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= Heckscher State Parkway =
The Heckscher State Parkway ( formerly known as the Heckscher Spur ) is an 8 @.@ 24 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 13 @.@ 26 km ) parkway on Long Island , New York , in the United States . The parkway , located entirely within the Suffolk County town of Islip , begins at the south end of the Sagtikos State Parkway in West Islip , from where it continues west as the Southern State Parkway . It proceeds east as a six @-@ lane parkway through Brentwood and Central Islip , loosely paralleling New York State Route 27 ( NY 27 ) . At Islip Terrace , the Heckscher Parkway turns southward , crossing NY 27 before ending at the toll barrier for Heckscher State Park in Great River . The parkway comprises the eastern portion of New York State Route 908M ( NY 908M ) , an unsigned reference route , with the Southern State Parkway occupying the western section . In order to avoid confusion , the highway is signed as an extension of the Southern State Parkway west of the NY 27 interchange ( exit 44 ) .
The parkway was originally built in 1929 as a connector between NY 27A and the newly opened Heckscher ( formerly Deer Range ) State Park . In 1959 , bids were announced for a new Heckscher State Parkway , which would connect the original road to the Sagtikos State Parkway . This section was officially opened on November 3 , 1962 , with a ceremony featuring speeches by Robert Moses and Governor Nelson Rockefeller . The Long Island Transportation Plan 2000 , a long @-@ term study done in the late 1990s , called for the Heckscher Parkway to be widened west of NY 27 to accommodate a carpool and bus lane .
= = Route description = =
The Heckscher State Parkway begins at an interchange with the southern terminus of the Sagtikos State Parkway in the hamlet of West Islip on Long Island . The junction is signed as exit 41A on the Heckscher Parkway and the Southern State Parkway , the Heckscher Parkway 's westward continuation toward New York City . Past the interchange , the Heckscher Parkway heads east as a six @-@ lane divided highway , passing through residential areas in West Islip and the North Bay Shore section of town of Islip . It soon enters exit 42 , a cloverleaf interchange with County Route 13 ( CR 13 , named Fifth Avenue ) . Half of the junction 's ramps directly connect to CR 13 while the others use one of the parkway 's two service roads , named Spur Drive South and Spur Drive North . After the interchange , the parkway continues generally eastward through Brentwood , running past dense woods buffering the highway from more developed areas .
Brentwood eventually gives way to Islip Terrace , where the parkway enters another cloverleaf interchange , exit 43 for NY 111 ( Islip Avenue ) . Exit 43A , a junction for CR 17 ( Carleton Avenue ) , follows shortly afterward . After exit 43A , the Heckscher State Parkway makes a gradual bend to the southeast toward exit 44 , a cloverleaf interchange with NY 27 ( Sunrise Highway ) . The two service roads flanking the Heckscher Parkway end just north of the junction , with both feeding into local streets adjacent to the parkway . Past Sunrise Highway , the Heckscher State Parkway enters East Islip , crossing over Long Island Rail Road 's Montauk Branch at a point just west of the Great River station .
On the other side of the tracks , the parkway begins to run along the western edge of Bayard Cutting Arboretum State Park while crossing over CR 50 ( Union Boulevard ) . The CR 50 overpass is located just north of exit 45 , a cloverleaf interchange serving NY 27A ( Montauk Highway ) . South of here , the Heckscher narrows from six to four lanes as it heads into Great River . Here , the road passes alongside residential neighborhoods while slowly curving to the south toward Heckscher State Park . The parkway intersects Timber Point Road at exit 46 before ending shortly afterward at the tollbooth for Heckscher State Park . While the parkway designation ends here , the highway 's right @-@ of @-@ way continues southwest into the park , 8 @.@ 52 miles ( 13 @.@ 71 km ) from the Southern State .
= = History = =
Heckscher State Park , formerly known as Deer Range State Park , dates back to 1925 . At that time , the construction of the Northern State Parkway was opposed by area residents as they believed it would hurt their ability to hunt foxes in the area . Their representatives in the New York State Legislature refused to provide money for a park , leading a group to contact August Heckscher , a local philanthropist . He donated $ 262 @,@ 000 ( 1929 USD ) to the Long Island State Park Commission ( LISPC ) and got land appropriated for a new park , which became Deer Range State Park . On June 2 , 1929 , the park was rededicated in the name of August Heckscher . Former Governor Alfred E. Smith , LISPC chairman and highway designer Robert Moses , and Heckscher all made remarks at a ceremony for the name change , and Heckscher was presented with a bronze tablet honoring his work . Heckscher died in April 1941 .
A two @-@ lane highway providing access from NY 27A to Heckscher State Park was constructed in 1929 . This highway became the basis for what eventually became the Heckscher State Parkway . Plans for the parkway called for it to extend northwest to a junction at Bay Shore Road in West Islip , where the Heckscher , Southern , Sagitkos and Captree Parkway ( now the Robert Moses Causeway ) would meet . Thus , when the extension of the Southern State Parkway opened in November 1949 , the junction was built to accommodate the proposed Heckscher Parkway . In 1952 , the state acquired the W. Bayard Cutting estate in Great River . Projections made at this time called for the Heckscher Parkway to be constructed by 1954 so the Cutting land could be turned into an arboretum .
Work on the road was delayed until March 1959 when bids were finally announced by the State of New York Department of Public Works to construct the last 6 @.@ 27 miles ( 10 @.@ 09 km ) section of the Heckscher State Parkway from the Sagtikos State Parkway to NY 27A . This , along with a widening of the Southern State Parkway , would fill the gaps in the original 200 @-@ mile ( 320 km ) parkway system proposed by Robert Moses . The estimated cost of construction was $ 8 @,@ 327 @,@ 000 ( 1959 USD ) , and the road was slated to be completed in September 1960 . An additional two years were ultimately needed to finish the highway , and LISPC announced on November 1 , 1962 , that the parkway would open on the upcoming Saturday ( November 3 ) with a ceremony featuring Robert Moses and Governor Nelson Rockefeller .
On the morning of November 3 , the Heckscher State Parkway 's full alignment was opened to traffic in rainy conditions . A motorcade of 110 vehicles followed the new parkway to the Bayard Cutting Arboretum , but Governor Rockfeller was late due to mechanical difficulties with his personal plane . The new parkway led to the expansion of facilities along the road , which included an additional 1 @,@ 658 acres ( 671 ha ) of land and 18 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 500 m ) of new beachfront . Opening the parkway also created connections to the nearby Southside Sportsmen 's Club , which would be turned into a recreation area , and the Bayard Cutting Arboretum . A new set of trees were planted along the parkway in 1963 . LISPC was to plant 67 @,@ 000 trees , shrubs and ground cover along the new parkway and several others on Long Island . Evergreen trees , Japanese crab , cherry , mimosa , magnolia , forsythia and laurel plants were among those planted .
From 1997 – 2001 , engineers at Parsons Brinckerhoff worked on " Long Island Transportation Plan 2000 " , a $ 6 @.@ 5 million ( 2001 USD ) study focused on improving Long Island 's transportation system by 2020 . The study 's findings included 130 miles ( 210 km ) of road widening . One widening proposal would give the Heckscher Parkway an extra restricted @-@ access lane for buses and carpooling drivers between the Sagtikos State Parkway and NY 27 . The added lane would be part of a 60 @-@ mile ( 97 km ) system of restricted @-@ access lanes across Long Island .
= = Exit list = =
Exit numbers continue sequentially from those of the Southern State Parkway . The entire route is in Suffolk County .
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= Snow Prince =
Snow Prince - Forbidden Love Melody ( Japanese : スノープリンス 禁じられた恋のメロディ , Hepburn : Sunō Purinsu : Kinjirareta Koi no Merodii ) is a 2009 Japanese film . This film is adapted from the novel A Dog of Flanders and is inspired by the 1971 film A Small Love Melody . Directed by Joji Matsuoka and written by Kundō Koyama — the scriptwriter for the film Departures , it is a poignant story of a middle class woman 's teenage friendship with a poor artist . Shintaro Morimoto plays the role of Sota , the orphan artist who lives with his grandfather , and Marino Kuwashima plays the role of Sota 's friend , Sayo . Together , they have to weather the many challenges that come their way because of their lowly social status . Snow Prince marked the film debuts of Morimoto and Kuwashima .
The main and supporting cast of Snow Prince was revealed on 11 May 2009 , and the filming subsequently took place at a movie village located in Shōnai , Yamagata from November 2008 to February 2009 . The theme song of this film , entitled Snow Prince , was sung by a group of 10 boys including Shintaro Morimoto , the lead actor of this film . This song debuted at the 9th position on the Oricon weekly charts .
Snow Prince had its international debut in Flanders , Belgium , the setting for A Dog of Flanders . It then showcased at the 2009 Hawaii International Film Festival , and subsequently opened in Japanese cinemas on 12 December 2009 . The film , which grossed $ 845 @,@ 375 in Japan and Singapore , received mixed reviews from critics . Actor Teruyuki Kagawa was nominated for the best supporting actor award at the 52nd Blue Ribbon Awards for his role .
= = Plot = =
The film opens when Sayo Arima , a girl brought up in a wealthy family and now an elderly woman , unexpectedly receives a manuscript written by Haigo , a circus clown whom she met many years ago . It deals with the events seventy years earlier when Sayo was friends with Sota , a poor village boy who lived with his grandfather and dreamt of being a painter . The film moves back to that time , when a circus came to the town where Sayo and Sota lived . Despite Sota 's grandfather warning him not to go near the circus , Sota goes with Sayo . After the performance , they sneak backstage and are caught by the circus clown Haigo , who kindly gives Sota an egg , which he had intended to buy for his grandfather . Sota believes that the clown can read his mind , and calls him Kamisama , which means " god " in Japanese .
Later , while talking to Sayo 's classmates , Sota learns about a legendary paint nicknamed " Night @-@ Sky " which can only be produced from materials unique to a particular pond . Sayo and Sota resolve to find the pond together . However , the route to the pond is dangerous , and involves passing through a train tunnel . In the tunnel Sayo trips and is nearly run over by a train . Sota manages to pull her out just in time , but is scolded by Mr. Arima , Sayo 's father , for taking her to such a dangerous place . He tells his wife not to let them meet again . Later , Sota returns to the pond with the circus clown . Sota offers to paint a picture of him , but the clown refuses and advises Sota to paint whatever his heart desires . He decides to paint Sayo playing the piano after he watches Sayo play the " Clair de lune " . To save money for the painting paper , Sota goes hungry and eats just a few grains of rice each day . Sota 's grandfather dies , and after the funeral , Sota goes to the circus to find solace in the circus clown , only to discover that the circus has moved away .
In the present again , the manuscript the old man brought has ended , and Sayo recounts the rest of the story . Despite the difficulties he faces , Sota manages to complete the painting , which he decides to give to Sayo . He and Chibi go to Sayo 's house , where Sayo is having a birthday party with her classmates . Sota gives the painting to Soya 's father , who agrees to pass the painting to Sayo . Sota continues walking in the snow . Just as he settles down to rest , he discovers that Mr. Arima 's warehouse is on fire . Sota helps to put out the fire and calls for help . He leaves before Soya 's father arrives , and Mr. Arima launches a manhunt to find Sota to thank him . When this hunt is unsuccessful , Sayo suggests that they look for him at the pond . They find him there , dead . In the present day again , the old man leaves and Sayo starts playing the " Clair de lune " on the piano .
= = Cast = =
The actors cast for roles in the film include :
Shintaro Morimoto as Sota , a poor orphaned boy who lives with his grandfather . He is talented in drawing , and spends much of his time drawing because he cannot afford to go to school . He is frequently accompanied by the dog Chibi , whom he and Sayo found abandoned and injured .
Marino Kuwashima as Sayo Arima , Sota 's soulmate and best friend . She is a member of the wealthy Arima family , and thus her father opposes her relationship with Sota .
Teruyuki Kagawa as Masamitsu Arima , Sayo 's father . He is a rich merchant in the village , and Sota 's grandfather works for him . He strongly opposes the relationship between Sota and his daughter Sayo because he hopes that she will marry into a rich family .
Rei Dan as Kiyo Arima , Sayo 's mother . She is caught between her husband 's resistance to Sota and her belief in romantic love .
Maiko as Yasuko Hasegawa , Sayo 's granddaughter in the present .
Manabu Yamamoto as the old man , who delivers the letter which sparks the flashback of this incident . He is also Sota 's half @-@ brother and Haigo 's son .
Tadanobu Asano as the circus clown , Haigo . He is also Sota 's father , but does not tell him . He helps Sota find the legendary " night @-@ sky " paint , and tells Sota to paint whatever his heart desires .
Katsuo Nakamura as Masayoshi Harada , Sota 's grandfather . He gives many words of wisdom to Sota , and gently advises Sota not to hate anyone or bear any grudges for the circumstances and predicaments in his life . He later dies due to a long @-@ running illness .
Keiko Kishi as Sayo in the present .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Snow Prince was directed by Joji Matsuoka , whose previous works include the films Tokyo Tower : Mom and Me , and Sometimes Dad ( 2007 ) and Sayonara , Kuro ( 2003 ) . Kundō Koyama wrote the screenplay of his film . Snow Prince is Kundo Koyama 's second work , after his work on the Departures , which won the Best Foreign Language Film award at the 81st Academy Awards .
The film was inspired by the 1872 English novel A Dog of Flanders , written by Marie Louise de la Ramée , and by the film Small Love Melody , both of which were popular with Japanese audiences and well known in Japan . In the movie , an Akita dog was used instead of the Flemish breed used in the novel , and the setting was moved to Yamagata Prefecture in Japan instead of Flanders , Belgium . When asked about these changes , director Joji Matsuoka said that " this film is not specifically shot at any location " and that he used an Akita because it is " representative of Japan " . Asahi Shinbun reported that Snow Prince 's script was also partly inspired by the script of an anime version of A Dog of Flanders that was released previously .
= = = Casting = = =
New actor Shintaro Morimoto and new actress Marino Kuwashima were officially revealed as the lead cast members of this film at the film 's 10th press conference on 11 May 2009 . They were handpicked from a group of 10 @,@ 000 people in an audition by director Joji Matsuoka . Matsuoka reportedly decided to choose Shintaro and Marino because they " had a different twinkle in their eyes " . In particular , Shintaro , the younger brother of Hey ! Say ! JUMP member Ryutaro Morimoto , was praised by the director , who said that he was looking for a child " who can exist for real " . Matsuoka described Shintaro 's qualities as " rare nowadays " , and also described him as an " angel " .
Other notable cast members of the film includes actors Teruyuki Kagawa and Tadanobu Asano , and actress Rei Dan . Actor Teruyuki Kagawa previously starred in films like 20th Century Boys ( 2009 ) and Dear Doctor ( 2009 ) , and was also the two @-@ time recipient of the " Best Supporting Actor " award at 29th and 31st Japan Academy Awards respectively . He has also starred in television series like Mr. Brain ( 2009 ) and Diplomat Kosaku Kuroda ( 2011 ) . In this film , he stars as Masamitsu Arima , the father of Sayo and a rich village merchant . The actor Tadanobu Asano made his debut appearance in the 1990 film Batashi Kingyo , another film that this film 's director Joji Matsuoka directed . Asano is also the winner of the " Best Lead Actor " award at the 33rd Japan Academy Awards . He plays the role of the circus clown Haigo , who is also the secret father of Sota , in this film .
= = = Filming = = =
Scenes of Sota 's and the Arima family 's houses , the village and the playhouse of Sota and Sayo were shot at the " Shonai Movie Village " ( 庄内映画村 , Shōnai Eigamura ) in Shōnai , Yamagata . The filming at this location took place from November 2008 to February 2009 . In addition , the scene where Mr. Arima 's warehouse caught fire was filmed in " Sakata , Sankyo Sōko " ( 酒田 山居倉庫 ) , Yamagata Prefecture . The railway tracks in the movie are those of the former " Naruto no Kurikumada Koen Railway Line " ( 鳴子のくりこま田園鉄道 , Naruto no Kurikumada Koen Tetsudō ) , which used to operate in Miyagi Prefecture . The scene where Sayo played the " Clair de lune " and the ending scene of the film was shot at the former Fukura Elementary School ( 吹浦小学校 , Fukura shōgakkō ) .
Matsuoka described the filming conditions as " very harsh " , but said that " the film was completed thanks to the children " and ended by praising the perseverance of Shintaro and Kuwajima . Shintaro Morimoto said that the scene where the warehouse caught fire " was the scariest scene in the entire film " . Fellow actor Maiko also said that when she was seeing Shintaro and Marino acting like lovers , it reminded her of her " first love " .
= = = Theme song = = =
The film 's theme song is " Snow Prince " ( スノープリンス , Sunō purinsu ) , and it is sung by the group Snow Prince Gasshōdan ( スノープリンス合唱団 ) . This theme song and the formation of the Snow Prince Gasshōdan group was unveiled at an animal welfare organization event on 1 November 2009 . Songwriter Shinji Nojima wrote the song 's lyrics . " Snow Prince " is a choral song inspired by Claude Debussy 's Clair de lune , or the third movement of the Suite bergamasque . The piece " Clair de lune " is also featured in the film .
The Snow Prince Gasshōdan group is a temporary boy choir that was formed specially for this movie , and it is led by actor Shintaro Morimoto . The group comes under the management of Johnny Jr . , a Japanese talent agency that specially trains male idols . Snow Prince Gasshōdan is made up of 10 boys , who together , had an average age of 10 @.@ 5 years at the time of the filming . This makes the group Snow Prince Gasshōdan the youngest group in the history of all the Johnny Jr. idol groups to release a single . According to the movie 's release committee , the group Snow Prince Gasshōdan existed until the end of 2010 before it was disbanded . Leader Shintaro Morimoto expressed hope the group could be reunited again after 10 years .
Snow Prince was recorded and released as a single album on 2 December 2009 . This single debuted at the ninth position on the weekly Oricon charts , later achieving its peak of the fifth position in the same charts .
= = Release = =
Snow Prince had its first special screening in Flanders , Belgium , where the novel A Dog of Flanders was set . This was the first time lead actor Shintaro Morimoto traveled overseas , and he said that , " My heart was beating very fast , but seeing the audience response , I gained more confidence in this film " . Morimoto became the spokesperson for the Flanders government 's tourism board because he was the lead actor of the film . Snow Prince was then shown in Hawaii , where it made its film festival debut at the Hawaii International Film Festival ( HIFF ) on 20 October 2009 .
The film was then opened in Japan cinemas on 12 December 2009 . It was officially released at a ceremony held at Marunouchi Piccadilly in Yurakucho , Tokyo , on 12 December 2010 . The entire cast of the film , together with the film 's director Joji Matsuoka , were present at the ceremony . Also , at the ceremony , it was revealed to the media that negotiations for the film 's distribution rights overseas were ongoing . It was announced that distributors from 25 different countries in Asia and Europe were interested in releasing the films in their home countries , though these were not specifically mentioned . This is a high number as , usually , Japanese films will only receive around 10 to 15 different offers . During its debut weekend , Snow Prince debuted in 234 cinema screens across Japan . It grossed a total of $ 362 @,@ 879 in the opening week , making it the 10th highest grossing movie over the weekend of 12 and 13 December . Overall , it earned $ 837 @,@ 724 in Japanese cinemas .
In Singapore cinemas , Snow Prince was released on 13 May 2010 by local distributor Cathay @-@ keris Films . It grossed US $ 4 @,@ 088 on the first weekend ( 13 – 16 May ) and US $ 2 @,@ 320 on the second weekend ( 20 – 23 May ) , for a total gross of US $ 7 @,@ 651 in Singapore cinemas .
The home media for Snow Prince was released in DVD ( format 2 ) and Blu @-@ ray Disc versions . The distributor Toei released the film in Japan on 20 August 2010 . In Taiwan , a DVD version of Snow Prince was released on 5 April 2011 under the film 's Chinese name of 雪地王子 with Chinese subtitles and Japanese dialog . Later , Snow Prince was showcased at the inaugural Beijing International Film Festival , where it became one of the six Japanese films to be shown on 24 April 2011 .
= = Soundtrack = =
The single for this film 's theme song Snow Prince was released in a limited edition version and a regular version by Sony Music Entertainment on 2 December 2009 .
= = = Soundtrack ( limited edition album ) = = =
The limited edition version of the single Snow Prince contains a CD and a bonus DVD .
Track list :
" Snow Prince " ( スノープリンス )
" Snow Prince ( choral version ) " ( スノープリンス 合唱版 )
" Snow Prince ( original karaoke ) " ( スノープリンス ( オリジナル ・ カラオケ ) )
" Snow Prince [ choral version ] ( accompaniment ) " ( スノープリンス 合唱版 ( 伴奏 ) )
" Snow Prince ( music video ) " ( スノープリンス ( ミュージッククリップ ) ) ( DVD )
" Snow Prince ( Making @-@ of ) " ( スノープリンス ( メイキング ) ) ( DVD )
= = = Soundtrack ( regular album ) = = =
Track list :
" Snow Prince " ( スノープリンス )
" Christmas Song Medley " ( クリスマスソングメドレー )
" Bitter Moon "
" Christmas Song Medley ( original karaoke version ) " ( クリスマスソングメドレー ( オリジナル ・ カラオケ ) )
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
In a pre @-@ release review of the film , Asahi Shimbun 's Atsushi Ohara said that " the film has adapted Dog of Flanders well " , but he took issue with the treatment of Sota and Chibi , saying that they were treated too harshly . He rounded off his review by saying that the dog acted superbly and was very adorable , and that the scenery in the film had a rare beauty . In another article written by him , he said that the audience should " expect to ponder about the events in this film " , and finished by saying that the film allows the audience to gain important messages . In another pre @-@ release review , Nobuko Yamasaki , writing on behalf of Moviewalker , said that Snow Prince was filled with " tears of gratitude " and Shintaro Morimoto 's acting was lovely . He also said that the movie ' s dog role reminded him of the director 's previous work Sayonara , Kuro . He added that he had to take out a handkerchief as he watched the film .
The Japan Times gave Snow Prince a score of 2 out of 5 . In the critical review entitled " Weep over this princely pile of slush " , Mark Schilling criticized the film as " a weeper that ... left me surprisingly dry eyed " and added that " There 's hardly a spark of originality in the entire enterprise , unless you count the casting of Tadanobu Asano – the coolest Japanese actor of his generation – as a sad @-@ but @-@ wise circus clown . " Reviewer Matiko Wataru of the " Eiga @-@ Judge " website said that " this innocent and sad tale tragedy of the boy is too simplistic and the screenplay did not do much . " . However , the review praised the " beautiful scenery of the city of Shonai " and said the film was a " sad and beautiful combination of children and animals " .
The Guardian rated it third on its list of " The top 10 films of 2009 you probably won 't have seen " . The reviewer , David Parkinson , praised this work as " the most beautiful children 's film of the year " . He elaborated by saying , " Everything about this poignant account ... is exquisite . The photography and period design are impeccable , while the script deftly acquaints younger viewers with the good that can still emerge from the harsher realities of life . " . He ended his review with : " This is the kind of family entertainment that Hollywood has long forgotten how to make . "
= = = Accolades = = =
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= Nostalgia , Ultra =
Nostalgia , Ultra ( stylized as nostalgia , ULTRA. and occasionally nostalgia / ultra ) is the second mixtape by American recording artist Frank Ocean . It was released on February 16 , 2011 . Ocean was inspired to make the mixtape , after Hurricane Katrina in his native New Orleans and his subsequent relocation to Los Angeles . After joining alternative hip hop group Odd Future in 2010 , he self @-@ released the mixtape , without initial promotion . Nostalgia , Ultra has a unique R & B aesthetic and features surreal themes and nostalgic lyrics . The songs mostly focus on interpersonal relationships , personal reflection , and social commentary . Following its release , the mixtape received rave reviews from music critics . The cover features a picture of a bright orange 1980s BMW E30 M3 , Ocean 's " dream car " , in plain sight amidst lush greenery .
In May 2011 , Def Jam announced its plans to release the mixtape as an EP on July 26 , 2011 . However , the release of the EP was indefinitely delayed in July 2011 and has since been cancelled . Two singles were released from the aborted EP version : " Novacane " , and " Swim Good " . Both songs received music videos directed by Australian director Nabil Elderkin . Ocean embarked on a solo concert tour through North America and Europe to promote the record , playing a total of 7 shows . In addition , his 2012 performance at the Coachella Music Festival included several live renditions from the release including " Strawberry Swing " and " LoveCrimes " .
The mixtape appeared on several music critics ' and publications ' end @-@ of @-@ year albums lists . Controversy arose in March 2012 over the song " American Wedding " , a remake of the song " Hotel California " by American rock band Eagles . Recording artist Kanye West was reportedly a fan of the mixtape , which led to Ocean appearing on the album Watch the Throne . Subsequently , Ocean collaborated with artists Beyoncé Knowles and Jay @-@ Z after they were introduced to the mixtape through West . Following its release , both Ocean and the mixtape have developed a cult following . The mixtape was followed by the release of Ocean 's debut album Channel Orange to similar critical acclaim in 2012 .
= = Background = =
Frank Ocean was born in New Orleans , Louisiana . He made the decision to pursue a career in music at a young age , and as a teen , he did neighborhood chores to fund his early studio sessions . After Hurricane Katrina hit his hometown of New Orleans , Ocean moved to Los Angeles to pursue a recording career . He initially had problems maintaining a career while juggling a job , due to spending too much time in the recording studios , making him late for his jobs . He began to write songs and he sold them to other recording artists ; selling his first song to Noel Gourdin at the age of 19 . Discussing as to why he chose to write songs , Ocean commented that " I feel at a higher level of consciousness when I 'm being creative . "
Eventually , he landed songwriting gigs for established artists like John Legend and Justin Bieber where he made substantially more money . In late 2009 , he met producer Tricky Stewart , who helped Ocean sign a contract with Def Jam Recordings as a solo artist . However , he was initially unable to build a relationship with the company . In protest , Ocean joined the rap collective Odd Future which introduced him to artists such as Tyler , The Creator and Hodgy Beats . His debut song was " SteamRoller " on the Domo Genesis album Rolling Papers . Ocean garnered acclaim and generated interest while in the group , and Rolling Stone magazine 's Jonah Weiner called him a " gifted avant @-@ R & B smoothie " . During his time with the group he recorded and self @-@ released Nostalgia , Ultra without any pre @-@ release promotion on his Tumblr account .
= = Music and lyrics = =
The mixtape samples songs from Radiohead , Coldplay , MGMT , Mr. Hudson and The Eagles , which Ocean sings over . Ocean , when uploading the album to iTunes , labeled it as bluegrass and death metal , out of arbitrariness . When asked about why he uploaded the songs in that way , he replied ; " I don 't want to seem like I have a cause against genres , or maybe I do ... Bluegrass is swag . Bluegrass is all the way swag . " Ocean described the making of his mixtape as a labor of love , stating that " It was like difficult to make . Not like writing the songs [ or ] arranging the songs . That had a level of difficulty , too . But just piecing together all the levels to do it at the level , the quality of records I wanted to make … But , it was a process I appreciate so much . "
In his own words , Ocean calls the album " nostalgic . " He explains , " it 's a longing for the past . That 's what this record felt like . " The lyrical content , according to Ocean , relates to heartbreak and other familiar tropes of interpersonal relationships : " I wasn 't trying to make a record that people could relate to . I was just trying to make a record with the shit that I wanted to express . The shit that I wanted to get off my chest . [ ... ] A lot of this record is influenced by one relationship , but I don 't owe that whole project to one situation . It doesn 't matter what the details of it are . " Discussing the writing process behind the album , he mused that he was just inspired to tell stories . He continued , " you gotta make sure the listener is listening to you , so if you put it into a song , often times , if the song is striking enough , then you can really deliver the story most effectively while keeping the ear of the listener the whole time . I guess it all starts with the stories for me . "
When asked by The Quietus if the songs from the album drew from his personal experiences , Frank commented " My kitchen is usually pretty clean , you know . But you have fun with the imagery , and for me the whole concept that everything has to be ... Like , nobody gets upset with a director when a director 's film isn 't about his life . People think that with a recording artist that shit has to be like a fucking play by play of their whole life , but it 's not . It 's imagery , and a little bit of satire . " When asked if he made R & B music , Ocean replied that he disliked how that in the United States , " if you 're a singer and you 're black , you 're an R & B artist . Period . " Ocean stated that the songs on the mixtape do contain R & B influences , but that it is not an R & B album entirely .
= = Songs = =
The album begins with a melodic cover of " Strawberry Swing " by English alternative rock band Coldplay . Connor O 'Neill of The Miscellany News writes that the cover begins the album with " so much atmosphere you almost melt into it " and then " spreads you over an apocalyptic swan song " . The song ends abruptly with the rude sound of an alarm clock , followed by the " nightmarish " song " Novacane " . It has been called a love song of sorts , with influence taken from alternative hip hop group The Pharcyde . Lyrically the track explores a narrative in which the singer meets a girl attempting to pay her way through dental school by working in porn . Ocean meets the girl at Coachella , a musical festival which takes place in Indio , California . Ocean serves as the protagonist in the song , in love with a girl " so gone on drugs that Ocean , wanting to be close to her , has no choice but to get gone on those same drugs " . The pair get high using dental local anesthetics . Ocean serves as an unreliable narrator .
Several interludes are placed throughout the album , named after video games , such as Street Fighter , Metal Gear Solid , GoldenEye 007 and Soulcalibur . This is reported to give the album a more nostalgic feel ; the record is " held together by tiny interludes named after 1990s video games in which the unmistakable sounds of a cassette player rewinding , fast @-@ forwarding , and stopping are heard " . On the track " We All Try " , Ocean speaks out against homophobia . According to The Guardian , " Odd Future 's frequent use of the word ' faggot ' unsettled liberal stomachs " , and that " Ocean was brave enough to stand alone once more , declaring on ' We All Try ' : ' I believe that marriage isn 't between a man and woman , but between love and love ' . On the same song he reveals his opinion of the pro @-@ choice debate : ' I believe a woman 's temple , gives her the right to choose / But baby don 't abort . ' " He obliquely " announces his support of a woman 's right to choose and gay marriage " , both of which are " hardly typical r & b tropes . " The song contains " smooth , bedroom @-@ type grooves " .
