 – 2016 , attracting over 500 @,@ 000 visitors in Rome and Bologna , before moving to Treviso .
Christchurch Art Gallery , New Zealand , 1977
Israel Museum , Jerusalem , 1995 – 1996
Capitoline Museums , Rome , 2004 – 2005
Art Gallery of Alberta , 2010
Centro Cultural Banco do Brasil , Rio de Janeiro , 2011
Akron Art Museum , Ohio , 2011
Glenbow Museum , 2013
Moscow Museum of Modern Art , 2013 – 2014
National Palace Museum , Taiwan , 2014
Chiostro del Bramante , Rome , 2014 – 2015
National Gallery of Canada , 2014 – 2015
Currier Museum of Art , New Hampshire , 2014 – 2015
Salvador Dalí Museum , Florida , August 2015 – January 2016
North Carolina Museum of Art , October 2015 – January 2016
Royal Palace of Milan , Italy , June 2016 – January 2017
= = = In mathematics and science = = =
Doris Schattschneider identifies 11 strands of mathematical and scientific research anticipated or directly inspired by Escher . These are the classification of regular tilings using the edge relationships of tiles : two @-@ color and two @-@ motif tilings ( counterchange symmetry or antisymmetry ) ; color symmetry ( in crystallography ) ; metamorphosis or topological change ; covering surfaces with symmetric patterns ; Escher 's algorithm ( for generating patterns using decorated squares ) ; creating tile shapes ; local versus global definitions of regularity ; symmetry of a tiling induced by the symmetry of a tile ; orderliness not induced by symmetry groups ; the filling of the central void in Escher 's lithograph Print Gallery by H. Lenstra and B. de Smit .
Gödel , Escher , Bach by Douglas Hofstadter , published in 1979 , discusses the ideas of self @-@ reference and strange loops , drawing on a wide range of artistic and scientific sources including Escher 's art and the music of J. S. Bach .
The asteroid 4444 Escher was named in Escher 's honor in 1985 .
= = = In popular culture = = =
Escher 's works have appeared on many album covers including The Scaffold 's 1969 L the P with Ascending and Descending ; Mott the Hoople 's eponymous 1969 record with Reptiles , Beaver & Krause 's 1970 In A Wild Sanctuary with Three Worlds ; and Mandrake Memorial 's 1970 Puzzle with House of Stairs and ( inside ) Curl Up . His works have similarly been used on many book covers , including some editions of Edwin Abbott 's Flatland which used Three Spheres ; E. H. Gombrich 's Meditations on a Hobby Horse with Horseman ; Pamela Hall 's Heads You Lose with Plane Filling 1 ; Patrick A. Horton 's Mastering the Power of Story with Drawing Hands ; Erich Gamma et al . ' s Design Patterns : Elements of Reusable Object @-@ oriented software with Swans ; and Arthur Markman 's Knowledge Representation with Reptiles . The " World of Escher " markets posters , neckties , T @-@ shirts , and jigsaw puzzles of Escher 's artworks .
Both Austria and the Netherlands have issued postage stamps commemorating the artist and his works .
= = Selected works = =
= = = Books = = =
Ernst , Bruno ; Escher , M. C. ( 1995 ) . The Magic Mirror of M. C. Escher . Taschen America . ISBN 1 @-@ 886155 @-@ 00 @-@ 3 .
Escher , M. C. ( 1971 ) . The Graphic Work of M. C. Escher . Ballantine .
Locher , J. L. ( 1971 ) . The World of M. C. Escher . Abrams . ISBN 0 @-@ 451 @-@ 79961 @-@ 5 .
Locher , J. L. ( 1981 ) . M. C. Escher : His Life and Complete Graphic Work . Abrams . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8109 @-@ 8113 @-@ 3 .
Schattschneider , Doris ; Walker , Wallace ( 1987 ) . M. C. Escher Kaleidocycles . Pomegranate Communications . ISBN 0 @-@ 906212 @-@ 28 @-@ 6 .
Schattschneider , Doris ( 2004 ) . M. C. Escher : Visions of Symmetry . Abrams . ISBN 0 @-@ 8109 @-@ 4308 @-@ 5 .
Schattschneider , Doris ; Emmer , Michele , eds . ( 2003 ) . M. C. Escher 's Legacy : a Centennial Celebration . Springer @-@ Verlag . ISBN 3 @-@ 540 @-@ 42458 @-@ X.
Veldhuysen , W. F. ( 2006 ) . The Magic of M. C. Escher . Thames & Hudson . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 500 @-@ 51289 @-@ 0 .
= = = Media = = =
Escher , M. C. The Fantastic World of M. C. Escher , Video collection of examples of the development of his art , and interviews , Director , Michele Emmer .
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= Bingo America =
Bingo America is an American game show broadcast by Game Show Network . The series follows two contestants as they try to compete to win up to $ 100 @,@ 000 . Additionally , the series lets at @-@ home viewers print bingo cards online that allow them to play along with the show to win small amounts of money for themselves .
Created and produced by Andrew Glassman , the show was originally hosted by Patrick Duffy and Crystal Wallasch . When its second season premiered on October 6 , 2008 , they were replaced by Richard Karn and Diane Mizota , respectively .
= = Gameplay = =
= = = Main game = = =
Two contestants compete on each episode . On each turn , a Bingo ball comes out of the hopper and a question is asked . Each ball has a number from 1 to 75 and a letter in the word " BINGO " printed on it . If the question is answered correctly , the player earns the letter from that ball and the number on the ball is added in dollars to the bank , which starts at $ 500 ( e.g. , if G @-@ 50 comes out , the bank increases by $ 50 ) . If the letter is a duplicate already earned by the player , no extra letters are earned . The first player that spells out BINGO from the earned letters wins the game . A Free @-@ Space Ball with a sponsor 's logo acts as a wild card in the game . The player who answers a question correctly when that ball is rolled out can choose any letter , and $ 100 is added to the bank . Two regular games are played . Contestants who win both games win the match and receive all the money in the bank . If each contestant wins one game , a five @-@ question tie @-@ breaker game is played . The first question 's answer begins with a B , the second question 's answer starts with I , and so on . The first to answer three questions correctly wins the money in the bank and goes on to play the Bingo Bonus Board for a chance at $ 100 @,@ 000 .
If time runs short during a game , the show goes to a 50 / 50 round . In the 50 / 50 round the remaining questions of that game are asked in a multiple @-@ choice fashion , with two possible answers given . Contestants who answer incorrectly at this point have credit for the question ( and the given letter , if applicable ) automatically given to their opponent ; however , no money is added to the bank for that question .
= = = Bonus round = = =
The winner of the main game plays the Bingo Bonus Board , which used two different formats . In the first season of the show , each number on the Bingo Bonus Board represented a cash amount or another prize , up to a grand prize of $ 100 @,@ 000 cash . Every prize was repeated at least twice on the board . The contestant chose one number at a time , and won the first prize to be revealed twice .
In the second season , 55 of the 75 spaces concealed cash values , while 20 hid " wrecking balls . " Contestants started with the " B " row ( the only row without wrecking balls ) and selected a number in that row . After each selection , the contestants could leave the game with the money already won or risk their winnings and continue with a selection in the next row . Contestants who chose wrecking balls lost the money they had accumulated in the bonus round . Contestants who made five successful picks kept all of their accumulated bonus money and activated the Bingo Sphere one more time for the Superball . If the contestants ' five chosen bonus numbers matched the one on the Superball , their bonus round winnings were augmented to $ 100 @,@ 000 .
Marine John Stefan was the first contestant to win $ 100 @,@ 000 , doing so under the first format in April 2008 . John Hanlin was the only player to win the top prize under the second format , doing so in October 2008 .
= = = Home viewer interaction = = =
At @-@ home viewers are also allowed to play along with the show downloading bingo cards available at GSN 's website . Once the taping of the show is complete and all of the randomly drawn numbers have been recorded , a computer generates bingo cards that viewers can then download and print for the broadcast of the show a few weeks later . A home player who earns a " Bingo " is directed to GSN 's website to claim a $ 50 prize .
= = Production = =
The series , created by veteran television producer Andrew Glassman , was first announced as green @-@ lit on January 30 , 2008 . The first season contained 40 episodes , which began airing on March 31 , 2008 . A second season of the series , consisting of 65 episodes , debuted on October 6 , 2008 , with Karn and Mizota joining the show . When asked to explain the host change , GSN argued that while Duffy was a " terrific " host and the network " loved working with him , " Karn was " a perfect fit for all the exciting changes [ in the second season ] . "
= = Reception = =
Bingo America received mixed critical reception . David Hinckley of the New York Daily News argued that the series only got " partly there " in attempting to bring bingo to television , and " doesn 't quite capture what the game is about . " Additionally , Ed Bark , a former television critic at The Dallas Morning News , argued that the show , " moves along briskly enough and it won 't hurt anybody , " and added that it had potential to raise the level of GSN 's " miniscule " audience .
= = Merchandise = =
In 2008 , GSN announced plans to launch a new website featuring multiple variations of game show @-@ themed merchandise ; the now @-@ defunct website was launched September 30 of that year . Among the items featured in the online store was an interactive DVD game by Imagination Entertainment based on the series ' format , which was released at the time the second season premiered . The game plays similarly to the show , beginning with a " Bingo Draw " round . During this round , players attempt to be the first to earn a " Bingo " while accumulating points by correctly answering trivia questions . Once a player earns a " Bingo " the " Bingo Bonus Board " round is played . The winner of the previous round tries to add more points to their score by matching two hidden numbers ; the round ends once the player finds a match . Opposing players can also earn points by guessing which numbers the other player chooses in this round . Whoever earns the most points during the game is the winner .
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= Vance plan =
The Vance plan ( Croatian : Vanceov plan , Serbian Latin : Vensov plan ) was a peace plan negotiated by the former United States Secretary of State Cyrus Vance in November 1991 during the Croatian War of Independence . At that time , Vance was the Special Envoy of the Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations ; he was assisted by United States diplomat Herbert Okun during the negotiations . The plan was designed to implement a ceasefire , demilitarize parts of Croatia that were under the control of Croatian Serbs and the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) , allow the return of refugees , and create favourable conditions for negotiations on a permanent political settlement of the conflict resulting from the breakup of Yugoslavia .
The Vance plan consisted of two agreements . The first agreement , known as the Geneva Accord , was signed by Yugoslav defence minister General Veljko Kadijević , President of Serbia Slobodan Milošević and Croatian President Franjo Tuđman in Geneva , Switzerland , on 23 November 1991 . Because the ceasefire agreed at that time did not hold , further negotiations resulted in the Implementation Agreement of 2 January 1992 . The Implementation Agreement , signed in Sarajevo , Bosnia and Herzegovina , by JNA Lieutenant Colonel General Andrija Rašeta and Croatian defence minister Gojko Šušak , produced a longer lasting ceasefire , which was supervised by the United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) . The parties failed to completely implement the remaining major aspects of the Vance plan .
= = Background = =
In August 1990 , an insurgency known as the Log Revolution took place in Croatia . It centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around the city of Knin , parts of the Lika , Kordun , and Banovina regions , and settlements in eastern Croatia with significant Serb populations . These areas were subsequently declared to be the Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) . After the RSK declared its intention to join Serbia , the Government of Croatia declared the RSK a rebel organization . By March 1991 , the conflict had escalated , resulting in the Croatian War of Independence . In June 1991 , Croatia declared its independence as Yugoslavia disintegrated . A three @-@ month moratorium on the declarations of independence by Croatia and the RSK followed , but both declarations came into effect on 8 October .
The Croatian National Guard ( Croatian : Zbor narodne garde , ZNG ) was formed in May 1991 because the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Jugoslavenska Narodna Armija , JNA ) increasingly supported the RSK and the Croatian Police were unable to cope with the situation . In November the same year , the ZNG was renamed the Croatian Army ( Croatian : Hrvatska vojska , HV ) . The establishment of the military of Croatia was hampered by a UN arms embargo that had been introduced in September . The final months of 1991 saw the fiercest fighting of the war , culminating in the Battle of the Barracks , the Siege of Dubrovnik , and the Battle of Vukovar .
= = Geneva Accord = =
The Vance plan was a result of a diplomatic mission by Cyrus Vance , the former United States Secretary of State , then Special Envoy of the Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations . He was assisted by US diplomat Herbert Okun and Under @-@ Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations for Special Political Affairs Marrack Goulding . The mission was sent to SFR Yugoslavia and was aimed at negotiating the end of hostilities in Croatia in late 1991 . The plan proposed a ceasefire , protection of civilians in specific areas designated as United Nations Protected Areas and a United Nations ( UN ) peacekeeping operation in Croatia .
The plan was first presented to the President of Serbia , Slobodan Milošević . Milošević found the plan wholly acceptable and promised he would ensure the leadership of the RSK eventually supported it . He endorsed the plan because it ensured the preservation of Serbian territorial gains of 1991 , retained Croatian Serb administration of the areas where the peacekeepers would be deployed and allowed the JNA to shift its focus to Bosnia and Herzegovina . Vance then met Yugoslav defence minister JNA General Veljko Kadijević , who also endorsed the plan and was apparently urged by Milošević to do so . After the plan was accepted by Croatian President Franjo Tuđman , the Geneva Accord was signed by Tuđman , Milošević and Kadijević in Geneva , Switzerland , on 23 November 1991 . The Accord was a precondition for the deployment of the UN peacekeeping force . It comprised four provisions ; the end of the Croatian blockade of JNA barracks , the withdrawal of JNA personnel and equipment from Croatia , the implementation of a ceasefire and the facilitation of the delivery of humanitarian aid .
The parties to the accord also agreed to the deployment of a UN peacekeeping mission in Croatia , which was later authorized through United Nations Security Council Resolution 721 of 27 November , following a formal request for deployment of the peacekeepers submitted by the Yugoslav government the previous day .
The Vance plan was approved pursuant to UN Security Council Resolution 721 as a part of the Report of the UN Secretary @-@ General submitted on 11 December , as UN Security Council Resolution 724 of 15 December . That resolution determined that the conditions necessary to deploy the peacekeepers had not yet been met . Instead , the UN deployed 50 liaison officers to prepare the mission while fighting continued throughout 1991 . The blockade of JNA barracks in HV @-@ controlled territory remained in place until December 1991 .
In the final ten @-@ day round of meetings , Vance negotiated another ceasefire agreement as a provisional arrangement backed by a deployment of UN peacekeepers to oversee it . The final obstacle to the agreement was removed when Tuđman agreed to lift the blockade of the remaining JNA barracks in HV @-@ held territory on 25 December . This met Kadijević 's conditions for the implementation of the ceasefire , and Milošević declared he had no objections to the plan on 31 December .
= = Implementation Agreement = =
The final agreement is known as the Vance plan , the Implementation Agreement , or the Sarajevo Agreement ( Croatian : Sarajevski sporazum ) . The UN deployment was made possible by the acceptance that the agreement did not represent a final political settlement and by the description of the role of the UN mission , which allowed both sides to claim it as a victory . The RSK claimed the situation allowed for the maintenance of RSK authorities until a final political settlement was reached , virtually ensuring the RSK had no incentive to negotiate . Croatians believed the UN would restore the RSK @-@ controlled area to Croatian authority , which the UN would not attempt .
After four hours of negotiations , the agreement was signed by Croatian Defence Minister Gojko Šušak and deputy commander of the JNA 's 5th Military District Lieutenant Colonel General Andrija Rašeta in Sarajevo , Bosnia and Herzegovina , on 2 January 1992 . It was the 15th ceasefire agreement signed since the start of the Croatian War of Independence on 31 March 1991 . The ceasefire generally held after it took effect on 3 January at 18 : 00 hours . The main exception was in the Dubrovnik area , where the JNA held positions around the city of Dubrovnik and in nearby Konavle until July 1992 . That area was not included in the UN peacekeeping deployment schedule . On 4 January , the Yugoslav Navy retreated from the Lora naval base near Split . On 5 January , Major General Imra Agotić , commander of the ZNG , noted 84 ceasefire violations by the Serb side . On 7 January , the Yugoslav Air Force shot down a European Community Monitor Mission helicopter . The next day , Kadijević resigned as Minister of Defence and was replaced with Colonel General Blagoje Adžić .
The Vance plan was designed to stop fighting in Croatia and allow negotiations to proceed without the impact of ongoing hostilities . It offered no political solutions in advance . The plan entailed the deployment of the 10 @,@ 000 @-@ strong United Nations Protection Force ( UNPROFOR ) to the three major conflict areas designated as UN Protected Areas ( UNPAs ) . The plan listed specific municipalities that were to be included in each UNPA , but the exact borders of each UNPA were not defined clearly because several municipalities were only to be partially included . The task of defining the exact borders of each UNPA was delegated to the UN liaison officers deployed in advance , in co @-@ operation with authorities in each area . Creation of the UNPAs was necessary for acceptance of the plan by Milošević and Tuđman . The Serb @-@ dominated authorities of Yugoslavia originally requested the deployment of a UN force along a zone between Serb and Croatian areas , reflecting the Serb desire to see the peacekeeping force securing the confrontation lines . Croatia wanted the UN force deployed along its international borders . The UNPAs served to formally satisfy both parties .
UNPROFOR was tasked with creating buffer zones between the belligerents , disarming the Croatian Serb Territorial Defence Force troops , overseeing the JNA and HV withdrawal from the UNPAs , and the return of refugees to those areas . United Nations Security Council Resolution 743 of 21 February 1992 described the legal basis of the UN mission , requested and agreed upon in November 1991 , with no explicit reference to Chapter VI or Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter . Instead , the resolution referred to Chapter VIII of the United Nations Charter , which foresees enforcement through regional arrangements or agencies after further authorization by the UN Security Council .
President of the RSK Milan Babić refused to endorse the plan ; Milošević summoned him to Belgrade where he , Serb members of the federal presidency , JNA commanders and Bosnian Serb leaders tried to persuade Babić to change his mind in a 70 @-@ hour @-@ long meeting . Despite failing to persuade Babić , Milošević arranged to have the RSK parliament approve the plan instead . Babić 's and Milošević 's supporters organized two separate , concurrent sessions of the RSK parliament — each group proclaiming victory . On 27 February , Babić was removed as RSK president following an intervention by Milošević ; he was replaced with Goran Hadžić . Babić opposed the Vance plan because he considered that acceptance of it , and the replacement of the JNA by UNPROFOR , would represent a de facto acceptance of Croatian sovereignty over the territory held by the RSK because the Vance plan treated RSK territory as part of Croatia . Croatia considered the UNPAs part of Croatia and objected to any official recognition of RSK officials within them . It feared the RSK would use the UN mission to consolidate itself within the UNPAs . The Croatian authorities considered that the only parties to the Vance Plan were the authorities in Belgrade , the UN and Croatia .