Pitchfork Media wrote that " in a skit called " Bitches Talkin " , the ladies tell him to cut it out with the damn Radiohead , while " Optimistic " is playing in the background ; in ' Songs 4 Women ' , he obliges — he 's an indie kid when it comes to alienation but a pragmatist when it comes to sex . " " Songs 4 Women " is a song where Ocean can 't decide whether to rue or revel in his conflicted feelings about women . The song offers a self @-@ effacing perspective , with a numbed , restrained delivery . Lyrically the track expresses a narrative where he tries to arrange an after @-@ school meeting in his dad 's empty house and brags about harmonizing to Otis , Isley and Marvin . He laments that his woman doesn 't listen to him or his music : " It 's like she never heard of me . " In spite of the " suave delivery and the song 's inherent tunefulness " , the object of Ocean 's affection soon ditches his love songs in favor of those sung " by real R & B big @-@ shots ( Drake included ) " .
The mixtape also contains several references to American director Stanley Kubrick and his films , most notably Eyes Wide Shut . Nicole Kidman 's adulterous soliloquy from the film can be heard during the song " Lovecrimes " , adding a sense of manic dread . " The film is also referenced on the track " Novacane " , where Ocean also sings that he 's " feelin like Stanley Kubrick " . Following that is the track " There Will Be Tears " . The song has been described as emotional in nature , containing a glitchy beat sampled from Mr Hudson , with heavily synthesised vocals . " There Will Be Tears " has a thundering bass flat over a hyperactive 808 beat . Ocean sings about not having a father ; " Hide my face , hide my face , can 't let ' em see me crying / Cause these boys didn 't have no fathers neither / And they weren 't crying " , where he " lets his guard down completely . "
" Swim Good " has been called an " astonishing suicide song " and that Ocean finds himself dressed in black ( ' Like I 'm ready for a funeral ' ) , tormented by heartbreak and on the verge of driving his car into the sea . The song is a grim escape fantasy describing a murder suicide , which " has the singer driving his car to the shore , his trunk ' bleeding ' with ' broken hearts ' . " The hook of the song ends with the refrain of " I feel like a ghost , no Swayze , ever since I lost my baby . " " Dust " uses books as an extended metaphor for memories and experience , with lines like " so many pages I wrote , wish I could revise ' em / But there 's no erasing " .
The penultimate track is " American Wedding " , a 7 @-@ minute remake of " Hotel California " by American rock band Eagles . The track expresses an extended tale of a shotgun marriage and subsequent divorce . Its here that we " might get a little peek into the psychology of the man shirking the foremost genre for love songs : He doesn 't believe in love . At least not in the United States . " The song has a " totally unexpected ending for a song told as a flashback . " The album ends with " Nature Feels " , a reinterpretation of MGMT 's " Electric Feel " . The song exhibits Ocean as an " openly fun character " , opening the song with the line " I 've been meaning to fuck you in the garden . " According to Pitchfork , no matter the mood , Ocean is always " quick to add fine particulars that make his songs his songs " . Pitchfork called " Nature Feel " an " MGMT @-@ sampling Garden of Eden fuck ode " .
= = Critical reception = =
Nostalgia , Ultra received critical acclaim from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the mixtape received an average score of 83 , based on nine reviews , which indicates " universal acclaim " . Anupa Mistry of Exclaim ! called it " sophisticated " , " pulsing and expansive " , and wrote that Ocean 's " alt sensibilities " prove " musically intuitive " AllMusic 's Andy Kellman felt that Ocean 's uniqueness lies in his " wistful , often self @-@ effacing perspective and numbed , restrained delivery " rather than his production choices , which he found " neither exceptional nor particularly left of center " . AbsolutePunk praised the beats as " unique , well @-@ executed originals " and commented that songs such as " Swim Good " and " Strawberry Swing " show that " Ocean 's voice is as great as his knack for writing thoughtful pop songs . " Steven Hyden of The A.V. Club called the mixtape " dark , playful , a little tasteless , and absolutely riveting " . Connor O 'Neill of The Miscellany News wrote that , " by funneling [ the primary means of R & B decadence ] through his diverse and diverging palette , Ocean literalizes both his nostalgic impulses and the odd future of which he is a part . " The Village Voice 's Sean Fennessey called him " an intuitive r & b stylist , with a firm sense of song structure . " Rudy K. of Sputnikmusic felt that the mixtape sounds " so fresh , so real " for a member from Odd Future and stated , " With Ocean , it never sounds contrived . "
In his review for MSN Music , Robert Christgau described Ocean 's " romantic laments " as " models of texture , respect , and profound loss , their beats subtle , seductive , weird , and seized like time whether he 's deploying ' songs for women ' that are soon trumped by Drake 's , not feeling a porn @-@ moonlighting dental student and her ' novacaine , ' or annulling a courthouse wedding solemnized just before his bride turned in her term paper on hijab . " Pitchfork Media 's Ryan Dombal commented that " There are distinct elements of Drake 's melancholic paranoia and The @-@ Dream 's high melodrama , too . But there 's also a heady surreality surrounding Nostalgia , Ultra that makes it unique . " Jon Caramanica of The New York Times called it " slick and intuitive ... full of astral soul that owes debts to Terence Trent D 'Arby , Pharrell Williams , even Drake " , adding that " [ Ocean ] sings casually but precisely , stretching out syllables as if he 's forgetting to let them go . " NPR 's Andrew Noz commented that " It 's his songwriting , smart and subtle , that sets Ocean far apart from that pack " , adding that " The finest moments of Nostalgia , Ultra orbit the same soul @-@ baring and minutiae @-@ obsessed space as Marvin Gaye 's breakup opus Here , My Dear or any number of Prince 's more idiosyncratic ballads " . No Ripcord 's Charlie Jebb wrote that " Nostalgia , Ultra has more than enough good stuff to establish Ocean as an artist to watch , " calling it " [ an ] R & B record with crossover potential without sacrificing soul that creates a complete picture of its author , warts and all . "
= = Planned reissue = =
On May 19 , 2011 , Ocean 's record label Def Jam announced its plans to release an EP containing tracks from nostalgia , Ultra . Ocean announced that the re @-@ release would have been titled Nostalgia , Lite and that it was expected to feature seven tracks . The EP was originally scheduled to be released on July 26 , 2011 , however , Ocean noted on his official Tumblr page on July 24 , 2011 that Nostalgia , Lite would no longer be released on July 26 and that the project was cancelled . Both " Swim Good " and " Novacane " were set to be featured on the release . Talking about which other songs would make it onto the reissue , Ocean commented that " The Eagles sample ' American Wedding ' has no chance in hell of being cleared " . He continued , " Coldplay sample ' Strawberry Swing ' , possibly . I hear ' possibly ' from people who say they know . MGMT , those guys seem chill . I heard they heard the record ' Nature Feels ' and they liked it a lot , so hopefully that can go someway . " Other tracks on the reissue were set to be " Acura Integurl " , which appeared on the unofficial release The Lonny Breaux Collection , and " Whip Appeal " which was released in 2012 . In 2012 , Ocean commented again on his blog that " Nostalgia Lite is " never coming out . "
= = Singles = =
" Novacane " was officially released as the first single from Nostalgia , Ultra on May 31 , 2011 . " Novacane " first charted on the US Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs on May 11 , 2011 at number 65 . The subsequent week , it rose to number 58 , and on its third week , the single rose to number 52 . In its fourth week , it rose to number 17 . The music video for " Novacane " was released on June 16 , directed by Australian director Nabil Elderkin . When discussing the video , Ocean commented " I was just trying to connect or articulate visually the feeling of being numb . The feeling of wanting to feel something you can 't feel . A lot of things can cause that numbing , but in the video it was some sort of topical aesthetic and a little bit of special effects . " The song also charted on the Billboard Hot 100 at position 82 and at 6 on the Billboard Heatseekers Songs .
" Swim Good " was released as the second single from the mixtape on October 18 , 2011 , and the song charted at position 70 on the Billboard R & B chart for three weeks . It entered the top 40 in Belgium . The music video ( directed by Nabil Elderkin ) was released via Ocean 's tumblr account on September 16 . Ocean performed " Novacane " and " She " with Tyler , The Creator at an Odd Future performance in New York . During Odd Future 2012 's tour promoting The Odd Future Tape Vol . 2 , Frank performed with the group .
= = Tour = =
Ocean embarked on a six @-@ date concert tour from November 5 to November 15 , 2011 , through North America and Europe to promote both the mixtape and his other musical projects . Originally , six shows were scheduled with a New York performance at the Bowery Ballroom on the 6th . The original date for that show was postponed to the 27th , and that an additional show on the 28th had been added . The reported reason was because Ocean was sick . The performances featured no opening act , and the only performer on stage at any given time was Ocean .
Rolling Stone reviewed the debut show , calling Ocean awkward at times , though they stated that " fortunately his dispassionately told stories of love and loss in a world that assumes impermanence could handle the load of the audience . " MTV commented that it took Ocean " some time to warm up to the crowd " at his debut New Orleans performance , though they noted the performance started the tour to a " promising start " . MTV later reviewed the New York performance on the 27th and called Ocean " an audience charmer " . The New York Times critic Jon Caramanica gave a positive review to the same New York performance , calling Ocean a " versatile singer " and writing that " in his elegant , savvy , slightly crooked postsoul , he shifts sneakily between the two topics , singing about love as a byproduct of music and using the subject of music to dig deep about love . "
The set lists to the various shows varied , though singles " Swim Good " and " Novacane " were performed at all shows . Others tracks like " LoveCrimes " , " Dust " and " American Wedding " were performed at a majority of the shows , and " Strawberry Swing " " We All Try " were performed four times each . Portions of " No Church in the Wild " and " Made in America " , along with " I Miss You " and " Thinkin Bout You " were also performed . The performances of " American Wedding " were accompanied by comedic moments where Ocean played Guitar Hero . Ocean performed at the April 2012 Coachella Musical Festival .
= = Impact = =
Before the release of Nostalgia , Ultra , Ocean was a relatively unknown artist who made a majority of his money from ghostwriting . Within six months , it was noted that Ocean had become the " go @-@ to vocal hook man . " The release of the mixtape interested rap recording artist and producer Kanye West , who was reported to be a big fan . West invited Ocean to write and sing on two songs off Watch the Throne , a collaborative record with rapper Jay @-@ Z. Frank wrote and provided vocals on tracks " No Church in the Wild " and " Made in America " . Singer Beyoncé Knowles heard of the mixtape through her husband Jay @-@ Z and was a fan of it . She subsequently invited Ocean to co @-@ write " I Miss You " for her album 4 . Discussing how she first heard of Ocean and Nostalgia , Ultra , she commented ; " Jay @-@ Z had a CD playing in the car one Sunday when we were driving to Brooklyn . I noticed his tone , his arrangements , and his storytelling . I immediately reached out to him — literally the next morning . I asked him to fly to New York and work on my record .
West also offered to appear on Ocean 's debut album , but Ocean refused , saying " as much as I want to work with you … I kind of want to do this without you . I kind of want to do it on my own . " Rapper Nas was also a fan of the mixtape , writing that " He 's new , he 's fresh . He doesn 't sound fly @-@ by @-@ night . The moment you hear it — I hear what he 's sayin ' , and I relate . " Nas also stated on Twitter that he and Ocean were collaborating on a song from Nas 's tenth studio album Life Is Good , though the material never made the album . Chicago born rapper Lupe Fiasco expressed a positive opinion of the release too .
Ocean quickly became Odd Future 's main singing highlight , providing vocal hooks on Odd Future albums like BlackenedWhite , Goblin , and The Odd Future Tape Vol . 2 . Ocean toured with the group on several occasions and made appearances during their shows . On January 5 , 2012 , the BBC announced that Ocean had finished in second place of the BBC 's Sound of 2012 poll . In addition , MTV described the mixtape as a " cult classic " . On August 2 , 2012 , the music video for " Swim Good " was nominated for three MTV Video Music Awards : Best Direction and Best Male Video , with Ocean being nominated for Best New Artist for his work with the video .
= = Accolades = =
The record was nominated for Best International Album at the 2012 Swedish Grammis Awards . Despite being a mixtape , Nostalgia , Ultra was featured on several music critics ' and publications ' end @-@ of @-@ year albums lists . Pitchfork Media put it number 35 on its list of the year 's top albums , writing that " Chris Breaux , who goes by Frank Ocean , is a male R & B singer with male R & B contradictions : As much as he wants to listen to his heart , he can 't completely ignore his dick . " The Guardian writer Tim Jonze named it the year 's third best album , musing " unafraid to tackle suicide , abortion and absent fathers , this free mixtape introduced one of our most refreshing new R & B stars . " The A.V. Club ranked the album number 15 on its year @-@ end list , commenting that " Nostalgia , Ultra became a runaway Internet hit that showed off Ocean 's coaxing croon as well as his outré songwriting skills . Sweetly romantic , yet pensive and moody , Nostalgia is an R & B record for manics , from the hazy lament of ' Novacane ' to the inward @-@ looking contradiction of ' Songs For Women ' to the clever pop remakes of The Eagles ' ' Hotel California ' and Coldplay 's ' Strawberry Swing ' . "
Rolling Stone named it the 24th best album of the year , writing " the debut mixtape from the 24 @-@ year @-@ old singer ( and Odd Future member ) is an avant @-@ R & B killer . " Complex named it the fourth best album of the year and the second best mixtape . Time named it the fifth best album of the year , and wrote that " Ocean also weaves audio of a tape recorder in rewind , video games and Nicole Kidman 's adulterous monologue from Eyes Wide Shut into his songs to give the album a personal feel — as if Ocean were gifting us with a collection of sounds that he finds emotionally meaningful . " Spin named it the 41st best album of the year while Mojo placed the album at number 49 . Robert Christgau named it the fourth best album of the year in his Pazz & Jop dean 's list .
The track Novacane also received widespread critical acclaim . It was listed as one of the best songs of the year by The New York Times , Ology , Spin , Zimbio , and Pitchfork Media named both the video and the song as amongst the best of the year .
= = Controversy = =
In March 2012 , controversy arose over the track " American Wedding " , which samples The Eagles ' song " Hotel California " . Don Henley of the Eagles " had threatened legal action over Ocean 's track " , claiming that Ocean 's version of the song was illegal . The track was widely removed from the internet following this controversy , being removed from music sharing sites such as YouTube . A spokesman for the band announced that a lawsuit would be filed against Ocean if performed the song live .
" Frank Ocean did not merely ' sample ' a portion of the Eagles ' Hotel California ; he took the whole master track , plus the song 's existing melody , and replaced the lyrics with his own . This is not creative , let alone ' intimidating . ' It 's illegal . For the record , Don Henley has not threatened or instituted any legal action against Frank Ocean , although the Eagles are now considering whether they should . "
Several publications noted that the song was released for free on a non @-@ profitable mixtape , and that " live covers of famous songs are common in live performances " , and that sampling is a common practice on mixtapes . Ocean responded to the controversy via his tumblr account :
" He ( They ) threatened to sue if I perform it again . I think that 's fuckin awesome . I guess if I play it at Coachella it 'll cost me a couple hundred racks . If I don 't show up to court , it 'll be a judgement against me & will probably show up on my credit report . Oh well . I try to buy my shit cash anyway . They asked that I release a statement expressing my admiration for Mr. Henley , along with my assistance pulling it off the web as much as possible . Shit 's weird . Ain 't this guy rich as fuck ? Why sue the new guy ? I didn 't make a dime off that song . I released it for free . If anything I 'm paying homage . "
= = Track listing = =
Sample credits
" Strawberry Swing " contains samples of the song of the same name by Coldplay .
" Bitches Talkin ' " contains samples from " Optimistic " as performed by Radiohead .
" Lovecrimes " contains dialogue excerpts from the film " Eyes Wide Shut " .
" There Will Be Tears " contains samples of " There Will Be Tears " as performed by Mr Hudson .
" Swim Good " contains additional background vocals by Tyler , The Creator .
" American Wedding " contains samples from " Hotel California " as performed by Eagles .
" Nature Feels " contains samples from " Electric Feel " as performed by MGMT , and uncredited background vocals by Brandy and Rich King .
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= SMS Moltke =
SMS Moltke was the lead ship of the Moltke @-@ class battlecruisers of the German Imperial Navy , named after the 19th @-@ century German Field Marshal Helmuth von Moltke . Commissioned on 30 September 1911 , the ship was the second battlecruiser commissioned into the Imperial Navy .
Moltke , along with her sister ship Goeben , was an enlarged version of the previous German battlecruiser design , Von der Tann , with increased armor protection and two more main guns in an additional turret . Compared to her British rivals — the Indefatigable class — Moltke and her sister Goeben were significantly larger and better armored .
The ship participated in most of the major fleet actions conducted by the German Navy during the First World War , including the Battles of Dogger Bank and Jutland in the North Sea , and the Battle of the Gulf of Riga and Operation Albion in the Baltic . Moltke was damaged several times during the war : the ship was hit by heavy caliber gunfire at Jutland , and torpedoed twice by British submarines while on fleet advances .
Following the end of the war in 1918 , Moltke , along with most of the High Seas Fleet , was interned at Scapa Flow pending a decision by the Allies as to the fate of the fleet . The ship met her end when she was scuttled , along with the rest of the High Seas Fleet in 1919 to prevent them from falling into British hands . The wreck of Moltke was raised in 1927 and scrapped at Rosyth from 1927 to 1929 .
= = Development = =
In a conference in May 1907 , the Germany Navy Office decided to follow up the unique Von der Tann battlecruiser with an enlarged design . The sum of 44 million marks was allocated for the 1908 fiscal year , which created the possibility of increasing the main guns to 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 in ) in diameter , instead of the 28 cm ( 11 in ) weapons on the preceding design . However , Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz , along with the Construction Department , argued that increasing the number of guns from 8 to 10 would be preferable instead of increasing the size of the previous battery . The General Navy Department held that for the new design to fight in the battle line , 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 in ) guns were necessary . Ultimately , Tirpitz and the Construction Department won the debate , and Moltke was equipped with ten 28 cm ( 11 in ) guns . The guns were mounted in five twin gun turrets , three of which were on the centerline — one was forward and two were in a superfiring pair aft . The other two turrets were staggered wing turrets amidships . The Construction Department also mandated that armor protection was to be at least as good as that of Von der Tann . The ship was also to have a top speed of at least 24 @.@ 5 knots ( 45 @.@ 4 km / h ; 28 @.@ 2 mph ) .
During the design process , the ship 's weight continued to grow due to the increase in the size of the citadel , armor thickness , the additions to the ammunition stores , and the rearrangement of the boiler system . The naval arms race between Germany and Britain put a great deal of stress on the Navy design staff , and prompted the decision to build two ships of the new design . They were assigned under the contract names of " Cruiser G " and " Cruiser H. " Blohm & Voss received both contracts in 1908 ; " Cruiser G " was assigned to the 1908 – 1909 building year , while " Cruiser H " was assigned to 1909 – 1910 . The contract for " Cruiser G " was awarded on 17 September 1908 , under building number 200 . The keel was laid on 7 December 1908 , and the ship was launched on 7 April 1910 . " Cruiser G " was commissioned on 30 September 1911 , as SMS Moltke .
= = Service record = =
= = = Pre @-@ war = = =
At the launching of the ship on 7 April 1910 , Helmuth von Moltke the Younger christened her after his uncle , Helmuth von Moltke the Elder , the Chief of Staff of the Prussian Army in the mid 19th century . On 11 September 1911 , a crew composed of dockyard workers transferred the ship from Hamburg to Kiel through the Skagerrak . On 30 September , the ship was commissioned , under the command of Kapitän zur See von Mann , and replaced Roon in the Reconnaissance Unit . Sea trials continued until 1 April 1912 .
Moltke was the only German capital ship to ever visit the United States . On 11 May 1912 she left Kiel , accompanied by the light cruisers Stettin and Bremen , and arrived off Hampton Roads , Virginia , on 30 May 1912 . After touring the East Coast for two weeks , she returned to Kiel on 24 June .
In July 1912 , Moltke escorted Kaiser Wilhelm II 's yacht to Russia . Upon returning , Moltke 's commander was replaced by KzS Magnus von Levetzow , and the ship became the Reconnaissance Force flagship until 23 June 1914 , when the commander 's flag was transferred to the new battlecruiser Seydlitz . There was some consideration given to deploying Moltke to the Far East in order to replace the armored cruiser Scharnhorst , but the plan was abandoned when it became apparent that Goeben needed replacement in the Mediterranean . Moltke was then scheduled to transfer to replace her sister ship , but this plan was interrupted by the outbreak of World War I.
= = = World War I = = =
As was the case with almost all German capital ships during World War I , Moltke 's action was somewhat limited . However , she did participate in most of the major fleet actions conducted by the High Seas Fleet . At the start of the war , the ship was assigned to the I Scouting Group of the High Seas Fleet , under the command of Rear Admiral Franz Hipper .
= = = = Battle of Heligoland Bight = = = =
Shortly after the outbreak of World War I , on 28 August 1914 , Moltke participated in the Battle of Heligoland Bight . During the morning , British cruisers from the Harwich Force attacked the German destroyers patrolling the Heligoland Bight . Six German light cruisers — Cöln , Strassburg , Stettin , Frauenlob , Stralsund , and Ariadne — responded to the attack and inflicted serious damage to the British raiders . However , the arrival at approximately 13 : 37 of the British 1st Battlecruiser Squadron , under the command of Vice Admiral David Beatty , quickly put the German ships at a disadvantage .
Along with the rest of the I Scouting Group battlecruisers , Moltke was stationed in the Wilhelmshaven Roads on the morning of the battle . By 08 : 50 , Rear Admiral Hipper had requested permission from Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl , the commander in chief of the High Seas Fleet , to send Moltke and Von der Tann to relieve the beleaguered German cruisers . Moltke was ready to sail by 12 : 10 , but the low tide prevented the ships from being able to pass over the sand bar at the mouth of the Jade Estuary safely . At 14 : 10 , Moltke and Von der Tann were able to cross the Jade bar ; Hipper ordered the German cruisers to fall back to his ships , while Hipper himself was about an hour behind in the battlecruiser Seydlitz . At 14 : 25 , the remaining light cruisers — Strassburg , Stettin , Frauenlob , Stralsund , and Ariadne — rendezvoused with the battlecruisers . Seydlitz arrived on the scene by 15 : 10 , while Ariadne succumbed to battle damage and sank . Hipper ventured forth cautiously to search for the two missing light cruisers , Mainz and Cöln , which had already sunk . By 16 : 00 , the German flotilla turned around to return to the Jade Estuary , arriving at approximately 20 : 23 .
= = = = Bombardment of Yarmouth = = = =
On 2 November 1914 , Moltke , Rear Admiral Hipper 's flagship Seydlitz , Von der Tann , and Blücher , along with four light cruisers , left the Jade Estuary and steamed towards the English coast . The flotilla arrived off Great Yarmouth at daybreak the following morning and bombarded the port , while the light cruiser Stralsund laid a minefield . The British submarine D5 responded to the bombardment , but struck one of the mines laid by Stralsund and sank . Shortly thereafter , Hipper ordered his ships to turn back to German waters . However , while Hipper 's ships were returning to German waters , a heavy fog covered the Heligoland Bight , so the ships were ordered to halt until visibility improved so they could safely navigate the defensive minefields . The armored cruiser Yorck left the Jade without permission , and while en route to Wilhelmshaven made a navigational error that led the ship into one of the German minefields . Yorck struck two mines and quickly sank ; the coastal defense ship Hagen was able to save 127 men of the crew .
= = = = Bombardment of Scarborough , Hartlepool , and Whitby = = = =
It was decided by Admiral von Ingenohl that another raid on the English coast was to be carried out , in the hopes of luring a portion of the Grand Fleet into combat , where it could be destroyed . At 03 : 20 on 15 December , Moltke , Seydlitz , Von der Tann , Derfflinger , and Blücher , along with the light cruisers Kolberg , Strassburg , Stralsund , and Graudenz , and two squadrons of torpedo boats left the Jade . The ships sailed north past the island of Heligoland , until they reached the Horns Reef lighthouse , at which point the ships turned west towards Scarborough . Twelve hours after Hipper left the Jade , the High Seas Fleet , consisting of 14 dreadnoughts and 8 pre @-@ dreadnoughts and a screening force of 2 armored cruisers , 7 light cruisers , and 54 torpedo boats , departed to provide distant cover .
On 26 August 1914 , the German light cruiser Magdeburg had run aground in the Gulf of Finland ; the wreck was captured by the Russian navy , which found code books used by the German navy , along with navigational charts for the North Sea . These documents were then passed on to the Royal Navy . Room 40 began decrypting German signals , and on 14 December , intercepted messages relating to the plan to bombard Scarborough . However , the exact details of the plan were unknown , and it was assumed that the High Seas Fleet would remain safely in port , as in the previous bombardment . Vice Admiral Beatty 's four battlecruisers , supported by the 3rd Cruiser Squadron and the 1st Light Cruiser Squadron , along with the 2nd Battle Squadron 's six dreadnoughts , were to ambush Hipper 's battlecruisers .
During the night of 15 December , the main body of the High Seas Fleet encountered British destroyers . Fearing the prospect of a nighttime torpedo attack , Admiral Ingenohl ordered the ships to retreat . Hipper was unaware of Ingenohl 's reversal , and so he continued with the bombardment . Upon reaching the British coast , Hipper 's battlecruisers split into two groups . Seydlitz , Moltke , and Blücher went north to shell Hartlepool , while Von der Tann and Derfflinger went south to shell Scarborough and Whitby . During the bombardment of Hartlepool , Moltke was struck by a 6 in ( 15 @.@ 2 cm ) shell from a coastal battery , which caused minor damage between decks , but no casualties . Blücher was hit six times and Seydlitz three times by the coastal battery . By 09 : 45 on the 16th , the two groups had reassembled , and they began to retreat eastward .
By this time , Beatty 's battlecruisers were in position to block Hipper 's chosen egress route , while other forces were en route to complete the encirclement . At 12 : 25 , the light cruisers of the II Scouting Group began to pass through the British forces searching for Hipper . One of the cruisers in the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron spotted Stralsund and signaled a report to Beatty . At 12 : 30 , Beatty turned his battlecruisers towards the German ships . Beatty presumed that the German cruisers were the advance screen for Hipper 's ships , however those were some 50 km ( 31 mi ) ahead . The 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron , which had been screening for Beatty 's ships , detached to pursue the German cruisers , but a misinterpreted signal from the British battlecruisers sent them back to their screening positions . This confusion allowed the German light cruisers to escape and alerted Hipper to the location of the British battlecruisers . The German battlecruisers wheeled to the northeast of the British forces and made good their escape .
Both the British and the Germans were disappointed that they failed to effectively engage their opponents . Admiral Ingenohl 's reputation suffered greatly as a result of his timidity . The captain of Moltke was furious ; he stated that Ingenohl had turned back " because he was afraid of eleven British destroyers which could have been eliminated ... under the present leadership we will accomplish nothing . " The official German history criticized Ingenohl for failing to use his light forces to determine the size of the British fleet , stating : " he decided on a measure which not only seriously jeopardized his advance forces off the English coast but also deprived the German Fleet of a signal and certain victory . "
= = = = Battle of Dogger Bank = = = =
In early January 1915 , it became known that British ships were conducting reconnaissance in the Dogger Bank area . Ingenohl was initially reluctant to destroy these forces , because the I Scouting Group was temporarily weakened while Von der Tann was in drydock for periodic maintenance . However , Konteradmiral Richard Eckermann , the Chief of Staff of the High Seas Fleet , insisted on the operation , and so Ingenohl relented and ordered Hipper to take his battlecruisers to the Dogger Bank .
On 23 January , Hipper sortied , with his flag in Seydlitz , followed by Moltke , Derfflinger , and Blücher , along with the light cruisers Graudenz , Rostock , Stralsund , and Kolberg and 19 torpedo boats from V Flotilla and II and XVIII Half @-@ Flotillas . Graudenz and Stralsund were assigned to the forward screen , while Kolberg and Rostock were assigned to the starboard and port , respectively . Each light cruiser had a half @-@ flotilla of torpedo boats attached .
Again , interception and decryption of German wireless signals played an important role . Although they were unaware of the exact plans , the cryptographers of Room 40 were able to deduce that Hipper would be conducting an operation in the Dogger Bank area . To counter it , Beatty 's 1st Battlecruiser Squadron , Rear Admiral Archibald Moore 's 2nd Battlecruiser Squadron and Commodore William Goodenough 's 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron were to rendezvous with Commodore Reginald Tyrwhitt 's Harwich Force at 8 : 00 on 24 January , approximately 30 mi ( 48 km ) north of the Dogger Bank .
At 08 : 14 , Kolberg spotted the light cruiser Aurora and several destroyers from the Harwich Force.Aurora challenged Kolberg with a search light , at which point Kolberg attacked Aurora and scored two hits . Aurora returned fire and scored two hits on Kolberg in retaliation . Hipper immediately turned his battlecruisers towards the gunfire , when , almost simultaneously , Stralsund spotted a large amount of smoke to the northwest of her position . This was identified as a number of large British warships steaming towards Hipper 's ships .
Hipper turned south to flee , but was limited to 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) , which was the maximum speed of the older armored cruiser Blücher . The pursuing British battlecruisers were steaming at 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) , and quickly caught up to the German ships . At 09 : 52 , Lion opened fire on Blücher from a range of approximately 20 @,@ 000 yards ( 18 @,@ 300 m ) ; shortly thereafter , Queen Mary and Tiger began firing as well . At 10 : 09 , the British guns made their first hit on Blücher . Two minutes later , the German ships began returning fire , primarily concentrating on Lion , from a range of 18 @,@ 000 yards ( 15 @,@ 460 m ) . At 10 : 28 , Lion was struck on the waterline , which tore a hole in the side of the ship and flooded a coal bunker . At 10 : 30 , New Zealand , the fourth ship in Beatty 's line , came within range of Blücher and opened fire . By 10 : 35 , the range had closed to 17 @,@ 500 yards ( 16 @,@ 000 m ) , at which point the entire German line was within the effective range of the British ships . Beatty ordered his battlecruisers to engage their German counterparts . However , confusion aboard Tiger led the captain to believe he was to fire on Seydlitz , which left Moltke able to fire without distraction .
At 10 : 40 , one of Lion 's 13 @.@ 5 in ( 34 cm ) shells struck Seydlitz causing nearly catastrophic damage that knocked out both of the rear turrets and killed 159 men . Disaster was averted when the executive officer ordered the flooding of both magazines to avoid a flash fire that would have destroyed the ship . By this time , the German battlecruisers had zeroed in on Lion and began scoring repeated hits . At 11 : 01 , an 11 in ( 28 cm ) shell from Seydlitz struck Lion and knocked out two of her dynamos . At 11 : 18 , Lion was hit by two 12 in ( 30 cm ) shells from Derfflinger , one of which struck the waterline and penetrated the belt , allowing seawater to enter the port feed tank . This shell eventually crippled Lion by forcing the ship to turn off its engines because of seawater contamination .
By this time , Blücher was severely damaged after having been pounded by heavy shells . However , the chase ended when there were several reports of U @-@ boats ahead of the British ships ; Beatty quickly ordered evasive maneuvers , which allowed the German ships to increase the distance from their pursuers . At this time , Lion 's last operational dynamo failed , which dropped her speed to 15 knots . Beatty , in the stricken Lion , ordered the remaining battlecruisers to " Engage the enemy 's rear , " but signal confusion caused the ships to solely target Blücher , allowing Moltke , Seydlitz , and Derfflinger to escape . By the time Beatty regained control over his ships , after having boarded Princess Royal , the German ships had too far a lead for the British to catch them ; at 13 : 50 , he broke off the chase .
= = = = Battle of the Gulf of Riga = = = =
On 3 August 1915 , Moltke was transferred to the Baltic with I Reconnaissance Group ( AG ) to participate in the foray into the Riga Gulf . The intention was to destroy the Russian naval forces in the area , including the pre @-@ dreadnought Slava , and to use the minelayer Deutschland to block the entrance to Moon Sound with naval mines . The German forces , under the command of Vice Admiral Hipper , included the four Nassau and four Helgoland @-@ class battleships , the battlecruisers Moltke , Von der Tann , and Seydlitz , and a number of smaller craft .
On 8 August , the first attempt to clear the gulf was made ; the old battleships Braunschweig and Elsass kept Slava at bay while minesweepers cleared a path through the inner belt of mines . During this period , the rest of the German fleet remained in the Baltic and provided protection against other units of the Russian fleet . However , the approach of nightfall meant that Deutschland would be unable to mine the entrance to Moon Sound in time , and so the operation was broken off .
On 16 August , a second attempt was made to enter the gulf . The dreadnoughts Nassau and Posen , four light cruisers , and 31 torpedo boats breached the defenses to the gulf . Nassau and Posen engaged in an artillery duel with Slava , resulting in three hits on the Russian ship that prompted her withdrawal . After three days , the Russian minefields had been cleared , and the flotilla entered the gulf on 19 August , but reports of Allied submarines in the area prompted a German withdrawal from the gulf the following day .
Throughout the operation , Moltke remained in the Baltic and provided cover for the assault into the Gulf of Riga . On the morning of the 19th , Moltke was torpedoed by the British E @-@ class submarine E1 . The torpedo was not spotted until it was approximately 200 yards ( 183 m ) away ; without time to maneuver , the ship was struck in the bow torpedo room . The explosion damaged several torpedoes in the ship , but they did not detonate themselves . Eight men were killed , and 435 tonnes ( 480 short tons ) of water entered the ship . The ship was repaired at Blohm & Voss in Hamburg , between 23 August and 20 September .
= = = = Bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft = = = =
Moltke also took part in the bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft on 24 – 25 April . Hipper was away on sick leave , so the German ships were under the command of Konteradmiral Friedrich Boedicker . The German battlecruisers Derfflinger , Lützow , Moltke , Seydlitz and Von der Tann left the Jade Estuary at 10 : 55 on 24 April , and were supported by a screening force of six light cruisers and two torpedo boat flotillas . The heavy units of the High Seas Fleet sailed at 13 : 40 , with the objective to provide distant support for Boedicker 's ships . The British Admiralty was made aware of the German sortie through the interception of German wireless signals , and deployed the Grand Fleet at 15 : 50 .
By 14 : 00 , Boedicker 's ships had reached a position off Norderney , at which point he turned his ships northward to avoid the Dutch observers on the island of Terschelling . At 15 : 38 , Seydlitz struck a naval mine , which tore a 50 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) hole in her hull , just abaft of the starboard broadside torpedo tube , allowing 1 @,@ 400 short tons ( 1 @,@ 250 long tons ) of water to enter the ship . Seydlitz turned back , with the screen of light cruisers , at a speed of 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The four remaining battlecruisers turned south immediately in the direction of Norderney to avoid further mine damage . By 16 : 00 , Seydlitz was clear of imminent danger , so the ship stopped to allow Boedicker to disembark . The torpedo boat V28 brought Boedicker to Lützow .
At 04 : 50 on 25 April , the German battlecruisers were approaching Lowestoft when the light cruisers Rostock and Elbing , which had been covering the southern flank , spotted the light cruisers and destroyers of Commodore Tyrwhitt 's Harwich Force . Boedicker refused to be distracted by the British ships , and instead trained his ships ' guns on Lowestoft . The German battlecruisers destroyed two 6 in ( 15 cm ) shore batteries and inflicted other damage to the town . In the process , a single 6 in shell from one of the shore batteries struck Moltke , but the ship sustained no significant damage .
At 05 : 20 , the German raiders turned north , towards Yarmouth , which they reached by 05 : 42 . The visibility was so poor that the German ships fired one salvo each , with the exception of Derfflinger , which fired fourteen rounds from her main battery . The German ships turned back south , and at 05 : 47 encountered for the second time the Harwich Force , which had by then been engaged by the six light cruisers of the screening force . Boedicker 's ships opened fire from a range of 13 @,@ 000 yards ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) . Tyrwhitt immediately turned his ships around and fled south , but not before the cruiser Conquest sustained severe damage . Due to reports of British submarines and torpedo attacks , Boedicker broke off the chase and turned back east towards the High Seas Fleet . At this point , Scheer , who had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's sortie from Scapa Flow , turned back towards Germany .
= = = = Battle of Jutland = = = =
Moltke , and the rest of Hipper 's battlecruisers in the I Scouting Group , lay anchored in the outer Jade Roads on the night of 30 May 1916 . The following morning , at 02 : 00 CET , the ships slowly steamed out towards the Skagerrak at a speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . Moltke was the fourth ship in the line of five , ahead of Von der Tann , and to the rear of Seydlitz . The II Scouting Group , consisting of the light cruisers Frankfurt , Rear Admiral Boedicker 's flagship , Wiesbaden , Pillau , and Elbing , and 30 torpedo boats of the II , VI , and IX Flotillas , accompanied Hipper 's battlecruisers .
An hour and a half later , the High Seas Fleet under the command of Admiral Scheer left the Jade ; the force was composed of 16 dreadnoughts . The High Seas Fleet was accompanied by the IV Scouting Group , composed of the light cruisers Stettin , München , Hamburg , Frauenlob , and Stuttgart , and 31 torpedo boats of the I , III , V , and VII Flotillas , led by the light cruiser Rostock . The six pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the II Battle Squadron had departed from the Elbe roads at 02 : 45 , and rendezvoused with the battle fleet at 5 : 00 .
Shortly before 16 : 00 , Hipper 's force encountered Vice Admiral Beatty 's battlecruiser squadron . The German ships were the first to open fire , at a range of approximately 15 @,@ 000 yards ( 14 @,@ 000 m ) . When the British ships began returning fire , confusion amongst the British battlecruisers resulted in Moltke being engaged by both New Zealand and Tiger . The British rangefinders had misread the range to their German targets , and so the first salvos fired by the British ships fell a mile past the German battlecruisers . At 16 : 52 , Moltke hit Tiger with two main gun shells , but neither of these hits caused any significant damage . Moltke then fired a further four shells , two of which hit simultaneously on the midships and after turrets , knocking both out for a significant period of the battle .
Approximately 15 minutes later , the British battlecruiser Indefatigable was suddenly destroyed by Von der Tann . Shortly thereafter , Moltke fired four torpedoes at Queen Mary at a range between 11 @,@ 500 – 10 @,@ 400 yards ( 10 @,@ 500 – 9 @,@ 500 m ) . This caused the British line to fall into disarray , as the torpedoes were thought to have been fired by U @-@ boats . At this point , Hipper 's battlecruisers had come into range of the V Battle Squadron , composed of the new Queen Elizabeth @-@ class battleships , which mounted powerful 15 in ( 38 cm ) guns . At 17 : 06 , Barham opened fire on Von der Tann . She was joined a few minutes later by Valiant , Malaya , and Warspite ; the ships concentrated their fire on Von der Tann and Moltke . At 17 : 16 , one of the 15 in shells from the fast battleships struck Moltke , where it pierced a coal bunker , tore into a casemate deck , and ignited ammunition stored therein . The explosion burned the ammunition hoist down to the magazine .
Von der Tann and Moltke changed their speed and direction , which threw off the aim of the V Battle Squadron and earned the battered ships a short respite . While Moltke and Von der Tann were drawing the fire of the V Battle Squadron battleships , Seydlitz and Derfflinger were able to concentrate their fire on the British battlecruisers ; between 17 : 25 and 17 : 30 , at least five shells from Seydlitz and Derfflinger struck Queen Mary , causing a catastrophic explosion that destroyed the ship . Moltke 's commander , Kapitän zur See von Karpf , remarked that " The enemy 's salvos lie well and close ; their salvos are fired in rapid succession , the fire discipline is excellent ! "
By 19 : 30 , the High Seas Fleet , which was by that point pursuing the British battlecruisers , had not yet encountered the Grand Fleet . Scheer had been considering retiring his forces before darkness exposed his ships to torpedo boat attack . However , he had not yet made a decision when his leading battleships encountered the main body of the Grand Fleet . This development made it impossible for Scheer to retreat , for doing so would have sacrificed the slower pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of the II Battle Squadron , while using his dreadnoughts and battlecruisers to cover their retreat would have subjected his strongest ships to overwhelming British fire . Instead , Scheer ordered his ships to turn 16 points to starboard , which would bring the pre @-@ dreadnoughts to the relative safety of the disengaged side of the German battle line .
Moltke and the other battlecruisers followed the move , which put them astern of König . Hipper 's badly battered ships gained a temporary moment of respite , and uncertainty over the exact location and course of Scheer 's ships led Admiral Jellicoe to turn his ships eastward , towards what he thought was the likely path of the German retreat . The German fleet was instead sailing west , but Scheer ordered a second 16 @-@ point turn , which reversed course and pointed his ships at the center of the British fleet . The German fleet came under intense fire from the British line , and Scheer sent Moltke , Von der Tann , Seydlitz , and Derfflinger at high speed towards the British fleet , in an attempt to disrupt their formation and gain time for his main force to retreat . By 20 : 17 , the German battlecruisers had closed to within 7 @,@ 700 yards ( 7 @,@ 040 m ) of Colossus , at which point Scheer directed the ships to engage the lead ship of the British line . However , three minutes later , the German battlecruisers turned in retreat , covered by a torpedo boat attack .
A pause in the battle at dusk allowed Moltke and the other German battlecruisers to cut away wreckage that interfered with the main guns , extinguish fires , repair the fire control and signal equipment , and ready the searchlights for nighttime action . During this period , the German fleet reorganized into a well @-@ ordered formation in reverse order , when the German light forces encountered the British screen shortly after 21 : 00 . The renewed gunfire gained Beatty 's attention , so he turned his battlecruisers westward . At 21 : 09 , he sighted the German battlecruisers , and drew to within 8 @,@ 500 yards ( 7 @,@ 800 m ) before opening fire at 20 : 20 . The attack from the British battlecruisers completely surprised Hipper , who had been in the process of boarding Moltke from the torpedo boat G39 . The German ships returned fire with every gun available , and at 21 : 32 hit both Lion and Princess Royal in the darkness . The maneuvering of the German battlecruisers forced the leading I Battle Squadron to turn westward to avoid collision . This brought the pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the II Battle Squadron directly behind the battlecruisers , and prevented the British ships from pursuing the German battlecruisers when they turned southward . The British battlecruisers opened fire on the old battleships ; the German ships turned southwest to bring all of their guns to bear against the British ships .
By 22 : 15 , Hipper was finally able to transfer to Moltke , and then ordered his ships to steam at 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) towards the head of the German line . However , only Moltke and Seydlitz were in condition to comply ; Derfflinger and Von der Tann could make at most 18 knots , and so these ships lagged behind . Moltke and Seydlitz were in the process of steaming to the front of the line when the ships passed close to Stettin , which forced the ship to drastically slow down to avoid collision . This forced Frauenlob , Stuttgart , and München to turn to port , which led them into contact with the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron ; at a range of 800 yards ( 730 m ) , the cruisers on both sides pummeled each other . Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter decided to attempt to lure the British cruisers towards Moltke and Seydlitz . However , nearly simultaneously , the heavily damaged British cruisers broke off the attack . As the light cruisers were disengaging , a torpedo fired by Southampton struck Frauenlob , and the ship exploded . The German formation fell into disarray , and in the confusion , Seydlitz lost sight of Moltke . Seydlitz was no longer able to keep up with Moltke 's 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) , and so detached herself to proceed to the Horns Reef lighthouse independently .
By 23 : 30 on her own , Moltke encountered four British dreadnoughts , from the rear division of the 2nd Battle Squadron . Moltke 's commander Kapitän von Karpf ordered the ship to swing away , hoping he had not been detected . The British ships in fact had seen Moltke , but had decided to not open fire in order to not reveal their location to the entire German fleet . At 23 : 55 , and again at 00 : 20 , Kapitän von Karpf tried to find a path through the British fleet , but both times was unable to do so . It was not until 01 : 00 , after having steamed far ahead of the Grand Fleet , that Moltke was able to make good her escape .
Close to the end of the battle , at 03 : 55 , Hipper transmitted a report to Admiral Scheer informing him of the tremendous damage his ships had suffered . By that time , Derfflinger and Von der Tann each had only two guns in operation , Moltke was flooded with 1 @,@ 000 tons of water , and Seydlitz was severely damaged . Hipper reported : " I Scouting Group was therefore no longer of any value for a serious engagement , and was consequently directed to return to harbour by the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , while he himself determined to await developments off Horns Reef with the battlefleet . "
During the course of the battle , Moltke had hit Tiger 13 times , and was hit herself 4 times , all by 15 in ( 38 cm ) shells . The starboard No. 5 15 cm gun was struck by one of the 15 in shells and put out of action for the remainder of the battle . The ship suffered 16 dead and 20 wounded , the majority of which were due to the hit on the 15 cm gun . Flooding and counter @-@ flooding efforts caused 1 @,@ 000 tons of water to enter the ship .
= = = = Later operations = = = =
During the fleet advance on 18 – 19 August , the I Scouting Group was to bombard the coastal town of Sunderland in an attempt to draw out and destroy Beatty 's battlecruisers . As Moltke was one of only two remaining German battlecruisers still in fighting condition in the Group ( Von der Tann being the other ) , three dreadnoughts were assigned to the Group for the operation : Markgraf , Grosser Kurfürst , and the newly commissioned Bayern . Admiral Scheer and the rest of the High Seas Fleet , with 15 dreadnoughts of its own , would trail behind and provide cover . The British were aware of the German plans and sortied the Grand Fleet to meet them . By 14 : 35 , Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's approach and , unwilling to engage the whole of the Grand Fleet just 11 weeks after the decidedly close call at Jutland , turned his forces around and retreated to German ports .
In September 1917 , KzS von Karpf left Moltke ; KzS Gygas assumed command of the ship . Between September and October 1917 , the ship took part in Operation Albion supporting the German invasion of the Russian islands of Ösel , Dagö , and Moon ( in present @-@ day Estonia ) . Following the successful operation in the Baltic , Moltke was detached to support the II Reconnaissance Group ( II AG ) , but did not actively participate in the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight .
Late 1917 saw the High Seas Fleet beginning to conduct anti @-@ convoy raids in the North Sea between Britain and Norway . In October and December 1917 , two British convoys to Norway were intercepted and destroyed by German cruisers and destroyers , prompting Beatty , now the Commander in Chief of the Grand Fleet , to detach several battleships and battlecruisers to protect convoys . This presented to Admiral Scheer the opportunity for which he had been waiting the entire war : the chance to isolate and eliminate a portion of the Grand Fleet .
At 05 : 00 on 23 April 1918 , the High Seas Fleet left harbor with the intention of intercepting one of the heavily escorted convoys . Wireless radio traffic was kept to a minimum to prevent the British from learning of the operation . At 05 : 10 on 24 April , Moltke suffered machinery failure : the starboard propeller had fallen off the shaft , and before the turbine could be stopped , a gear wheel was destroyed . The destroyed wheel flung pieces of steel into an auxiliary condenser , which flooded the engine room and stopped the operation of the center and starboard engines . Saltwater entered the boilers , reducing the ship 's speed to a mere four knots ; by 08 : 45 , the captain of Moltke reported to Scheer that his ship was " out of control " , and that the ship would need to be towed . At 09 : 38 , the cruiser Strassburg attempted to take the ship under tow , but was unable to do so . At 10 : 13 , the dreadnought Oldenburg was detached from the battle fleet to tow Moltke back to port . At 14 : 10 , the convoy had still not yet been located , and so Scheer turned the High Seas Fleet back towards German waters . By 17 : 10 , Moltke 's engines had been repaired , and the ship was able to steam at a speed of 17 knots . At 19 : 37 , the British submarine E42 spotted the ship and fired a torpedo into Moltke . The ship took in 1 @,@ 800 tons of water , but was able to reach harbor under her own power . Repairs were carried out in Wilhelmshaven in the Imperial Dockyard , between 30 April and 9 September 1918 .
Following repairs , Moltke took part in training operations in the Baltic from 19 September to 3 October . Starting on 1 November , the ship served as the I Scouting Group flagship for Rear Admiral von Reuter , after the battlecruiser Hindenburg had gone into dry dock for repairs .
= = = Fate = = =
Moltke was to have taken part in what would have amounted to the " death ride " of the High Seas Fleet shortly before the end of World War I. The bulk of the High Seas Fleet was to have sortied from their base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet ; Scheer — by now the Großadmiral of the fleet — intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , in order to retain a better bargaining position for Germany , whatever the cost to the fleet . However , while the fleet was consolidating in Wilhelmshaven , war @-@ weary sailors began deserting en masse . As Von der Tann and Derfflinger passed through the locks that separated Wilhelmshaven 's inner harbour and roadstead , some 300 men from both ships climbed over the side and disappeared ashore .
On 24 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on several battleships mutinied ; three ships from the III Squadron refused to weigh anchor , and acts of sabotage were committed on board the battleships Thüringen and Helgoland . The order to sail was rescinded in the face of this open revolt . In early November 1918 , the German Revolution began ; it led to the Armistice that ended the war and it toppled the monarchy .
Moltke was surrendered with the rest of the High Seas Fleet on 24 November 1918 and interned at Scapa Flow , under the command of Kapitänleutnant Wollante . Believing that the Treaty of Versailles had been signed and his fleet was about to be seized by the British , Rear Admiral von Reuter ordered the scuttling of the High Seas Fleet on 21 June 1919 , while the British Grand Fleet was away on exercises . The ship sank in two hours and fifteen minutes . Moltke was raised in 1927 and scrapped at Rosyth in 1929 .
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= Harvest Festival ( Parks and Recreation ) =
" Harvest Festival " is the seventh episode of the third season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the 37th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on March 17 , 2011 . In the episode , Leslie and her co @-@ workers hold Pawnee 's harvest festival , the success of which will determine the future of the parks department . The festival faces several obstacles , including a supposed Native American curse , a missing miniature horse and a scandal @-@ hungry media . Meanwhile , Ann tries to cope with her recent break @-@ up , and April confesses her love to Andy , then becomes angry when he does not reciprocate .
Written by Daniel J. Goor and directed by Dean Holland , the episode marked the culmination of a seven @-@ episode story arc about the harvest festival that began with the third season premiere , " Go Big or Go Home " . Unlike the first six episodes of the season , it was not written and produced immediately following the second season , which had been done to accommodate actress Amy Poehler 's pregnancy . The episode also does not feature Rob Lowe as he was originally only expected to be a guest star when the episode was conceived ; however , he does return for subsequent episodes as a regular cast member .
The episode featured appearances by regular guest stars Mo Collins and Jay Jackson , as well as the first appearance by Jonathan Joss as the leader of a local Native American tribe . The harvest festival scenes were shot at Los Angeles Pierce College , and an aerial shot of the festival itself was the most expensive shot in the series . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Harvest Festival " was seen by 4 @.@ 08 million household viewers , one of the lowest ratings of the series .
The episode received critical acclaim , with many reviewers calling it one of the show 's best episodes as well as a major turning point in the series .
= = Plot = =
With the Harvest Festival days away , Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) surprises everyone by booking Li 'l Sebastian , a miniature horse and legendary Pawnee celebrity . Everyone is thrilled except Ben ( Adam Scott ) , who doesn 't understand the fascination . The chief of the local Wamapoke tribe , Ken Hotate ( Jonathan Joss ) , visits the parks department and requests the harvest festival be moved , as it is built upon the site of a Wamapoke massacre . When Leslie explains it is too late , Ken warns them the festival may become cursed , although he privately tells the documentary crew that " there are two things [ he ] know [ s ] about white people : they love Rachel Ray , and they are terrified of curses . " Ann ( Rashida Jones ) works the harvest festival first aid tent , where she confides in Donna ( Retta ) that she has not taken the break @-@ up with Chris ( Rob Lowe ) well . April ( Aubrey Plaza ) tells Andy ( Chris Pratt ) that she loves him , but grows angry when he replies , " Dude , shut up ! That is awesomesauce ! "
Joan Callamezzo ( Mo Collins ) arrives to report on the festival and is determined to find a negative story , although she does show excitement over Li 'l Sebastian . She initially fails to find a scandal , but then overhears Leslie and Ben discussing the curse . It becomes the focus of her story , especially after Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) tells Leslie that Li 'l Sebastian escaped his pen . Tom blames Jerry ( Jim O 'Heir ) , although it was entirely Tom 's fault . The Pawnee media swarms the festival to cover the curse , endangering its opening the next day with the bad press , with one reporter likening Ben 's past as a failed teen mayor with the curse . Now believing himself to be the curse , Ben leaves the festival . As Leslie reassures the reporters there is no curse , the power generator blows out , leaving the festival dark and stranding most of the parks department on a Ferris wheel . Using the blackout as an excuse , Ann takes Donna 's advice to make out with random people , starting with Kiley ( Joey Russo ) , her dumb but attractive patient .
On the Ferris wheel , with April and Andy arguing below him and Tom and Jerry arguing above him , an annoyed Ron ( Nick Offerman ) clears the air by announcing the obvious : April is mad at Andy for not telling her that he loves her back , and the missing Li 'l Sebastian is Tom 's fault . Andy tells April that he clearly loves her and they hug , and Tom apologizes to Jerry . Later , everyone spots Li 'l Sebastian in the corn maze and recover him . Leslie learns the power outage was due to television crews plugging into the grid and overloading it . The only replacement generator in Pawnee is at the Wamapoke casino , and Leslie humbly asks Ken to loan it to her in exchange for placing a Wamapoke cultural exhibit near the Harvest Festival entrance . Ken agrees , and during the festival opening the next morning , he performs a meaningless ceremony to remove the fake curse . People begin to swarm into the festival , and Ben returns to apologize to Leslie for leaving , admitting that he is not over his past . She reassures him the festival is as much his accomplishment as hers , and even has Ken break Ben 's " curse " , although Ken 's gesture is also completely meaningless . At the end , Ben appears to have been won over by Li 'l Sebastian , but admits to the camera crew that he still fails to see the appeal and remains as baffled as ever .
= = Production = =
" Harvest Festival " was written by Daniel J. Goor and directed by Dean Holland . The episode marked the culmination of a seven @-@ episode story arc that began with the third season premiere , " Go Big or Go Home " , in which Leslie and the parks department prepare to relaunch the harvest festival , which had previously been a Pawnee tradition before it ended . The storyline stemmed from serious budget problems facing Pawnee which forced a government shutdown and threatened major cuts to the parks department , prompting Leslie to bring the harvest festival back and stake the future of the entire department on its success or failure . Amy Poehler said she believed the storyline was appropriate for a series about small government and was well handled by the writers : " What I like about the show is it doesn 't spend 25 episodes talking about this thing , it talks about it in the right amount of time . It happens and then there 's consequences of it . The show keeps moving forward , which is always really fun . "
" Harvest Festival " was the first episode of the season written and produced separately from the second season . The previous six episodes from the third season were filmed almost immediately after the second season ended as part of an early shooting schedule to accommodate Poehler 's pregnancy . Series co @-@ creator Michael Schur described it as a particularly empowering episode for the Leslie Knope character : " When you see this episode [ ... ] it makes you love her even more . This episode is about Leslie being noticed for the incredible hard work she does . " Schur also said he believed the subplot with April and Andy was one that several young people in their situation have faced in real life : " Andy is put into a situation that a lot of people have been put into in our lives and he does the exact wrong thing you can do . And that 's sort of the template for them going forward is what 's the wrongest thing you can do ? That 's sort of how we follow them . " Chris Pratt said he believed the conflict provided strong romantic and comedic potential for the characters : " There definitely will be conflict in their relationship [ and ] there 's still a lot of room for comedy in there , because we have good writers . "
Rob Lowe , a regular cast member with Parks and Recreation , did not appear in " Harvest Festival " because the actor was originally slated to only appear in the first six episodes of the season as a guest star . However , after those episodes were filmed , Lowe joined the cast as a permanent cast member , and his character Chris Traeger will return in the next episode , " Camping " , as well as all subsequent episodes . " Harvest Festival " included guest appearances by Mo Collins and Jay Jackson as , respectively , Joan Callamezzo and Perd Hapley , two Pawnee television journalists who have appeared in multiple Parks and Recreation episodes . It also featured the first guest appearance of Jonathan Joss as Wamapoke tribe leader Ken Hotate . Joss previously voiced John Redcorn in the animated television series King of the Hill , which was co @-@ created by Parks and Recreation co @-@ creator Greg Daniels . Schur said while writing about the Native American curse , the writing staff wanted it to be the local media that turned it into an issue rather than the citizens of Pawnee , because they felt it would be too cartoonish and unbelievable for the residents to take it so seriously .
Due to budget constraints , the Parks and Recreation set department did not build the harvest festival and corn maze sets , but instead filmed the episode at the annual Halloween Harvest Festival at Los Angeles Pierce College , a community college in California . Michael Schur said the aerial shot of the harvest festival at the end of the episode was the most expensive in the entire series . The episode was filmed out of sequence from the rest of the season so the weather would be cooler when the scenes were shot ; Schur jokingly said if this was not done , " the week that we would have been shooting it was like 148 degrees here and the actors would be dead now " . " Harvest Festival " was screened for members of the media during a January 2011 NBC press junket . Afterward , the reporters were taken to the set of Parks and Recreation where they were able to greet and pose for photos with the actual miniature horse who played Li 'l Sebastian . Shortly after the episode aired , a " Producer 's Cut " version was made available on the official NBC website . It was about five minutes longer than the televised version and included several scenes that were originally cut due to length limitations , including an extended cold open with the parks department meeting Li 'l Sebastian , and additional scenes of Leslie meeting with Pawnee constituents before the Harvest Festival .
= = Cultural references = =
When Ben fails to understand the appeal of Li 'l Sebastian , Ron explains the miniature horse has an honorary degree from the University of Notre Dame , a school in Indiana , the state where Parks and Recreation series is set . In a later scene , Ben compares Leslie to a Jedi , a type of warrior in the science fiction franchise Star Wars , prompting Leslie and Tom to mock him as a nerd . During one scene , Ken Hotate says , " I know two things about white people : they love Matchbox Twenty , and they are terrified of curses . " The former refers to an American rock band , which is later also featured on the marquee of an exterior shot of a Wamapoke casino . ( The extended cut replaces Matchbox Twenty with Rachael Ray in both instances . ) Ann claims that , while distraught from her breakup with Chris , she bought $ 700 @-@ worth of candles from Anthropologie , a retail store that sells women 's apparel and home accessories .
One of the harvest festival booths features Pawnee celebrity Aunt Tilda , the fictional aunt of basketball player Larry Bird , who is from Indiana . " American Girl " , a song by the rock band Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers , plays during one scene showing an overview of the harvest festival . A news report about the supposed curse is presented in a Taiwanese animation clip featuring Leslie and Ken Hotate , in the style of the animation company Next Media Animation . While interviewing Hotate , Perd Hapley compared the curse to the horror film Poltergeist ( 1982 ) . Several commentators compared the man who flirted with Ann to the characters of Jersey Shore , an MTV reality series about young people living in a house by the Jersey Shore beach .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast , " Harvest Festival " was seen by an estimated 4 @.@ 08 million household viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research , with a 1 @.@ 8 rating / 5 share among viewers between ages 18 and 49 . It was one of the lowest ratings of the series to date , and marked a 25 percent drop from the previous original episode , " Indianapolis " . The ratings suffered in part because its lead @-@ in show , The Office , was a repeat ; all the other NBC comedy shows that Thursday , including 30 Rock , Community , Perfect Couples and Outsourced , also saw lower ratings than their previous episodes . Parks and Recreation was defeated in its 9 : 30 p.m. timeslot by the Fox comedy @-@ drama series Bones , which was seen by 11 @.@ 34 million households ; the ABC medical drama Private Practice ( TV series ) , which was seen by 5 @.@ 97 million households ; and CBS coverage of NCAA basketball , which was seen by 4 @.@ 44 million household . In network television , it defeated only a remake of the CW Network drama Nikita , which drew 1 @.@ 37 million households .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Harvest Festival " received critical acclaim . New York magazine writer Steve Kandell called it the most pivotal episode of the season in terms of " resolving and resetting narrative stakes " , as well as the most complex from a production perspective . Kandell wrote , " There 's something that feels particularly satisfying about watching a wholly sympathetic , albeit fictional , character like Leslie Knope do well by her own ambition and by her friends . " Entertainment Weekly writer Ken Tucker said the episode placed Parks and Recreation " squarely in the tradition of great gentle @-@ hearted sitcoms " that treated its characters " with equal affection , and has relatively little patience for irony and cool detachment " . He praised Amy Poehler 's performance , and enjoyed how the characters ' excitement over Li 'l Sebastian demonstrated how " in some parts of this great land , there are people who aren ’ t jaded , who are open to wonderment , who find vessels in which to pour their joy " . HitFix writer Alan Sepinwall said " Harvest Festival " may be his favorite episode of the season thus far , and demonstrates how the series has evolved . While in the first season he said Leslie was too over @-@ the @-@ top in a relatively ordinary setting , Sepinwall said this episode showed Parks and Recreation " has successfully made the rest of Pawnee seem as believably crazy as Leslie , if not moreso " . TV Squad television reviewer Maureen Ryan called " Harvest Festival " a " delightful , comedically deft episode , one that depicts the mildly demented world of Pawnee in loving detail " .