= = Aftermath = =
Despite the Geneva Accord requiring the immediate withdrawal of JNA personnel and equipment from Croatia , the JNA remained there for another seven to eight months . When they eventually withdrew , they left their equipment to RSK forces . The 2 January ceasefire allowed the JNA to retain its positions in East and West Slavonia , which were on the brink of military collapse . As a consequence of organizational problems and breaches of the previous ceasefire agreement , the UNPROFOR did not start to arrive until 8 March and took two months to fully deploy in the UNPAs . Even though UNPROFOR had placed most of the RSK 's heavy weapons in storage areas jointly controlled by the UN and the RSK by January 1993 , the peacekeeping troops were unable to fulfil the provisions of the Vance plan , such as the disarmament of the RSK militia , the return of refugees , the restoration of civilian authority and establishment of an ethnically mixed police force . The RSK military was retitled as police while the ethnic cleansing of areas under its control continued unchecked . UNPROFOR was compelled to prevent the return of refugees because of poor security conditions . No attempt was made to establish an ethnically mixed police force . UNPROFOR also failed to remove RSK forces from areas outside designated UNPAs that were under RSK control when the Implementation Agreement ceasefire was signed . Those areas — later better known as the " pink zones " — were supposed to be restored to Croatian control from the outset . Failure of this aspect of the implementation of the Vance plan made the pink zones a major source of friction between Croatia and the RSK .
In 1993 , Croatia launched several small @-@ scale military operations against the RSK to seize significant local objectives and capture international attention ; it was worried the situation on the ground might become permanent . In response , the RSK military retrieved their weapons from the UN / RSK @-@ controlled storage sites , reversing the only major success of UNPROFOR . In March 1995 , the UNPROFOR mission was terminated following the efforts of U.S. Ambassador Richard Holbrooke ; the United Nations Confidence Restoration Operation was deployed to Croatia with a new mandate . Later that year , most of the territory controlled by the RSK was captured by the HV during Operations Flash and Storm , which was foreseen by Babić when he opposed the Vance plan in 1991 . The rest of the RSK @-@ held areas were regained by Croatia following the Erdut Agreement negotiated between Croatian and Serbian authorities on 12 November 1995 during peace talks that also produced the Dayton Agreement .
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= Cadbury Camp =
Cadbury Camp is an Iron Age hill fort in Somerset , England , near the village of Tickenham . It is a scheduled monument . Although primarily known as a fort during the Iron Age it is likely , from artefacts , including a bronze spear or axe head , discovered at the site , that it was first used in the Bronze Age and still occupied through the Roman era into the Anglo @-@ Saxon period . It has been associated with Arthurian England and Camelot ; however there is no evidence to support this .
The 7 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 8 ha ) hill fort is well preserved , and is managed by the National Trust through a Higher Level Stewardship agreement with Natural England which involves tree clearing , including non @-@ native Turkey Oaks , and management of the scrub .
The name Cadbury is derived from " Cada 's byrig " ; byrig is the Anglo @-@ Saxon word meaning " fort " or " town " , which is frequently , but not exclusively , used to refer to hill @-@ forts . It is one of three sites in Somerset to include the Cadbury name , the others being Cadbury Castle , near South Cadbury and Cadbury Hill which is also known as Cadbury @-@ Congresbury to distinguish it from the other sites .
= = Location = =
Cadbury Camp is situated on a natural ridge between the Gordano Valley and the North Somerset Levels , next to the Limebreach Wood ancient woodland and nature reserve .
= = History = =
The hill fort was constructed during the Iron Age , probably by the local Dobunni tribe , however the details are not fully known . The discovery of a bronze spear or axe head at the site indicates use before the Iron Age . The Bronze Age spearhead is in the Museum of Somerset in Taunton .
Hill forts developed in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age , roughly the start of the first millennium BC . The reason for their emergence in Britain , and their purpose , has been a subject of debate . It has been argued that they could have been military sites constructed in response to invasion from continental Europe , sites built by invaders , or a military reaction to social tensions caused by an increasing population and consequent pressure on agriculture . The dominant view since the 1960s has been that the increasing use of iron led to social changes in Britain . Deposits of iron ore were located in different places to the tin and copper ore necessary to make bronze , and as a result trading patterns shifted and the old elites lost their economic and social status . Power passed into the hands of a new group of people . Archaeologist Barry Cunliffe believes that population increase still played a role and has stated " the forts provided defensive possibilities for the community at those times when the stress of an increasing population burst out into open warfare . But I would not see them as having been built because there was a state of war . They would be functional as defensive strongholds when there were tensions and undoubtedly some of them were attacked and destroyed , but this was not the only , or even the most significant , factor in their construction " .
The fort , which covers about 7 acres ( 2 @.@ 8 ha ) , consisted of ditches and earth banks topped with a wooden fence in an elevated position above the marshy land below . The ramparts are 45 feet ( 14 m ) apart . It extends approximately 190 metres ( 620 ft ) from north to south and 160 metres ( 520 ft ) from east to west . The ditch is around 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) deep and the ramparts rise up around 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 ft 11 in ) .
After the Iron Age occupation may have continued into the Roman era indicated by the discovery of pottery fragments , a small stone statue of Mars possibly from a Roman temple and coins of Claudius Gothicus and Valentinian II . The site may still have been occupied into the Anglo @-@ Saxon period . Several of the finds were uncovered during excavations by Harold St George Gray in 1922 , although the coin dating from around 370 was discovered in 1945 and a Romano @-@ British relief in the inner defensive ditch in 1974 . The relief was given to North Somerset Museum , and loaned to Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery .
During World War II the site was used for bomb disposal and as the location for a searchlight battery .
= = Current management = =
The site was once part of the estate linked to Clevedon Court . It is now managed via a Higher Level Stewardship agreement between the National Trust and Natural England . This has involved removing trees whose roots are growing into the earthen banks of the site . In particular non native Turkey Oaks , which provide a habitat for damaging Gall wasps , are being removed . Cattle are also being used to manage the scrub and encourage the growth of flowers such as orchids .
= = Myths and legends = =
Local legends associate it with Arthurian England and Camelot , though these may be due to confusion with the better @-@ known Cadbury Castle , near South Cadbury some 50 miles to the south .
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= Italian battleship Ammiraglio di Saint Bon =
Ammiraglio di Saint Bon was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the Italian Navy ( Italian : Regia Marina ) built during the 1890s . She was laid down in July 1893 , launched in April 1897 , and completed in May 1901 . She was the lead ship of her class , and had one sister ship , Emanuele Filiberto . The ship was armed with a main battery of four 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) guns and was capable of a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
Ammiraglio di Saint Bon served in the active squadron of the Italian navy for the first several years of her career . She was assigned to the 3rd Division during the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 1912 . During the war , she was involved in the seizure of the island of Rhodes , where she provided gunfire support to Italian infantry . The ship was obsolescent by World War I and was slated to be broken up in 1914 – 15 , but the need for warships granted Ammiraglio di Saint Bon a respite . She spent the war as a harbor defense ship in Venice and , after April 1916 , was used primarily as a floating anti @-@ aircraft battery . She was stricken from the naval register in June 1920 and subsequently broken up for scrap .
= = Design = =
Ammiraglio di Saint Bon was 111 @.@ 8 meters ( 367 ft ) long overall , and had a beam of 21 @.@ 12 m ( 69 @.@ 3 ft ) and a maximum draft of 7 @.@ 69 m ( 25 @.@ 2 ft ) . She displaced 10 @,@ 531 long tons ( 10 @,@ 700 t ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two triple expansion engines rated at 14 @,@ 296 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 661 kW ) . Steam for the engines was provided by twelve coal @-@ fired cylindrical water @-@ tube boilers . The ship 's propulsion system provided a top speed of 18 @.@ 3 knots ( 33 @.@ 9 km / h ; 21 @.@ 1 mph ) and a range of approximately 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Ammiraglio di Saint Bon had a crew of 557 officers and enlisted men .
As built , the ship was armed with four 10 in ( 254 mm ) 40 @-@ caliber guns placed in two twin gun turrets , one forward and one aft . She was also equipped with eight 6 in ( 152 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns in individual casemates amidships , and eight 4 @.@ 7 in ( 119 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns in shielded pivot mounts directly above the casemate battery . The ship 's gun armament was rounded out by eight 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) guns and two 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns . Ammiraglio di Saint Bon also carried four 17 @.@ 7 in ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes in deck @-@ mounted launchers . The ship was protected by Harvey steel . The main belt was 9 @.@ 8 in ( 249 mm ) thick , and the deck was 2 @.@ 75 in ( 70 mm ) thick . The conning tower was protected by 9 @.@ 8 in of armor plating . The main battery guns had 9 @.@ 8 in thick plating , and the casemates were 5 @.@ 9 in ( 150 mm ) thick .
= = Service = =
Ammiraglio di Saint Bon was built by the Venice Naval Shipyard . She was laid down on 18 July 1893 and launched on 29 April 1897 , after which her fitting out took place . The ship began her sea trials in January 1901 off La Spezia , and was commissioned on 1 February . Her preliminary full @-@ power trials began on 5 May , during which she reached 19 @.@ 2 knots ( 35 @.@ 6 km / h ; 22 @.@ 1 mph ) . Her official speed trials took place on 23 May , where she reached a top speed of 18 @.@ 5 knots ( 34 @.@ 3 km / h ; 21 @.@ 3 mph ) . Her trials were completed the following day .
The ship spent the first several years of her career in the 1st Squadron , along with her sister Emanuele Filiberto and the two Regina Margherita @-@ class battleships . In October 1906 , Ammiraglio di Saint Bon participated in major fleet maneuvers under the command of Vice Admiral Alfonso di Brochetti in the Ionian Sea . The exercises lasted from 10 to 26 October . The maneuvers culminated in a mock attack by the Italian fleet on the harbor defenses at Taranto . During the 1908 maneuvers , Ammiraglio di Saint Bon served in the hostile squadron , tasked with attacking the friendly squadron , where her sister was assigned .
= = = Italo @-@ Turkish War = = =
On 29 September 1911 , Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire in order to seize Libya . Ammiraglio di Saint Bon initially served in the 3rd Division of the 2nd Squadron , but was later transferred to the Division of the Torpedo Boat Inspector , commanded by Rear Admiral Prince Luigi Amedeo . The ship was not heavily involved in the fighting in North Africa in the first months of the war and , in December , was transferred to Italy . On 13 April 1912 , Ammiraglio di Saint Bon and the rest of the Division sailed from Tobruk to the Aegean Sea to rendezvous with the 1st Division . The two divisions met on 17 April off the island of Stampalia , after which the combined fleet steamed north . The following day , the ships cut submarine telegraph cables between Imbros , Tenedos , Lemnos , Salonica , and the Dardanelles . They then steamed to the entrance to the Dardanelles in an attempt to lure out the Ottoman fleet . When the Ottoman coastal fortifications began to take the Italian ships under fire , the Italians returned fire and inflicted serious damage on them . On 19 April , Ammiraglio di Saint Bon and most of the fleet returned to Italy , leaving only Pisa , Amalfi , and a flotilla of torpedo boats to cruise off the Ottoman coast .
On 30 April 1912 , Ammiraglio di Saint Bon and the rest of the 3rd Division escorted a convoy of troopships from Tobruk to the island of Rhodes . The Italian heavy ships demonstrated off the city of Rhodes , while the transports landed the expeditionary force 10 miles ( 16 km ) to the south on 4 May ; the soldiers quickly advanced on the city , supported by artillery fire from the Italian fleet . The Turks surrendered the city the following day . While the Italian troops completed the conquest of the island , Ammiraglio di Saint Bon bombarded Ottoman positions in support of the Italian offensive . Toward the end of May , the 3rd Division returned to Italy . In July , Ammiraglio di Saint Bon and the rest of the Division had withdrawn to Italy to replace worn @-@ out gun barrels , along with other repairs . By October , the Ottomans had agreed to sign a peace treaty to end the war . After the war , Ammiraglio di Saint Bon had six searchlights installed on platforms abreast the funnels and the mast . A rangefinder was also added on top of the conning tower .
In 1913 , Ammiraglio di Saint Bon participated in an international naval demonstration in the Ionian Sea to protest the Balkan Wars . Ships from other navies included in the demonstration were the British pre @-@ dreadnought HMS King Edward VII , the Austro @-@ Hungarian pre @-@ dreadnought SMS Zrínyi , the French armored cruiser Edgar Quinet , and the German light cruiser SMS Breslau . The most important action of the combined flotilla , which was under the command of British Admiral Cecil Burney , was to blockade the Montenegrin coast . The goal of the blockade was to prevent Serbian reinforcements from supporting the siege at Scutari , where Montenegro had besieged a combined force of Albanians and Ottomans . Pressured by the international blockade , Serbia withdrew its army from Scutari , which was subsequently occupied by a joint Allied ground force .
= = = World War I = = =
Italy declared her neutrality after the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 but , by July 1915 , the Triple Entente had convinced the Italians to enter the war against the Central Powers . Nevertheless , the outbreak of war prompted Italy to retain Ammiraglio di Saint Bon and her sister , which had been scheduled for disposal in 1914 – 15 . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , Italy 's traditional naval rival , was the primary opponent in the conflict . The Italian Naval Chief of Staff , Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , believed that an active fleet policy was prohibited by the serious threat from submarines in the confined waters of the Adriatic Sea . Instead , Revel decided to implement blockade at the southern end of the Adriatic with the battle fleet , while smaller vessels , such as the MAS boats , conducted raids on Austro @-@ Hungarian ships and installations . Meanwhile , Revel 's capital ships would be preserved to confront the Austro @-@ Hungarian battle fleet in the event that it sought a decisive engagement . As a result , the ship was not particularly active during the war .
From the onset of Italian participation in the war , Ammiraglio di Saint Bon was used as a harbor defense ship in Venice , along with her sister and the old battleship Sardegna , as well as two cruisers and several smaller craft . After April 1916 , Ammiraglio di Saint Bon was used as a floating anti @-@ aircraft battery to defend Venice . She continued in this role until the end of the war in November 1918 . The ship remained in the Italian Navy 's inventory for only a short time after the end of the war ; she was stricken from the naval register on 18 June 1920 and subsequently broken up for scrap .
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= Red @-@ tailed hawk =
The red @-@ tailed hawk ( Buteo jamaicensis ) is a bird of prey , one of three species colloquially known in the United States as the " chickenhawk , " though it rarely preys on standard sized chickens . It breeds throughout most of North America , from western Alaska and northern Canada to as far south as Panama and the West Indies , and is one of the most common buteos in North America . Red @-@ tailed hawks can acclimate to all the biomes within their range . There are fourteen recognized subspecies , which vary in appearance and range . It is one of the largest members of the genus Buteo in North America , typically weighing from 690 to 1 @,@ 600 g ( 1 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 5 lb ) and measuring 45 – 65 cm ( 18 – 26 in ) in length , with a wingspan from 110 – 145 cm ( 43 – 57 in ) . The red @-@ tailed hawk displays sexual dimorphism in size , with females averaging about 25 % heavier than males . The bird is sometimes referred to as the red @-@ tail for short , when the meaning is clear in context .
The subspecies Harlan 's hawk ( B. j. harlani ) is sometimes considered a separate species ( B. harlani ) .
The red @-@ tailed hawk occupies a wide range of habitats and altitudes , including deserts , grasslands , coniferous and deciduous forests , agricultural fields and urban areas . It lives throughout the North American continent , except in areas of unbroken forest or the high arctic . It is legally protected in Canada , Mexico and the United States by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act .
Because they are so common and easily trained as capable hunters , the majority of hawks captured for falconry in the United States are red @-@ tails . Falconers are permitted to take only passage hawks ( which have left the nest , are on their own , but are less than a year old ) so as to not affect the breeding population . Adults , which may be breeding or rearing chicks , may not be taken for falconry purposes and it is illegal to do so . Passage red @-@ tailed hawks are also preferred by falconers because these younger birds have not yet developed the adult behaviors which would make them more difficult to train .
= = Description = =
As is the case with many raptors , the red @-@ tailed hawk displays sexual dimorphism in size , as females are up to 25 % larger than males . As is typical in large raptors , frequently reported mean body mass for Red @-@ tailed Hawks are somewhat higher than expansive research reveals . Part of this weight is highly seasonally variable and due to clinal variation , male red @-@ tailed hawks may weigh from 690 to 1 @,@ 300 g ( 1 @.@ 52 to 2 @.@ 87 lb ) and in females between 900 and 2 @,@ 000 g ( 2 @.@ 0 and 4 @.@ 4 lb ) . However , research from nine studies occurring at migration sites in the United States and two breeding studies , one from the smallest race in Puerto Rico , the other from larger races in Wisconsin show that males weigh a mean of 837 g ( 1 @.@ 845 lb ) and females weigh a mean of 1 @,@ 040 @.@ 7 g ( 2 @.@ 294 lb ) , about 15 % lighter than prior species @-@ wide published weights . The heaviest surveyed weights came from migrants in Cape May , New Jersey , where females weighed a mean of 1 @,@ 278 g ( 2 @.@ 818 lb ) , males a mean of 990 @.@ 8 g ( 2 @.@ 184 lb ) . The lightest were from the breeding population in forest openings of Puerto Rico , where the females and males weighed an average of 1 @,@ 023 g ( 2 @.@ 255 lb ) and 795 g ( 1 @.@ 753 lb ) , respectively , also the highest size sexual dimorphism in the species . Size variation in body mass reveals that the red @-@ tailed hawks typically varies only a modest amount , racial variation in average weights of great horned owls show that mean body mass is nearly twice ( the heaviest race is about 36 % heavier than the lightest known race on average ) as variable as that of the hawk ( where the heaviest race is only just over 18 % heavier on average than the lightest ) . Males can reportedly measure 45 to 60 cm ( 18 to 24 in ) in total length , females measuring 48 to 65 cm ( 19 to 26 in ) long . The wingspan can range from 105 to 141 cm ( 41 to 56 in ) and , in the standard scientific method of measuring wing size , the wing chord is 325 @.@ 1 – 444 @.@ 5 mm ( 12 @.@ 80 – 17 @.@ 50 in ) long . The tail measures 188 to 258 @.@ 7 mm ( 7 @.@ 40 to 10 @.@ 19 in ) in length . The exposed culmen was reported to range from 21 @.@ 7 to 30 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 85 to 1 @.@ 19 in ) and the tarsus averaged 74 @.@ 7 – 95 @.@ 8 mm ( 2 @.@ 94 – 3 @.@ 77 in ) . The middle toe ( excluding talon ) can range from 38 @.@ 3 to 53 @.@ 8 mm ( 1 @.@ 51 to 2 @.@ 12 in ) , with the hallux @-@ claw ( the talon of the rear toe , which has evolved to be the largest in accipitrids ) measuring from 24 @.@ 1 to 33 @.@ 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 95 to 1 @.@ 32 in ) in length .