Joel Keller , also of TV Squad , called it one of the best episodes of the season , and that it provided each member of the ensemble cast moments to shine . He praised how the episode combined the " funny small @-@ townness of a place like Pawnee and the realities of being in city government " . James Poniewozik of Time magazine called it a " splendid " episode that " combined slapstick , authentic stakes and a holistic picture of the oddball history and commonalities that bond the folks we 've come to know in Pawnee " . Punchline Magazine writer Megan Gilbert said the episode featured " plenty of laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moments " and particularly enjoyed the " sweet non @-@ aggressive fighting " between April and Andy . Gilbert felt Adam Scott was underused , but praised the performances of Rashida Jones , Aziz Ansari and Mo Collins . TV Guide writer Damian Holbrook said the difficulties that plague the harvest festival were funny , " but like the best of Parks , these hiccups are matched with acres of heart " . He praised the growing romantic interest between Leslie and Ben , as well as the subplot about Andy and April . Alex Strachan of the Montreal Gazette praised the show for being funny without resorting to cynicism or cruel jokes , and called the series " one of the sharpest , smartest comedies on TV at the moment " . He also called the Wamapoke curse subplot " wildly politically incorrect , but funny " . National Post writer Scott Stinson said Parks and Recreation " continues to challenge for the title of best comedy on television " , and called the continuing romance between April and Andy a " welcome development " for both characters .
Hollywood.com writer Eric Sundermann enjoyed the new direction Ann 's character was taking , as well as how " Harvest Festival " accurately portrays small @-@ town life . Rick Porter of Zap2it said the episode " put a great cap on the first portion of the season " . He called Andy and April " a recipe for excellent comedy " and called the slowly developing romance of Ben and Leslie extremely rewarding . Andy Daglas of ChicagoNow called it a " pure delight from beginning to end " and a good entry point for newcomers to the show . Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club called the episode " celebration of the whackjobs that live in Pawnee and how their singular focus can make for some adorably naive comedy " . While he praised the main subplot , he said it was too early in April and Andy 's relationship for them to declare their love for each other , and said April 's declaration " came out of nowhere " . Matt Fowler of IGN said it was not his favorite episode , as the jokes about Ben 's past felt repetitive compared to past episodes , and the April and Andy subplot " fell a little flat " . However , he said it was " chock full of dozens of little moments that make the entire episode worthwhile " , and particularly praised the Native American curse and the parody of the media .
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= Ursula Franklin =
Ursula Martius Franklin , CC OOnt FRSC ( 16 September 1921 – 22 July 2016 ) , was a German @-@ Canadian metallurgist , research physicist , author , and educator who taught at the University of Toronto for more than 40 years . She was the author of The Real World of Technology , which is based on her 1989 Massey Lectures ; The Ursula Franklin Reader : Pacifism as a Map , a collection of her papers , interviews , and talks ; and Ursula Franklin Speaks : Thoughts and Afterthoughts , containing 22 of her speeches and five interviews between 1986 and 2012 . Franklin was a practising Quaker and active in working on behalf of pacifist and feminist causes . She wrote and spoke extensively about the futility of war and the connection between peace and social justice . Franklin received numerous honours and awards , including the Governor General 's Award in Commemoration of the Persons Case for promoting the equality of girls and women in Canada and the Pearson Medal of Peace for her work in advancing human rights . In 2012 , she was inducted into the Canadian Science and Engineering Hall of Fame . A Toronto high school , Ursula Franklin Academy , has been named in her honour .
Franklin is best known for her writings on the political and social effects of technology . For her , technology is much more than machines , gadgets or electronic transmitters . It is a comprehensive system that includes methods , procedures , organization , " and most of all , a mindset " . She distinguishes between holistic technologies used by craft workers or artisans and prescriptive ones associated with a division of labour in large @-@ scale production . Holistic technologies allow artisans to control their own work from start to finish . Prescriptive technologies organize work as a sequence of steps requiring supervision by bosses or managers . Franklin argues that the dominance of prescriptive technologies in modern society discourages critical thinking and promotes " a culture of compliance " .
For some , Franklin belongs in the intellectual tradition of Harold Innis and Jacques Ellul who warn about technology 's tendency to suppress freedom and endanger civilization . Franklin herself acknowledges her debt to Ellul as well as to several other thinkers including Lewis Mumford , C. B. Macpherson , E. F. Schumacher , and Vandana Shiva .
= = Early life = =
Ursula Maria Martius was born in Munich , Germany on September 16 , 1921 . Her mother was Jewish and an art historian and her father , an ethnographer , came from an old German Protestant family . Because of the Nazi persecution of the Jews , her parents tried to send their only child to school in Britain when World War II broke out , but the British refused to issue a student visa to anyone under 18 . Ursula studied chemistry and physics at Berlin University until she was expelled by the Nazis . Her parents were interned in concentration camps while Franklin herself was sent to a forced labour camp . The family survived The Holocaust and was reunited in Berlin after the war .
= = Academic career = =
Franklin decided to study science because she went to school during a time when the teaching of history was censored . " I remember a real subversive pleasure , " she told an interviewer many years later , " that there was no word of authority that could change either the laws of physics or the conduct of mathematics . " In 1948 , Franklin received her Ph.D. in experimental physics at the Technical University of Berlin . She began to look for opportunities to leave Germany after realizing there was no place there for someone fundamentally opposed to militarism and oppression . Franklin moved to Canada after being offered the Lady Davis postdoctoral fellowship at the University of Toronto ( U of T ) in 1949 . She then worked for 15 years ( from 1952 to 1967 ) as first a research fellow and then as a senior research scientist at the Ontario Research Foundation . In 1967 , Franklin became a researcher and associate professor at the Department of Metallurgy and Materials Science University of Toronto 's Faculty of Engineering where she was an expert in metallurgy and materials science . She was promoted to full professor in 1973 and was given the designation of University Professor in 1984 , becoming the first female professor to receive the university 's highest honour . She was appointed professor emerita in 1987 , a title she retained until her death . She served as director of the university ’ s Museum Studies Program from 1987 to 1989 , was named a Fellow of the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education in 1988 , and a Senior Fellow of Massey College in 1989 .
= = = Scientific research = = =
Franklin was a pioneer in the field of archaeometry , which applies modern materials analysis to archaeology . She worked for example , on the dating of prehistoric bronze , copper and ceramic artifacts . In the early 1960s , Franklin investigated levels of strontium @-@ 90 — a radioactive isotope in fallout from nuclear weapons testing — in children 's teeth . Her research contributed to the cessation of atmospheric weapons testing . Franklin published more than a hundred scientific papers and contributions to books on the structure and properties of metals and alloys as well as on the history and social effects of technology .
As a member of the Science Council of Canada during the 1970s , Franklin chaired an influential study on conserving resources and protecting nature . The study 's 1977 report , Canada as a Conserver Society , recommended a wide range of steps aimed at reducing wasteful consumption and the environmental degradation that goes with it . The work on that study helped shape Franklin 's ideas about the complexities of modern technological society .
= = Activism = =
Franklin was also active in the Voice of Women ( VOW ) , now the Canadian Voice of Women for Peace , one of Canada 's leading social advocacy organizations . In 1968 , she and VOW national president Muriel Duckworth presented a brief to a House of Commons committee asserting that Canada and the United States had entered into military trade agreements without adequate public debate . They argued that these commercial arrangements made it difficult for Canada to adopt independent foreign policy positions such as calling for an immediate U.S. military withdrawal from South Vietnam . In 1969 , Franklin and Duckworth called on a committee of the Canadian Senate to recommend that Canada discontinue its chemical and biological weapons research and spend money instead on environmental research and preventive medicine . Franklin was also part of a 1969 VOW delegation that urged the federal government to withdraw from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and establish a special agency to oversee Canadian disarmament .
In the 1980s , Franklin participated in an organized campaign to win the right for conscientious objectors to redirect part of their income taxes from military uses to peaceful purposes . Her 1987 paper , written to support the campaign , argued that the well @-@ recognized right to refuse military service on grounds of conscience should be extended to include the right to refuse to pay taxes for war preparations . Franklin asserted that the freedom of conscience provision of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms guaranteed this form of conscientious objection . Her paper was to be part of an appeal to the Supreme Court of Canada . The lower courts had convicted those withholding part of their taxes of violating the Income Tax Act . In 1990 however , the Supreme Court declined to hear the appeal .
Following Franklin 's retirement , she and several other retired female faculty members filed a class action lawsuit against the University of Toronto claiming it had been unjustly enriched by paying women faculty less than comparably qualified men . In 2002 , the lawsuit was settled when the university acknowledged that many of its female professors had suffered from gender barriers and pay discrimination during their careers . As a result , about 60 retired women faculty received a pay equity settlement intended to compensate them for the lower salaries and pensions they had received .
Franklin continued to have a strong association with the University of Toronto 's Massey College as a continuing senior fellow and senior resident . Her many activities include encouraging young women to pursue careers in science , promoting peace and social justice , and speaking and writing about the social effects of science and technology . Many of her articles and speeches on pacifism , feminism , technology and teaching are collected in The Ursula Franklin Reader published in 2006 . Franklin is also the author of The Real World of Technology which is based on her 1989 Massey Lectures broadcast on CBC Radio .
= = Pacifism , feminism and war = =
Ursula Franklin explains in a prelude to her 2006 collection of papers , interviews and talks that her lifelong interest in structures , in what she terms " the arrangement and interplay of the parts within a whole , " has been at the root of most of her activities . Looking back after almost 40 years , she adds , " I can see how I have tried to wrestle with just one fundamental question : ' How can one live and work as a pacifist in the here and now and help to structure a society in which oppression , violence , and wars would diminish and co @-@ operation , equality , and justice would rise ? ' " As part of the answer , Franklin turns to the metaphor of mapmaking to explain her intellectual journey . " Increasingly I found the maps of conventional wisdom inadequate for my travels , " she writes . " I became unwilling and unable to orient my life according to national maps depicting the realms of ' them ' and ' us , ' of good guys and bad guys , of winning , defeating , and being defeated ; in short , all those maps drawn up for travel towards private gain and personal advancement . " Franklin concludes that she has been guided in understanding what she calls " the real world " by " the maps of pacifism and feminism " .
For her , feminism meant a completely new point of view : " Feminism isn 't an employment agency for women ; it 's an alternative way of ordering the social space , in which women are the prototype rather than men . It is based on collaboration rather than competition . As a youngster , I still remember my feeling of joy that one could look at the earth differently . That 's feminism ; everything is differently oriented . Seeing the same world with different eyes . "
= = = Pacifism and conscience = = =
Central to Franklin 's pacifism and her view of life is what she calls " the Quaker vision of the world " . Individual conscience is at the heart of that vision . So too , is the need to discern appropriate ways of working for peace in each time and place " rather than relying on a dogma of unvarying rules of conduct " . She notes that for more than 300 years , Quakers have opposed war and violence and have objected to military service and conscription . They have worked on reconciliation , peace research and disarmament and in many countries have won the right for conscientious objectors to perform alternative service instead of taking part in war . Franklin remarks that Quaker principles have not changed , but technology has changed the nature of war . In a modern technological society she argues , there is no longer a clear boundary between war and peace . War planning is constant during peacetime and when wars are fought , women and children become targets . Nations no longer depend primarily on conscripting military recruits , but rely on advanced weapons systems that are costly to build or acquire . She writes that the arms race is driven by a " technological imperative " which requires the creation of an enemy as a permanent social institution :
Modern weapons technologies , including the required research and development , are particularly capital @-@ intensive and costly . The time between initial research and the deployment of weapon systems can be as long as a decade , during which the government must provide financial security and political justification for the project . In other words , the state not only provides the funding but also identifies a credible external enemy who warrants such expenditure .
Franklin points out that the technological nature of war requires states to conscript the resources needed to pay for hi @-@ tech devices designed for destruction . Thus , people opposed to war are forced — through taxation — to pay for war preparations even if it violates their individual conscience .
= = = Peace and social justice = = =
In her 1987 paper , Reflections on Theology and Peace , Ursula Franklin contends that " peace is not the absence of war — peace is the absence of fear . " She asserts however , that fear of war and violence is not the only kind of fear that destroys peace . She includes fears arising for example , from economic insecurity , unemployment and the lack of adequate shelter . Franklin points to what she calls " the threat system " which manages people by instilling fear and uncertainty at all levels of society .
For her , social justice is the essential element needed to banish fear and bring peace . Justice means freedom from oppression , but it also implies equality for all . " In God 's eyes , " she writes , " all creatures have value and are subjects of equal care and love ; similarly , in a society of justice and peace , all people matter equally . " Franklin suggests that in consumer @-@ oriented societies , war and violence are the inevitable result of an acquisitive lifestyle that rejects caring and social justice . She quotes historian Lewis Mumford 's observation that during the rise of capitalism , the sins of greed , gluttony , avarice , envy and luxury became cardinal virtues . Mumford goes on to argue that the " moral change that took place under capitalism can be summed up in the fact that human purposes , human needs , and human limits no longer exercised a directing and restraining influence upon industry : people worked , not to maintain life , but to increase money and power and to minister to the ego that found satisfaction in vast accumulations of money and power . " Franklin extends Mumford 's argument by pointing to new global realities such as militarized economies dependent on weapons production and national borders increasingly closed to refugees . " Any modern theology of peace , " she writes , " must , I think , take into account the worldwide drift towards ' techno @-@ fascism , ' the anti @-@ people , anti @-@ justice form of global management and power sharing that is developing around the world . "
= = = Globalization as warfare = = =
Franklin argues that the end of the Cold War brought two main changes . First , the threat of war between the United States and Soviet Union was replaced by regional wars among smaller states . Second , war was transposed to what Franklin calls " another key " — the struggle for global commercial and economic dominance . She asserts that this new form of war is now called globalization and its battlefields are global stock and currency markets . This economic warfare defines the enemy as all those who care about the values of community . " Whatever cannot be merely bought and sold , " Franklin writes , " whatever cannot be expressed in terms of money and gain @-@ loss transactions stands in the way of the ' market ' as enemy territory to be occupied , transformed and conquered . " A main strategy in this kind of warfare is the privatization of formerly public domains such as culture , health care , prisons and education to generate private profit . Franklin contends that the new economic warlords or " marketeers " aim , for example , to transform " the ill health or misery of our neighbours into investment opportunities for the next round of capitalism . " She argues that marketeers have become occupying forces served by " puppet governments who run the country for the benefit of the occupiers . " Franklin has also noted that in democratic politics , the economy is all that seems to matter . " Canada has almost no foreign policy , " she says , " but rather is part of an elaborate network of trade agreements . "
Franklin recommends that resistance take the form of refusing to speak the language of the occupiers . This language includes such terms as stakeholders , users , health @-@ care providers and consumers of education to refer to teachers and students , doctors , nurses , patients and communities . Franklin also calls for resistance through court challenges and " the creative use of electronic media to bypass the occupation forces ' control of information . " Finally , Franklin is a strong supporter of citizen politics , a civic movement which focuses on practical solutions to common problems — everything from the absence of peace to homelessness and local traffic congestion . Borrowing a Quaker term , Franklin calls on citizens to engage in scrupling , the process of sitting down together to discuss and clarify common moral and political concerns . She writes that citizen politics does not seek to overthrow existing governments but to improve them " whether those in power like it or not . " The movement also tries to defend communities against those intent , in Franklin 's words , on " turning the globe into one giant commercial resource base , while denying a decent and appropriate habitat to many of the world 's citizens . "
= = = War , failure and 9 / 11 = = =
Again and again in her writings , speeches and interviews , Ursula Franklin insists that war and its violence are not only morally wrong , but also ineffective , impractical , and costly . During a radio interview broadcast two days after the September 11 attacks in the U.S. , Franklin argued that violence nowadays is always unsuccessful even for the powerful who try to use it . " Nothing has been resolved by violence over the past fifty years , " Franklin said . " The rational thinking that force does not work , even for the enforcer , is staring us in the face . " In a newspaper article published just before the first anniversary of 9 / 11 , Franklin wrote , " It is crucial to recognize that war and war measures are fundamentally dysfunctional instruments of problem @-@ solving . Violence begets more violence , war begets further wars , more enemies and more suffering . "
Franklin suggested that it would have been more effective if , instead of launching a War on Terrorism , the U.S. had interpreted the attacks as a political earthquake instead of an act of war . She argued that social and political structures are as inherently unstable as geological ones . " Geological fissures and human terrorists are created in a context of forces that can be understood and — at times — mitigated . Neither can be eliminated by bombing . "
Franklin asserts that militarism is the ultimate development of hierarchical social structures and threat @-@ based systems . " They all work under the implicit assumption that some people matter much less than others , and that all people are of interest only as long as they are needed to support the system or to justify it . " She notes that many prominent advocates for women 's rights such as Jane Addams and Sylvia Pankhurst were pacifists . " To me , the struggle for women 's rights and the opposition to militarism in all its forms are two sides of the same coin . "
When a CBC Radio interviewer suggested to Franklin that her ideas about peace and justice were not connected with what was actually happening in the aftermath of 9 / 11 , she readily agreed . " Yes , you are quite right . They are totally unconnected . I have spent the best part of my life trying to put these thoughts into the stream that makes decisions , and I 've been spectacularly unsuccessful . That , I think , is a reflection on my ability in the climate of the time , not on the value of the thoughts . "
= = Technological society = =
For Ursula Franklin , technology is a set of practices in the " here and now " rather than an array of machines or gadgets . It is also a comprehensive system . " Technology involves organization , procedures , symbols , new words , equations , and , most of all , a mindset . " Her definition is similar to the French thinker Jacques Ellul 's concept of technique . Like Ellul , Franklin asserts that technological methods dominate the modern world . " Technology has built the house in which we all live , " she writes , " today there is hardly any human activity that does not occur within this house . " As such , technology is a central element of the here and now . " In the broadest sense of the term , the here and now is our environment , that is , all that is around us — the ever @-@ changing overlay of nature , the built environment , the institutional and social structures within which human activities take place , as well as the activities themselves — ' the way things are done around here . ' " Franklin sees her studies of technology as an attempt to understand how technological practices affect the advancement of justice and peace .
= = = Holistic and prescriptive technologies = = =
According to Ursula Franklin , technology is not a set of neutral tools , methods or practices . She asserts that various categories of technology have markedly different social and political effects . She distinguishes for example , between work @-@ related and control @-@ related technologies . Work @-@ related technologies , such as electric typewriters , are designed to make tasks easier . Computerized word processing makes typing easier still . But when computers are linked into work stations — part of a system — word processing becomes a control @-@ related technology . " Now workers can be timed , " Franklin writes , " assignments can be broken up , and the interaction between the operators can be monitored . "
Franklin extends the distinction between work and control @-@ related technologies to the larger concept of holistic and prescriptive ones . This enables her to consider the social implications of how work is performed . She writes that holistic technologies are usually associated with craft work . " Artisans , be they potters , weavers , metal @-@ smiths , or cooks , control the process of their own work from beginning to finish . " Artisans may specialize in a particular kind of product , but they are always in total control of the process of production and each thing they make or create is unique . Prescriptive technologies , on the other hand , break work down into a series of discrete , standardized steps . " Each step is carried out by a separate worker , or group of workers , who need to be familiar only with the skills of performing that one step . "
Although the division of labour inherent in prescriptive technologies is usually associated with the industrial revolution , Franklin points out that such production methods have been used since ancient times . Chinese bronze casting before 1200 BC for example , required a tightly controlled and closely supervised production process as well as a strict division of labour . Franklin writes that when she studied Chinese bronze casting as a metallurgist , " the extraordinary social meaning of prescriptive technologies dawned on me . I began to understand what they meant , not just in terms of casting bronze but in terms of discipline and planning , of organization and command . "
= = = Technology 's culture of compliance = = =
Franklin argues that in modern society , control @-@ related and prescriptive technologies are dominant . " When work is organized as a sequence of separately executable steps , the control over the work moves to the organizer , the boss or manager , " she writes . " In political terms , prescriptive technologies are designs for compliance . " For Franklin , workers accustomed to following prescriptive rules become used to seeing external control and internal compliance as normal and necessary . They also come to believe that there is only one prescribed way of performing a wide variety of tasks . " While we should not forget that these prescriptive technologies are often exceedingly effective and efficient , they come with an enormous social mortgage . The mortgage means that we live in a culture of compliance , that we are ever more conditioned to accept orthodoxy as normal , and to accept that there is only one way of doing ' it ' . "
Franklin points out that prescriptive technologies have moved beyond materials production to the realms of administration , government and social services . She argues that tasks which require nurturing or caring for people , in health and education for example , are best done holistically . Yet such tasks are increasingly coming under the sway of prescriptive technologies based on what Franklin calls a production model . Professor Heather Menzies , an admirer of Franklin , describes for example , how nursing tasks are performed in keeping with preset , computerized check lists which leave little discretionary time for dealing with the unexpected or talking with patients who are lonely or distressed . Franklin herself notes that schools and universities test and promote students based on strict production schedules yet " if there ever was a holistic process , a process that cannot be divided into rigid predetermined steps , it is education . "
= = = Technology and power = = =
Ursula Franklin rejects the idea that powerful technologies automatically determine the ways in which people live and work . She maintains that the uses of technology are not preordained , but are the result of conscious choices . The dominant prescriptive technologies establish structures of power and control that follow what Franklin sees as male patterns of hierarchy , authoritarianism , competition and exclusion . Female workers are often victims of these patterns . Mechanical sewing machines were introduced in 1851 with the promise that they would liberate women from household drudgery . But when the machines ended up in factory sweatshops to produce cheap clothing , the new technology was used to exploit female workers . " A strictly prescriptive technology with the classic division of labour arose from the introduction of new , supposedly liberating ' domestic ' machines , " Franklin notes . " In the subsequent evolution of the garment industry , much of the designing , cutting , and assembling began to be automated , often to the complete exclusion of workers . " She points to similar examples in other industries . Female operators helped introduce the telephone only to be replaced by automated switchboards after the technology had been successfully established while secretaries struggled to make the early mechanical typewriters function properly , but ended up performing fragmented and increasingly meaningless tasks .
" Many technological systems , when examined for context and overall design , are basically anti @-@ people , " Franklin writes . " People are seen as sources of problems while technology is seen as a source of solutions . " As a result , people live and work under conditions structured for the well @-@ being of technology even though manufacturers and promoters always present new technologies as liberating . " The dreams of flight , of fast private transportation , of instant communication across continents , and of helpful machines , all stress liberation from hard physical labour at work or drudgery at home . " But once technologies are accepted and standardized , they often enslave or displace their users . Franklin argues that work could be made less prescriptive in workplaces that are less rigidly hierarchical if we adopted more holistic practices based on the way women traditionally work in running households for example , or in caring for children .
= = = Communications technologies = = =
Franklin asserts that powerful communications technologies have reshaped political and social realities distancing people from each other and their immediate environments . Radio and television for example , transmit messages instantaneously from afar — messages that are separated from people 's experiences in the vicinities where they live and work . Franklin calls such messages pseudorealities . She writes they are based on images that are constructed , staged and selected to create emotional effects and the illusion of " being there " as a participant , not just as an observer . She asserts however , that one @-@ way communications technologies reduce or eliminate reciprocity , the normal give and take of face @-@ to @-@ face communication .
According to Franklin , the selective fragments or pseudorealities that become news stories are produced to attract and hold people 's attention by focusing on the unusual over the usual . She acknowledges that no one is forced to watch television or listen to radio ; people can explore other channels of communication . But the pseudorealities created by the media are still there " and the world is structured to believe in them . " She argues that images from afar have taken over much of our everyday reality like an immensely powerful occupation force . " And somewhere , someone will have to ask , ' How come the right to change our mental environment — to change the constructs of our minds and the sounds around us — seems to have been given away without anybody 's consent ? ' "
= = = Silence and the commons = = =
" Silence , " Franklin writes , " possesses striking similarities [ to ] aspects of life and community , such as unpolluted water , air , or soil , that were once taken as normal and given , but have become special and precious in technologically mediated environments . " She argues that the technological ability to separate recorded sound from its source makes the sound as permanent as the Muzak that plays endlessly in public places without anyone 's consent . For Franklin , such canned music is a manipulative technology programmed to generate predictable emotional responses and to increase private profit . She compares this destruction of silence to the British enclosure laws which fenced off the commons for private farming .
Franklin maintains that the core of the strength of silence is its openness to unplanned events . Quakers , she writes , worship God in collective silence . " I think that if any one of you attended a Quaker meeting , particularly on a regular basis , " she told a 1993 conference on acoustic ecology , " you would find that suddenly , out of the silence , someone will speak about something that had just entered your mind . It 's an uncanny thing , but the strength of collective silence is probably one of the most powerful spiritual forces . " Franklin advocates defending the human right to public silence — negotiating one music @-@ free elevator for example , or lobbying for quiet rooms in public buildings . She also recommends starting and ending meetings with a few minutes of silence .
= = Personal life = =
In 1952 , Ursula Franklin married Fred Franklin ( born 1921 ) , an engineer of German Jewish ancestry who had been exposed to Quakerism while living in England , where he had been sent to boarding school to escape the Nazis in 1936 and remained until emigrating to Canada in 1948 . They had no family in Canada and , after their two children were born , they searched for a spiritual home and joined the Society of Friends ( Quakers ) in 1964 . " We were pacifists before we were Quakers , " Franklin says , " but it was a very easy transition to Quakerism for us , and it has been a very good home and an extended family for us and our children . " Franklin spent her last years in a nursing home with Fred , who survived her . She died on July 22 , 2016 at the age of 94 .
= = Donation to Seneca College = =
In April 2013 , Franklin donated her extensive collection of writings devoted to Chinese culture and history to the Confucius Institute at Seneca College in Toronto . The collection included more than 220 texts , books , publications , and journals interpreting Chinese culture and history from the perspective of Western scholars . It also contained some of Franklin 's own working papers and files .
= = Awards and honours = =
Franklin has received numerous awards and honours during her long career . In 1984 , she became the first woman at the University of Toronto to be named University Professor , a special title which is the highest honour given by the university . She was named Officer of the Order of Canada in 1981 and a Companion of the Order in 1992 . She was appointed to the Order of Ontario in 1990 . In 1982 , she was given the award of merit for the City of Toronto , mainly for her work in neighbourhood planning . She received an honorary membership in the Delta Kappa Gamma Society International for women educators in 1985 . Two years later , she was given the Elsie Gregory McGill memorial award for her contributions to education , science and technology . In 1989 , she received the Wiegand Award which recognizes Canadians who have made significant contributions to the understanding of the human dimensions of science and technology . In 1991 , she received a Governor General 's Award in Commemoration of the Person 's Case for advancing the equality of girls and women in Canada . The same year , she received the Sir John William Dawson Medal . She received the 2001 Pearson Medal of Peace for her work in human rights . She has a Toronto high school named after her , Ursula Franklin Academy . In 2004 , Franklin was awarded one of Massey College 's first Adrienne Clarkson Laureateships , honoring outstanding achievement in public service . She was inducted into the Canadian Science and Engineering Hall of Fame in 2012 . She has received honorary degrees from more than a dozen Canadian universities including a Doctor of Science from Queen 's University and a Doctor of Humane Letters from Mount Saint Vincent University , both awarded in 1985 .
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= Metzengerstein =
" Metzengerstein : A Tale in Imitation of the German " , was the first short story by American writer and poet Edgar Allan Poe to see print . It was first published in the pages of Philadelphia 's Saturday Courier magazine , in 1832 . The story follows the young Frederick , the last of the Metzengerstein family , who carries on a long @-@ standing feud with the Berlifitzing family . Suspected of causing a fire that kills the Berlifitzing family patriarch , Frederick becomes intrigued with a previously unnoticed and untamed horse . Metzengerstein is punished for his cruelty when his own home catches fire and the horse carries him into the flame . Part of a Latin hexameter by Martin Luther serves as the story 's epigraph : Pestis eram vivus — moriens tua mors ero ( " Living I have been your plague , dying I shall be your death " ) .
" Metzengerstein " follows many conventions of Gothic fiction and , to some , exaggerates those conventions . Consequently , critics and scholars debate if Poe intended the story to be taken seriously or considered a satire of Gothic stories . Regardless , many elements introduced in " Metzengerstein " would become common in Poe 's future writing , including the gloomy castle and the power of evil . Because the story follows an orphan raised in an aristocratic household , some critics suggest an autobiographical connection with its author .
The story was submitted as Poe 's entry to a writing contest at the Saturday Courier . Though it did not win , the newspaper published it in January 1832 . It was re @-@ published with Poe 's permission only twice during his lifetime ; its subtitle was dropped for its final publication . Poe intended to include it in his collection Tales of the Folio Club or another called Phantasy Pieces , though neither collection was ever produced .
= = Plot summary = =
The story , told from an unnamed third @-@ person narrator , takes place in Hungary at an unspecified date . The opening passages describe a centuries @-@ long rivalry between two wealthy families : the Metzengersteins and the Berlifitzings . The bitter enmity between the two families is so old that no one knows how far back it dates . The narrator states that its origin appears to rely on an " ancient " prophecy : " A lofty name shall have a fearful fall when , as the rider over his horse , the mortality of Metzengerstein shall triumph over the immortality of Berlifitzing . "
Young Frederick , Baron of Metzengerstein , was orphaned at a young age and , thus , inherited the family fortune at age 18 ( though the age changes throughout its many re @-@ publications ) . Equipped with enormous wealth and power , he begins to exhibit particularly cruel behavior . " The behavior of the heir out @-@ heroded Herod " . Four days after he receives his inheritance , the stables of the rival family Berlifitzing catch fire . The neighborhood " instantaneously " attributed the act of arson to Frederick Metzengerstein ( the story , however , does not say expressly if he did it or not ) .
That day , Metzengerstein , in his home , sits staring intently at an old tapestry depicting " an enormous , and unnaturally colored horse " that belonged to the Berlifitzing clan . Just behind the horse , Frederick sees its rider who has just been killed by " the dagger of a Metzengerstein " . Soon , Frederick sees the horse move and assume " an energetic and human expression " . Immediately , Frederick opens the door to leave , and the action strikingly causes his shadow to fall exactly on the spot of the murderer in the tapestry .
Outside , he sees his men handling a horse that is " the counterpart " of the horse in the tapestry . The men tell Frederick that this new , remarkable " fiery @-@ colored " horse has been found in his stables with the letters " W.V.B. " branded on its forehead . The equerry says , " I supposed them , of course , to be the initials of William Von Berlifitzing , but all at the castle are positive in denying any knowledge of the horse . " Frederick takes ownership of the horse . In the next moment , a page appears and tells Frederick that " a small portion of the tapestry " is missing ( presumably the part containing the image of the horse ) . Frederick also hears , some time later , that old Wilhelm Berlifitzing died in the fire as he tried to save one of his horses in the burning stable .
Thenceforth , Frederick and the " ferocious and demonlike " horse , which no one else but Frederick has dared to touch since its arrival , become seemingly inseparable . Day after day , Metzengerstein rides the animal as if addicted , and he becomes less and less interested in the affairs of his house and of society . He eventually begins to live in seclusion to the extent that others in the neighborhood suspect that he is either mad , sick , or overwhelmingly conceited .
" One tempestuous night " , Frederick awakes and maniacally mounts the horse to ride into the forest . Some hours later , the Metzengerstein castle catches fire . A crowd gathers to watch the peculiarly " ungovernable " flames and , soon , see the horse , now carrying " an unbonneted and disordered rider " who clearly has no control over the animal . The sight makes everyone present utter the word " horrible " . The animal leaps into the flames with its rider and " disappeared amid the whirlwind of chaotic fire " , thereby killing the last of the Metzengerstein clan . Immediately , the fire " died away " . In the calm , the horrified onlookers observe a cloud of smoke settle above the castle in the shape of " the distinct colossal figure of — a horse " .
= = Publication history = =
Poe originally sent " Metzengerstein " to the Saturday Courier as his entry to a writing competition along with five other prose works , including " The Duke de l 'Omelette " and " A Decided Loss " . None of his entries won , though the judges apparently liked " Metzengerstein " enough to print it a few months later in their January 14 , 1832 edition . It was published without Poe 's name attached to it but it is acknowledged as the first tale published by Poe . Poe likely was not paid for its initial publication . The subtitle of " A Tale in Imitation of the German " was added when it was republished in the Southern Literary Messenger in January 1836 , likely to capitalize on the popular interest in German horror . It was removed for its publication as part of the collection Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque in 1840 .
" Metzengerstein " was one of 11 tales Poe would have collected as Tales of the Folio Club , a tale collection Poe announced but never actually printed . The " Folio Club " would have been a fictitious literary society the author called a group of " dunderheads " out to " abolish literature " . At each monthly meeting , a member would present a story . In the case of " Metzengerstein " , the speaker was " Mr. Horrible Dictû , with white eyelashes , who had graduated at Gottingen " according to an early draft . The Baltimore Saturday Visiter ran an advertisement calling for subscribers for the collection at $ 1 apiece . A week later , however , the newspaper announced that the author had withdrawn the pieces with the expectation they would be printed in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . Poe also considered publishing " Metzengerstein " in a collection of stories to be called Phantasy Pieces as " The Horse @-@ Shade " , though the edition was never printed .
In its first several publications , " Metzengestein " included a line about the mother 's death by consumption . The young baron says : " It is a path I have prayed to follow . I would wish all I love to perish of that gentle disease . " When Poe was still a child , his own mother , Eliza Poe , died , presumably of consumption . His wife Virginia also had tuberculosis and died in 1847 . After her death , Poe altered his personal view of fictional heroines who were sick and idealized sick women while wishing for their death . This more romantic view of death was not uncommon in writing , as in John Keats 's " Ode to a Nightingale " , which may have inspired Poe .
= = Analysis = =
Though not explicitly stated , it is implied that the horse is really Berlifitzing . The first paragraph of the story references metempsychosis , the belief that the soul of a person is transferred to another living being upon death . Other evidence is the tapestry , the lack of a history or recognition in the horse and , certainly , the prophecy referencing the immortality of the Berlifitzings . The story can be read as an allegory , a warning that a human soul can be overtaken by the evil it has created , though Poe himself doesn 't suggest such a moral . Such evil can be created by a person 's hatred and pride .
Poe imitates many traditional " Germanic " elements in this tale . The most obvious example is the gloomy old castle , typical of Gothic fiction . The story also includes typical Gothic themes , which scholar Dawn Sova refers to as " hints at secret obsessions and sins , foreboding prophecies , family rivalry " . These Gothic conventions had been a staple of popular fiction in Europe and the United States for several decades by the time Poe utilized them . Considering the subtitle , " A Tale in Imitation of the German " , critics and scholars disagree if Poe may have , in fact , intended the story as a satire or burlesque of the genre , purposely exaggerating the elements of the Gothic to be humorous . Other evidence is that all of the other three stories Poe published in 1832 ( " The Duc de l 'Omelette " , " A Tale of Jerusalem " , and " Bon @-@ Bon " ) are comic tales written , as Poe said , " intended for half banter , half satire " . The story also uses irony as a form of humor : Despite the family 's prophecy that " the mortality of Metzengerstein shall triumph over the immortality of Berlifitzing " , the opposite occurs . The suggestion that " Metzengerstein " is purposefully written as a satire has been disputed , especially because of Poe 's revisions throughout its many republications where he removed some of the more exaggerated material .
The German or , more generally , European overtones give the story a medieval setting , though the time and place of the plot is left indistinct . The atmosphere of the story combines both realistic and supernatural worlds while depicting pathological emotional states , likely influenced by the works of Ludwig Tieck and E. T. A. Hoffmann . It has been called a precursor to " The Fall of the House of Usher " and other later works . Among the elements Poe first uses in " Metzengerstein " which will become typical in his later works are the decaying and gloomy building with oddly shaped rooms , the remote , secluded property , vivid colors , and underground vaults as well as themes of vengeance and the overwhelming power of evil . Future works will also depict characters of extreme wealth ; besides Metzengerstein , other examples are Roderick Usher , the narrator in " Ligeia " and Legrand 's restored fortune in " The Gold @-@ Bug " . Poe also uses teeth as a symbol for the first time in " Metzengerstein " . The horse 's teeth are described as " sepulchral and disgusting " . Poe would later use teeth as a sign of mortality , as in lips writhing about the teeth of the mesmerized man in " The Facts in the Case of M. Valdemar " , the sound of grating teeth in " Hop @-@ Frog " , and the obsession over teeth in " Berenice " . Death by fire would later be reused in Poe 's story " Hop @-@ Frog " as another punishment . Though Poe was emulating popular horror fiction of the time , " Metzengerstein " shows what made Poe 's horror tales stand out : rather than focusing on blood and gore , he explored the minds of the characters to better understand them .
The story has some autobiographical overtones as well , with the castle representing Moldavia , the Richmond home of Poe 's foster @-@ father John Allan . The Count , in this reading , would represent John Allan , and Poe the young Metzengerstein . Both Poe and Metzengerstein are orphaned at a young age . Poe may have found writing the story therapeutic ; in it , he destroys " John Allan " , though he is also destroyed in return . In focusing on the final fire scene , Poe may have been recalling the fatal Richmond Theatre fire of December 1811 which occurred three weeks after his mother , the actress Eliza Poe , had died .
= = Critical response = =
The German nature of " Metzengerstein " and other stories in the collection Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque was mentioned in a review by Joseph C. Neal in the Pennsylvanian on December 6 , 1839 : " These grotesque and arabesque delineations are full of variety , now irresistibly quaint and droll , and again marked with all the deep and painful interest of the German school " . Rudyard Kipling was an admirer of Poe and once wrote , " My own personal debt to Poe is a heavy one " . " Metzengerstein " was an inspiration to his story " The Phantom Rickshaw " , where the main character is punished by the horse of someone he has murdered .
= = Adaptations = =
" Metzengerstein " was adapted into one component of Roger Vadim 's Histoires extraordinaires in 1968 . The segment starred Jane Fonda and Peter Fonda . Romanian composer Joan Balan wrote a musical score for piano in 1934 based on the story called Das Feuerpferd .
Italian singer Lord Vampyr , famous for his work with Theatres des Vampires , has a song named " Metzengerstein " , present in his 2010 album Horror Masterpiece . Its lyrics heavily allude to the tale .
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= Ace ( video game ) =
Ace ( stylized as ACE as acronym for Air Combat Emulator ) is a flight simulator video game developed by Cascade Games for various home computers released in 1985 . In @-@ game , the player takes the role a fighter jet pilot defending an English coastland against an enemy invasion , having to fight off aerial , ground and naval forces while Allied bases evacuate . The display shows the plane 's instrumentation and cockpit view .
The game was well @-@ received and , despite various issues , it was lauded by critics as one of the best air combat simulators of the time and particularly praised for its accessible gameplay . The game was developed with low budget by the small UK @-@ based Cascade Games , who later produced two sequels to the game .
= = Narrative = =
The game is set on the Southern coastland of England during an enemy invasion against the remaining Allied forces . The player takes the role of a fighter plane pilot , who must defeat the invasion . To accomplish this , the player pilots one of the three available Mark 2 @.@ 1 AWAT ( All @-@ Weather All @-@ Terrain ) combat aircraft and is charged with defending the last three Allied airbases being evacuated in front of the enemy 's advance . Despite being the lone defender and greatly outnumbered , they must fight enemy forces on all fronts : aerial , ground and naval . The player progresses through the game engaging different contingents of the invaders . Initially , they must intercept enemy fighter planes , helicopters and landing ground forces , including tanks , land bases and SAM sites . Once the enemy is sufficiently driven back , the player can engage the naval fleet .
= = Gameplay = =
At the start of the game , the player is presented with a range of options that determine the experience . The game offers nine selectable levels of difficulty , including a tutorial difficulty in which the enemy forces do not fire back . Among the options , the player can choose to play either in summer or winter time and either daytime or nighttime , altering the scenery . The player must choose from the range of weapons that will be mounted on their AWAT plane . These include air @-@ to @-@ air , air @-@ to @-@ ground , air @-@ to @-@ sea and multipurpose missiles , depending on what enemies the player chooses to engage . In addition , the plane is equipped with a machine gun and decoy flares against hostile missiles .
In @-@ game screen shows the cockpit view split between top half for plane 's front view and bottom half for plane 's instrumentation . The control panel shows planes crucial data , including speed , altitude , thrust , fuel , roll / pitch indicators and a compass . The panel also features a radar that provided an overview of important nearby objects . An onboard screen displays various flight information and warning messages , and features a speech synthesizer that occasionally announces dangers , such as approaching enemies or missile attacks . Finally , a small rear @-@ view camera allows the player to observe enemies and missiles on their tail . The game also features a two player mode , where one player flies the plane and the other aims and fires the guns .
At the start of the game , the player has to take off the runway at an Allied base . Afterwards they can fly around and look for enemies to engage . The player can open their Satellite Intelligence Map , which shows a live map of the immediate coastline with items of interest , such as , friendly bases , enemy positions , and refuelling locations . The player can perform various flight manoeuvres and stunts mid @-@ air , such are loops , rolls , or dummy stalls . Flying , especially at high altitudes , spends the plane 's fuel and the player must either return to their base or perform an aerial refueling . To refuel mid @-@ air , the player has to rendezvous with a refuelling plane at the specified coordinates and perform a boom and receptacle refuelling manoeuvre .
The game ends in defeat if the player crashes , runs out of fuel , or is shot down by taking too much damage . The player can also eject , but can only do so safely over Allied territory . The player is victorious if they defeat all enemy forces . During the game , points are awarded and displayed in the control panel for destroyed enemies and on game end tallied up in a high score table .
= = Development and release = =
The game was developed by Cascade Games founded in 1983 by Guy Wilhelmy and Nigel Stevens . Wilhelmy had a pilot 's license and had experience with aircraft control and responsiveness , while Stevens ' father had been in British Royal Air Force . Wilhelmy explained that he wanted to create a fast @-@ paced flying game with responsive graphics that other games of the time struggled with . Cascade hired programmer Ian Martin and graphics designer Damon Redmond to work on the project in 1985 . The first version known as A.C.E. : Air Combat Emulator was released in 1985 for the Commodore 16 and VIC @-@ 20 home computers . Martin describes that an advertisement erroneously promising a Plus / 4 version forced them to develop it under threat of action by Advertising Standards Agency .
Martin recalls that afterwards the team had creative freedom to pursue different ideas for the planned Commodore 64 version , and after several months of development and a small delay , the C64 version called simply ACE was released in September 1985 . ZX Spectrum version followed the next year . An Amstrad CPC version was announced and Cascade Games promised a quick delivery with " speed and smoothness exceeding previous simulators " . Having sold over half a million copies on 8 @-@ bit machines , the game 's port was announced for Amiga . ComTec was tasked with porting the game to Amstrad PCW and Amiga / DOS . The game was marketed to America , and the C64 and Amiga versions were released and published in US by UXB in 1986 .
Before the release of Ace , Cascade Games was infamous for their Cassette 50 ( 1983 ) game compilation that featured simplistic and subpar games . Stevens points out that without the income from the compilation , the project would not have been possible . The developers estimate the production cost of Ace at £ 40k . Following the release of Ace , Cascade moved into mainstream AAA game development . Wilhelmy says that Cascade boasted over a million GBP in turnover over the following years . The company produced two sequels Ace 2 ( 1987 ) and ACE 2088 ( 1989 ) and various other games before closing down in 1990 .
= = Reception = =
The first version for C16 and Plus / 4 received positive reviews . Commodore Horizons awarded 8 stars to gameplay , describing it is " as good as anything " within the C16 's limitations . Commodore User noted the C16 version for fast , but involved action . Their review of Plus / 4 described it similarly , and called it one of the best dedicated Plus / 4 games , only giving sound a lower score . Computer Gamer gave both the C16 and Plus / 4 version 5 out of 5 stars and described Ace as easy to use and understand . They later noted that Plus / 4 version was the best yet among the available platforms . Your Commodore criticized the Plus / 4 version for poor innovation , but scored it highly on gameplay and graphics , describing them as " realistic " .
The expanded C64 and Spectrum ZX versions received the highest critic attention and praise on release . Zzap ! 64 rated Ace 90 % and described it as the most exciting flight simulator on C64 to date . They noted good instruction , many available options , and easy controls . Computer and Video Games rated C64 version very positively , awarding gameplay 9 / 10 points calling it the new title for the best of flight simulators . They described it as very well presented with a clear layout . Commodore User lauded Ace for having found the right balance between simulation and action . Crash rated it 81 % , criticizing quite sound and calling out the graphics and overall quality as average for the genre . Sinclair User awarded the game 5 / 5 stars and praised the game 's intentionally accessible gameplay as the high point . They felt the environment graphics were not great , while important objects and effects stood out well . Your Sinclair gave the game 8 / 10 noting it as unrealistic for a simulator , however easy to get into and addictive . Your Computer gave Ace 4 / 5 points calling it a simulation that would appeal to arcade players . However , they gave the sound 1 / 5 points . ZX Computing review labeled it a " monster hit " and called it a quality flying experience praising good sound , excellent graphics with use of horizon line , and well @-@ defined objects .
Several reviewers regarded Ace as one of the best available flight simulators of the time . Overall , the critics agreed that the game 's arcade @-@ like gameplay was easy to get into and play , but ultimately difficult to master and challenging to finish . Reviewers also negatively remarked upon the inclusion of Lenslok copy protection system where the game would display a garbled image and the player would need to use the provided colored lens to view the two @-@ letter code . ZX Computing and Computer Gamer reviewers had trouble getting it to work and pass . Retro Gamer called it " notorious Lenslok " in retrospect .
Computer Gamer gave the Amstrad version 85 % , praising the gameplay and graphics . They noted that it was an approachable flight simulator that can be played without reading the manual . Amstrad Action rated this version at 54 % calling it challenging , but lacking in action . They described environmental detail and fighting as the high points , but criticized sound as poor and graphics as slow .
The game was later sold at bargain prices , bundled with Ace 2 and received several retrospect reviews . Commodore User rated the C64 bargain game 8 / 10 comparing it more to aerial combat simulator than just a flight simulator . They noted plenty of gameplay and some simulation to keep the player occupied . Computer and Video Games awarded the game 90 % for C64 and 87 % for Spectrum version praising the game and describing it as " essential purchase " . Zzap ! 64 gave Ace 67 % and felt that , while the original reviewer 's opinions held true , the game did not stand up to time , with graphics being tacky and sparse and having programming issues . Commodore Force later gave the game 57 % and noted that , although receiving praise during release , its lacking gameplay did not age well . On the other hand , Commodore Format gave the game 3 / 4 points and lauded the game even by 1991 's standards . While they noted simple start , they also noted good graphics , fast @-@ paced gameplay with superb dogfights and basic simulation . Commodore Format rated the Ace and Ace 2 bundle at 89 % calling it an " indisputable bargain " . They praised the fast and uncluttered gameplay with simple objectives , while remarked that the graphics were not the best . Your Commodore rated the bundle 87 / 100 describing the bundle as closer to arcade games rather than flight simulators , concluding that they were good games " with a few bugs " .
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= 2015 United States Grand Prix =
The 2015 United States Grand Prix ( formally known as the 2015 Formula 1 United States Grand Prix ) was a Formula One motor race that took place on 25 October 2015 . The race was contested over fifty @-@ six laps and held at the Circuit of the Americas . It was the sixteenth round of the 2015 season and marked the thirty @-@ seventh time that the United States Grand Prix was run as a round of the World Championship since its inception in 1950 , and the fourth time that the event was hosted at this circuit .
Lewis Hamilton was the defending race winner and entered with a 66 @-@ point lead in the Drivers ' Championship over Sebastian Vettel of Ferrari , with Hamilton 's Mercedes teammate Nico Rosberg a further seven points behind . The three @-@ day event was run in torrential conditions ; as a result , the second practice session and the final qualifying session were cancelled , while the whole of qualifying was delayed until the morning of the race day .
Hamilton won the race , passing Nico Rosberg in the later stages , and thereby secured his third Drivers ' Championship , as Sebastian Vettel finished third . An incident @-@ packed race saw only twelve cars reach the finish line , with Max Verstappen repeating his best result of the season in fourth and Jenson Button finishing a season @-@ best sixth . After starting in damp conditions , both Red Bull drivers were initially able to challenge the Mercedes for the lead , but later dropped back as the track dried , with Daniil Kvyat retiring after a crash and Daniel Ricciardo eventually finishing tenth .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Alexander Rossi became the first American to drive in the United States Grand Prix at the Circuit of the Americas , returning to Manor Marussia after Roberto Merhi had raced for them in Russia . The Sauber team celebrated their 400th Grand Prix in Formula One . The weather was forecast to be wet all weekend , with especially treacherous conditions on Friday afternoon and Saturday , while the race day itself was expected to be slightly less wet .
Fernando Alonso ran a new power unit in his McLaren over the weekend , one that he had already used once during practice for the previous race in Russia , having taken the grid penalty for it there . Teammate Jenson Button hoped for Alonso to " annihilate " him , adding : " It 's unusual to say that , but in our situation it 's about getting it on the car . " McLaren also introduced new aerodynamic parts to their cars for the Grand Prix . Both Sebastian Vettel and Kimi Räikkönen of Ferrari needed to exchange their power units . Having already used the allowed four units for the season , both drivers received ten @-@ place grid penalties . Manor Marussia 's Will Stevens was placed back twenty grid spots for a change of his engine , turbocharger and MGU @-@ H unit . Renault used eleven of their twelve remaining token for changes to their power unit . However , both customer teams , Red Bull and Toro Rosso chose not to run with the update , saying its performance advantage was not worth taking the grid penalties . Both Red Bull and McLaren used new front wings , emulating a concept introduced by Mercedes supposed to create more downforce by directing the airflow towards the outside of the front tyres . Similar changes were made by Ferrari to their SF15 @-@ T. In preparation for the effects of the high altitude in Mexico , Mercedes added two " ears " at the top of the airbox in order to improve cooling to the Energy Recovery System of their power unit .
The race used the same two DRS zones as previous races at the track . The first was between turns eleven and twelve , and the second on the start / finish straight between turns twenty and one . Pirelli supplied teams with the white @-@ banded medium tyre as the prime compound and the yellow @-@ banded soft tyre as the option selection , with the manufacturer citing the characteristics of the circuit with " a wide range of corners and elevations " as the reason the two middle compounds were chosen .
Coming into the weekend , Mercedes had already secured the Constructors ' Championship , having done so at the previous race in Russia . Ferrari was in second place on 359 points , 139 points ahead of Williams . In the Drivers ' Championship , Lewis Hamilton led with 302 points , 66 ahead of Sebastian Vettel and 73 ahead of his teammate , Nico Rosberg . This meant that Hamilton would be able to win the title with three races to spare , as long as he gathered nine points more than Vettel and two more than Rosberg at the Grand Prix .
= = = Free practice = = =
Per the regulations for the 2015 season , three practice sessions were scheduled , two 1 @.@ 5 @-@ hour sessions on Friday and another one @-@ hour session before qualifying on Saturday . However , with treacherous weather conditions including flood warnings , the second practice session was cancelled due to heavy rain and a thunderstorm . The other two practice session were run in wet conditions .
Nico Rosberg topped the timesheets on Friday , ahead of the two Red Bull cars of Daniil Kvyat and Daniel Ricciardo . The session started on a very wet track , but with no more rain falling , it dried out as the practice progressed , with drivers soon switching to intermediate tyres . Lewis Hamilton was fifth fastest , behind Carlos Sainz , Jr .. Despite going off the track late in the session , Fernando Alonso was ninth fastest in the McLaren with the new power unit . A gearbox problem meant that Pastor Maldonado was unable to take to the track , while at Sauber , Raffaele Marciello replaced Felipe Nasr , ending the session three tenths of a second quicker than teammate Marcus Ericsson .
The practice session on Saturday was run without spectators to ensure their safety . On track , Lewis Hamilton was fastest , ahead of his closest championship rival Sebastian Vettel . With conditions worsening over the course of the session , Vettel spun out twice . Max Verstappen ended the session last , while Force India 's Nico Hülkenberg was third , ahead of Valtteri Bottas and Sainz .
= = = Qualifying = = =
Inclement weather continued to disrupt the Saturday 's proceedings as qualifying was delayed multiple times before being ultimately rescheduled for Sunday morning . Many drivers backed the decision , with Jenson Button saying : " It was the right thing to do [ ... ] . In one respect , maybe if we decided three hours earlier it would have been better for the fans . But we wanted to get out there and drive and put on a show . Delaying it every half an hour was the way it had to be . " During the waiting period on Saturday , many teams had engaged in tomfoolery in the paddock to entertain the crowds , such as bowling or ballroom dancing between Red Bull teammates Daniel Ricciardo and Daniil Kvyat . Ferrari later condemned the behaviour of their fellow teams , with team principal Maurizio Arrivabene saying : " We are a Formula One team , not the Cirque du Soleil . " Kimi Räikkönen backed him , stating : " I think this is F1 and not the circus . The people are obviously not happy when we 're not running but we cannot make them happy with whatever we do apart from running . "
Qualifying was scheduled to consist of three parts , 18 , 15 and 12 minutes in length respectively , with five drivers eliminated from competing after each of the first two sessions . The first part of qualifying ( Q1 ) was disrupted after a little more than five minutes , when Sainz crashed at turn four , bringing out red flags . Due to the prospect of worsening rain and the chance that qualifying could be brought to an end by the weather at any point , the teams fought for grid positions early on , with Lewis Hamilton , Nico Rosberg and Daniel Ricciardo setting the fastest times . Apart from Sainz , both Manor Marussia drivers were eliminated , along with the two Sauber cars of Marcus Ericsson and Felipe Nasr . Sebastian Vettel , after making contact with a barrier , finished Q1 in fifteenth place , barely making it into Q2 .
In Q2 , lap times improved and the two Mercedes drivers led the way , with Rosberg a little over a tenth of a second ahead of teammate Hamilton . Fernando Alonso went faster than Valtteri Bottas and looked to make it into Q3 , when Max Verstappen went faster and eliminated the McLaren driver . Also not in the top ten were both Lotus and the second McLaren of Jenson Button . Conditions soon worsened , preventing faster lap times . Many drivers spun out in the latter part of the session , complaining about aquaplaning .
With more rain falling , the decision was made to cancel the third part of qualifying and use the results of Q2 to determine the grid . Therefore , Nico Rosberg secured his third consecutive pole position , ahead of Hamilton , Ricciardo , and Daniil Kvyat . Fifth fastest was Sebastian Vettel for Ferrari , but his grid penalty meant that the third row on the grid was made up by the two Force India cars of Sergio Pérez and Nico Hülkenberg respectively . The penalties for both Ferraris saw Fernando Alonso move up to ninth on the grid , the highest grid position for McLaren at that point of the season . Following his third pole in a row , Rosberg said he wanted to win the race " really badly " , after being passed by Hamilton in Japan and retiring from the Russian Grand Prix whilst in the lead . Sainz required permission from the stewards to start the race , after failing to set a time within 107 % of Ricciardo 's fastest lap in Q1 . He was later allowed to start and did so after his team was able to repair his car in time for the start . Following a gearbox change , Valtteri Bottas received a five @-@ place grid penalty , moving him from eleventh to sixteenth on the grid .
= = = Race = = =
While the rain had stopped come race time , the track was still wet and slippery and all drivers opted to start on intermediate tyres . Hamilton got away better at the start , entering the first corner alongside pole @-@ sitter Rosberg and , by forcing the German wide , took the lead exiting turn one . Getting off track saw Rosberg lose additional positions , running fifth behind Hamilton , Kvyat , Ricciardo and Pérez . Further back , a collision involved Alonso , Massa , the two Saubers of Ericsson and Nasr as well as Bottas , who pitted after the first lap , as did Nasr , who was the first to fit slick tyres , as the track was starting to dry . Will Stevens was touched from behind by teammate Alexander Rossi , breaking his rear wing and forcing him to retire . Having started from the back of the grid , Carlos Sainz profited from the incidents and was up to tenth by the end of the first lap . While Rosberg soon took back fourth from Pérez , Hamilton in front came under pressure from Kvyat , with the Red Bulls running fast in the damp conditions . With Kvyat just half a second behind the championship leader , a virtual safety car period was declared on lap five to clear the debris from the first corner incident . On lap 7 , Valtteri Bottas retired with a damper failure caused by the turn one contact . When the virtual safety car ended on lap 8 , Rosberg made an immediate move on Ricciardo to move into third , overtaking Kvyat for second on the same lap . Romain Grosjean became another victim of the accident on lap one , when he came into the pits for a second time on lap 12 and retired . By the same time , Sebastian Vettel had moved up into sixth place from thirteenth on the grid . Up front , Kvyat went wide while trying to overtake Rosberg , allowing teammate Ricciardo through into third ; Ricciardo in turn made a successful manoeuvre on Rosberg to move up into second .
A battle for the lead developed between Hamilton and Ricciardo , until the Australian moved around Hamilton on lap 15 . With the grip of the intermediate tyres deteriorating , there were many overtaking manoeuvres on track . Rosberg unsuccessfully tried to overtake teammate Hamilton for second on lap 16 , while Verstappen took sixth place from Vettel one lap later , only to run wide and lose the position again . On lap 18 , Rosberg moved ahead of Hamilton , who was the first of the front runners to change tyres at the end of the lap , going for a dry compound . The other frontrunners followed suit over the next couple of laps . Following the pit stops , Ricciardo led from Rosberg , Kvyat and Hamilton . The two Mercedes drivers moved ahead of their respective Red Bull rivals on laps 22 and 23 , while Vettel , now in fifth , closed on the leading quartet . On lap 24 , he reached Kvyat and overtook him for fourth , while Nico Rosberg extended his lead to Ricciardo to nine seconds by lap 25 . Hamilton took second place from Ricciardo one lap later . At the same time , Kimi Räikkönen was forced to retire . So had Massa on lap 24 , suffering the same problem that had forced his teammate to stop .
On lap 27 , Marcus Ericsson 's Sauber came to a halt on track , bringing out the proper safety car . At this halfway point of the race , the order stood as : Rosberg , Hamilton , Ricciardo , Kvyat , Verstappen , as Vettel used the safety car period for a tyre change , moving him back into sixth . When the safety car pulled into pit lane at the end of lap 32 , Vettel was back in fifth after Verstappen had also pitted for new tyres . The German moved ahead into fourth at Kvyat 's expense into turn one at the restart and went on to overtake the other Red Bull of Ricciardo some turns later . However , Ricciardo fought back to regain the place in the next corner . Vettel was able to make the move stick going into turn one on the subsequent lap . Meanwhile , Kvyat was further demoted when Verstappen moved ahead into fifth , followed by Hülkenberg . On lap 35 , Verstappen overtook the second Red Bull of Ricciardo to move into fourth . When Nico Hülkenberg attempted to do the same one lap later , he and Ricciardo collided , forcing the German to retire . Ricciardo was able to continue , but was overtaken by his teammate , with Jenson Button behind in seventh place . When another virtual safety car period was declared to clear Hülkenberg 's car , Rosberg decided to pit , moving him back to fourth behind Hamilton , Vettel and Verstappen . By lap 40 , when the safety car period was over , Rosberg was up into third at the expense of Verstappen , while Alonso moved up several places into sixth , with teammate Button in fifth . Running on newer tyres , Rosberg was able to overtake Vettel on lap 42 .