Red @-@ tailed hawk plumage can be variable , depending on the subspecies and the region . These color variations are morphs , and are not related to molting . The western North American population , B. j. calurus , is the most variable subspecies and has three color morphs : light , dark , and intermediate or rufus . The dark and intermediate morphs constitute 10 – 20 % of the population .
Though the markings and hue vary across the subspecies , the basic appearance of the red @-@ tailed hawk is consistent . Overall , this species is blocky and broad in shape , often appearing ( and being ) heavier than other Buteos of similar length . A whitish underbelly with a dark brown band across the belly , formed by horizontal streaks in feather patterning , is present in most color variations . Especially in younger birds , the underside may be otherwise covered with dark brown spotting . The red tail , which gives this species its name , is uniformly brick @-@ red above and light buff @-@ orange below . The bill is short and dark , in the hooked shape characteristic of raptors , and the head can sometimes appear small in size against the thick body frame . They have a relatively short , broad tails and thick , chunky wings . The cere , the legs , and the feet of the red @-@ tailed hawk are all yellow .
Immature birds can be readily identified at close range by their yellowish irises . As the bird attains full maturity over the course of 3 – 4 years , the iris slowly darkens into a reddish @-@ brown hue . In both the light and dark morphs , the tail of the immature red @-@ tailed hawk is patterned with numerous darker bars .
= = Taxonomy = =
The red @-@ tailed hawk is a member of the genus Buteo , a group of medium @-@ sized raptors with robust bodies and broad wings . Members of this genus are known as buzzards in Europe , but hawks in North America .
There are at least 14 recognized subspecies of Buteo jamaicensis , which vary in range and in coloration :
B. j. jamaicensis , the nominate subspecies , occurs in the northern West Indies , including Jamaica , Hispaniola , Puerto Rico and the Lesser Antilles but not the Bahamas or Cuba . El Yunque National Forest , Puerto Rico holds the highest known density of red @-@ tailed hawks anywhere . The bird is referred to as " Guaraguao " in the island .
B. j. alascensis breeds ( probably resident ) from southeastern coastal Alaska to the Queen Charlotte Islands and Vancouver Island in British Columbia .
B. j. borealis group ( eastern red @-@ tailed hawk ) breeds from southeast Canada and Maine south through eastern Texas and east to northern Florida . It winters from southern Ontario east to southern Maine and south to the Gulf coast and Florida .
B. j. calurus ( western red @-@ tailed hawk ) breeds from central interior Alaska , through western Canada south to Baja California . It winters from southwestern British Columbia southwest to Guatemala and northern Nicaragua . Paler individuals of northern Mexico may lack the dark wing marking .
B. j. costaricensis is resident from Nicaragua to Panama . This subspecies is dark brown above with cinnamon flanks , wing linings and sides , and some birds have rufous underparts . The chest is much less heavily streaked than in northern migrants ( B. j. calurus ) to Central America .
B. j. fuertesi ( southwestern red @-@ tailed hawk ) breeds from northern Chihuahua to southern Texas . It winters in Arizona , New Mexico , and southern Louisiana . The belly is unstreaked or only lightly streaked , and the tail is pale .
B. j. fumosus , Islas Marías , Mexico
B. j. hadropus , Mexican Highlands
B. j. harlani ( Harlan 's red @-@ tailed hawk , sometimes classified as its own species , B. harlani , Harlan 's hawk ) is markedly different from all other red @-@ tails . In both color morphs , the plumage is blackish and white , lacking warm tones ( save the tail ) . The tail may be reddish , dusky , whitish , or gray and can be longitudinally streaked , mottled , or barred . Shorter primaries result in wingtips that don 't reach the tail in perched birds . It breeds in Alaska and northwestern Canada and winters from Nebraska and Kansas to Texas and northern Louisiana . This population may well be a separate species .
B. j. kemsiesi is a dark subspecies resident from Chiapas to Nicaragua . The dark wing marking may not be distinct in paler birds .
B. j. kriderii ( Krider 's red @-@ tailed hawk ) is paler than other red @-@ tails , especially on the head ; the tail may be pinkish or white . In the breeding season , it occurs from southern Alberta , southern Saskatchewan , southern Manitoba , and extreme western Ontario south to south @-@ central Montana , Wyoming , western Nebraska , and western Minnesota . In winter , it occurs from South Dakota and southern Minnesota south to Arizona , New Mexico , Texas and Louisiana .
B. j. socorroensis , Socorro Island , Mexico
B. j. solitudinus , Bahamas and Cuba
B. j. umbrinus occurs year @-@ round in peninsular Florida north to Tampa Bay and the Kissimmee Prairie . It is similar in appearance to calurus
The four island forms , jamaicensis , solitudinus , socorroensis , and fumosus , do not overlap in range with any other subspecies .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The red @-@ tailed hawk is one of the most widely scattered hawks in the Americas . It breeds from central Alaska , the Yukon , and the Northwest Territories east to southern Quebec and the Maritime Provinces of Canada , and south to Florida , the West Indies , and Central America . The winter range stretches from southern Canada south throughout the remainder of the breeding range .
Its preferred habitat is mixed forest and field , with high bluffs or trees that may be used as perch sites . It occupies a wide range of habitats and altitudes , including deserts , grasslands , coastal regions , mountains , foothills , coniferous and deciduous woodlands , tropical rainforests , agricultural fields and urban areas . It is second only to the peregrine falcon in the use of diverse habitats in North America . It lives throughout the North American continent , except in areas of unbroken forest or the high Arctic .
The red @-@ tailed hawk is widespread in North America , partially due to historic settlement patterns , which have benefited it . The clearing of forests in the Northeast created hunting areas , while the preservation of woodlots left the species with viable nest sites . The increase in trees throughout the Great Plains during the past century due to fire suppression and tree planting facilitated the western range expansion of the red @-@ tailed hawk as well as range expansions of many other species of birds . The construction of highways with utility poles alongside treeless medians provided perfect habitat for perch @-@ hunting . Unlike some other raptors , the red @-@ tailed hawk are seemingly unfazed by considerable human activity and can nest and live in close proximity to large numbers of humans . Thus , the species can also be found in cities , where common prey such as rock pigeons and brown rats may support their populations . One famous urban red @-@ tailed hawk , known as " Pale Male " , became the subject of a non @-@ fiction book , Red @-@ Tails in Love : A Wildlife Drama in Central Park , and is the first known red @-@ tail in decades to successfully nest and raise young in the crowded New York City borough of Manhattan .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Flight = = =
In flight , this hawk soars with wings often in a slight dihedral , flapping as little as possible to conserve energy . Active flight is slow and deliberate , with deep wing beats . In wind , it occasionally hovers on beating wings and remains stationary above the ground . When soaring or flapping its wings , it typically travels from 32 to 64 km / h ( 40 mph ) , but when diving may exceed 190 km / h ( 120 mph ) .
= = = Vocalization = = =
The cry of the red @-@ tailed hawk is a two to three second hoarse , rasping scream , described as kree @-@ eee @-@ ar , that begins at a high pitch and slurs downward . This cry is often described as sounding similar to a steam whistle . The red @-@ tailed hawk frequently vocalizes while hunting or soaring , but vocalizes loudest in annoyance or anger , in response to a predator or a rival hawk 's intrusion into its territory . At close range , it makes a croaking " guh @-@ runk " . Young hawks may utter a wailing klee @-@ uk food cry when parents leave the nest . The fierce , screaming cry of the red @-@ tailed hawk is frequently used as a generic raptor sound effect in television shows and other media , even if the bird featured is not a red @-@ tailed hawk .
= = = Diet = = =
The red @-@ tailed hawk is carnivorous , and an opportunistic feeder . Its diet is mainly small mammals , but it also includes birds and reptiles . Prey varies with regional and seasonal availability , but usually centers on rodents , comprising up to 85 % of a hawk 's diet . Most commonly reported prey types include mice , including both native Peromyscus species and house mice ; gophers , voles , chipmunks , ground squirrels and tree squirrels . Additional prey ( listed by descending likelihood of predation ) include lagomorphs , shrews , bats , pigeons , quail , corvids , waterfowl , other raptors , reptiles , fish , crustaceans , insects and earthworms . Where found in Caribbean islands , red @-@ tailed hawks prey mostly on reptiles such as snakes and lizards , since these are perhaps the most predominant native land animals of that region . Prey specimens can range to as small a size as beetles and worms . However , they can also prey on marmots , white @-@ tailed jackrabbits , or female wild turkey , all of which are at least easily double the weight of most red @-@ tails . Although they prefer to feed on fresh prey they 've killed themselves , these hawks are not above occasionally consuming carrion . During winter in captivity , an average red @-@ tail will eat about 135 g ( 4 @.@ 8 oz ) daily .
The red @-@ tailed hawk commonly employs one of two hunting techniques . Often , they scan for prey activity from an elevated perch site , swooping down from the perch to seize the prey . They also watch for prey while flying , either capturing a bird in flight or pursuing prey on the ground until they can pin them down in their talons . Red @-@ tailed hawks , like some other raptors , have been observed to hunt in pairs . This may consist of stalking opposites sides of a tree , in order to surround a tree squirrel and almost inevitably drive the rodent to be captured by one after being flushed by the other hawk . They are opportunistically attracted to conspicuous meals , such as displaying male red @-@ winged blackbirds .
The great horned owl occupies a similar ecological niche nocturnally to the red @-@ tail , taking similar prey . Competition may occur between the hawk and owl species during twilight , although the differing nesting season and activity times usually results in a lack of direct competition . Although the red @-@ tail 's prey is on average larger ( due in part to the scarcity of diurnal squirrels in the owl 's diet ) , the owl is an occasional predator of red @-@ tailed hawks themselves , of any age , while the hawks are not known to predate adult great horned owls . Other competitors include other large Buteo species such as Swainson 's hawks and rough @-@ legged hawks , as well as the northern goshawk , since prey and foraging methods of these species occasionally overlap . Hawks have been observed following American badgers to capture prey they flush and the two are considered potential competitors . Competition over carcasses may occur with American crows , and several crows working together can displace a hawk . Larger raptors , such as eagles and ferruginous hawks , may steal hawk kills .
= = = Reproduction = = =
The red @-@ tailed hawk reaches sexual maturity at two years of age . It is monogamous , mating with the same individual for many years . In general , the red @-@ tailed hawk will only take a new mate when its original mate dies . The same nesting territory may be defended by the pair for years . During courtship , the male and female fly in wide circles while uttering shrill cries . The male performs aerial displays , diving steeply , and then climbing again . After repeating this display several times , he sometimes grasps her talons briefly with his own . Courtship flights can last 10 minutes or more . Copulation often follows courtship flight sequences , although copulation frequently occurs in the absence of courtship flights .
In copulation , the female , when perched , tilts forward , allowing the male to land with his feet lodged on her horizontal back . The female twists and moves her tail feathers to one side , while the mounted male twists his cloacal opening around the female 's cloaca . Copulation lasts 5 to 10 seconds and during pre @-@ nesting courtship in late winter or early spring can occur numerous times each day .
In the same period , the pair constructs a stick nest in a large tree 4 to 21 m ( 13 to 69 ft ) off the ground or on a cliff ledge 35 m ( 115 ft ) or higher above the ground , or may nest on man @-@ made structures . The nest is generally 71 to 97 cm ( 28 to 38 in ) in diameter and can be up to 90 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) tall . The nest is constructed of twigs , and lined with bark , pine needles , corn cobs , husks , stalks , aspen catkins , or other plant lining matter .
Great horned owls compete with the red @-@ tailed hawk for nest sites . Each species has been known to kill the young and destroy the eggs of the other , but in general , both species nest in adjacent or confluent territories without conflict . Great horned owls are incapable of constructing nests and typically expropriate existing red @-@ tail nests . Great horned owls begin nesting behaviors much earlier than red @-@ tails , often as early as December . Red @-@ tails are therefore adapted to constructing new nests when a previous year 's nest has been overtaken by owls or otherwise lost . New nests are typically within a kilometer or less of the previous nest . Often , a new nest is only a few hundred meters or less from a previous one . Being a large predator , most predation of these hawks occurs with eggs and nestlings , which are taken by owls , corvids and raccoons .
A clutch of one to three eggs is laid in March or April , depending upon latitude . Clutch size depends almost exclusively on the availability of prey for the adults . Eggs are laid approximately every other day . The eggs are usually about 60 mm × 47 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in × 1 @.@ 9 in ) . They are incubated primarily by female , with the male substituting when the female leaves to hunt or merely stretch her wings . The male brings most food to the female while she incubates . After 28 to 35 days , the eggs hatch over 2 to 4 days ; the nestlings are altricial at hatching . The female broods them while the male provides most of the food to the female and the young , which are known as eyasses ( pronounced " EYE @-@ ess @-@ ez " ) . The female feeds the eyasses after tearing the food into small pieces . After 42 to 46 days , the eyasses begin to leave the nest . The fledging period follows , with short flights engaged in , after another 3 weeks . About 6 to 7 weeks after fledging , the young begin to capture their own prey . Shortly thereafter , when the young are around 4 months of age , they become independent of their parents . However , the hawks do not generally reach breeding maturity until they are around 3 years of age . In the wild , red @-@ tailed hawks have lived for at least 25 years , for example , Pale Male was born in 1990 , and in Spring 2014 is still raising eyasses . The oldest captive hawk of this species was at least 29 and a half years of age .
= = Relationship with humans = =
= = = Use in falconry = = =
The red @-@ tailed hawk is a popular bird in falconry , particularly in the United States where the sport of falconry is tightly regulated and where red @-@ tailed hawks are both widely available and allowed to novice falconers . Red @-@ tailed hawks are highly tameable and trainable , with a more social disposition than all other falcons or hawks other than the Harris 's hawk . They are also long lived and highly disease resistant , allowing a falconer to maintain a red @-@ tailed hawk as a hunting companion for many years . There are fewer than 5 @,@ 000 falconers in the United States , so despite their popularity any effect on the red @-@ tailed hawk population , estimated to be about one million in the United States , is negligible .
Not being as swift as falcons or accipiters , red @-@ tailed hawks are not the most effective of bird hawks and are usually used against ground game such as rabbits and squirrels . However , some individuals may learn to ambush birds on the ground with a swift surprise approach and capture them before they can accelerate to full speed and escape . Some have even learned to use a falcon @-@ like diving stoop to capture challenging game such as pheasants . In the course of a typical hunt , a falconer using a red @-@ tailed hawk most commonly releases the hawk and allows it to perch in a tree or other high vantage point . The falconer , who may be aided by a dog , then attempts to flush prey by stirring up ground cover . A well @-@ trained red @-@ tailed hawk will follow the falconer and dog , realizing that their activities produce opportunities to catch game . Once a raptor catches game , it does not bring it back to the falconer . Instead , the falconer must locate the bird and its captured prey , " make in " ( carefully approach ) and trade the bird its kill in exchange for a piece of offered meat .
= = = Feathers and Native American use = = =
The feathers and other parts of the red @-@ tailed hawk are considered sacred to many American indigenous people and , like the feathers of the bald eagle and golden eagle , are sometimes used in religious ceremonies and found adorning the regalia of many Native Americans in the United States ; these parts , most especially their distinctive tail feathers , are a popular item in the Native American community . As with the other two species , the feathers and parts of the red @-@ tailed hawk are regulated by the eagle feather law , which governs the possession of feathers and parts of migratory birds .
= = = Historical works = = =
John James Audubon . The Red @-@ tailed Hawk in Ornithological Biography vol . 1 ( 1831 ) , pp. 265 – 272 ( also on WikiSource , see right ) . The Red @-@ tailed Buzzard in The Birds of America vol . 1 ( 1840 ) , pp. 32 – 38 . [ The 1840 edition appears to be a combination of the two companion works from early 1830s : the plates from Birds of America and the descriptions from Ornithological Biography . ]
John James Audubon . The Black Warrior in Ornithological Biography vol . 1 ( 1831 ) , pp. 441 – 443 ( also on WikiSource , see right ) . Harlan 's Buzzard in The Birds of America vol . 1 ( 1840 ) , pp. 38 – 40 .
= = = Live nest cameras = = =
Live nestcam at Cornell University
PMC @-@ Sierra HawkCam
Live nestcam at the University of Wisconsin , Madison
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= Genesis ( 2005 ) =
Genesis ( 2005 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced by Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) promotion that took place on November 13 , 2005 at the TNA Impact ! Zone in Orlando , Florida . It was the first event under the Genesis name and eleventh event in the 2005 TNA PPV schedule . Seven professional wrestling matches and two pre @-@ show matches were featured on the event 's card , one of which involved a championship .
The main event was a Six Man Tag Team match pitting the team of Rhino and Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) against the team of Jeff Jarrett and America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) . Rhino and Team 3D won the encounter . The TNA X Division Championship was defended by then @-@ champion A.J. Styles against the challenger Petey Williams at the event . Styles defeated Williams to retain the championship . A No Disqualification match between Abyss and Sabu was held at the show . Abyss won the contest . A match to determine the number @-@ one contender to the NWA World Heavyweight Championship took place at Genesis , in which Monty Brown defeated Jeff Hardy for a future title match .
Genesis is remembered for the debut of Christian Cage . It was also dedicated to World Wrestling Entertainment wrestler Eddie Guerrero , who died the day of the show . Cage 's debut was ranked by TNA as the 5th greatest moment in the company 's history . Corey David Lacroix of the professional wrestling section of the Canadian Online Explorer rated the show an 8 out of 10 , higher than the 2006 edition of 5 out of 10 by Bob Kapur .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
Genesis was announced in early @-@ August 2005 on TNA 's official website . It was planned for November 13 at the TNA Impact ! Zone in Orlando , Florida . This event caused a change in TNA 's PPV schedule , as the November 2004 PPV event was titled Victory Road . This was a small change as TNA intended to stick with the other names used for PPVs throughout 2005 . A promotional poster for the event was released prior by TNA featuring Jeff Hardy . TNA created a section covering the event on their website . A thirty @-@ minute pre @-@ show was slatted to take place prior to the telecast featuring two wrestling matches : Shark Boy versus the debuting Nigel McGuinness , and The Diamonds in the Rough ( David Young , Elix Skipper , and Simon Diamond ) versus Lance Hoyt and The Naturals ( Andy Douglas and Chase Stevens ) . TNA promoted the debut of a newly signed wrestler to occur at Genesis , which the promotion called a " major acquisition . " Genesis was dedicated to World Wrestling Entertainment wrestler Eddie Guerrero , who died the day of the event .
= = = Storylines = = =
Genesis featured seven professional wrestling matches and two pre @-@ show matches that involved different wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds and storylines . Wrestlers portrayed villains , heroes , or less distinguishable characters in the scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches .
The main event at Genesis was a Six Man Tag Team match pitting the team of Rhino and Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) against the team of Jeff Jarrett and America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ; AMW ) . This match was promoted for Genesis by TNA on their official website , and later announced on the October 29 episode of TNA 's television program TNA Impact ! . The storyline behind this match began the October 1 episode of Impact ! , when Team 3D made their TNA debut . On the October 8 episode of Impact ! , AMW and Jarrett assaulted Team 3D to the point they were left covered in blood . Afterwards , Team 3D were not seen due to a scripted injury , with Jarrett , AMW , and Team Canada ( A @-@ 1 , Bobby Roode , Eric Young , Petey Williams , and Coach Scott D 'Amore ) hosting a segment where they buried Team 3D 's careers on the October 15 episode of Impact ! . Meanwhile , then @-@ NWA World Heavyweight Champion Jarrett was involved in a feud with Kevin Nash which was to lead to a title defense at TNA 's Bound for Glory PPV event on October 23 . However , Nash was rushed to the hospital the night before and was not cleared to wrestle . Rhino took Nash 's place in the match , where he defeated Jarrett to win the NWA World Heavyweight Championship . The same night Team 3D made their return from their scripted injury , coming to the aid of Rhino after the main event . Later , Jarrett reclaimed the title on the November 3 episode of Impact ! .
The predominate bout on the card was for the TNA X Division Championship , in which then @-@ champion A.J. Styles defended the title against the challenger Petey Williams . At Bound for Glory , Williams competed in a Three Way Ultimate X match to determine the number @-@ one contender to the TNA X Division Championship along with Chris Sabin and Matt Bentley . The match had technical difficulties , but in the end Williams won the bout . On the October 29 episode of Impact ! , a rematch from Bound for Glory was promoted for the November 3 episode of Impact ! due to the issues regarding the previous contest . Despite the rematch , Williams won this encounter as well , remaining number @-@ one contender . After his victory , TNA began to promote Styles versus Williams in a title match at Genesis .
Several other bouts were planned for Genesis , of these the most significant were a No Disqualification match and a match to determine the number @-@ one contender to the NWA World Heavyweight Championship . The No Disqualification match was between Abyss and Sabu . This was a rematch from TNA 's Unbreakable PPV event on September 11 , which Abyss won . Abyss and Sabu also fought in Monster 's Ball II at Bound for Glory , which Rhino won . TNA advertised Monty Brown versus Jeff Hardy to determine the number @-@ one contender to the NWA World Heavyweight Championship heading into Genesis . This was a continuation of a storyline in which Brown sought to become NWA World Heavyweight Champion . Both of these encounters were advertised on TNA 's website following Bound for Glory .
= = Event = =
= = = Pre @-@ Show = = =
Prior to Genesis , TNA held a thirty @-@ minute pre @-@ show . Two matches were held during the broadcast . The first pitted Shark Boy against Nigel McGuinness , lasting 5 minutes and 30 seconds . Shark Boy won the encounter by using a roll @-@ up pin . The second was a Six Man Tag Team match between The Diamonds in the Rough ( David Young , Elix Skipper , and Simon Diamond ) and the team of Lance Hoyt and The Naturals ( Andy Douglas and Chase Stevens ) . The duration of the contest was 5 minutes and 48 seconds . The Diamonds in the Rough won after Skipper and Young crashed into Stevens simultaneously and followed with the pinfall .
= = = Miscellaneous = = =
Genesis featured employees other than the wrestlers involved in the matches . Mike Tenay and Don West were the commentators for the telecast . Jeremy Borash and David Penzer were the ring announcers for the event . Andrew Thomas , Rudy Charles , and Mark " Slick " Johnson participated as referees for the encounters . Shane Douglas handled the interview duties during the show . Besides employees who appeared in a wrestling role , SoCal Val , Larry Zbyszko , Cassidy Riley , Coach Scott D 'Amore , Christian Cage , Traci , James Mitchell , and Gail Kim all appeared on camera , either in backstage or in ringside segments . During the broadcast , Christian Cage made his TNA debut , revealing himself as the major acquisition which TNA promoted for the event .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first match of the event pitted Raven against P.J. Polaco . This match occurred because Raven refused to quit the company , which was something NWA Championship Committee member Larry Zbyszko had requested in the storyline . Since Raven refused to quit , Zbyszko forced him to wrestle Polaco . Cassidy Riley interfered in the match by attempting to aid Raven . The duration of the bout was 5 minutes and 45 seconds . Raven won the contest by forcing Polaco 's head into the mat with his signature Even Flow DDT maneuver .
A Six Man Tag Team Hockey Stick Fight with Kip James as Special Guest Referee between 3Live Kru ( B.G. James , Konnan , and Ron Killings ) and Team Canada ( A @-@ 1 , Bobby Roode , and Eric Young ) followed . In this match , hockey sticks were hung above each of the turnbuckles in the ring , with only the legal men allowed to use them . The only way to win was by pinfall or submission . Killings pinned Young after a top rope leg drop onto a hockey stick that laid across Young 's groin to win the match for his team at 10 minutes and 23 seconds . After this bout , Christian Cage made his debut , announcing he wanted to become NWA World Heavyweight Champion . Coach Scott D 'Amore and Bobby Roode came out and offered Cage a spot in Team Canada , which Cage said he would consider .
The third match was between Monty Brown and Jeff Hardy to determine the number @-@ one contender to the NWA World Heavyweight Championship . Hardy scored a two @-@ count on Brown by slamming the back of Brown 's head and neck into the mat with a reverse neckbreaker . Hardy then climbed to the top rope and jumped off with a somersault toward Brown , who was laying on his back in the ring , to attempt his signature Swanton Bomb maneuver . Once Hardy jumped , Brown moved out of the way and then performed his signature Pounce maneuver by crashing into Hardy . Brown followed by pinning Hardy at 8 minutes and 43 seconds to win the contest and become number @-@ one contender to the NWA World Heavyweight Championship .
TNA held a Four @-@ on @-@ Four Tag Team Elimination X match pitting the team of Alex Shelley , Christopher Daniels , Roderick Strong , and Samoa Joe against the team of Austin Aries , Chris Sabin , Matt Bentley , and Sonjay Dutt . Matt Bentley was accompanied by Traci to the ring . The duration of this bout was 23 minutes and 15 seconds . Daniels took over the leadership role of his team , naming them Team Ministry . In this match , each person from each team had to be eliminated by pinfall or submission until all members of one team were gone . The wrestler ( s ) that remained won the bout for their team . Strong was the first eliminated after being pinned by Aries following a 450 ° aerial splash . Aries was eliminated soon @-@ after by Daniels , who pinned him with a roll @-@ up while he was distracted by Joe . The third elimination was Dutt , who submitted to Shelley 's signature Border City Stretch submission hold . Not long after , Shelley was pinned by Bentley after being kicked in the face . Joe forced Bentley to submit with his signature Coquina Clutch submission hold , bringing the match down to Daniels and Joe versus Sabin . Daniels won the bout for his team by pinning Sabin after slamming Sabin face @-@ first into the mat with his signature Angel 's Wings maneuver . An argument ensued between Daniels and Joe after the contest , with Joe angry in the storyline that Daniels eliminated Sabin when he wanted to instead . This led to Joe attacking Daniels and bashing him over the head with a steal chair . Joe followed up by slamming Daniels into the mat with his signature Muscle Buster maneuver and then a second time on a steal chair . This left Daniels bloodied in the center of the ring with TNA 's medical crew tending to his injuries .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The fifth match of the show saw Abyss face Sabu in a No Disqualification match . Abyss was accompanied by James Mitchell . In a No Disqualification match , weapons are legal , as well as outside interference , with a victor determined only by pinfall or submission . Abyss slammed Sabu into a pile of thumbtacks to earn a two @-@ count during the match . Near the end , Sabu tried to hit Abyss with a steal chair wrapped in barbed @-@ wire , but Abyss countered the maneuver . This led to Abyss slamming Sabu back @-@ first onto the barbed @-@ wire wrapped steal chair with his signature Black Hole Slam maneuver to win the encounter at 10 minutes and 48 seconds .
The TNA X Division Championship was defended by A.J. Styles against Petey Williams next . Williams was accompanied by A @-@ 1 . The duration of the contest was 18 minutes and 20 seconds . Early in the bout , Styles jumped over the top rope to ringside aiming to land on Williams , he instead overshot and crashed into the guardrail . Mid @-@ way through the contest , Styles attempted to perform his signature Styles Clash maneuver , but Williams countered . Afterwards , Williams attempted to perform his signature Canadian Destroyer , but this time Styles counter . Williams held Styles in his signature Sharpshooter submission hold during the encounter . Styles fought out of it by grabbing the bottom rope and forcing it to be released . Samoa Joe interfered in the bout by distracting Styles . Near the end , both men fought on the top rope with Styles getting the advantage . He then set up Williams for his Styles Clash maneuver and jumped off , slamming Williams face @-@ first into the mat from the top rope . Styles followed with a pin , thus winning the match and retaining the TNA X Division Championship .
The main event was a Six Man Tag Team match pitting the team of Rhino and Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) against the team of Jeff Jarrett and America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ; AMW ) . The latter was accompanied by Gail Kim . Various weapons were used by both teams throughout the match without the referee disqualifying either . Some weapons used included trash cans , cheese graters , and tables . Rhino tackled Jarrett with his signature Gore maneuver late in the match , but the pin was broken up by AMW . This led to Team 3D throwing Harris out of the ring and performing their signature 3D tag team maneuver , slamming Storm onto the mat . They followed with the pin to win the contest at 15 minutes and 48 seconds . After the contest , Jarrett attacked Rhino by bashing him over the head with a guitar . Jarrett , AMW , and Team Canada then proceeded to assault Rhino and Team 3D until Christian Cage came out to the ring . Cage attacked Coach Scott D 'Amore and aided Rhino and Team 3D is fighting off Jarrett , AMW , and the result of Team Canada .
= = Reception = =
A total of 900 people attended Genesis . Canadian Online Explorer writer Corey David Lacroix rated the entire event an 8 out of 10 , which was higher than the 2006 edition with 5 out of 10 from Bob Kapur . The Genesis ranking was lower than Bound for Glory 's rating , which received a 9 out of 10 from Bob Kapur . TNA 's next PPV event Turning Point was ranked lower than Genesis ; it received a 7 out of 10 from Bob Kapur . Genesis was ranked higher than TNA 's Victory Road held the previous November . Victory Road was given a 5 out of 10 from Jason Clevett . Compared to rival World Wrestling Entertainment 's ( WWE ) Survivor Series PPV event , Genesis out @-@ performed it , as it was given a 6 @.@ 5 out of 10 by Dale Plummer and Nick Tylwalk .
Lacroix rated the main event Six Man Tag Team match an 8 out of 10 , while the No Disqualification match was given a 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 . The TNA X Division Championship match and the Elimination X match each received the highest rating of Lacroix 's review with a 9 out of 10 . He gave the Monty Brown versus Jeff Hardy bout a 6 out of 10 , while the Raven versus P.J. Polaco match a 4 @.@ 5 out of 10 , the lowest rating of his review . He also gave Christian Cage 's debut an 8 out of 10 .
James Caldwell of the Pro Wrestling Torch Newsletter reviewed the event , commenting that the main event was the " usual shortcut main event match involving Jarrett or anyone with an ECW background . " He said the TNA X Division Championship match was a " solid match " and was the " match of the night so far , although not a typical standout X Division PPV match . " Caldwell 's called the No Disqualification match the " usual trainwreck hardcore match between two wrestlers who have wrestled the exact same match several PPV 's in a row . " He felt the Elimination X match was a decent wrestling match " and that the segment after the match helped to establish " Joe 's character and gave him some definition as an assassin . " As for the Brown versus Hardy match , he stated that it was a " better match than the previous two , but there wasn 't enough time for the match to develop a nice pace and cadence to be a solid PPV quality match . "
TNA released a DVD counting down the top 50 moments in their history in 2007 , with Cage 's debut being ranked at number 5 on the compilation .
= = Aftermath = =
After the show went off the air , Christian Cage , Rhino , and Team 3D ( Brother Devon and Brother Ray ) joined together to create a chant in honor of Eddie Guerrero .
Rhino and Jarrett continued their rivalry after Genesis . A rematch between Rhino and Jarrett for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship was announced on the November 19 episode of Impact ! for Turning Point . TNA aired a series of video packages focusing on Rhino and his title match heading into the show . Jarrett defeated Rhino at the event to retain the championship .
Team 3D fought AMW in a Tag Team Elimination Tables match at Turning Point . The Tables match was announced on the November 19 episode of Impact ! to take place at the show . Team 3D won the encounter at the show .
A.J. Styles went on to defend the TNA X Division Championship against Samoa Joe at Turning Point . This defense was due to Styles accusing Joe of violating the unwritten X Division code . Styles then challenged Joe to a TNA X Division Championship match at Turning Point which Joe accepted on the November 19 episode of Impact ! . Joe defeated Styles at the show to become the new TNA X Division Champion . After the bout , Joe attempted to assault Styles in the same manner he did with Daniels until Daniels returned from injury to save Styles . This continued a rivalry between the three wrestlers as Joe went on to defend the title against Daniels at TNA 's Final Resolution PPV event on January 15 , 2006 , which Joe won to retain the title . At TNA 's Against All Odds PPV event on February 12 , 2006 , Daniels , Joe , and Styles competed in a Three Way match for the TNA X Division Championship ; Joe gained the pinfall to retain the title . The three competed again , but this time in a Three Way Ultimate X match for the championship at TNA 's Destination X PPV event on March 12 , 2006 . Daniels won the bout , thus becoming the new TNA X Division Champion . The rivalry ended on the April 13 , 2006 episode of Impact ! when Joe defeated Daniels to win back the championship .
After Monty Brown became number @-@ one contender to the NWA World Heavyweight Championship , he face Christian Cage at Turning Point in another bout to determine the number @-@ one contender to the title . Cage requested this match on the November 26 episode of Impact ! from NWA Championship Committee member Larry Zbyszko , which he was granted . Cage won the contest to become the new number @-@ one contender NWA World Heavyweight Championship .
TNA held the first @-@ ever Barbed Wire Massacre at Turning Point between Abyss and Sabu . TNA advertised the Barbed Wire Massacre between Abyss and Sabu on the November 19 episode of Impact ! . The reasoning behind the match stipulation had to do with Abyss fearing barbed wire in the storyline . Abyss challenged this fear on the December 3 episode of Impact ! , by bashing Sabu over the head with a barbed wire wrapped steal chair . Sabu defeated Abyss at the event to end their rivalry .
= = Results = =
Elimination X match
1 . ^
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= Izak catshark =
The Izak catshark ( or simply Izak , Holohalaelurus regani ) is a species of catshark , belonging to the family Scyliorhinidae , common off the coasts of South Africa and southern Namibia . It typically inhabits the outer continental shelf at depths of 100 – 300 m ( 330 – 980 ft ) , with the males found deeper than the females and juveniles . The Izak catshark has a short , wide , flattened head and a robust body tapering to a long , slender tail . It can be identified by its ornate color pattern of dark brown spots ( in juveniles ) or reticulations and blotches ( in adults ) on a light yellowish background , as well as by the enlarged dermal denticles over its pectoral fins and along its dorsal midline from the snout to the second dorsal fin . This species reaches 69 cm ( 27 in ) in length , with the males larger than females .
Bottom @-@ dwelling and perhaps relatively active in nature , the Izak catshark feeds mainly on a diverse array of bony fishes , crustaceans , and cephalopods . A significant portion of its diet may be scavenged from offal discarded by fisheries . This species is oviparous , with females producing encapsulated eggs two at a time year @-@ round . The Izak catshark is regularly caught incidentally by a South African bottom trawl commercial fishery , but is discarded rather than utilized . Despite the fishing pressure , its population has been increasing and thus the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed it as Least Concern .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Izak catshark was originally described by South African ichthyologist John Gilchrist in a 1922 fisheries survey report . He assigned the new species to the genus Scylliorhinus , and gave it the specific epithet regani in honor of fellow ichthyologist Charles Tate Regan . In 1934 , Henry Weed Fowler assigned this species to his newly created Holohalaelurus , a subgenus of Halaelurus . Holohalaelurus has since been elevated to the rank of full genus . As there do not appear to be any existing type specimens referable to Gilchrist 's account , in 2006 Brett Human designated a 63 cm ( 25 in ) long male caught in Hondeklip Bay as the species neotype .
Historically , there has been much confusion in the scientific literature between H. regani , H. punctatus , and H. melanostigma , the last of which at various times had been considered a junior synonym of H. regani and was itself confounded with H. grennian . Furthermore , two forms of H. regani were once recognized : the " Cape " or " typical " form and the " Natal " or " northeastern " form . The latter " northeastern " form was described as a separate species , H. favus , in 2006 .
= = Description = =
The body of the Izak catshark is firm and stout , tapering dramatically towards the tail . The head is very short , wide , and flattened , with a blunt snout . The horizontally oval eyes are placed high on the head and have thick ridges beneath ; each has a rudimentary nictitating membrane and is followed by a spiracle . The nostrils are preceded by triangular flaps of skin that almost reach the long , angular mouth . The mouth contains prominent papillae on both the roof and the floor , and lacks furrows at the corners . The upper and lower jaws contain on average 65 and 60 tooth rows respectively ; each tooth is relatively large , with a narrow central cusp flanked by 1 – 2 smaller cusplets . There are five pairs of gill slits .