One lap later , Daniil Kvyat suffered a heavy impact at the penultimate corner , causing another safety car period . Both Hamilton and Vettel used this to change tyres again , as did Button on lap 45 . The safety car came back in at the end of lap 46 , with the order being : Rosberg , Hamilton , Verstappen , Vettel , Alonso , Pérez , Button and Maldonado . At the restart , Verstappen tried to move past Hamilton but failed and was in turn overtaken by Vettel . On lap 48 , Nico Rosberg lost the lead to Hamilton after sliding off track due to wheelspin in his rear tyres . The German later declared that his mistake was caused by a strong gust of wind . Hamilton soon opened up a gap to his teammate , while Jenson Button moved up into sixth ahead of Alonso on lap 50 , but lost the position again to Sainz before the end of the race . His teammate Alonso had been running fifth , but a loss of power from his engine moved him down the order to eventually finish eleventh . In the closing laps , Vettel edged closer to Rosberg in second , but was unable to overtake . This meant that Hamilton , who crossed the line as race winner , also took his third career championship title , with both Vettel and Rosberg now too far behind .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
At the podium interviews , conducted by Elton John , Nico Rosberg expressed his disappointment at the outcome of the race . He had visibly vented his anger in the cool down room , when he was seen throwing his podium cap at Lewis Hamilton , an incident he later played down as " just our typical games " . Sebastian Vettel on the other hand was delighted with his performance , saying that the team had " exceeded all expectations " . Newly crowned world champion Hamilton called his third title " the greatest moment of my life " , thanking his father and his family for their support . Comparing the title win to his two previous ones , he said : " the last two times were really climactic in the last race . This one still feels just as special if not more special [ ... ] . It has kind of topped last year for me – it 's equalling Ayrton [ Senna ] " . He described equalling his idol 's title tally as " a very humbling experience " , saying that he felt " very blessed " . However , more friction appeared at Mercedes , when Nico Rosberg called Hamilton 's manoeuvre at the start " very , very aggressive " . Hamilton in turn said of the incident : " It was very close with Nico at the beginning . It wasn 't intentional . We both braked deep and there is no grip there and he was turning and I wasn 't turning . " The team 's executive director Toto Wolff said that the incident would need to be discussed , a notion dismissed by Hamilton , who said : " There is no need . Everyone has a right to an opinion but it doesn 't matter . I won the race . "
Manor Marussia 's Alexander Rossi was delighted with his result in twelfth , feeling that it could be " the start of great things " , after he had equalled the team 's best result of the season . Daniel Ricciardo called for the FIA to clear up the regulations of the virtual safety car , following him being overtaken easily at the first restart by Nico Rosberg , saying that he had not gotten a warning about the end of the period . Kimi Räikkönen was equally displeased , complaining about the rules concerning driving standards . Following his on @-@ track battle with Max Verstappen , he demanded clarification on whether Verstappen 's aggressive driving style was legal , saying : " I just wanted to ask if it 's OK when you are next to another car , at some point on the exit of the corner are you allowed to always push the other car up on the kerbs [ ... ] . Apparently it 's fine . As long as everybody has the same rules that 's OK . " Concerning the collision between Nico Hülkenberg and Ricciardo , Force India revealed that damage to Hülkenberg 's front wing had caused him to lose downforce and slide into the Red Bull . Following the turn one collision between their two drivers , Sauber 's team principal Monisha Kaltenborn announced that she intended to " have a word " with her drivers , saying : " The bottom line of this is that these kind of things simply must not happen . It is OK if you have decent and healthy competition which they do – both drivers are respectful to each other . [ ... ] I 'm upset . These mistakes shouldn 't happen . We are much better than this . "
Following the Grand Prix , Bobby Epstein , chairman of the Circuit of the Americas spoke of a " tough weekend " for the organisers . According to Epstein , the weekend had been " financially devastating [ ... ] for the company " that runs the track . This was caused in large parts by the weather conditions over the weekend , while the return of the Mexican Grand Prix also played a role .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
Notes
^ 1 – Due to heavy rain and aquaplaning on track during Q2 , Q3 was cancelled with all positions being taken from Q2 times . ^ 2 – Sebastian Vettel and Kimi Räikkönen both received ten @-@ place grid penalties for using an additional power unit . ^ 3 – Valtteri Bottas received a five @-@ place grid penalty for a gearbox change after qualifying . ^ 4 – Will Stevens received a twenty @-@ place grid penalty for various changes to his power unit , but was not placed back on the grid due to Sainz Jr. not setting a timed lap . ^ 5 – Carlos Sainz , Jr. failed to set a lap time within 107 % of the fastest time set in Q1 ; he was later permitted to race by the stewards .
= = = Race = = =
Notes
^ 1 – Carlos Sainz , Jr. finished sixth but had five seconds added to his race time for speeding in the pit lane .
= = = Championship standings after the race = = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
Bold text indicates 2015 World Champions
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= Saskatchewan Highway 11 =
Highway 11 is a major north @-@ south highway in Saskatchewan , Canada that connects the province 's three largest cities : Regina , Saskatoon and Prince Albert . It is a structural pavement major arterial highway which is approximately 406 kilometres ( 252 mi ) long . It is also known as the Louis Riel Trail ( LRT ) after the 19th century Métis leader . It runs from Highway 6 north of Regina until Highway 2 south of Prince Albert . Historically the southern portion between Regina and Saskatoon was Provincial Highway 11 , and followed the Dominion Survey lines on the square , and the northern portion between Saskatoon and Prince Albert was Provincial Highway 12 .
From Regina to Saskatoon , Highway 11 is a four @-@ lane divided highway except in the village of Chamberlain , where the road narrows to two lanes through the community , including its intersection with Highway 2 south to Moose Jaw . All intersections in this segment are at @-@ grade except for the section from Regina to Lumsden and in Saskatoon . Highway 11 passes through Saskatoon , following the south leg of Circle Drive , the Idylwyld Freeway and Idylwyld Drive through the city , including its downtown . Motorists seeking to bypass downtown Saskatoon can follow the northeast Circle Drive bypass , although this is not officially part of Highway 11 .
North of Saskatoon , the road continues as a four @-@ lane highway past the communities of Warman , Osler , Hague , Rosthern and Duck Lake . Highway 11 then runs through the Nisbet Provincial Forest and past the hamlet of MacDowall before it reaches its northern terminus with Highway 2 approximately 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) south of Prince Albert .
= = Route description = =
= = = Regina and Sherwood No. 159 = = =
The route starts off in Regina , the capital of the province . Hwy 11 begins at the junction with the Trans Canada Highway as a 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) concurrency with Hwy 6 . Besides being the provincial capital , Regina is a cultural and commercial metropole for both southern Saskatchewan and adjacent areas in the neighbouring American states of North Dakota and Montana . Hwy 11 begins in a moist mixed grassland region known as the Regina Plain ecoregion . Evraz Regina , a North American steel company formerly known as IPSCO , is located in the Sherwood Industrial Park ( SIP ) north of Regina . The final chapter for the namesake of the Louis Riel Trail occurred in Regina . It was here that Métis leader Louis Riel was tried and hung on September 18 , 1885 for treason . In the spring of 2008 , Tourism , Parks , Culture and Sport Minister Christine Tell proclaimed in Duck Lake , that " the 125th commemoration , in 2010 , of the 1885 Northwest Resistance is an excellent opportunity to tell the story of the prairie Métis and First Nations peoples ' struggle with Government forces and how it has shaped Canada today . " The length of the route is an asphalt concrete primary weight highway which is part of the national highway system ( NHS ) The Ministry of Highways and Infrastructure ( SHS ) South Central Planning Committee manages the construction and maintenance of the highway near Regina which handles approximately 11 @,@ 000 vehicles per day ( VPD ) in the Average Annual Daily Traffic ( AADT ) count .
= = = Lumsden No. 189 = = =
Hwy 11 branches to the northwest from Hwy 6 ( Albert Street ) at Regina 's north end and intersects Pasqua Street before reaching the city limits . Once out of Regina , it then passes the junction of Hwy 734 . A steep decline begins into the Qu 'Appelle Valley meeting Hwy 20 and Lumsden at the lowest depression the bridge over the Qu 'appelle River . The village of Lumsden was created in 1890 in conjunction with the coming of the CNR . When Saskatchewan became a province the Local Improvement District was formed , becoming the Rural Municipality of Lumsden No. 189 in 1912 . One of the many administrative concerns of the RM was road construction and maintenance . The Qu 'Appelle Valley provides a scenic route as the LRT traverses the Qu 'Appelle River . Lumsden Historical Museum , The town of Lumsden , located on the Qu 'Appelle River is at the bottom of the valley . The AADT within the valley declines to over 7 @,@ 000 VPD after Lumsden . The northern hill out of the Qu 'appelle Valley meets the intersection of Hwy 54 , which provides access to Regina Beach on Long Lake . ( Last Mountain Lake ) . The Arm River Plain is well @-@ suited to agricultural venture and doyote , red fox , and jack rabbit may be spotted . There are archaeological sites along the Arm River Valley including a bison kill site and also in this area Bigmouth Buffalo ( Ictiobus cyprinellus ) along with varieties of sedge are flora of special concern . The SHS Central Planning Transportation Committee manages the route from here to just south of Saskatoon .
= = = Dufferin No. 190 = = =
The LRT continues west for another 11 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 9 mi ) before turning north west . The Hwy 642 intersection features the small hamlet of Bethune , Saskatchewan to the north and Hwy 354 . There is a picnic area north of Bethune . In the Allan Hills is the village of Findlater with 49 residents on the south side of the LRT , and picnic site on the north . In 2 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 4 mi ) is the northbound turnoff for Hwy 2 to Prince Albert . This commences the 11 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 2 mi ) concurrency with Hwy 2 into the town of Chamberlain .
= = = Sarnia No. 221 = = =
Chamberlain , a village of 108 residents is at the intersection of the LRT , Hwy 2 south to Moose Jaw , and Hwy 733 . A Surveyor and Ox Cart created by Davidson welder , farmer and sculptor Don Wilkins was erected in Chamberlain. are two sculptures A large sculpture of the prairie flower Prairie Lilies is also erected at Chamberlain .
North of Chamberlain is a picnic stop area on the west side of the highway and in another 14 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 9 mi ) is an unincorporated area of Aylesbury . This hamlet commemorates the LRT history with an Ox and Red River Cart sculpture by Don Wilkins located southwest of the LRT near the town entrance . The Midlakes Community Coalition erected this statue in 1999 . Near the highway turn off at Aylesbury is a cemetery located on a hill near Lake Alexander . The Piping Plover ( Charadrius melodus circumcinctus ) is an endangered species of this area . Residents are also enumerated in census Division No. 6 .
= = = Craik No. 222 = = =
Another 13 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 5 mi ) is the intersection of the LRT with Hwy 732 . Hwy 732 is a paved road which travels through the Iskwao Creek Valley . In 3 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 1 mi ) is the intersection with Hwy 643 where Craik is nestled within the triangle made by these three highways , Hwy 643 , Hwy 732 and Hwy 11 . Craik & District Regional Park are located 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) north east of Craik .
The buffalo hunter with buffalo gun and Red River cart sculptures made by Don Wilkins , President of the LRT Association , are erected at Craik . " Red River Cart First used in the Red River area to bring in meat from the buffalo hunt , the Red River Cart was later used in freighting . Constructed entirely of wood and tied together with leather , these carts were extremely stable and would be drawn through mud and marsh , floated and carried loads of 500 to 1000 pounds . " The Craik Sustainable Living Project ( CSLP ) Eco @-@ Centre and “ dugout house ” a typical 19th century living quarters can be toured with Pelican Eco @-@ Tours . The park features Arm Lake which is the reservoir created from damming the Squaw Valley Creek which used to run from the Qu 'Appelle River in the Eyebrow Hills north east just south of Davidson . The Arm River Valley is visible north of Chamberlain and continues to run parallel to the LRT from Bethune to Craik . Craik and District Golf Course is a 9 hole green golf course 1 / 2 mile east of the LRT . Craik has been sponsoring development and education about “ ecovillages ” , sustainable housing development .
= = = Arm River No. 252 = = =
In a distance of 12 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 6 mi ) is the small village of Girvin at the Hwy 749 which features The Buffalo ( and Red River Cart ) sculpture , the first piece made by Don Wilkins and features the buffalo a vital part of the fur trading and Métis life in the 18th and 19th centuries . " Spirit of the Plain This work is intended as a symbolic tribute to those peoples , native and non @-@ native , past and present , who have found harmony under the prairie sky and achieved a calm rhythm with the natural forces of this great land ... "
Davidson , a town of over 950 residents is the halfway point between Saskatoon and Regina . Ditto the giant coffee pot and coffee cup in Davidson were erected in 1996 offering hospitality and a cup of coffee at the halfway rest stop .
The Métis Fiddler and Oxcart statue were erected at Davidson in tribute to the LRT designation and the history of the métis . The Iskwao Creek begins at Davidson and winds south to the Qu 'Appelle Valley west of Girvin and Craik . A large white house erected in 1904 by Wells family north of Davidson and can be seen from the LRT . Davidson Golf & Country Club is 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of the town of Davidson on the LRT and provides 9 @-@ hole grass greens . Davidson Campground and Swimming Pool is located near the golf course . This area is a part of the
Saskatoon — Biggar Economic Region and the Mid Sask Rural Economic Development Authority ( REDA ) . Between the Qu 'appelle Valley and the town of Dundurn on either side of Davidson , the AADT is approximately 5 @,@ 000 VPD .
= = = Willner No. 253 = = =
Traveling another 14 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 1 mi ) northwest is the junction with Allen Road , and following that is the intersection of Knob Hill Road . Townline Road which is south of Bladworth which is a village of 70 residents near the intersecting line between Willner and McCraney rural municipalities . Just 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) north of Bladworth are the Black & Silver Lakes waterfowl nesting areas . The distance between Bladworth and Kenaston is 19 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 12 @.@ 1 mi ) .
= = = McCraney No. 282 = = =
Bonnington Springs Campground is located at Kenaston . Kenaston was originally named Bonnington Springs and is located at the intersection with Hwy 15 . Kenaston , with the logo Blizzard Capital of Saskatchewan , features a large sculpture of a Snowman built in 1983 , but not visible from the highway . Between Kenaston and Hwy 764 intersection is a length of 24 kilometres ( 15 mi ) and the locality of Strong , now just a ghost town . Residents belong to SARM Division No. 5 and are enumerated in Census Division No. 11 which resulted in a population of about 250 Kenaston residents .
= = = Rosedale No. 283 = = =
Hanley , a town of over 450 , is located at the intersection of Hwy 764 . Hanley erected in 2000 , a stone monument honoring its historic Opera House . At the intersection with Indi Road is a marker in commemoration of Indi Siding . To the west of the road is Indi Lake , and to the east , Theressa Lake which has now become a portion of Blackstrap Lake . It is 8 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 2 mi ) between Indi siding and the intersection of Hwy 211 .
= = = Dundurn No. 314 = = =
Blackstrap Provincial Park , Blackstrap Lake and Mountain are two man made features to the east of Route 11 near Dundurn , Saskatchewan . The 1971 Canada Winter Games were hosted at this venue which sported ski run and ski jump . Blackstrap Provincial Park can be accessed by turning west onto Hwy 211 . Wilson Museum can be seen on the outskirts of the town of Dundurn from the LRT . Dundurn is a town of approximately 650 which is located at the intersection of Hwy 211 and the AADT is around 6 @,@ 000 VPD . The Bone Gatherer and horse and cart statues are visible from the LRT at Dundurn . Vast quantities of buffalo bones were gathered across the prairie in the last years of the 19th century . The bones were shipped by rail to be made into fertilizer . The huge herds of buffalo roaming the prairie were a thing of the past . " Dundurn . Honoring the Past Striving for a bright future . Dundurn , located in the heartland of the great Northern Bison range was known to buffalo hunters as Round Prairie . Cree , Métis and Dakota Sioux chose the wooded hills of this historic land as a good place to stay . Cattle ranching was [ sic ] established here in 1886 and since then the growth and prosperity of our community has been , to a great extent , dependent on the agricultural sector . The horse drawn Red River car and Bone Picker are reminiscent of an era ending when the skeletal remains of approximately 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 buffalo were gathered in the vicinity of Dundurn and Hanley . The influx of homesteaders , beginning in 1903 , marked a new chapter in our story of progress and continuity . " The Strehlow Road intersection marks the old access road to the locality of Strehlow as well Haultain Road which is the next junction marks the old access road to the locality of Haultain . The former Haultain one room school house site is now located on the Canadian Forces Base Dundurn grounds .
Saskatchewan International Raceway is a drag racing venue located along the LRT , 13 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) south of Saskatoon . Another 2 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 4 mi ) along the LRT is the intersection with Floral Road to the east marking the birthplace town of Gordie Howe , and Grasswood Road on the west is at a small commercial area . Between Grasswood and Saskatoon the AADT increases to over 8 @,@ 000 VPD , and the remainder of the route is within the jurisdiction of the SHS North Central Transportation Planning Committee . The Saskatoon Plain section of the moist mixed grassland of dark brown soils is suitable for cereal grains , feed grains and forage crops .
= = = Corman Park No. 344 = = =
Traveling through Saskatoon from Grasswood Road to the Hwy 16 turn off encompasses 22 @.@ 9 kilometres ( 14 @.@ 2 mi ) and entails going around Saskatoon on Circle Drive . Numerous attractions in Saskatoon , the largest city of Saskatchewan , include the Forestry Farm park and zoo , Mendel Art Gallery , and the Wanuskewin National Heritage Park . The cloverleaf interchange at Circle Drive in Saskatoon was one of the first two SK interchanges which opened in 1967 . " Future site of the Idylwyld Drive and Circle Drive South interchange . This project is funded by the Federal Asia @-@ Pacific Gateway and corridor initiative program and the Province of Saskatchewan . " is the quotation on a sign erected at the future site of the next Circle Drive interchange . After crossing the South Saskatchewan River on the Senator Sid Buckwold Bridge ( freeway bridge ) are the end points at Idylwyld Drive North of both Hwy 14 and Hwy 7 along 22nd Street . At 23 Street East , is the end point of Hwy 5 also at the Idylwyld Drive North , LRT concurrency . The 2 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 7 mi ) concurrency with the Yellowhead Highway begins at the intersection with Circle Drive in the north industrial . The end of this concurrency marks the beginning of the next 3 @.@ 0 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) concurrency with Hwy 12 , before the LRT branches off from due north to a north @-@ east direction of travel .
At the intersection of Hwy 784 is the city of Warman with over 7 @,@ 000 residents and the AADT is about 10 @,@ 000 VPD . Turning west on Hwy 784 is the Clarkboro ferry route across the South Saskatchewan River .
The town of Osler has 926 residents and is located at the intersection with Hwy 393 . The AADT on the stretch of highway between Osler and Warman declines to about 7 @,@ 700 VPD . A Vintage Car on a Pole is a large roadside attraction which can be seen at Osler . Another 1 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 99 mi ) of travel along the LRT is the intersection with Hwy 394 at the north end of Osler .
= = = Rosthern No. 403 = = =
The town of Hague with approximately 700 residents , is 1 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 68 mi ) south of the intersection with Hwy 785 . The intersection Hwy 312 is north of Hague by 17 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 10 @.@ 9 mi ) and Rosthern is nestled just south of this intersection . Traffic has again declined with the greater distance from Saskatoon and Rosthern , with an average of 5 @,@ 000 VPD between Warman and Hague , and about 4 @,@ 500 VPD between Hague and Rosthern . Rosthern , a town of over 1300 people is located in the " valley of the converging branches of the North and South Saskatchewan Rivers . " The South Saskatchewan and North Saskatchewan River provide two important fish habitats for the province of Saskatchewan . There are 32 species of fish in the South Saskatchewan , and 25 species in the North Saskatchewan .
The large roadside attraction of a wheat sheaf is located to the east of town at the tourism office and is visible from the LRT . The Station Arts center has converted the historic CN Station into an art gallery and summer theater center and is located at Rosthern . This section of the LRT travels through the Waldheim Plain of the Aspen parkland prairie ecoregion which features fescue grasslands dotted with Aspen tree bluffs . Black loamy soil types are excellent for specialty crops as well as grain and cereals which makes agriculture the predominant economic industry . Seager Wheeler 's Maple Grove Farm , a National Historic Site , is located 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) east of Rosthern by taking Hwy 312 from the LRT . Seager Wheeler ( 1868 – 1961 ) was a famous farmer developing hardy wheat varieties for the Saskatchewan short growing season .
Hwy 312 provides access to the Batoche National Historic Site which features the Caron house , St. Antoine de Padoue church and rectory . Batoche is where Louis Riel fought his final battles in the North @-@ West Rebellion of 1885 . The Métis adopted a river lot system for settlement near Batoche along the South Saskatchewan River . The coming of the surveyor marking the plains into square quarter sections disrupted the established way of life . The Métis were offered scrip between 1886 and 1902 as compensation for their loss of land . Scrip land entitlement comprised 240 acres ( 0 @.@ 97 km2 ) . The available lands were not along the original river valley , or near the original settlement , so many Métis sold their scrip for money . Fish Creek near Batoche was originally named Tourond 's Coulee , Northwest Territories ( NWT ) . The Battle of Fish Creek memorial is near Batoche , and St. Laurent de Grandin features the St. Laurent Shrine . The intersection of Hwy 312 is north of Hague by 18 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 11 @.@ 2 mi ) .
= = = Duck Lake No. 463 = = =
Duck Lake is just south of the Hwy 212 intersection and Fort Carlton Provincial Historic Park is west of the LRT on Hwy 212 . This historic fur trade center was also an integral part of the North West Resistance . Duck Lake along route 11 also re @-@ tells the story of the North @-@ West Rebellion in murals on town buildings . Duck Lake Regional Interpretive Center relates the history of first nations , Métis and an immigrant pioneer Society to the area . As well , Glen Scrimshaw Art Gallery provides a showing of local artist Glen Scrimshaw . After Duck Lake the average VPD again declines to just above 3 @,@ 000 AADT . Traveling 26 @.@ 9 kilometres ( 16 @.@ 7 mi ) along the LRT is MacDowall which is west of the LRT . Noah 's Ark Family Fun Park is 5 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) north of MacDowall and provides a petting zoo and 18 @-@ hole miniature golf course . Nisbet Plain ecoregion , a part of the Boreal transition of the Boreal Plain is evident as the landscape changes to a mix of agricultural activities and forested areas . The black and dark gray soils are very fertile for a wide variety of crops . Along with aspen , white spruce , tamarack and jack pine are evident . Deer , moose , elk along with the occasional black bear can be seen along the route in this area .
= = = Prince Albert No. 461 = = =
It is another 22 kilometres ( 14 mi ) of travel in a north east direction to arrive at the terminus of the LRT , the intersection with Saskatchewan Highway 2 where the approximate AADT increases near the city of Prince Albert to 6 @,@ 000 VPD . The final stretches of the LRT is in the boreal Nisbet Forest . Trails through the forest are enjoyed by snowmobilers , cross @-@ country skiers , horseback riders , hikers , and campers
= = History = =
= = = Beginnings = = =
The Qu ’ Appelle , Long Lake and Saskatchewan Railway came through between Regina and Prince Albert through Saskatoon as early as 1890 providing an early method of travel following the red river cart and trail days . Chamberlain and Aylesbury were first linked via a highway in 1929 , before this date transportation between the two was by a variety of trails . The summer of 1929 also started another road leaving the Qu 'Appelle River valley east . Construction required building up low spots with elevating graders and dump wagons operated by horses . The elevating grader was to till unbroken soil and turn it towards a conveyor which lifted the dirt into the dump wagons . This process used 8 horses pulling in the front , and another eight at the rear pushing . The fresno crew constructed the level areas . Ditches were constructed on a 7 % grade and filled with field rock to help prevent erosion . One of the main problems constructing the highway was the heavy field stone knolls . This highway served until 1949 when it was upgraded .
" The upland collection area for the underground streams comes together on top of the valley near Chamberlain . Highway construction surveyors had to curve the right @-@ of @-@ way to avoid this area . Another interesting diversion that the highway surveyors had to make , at the insistence of local residents , was to go around a large stone that had a metal marker spike in it , likely set up and recorded by early explorers . This site is now marked on the LRT with a large silhouette buffalo statue made by Don Wilkins . "
A large white house erected in 1904 by Wells family north of Davidson and can be seen from the LRT . The Wells family came north from Chicago and started The Wells Land & Cattle Co. becoming land agents for settlers from the agents . The Wells Land & Cattle Co. purchased land around Davidson , Arm River and Qu 'Appelle River for homestead settlement .
In 1971 , the Department of Highways was moved from Hawarden to Kenaston closer to the main Highway , which was Hwy 11 . Hanley erected in 2000 , a stone monument honoring its historic Opera House . The 1924 Hanley Opera House was a center of cultural activity in the area . The Opera House featured Mary Pickford , Harry Lauder , Boris Karloff and the Chatauqua performers to name a few between its inception and 1967 when the new Centennial Hall was used for performances . The original Opera House was demolished in the 1980s as it was unsafe .
Roads were provided and maintained through a committee formed in 1907 by Local Improvement District 15.B.3 around Hanley . The early challenges were the hilly area and creek to the east . Early prairie roads were trails which became so rutted that they could barely be crossed over . To make roads out of these trails horse drawn blade graders were used to level out hummocks and fill badger holes . Horse drawn slush scrapers filled in sloughs . More advanced fresno scrapers replaced the slush scrapers as they could make longer and wider swaths across the sloughs . By ploughing the prairie soil at the road allowance , and then using road graders to pull in the dirt roads could be made wide enough for the first cars of the area . The rural municipality of Rosedale No. 283 was incorporated December 13 , 1909 .
Winter trails in the horse and buggy days would have two tracks across the prairie several feet higher than the prairie sod due to the snow built up on them . Summer raised roads were built up by using two horse scrapers digging an area alongside the highway , then using the loose dirt to widen the highway . Sixteen and twenty four horses were often needed to pull the graders , and several drivers were required . Any work done by a farmer would reduce his payment in taxes .
The 1926 highway map of Saskatchewan marks the route of Provincial Highway 11 following along the CNR line using township and range roads , so travel is in lines straight north , changing direction to west travel at 90 degree angles from Regina through to Saskatoon . Only Provincial Highway 12 is marked in the same fashion between Saskatoon and Prince Albert on the 1926 highway map of Saskatchewan , which has formed the base of the northern section of the LRT . ( The current Saskatchewan Highway 12 travels between Saskatoon and Shell Lake . )
As tractors replaced horses in the field and motorized vehicles replaced horses on the road , an increasing need arose to replace the early dirt trails with graded gravel highways . In the early 1930s , the gravel highway constructed between Chamberlain and Aylesbury in 1929 was further extended to Dundurn to meet this need . Shortly thereafter , the graveled highway extended between Saskatoon and Regina .
= = = Later History = = =
As the Annual Average Daily Traffic ( AADT ) increased , the need for wider , all @-@ weather , paved roads became increasingly apparent . As early as the 1930s , various Saskatchewan cities , towns , and rural municipalities lobbied the provincial government to develop hard surfaced roads , including Highway 11 , to connect its major centers , particularly Regina , Saskatoon , Prince Albert and Moose Jaw . Saskatoon mayor R.M. Pinder argued that Highway 11 should receive priority because " it serves the greatest number of people for the longest period of time " and its hard surfacing would facilitate the travel of American tourists to Prince Albert National Park and support transport operations to and from the Dundurn Military Camp . A dispute flared up between Saskatoon and Prince Albert community organizations over whether Highway 11 or Highway 2 should be paved first . Prince Albert advocated prioritizing Highway 2 as a more direct route between the northern and southern parts of the province and a more attractive route for American tourists driving to Prince Albert National Park . Saskatoon preferred Highway 11 because the alternative would bypass it and not provide as many Saskatchewan residents the transportation benefits of direct access to a paved highway . In 1950 , the provincial government indicated that it would prioritize the paving of Highway 11 between Saskatoon and Regina ; by October 1952 this section was completely paved . The improved highway was also rerouted in some places , including the section between Bladworth and Dundurn which was completely rebuilt , and bypasses were built around some towns and villages through which it had formerly passed . Although the highway 's route had not entirely reached its present contours , it was made straighter ; the distance traversed between Saskatoon and Regina was reduced by 27 miles . It more closely followed the CNR tracks and contained fewer right angle corners than it had in 1926 . The highway between Saskatoon and Prince Albert received less attention during this period ; a 1956 highway map shows that it was still almost entirely gravel .
Following the completion of the Trans Canada Highway , federal funds became available for provincial highway projects . Highway 11 was considered an important transportation route from a national perspective , and therefore received funding under the National Highways Project . The highway between Saskatoon and Rosthern was partially paved and the remainder was oiled to create a dust @-@ free all @-@ weather surface , and in 1964 , the last remaining gravel section of the highway , between Rosthern and its junction with Highway 2 , was oiled . In the latter half of the 1960s , many sections of the highway between Regina and Saskatoon were reconstructed and given wide shoulders ; previously some segments had no shoulders . During the same period , the Saskatoon to Prince Albert portion was rebuilt to " Trans @-@ Canada standards " and extensively re @-@ routed to follow the same course as the CNR tracks which shortened the travel distance between the two cities by 13 miles . A new route was constructed to connect Saskatoon and Rosthern via Warman and Hague . Once this phase of construction was complete , the Rosthern to Prince Albert segment was upgraded and fully paved , and the segment between MacDowall and Prince Albert was re @-@ routed along a straighter course .
In 1960 , the section between Regina and Lumsden was the first to be converted to a four lane twinned highway . Twinning the rest of highway between Saskatoon and Regina commenced in 1968 with the conversion of the segment between Saskatoon and Dundurn . Work gradually progressed until the final section between Craik to a point just north of Davidson was twinned in late 1978 . With the exception of a three @-@ kilometre , two @-@ lane segment through Chamberlain , the newly constructed four lane sections of the highway bypassed all the towns and villages between Saskatoon and Regina . An initiative to twin the highway between Saskatoon and Prince Albert was launched in the first decade of the 21st century . In 2006 , Provincial Highways and Transportation Minister Eldon Lautermilch stated that " twinning will improve the province 's busiest highways to support tourism and economic development , and move our export goods to market efficiently across inter @-@ provincial borders . " Sections of highway nearest to Saskatoon were twinned first ; with the paving of newly constructed lanes along a 13 @-@ kilometre stretch between Prince Albert and MacDowall , the project was completed on 25 October 2013 .