The pectoral fins are rather long and broad . The first dorsal fin originates over the rear of the pelvic fin bases ; the second dorsal fin is slightly larger and originates over the rear of the anal fin base . The pelvic and anal fins are long and low , and larger than the dorsal fins . The free rear tips of the pelvic fins may be fused together to some degree , but never completely ; males have slender , pointed claspers . The caudal peduncle is long and thin , particularly in younger sharks . The caudal fin makes up one @-@ fourth to one @-@ fifth of the total length and has a weak lower lobe and a ventral notch near the tip of the upper lobe . The thick skin is covered by well @-@ calcified dermal denticles , except around the gill slits . Enlarged , spike @-@ like denticles are found on the upper surface of the pectoral fins and along the dorsal midline from the snout to the second dorsal fin origin . Juvenile Izak catsharks are boldly patterned with many irregularly shaped dark brown spots on a light yellow to yellowish brown background . The spots enlarge and fuse with age to form an intricate pattern of reticulations and U @-@ shaped markings in adults . The underside is plain white , with obvious black sensory pores beneath the head , body , and paired fins . Like other Holohalaelurus species , but contrary to the pattern in most cartilaginous fishes , males attain a much greater maximum length than females : 69 cm ( 27 in ) versus 52 cm ( 20 in ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Endemic to the southern tip of Africa , the range of the Izak catshark extends from Lüderitz , Namibia in the west to Durban , South Africa in the east . Older records further north along the East African coast ( e.g. Somalia ) most likely refer to other Holohalaelurus species . This abundant , bottom @-@ dwelling species inhabits the outer continental shelf and upper continental slope , from 40 m ( 130 ft ) to at least 1 @,@ 075 m ( 3 @,@ 527 ft ) deep . Off South Africa , it is most common in areas with a wider continental shelf , and at depths of 100 – 200 m ( 330 – 660 ft ) off the south coast and 200 – 300 m ( 660 – 980 ft ) off the west coast . Females and juveniles tend to be found in shallower water than males . For the most part , the number of sharks in a given area remains largely constant throughout the year . However , sharks at the southernmost point of the Agulhas Bank may perform a small autumn migration towards the shore .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Compared to other deep @-@ sea sharks , the Izak catshark has a large heart suggestive of a relatively active lifestyle . It is a generalist that feeds on a wide variety of bony fishes , crustaceans , and cephalopods ; larger sharks consume proportionately more crustaceans and fewer fishes . At least some part of its recorded diet probably represents scavenging from fishery discards , given the presence of fast @-@ moving , pelagic species that the shark is unlikely to have captured live . Polychaete worms , hydrozoans , gastropods , and hagfish eggs may also be occasionally ingested . This species often has nematode and flatworm parasites in its stomach .
The Izak catshark is oviparous and reproduction proceeds throughout the year without seasonal patterns . Mature females have a single functional ovary and two functional oviducts ; a single egg matures within each oviduct at a time . Each egg is contained within a purse @-@ shaped capsule 3 @.@ 6 – 4 @.@ 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 7 in ) long and 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 47 – 0 @.@ 59 in ) across . The capsule is light brown with long tendrils at the four corners that likely serve to anchor it to rocks ; its surface has a velvet @-@ like texture and bears lengthwise striations . The rate of egg laying is unknown but thought to be high , based on this shark 's resilience to fishing pressure . The preponderance of females and juveniles at shallower depths may indicate that such waters serve as nursery areas . The young hatch at under 11 cm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) long . Males and females mature sexually at 45 – 50 cm ( 18 – 20 in ) and 40 – 45 cm ( 16 – 18 in ) long respectively .
= = Human interactions = =
The Izak catshark is harmless and of no commercial value . It is regularly caught incidentally ( and discarded ) by a bottom trawl fishery targeting hake south of Cape Town . In contrast to most cartilaginous fishes , its numbers have been increasing in the presence of commercial fishing . The reasons for this may include its high reproductive rate , its breeding in less @-@ fished shallower waters , its hardiness allowing for high post @-@ capture survival , and its opportunistic diet . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has consequently listed the Izak catshark under Least Concern , while still noting that it merits continued population monitoring because of its highly restricted range .
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= Alan Kippax =
Alan Falconer Kippax ( 25 May 1897 – 5 September 1972 ) was a cricketer for New South Wales ( NSW ) and Australia . Regarded as one of the great stylists of Australian cricket during the era between the two World Wars , Kippax overcame a late start to Test cricket to become a regular in the Australian team between the 1928 – 29 and 1932 – 33 seasons . A middle @-@ order batsman , he toured England twice , and at domestic level was a prolific scorer and a highly considered leader of NSW for eight years . To an extent , his Test figures did not correspond with his great success for NSW and he is best remembered for a performance in domestic cricket — a world record last wicket partnership , set during a Sheffield Shield match in 1928 – 29 . His career was curtailed by the controversial Bodyline tactics employed by England on their 1932 – 33 tour of Australia ; Kippax wrote a book denouncing the tactics after the series concluded .
Kippax was an " impeccably correct and elegant batsman , [ with ] an upright , easy stance at the wicket ; like his schoolboy idol Victor Trumper , he rolled his sleeves between wrist and elbow and excelled with the late cut " , who was probably at his peak during the 1920s . His omission from the 1926 team to tour England caused great controversy at the time — especially as he hit a brilliant 271 not out against Victoria on the eve of selection . Kippax was well into his thirties by the time he became a consistent selection for the Test team . Highly regarded by both fellow players and spectators , Kippax 's innings of 83 in the Lord 's Test of 1930 induced Neville Cardus to comment that , " he pleased the eye of the connoisseur all the time . "
= = Early years = =
The third son of Arthur Percival Howell Kippax and his wife Sophie Estelle ( née Craigie ) , Alan Kippax was born in the inner @-@ city Sydney suburb of Paddington . He attended both Bondi and Cleveland Street Public schools . At 14 , Kippax joined Waverley ( now Eastern Suburbs Cricket Club ) and was a regular in the first @-@ grade team within three years . At this stage , first @-@ class cricket was suspended because of World War I , but when competition resumed in the 1918 – 19 season he made his debut for New South Wales ( NSW ) . However , the state possessed a lot of batting talent , which was supplemented by the return to Australia of the Australian Imperial Forces cricket team that played in England after the armistice . Therefore , Kippax ’ s opportunities were restricted for a number of seasons . He also played a lot of baseball with the Waverley Baseball Club ( usually at third base ) and represented Australia against touring teams from American universities .
Kippax ’ s cricketing potential did not go completely unnoticed . He was offered a tour of New Zealand in the autumn of 1921 . Playing in an Australian second team captained by the Test batsman Vernon Ransford , he made only two half @-@ centuries in nine innings . In the 1922 – 23 season , Kippax became a regular for NSW , scoring 631 runs at 90 @.@ 14 @.@ and led the side 's first @-@ class averages . The next season he hit 248 in only 316 minutes against South Australia at the Sydney Cricket Ground ( SCG ) , then toured New Zealand with the NSW team skippered by Charlie Macartney . Kippax made two centuries in his 461 runs ( average 92 @.@ 2 ) on the tour .
He quickly won the respect of his fellow players and the spectators for his approach to the game . Alan McGilvray describes Kippax 's demeanour and presence on the field :
... meticulous in his dress and his life , a man with a squeaky @-@ clean image who would never raise his voice or allow his emotions to run away with him ... His shirt would always be buttoned the same way , the crease would always be sharp in his trousers , no hair would ever be out of place . He was an admirable engaging man .
Journalists employed many superlatives to describe the Kippax style . Ray Robinson thought that Kippax 's batting " had a silky quality not seen in any other player of his time or since " ; he captivated the crowds with his late cut when he , " made a lissom bow over the ball and stroked it away with the bat 's face downward , as if to squeeze the ball into the ground " . His favourite hook shot propelled the ball " with such unhurried ease that the punishing power of the stroke was revealed only in the way the ball smacked against the fence . " Donald Bradman believed him to be the best exponent of the hook shot in the game .
= = International career = =
Kippax began the 1924 – 25 summer with 115 for NSW against an Australian XI at the SCG . In the Sheffield Shield he had scores of 127 , 122 and 31 , 212 not out and 40 , earning him a first Australian cap ( at the age of 27 ) in the final Test of the Ashes series against England at Sydney . Sharing a 105 run partnership with Bill Ponsford in the first innings , Kippax impressed with a score of 42 from number seven . Wisden commented that the partnership " turned the fortunes of the game " , and Australia went on to victory .
= = = Shock omission = = =
Another 585 runs at 83 @.@ 57 in the 1925 – 26 season looked likely to win Kippax a place in the team to tour England in 1926 . He failed in the Test @-@ trial match staged in early December , but made the highest score of the Sheffield Shield competition , 271 not out ( in 423 minutes ) against Victoria at the SCG , which effectively steered NSW to the title . The subsequent omission of Kippax from the touring team is a famous blunder in Australian cricket history . Although Kippax was nearly 29 , former Australian captain Monty Noble called the non @-@ selection a " crime against the cricketing youth of Australia " . His omission is usually attributed to " interstate parochialism " and was a " triumph of dullness over batting artistry . " Australia surrendered the Ashes on the tour , with much of the blame for the loss directed at the team ’ s skipper , Herbie Collins . After he returned to Australia , administrators relieved Collins of the captaincy of his grade team and NSW , thus creating an opportunity for Kippax .
= = = Captain of NSW = = =
Installed as leader of NSW , Kippax earned a reputation as one of Australia ’ s leading batsmen over the next three years . His captaincy " welded with wit , kindness and some practical joking a raw team into a formidable unit , nurturing such youngsters as Archie Jackson , Stan McCabe and ( Sir ) Donald Bradman " . He hit a century in each innings against Queensland in their inaugural Sheffield Shield match in 1926 – 27 . The following season he registered the highest score of his career , 315 not out in 388 minutes versus Queensland at the SCG . Bradman wrote of this performance , " ... although they say Victor Trumper was even more beautiful to watch , it is hard to conceive more graceful batting than our skipper produced on that occasion . " Kippax ended the season with 926 runs at an average of 84 @.@ 18 .
The Test selectors still had Kippax under consideration and during March 1928 , he again toured New Zealand with an Australian second team , but failed to pass 40 in the seven innings he played . Restored to the Test team for the beginning of the 1928 – 29 Ashes series , Kippax made just 50 runs in four innings . Australia slipped to two heavy defeats and Kippax 's place was in jeopardy .
During the second Test at Sydney , Kippax was the central figure in the most controversial incident of the summer . Early in Australia ’ s first innings , Kippax had nine runs on the board , when :
According to George Hele , the umpire at the bowler ( Geary 's ) end , the latter delivered an undeviating ball just wide of Kippax ’ s legs . When the bails were seen to fall Hele refused an appeal for ‘ bowled ’ . [ English fieldsman Jack ] Hobbs , who had been at cover point , then appealed to Umpire Elder . Kippax at no time had left his crease . [ Wicketkeeper ] Duckworth had stepped to the leg side of the stumps to intercept the ball . The consensus of opinion is that it rebounded from one of his pads onto the wicket . Elder gave Kippax out ‘ bowled ’ , something he had no right to do from square @-@ leg . Kippax stood his ground for a time , disclosing later he left the wicket only because the persistent Hobbs had kept demanding , ‘ What sort of a sport are you to be standing here when you ’ re out ? ’ Vic Richardson tried to persuade his captain , Jack Ryder , to intercept Kippax before he crossed the incoming batsman and send him back . Ryder deliberated and dallied till it was too late . Elder afterwards admitted his mistake to Hele . ‘ What have I done ? ’ he asked .
At the conclusion of the Test , Kippax travelled to Melbourne where he led NSW in a Sheffield Shield match beginning on 22 December . At stumps on the second day , NSW was staring at defeat as they were seven for 58 in pursuit of Victoria ’ s first innings of 376 . When play resumed on Christmas Day , NSW slipped to nine for 113 , with Kippax 20 not out . However , the number eleven batsman Hal Hooker stuck with his captain as the score gradually mounted and the opposition ’ s frustrations grew .
As news of the last @-@ wicket stand spread , the crowd swelled , eventually reaching almost 15 @,@ 000 . Kippax 's initial nervousness about his partner had disappeared , and most overs followed the same pattern - Kippax would crack as many as he could from the first two or three balls , and then happily take a single to leave Hooker to fend off the remaining four or five deliveries and paced his innings to perfection .
By the end of play , Kippax was well beyond his double century . The following day , when the stand was finally broken after 307 runs had been added in 304 minutes , Kippax stood on 260 not out . This " most remarkable of all world batting records , " still stands today as the highest last @-@ wicket partnership in first @-@ class cricket .
Retaining his place for the third Test that started just days later on the same ground , Kippax maintained his superb form and hit his maiden Test century in Australia ’ s first innings . With Australia struggling against the pace of England 's Harold Larwood , Kippax steadied the innings and then launched an assault on Larwood , hooking him for four boundaries . Journalist Ray Robinson pointed out that before Kippax ’ s flurry of fours , Larwood had taken 14 wickets at 18 @.@ 3 runs in the series . After , he managed only four wickets for 472 runs . Kippax followed up with 41 in the second innings , as Australia fell to their third consecutive defeat in the rubber and lost the Ashes .
Kippax completed the series with scores of 3 and 51 at Adelaide , and 38 and 28 in Australia ’ s only winning effort , at the MCG . He received criticism in that , " his play was too delicately tuned for the hard business of winning matches . " Nevertheless , Kippax had another outstanding domestic season in 1929 – 30 , hitting four centuries in his 744 runs , at an average of 62 . This time , he was one of the first picked to go to England .
= = = Test regular = = =
The 1930 tour of England was dominated by the emergence of Don Bradman . Kippax finished second to Bradman in the first @-@ class averages and aggregates , scoring 1451 runs at 58 @.@ 04 . He hit a century in each innings of the match with Sussex . In the Tests , Kippax passed fifty four times in seven innings , without going on to a hundred . He shared two big partnerships with Bradman : 192 in the second Test at Lord 's and 229 in the third Test at Leeds . However , Wisden rated his 64 not out on a wet wicket in the first Test at Nottingham as his best effort and summarised his tour thus :
Essentially a stylist , Kippax was in every sense a great batsman , for he could suit his game to the needs of the occasion . A beautiful driver to the off , he cut at times in delightful fashion , the slower wickets of England affecting his abilities in that direction in only the slightest degree .
In the 1930 – 31 home series against the West Indies , Kippax began with what was to be his highest score in Test cricket ( 146 in under four hours ) in the first Test at the Adelaide Oval . This was the first Test century in matches between the two teams . He made 84 in the third Test at Brisbane , sharing a partnership of 193 with Bradman . However , Wisden called Kippax ’ s knock " unsteady " and he failed in his remaining three Test innings . For NSW , he hit two centuries in the Sheffield Shield .
The next season began badly for Kippax . Playing in a minor match at Parkes ( in rural NSW ) on a matting wicket , he had his nose broken by a delivery that bounced erratically — it hit a peg accidentally left under the mat when it was laid out . On 6 November 1931 , during NSW ’ s first match of the season at Brisbane , he was struck a severe blow to the temple by a rising ball from fast bowler Pud Thurlow . Taken to hospital , he retired from the match , but was selected for the first Test against South Africa , but scored only one run . He missed the second Test through injury , while his replacement Keith Rigg scored an impressive century on debut .
Kippax came back for the third Test at Melbourne and rewarded the faith of the selectors by scoring 52 and 67 , his two highest first @-@ class innings of the season . However , his best knock of the summer came on another rain @-@ affected pitch at Melbourne in the final Test . He batted " serenely " to top score with an elegant 42 . The entire South Africa team only managed 36 and 45 in their two completed innings on a " treacherous " wicket . As compensation for his lack of runs , Kippax led NSW to victory over Victoria in late January , which clinched the Sheffield Shield title for the state . During the winter of 1932 , Kippax joined a private team that toured Canada and the USA , a tour organised by ex @-@ Test bowler Arthur Mailey . Teammates noticed that his confidence was shaken by the blows to the head , and he no longer employed his famous hook shot .
= = = Bodyline series = = =
England toured during the 1932 – 33 season , and played the infamous " Bodyline " series . While the tactic of using short @-@ pitched bowling and close @-@ in fielders on the leg side was originally conceived to stop Don Bradman ’ s phenomenal run @-@ making , Bodyline was used against all the Australian batsmen . Kippax and the other Australian batsmen were adept at playing long innings and supporting Bradman in big partnerships — in Tests , Kippax had , in the past , featured in three stands of over 100 with Bradman — so the English were looking to undermine his confidence as well .
Kippax secured his Test place with 179 against Queensland at the Gabba in mid @-@ November 1932 . A fortnight later , he led NSW against the tourists and failed in both innings as his side suffered a heavy defeat . Selected for the first Test at Sydney , Kippax looked very uncomfortable in losing his wicket twice to the spearhead of the Bodyline attack , Harold Larwood . After batting at number four in the first innings , Kippax was demoted to bat behind his NSW understudy Stan McCabe in the second innings ; McCabe had scored a brilliant 187 not out in the first innings , defying Bodyline with aggressive hook shots . Irrespective of the change , Australia collapsed for 164 , leaving England needing just one run for victory in their second innings . In the dressing room , Kippax commented of Larwood , " he 's too bloody fast for me " .
Omitted from the remainder of the series , Kippax became the first of several Australian batting " casualties " during the summer . While most sympathised with his misfortune , and attributed his lack of confidence to the blows he received the previous season , Larwood was more succinct : " Kippax was scared stiff and he let you see it " . Employed as a radio commentator , Kippax spent the remainder of the series covering the Tests , and he also delivered a ten @-@ minute round up of each day ’ s play for the BBC , broadcast in England through its Empire short wave service .
Outspoken in his criticism of Bodyline , Kippax combined with the cricketer and physician Eric Barbour to write the book Anti Body @-@ Line , released just months after the tour ended . A short , polemical work aimed at an English readership , the book warned of the danger to the game if Bodyline was allowed as a legitimate tactic . Although the book kept the controversy raging , it was " calmly expressed ’ and " reasonable " .
After several seasons of struggling for runs , Kippax returned to form in 1933 – 34 . Against Queensland at New Year , he hit 125 and shared a stand of 363 in only 135 minutes with Bradman . Altogether , he made four centuries and averaged almost 72 to earn selection for the 1934 tour of England . Passed over for the vice @-@ captaincy of the team in favour of Bradman , Kippax had the confidence of knowing that the Australian Board of Control had reached an agreement with the MCC that the Australians would not have to face Bodyline during the tour .
= = = Final tour = = =
Beginning the tour with a duck , Kippax recovered with 89 at Leicester before contracting a heavy dose of influenza that forced him to miss the next four matches . On his return , he struggled for form , and was not chosen for the first Test . Kippax was the third selector on tour , and was out @-@ voted by his fellow selectors , so the press speculated that the decision caused disharmony within the team . Australia won the game and Kippax failed in the next two tour matches , so he missed out on the next Test at Lord 's , which was lost .
Struck down by serious illness again , Kippax was hospitalised with a ( wrongly ) suspected case of diphtheria and forced to miss the drawn Tests at Old Trafford and Leeds . Eventually , he returned to play in late July and hit form at the right time . With the series locked at one @-@ all , and a timeless Test to be played at The Oval to decide the Ashes , Australia needed to strengthen the batting . The experienced Kippax replaced the struggling youngster Len Darling in the middle order , for what proved to be his last Test .
The way the game unfolded , Kippax had little responsibility with the bat . A record partnership of 451 between Bill Ponsford and Don Bradman meant that Australia was four for 574 by the time he got to the crease . Kippax made 28 in just under an hour as Australia amassed 701 runs . He scored just 8 in the second innings , but Australia were victorious by 562 runs and regained the Ashes . Six days later , Kippax celebrated by making 250 against the Sussex bowling attack , his highest score in England and his first double century for more than five years . This boosted his first @-@ class above 50 on what had been a tour of mixed fortunes .
= = = Legacy = = =
On the team 's return from England , Kippax handed the NSW captaincy to Test teammate Bert Oldfield , and ended his first @-@ class career with four Sheffield Shield matches for the state . His last century came in mid @-@ December 1934 , when he scored 139 against South Australia at the Adelaide Oval . This gave Kippax a total of 32 centuries for NSW , a record tally , subsequently beaten only by Michael Bevan . His 6 @,@ 096 runs ( at 70 @.@ 06 ) for NSW in Sheffield Shield matches contributed to five title @-@ winning campaigns . In addition to his 12 @,@ 792 first @-@ class runs , Kippax scored over 7 @,@ 000 runs at an average of 53 for his grade club Waverley . Don Bradman summed up Kippax 's place in Australian cricket during his career :
This beautiful and stylish player was unlucky to emerge on the horizon of big cricket at a time when NSW had virtually an international side for its State XI . When his opportunity did come , Alan proved a real stalwart . In addition , his Trumperian style must have influenced for good vast numbers of young boys . Unquestionably , the line of Trumper and Kippax has much to do with the grace and elegance which is more frequently associated with players from NSW than from other States .
Kippax captained NSW in 45 first @-@ class matches , winning 19 , drawing 17 and losing only nine . His commentary of the fourth Test at Adelaide in early 1937 via a radio @-@ telephone service made history as the first direct radio broadcast of a cricket match from Australia to England .
= = Personal life = =
After a period working as a clerk , Kippax opened a sports store in Martin Place , Sydney during 1926 . It became a very profitable business . Two years later , on 20 April 1928 at St Stephen 's Presbyterian Church , he married Mabel Charlotte Catts . The New South Wales Cricket Association elected him a life member in 1943 – 44 . In February 1949 , Kippax was awarded a joint testimonial with his old teammate , wicketkeeper Bert Oldfield . Played between Lindsay Hassett ’ s XI and Arthur Morris ’ s XI at the SCG , the match raised ₤ 6 @,@ 030 , which was split evenly between Kippax and Oldfield . In later years , Kippax was an A @-@ grade golfer at The Lakes course in Sydney and a club champion lawn bowler at Double Bay .
A " ... small , gentle man with a kindly way about him " , Kippax enjoyed a great reputation within the game ; he was " a man of personal charm " . He was as elegant off the field as he was on ; the cricket writer David Frith recorded that , " to visit him in his Bellevue Hill home was to be transported into a calm 1930s world of silk smoking jacket , cigarette holder and art deco trimmings . " Kippax died of heart disease at his home in Bellevue Hill on 5 September 1972 . The Kippax Centre in the Canberra suburb of Holt is named after him .
He was an uncle of the renowned theatre critic H. G. Kippax .
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= Princess Victoria Melita of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha =
Princess Victoria Melita of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha and Edinburgh GCStJ CI VA RRC ( 25 November 1876 – 2 March 1936 ) was the third child and second daughter of Alfred , Duke of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha and Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia . She was a granddaughter of Queen Victoria as well as of Tsar Alexander II of Russia .
Born a British princess , Victoria spent her early life in England and lived in Malta for three years , where her father was serving in the Royal Navy . In 1889 the family moved to Coburg , where Victoria 's father became the reigning duke in 1893 . In her teens Victoria fell in love with her maternal first cousin Grand Duke Kirill Vladimirovich of Russia , but the disapprobation of marriage between first cousins of his faith , Orthodox Christianity , discouraged their romance . Instead , bowing to family pressure , Victoria married in 1894 a paternal first cousin , Ernest Louis , Grand Duke of Hesse , following the wishes of their shared grandmother , Queen Victoria . Their marriage was a failure . Victoria scandalized the royal families of Europe when she divorced her husband in 1901 . The couple 's only child , Princess Elisabeth , died of typhoid fever in 1903 .
Victoria married Grand Duke Kirill Vladimirovich in 1905 . They wed without the formal approval of Britain 's King Edward VII , required by the Royal Marriages Act 1772 , and in defiance of Tsar Nicholas II . In retaliation , the Tsar stripped Kirill of his offices and honours , also initially banishing the couple from Russia . They had two daughters and settled in Paris before being allowed to visit Russia in 1909 . In 1910 they moved to Russia , where Nicholas recognized her as Grand Duchess Victoria Feodorovna . After the fall of the Russian monarchy in 1917 , they escaped to Finland where she gave birth to her only son . In exile they lived for some years among her relatives in Germany , and from the late 1920s on an estate they bought in Saint @-@ Briac . In 1926 , Kirill proclaimed himself emperor in exile and Victoria supported her husband 's claims . Victoria died after suffering a stroke while visiting her daughter Maria in Amorbach .
= = Early life = =
Victoria was born on 25 November 1876 in San Anton Palace in Attard , Malta , hence her second name , Melita . Her father , who was stationed on the island as an officer in the Royal Navy , was Prince Alfred , Duke of Edinburgh , the second son of Queen Victoria . Her mother was Grand Duchess Marie Alexandrovna , the only surviving daughter of Alexander II of Russia and Marie of Hesse .
As a grandchild of the British monarch , she was styled Her Royal Highness Princess Victoria of Edinburgh . Within her family , she was always known as " Ducky " . At the time of her birth , she was 10th in the line of succession to the British throne . The princess was christened on 1 January 1877 at San Antonio Palace by a Royal Navy chaplain . Her godparents included her paternal grandmother Queen Victoria , who was represented by a proxy .
After the Duke ’ s service in Malta was over they returned to England where the family lived for the next few years . They divided their time between Eastwell Park , their country home in Kent , and Clarence House , their residence in London facing Buckingham Palace . Eastwell , a large estate of 2 @,@ 500 acres near Ashford , with its forest and park was the children 's favorite residence . In January 1886 , shortly after Princess Victoria turned nine , the family left England when her father was appointed commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Mediterranean naval squadron , based on Malta . For the next three years , the family lived at the San Anton Palace in Malta , Victoria 's birthplace .
The marriage of her parents was unhappy . The Duke was taciturn , unfaithful , prone to drinking and emotionally detached from his family . Victoria 's mother was independent @-@ minded and cultured . Although she was unsentimental and strict , the Duchess was a devoted mother and the most important person in her children 's lives . As a child , Victoria had a difficult temperament . She was shy , serious and sensitive . In the judgment of her sister Marie : " This passionate child was often misunderstood . " Princess Victoria Melita was talented at drawing and painting and learned to play the piano . She was particularly close to Marie . The two sisters would remain very close throughout their lives . They contrasted in appearance and personality . Victoria was dark and moody while Marie was blond and easy @-@ going . Although she was one year younger , Victoria was taller and seemed to be the older of the two .
= = Youth in Coburg = =
As a son of Queen Victoria 's deceased prince consort , Albert of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha , Victoria Melita 's father , Prince Alfred , was in the line of succession to Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha , the sovereign German duchy ruled by Albert 's elder brother , Ernest II , until his death in 1893 . Alfred became heir presumptive to the duchy when his older brother , the Prince of Wales ( later Edward VII ) , deferred his Saxon succession rights in favour of his younger brothers . Alfred and his family therefore moved to Coburg in 1889 . Their mother immediately began attempting to " Germanise " her daughters by installing a new governess , buying them plain clothing , and having them confirmed in the German Lutheran church , even though they had previously been raised as Anglicans . The children rebelled and some of the new restrictions were eased . Victoria 's ties to the British royal family were nonetheless emphasised when she served as a bridesmaid at the 1893 wedding of Prince George , Duke of York , and Princess Mary of Teck .
The teenage Victoria was a " tall , dark girl , with violet eyes ... with the assuredness of an Empress and the high spirits of a tomboy , " according to one observer . Victoria had " too little chin to be conventionally beautiful , " in the opinion of one of her biographers , but " she had a good figure , deep blue eyes , and dark complexion . " In 1891 , Victoria travelled with her mother to the funeral of Grand Duchess Alexandra Georgievna of Russia , the wife of her mother 's brother Grand Duke Paul Alexandrovich . There Victoria met her first cousin Grand Duke Kirill Vladimirovich . Although the two were deeply attracted to each other , Victoria 's mother was reluctant to allow her to marry him because the Russian Orthodox faith forbids the marriage of first cousins . She was also suspicious of the morality of the Romanov men . When her teenage daughters were impressed by their handsome cousins , their mother warned them against the Russian grand dukes who did not make good husbands .
Soon after her sister Marie was married to Crown Prince Ferdinand of Romania , a search was made for a suitable husband for Victoria . Her visit to her grandmother Queen Victoria at Balmoral Castle in the autumn of 1891 coincided with a visit by her cousin Prince Ernest Louis of Hesse , heir to the grand ducal throne of Hesse . Both were artistic and fun loving , got along well and even shared a birthday . The Queen , observing this , was very keen for her two grandchildren to marry .
= = Grand Duchess of Hesse = =
Eventually , Victoria and Ernst bowed to their families ' pressure and married on 9 April 1894 at Schloss Ehrenburg in Coburg . The wedding was a large affair , with most of the royal families of Europe attending , including Queen Victoria , the Empress Frederick , Kaiser Wilhelm II and the Prince of Wales . Victoria was now titled The Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine . Her wedding is also significant since at the same time the official engagement of the future Tsar Nicholas II of Russia to Ernst 's younger sister , Alix , was proclaimed . Together Victoria and Ernst had two children , a daughter , Princess Elisabeth of Hesse and by Rhine , whom they nicknamed Ella , born on 11 March 1895 , and a stillborn son , born on 25 May 1900 .
Victoria and Ernst proved incompatible . Victoria despaired of her husband 's lack of affection towards her , while Ernst devoted much of his attention to their daughter , whom he adored . Elisabeth , who physically resembled her mother , preferred the company of her father to Victoria . Ernst and Victoria both enjoyed entertaining and frequently held house parties for young friends . Their unwritten rule was that anyone over thirty " was old and out . " Formality was dispensed with and royal house guests were referred to by their nicknames and encouraged to do as they wished . Victoria and Ernst cultivated friends who were progressive artists and intellectuals as well as those who enjoyed fun and frolic . Victoria 's cousin Prince Nicholas of Greece and Denmark remembered one stay there as " the jolliest , merriest house party to which I have ever been in my life . "
Victoria was , however , less enthusiastic about fulfilling her public role . She avoided answering letters , put off visits to elderly relations whose company she did not enjoy , and talked to people who amused her at official functions while ignoring people of higher standing whom she found boring . Victoria 's inattention to her duties provoked quarrels with Ernst . The young couple had loud , physical fights . The volatile Victoria shouted , threw tea trays , smashed china against the wall , and tossed anything that was handy at Ernst during their arguments . Victoria sought relief in her love for horses and long gallops over the countryside on a hard @-@ to @-@ control stallion named Bogdan . While she was in Russia for the coronation of Tsar Nicholas II , Victoria 's affection for Kirill was also rekindled . She enjoyed flirting with him at the balls and celebrations that marked the coronation .
= = Divorce = =
Her marriage to Ernst suffered a further blow in 1897 , when Victoria returned home from a visit to her sister Queen Marie of Romania and reportedly caught Ernst in bed with a male servant . She did not make her accusation public , but told a niece that " no boy was safe , from the stable hands to the kitchen help . He slept quite openly with them all . " Queen Victoria was saddened when she heard of trouble in the marriage from Sir George Buchanan , her chargé d 'affaires , but refused to consider permitting her grandchildren to divorce because of their daughter , Elisabeth . Efforts to rekindle the marriage failed and , when Queen Victoria died in January 1901 , significant opposition to the end of the marriage was removed . The Supreme Court of Hesse dissolved the marriage on 21 December 1901 . Ernst , who had at first resisted the divorce , came to believe it was the only possible step . " Now that I am calmer I see the absolute impossibility of going on leading a life which was killing her and driving me nearly mad , " Ernst wrote to his elder sister Princess Louis of Battenberg . " For to keep up your spirits and a laughing face while ruin is staring you in the eyes and misery is tearing your heart to pieces is a struggle which is fruitless . I only tried for her sake . If I had not loved her so , I would have given it up long ago . " Princess Louis later wrote that she was less surprised by the divorce than Ernst was . " Though both had done their best to make a success of their marriage , it had been a failure ... [ T ] heir characters and temperaments were quite unsuited to each other and I had noticed how they were gradually drifting apart . " The divorce of the reigning Grand Duke and Grand Duchess of Hesse caused scandal in the royal circles of Europe . Tsar Nicholas wrote to his mother that even death would have been better than " the general disgrace of a divorce . "
After her divorce , Victoria went to live with her mother at Coburg and at her house in the French Riviera . She and Ernst shared custody of Elisabeth , who spent six months of each year with each parent . Elisabeth blamed Victoria for the divorce and Victoria had a difficult time reconnecting with her daughter . Ernst wrote in his memoirs that Elisabeth hid under a sofa , crying , before one visit to her mother . Ernst assured the child that her mother loved her too . Elisabeth responded , " Mama says she loves me , but you do love me . " Ernst remained silent and didn 't correct the child 's impression . Elisabeth died at age eight and a half of typhoid fever during a November 1903 visit to Tsar Nicholas II and his family at their Polish hunting lodge . The doctor advised the Tsar 's family to notify the child 's mother of her illness , but the Tsarina delayed in sending a telegram . Victoria received the final telegram notifying her of the child 's death just as she was preparing to travel to Poland to be at her bedside . At Elisabeth 's funeral , Victoria removed her Hessian Order , a medallion , and placed it on her daughter 's coffin as a final gesture " that she had made a final break with her old home . "
= = Remarriage = =
After Victoria 's divorce from Ernst , Grand Duke Kirill , whom Victoria had seen on all her subsequent visits to Russia , was discouraged by his parents from trying to keep a close relationship with her . Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna told Kirill to keep Victoria as his mistress and marry someone else . A few months later , war broke out between Russia and Japan . As a senior member of the navy , Kirill was sent on active service to the front in the Russo @-@ Japanese War . His ship was blown up by a Japanese mine while entering Port Arthur and he was one of the few survivors . Sent home to recover , the Tsar finally allowed him permission to leave Russia and he left for Coburg to be with Victoria . The narrow escape from death had hardened Kirill 's determination to marry Victoria . " To those over whom the shadow of death has passed , life has a new meaning , " Kirill wrote in his memoirs . " It is like daylight . And I was now within visible reach of fulfillment of the dream of my life . Nothing would cheat me of it now . I had gone through much . Now , at last , the future lay radiant before me . "
The couple married on 8 October 1905 in Tegernsee . It was a simple ceremony , with Victoria 's mother , her sister Beatrice , and a friend , Count Adlerburg , in attendance , along with servants . The couple 's uncle Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich of Russia was invited , without being told the reason , but did not arrive until after the ceremony . Tsar Nicholas II responded to the marriage by stripping Kirill of his imperial allowance and expelling him from the Russian navy . The Tsarina was outraged at her former sister @-@ in @-@ law and said she would never receive Victoria , " a woman who had behaved so disgracefully " , or Kirill . The couple retired to Paris , where they purchased a house off the Champs @-@ Élysées and lived off the income provided by their parents .
Victoria , who had matured as she entered her 30s , decided to convert to the Russian Orthodox Church in 1907 , a decision that thrilled both her mother and her husband . That same year the first of their three children , Maria Kirillovna , was born . She was named after her grandmother and nicknamed " Masha . " Their second daughter , Kira Kirillovna , was born in Paris in 1909 . Victoria and Kirill , who had hoped for a son , were disappointed to have a girl , but named their daughter after her father .
= = Grand Duchess of Russia = =
Nicholas II reinstated Kirill after deaths in the Russian imperial family promoted Kirill to third in the line of succession to the Russian throne . Kirill and Victoria were allowed in Russia , Victoria was granted the title of Grand Duchess Viktoria Feodorovna and in May 1910 , the couple arrived in St Petersburg . The new grand duchess enjoyed entertaining at evening dinners and lavish balls attended by the cream of Saint Petersburg society . Victoria had an artistic talent that she applied to home decoration in her several elaborate residences which she arranged attractively . She decorated , gardened , and rode and also enjoyed painting , particularly watercolors .
Victoria fit in within the Russian aristocracy and the circle of her mother @-@ in @-@ law Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna . As French was frequently spoken in high circles , Victoria never completely mastered the Russian language . Although she was a first cousin of both Nicholas II , on her mother 's side , and to Empress Alexandra , on her father 's side , the relationship with them was neither close nor warm . As Kirill became a keen auto racer , the couple often took trips by car : a favorite pastime was traveling through the Baltic provinces . Victoria dreaded the long Russian winter with its short days , and she traveled abroad frequently visiting her sister Marie in Romania and her mother in the south of France or in Coburg . Victoria and her husband had a close relationship with their daughters , Maria and Kira . The family was spending the summer of 1914 on their yacht in the Gulf of Finland and were in Riga when the war broke out .
= = War = =
During World War I , Victoria worked as a Red Cross nurse and organized a motorized ambulance unit that was known for its efficiency . Victoria frequently visited the front near Warsaw and she occasionally carried out her duties under enemy fire . Kirill , for his part , was also in Poland , assigned to the naval department of Admiral Russin , member of the staff of Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich , commander in chief of the Russian army . Kirill and Victoria had always shared their relatives ' distaste for the Tsar and Tsarina 's friendship with the starets Grigori Rasputin . The Tsarina believed Rasputin healed her son of his hemophiliac attacks with his prayers . Victoria told her sister , Queen Marie of Romania , that the Tsar 's court was " looked upon as a sick man refusing every doctor and every help . "
When Rasputin was murdered in December 1916 , Victoria and Kirill signed a letter along with other relatives asking the Tsar to show leniency to Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich of Russia , one of those implicated in the murder . The Tsar denied their request . Twice during the war Victoria visited Romania , where her sister Marie was now queen , volunteering aid for war victims . Victoria returned to Saint Petersburg in February 1917 . Kirill had been appointed commander of the Naval Guards , quartered in Saint Petersburg , so he could be with his family for some time . Although publicly loyal to the Tsar , Victoria and Kirill began to meet in private with other relatives to discuss the best way to save the monarchy .