On June 20 , 2001 the entire length of Hwy 11 was re @-@ named the Louis Riel Trail ( LRT ) at a ceremony which took place at the Duck Lake Regional Interpretive Centre . The LRT connects major sites of the 1885 North @-@ West Rebellion . Mid @-@ Lakes Community coalition , Saskatchewan Highway 11 communities and municipalities , the Saskatchewan Métis Nation , and the Saskatchewan History and Folk Lore Society approached Highways and Transportation Minister Pat Atkinson about the designation . Saskatchewan Highway 11 is the actual course followed by the RCMP and Louis Riel to arrive at Regina for the trial of Louis Riel . The LRT sign features a red river cart featured in yellow on a blue background .
= = = Maintenance = = =
Tenders for construction work on Highway 11 in 2008 amounted to $ 63 @.@ 3 million of which $ 30 million saw 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) twinned between Prince Albert and Saskatoon . Among the upcoming projects which have received approval were the " paving of two sections of Highway 11 including 12 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) of highway north of Osler to south of Hague , and 11 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 0 mi ) of highway north of Macdowall to the Junction of Highway 2 . " The first project was scheduled for completion by October 2008 .
In 2002 a resurfacing project of 8 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 2 mi ) of Highway 11 was undertaken on a section 2 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 4 mi ) north of Macdowall . The approval for the $ 680 @,@ 000 tender was awarded by Highways and Transportation Minister Mark Wartman .
Earlier maintenance included $ 897 @,@ 000 for paving of 12 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 6 mi ) near Hanley for a project cost of $ 897 @,@ 000 . Highways and Transportation Minister Judy Bradley awarded contracts for work in 1999 .
The first asphalt rubber project occurred July 2007 on Saskatchewan Highway 11 . Close to 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) near Davidson show the rubberized asphalt road surface on the right lane at a cost of $ 126 @,@ 800 . The next rubberized asphalt project in the summer of 2007 , was 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) through the town of Chamberlain . The $ 1 @.@ 4 million spent here included the rubberized asphalt pavement surface , curbs and catch basins .
" The mining , exploration , and oil and gas sectors across northern Saskatchewan funnel thousands of heavy trucks through Prince Albert on a daily basis . Improving this vital gateway will not only make travel safer and far more efficient for commercial traffic , but it will enhance the drive for thousand of visitors who head north each year to take advantage of our northern lakes "
= = Plans = =
Pinkie Road is a proposed 4 lane twinned highway connector road linking two National Highway System routes as a part of the Asia @-@ Pacific Gateway and Corridor Initiative ( APGCI ) . Hwy 1 , the Trans Canada Highway and Hwy 11 will be linked by this new route west of Regina .
= = Intersections from south to north = =
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= History of Mumbai =
The history of Mumbai deals with the growth of a collection of seven islands on the west coast of India to become the commercial capital of the nation , and one of the most populous cities in the world . Although human habitation existed since the Stone Age , the Kolis , a Marathi fishing community , were the earliest known settlers of the islands . The Maurya Empire gained control of the islands during the 3rd century BCE , and transformed it into a centre of Hindu and Buddhist culture and religion . Later , between the 2nd century BCE and 9th century CE , the islands came under the control of successive indigenous dynasties : Satavahanas , Abhiras , Vakatakas , Kalachuris , Konkan Mauryas , Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas , before being ruled by the Silharas from 810 to 1260 .
King Bhimdev established his kingdom in the region in the late 13th century , and brought many settlers to the islands . The Muslim rulers of Gujarat captured the islands in 1348 , and they were later governed by the Gujarat Sultanate from 1391 to 1534 . The Treaty of Bassein between the Portuguese viceroy Nuno da Cunha and Bahadur Shah of the Gujarat Sultanate placed the islands into Portuguese possession in 1534 .
The islands suffered incursions from Mughals towards the end of the 17th century . During the mid @-@ 18th century , the city emerged as an important trading town , with maritime trade contacts with Mecca and Basra . Economic and educational development characterised the city during the 19th century with the first @-@ ever Indian railway line beginning operations between Mumbai and neighbouring Thane in 1853 . The city became a strong base for the Indian independence movement during the early 20th century and was the epicentre of the Rowlatt Satyagraha of 1919 and Royal Indian Navy Mutiny of 1946 . After India 's independence in 1947 , the territory of Mumbai Presidency retained by India was restructured into Mumbai State . The area of Mumbai State increased , after several erstwhile princely states that joined the Indian union were integrated into Mumbai State .
In 1960 , following protests from the Samyukta Maharashtra movement , the city was incorporated into the dominion of the newly created Maharashtra State from Mumbai State . The city 's secular fabric was torn apart in the communal riots of 1992 – 93 , while the bombings of 1993 caused extensive loss of life and property . The city was renamed Mumbai on 6 March 1996 .
= = Early history = =
= = = Pre @-@ historic period = = =
Geologists believe that coast of western India came into being around 100 to 80 mya after it broke away from Madagascar . Soon after its detachment , the peninsular region of the Indian plate drifted over the Réunion hotspot , a volcanic hotspot in the Earth 's lithosphere near the island of Réunion . An eruption here some 66 mya is thought to have laid down the Deccan Traps , a vast bed of basalt lava that covers parts of central India . This volcanic activity resulted in the formation of basaltic outcrops , such as the Gilbert Hill , that are seen at various locations in the city . Further tectonic activity in the region led to the formation of hilly islands separated by a shallow sea . Pleistocene sediments found near Kandivali in northern Mumbai by British archaeologist Todd in 1939 indicate habitation since the Stone Age . The present day city was built on what was originally an archipelago of seven islands of Bombay Island , Parel , Mazagaon , Mahim , Colaba , Worli , and Old Woman 's Island ( also known as Little Colaba ) . The islands were coalesced into a single landmass by the Hornby Vellard engineering project in 1784 . By 1000 BCE , the region was heavily involved in seaborne commerce with Egypt and Persia . The Koli fishing community had long inhabited the islands . They were Dravidian in origin and included a large number of scattered tribes along the Vindhya Plateau , Gujarat , and Konkan . In Mumbai , there were three or four of these tribes . Their religious practices could be summed up as animism .
= = = Age of indigenous empires = = =
The islands were incorporated into the Maurya Empire under Emperor Ashoka of Magadha in the third century BCE . The empire 's patronage made the islands a centre of Hindu and Buddhist religion and culture . Buddhist monks , scholars , and artists created the artwork , inscriptions , and sculpture of the Kanheri Caves in the mid third century BCE and Mahakali Caves . After the decline of the Maurya Empire around 185 BCE , these islands fell to the Satavahanas . The port of Sopara ( present @-@ day Nala Sopara ) was an important trading centre during the first century BCE , with trade contacts with Rome . The islands were known as Heptanesia ( Ancient Greek : A Cluster of Seven Islands ) to the Greek geographer Ptolemy in 150 CE . After the end of the Satvahana rule in 250 CE , the Abhiras of Western Maharashtra and Vakatakas of Vidarbha held dominion over the islands . The Abhiras ruled for 167 years , till around 417 CE . The Kalachuris of Central India ruled the islands during the fifth century , which were then acquired by the Mauryas of Konkan in the sixth and early part of the seventh century . The Mauryas were feudatories of Kalachuris , and the Jogeshwari Caves were constructed during their regime between 520 and 525 . The Greek merchant Cosmas Indicopleustes visited Kalyan ( near Mumbai ) during 530 – 550 . The Elephanta Caves also dates back to the sixth century . Christianity arrived in the islands during the sixth century , when the Nestorian Church made its presence in India . The Mauryan presence ended when the Chalukyas of Badami in Karnataka under Pulakeshin II invaded the islands in 610 . Dantidurga of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty of Karnataka conquered the islands during 749 – 750 .
The Silhara dynasty of Konkan ruled the region between 810 and 1260 . The Walkeshwar Temple was constructed during the 10th century and the Banganga Tank during the 12th century under the patronage of the Silhara rulers . The Italian traveler Marco Polo 's fleet of thirteen Chinese ships passed through Mumbai Harbour during May — September 1292 . King Bhimdev founded his kingdom in the region in the late 13th century and established his capital in Mahikawati ( present day Mahim ) . He belonged to either the Yadava dynasty of Devagiri in Maharashtra or the Anahilavada dynasty of Gujarat . He built the first Babulnath temple in the region and introduced many fruit @-@ bearing trees , including coconut palms to the islands . The Pathare Prabhus , one of the earliest settlers of the city , were brought to Mahim from Patan and other parts of Saurashtra in Gujarat around 1298 by Bhimdev during his reign . He is also supposed to have brought Palshis , Pachkalshis , Bhandaris , Vadvals , Bhois , Agris and Brahmins to these islands . After his death in 1303 , he was succeeded by his son Pratapbimba , who built his capital at Marol in Salsette , which he named Pratappur . The islands were wrested from Pratapbimba 's control by Mubarak Khan , a self @-@ proclaimed regent of the Khilji dynasty , who occupied Mahim and Salsette in 1318 . Pratapbimba later reconquered the islands which he ruled till 1331 . Later , his brother @-@ in @-@ law Nagardev for 17 years till 1348 . The islands came under the control of the Muslim rulers of Gujarat in 1348 , ending the sovereignty of Hindu rulers over the islands .
= = = Islamic period = = =
The islands were under Muslim rule from 1348 to 1391 . After the establishment of the Gujarat Sultanate in 1391 , Muzaffar Shah I was appointed viceroy of north Konkan . For the administration of the islands , he appointed a governor for Mahim . During the reign of Ahmad Shah I ( 1411 – 1443 ) , Malik @-@ us @-@ Sharq was appointed governor of Mahim , and in addition to instituting a proper survey of the islands , he improved the existing revenue system of the islands . During the early 15th century , the Bhandaris seized the island of Mahim from the Sultanate and ruled it for eight years . It was reconquered by Rai Qutb of the Gujarat Sultanate . Firishta , a Persian historian , recorded that by 1429 the seat of government of the Gujarat Sultanate in north Konkan had transferred from Thane to Mahim . On Rai Qutb 's death in 1429 – 1430 , Ahmad Shah I Wali of the Bahmani Sultanate of Deccan captured Salsette and Mahim .
Ahmad Shah I retaliated by sending his son Jafar Khan to recapture the lost territory . Jafar emerged victorious in the battle fought with Ahmad Shah I Wali . In 1431 , Mahim was recaptured by the Sultanate of Gujarat . The Sultanate 's patronage led to the construction of many mosques , prominent being the Haji Ali Dargah in Mahim , built in honour the Muslim saint Haji Ali in 1431 . After the death of Kutb Khan , the Gujarat commandant of Mahim , Ahmad Shah I Wali again despatched a large army to capture Mahim . Ahmad Shah I responded with a large army and navy under Jafar Khan leading to the defeat of Ahmad Shah I Wali . During 1491 – 1494 , the islands suffered sea piracies from Bahadur Khan Gilani , a nobleman of the Bahamani Sultanate . After the end of the Bahamani Sultanate , Bahadur Khan Gilani and Mahmud Gavan ( 1482 – 1518 ) broke out in rebellion at the port of Dabhol and conquered the islands along with the whole of Konkan . Portuguese explorer Francisco de Almeida 's ship sailed into the deep natural harbour of the island in 1508 , and he called it Bom baía ( Good Bay ) . However , the Portuguese paid their first visit to the islands on 21 January 1509 , when they landed at Mahim after capturing a Gujarat barge in the Mahim creek . After a series of attacks by the Gujarat Sultanate , the islands were recaptured by Sultan Bahadur Shah .
In 1526 , the Portuguese established their factory at Bassein . During 1528 – 29 , Lopo Vaz de Sampaio seized the fort of Mahim from the Gujarat Sultanate , when the King was at war with Nizam @-@ ul @-@ mulk , the emperor of Chaul , a town south of the islands . Bahadur Shah had grown apprehensive of the power of the Mughal emperor Humayun and he was obliged to sign the Treaty of Bassein with the Portuguese on 23 December 1534 . According to the treaty , the islands of Mumbai and Bassein were offered to the Portuguese . Bassein and the seven islands were surrendered later by a treaty of peace and commerce between Bahadur Shah and Nuno da Cunha , Viceroy of Portuguese India , on 25 October 1535 , ending the Islamic rule in Mumbai .
= = Portuguese period = =
The Portuguese were actively involved in the foundation and growth of their religious orders in Bombay . The islands were leased to Mestre Diogo in 1534 . The San Miguel ( St. Michael Church ) in Mahim , one of the oldest churches in Bombay , was built by the Portuguese in 1540 . Parel , Wadala , Sion , and Worli were granted to Manuel Serrão between 1545 and 1548 , during the viceroyalty of João de Castro . Mazagaon was granted to Antonio Pessoa in 1547 . Salsette was granted for three years to João Rodrigues Dantas , Cosme Corres , and Manuel Corres . Trombay and Chembur were granted to Dom Roque Tello de Menezes , and the Island of Pory ( Elephanta Island ) to João Pirez in 1548 . Garcia de Orta , a Portuguese physician and botanist , was granted the possession of Bombay in 1554 by viceroy Pedro Mascarenhas .
The Portuguese encouraged intermarriage with the local population , and strongly supported the Roman Catholic Church . In 1560 , they started proselytising the local Koli , Kunbi , Kumbhar population in Mahim , Worli , and Bassein . These Christians were referred to by the British as Portuguese Christians , though they were Nestorian Christians who had only recently established ties with the Roman Catholic Church . During this time , Bombay 's main trade was coconuts and coir . After Antonio Pessoa 's death in 1571 , a patent was issued which granted Mazagaon in perpetuity to the Sousa e Lima family . The St. Andrew Church at Bandra was built in 1575 .
The annexation of Portugal by Spain in 1580 opened the way for other European powers to follow the spice routes to India . The Dutch arrived first , closely followed by the British . The first English merchants arrived in Bombay in November 1583 , and travelled through Bassein , Thane , and Chaul . The Portuguese Franciscans had obtained practical control of Salsette and Mahim by 1585 , and built Nossa Senhora de Bom Concelho ( Our Lady of Good Counsel ) at Sion and Nossa Senhora de Salvação ( Our Lady of Salvation ) at Dadar in 1596 . The Battle of Swally was fought between the British and the Portuguese at Surat in 1612 for the possession of Bombay . Dorabji Nanabhoy , a trader , was the first Parsi to settle in Bombay in 1640 . Castella de Aguada ( Fort of the Waterpoint ) was built by the Portuguese at Bandra in 1640 as a watchtower overlooking the Mahim Bay , the Arabian Sea and the southern island of Mahim . The growing power of the Dutch by the middle of the seventeenth century forced the Surat Council of the British Empire to acquire Bombay from King John IV of Portugal in 1659 . The marriage treaty of Charles II of England and Catherine of Portugal on 8 May 1661 placed Bombay in British possession as a part of Catherine 's dowry to Charles .
= = British period = =
= = = Struggle with native powers = = =
On 19 March 1662 , Abraham Shipman was appointed the first Governor and General of the city , and his fleet arrived in Bombay in September and October 1662 . On being asked to hand over Bombay and Salsette to the English , the Portuguese Governor contended that the island of Bombay alone had been ceded , and alleging irregularity in the patent , he refused to give up even Bombay . The Portuguese Viceroy declined to interfere and Shipman was prevented from landing in Bombay . He was forced to retire to the island of Anjediva in North Canara and died there in October 1664 . In November 1664 , Shipman 's successor Humphrey Cooke agreed to accept Bombay without its dependencies . However , Salsette , Mazagaon , Parel , Worli , Sion , Dharavi , and Wadala still remained under Portuguese possession . Later , Cooke managed to acquire Mahim , Sion , Dharavi , and Wadala for the English . On 21 September 1668 , the Royal Charter of 27 March 1668 , led to the transfer of Bombay from Charles II to the English East India Company for an annual rent of £ 10 ( equivalent retail price index of £ 1 @,@ 226 in 2007 ) . The Company immediately set about the task of opening up the islands by constructing a quay and warehouses . A customs house was also built . Fortifications were built around Bombay Castle . A Judge @-@ Advocate was appointed for the purpose of civil administration . George Oxenden became the first Governor of Bombay under the English East India Company on 23 September 1668 . Gerald Aungier , who was appointed Governor of Bombay in July 1669 , established the first mint in Bombay in 1670 . He offered various business incentives , which attracted Parsis , Goans , Jews , Dawoodi Bohras , Gujarati Banias from Surat and Diu , and Brahmins from Salsette . He also planned extensive fortifications in the city from Dongri in the north to Mendham 's Point ( near present @-@ day Lion Gate ) in the south . The harbour was also developed during his governorship , with space for the berthing of 20 ships . In 1670 , the Parsi businessman Bhimjee Parikh imported the first printing press into Bombay . Between 1661 and 1675 there was a sixfold increase in population from 10 @,@ 000 to 60 @,@ 000 . Yakut Khan , the Siddi admiral of the Mughal Empire , landed at Bombay in October 1672 and ravaged the local inhabitants there . On 20 February 1673 , Rickloffe van Goen , the Governor @-@ General of Dutch India attacked Bombay , but the attack was resisted by Aungier . On 10 October 1673 , the Siddi admiral Sambal entered Bombay and destroyed the Pen and Nagothana rivers , which were very important for the English and the Maratha King Shivaji . The Treaty of Westminster concluded between England and the Netherlands in 1674 , relieved the British settlements in Bombay of further apprehension from the Dutch . In 1686 , the Company shifted its main holdings from Surat to Bombay , which had become the administrative centre of all the west coast settlements then . Bombay was placed at the head of all the Company 's establishments in India .
Yakut Khan landed at Sewri on 14 February 1689 , and razed the Mazagon Fort in June 1690 . After a payment made by the British to Aurangzeb , the ruler of the Mughal Empire , Yakut evacuated Bombay on 8 June 1690 . The arrival of many Indian and British merchants led to the development of Bombay 's trade by the end of the seventeenth century . Soon it was trading in salt , rice , ivory , cloth , lead and sword blades with many Indian ports as well as with the Arabian cities of Mecca and Basra . By 1710 , the construction of Bombay Castle was finished , which fortified the islands from sea attacks by European pirates and the Marathas . By 26 December 1715 , Charles Boone assumed the Governorship of Bombay . He implemented Aungier 's plans for the fortification of the island , and had walls built from Dongri in the north to Mendham 's point in the south . He established the Marine force , and constructed the St. Thomas Cathedral in 1718 , which was the first Anglican Church in Bombay . In 1728 , a Mayor 's court was established in Bombay and the first reclamation was started which was a temporary work in Mahalaxmi , on the creek separating Bombay from Worli . The shipbuilding industry started in Bombay in 1735 and soon the Naval Dockyard was established in the same year .
In 1737 , Salsette was captured from the Portuguese by Maratha Baji Rao I and the province of Bassein was ceded in 1739 . The Maratha victory forced the British to push settlements within the fort walls of the city . Under new building rules set up in 1748 , many houses were demolished and the population was redistributed , partially on newly reclaimed land . Lovji Nusserwanjee Wadia , a member of the Wadia family of shipwrights and naval architects from Surat , built the Bombay Dock in 1750 , which was the first dry dock to be commissioned in Asia . By the middle of the eighteenth century , Bombay began to grow into a major trading town and soon Bhandaris from Chaul in Maharashtra , Vanjaris from the Western Ghat mountain ranges of Maharashtra , Africans from Madagascar , Bhatias from Rajasthan , Vaishya Vanis , Goud Saraswat Brahmins , Daivajnas from konkan , ironsmiths and weavers from Gujarat migrated to the islands . In 1769 , Fort George was built on the site of the Dongri Fort and in 1770 , the Mazagaon docks were built . The British occupied Salsette , Elephanta , Hog Island , and Karanja on 28 December 1774 . Salsette , Elephanta , Hog Island , and Karanja were formally ceded to the British East India Company by the Treaty of Salbai signed in 1782 , while Bassein and its dependencies were restored to Raghunathrao of the Maratha Empire . Although Salsette was under the British , but the introduction of contraband goods from Salsette to other parts of Bombay was prevented . The goods were subjected to Maratha regulations with respect to taxes and a 30 % toll was levied on all goods into the city from Salsette .
In 1782 , William Hornby assumed the office of Governor of Bombay , and initiated the Hornby Vellard engineering project of uniting the seven islands into a single landmass . The purpose of this project was to block the Worli creek and prevent the low @-@ lying areas of Bombay from being flooded at high tide . However , the project was rejected by the British East India Company in 1783 . In 1784 , the Hornby Vellard project was completed and soon reclamations at Worli and Mahalaxmi followed . The history of journalism in Bombay commenced with publication of the Bombay Herald in 1789 and the Bombay Courier in 1790 . In 1795 , the Maratha army defeated the Nizam of Hyderabad . Following this , many artisans and construction workers from Andhra Pradesh migrated to Bombay and settled into the flats which were constructed by the Hornby Vellard . These workers where called Kamathis , and their enclave was called Kamathipura . The construction of the Sion Causeway ( Duncan Causeway ) commenced in 1798 . The construction of the Sion Causeway was completed in 1802 by Governor Jonathan Duncan . It connected Bombay Island to Kurla in Salsette . On 17 February 1803 , a fire raged through the town , razing many localities around the Old Fort , subsequently the British had to plan a new town with wider roads . In May 1804 , Bombay was hit by a severe famine , which led to a large @-@ scale emigration . On 5 November 1817 , the British East India Company under Mountstuart Elphinstone defeated Bajirao II , the Peshwa of the Maratha Empire , in the Battle of Kirkee which took place on the Deccan Plateau . The success of the British campaign in the Deccan witnessed the freedom of Bombay from all attacks by native powers .
= = = City development = = =
The educational and economic progress of the city began with the Company 's military successes in the Deccan . The Wellington Pier ( Apollo Bunder ) in the north of Colaba was opened for passenger traffic in 1819 and the Elphinstone High School was established in 1822 . Bombay was hit by a water famine in 1824 . The construction of the new mint commenced in 1825 . With the construction of a good carriage road up the Bhor Ghat during the regimes of Mountstuart Elphinstone and Sir John Malcolm gave better access from Bombay to the Deccan . This road , which was opened on 10 November 1830 , facilitated trade in a large measure . By 1830 , regular communication with England started by steamers navigating the Red and Mediterranean Sea . In July 1832 , the Parsi riots took place in consequence of a Government order for the destruction of pariah dogs which infested the city . The Asiatic Society of Bombay ( Town Hall ) was completed in 1833 , and the Elphinstone College was built in 1835 . In 1836 , the Chamber of Commerce was established .
In 1838 , the islands of Colaba and Little Colaba were connected to Bombay by the Colaba Causeway . In the same year , monthly communication was established between Bombay and London . The Bank of Bombay , the oldest bank in the city , was established in 1840 , and the Bank of Western India in 1842 . The Cotton Exchange was established in Cotton Green in 1844 . Avabai Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy funded the construction of the Mahim Causeway , to connect Mahim to Bandra and the work was completed in 1845 . The Commercial Bank of India , established in 1845 , issued exotic notes with an interblend of Western and Eastern Motifs . On 3 November 1845 , the Grant Medical College and hospital , the third in the country , was founded by Governor Robert Grant . The earliest riots occurred at Mahim in 1850 , in consequence of a dispute between two rival factions of Khojas . Riots broke out between Muslims and Parsis in October 1851 , in consequence of an ill @-@ advised article on Prophet Muhammad which appeared in the Chitra Gnyan Darpan newspaper . The first political organization of the Bombay Presidency , the Bombay Association , was started on 26 August 1852 , to vent public grievances to the British . The first @-@ ever Indian railway line began operations between Bombay and neighbouring Thane over a distance of 21 miles on 16 April 1853 . The Bombay Spinning and Weaving Company was the first cotton mill to be established in the city on 7 July 1854 at Tardeo in Central Bombay . The Bombay , Baroda , and Central India Railway ( BB & CI ) was incorporated in 1855 .
The University of Bombay was the first modern institution of higher education to be established in India in 1857 . The Commercial Bank , the Chartered Mercantile , the Agra and United Service , the Chartered and the Central Bank of Western India were established in Bombay attracting a considerable industrial population . The outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 increased the demand for cotton in the West , and led to an enormous increase in cotton @-@ trade . The Victoria Gardens was opened to the public in 1862 . The Bombay Shipping and Iron Shipping Companies were started in 1863 to make Bombay merchants independent of the English . The Bombay Coast and River Steam Navigation Company was established in 1866 for the maintenance of steam ferries between Bombay and the nearby islands ; while the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 revolutionized the marine trade of Bombay . The Bombay Municipal Corporation was established in 1872 , providing a modern framework of governance for the rapidly growing city . The Bombay Port Trust was promulgated in 1870 for the development and administration of the port . Tramway communication was instituted in 1873 . The Bombay Electric Supply and Transport ( BEST ) , originally set up as a tramway company : Bombay Tramway Company Limited , was established in 1873 . Violent Parsi @-@ Muslim riots again broke out in February 1874 , which were caused by an article on Prophet Muhammad published by a Parsi resident . The Bombay Gymkhana was formed in 1875 . The Bombay Stock Exchange , the oldest stock exchange in Asia , was established in 1875 . Electricity arrived in Bombay in 1882 and Crawford Market was the first establishment to be lit up by electricity . The Bombay Natural History Society was founded in 1883 . Bombay Time , one of the two official time zones in British India , was established in 1884 during the International Meridian Conference held at Washington , D.C in the United States . Bombay time was set at 4 hours and 51 minutes ahead of Greenwich Mean Time ( GMT ) using the 75th east meridian . The Princess Dock was built in 1885 as part of a scheme for improving the whole foreshore of the Bombay harbour . The first institute in asia to provide Veterinary Education , the Bombay Veterinary College , was established in Parel in Bombay in the year 1886 .
= = = Indian freedom movement = = =
The growth of political consciousness started after the establishment of the Bombay Presidency Association on 31 January 1885 . The Bombay Millowners ' Association was formed in February 1875 by Dinshaw Maneckji Petit in order to lourdes central school protect interests of workers threatened by possible factory and tariff legislation by the British . The first session of the Indian National Congress was held in Bombay from 28 – 31 December 1885 . The Bombay Municipal Act was enacted in 1888 which gave the British Government wide powers of interference in civic matters . The Victoria Terminus of the Great Indian Peninsular Railway , one of the finest stations in the world , was completed in May 1888 . The concept of Dabbawalas ( lunch box delivery man ) originated in the 1890s when British people who came to Bombay did not like the local food . So the Dabbawala service was set up to bring lunch to these people in their workplace straight from their home . On 11 August 1893 , a serious communal riot took place between the Hindus and Muslims , when a Shiva temple was attacked by Muslims in Bombay . 75 people were killed and 350 were injured . In September 1896 , Bombay was hit by a bubonic plague epidemic where the death toll was estimated at 1 @,@ 900 people per week . Around 850 @,@ 000 , amounting to half of the population , fled Bombay during this time . On 9 March 1898 , there was a serious riot which started with a sudden outbreak of hostility against the measures adopted by Government for suppression of plague . The riot led to a strike of dock and railway workers which paralysed the city for a few days . The significant results of the plague was the creation of the Bombay City Improvement Trust on 9 December 1898 and the Haffkine Institute on 10 January 1899 by Waldemar Haffkine . The Dadar @-@ Matunga @-@ Wadala @-@ Sion scheme , the first planned suburban scheme in Bombay , was formulated in 1899 – 1900 by the Bombay City Improvement Trust to relieve congestion in the centre of the town , following the plague epidemics . The cotton mill industry was adversely affected during 1900 and 1901 due to the flight of workers because of the plague .
The Partition of Bengal in 1905 initiated the Swadeshi movement , which led to the boycotting of British goods in India . On 22 July 1908 , Lokmanya Tilak , the principal advocate of the Swadeshi movement in Bombay , was sentenced to six years rigorous imprisonment , on the charge of writing inflammatory articles against the Government in his newspaper Kesari . The arrest led to huge scale protests across the city . The Bombay Chronicle started by Pherozeshah Mehta , the leader of the Indian National Congress , in 1910 , played an important role in the national movement until India 's Independence . Lord Willingdon convened the Provincial War Conference at Bombay on 10 June 1918 , whose objective was to seek the co @-@ operation of the people in the World War I measures which the British Government thought it necessary to take in the Bombay Presidency . The conference was followed by huge rallies across the city . The worldwide influenza epidemic raged through Bombay from September to December 1918 , causing hundreds of deaths per day . The Lord Willingdon Memorial incident of December 1918 saw the handicap of Home Rulers in Bombay . The first important strike in the textile industry in Bombay began in January 1919 . Bombay was the main centre of the Rowlatt Satyagraha movement started by Mahatma Gandhi from February — April 1919 . The movement was started as a result of the Rowlatt Act , which indefinitely extended emergency measures during World War I in order to control public unrest .
Following World War I , which saw large movement of India troops , supplies , arms and industrial goods to and from Bombay , the city life was shut down many times during the Non @-@ cooperation movement from 1920 to 1922 . In 1926 , the Back Bay scandal occurred , when the Bombay Development Department under the British reclaimed the Back Bay area in Bombay after the financial crisis incidental to the post @-@ war slump in the city . The first electric locomotives in India were put into service from Victoria Terminus to Kurla in 1925 . In the late 1920s , many Persians migrated to Bombay from Yazd to escape the drought in Iran . In the early 1930s , the nationwide Civil disobedience movement against the British Salt tax spread to Bombay . Vile Parle was the headquarters of the movement in Bombay under Jamnalal Bajaj . On 15 October 1932 industrialist and aviator J.R.D. Tata pioneered civil aviation in Bombay by flying a plane from Karachi to Bombay . Bombay was affected by the Great Depression of 1929 , which saw a stagnation of mill industry and economy from 1933 to 1939 . With World War II , the movements of thousands of troops , military and industrial goods and the fleet of the Royal Indian Navy made Bombay an important military base for the battles being fought in West Asia and South East Asia . The climatic Quit India rebellion was promulgated on 7 August 1942 by the Congress in a public meeting at Gowalia Tank . The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny of 18 February 1946 in Bombay marked the first and most serious revolt by the Indian sailors of the Royal Indian Navy against British rule . On 15 August 1947 , finally India was declared independent . The last British troops to leave India , the First Battalion of the Somerset Light Infantry , passed through the arcade of the Gateway of India in Bombay on 28 February 1948 , ending the 282 @-@ year @-@ long period of the British in Bombay .