= = Revolution = =
At the end of the " February Revolution " of 1917 , Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate and political turmoil followed . Victoria wrote to Queen Marie of Romania in February 1917 that their home was surrounded by a mob , " yet heart and soul we are with this movement of freedom which at the time probably signs our own death warrant ... We personally are losing all , our lives changed at one blow and yet we are almost leading the movement . " By March 1917 , the revolution had spread all over Petrograd ( Saint Petersburg ) . During this period Victoria , almost 41 years old , discovered she was again pregnant , which worried her because of her previous miscarriages and difficult pregnancies .
Kirill led his naval unit to the Provisional Government on 14 March 1917 , which was obliged to share headquarters with the new Petrograd Soviet , and swore loyalty to its leadership , hoping to restore order and preserve the monarchy . It was an action which later provoked criticism from some members of the family , who viewed it as treason . Victoria supported her husband and felt he was doing the right thing . She also sympathized with the people who wanted to reform the government . Kirill was forced to resign his command of the Naval Guards , but nevertheless his men remained faithful and they continued to guard Kirill and Victoria 's palace on Glinka Street . Close to despair Victoria wrote to her sister Marie of Romania that they had " neither pride nor hope , nor money , nor future , and the dear past blotted out by the frightful present ; nothing is left , nothing . "
Anxious for their safety Kirill and Victoria decided that the best thing to do was to leave Russia . They chose Finland as the best possible place to go . Although a territory of the Russian Empire , Finland possessed its own government and constitution , so in a way it would be like being in Russia and not being at the same time . They had already been once invited to Haikko , a beautiful estate , near Borgå , a small town on the south coast of Finland , not far away from Helsinki . The Provisional Government permitted them to leave , though they were not allowed to take anything of value with them . They sewed jewels into the family 's clothing , hoping it would not be discovered by the authorities . They were permitted to board a train without incident in the first week of June 1917 .
= = Exile = =
After two weeks in Haiko , the family moved to a rented house in Porvoo where , in August 1917 , Victoria gave birth to Grand Duke Vladimir Kirillovich of Russia , her only son and the heir to the dynasty . The family remained in Finland , a former Grand Duchy under Russian rule , which had declared its independence in December 1917 . They hoped that the White Russians would prevail . They gradually ran out of supplies and had to beg for help from family . In July 1918 , Victoria wrote to her first cousin , Crown Princess Margaret of Sweden , begging her to send baby food so she could feed Vladimir . She was alienated from England because she felt her English relatives had not done enough to help the Romanovs .
She pleaded with her cousin , George V , to help the White Russians retake the country . In a letter to the King , Lord Acton , the British Minister in Helsinki , noted the toll the revolution had taken on Victoria . She " looked aged and battered and has lost much of her beauty , which is not astonishing considering all that she has gone through . "
After more than two years living under strained conditions in the autumn of 1919 Victoria and Kirill left Finland and went to Germany . In Munich they were reunited with Victoria 's mother and the family group moved to Zurich in September 1919 . With the death of Victoria 's mother , she inherited her villa , Chateau Fabron in Nice and her residence in Coburg , the Edinburg Palais . In the following years the exiled family divided their time between these two places .
While in Germany , Victoria showed an interest in the Nazi Party , which appealed to her because of its anti @-@ Bolshevik stance and her hope that the movement might help restore the Russian monarchy . She and Kirill attended a Nazi rally in Coburg in 1922 and Victoria donated money to the party . She was likely unaware of the most sinister aspects of the Nazi Party .
= = Claims to the Russian throne = =
Kirill suffered a nervous breakdown in 1923 and Victoria nursed him back to health . She encouraged his dreams of restoring the monarchy in Russia and becoming Tsar . At Saint @-@ Briac Kirill , aware of the murders of Tsar Nicholas II and his only son , officially declared himself the Guardian of the Throne in 1924 . Victoria went on a trip to the United States in 1924 , hoping to raise American support for restoration of the monarchy . Her efforts evoked little response , due to the isolationism prevalent in the United States during the 1920s . She continued in her efforts to help Kirill restore the monarchy and also sold her artwork to raise money for the household .
By the mid @-@ 1920s , Victoria worried over the prospects of her children . Maria , her eldest daughter married the head of one of Germany 's mediatized families , Karl , Hereditary Prince of Leiningen on 25 November 1925 , Victoria ’ s 49th birthday . Victoria was at her daughter 's bedside when she gave birth to her first child , Emich Kirill , in 1926 ( father of claimant to the Russian throne , Prince Karl Emich of Leiningen ) . She also attended the subsequent births of Maria 's children .
In the mid @-@ 1920s the German government established relations with Moscow and the presence of Kirill and his wife , pretenders to the Russian throne , became an embarrassment . Although the Bavarian government rejected pressures to expel the Russian claimant , Kirill and Victoria decided to establish their permanent residence in France . In the summer of 1926 they moved to Saint @-@ Briac on the Breton coast , where they had spent their summer vacations before . The remoteness of Brittany provided both privacy and security . They bought a large house on the outskirts of the town and gave it a Breton name , Ker Argonid , Villa Victoria . The resort town of Saint @-@ Briac was a favorite spot for retired British citizens who wanted to live well on a limited income . Victoria made friends among the Britons as well as the French and other foreign residents of the town . Though at first her manner could seem haughty , residents soon discovered that Victoria was more approachable than her husband . Their friends treated them with deference , curtsying or calling them by their imperial titles . They lived a secluded country life , finding it more agreeable than at Coburg .
Victoria was exceedingly protective of her son Vladimir , upon whom her hopes for the future rested . She would not let him attend school because she was worried about his safety , and because she wanted him to be brought up as Romanov grand dukes were prior to the revolution . Instead , she hired a tutor for him . She also refused to let him be educated for a future career . In return for her devotion , Vladimir loved and respected his mother . " We adored our parents and their love for us was infinite , " Vladimir wrote after their deaths . " All the hardships and bitterness we had to endure in the years were fully covered by our mutual love . We were proud of ( them . ) "
= = Last years = =
In Saint @-@ Briac , during the summer , Kirill played golf and he and Victoria joined in picnics and excursions . They were part of the social life of the community , going out to play bridge and organizing theatricals . During the winter Victoria and her husband enjoyed visiting nearby Dinard and invited friends home for parties and games . However , it was rumored in town that Kirill went to Paris " for the occasional fling " . Victoria , who had devoted her life to Kirill , was devastated when she discovered in 1933 that her husband had been unfaithful to her , according to correspondence of her sister Marie of Romania . She kept up a façade for the sake of her children , including her teenage son Vladimir , but was unable to forgive Kirill 's betrayal . Victoria suffered a stroke soon after attending the christening of her fifth grandchild , Mechtilde of Leiningen , in February 1936 . Family and friends arrived , but nothing could be done . When her closest sister reached her bedside Victoria was asked if she was glad Marie had come , to which Victoria haltingly replied , " It makes all the difference . " However , she " shuddered away from Kirill 's touch , " wrote Marie . She died on 1 March 1936 . Queen Marie eulogized her sister in a letter after her death : " The whole thing was tragic beyond imagination , a tragic end to a tragic life . She carried tragedy within her – she had tragic eyes – always – even as a little girl – but we loved her enormously , there was something mighty about her – she was our Conscience . "
Victoria was buried in the ducal family mausoleum at Friedhof am Glockenberg in Coburg , until her remains were transferred to the Grand Ducal Mausoleum of the Peter and Paul Fortress in Saint Petersburg on 7 March 1995 . Her husband was intensely lonely after her death . The marriage of their daughter , Kira , to Louis Ferdinand , Prince of Prussia , in 1938 was a bright spot for Kirill , who saw it as the joining of two dynasties . However , Kirill died just two years after his wife . Kirill , though he had been unfaithful , still loved and missed the wife he had depended so much upon and passed his remaining years writing memoirs of their life together . " There are few who in one person combine all that is best in soul , mind , and body , " he wrote . " She had it all , and more . Few there are who are fortunate in having such a woman as the partner of their lives -- I was one of those privileged . "
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
Titles and Styles
25 November 1876 – 9 April 1894 : Her Royal Highness Princess Victoria Melita of Edinburgh , Princess of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha
9 April 1894 – 21 December 1901 : Her Royal Highness The Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine
21 December 1901 – 8 October 1905 : Her Royal Highness Princess Victoria Melita of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha
8 October 1905 – 2 March 1936 : Her Imperial and Royal Highness Grand Duchess Viktoria Feodorovna of Russia
Honours
National honours
United Kingdom : Companion of the Order of the Imperial Crown of India ( CI )
United Kingdom : Dame of the Royal Order of Victoria and Albert , 1st class ( VA )
United Kingdom : Dame Grand Cross of the Venerable Order of Saint John ( GCStJ )
United Kingdom : Royal Red Cross ( RRC )
Russian Imperial Family : Grand Mistress Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Catherine
Foreign honours
German Empire
Germany / Prussia : Dame of the Order of Louise
Grand Duchy of Hesse : Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Golden Lion
Grand Duchy of Hesse : Medal of the Order of Philip the Magnanimous
Romania : Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Romania
Spain : 1,042nd Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Queen Maria Luisa
= = = British arms = = =
As a male @-@ line grandchild of the British monarch , Victoria Melita bore the royal arms , with an inescutcheon for Saxony , the whole differenced by a label of five points argent , the outer pair bearing hearts gules , the inner pair anchors azure , and the central point a cross gules . In 1917 , the inescutcheon was dropped by royal warrant . Her arms from that point on are duplicated in the arms of Princess Alexandra , The Honourable Lady Ogilvy .
= = Ancestry = =
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= Death of Adolf Hitler =
Adolf Hitler killed himself by gunshot on 30 April 1945 in his Führerbunker in Berlin . His wife Eva ( née Braun ) committed suicide with him by taking cyanide . That afternoon , in accordance with Hitler 's prior instructions , their remains were carried up the stairs through the bunker 's emergency exit , doused in petrol , and set alight in the Reich Chancellery garden outside the bunker . Records in the Soviet archives show that their burnt remains were recovered and interred in successive locations until 1970 , when they were again exhumed , cremated , and the ashes scattered .
Accounts differ as to the cause of death ; one states that he died by poison only and another that he died by a self @-@ inflicted gunshot while biting down on a cyanide capsule . Contemporary historians have rejected these accounts as being either Soviet propaganda or an attempted compromise in order to reconcile the different conclusions . One eye @-@ witness recorded that the body showed signs of having been shot through the mouth , but this has been proven unlikely . There is also controversy regarding the authenticity of skull and jaw fragments which were recovered . In 2009 , American researchers performed DNA tests on a skull Soviet officials had long believed to be Hitler 's . The tests and examination revealed that the skull was actually that of a woman less than 40 years old . The jaw fragments which had been recovered were not tested .
= = Preceding events = =
By early 1945 , Germany 's military situation was on the verge of total collapse . Poland had fallen to the advancing Soviet forces , who were preparing to cross the Oder between Küstrin and Frankfurt with the objective of capturing Berlin , 82 kilometres ( 51 mi ) to the west . German forces had recently lost to the Allies in the Ardennes Offensive , with British and Canadian forces crossing the Rhine into the German industrial heartland of the Ruhr . American forces in the south had captured Lorraine and were advancing towards Mainz , Mannheim , and the Rhine . In Italy , German forces were withdrawing north , as they were pressed by the American and Commonwealth forces as part of the Spring Offensive to advance across the Po and into the foothills of the Alps . In parallel to the military actions , the Allies had met at Yalta between 4 – 11 February to discuss the conclusion of the war in Europe .
Hitler , presiding over a rapidly disintegrating Third Reich , retreated to his Führerbunker in Berlin on 16 January 1945 . To the Nazi leadership , it was clear that the battle for Berlin would be the final battle of the war in Europe . Some 325 @,@ 000 soldiers of Germany 's Army Group B were surrounded and captured on 18 April , leaving the path open for American forces to reach Berlin . By 11 April the Americans crossed the Elbe , 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) to the west of the city . On 16 April , Soviet forces to the east crossed the Oder and commenced the battle for the Seelow Heights , the last major defensive line protecting Berlin on that side . By 19 April the Germans were in full retreat from Seelow Heights , leaving no front line . Berlin was bombarded by Soviet artillery for the first time on 20 April ( Hitler 's birthday ) . By the evening of 21 April , Red Army tanks reached the outskirts of the city .
At the afternoon situation conference on 22 April , Hitler suffered a total nervous collapse when he was informed that the orders he had issued the previous day for SS @-@ General Felix Steiner 's Army Detachment Steiner to move to the rescue of Berlin had not been obeyed . Hitler launched a tirade against the treachery and incompetence of his commanders , culminating in a declaration — for the first time — that the war was lost . Hitler announced that he would stay in Berlin until the end , and then shoot himself . Later that day he asked SS physician Dr. Werner Haase about the most reliable method of suicide . Haase suggested the " pistol @-@ and @-@ poison method " of combining a dose of cyanide with a gunshot to the head . When head of the Luftwaffe Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring learned about this , he sent a telegram to Hitler asking for permission to take over the leadership of the Reich in accordance with Hitler 's 1941 decree naming Göring his successor . Hitler 's influential secretary , Martin Bormann , convinced Hitler that Göring was threatening a coup . In response , Hitler informed Göring that he would be executed unless he resigned all of his posts . Later that day , he sacked Göring from all of his offices and ordered his arrest .
By 27 April , Berlin was cut off from the rest of Germany . Secure radio communications with defending units had been lost ; the command staff in the bunker had to depend on telephone lines for passing instructions and orders and on public radio for news and information . On 28 April , a BBC report originating from Reuters was picked up ; a copy of the message was given to Hitler . The report stated that Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler had offered to surrender to the western Allies ; the offer had been declined . Himmler had implied to the Allies that he had the authority to negotiate a surrender ; Hitler considered this treason . During the afternoon his anger and bitterness escalated into a rage against Himmler . Hitler ordered Himmler 's arrest and had Hermann Fegelein ( Himmler 's SS representative at Hitler 's headquarters in Berlin ) shot .
By this time , the Red Army had advanced to the Potsdamerplatz , and all indications were that they were preparing to storm the Chancellery . This report , combined with Himmler 's treachery , prompted Hitler to make the last decisions of his life . After midnight on 29 April , Hitler married Eva Braun in a small civil ceremony in a map room within the Führerbunker . Afterwards Hitler hosted a modest wedding breakfast with his new wife . Hitler then took secretary Traudl Junge to another room and dictated his last will and testament . He signed these documents at 04 : 00 and then retired to bed ( some sources say Hitler dictated the last will and testament immediately before the wedding , but all sources agree on the timing of the signing ) .
During the course of 29 April , Hitler learned of the death of his ally , Benito Mussolini , who had been executed by Italian partisans . Mussolini 's body and that of his mistress , Clara Petacci , had been strung up by their heels . The bodies were later cut down and thrown in the gutter , where vengeful Italians reviled them . It is probable that these events strengthened Hitler 's resolve not to allow himself or his wife to be made " a spectacle of " , as he had earlier recorded in his Testament . That afternoon , Hitler expressed doubts about the cyanide capsules he had received through Himmler 's SS . To verify the capsules ' potency , Hitler ordered Dr. Werner Haase to test one on his dog , Blondi , and the animal died as a result .
= = Suicide = =
Hitler and Braun lived together as husband and wife in the bunker for fewer than 40 hours . By 01 : 00 on 30 April General Wilhelm Keitel reported that all forces which Hitler had been depending on to come to the rescue of Berlin had either been encircled or forced onto the defensive . Late in the morning of 30 April , with the Soviets less than 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) from the bunker , Hitler had a meeting with General Helmuth Weidling , commander of the Berlin Defence Area , who told him that the garrison would probably run out of ammunition that night and that the fighting in Berlin would inevitably come to an end within the next 24 hours . Weidling asked Hitler for permission for a breakout , a request he had made unsuccessfully before . Hitler did not answer , and Weidling went back to his headquarters in the Bendlerblock . At about 13 : 00 he received Hitler 's permission to try a breakout that night . Hitler , two secretaries , and his personal cook then had lunch , after which Hitler and Braun said farewell to members of the Führerbunker staff and fellow occupants , including Bormann , Joseph Goebbels and his family , the secretaries , and several military officers . At around 14 : 30 Adolf and Eva Hitler went into Hitler 's personal study .
Several witnesses later reported hearing a loud gunshot at around 15 : 30 . After waiting a few minutes , Hitler 's valet , Heinz Linge , with Bormann at his side , opened the study door . Linge later stated he immediately noted a scent of burnt almonds , a common observation made in the presence of prussic acid , the aqueous form of hydrogen cyanide . Hitler 's adjutant , SS @-@ Sturmbannführer Otto Günsche , entered the study and found the lifeless bodies on the sofa . Eva , with her legs drawn up , was to Hitler 's left and slumped away from him . Günsche stated that Hitler " ... sat ... sunken over , with blood dripping out of his right temple . He had shot himself with his own pistol , a Walther PPK 7 @.@ 65 " . The gun lay at his feet and according to SS @-@ Oberscharführer Rochus Misch , Hitler 's head was lying on the table in front of him . Blood dripping from Hitler 's right temple and chin had made a large stain on the right arm of the sofa and was pooling on the carpet . According to Linge , Eva 's body had no visible physical wounds , and her face showed how she had died — cyanide poisoning . Günsche and SS @-@ Brigadeführer Wilhelm Mohnke stated " unequivocally " that all outsiders and those performing duties and work in the bunker " did not have any access " to Hitler 's private living quarters during the time of death ( between 15 : 00 and 16 : 00 ) .
Günsche left the study and announced that the Führer was dead . The two bodies were carried up the stairs to ground level and through the bunker 's emergency exit to the garden behind the Reich Chancellery , where they were doused with petrol . An eye @-@ witness , Rochus Misch , reported someone shouting ' Hurry upstairs , they 're burning the boss ! ' After the first attempts to ignite the petrol did not work , Linge went back inside the bunker and returned with a thick roll of papers . Bormann lit the papers and threw the torch onto the bodies . As the two corpses caught fire , a small group , including Bormann , Günsche , Linge , Goebbels , Erich Kempka , Peter Högl , Ewald Lindloff , and Hans Reisser , raised their arms in salute as they stood just inside the bunker doorway .
At around 16 : 15 , Linge ordered SS @-@ Untersturmführer Heinz Krüger and SS @-@ Oberscharführer Werner Schwiedel to roll up the rug in Hitler 's study to burn it . Schwiedel later stated that upon entering the study , he saw a pool of blood the size of a " large dinner plate " by the arm @-@ rest of the sofa . Noticing a spent cartridge case , he bent down and picked it up from where it lay on the rug about 1 mm from a 7 @.@ 65 pistol . The two men removed the blood @-@ stained rug , carried it up the stairs and outside to the Chancellery garden . There the rug was placed on the ground and burned .
On and off during the afternoon , the Soviets shelled the area in and around the Reich Chancellery . SS guards brought over additional cans of petrol to further burn the corpses . Linge later noted the fire did not completely destroy the remains , as the corpses were being burned in the open , where the distribution of heat varies . The burning of the corpses lasted from 16 : 00 to 18 : 30 . The remains were covered up in a shallow bomb crater at around 18 : 30 by Lindloff and Reisser .
= = Aftermath = =
The first inkling to the outside world that Hitler was dead came from the Germans themselves . On 1 May the radio station Reichssender Hamburg interrupted their normal program to announce that an important broadcast would soon be made . After dramatic funeral music by Wagner and Bruckner , Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz ( appointed as Hitler 's successor in his will ) announced that Hitler was dead . Dönitz called upon the German people to mourn their Führer , who died a hero defending the capital of the Reich . Hoping to save the army and the nation by negotiating a partial surrender to the British and Americans , Dönitz authorized a fighting withdrawal to the west . His tactic was somewhat successful : it enabled about 1 @.@ 8 million German soldiers to avoid capture by the Soviets , but it came at a high cost in bloodshed , as troops continued to fight until 8 May .
On the morning of 1 May , thirteen hours after the event , Stalin was informed of Hitler 's suicide . General Hans Krebs had given this information to Soviet General Vasily Chuikov when they met at 04 : 00 on 1 May , when the Germans attempted to negotiate acceptable surrender terms . Stalin demanded unconditional surrender and asked for confirmation that Hitler was dead . He wanted Hitler 's corpse found . In the early morning hours of 2 May , the Soviets captured the Reich Chancellery . Down in the Führerbunker , General Krebs and General Wilhelm Burgdorf committed suicide by gunshot to the head .
Later on 2 May , the remains of Hitler , Braun , and two dogs ( thought to be Blondi and her offspring , Wulf ) were discovered in a shell crater by a unit of the Red Army intelligence agency SMERSH tasked with finding Hitler 's body . Stalin was wary of believing Hitler was dead , and restricted the release of information to the public . The remains of Hitler and Braun were repeatedly buried and exhumed by SMERSH during the unit 's relocation from Berlin to a new facility in Magdeburg . The bodies , along with the charred remains of propaganda minister Goebbels , his wife Magda , and their six children , were buried in an unmarked grave beneath a paved section of the front courtyard . The location was kept secret .
Various versions of Hitler 's fate were presented by the Soviet Union according to its political desires . In the years immediately following 1945 , the Soviets maintained Hitler was not dead , but had fled and was being shielded by the former western allies . This worked for a time to create doubt among western authorities . The chief of the U.S. trial counsel at Nuremberg , Thomas J. Dodd , said : " No one can say he is dead . " When President Harry S. Truman asked Stalin at the Potsdam Conference in August 1945 whether or not Hitler was dead , Stalin replied bluntly , " No " . But by 11 May 1945 , the Soviets had already confirmed through Hitler 's dentist , Hugo Blaschke , and his dental technician that the dental remains found were Hitler 's and Braun 's . In November 1945 , Dick White , then head of counter @-@ intelligence in the British sector of Berlin ( and later head of MI5 and MI6 in succession ) , had their agent Hugh Trevor @-@ Roper investigate the matter to counter the Soviet claims . His findings were written in a report and published in book form in 1947 .
In May 1946 , SMERSH agents recovered from the crater where Hitler was buried two burned skull fragments with gunshot damage . These remains were apparently forgotten in the Russian State Archives until 1993 , when they were re @-@ found . In 2009 DNA and forensic tests were performed on the skull fragment , which Soviet officials had long believed to be Hitler 's . According to the American researchers , the tests revealed that the skull was actually that of a woman and the examination of the sutures where the skull plates come together placed her age at less than 40 years old . The jaw fragments which had been recovered in May 1945 were not tested .
In 1969 , Soviet journalist Lev Bezymensky 's book on the death of Hitler was published in the West . It included the SMERSH autopsy report , but because of the earlier disinformation attempts , western historians thought it untrustworthy .
In 1970 , the SMERSH facility , by then controlled by the KGB , was scheduled to be handed over to the East German government . Fearing that a known Hitler burial site might become a Neo @-@ Nazi shrine , KGB director Yuri Andropov authorised an operation to destroy the remains that had been buried in Magdeburg on 21 February 1946 . A Soviet KGB team was given detailed burial charts . On 4 April 1970 they secretly exhumed five wooden boxes containing the remains of " 10 or 11 bodies ... in an advanced state of decay " . The remains were thoroughly burned and crushed , after which the ashes were thrown into the Biederitz river , a tributary of the nearby Elbe .
According to Ian Kershaw the corpses of Braun and Hitler were already thoroughly burned when the Red Army found them , and only a lower jaw with dental work could be identified as Hitler 's remains .
= = Gallery = =
= = = Books = = =
Bullock , Alan ( 1962 ) . Hitler : A Study in Tyranny . New York : Penguin Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 013564 @-@ 0 .
Fest , Joachim ( 2004 ) . Inside Hitler 's Bunker : The Last Days of the Third Reich . New York : Farrar , Straus and Giroux . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 374 @-@ 13577 @-@ 5 .
Galante , Pierre ; Silianoff , Eugene ( 1989 ) . Voices From the Bunker . New York : G. P. Putnam 's Sons . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 3991 @-@ 3404 @-@ 3 .
Gardner , Dave ( 2001 ) . The Last of the Hitlers : The story of Adolf Hitler 's British Nephew and the Amazing Pact to Make Sure his Genes Die Out . Worcester , UK : BMM . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 9541544 @-@ 0 @-@ 0 .
Lehmann , Armin D. ( 2004 ) . In Hitler 's Bunker : A Boy Soldier 's Eyewitness Account of the Führer 's Last Days . Guilford , CT : Lyon 's Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 59228 @-@ 578 @-@ 5 .
Rzhevskaya , Elena ( 1965 ) . Берлин , май 1945 . Записки военного переводчика [ Berlin 1945 : Memoirs of a Wartime Interpreter ] .
Ryan , Cornelius ( 1966 ) . The Last Battle . New York : Simon and Schuster . OCLC 711509 .
Trevor @-@ Roper , Hugh ( 1992 ) [ 1947 ] . The Last Days of Hitler . Chicago : University of Chicago Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 226 @-@ 81224 @-@ 3 .
Waite , Robert G. L. ( 1993 ) [ 1977 ] . The Psychopathic God : Adolf Hitler . New York : DaCapo Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 306 @-@ 80514 @-@ 1 .
= = = Articles = = =
BBC staff ( 26 April 2000 ) . " Russia displays ' Hitler skull fragment ' " . BBC .
CNN staff ( 11 December 2009 ) . " Official : KGB chief ordered Hitler 's remains destroyed " . CNN .
Petrova , Ada ; Watson , Peter ( 1995 ) . " The Death of Hitler : The Full Story with New Evidence from Secret Russian Archives " . The Washington Post .
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= 2006 UAW @-@ Ford 500 =
The 2006 UAW @-@ Ford 500 was a stock car racing competition which took place on October 8 , 2006 . Held at Talladega Superspeedway in Talladega , Alabama before 160 @,@ 000 spectators , the 188 @-@ lap race was the thirtieth in the 2006 NASCAR Nextel Cup Series and the fourth in the ten @-@ race , season @-@ ending Chase for the Nextel Cup . Brian Vickers of Hendrick Motorsports won the race ; Kasey Kahne finished second , and Kurt Busch came in third .
David Gilliland , who had the pole position , was passed immediately by teammate Dale Jarrett . The race lead changed 63 times , with Dale Earnhardt , Jr. leading for the most laps ( 37 ) . Earnhardt was leading on the final lap when he and Jimmie Johnson crashed after Vickers clipped Johnson 's right quarter panel . Vickers ( Johnson 's teammate ) was criticized after the race , since the crash lowered Johnson in the points standings .
The victory was the first in Vickers ' career . After the race Jeff Burton maintained his Drivers ' Championship points lead , although that lead decreased significantly because he had a flat tire in the race 's final laps . Chevrolet maintained its lead in the Manufacturers ' Championship , fifty @-@ one points ahead of Dodge and fifty @-@ two ahead of Ford with six races remaining in the season .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Talladega Superspeedway is one of six superspeedways which host NASCAR races . The standard track is a four @-@ turn , 2 @.@ 66 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 28 km ) superspeedway . Its turns are banked 33 degrees , and its front stretch ( the location of the finish line ) is banked at 16 @.@ 5 degrees . The back stretch also has a two @-@ degree bank .
Before the race Jeff Burton led the Drivers ' Championship with 5 @,@ 511 points , with Denny Hamlin second and Mark Martin third . Matt Kenseth and Kevin Harvick rounded out the top five and Jeff Gordon , Dale Earnhardt , Jr . , Jimmie Johnson , Kyle Busch and Kasey Kahne rounded out the top ten drivers competing in the 2006 Chase for the Nextel Cup . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet led with 222 points ; Ford was second with 175 , and Dodge was a close third with 174 points . Dale Jarrett was the race 's defending champion .
After the previous race at Talladega ( the 2006 Aaron 's 499 ) , the track 's condition was beginning to deteriorate . Cracks in the third and fourth turns were beginning to cause handling problems with the cars , and a temporary storage unit was built outside the track to accommodate the asphalt needed for resurfacing the track . The entire track , including the skid pad and pit road , was resurfaced , with the work completed shortly before the 2006 UAW @-@ Ford 500 began .
= = = Practice and qualification = = =
Two 60 @-@ minute practice sessions were held the Friday before Sunday 's race . In the first session Jeff Gordon was the fastest , ahead of Jarrett in second and Robby Gordon in third . David Gilliland placed fourth and Dave Blaney followed in fifth , with Casey Mears , J. J. Yeley , David Stremme , Brian Vickers and Kurt Busch rounding out the top ten . Later that day , Robby Gordon paced the second session , with Bobby Labonte , Hamlin and Tony Stewart in second , third and fourth place . Blaney duplicated his first @-@ session result in fifth , followed by Yeley , Harvick , Scott Riggs , Ryan Newman and Tony Raines .
Forty @-@ nine cars were entered in the qualifier , although due to NASCAR 's qualifying procedure only forty @-@ three could race . Gilliland clinched his first career pole position with a time of 49 @.@ 950 seconds and was joined on the grid 's front row by Jarrett , his Robert Yates Racing teammate . Johnson , Jeff Gordon and Greg Biffle rounded out the top five positions , with Travis Kvapil , Chad Chaffin , Todd Bodine , Hermie Sadler , Kirk Shelmerdine and Kevin Lepage failing to qualify .
Early practice speeds approached 200 miles per hour ( 320 km / h ) . NASCAR had mandated before the qualifier that the holes in the cars ' restrictor plates be reduced by 1 ⁄ 64 inch ( 0 @.@ 4 mm ) , later conceding that the rule may have affected some teams more than others . According to Gilliland , " They threw a curveball at us this morning with the restrictor plate and ( engine builder ) Doug Yates wasn 't worried at all . He put the super @-@ tune on it and the thing ran great . " Earnhardt called the reduction in speed unnecessary : " The track is safe ... I don 't feel ( the late change in plate size ) is a very fair situation for everybody . Once you 're up around the 190s , what 's two miles an hour ? I don 't see what the big deal is . The speed average is up because the corner speed remains better with the new asphalt . As far as running in a straight line , we 're no faster than we 've always run here . " Despite the mandated change , NASCAR did not schedule an additional practice session .
= = = Race = = =
Live television coverage of the race , the thirtieth of thirty @-@ six in the 2006 season , began in the United States at 1 : 00 p.m. Eastern Daylight Time on NBC . Rev. Mike Jackson gave the invocation at 2 : 20 , followed by the 151st Army Band 's rendition of the national anthem . The command for the drivers to start their engines was given by Gary Casteel of the UAW , and no driver had to move to the rear of the grid at the start .
The race began at 2 : 41 p.m. Jarrett passed Gilliland almost immediately to lead the first lap , but lost the lead to Jeff Gordon a lap later . Jamie McMurray passed Gordon for the lead on lap 4 ; by this time , Gilliland had fallen back to 30th after losing the draft . Three laps later Gordon regained the lead from McMurray , with drafting assistance from Vickers . On lap 18 McMurray reclaimed the lead from Gordon , and they exchanged the lead again two laps later . On lap 24 McMurray reclaimed the lead , and Kenny Wallace made a pit stop with his car smoking .
On lap 28 , Biffle took the lead from McMurray and Earnhardt moved into the top five . Green @-@ flag pit stops were made from laps 30 to 33 , with Biffle maintaining his lead . On lap 35 he was passed by Stewart , who lost the lead to Carl Edwards and Kyle Busch two laps later . On the 38th lap , Earnhardt took the lead . Busch passed him on lap 41 , with Earnhardt ( in the outside lane ) dropping back to seventh . On lap 46 Kenseth passed Kyle Busch for the lead , with Kurt Busch and Earnhardt passing Kenseth five laps later .
Earnhardt reclaimed the lead on lap 52 , losing it seven laps later to Elliott Sadler . Sadler refueled on the next lap , giving the lead back to Earnhardt . Kenseth took the lead on lap 61 , as Earnhardt and others made green @-@ flag pit stops . Kenseth stopped on lap 71 with Biffle and Edwards , with Biffle taking the lead as the pit @-@ stop cycle ended . Lap 72 saw the first caution , as Blaney 's left rear tire shredded and he made a pit stop . Biffle , Edwards and Sterling Marlin stayed out , while the others stopped .
Biffle led the field back up to speed at the restart , and was passed on lap 77 by Jeff Gordon . Three laps later , Sadler made a pit stop with a flat right rear tire . On lap 90 Kyle Busch took the lead , losing it to Gordon on the next lap . Earnhardt passed Gordon on lap 93 , holding the lead for nine laps . Vickers took the lead on lap 102 ; Earnhardt 's left front tire went flat the next lap , costing him a lap . Green @-@ flag pit stops began on lap 107 , with Vickers stopping on lap 108 and giving the lead to McMurray . After the pit stops , Vickers regained the lead .
On lap 121 Kyle Busch took the lead , losing it to Jeff Gordon two laps later . Within a lap Gordon lost the draft and fell back to 27th , allowing Kenseth to regain the lead . On lap 127 Clint Bowyer passed Kenseth , holding the lead for two laps until a second yellow flag was displayed due to debris . Hamlin and Michael Waltrip staggered their pit stops , enabling each of them to lead a lap under the caution . Bowyer regained the lead after Waltrip stopped , and the race restarted on lap 134 . Kenseth moved back into the lead on the next lap , with Bowyer falling back to tenth .
In a multi @-@ car accident on the first turn of lap 137 Edwards and Mears collided , involving Biffle , Jeff Gordon , Hamlin , Harvick , Marlin , McMurray , Kyle Petty and Martin Truex , Jr . Gordon drove straight to the garage and others made pit stops , giving the lead to Burton . The race restarted on lap 145 , during which many drivers topped up with fuel . Kenseth regained the lead ; Vickers passed him on lap 147 , with Johnson taking the lead a lap later . That lap Reed Sorenson 's engine failed , ending his race .
Truex Jr. stayed out of pit road , and led the field to the restart on lap 152 before Johnson passed him a lap later . On lap 154 Paul Menard took the lead , with drafting assistance from Earnhardt , before Johnson regained the lead a lap later . Kahne took the lead on lap 158 , losing it to Earnhardt on lap 165 . A five @-@ car accident on turn two of lap 173 , involving Yeley , Menard , Stewart , Stremme and Hamlin , prompted the fifth caution ; none of the leaders made pit stops during this caution .
The race restarted on lap 178 , with Earnhardt leading Johnson and Vickers . That lap , Burton ( in fifth ) had a flat left rear tire and lost a lap . The field then formed a single line , with most remaining in that formation for the rest of the race . On the final lap , Johnson and Vickers left turn two with Johnson moving out of line to pass Earnhardt . When Vickers tried to move out with Johnson to provide drafting assistance , he clipped Johnson 's right rear quarter panel . Johnson clipped Earnhardt , sending both drivers into the infield . The yellow flag went out and the field was frozen in place , with the order of finish determined by where the drivers were when the caution began . This gave Vickers the victory ( the first of his career ) , although he was booed by the crowd .
= = = Post @-@ race comments = = =
Vickers appeared in victory lane to celebrate his first career win in front of the crowd , earning $ 228 @,@ 850 for the victory . Earnhardt was quick to forgive him for the last @-@ lap accident : " He didn 't wreck anyone on purpose . He was trying to push the 48 . I don 't think he thought , ' Oh , here 's my chance to knock them both out . ' He just got excited trying to push the 48 . " Johnson was less sanguine : " We had a great chance to make up some points and got crashed by a teammate ... I was real patient until the white flag was up . I got a good run inside the 8 and got a lot of help from behind — too much help ... Knowing the situation we 're all in , I would hope someone would be a little more patient . " Johnson 's crew chief , Chad Knaus , was annoyed : " I just don 't think [ Vickers ] has the talent to understand what he has underneath him . "
Vickers , who would leave Hendrick Motorsports in 2007 for Red Bull Racing Team , said : " I would expect them to be a little upset . Jimmie is my friend , my teammate , and he is running for a championship . But he knows just as well as I do that if I wasn 't bump @-@ drafting , he never would have had a shot to pass Junior . " Additionally , he denied that he drove more aggressively because he was leaving . Third @-@ place finisher Kurt Busch argued Vickers was in a " Catch @-@ 22 " situation : " He was trying to help his teammate , " said Busch , who finished third behind Kasey Kahne . " It just didn 't turn out that way . Vickers was doing the best he could to help the 48 . He just didn 't anticipate the 8 car blocking as long as he did . " Vickers would later receive additional security during the next race weekend .
The result kept Burton in the lead in the Drivers ' Championship . After the race , Jeff Gordon ( who was involved in the lap @-@ 137 accident ) was less optimistic about his championship chances : " This pretty much does it for us as far as I 'm concerned for the championship . You knew exactly that something like that was going to happen . " In the Manufacturers ' Championship Chevrolet increased its point total to 231 ; Dodge moved into second place with 180 and Ford was a close third with 179 . The race took three hours , ten minutes and twenty @-@ three seconds to complete ; because it ended under caution , no margin of victory was recorded .
= = Results = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race results = = =
= = Standings after the race = =
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