= = Independent India = =
= = = 20th century = = =
After the Partition of India on 15 August 1947 , over 100 @,@ 000 Sindhi refugees from the newly created Pakistan were relocated in the military camps five kilometres from Kalyan in the Maharashta Region . It was converted into a township in 1949 , and named Ulhasnagar by the then Governor @-@ General of India , C. Rajagopalachari . In April 1950 , Greater Bombay District came into existence with the merger of Bombay Suburbs and Bombay City . It spanned an area of 235 @.@ 1 km2 ( 90 @.@ 77 sq mi ) and inhabited 2 @,@ 339 @,@ 000 of people in 1951 . The Municipal Corporation limits were extended up to Jogeshwari along the Western Railway and Bhandup along the Central Railway . This limit was further extended in February 1957 up to Dahisar along the Western Railway and Mulund on the Central Railway . In the 1955 Lok Sabha discussions , when Bombay State was being re @-@ organised along linguistic lines into the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat . But the States Reorganisation Committee recommended a bi @-@ lingual state for Maharashtra @-@ Gujarat , with Bombay as its capital . However , the Samyukta Maharashtra movement opposed this , and insisted that Bombay native of Marathi be declared the capital of Maharashtra . The Indian Institute of Technology Bombay was established in 1958 at Powai , a northern suburb of Bombay . Following protests by the Samyukta Maharashtra movement in which 105 people were killed by police firing , Maharashtra State was formed with Bombay as its capital on 1 May 1960 . Flora Fountain was renamed Hutatma Chowk ( " Martyr 's Square " ) as a memorial to the Samyukta Maharashtra movement .
In the early 1960s , the Parsi and Marwaris Migrant communities owned majority of the industry and trade enterprises in the city , while the white @-@ collar jobs were mainly sought by the South Indian migrants to the city . The Shiv Sena party was established on 19 June 1966 by Bombay cartoonist Bal Thackeray , out of a feeling of resentment about the relative marginalization of the native Marathi people in their native state Maharashtra . In the 1960s and 1970s , Shiv Sena fighted for rights of native Marathis . In the late 1960s , Nariman Point and Cuffe Parade were reclaimed and developed . During the 1970 there were Bombay @-@ Bhiwandi riots . During the 1970s , coastal communication increased between Bombay and south western coast of India , after introduction of ships by the London @-@ based trade firm Shepherd . These ships facilitated the entry of Goan and Mangalorean Catholics to Bombay .
Nehru Centre was established in 1972 at Worli in Bombay . The Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority ( MMRDA ) was set up on 26 January 1975 by the Government of Maharashtra as an apex body for planning and co @-@ ordination of development activities in the Mumbai metropolitan region . Nehru Science Centre , India 's largest interactive science centre , was established in 1972 at Worli in Bombay . In August 1979 , a sister township of Navi Mumbai was founded by City and Industrial Development Corporation ( CIDCO ) across Thane and Raigad districts of Maharashtra to help the dispersal and control of Mumbai 's population . The Great Bombay Textile Strike was called on 18 January 1982 by trade union leader Dutta Samant , where nearly 250 @,@ 000 workers and more than 50 textile mills in Bombay went on strike . On 17 May 1984 , riots broke out in Bombay , Thane , and Bhiwandi after a saffron flag was placed at the top of a mosque . 278 were killed and 1 @,@ 118 were wounded . The Jawaharlal Nehru Port was commissioned on 26 May 1989 at Nhava Sheva with a view to de @-@ congest Bombay Harbour and to serve as a hub port for the city . In December 1992 – January 93 , over 1 @,@ 000 people were killed and the city paralyzed by communal riots between the Hindus and the Muslims caused by the destruction of the Babri Mosque in Ayodhya . A series of 13 co @-@ ordinated bomb explosions took place in Bombay on 12 March 1993 , which resulted in 257 deaths and 700 injuries . The attacks were believed to be orchestrated by mafia don Dawood Ibrahim in retaliation for the Babri Mosque demolition . In 1996 , the newly elected Shiv Sena @-@ led government renamed the city of Bombay to the native name Mumbai , after the Koli native Marathi people Goddess Mumbadevi . Soon colonial British names were shed to assert or reassert local names , such as Victoria Terminus being renamed to Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus on 4 March 1996 , after the 17th century Marathi King Shivaji .
= = = 21st century = = =
During the 21st century , the city suffered several bombings . On 6 December 2002 , a bomb placed under a seat of an empty BEST ( Brihanmumbai Electric Supply and Transport ) bus exploded near Ghatkopar station in Mumbai . Around 2 people were killed and 28 were injured . The bombing occurred on the tenth anniversary of the demolition of the Babri Mosque in Ayodhya . On 27 January 2003 , a bomb placed on a bicycle exploded near the Vile Parle station in Mumbai . The bomb killed 1 and injured 25 . The blast occurred a day ahead of the visit of Atal Bihari Vajpayee , the then Prime Minister of India to the city . On 13 March 2003 , a bomb exploded in a train compartment , as the train was entering the Mulund station in Mumbai . 10 people were killed and 70 were injured . The blast occurred a day after the tenth anniversary of the 1993 Bombay bombings . On 28 July 2003 , a bomb placed under a seat of a BEST bus exploded in Ghatkopar . The bomb killed 4 people and injured 32 . On 25 August 2003 , two blasts in South Mumbai – one near the Gateway of India and the other at Zaveri Bazaar in Kalbadevi occurred . At least 44 people were killed and 150 injured . No group claimed responsibility for the attack , but it had been hinted that the Pakistan @-@ based Lashkar @-@ e @-@ Toiba was behind the attacks .
Mumbai was lashed by torrential rains on 26 – 27 July 2005 , during which the city was brought to a complete standstill . The city received 37 inches ( 940 millimeters ) of rain in 24 hours — the most any Indian city has ever received in a single day . Around 83 people were killed . On 11 July 2006 , a series of seven bomb blasts took place over a period of 11 minutes on the Suburban Railway in Mumbai at Khar , Mahim , Matunga , Jogeshwari , Borivali , and one between Khar and Santa Cruz . 209 people were killed and over 700 were injured . According to Mumbai Police , the bombings were carried out by Lashkar @-@ e @-@ Toiba and Students Islamic Movement of India ( SIMI ) . In 2008 , the city experienced xenophobic attacks by the activists of the Maharashtra Navnirman Sena ( MNS ) under Raj Thackeray on the North Indian migrants in Mumbai . Attacks included assault on North Indian taxi drivers and damage of their vehicles . There were a series of ten coordinated terrorist attacks by 10 armed Pakistani men using automatic weapons and grenades which began on 26 November 2008 and ended on 29 November 2008 . The attacks resulted in 164 deaths , 308 injuries , and severe damage to several important buildings . The city again saw a series of three coordinated bomb explosions at different locations on 13 July 2011 between 18 : 54 and 19 : 06 IST . The blasts occurred at the Opera House , Zaveri Bazaar , and Dadar , which left 26 killed , and 130 injured . The city 's Wankhede Stadium was the venue for 2011 Cricket World Cup final , where India emerged as a champion for the second time after the 1983 Cricket World Cup .
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= Bart Gets an Elephant =
" Bart Gets an Elephant " is the seventeenth episode of The Simpsons ' fifth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on March 31 , 1994 . In this episode , Bart wins a radio contest and is awarded a full @-@ grown African elephant that he names Stampy . After Stampy wrecks the Simpsons ' house and eats all the food , Homer decides to sell Stampy to an ivory dealer . Bart runs away with Stampy to save his pet , but the family finds the two at a museum exhibit , where Homer falls into a tar pit . Homer is saved by Stampy , and so gives the elephant away to an animal refuge instead .
The episode was written by John Swartzwelder , and directed by Jim Reardon . It introduced the fictional elephant Stampy , and marks the first appearance of the recurring character Cletus Spuckler . The episode features cultural references to the songs " Sixteen Tons " and " Do @-@ Re @-@ Mi " , and the La Brea Tar Pits cluster of tar pits located in Hancock Park in Los Angeles , California . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 7 , and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
During a cleaning day at the Simpsons ' house , Bart wins a KBBL radio contest after the station 's DJs , Bill and Marty , call him . They give Bart the choice of two prizes : $ 10 @,@ 000 in cash or the " gag " prize – a full @-@ grown African elephant – and Bart chooses the elephant . This surprises Bill and Marty , who ( understandably ) believed that no one would ever actually take the gag prize , and thus have no elephant to give away . They instead offer Bart the money and a variety of other prizes , all of which he refuses , saying that he only wants the elephant - this leads to Bart being thrown out of the recording studios . Word spreads throughout town about Bill and Marty 's refusal to give Bart an elephant , prompting their boss to give them a choice : either arrange for the delivery of an elephant , or lose their jobs to a DJ machine . They decide on the former option .
Bart names his new elephant Stampy and ties him to a post in the backyard . Lisa complains that it 's cruel to keep an animal like an elephant as a pet , while Homer is concerned that Stampy will eat him out of house and home . In an effort to offset food costs , Bart and Homer exhibit Stampy by charging customers to see and ride him , but fail to earn enough to cover even one day 's food bill . After raising the prices for customers to see and ride the elephant fails , Homer declares they can 't afford the elephant and must sell him , much to Bart 's dismay . The family is visited by a representative of a game reserve , who says their acres of open land similar to the African savannah would be a good habitat for the elephant to live in . However , Homer dismisses this as he learns that he won 't receive any money for it since the reserve is a nonprofit organization .
A wildlife poacher named Mr. Blackheart then offers to buy Stampy . Homer wants to take the money , but Bart and Lisa are against the idea , especially after Mr. Blackheart openly admits to being an ivory dealer . Homer and Mr. Blackheart reach a deal , but Bart and Stampy run off in the night , wreaking havoc throughout Springfield , and are soon nowhere to be found . The family begins searching and eventually finds them at the Springfield Tar Pits , where Homer still plans to sell Stampy to the ivory dealer for the money . Bart and Lisa then angrily ask if Homer would like to be sold to an ivory dealer himself , to which Homer responds positively , before finding out that he 's stuck in one of the tar pits . Bart orders Stampy to free Homer , to which he does ( after first pulling out Barney Gumble ) . A grateful Homer finally agrees to donate the elephant to the wildlife reserve .
While at the reserve , Bart tearfully says goodbye to Stampy . After that , Stampy starts head @-@ butting some of the other elephants , cheered on by Bart. Marge is surprised by this , and the representative explains that , in many ways , animals are a lot like humans : some act badly because they 've had a hard life or they 've been mistreated ; but , like humans , some animals are just jerks ( which he says as Homer himself is head @-@ butting him ) .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by John Swartzwelder , and directed by Jim Reardon . The Simpsons ' creator Matt Groening thought it was a " quintessential " Swartzwelder episode , and executive producer / show runner David Mirkin said it was a " fantastic job by one of the most prolific writers of the show " . The most important thing to Mirkin while making the episode was to make sure that the elephant would be a " bastard " and behave rudely , unlike other animals on the show . For example , instead of putting people on his back , Stampy would put them in his mouth . Mirkin said the elephant " never quite bonds because it 's a very cantankerous animal , a concept that was very important to this episode " . Stampy has since been used several times in jokes later on in the series . For example , Stampy made an appearance in the season nine episode " Miracle on Evergreen Terrace " in one of Bart 's dreams , and in the season fourteen episode " Large Marge " , where he is used by Bart in a stunt to help Krusty the Clown win back his popularity . Stampy appeared briefly in The Simpsons Movie , where he tries to break down the giant glass dome lowered over Springfield . The episode also introduces the character Cletus Spuckler . He is shown as one of the " slack @-@ jawed yokels " gawking at Stampy in the Simpson family 's backyard . Cletus is not named in the episode , so the staff simply referred to him as the Slack @-@ Jawed Yokel .
= = Cultural references = =
The Springfield Tar Pits are inspired by the La Brea Tar Pits located in Hancock Park in Los Angeles , California . The museum in the background of the scene where Homer sinks into one of the tar pits resembles the George C. Page Museum of the La Brea Discoveries . When Stampy runs away , he passes the Republican National Convention , with people cheering , and then he passes the Democratic National Convention , with people booing . This is a reference to the fact that an elephant is the symbol of the Republican Party . Homer uses Mr. Cleanser , a parody of the detergent brand Mr. Clean , to clean the basement . While waiting for Bill and Marty to call , Bart eats the chocolate part of a Neapolitan ice cream . As Bart cleans , he accidentally scrubs the paint off an American Gothic painting hanging on the wall . Under the paint is a message signed by the painter , Grant Wood , reading : " If you can read this , you scrubbed too hard . "
The scene in which Stampy 's eye is seen through a window of the Simpson family 's house is similar to a scene with a Tyrannosaurus rex in the film Jurassic Park . While cleaning the house , Marge turns on the radio and the song " Sixteen Tons " by Merle Travis is heard . The scene in which Homer crashes his car into a deer statue at the Springfield Tar Pits parodies the lyrics to the Sound of Music song " Do @-@ Re @-@ Mi " as Homer shouts : " D 'oh ! " followed by Lisa : " A deer ! " and Marge : " A female deer ! " Homer reads an old TV Guide in which the synopsis of an episode of Gomer Pyle , U.S.M.C. reads " Gomer upsets Sgt. Carter " , a possible synopsis for every episode of that series . He also imagines the episode with a thought of both Carter and Pyle standing next to each other . Carter yells , " Pyle ! " and Pyle responds , " Shazam ! " . As Stampy wreaks havoc throughout Springfield , Patty and Selma are sucked up by a tornado and fly through the air in rocking chairs , similar to a scene in the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Bart Gets an Elephant " finished forty @-@ second in the ratings for the week of March 28 to April 20 , 1994 , with a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 7 , equivalent to 10 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week . The episode won an Environmental Media Award in the Best Television Episodic Comedy category , which has been awarded every year since 1991 to the best television episode with an environmental message . The episode has also received a Genesis Award in the Best Television Comedy Series category . The Genesis Awards are given out annually by the Humane Society of the United States " to the news and entertainment media for shining that spotlight into the darkest corners of animal abuse and exploitation . "
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote : " Another favourite . It 's hard to explain the special appeal of this episode . Perhaps it 's because Homer is so exceptionally dumb . Or perhaps because it contains the ' D 'oh ! ' ' A deer ! ' ' A female deer ! ' gag . " This gag was also praised by BBC News 's Mark Milne , who said : " [ It ] just cracks me up every time . Brilliant ! " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson thought the fifth season included " plenty of programs with potentially cheesy concepts " , such as " Deep Space Homer " and " Bart Gets an Elephant " . However , he thought the episode managed to " easily overcome its possible flaws " to turn into a " very fine program " . Homer 's line " Marge , I agree with you in theory . In theory , communism works — In theory " was Jacobson 's favorite of the episode . Patrick Bromley of DVD Verdict gave the episode a grade of A , and Bill Gibron of DVD Talk gave it a score of 4 out of 5 .
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= Greater Germanic Reich =
The Greater Germanic Reich ( German : Großgermanisches Reich ) , fully styled the Greater Germanic Reich of the German Nation ( German : Großgermanisches Reich Deutscher Nation ) is the official state name of the political entity that Nazi Germany tried to establish in Europe during World War II . Albert Speer stated in his memoirs that Hitler also referred to the envisioned state as the Teutonic Reich of the German Nation , although it is unclear whether Speer was using the now seldom used " Teutonic " as an English synonym for " Germanic " . Hitler also mentions a future Germanic State of the German Nation ( German : Germanischer Staat Deutscher Nation ) in Mein Kampf .
The territorial claims for the Greater Germanic Reich vacillated over time . As early as the autumn of 1933 , Hitler envisioned annexing such territories as Bohemia , Western Poland and Austria to Germany and creation of satellite or puppet states without economies or policies of their own .
Between gaining power and February 1939 , Hitler tried to conceal his true intentions towards Poland and revealed them only to his closest associates ; the signing of a non @-@ aggression pact with Poland in 1934 was a political maneuver to conceal his true intentions towards Poland . From 1934 to early 1939 , Nazi Germany secretly prepared for war against Poland and mass murder and ethnic cleansing of its population , while officially claiming to the Polish government that it would continue to guarantee Poland 's existence ( though still maintaining its claims on the Polish Corridor ) and offer Poland the right to annex the entirety of Ukraine from the Soviet Union , should Poland support Germany in a war with the Soviet Union , while Germany would annex the Baltic states and Soviet territories . Amidst and for a short time after German – Soviet negotiations for the partition of Poland between Germany and the Soviet Union took place , Hitler did not include territorial designs on the Soviet Union within the Greater Germanic Reich from 1939 to 1941 , and instead was focusing on uniting the Germanic peoples of Scandinavia and the Low Countries into the Reich .
This pan @-@ Germanic Empire was expected to assimilate practically all of Germanic Europe into an enormously expanded Reich . Territorially speaking , this encompassed the already @-@ enlarged German Reich itself ( consisting of pre @-@ 1938 Germany proper , Austria , Bohemia , Moravia , Alsace @-@ Lorraine , Eupen @-@ Malmedy , Memel , Lower Styria , Upper Carniola , Southern Carinthia and German @-@ occupied Poland ) , the Netherlands , the Flemish part of Belgium , Luxembourg , Denmark , Norway , Sweden , Iceland , at least the German @-@ speaking parts of Switzerland , and Liechtenstein .
The most notable exception was the United Kingdom , which was not projected as having to be reduced to a German province but to instead become an allied seafaring partner of the Germans . Another exception was German @-@ populated territory in South Tyrol that was part of allied Italy . Aside from Germanic Europe , the Reich 's western frontiers with France were to be reverted to those of the earlier Holy Roman Empire , which would have meant the complete annexation of all of Wallonia , French Switzerland , and large areas of northern and eastern France . Additionally , the policy of Lebensraum planned mass expansion of Germany eastwards to the Ural Mountains . Hitler planned for the " surplus " Russian population living west of the Urals to be deported to the east of the Urals .
= = Ideological background = =
= = = Racial theories = = =
Nazi racial ideology regarded the Germanic peoples of Europe as belonging to a racially superior Nordic subset of the larger Aryan race , who were regarded as the only true culture @-@ bearers of civilized society . These peoples were viewed as either " true Germanic peoples " that had " lost their sense of racial pride " , or as close racial relatives of the Germans . German Chancellor Adolf Hitler also believed that the Ancient Greeks and Romans were the racial ancestors of the Germans , and the first torchbearers of " Nordic – Greek " art and culture . He particularly expressed his admiration for Ancient Sparta , declaring it to have been the purest racial state :
" The subjugation of 350 @,@ 000 Helots by 6 @,@ 000 Spartans was only possible because of the racial superiority of the Spartans . " The Spartans had created " the first racialist state . "
Furthermore , Hitler 's concept of " Germanic " did not simply refer to an ethnic , cultural , or linguistic group , but also to a distinctly biological one , the superior " Germanic blood " that he wanted to salvage from the control of the enemies of the Aryan race . He stated that Germany possessed more of these " Germanic elements " than any other country in the world , which he estimated as " four fifths of our people " .
Wherever Germanic blood is to be found anywhere in the world , we will take what is good for ourselves . With what the others have left , they will be unable to oppose the Germanic Empire .
According to the Nazis , in addition to the Germanic peoples , individuals of seemingly non @-@ Germanic nationality such as French , Polish , Walloon , Czech and so on might actually possess valuable Germanic blood , especially if they were of aristocratic or peasant stock . In order to " recover " these " missing " Germanic elements , they had to be made conscious of their Germanic ancestry through the process of Germanization ( the term used by the Nazis for this process was Umvolkung , " restoration to the race " ) . If the " recovery " was impossible , these individuals had to be destroyed to deny the enemy of using their superior blood against the Aryan race . An example of this type of Nazi Germanization is the kidnapping of " racially valuable " Eastern European children .
On the very first page of Mein Kampf , Hitler openly declared his belief that " common blood belongs in a common Reich " , elucidating the notion that the innate quality of race ( as the Nazi movement perceived it ) should hold precedence over " artificial " concepts such as national identity ( including regional German identities such as Prussian and Bavarian ) as the deciding factor for which people were " worthy " of being assimilated into a Greater German racial state ( Ein Volk , Ein Reich , Ein Führer ) . Part of the strategic methods which Hitler chose to ensure the present and future supremacy of the Aryan race ( which was , according to Hitler , " gradually approaching extinction " ) was to do away with what he described as the " small state rubbish " ( Kleinstaatengerümpel , compare Kleinstaaterei ) in Europe in order to unite all these Nordic countries into one unified racial community . From 1921 onward he advocated the creation of a " Germanic Reich of the German Nation " .
It was the continent which brought civilization to Great Britain and in turn enabled her to colonize large areas in the rest of the world . America is unthinkable without Europe . Why would we not have the necessary power to become one of the world ’ s centres of attraction ? A hundred @-@ and @-@ twenty million people of Germanic origin – if they have consolidated their position this will be a power against which no @-@ one in the world could stand up to . The countries which form the Germanic world have only to gain from this . I can see that in my own case . My birth country is one of the most beautiful regions in the Reich , but what could it do if were left to its own devices ? There is no possibility to develop one ’ s talents in countries like Austria or Saxony , Denmark or Switzerland . There is no foundation . That is why it is fortunate that potential new spaces are again opened for the Germanic peoples .
= = = Name = = =
The chosen name for the projected empire was a deliberate reference to the Holy Roman Empire ( of the German Nation ) that existed in medieval times , known as the First Reich in Nazi historiography . Different aspects of the legacy of this medieval empire in German history were both celebrated and derided by the Nazi government . Hitler admired the Frankish Emperor Charlemagne for his " cultural creativity " , his powers of organization , and his renunciation of the rights of the individual . He criticized the Holy Roman Emperors however for not pursuing an Ostpolitik ( Eastern Policy ) resembling his own , while being politically focused exclusively on the south . After the Anschluss , Hitler ordered the old imperial regalia ( the Imperial Crown , Imperial Sword , Cross of Lothair , the Holy Lance and other items ) residing in Vienna to be transferred to Nuremberg , where they were kept between 1424 and 1796 . Nuremberg , in addition of being the former unofficial capital of the Holy Roman Empire , was also the place of the Nazi party rallies . The transfer of the regalia was thus done to both legitimize Hitler 's Germany as the successor of the " Old Reich " , but also weaken Vienna , the former imperial residence .
After the 1939 German occupation of Bohemia , Hitler declared that the HRE had been " resurrected " , although he secretly maintained his own empire to be better than the old " Roman " one . Unlike the " uncomfortably internationalist Catholic empire of Barbarossa " , the Germanic Reich of the German Nation would be racist and nationalist . Rather than a return to the values of the Middle Ages , its establishment was to be " a push forward to a new golden age , in which the best aspects of the past would be combined with modern racist and nationalist thinking " .
The historical borders of the Holy Empire were also used as grounds for territorial revisionism by the Nazis , laying claim to modern territories and states that were once part of it . Even before the war , Hitler had dreamed of reversing the Peace of Westphalia , which had given the territories of the Empire almost complete sovereignty . On November 17 , 1939 , Reich Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels wrote in his diary that the " total liquidation " of this historic treaty was the " great goal " of the Nazi regime , and that since it had been signed in Münster , it would also be officially repealed in the same city .
= = = Pan @-@ Germanism versus Pan @-@ Germanicism = = =
Despite intending to accord the other " Germanics " of Europe a racially superior status alongside the Germans themselves in an anticipated post @-@ war racio @-@ political order , the Nazis did not however consider granting the subject populations of these countries any national rights of their own . The other Germanic countries were seen as mere extensions of Germany rather than individual units in any way , and the Germans were unequivocally intended to remain the empire 's " most powerful source of strength , from both an ideological as well as military standpoint " . Even Heinrich Himmler , who among the senior Nazis most staunchly supported the concept , could not shake off the idea of a hierarchical distinction between German Volk and Germanic Völker . The SS 's official newspaper , Das Schwarze Korps , never succeeded in reconciling the contradiction between Germanic ' brotherhood ' and German superiority . Members of Nazi @-@ type parties in Germanic countries were also forbidden to attend public meetings of the Nazi Party when they visited Germany . After the Battle of Stalingrad this ban was lifted , but only if the attendees made prior notice of their arrival so that the events ' speakers could be warned in advance not to make disparaging remarks about their country of origin .
Although Hitler himself and Himmler 's SS advocated for a pan @-@ Germanic Empire , the objective was not universally held in the Nazi regime . Goebbels and the Reich Foreign Ministry under Joachim von Ribbentrop inclined more towards an idea of a continental bloc under German rule , as represented by the Anti @-@ Comintern Pact , Ribbentrop 's " European Confederation " project and the earlier Mitteleuropa concept .
= = = Germanic mysticism = = =
There were also disagreements within the Nazi leadership on the spiritual implications of cultivating a ' Germanic history ' in their ideological program . Hitler was highly critical of Himmler 's esoteric völkisch interpretation of the ' Germanic mission ' . When Himmler denounced Charlemagne in a speech as " the butcher of the Saxons " , Hitler stated that this was not a ' historical crime ' but in fact a good thing , for the subjugation of Widukind had brought Western culture into what eventually became Germany . He also disapproved of the pseudoarchaeological projects which Himmler organized through his Ahnenerbe organization , such as excavations of pre @-@ historic Germanic sites :
Why do we call the whole world 's attention to the fact that we have no past ? It isn 't enough that the Romans were erecting great buildings when our forefathers were still living in mud huts ; now Himmler is starting to dig up these villages of mud huts and enthusing over every potsherd and stone axe he finds . All we prove by that is that we were still throwing stone hatchets and crouching around open fires when Greece and Rome had already reached the highest stage of culture . We really should do our best to keep quiet about this past . Instead Himmler makes a great fuss about it all . The present @-@ day Romans must be having a laugh at these relegations .
In an attempt to eventually supplant Christianity with a ' new @-@ old ' religion more amenable to Nazi ideology Himmler , together with Alfred Rosenberg , sought to replace it with Asatru ( the indigenous traditional religion or Volksreligion of the Teutonic peoples ) , of which the Japanese Shinto was seen as an almost perfect East @-@ Asian counterpart . For this purpose they had ordered the construction of sites for the worship of Germanic cults in order to exchange Christian rituals for ' Nordic @-@ Germanic ' consecration ceremonies , which included different marriage and burial rites . In Heinrich Heims ' Adolf Hitler , Monologe im FHQ 1941 @-@ 1944 ( several editions , here Orbis Verlag , 2000 ) , Hitler is quoted as having said on 14 October 1941 : " It seems to be inexpressibly stupid to allow a revival of the cult of Odin / Wotan . Our old mythology of the gods was defunct , and incapable of revival , when Christianity came ... the whole world of antiquity either followed philosophical systems on the one hand , or worshipped the gods . But in modern times it is undesirable that all humanity should make such a fool of itself . "
= = Establishment strategy = =
The goal was first proclaimed publicly in the 1937 Nuremberg Rallies . Hitler 's last speech at this event ended with the words " The German nation has after all acquired its Germanic Reich " , which elicited speculation in political circles of a ' new era ' in Germany 's foreign policy . Several days before the event Hitler took Albert Speer aside when both were on their way to the former 's Munich apartment with an entourage , and declared to him that " We will create a great empire . All the Germanic peoples will be included in it . It will begin in Norway and extend to northern Italy . I myself must carry this out . If only I keep my health ! " On April 9 , 1940 , as Germany invaded Denmark and Norway in Operation Weserübung , Hitler announced the establishment of the Germanic Reich :
Just as the Bismarck Empire arose from the year 1866 , so too will the Greater Germanic Empire arise from this day .
The establishment of the empire was to follow the model of the Austrian Anschluss of 1938 , just carried out on a greater scale . Goebbels emphasized in April 1940 that the annexed Germanic countries would have to undergo a similar " national revolution " as Germany herself did after the Machtergreifung , with an enforced rapid social and political " co @-@ ordination " in accordance with Nazi principles and ideology ( Gleichschaltung ) .
The ultimate goal of the Gleichschaltung policy pursued in these parts of occupied Europe was to destroy the very concepts of individual states and nationalities , just as the concept of a separate Austrian state and national identity was repressed after the Anschluss through the establishment of new state and party districts . The new empire was to no longer be a nation @-@ state of the type that had emerged in the 19th century , but instead a " racially pure community " . It is for this reason that the Nazi occupiers had no interest in transferring real power to the various far @-@ right nationalistic movements present in the occupied countries ( such as Nasjonal Samling , the NSB , etc . ) except for temporary reasons of Realpolitik , and instead actively supported radical collaborators who favored pan @-@ Germanic unity ( i.e. total integration to Germany ) over provincial nationalism ( for example DeVlag ) . Unlike Austria and the Sudetenland however , the process was to take considerably longer . Eventually these nationalities were to be merged with the Germans into a single ruling race , but Hitler stated that this prospect lay " a hundred or so years " in the future . During this interim period it was intended that the ' New Europe ' would by run by Germans alone . According to Speer , while Himmler intended to eventually Germanize these peoples completely , Hitler intended not to " infringe on their individuality " ( that is , their native languages ) , so that in the future they would " add to the diversity and dynamism " of his empire . The German language would be its lingua franca however , likening it to the status of English in the British Commonwealth .
A primary agent used in stifling the local extreme nationalist elements was the Germanic SS , which initially merely consisted of local respective branches of the Allgemeine @-@ SS in Belgium , Netherlands and Norway . These groups were at first under the authority of their respective pro @-@ Nazi national commanders ( De Clercq , Mussert and Quisling ) , and were intended to function within their own national territories only . During the course of 1942 , however , the Germanic SS was further transformed into a tool used by Himmler against the influence of the less extreme collaborating parties and their SA @-@ style organizations , such as the Hird in Norway and the Weerbaarheidsafdeling in the Netherlands . In the post @-@ war Germanic Empire , these men were to form the new leadership cadre of their respective national territories . To emphasize their pan @-@ Germanic ideology , the Norges SS was now renamed the Germanske SS Norge , the Nederlandsche SS the Germaansche SS in Nederland and the Algemeene @-@ SS Vlaanderen the Germaansche SS in Vlaanderen . The men of these groups no longer swore allegiance to their respective national leaders , but to the germanischer Führer ( " Germanic Führer " ) , Adolf Hitler :
I swear to you , Adolf Hitler , as Germanic Führer loyalty and bravery . I pledge you and the superiors which you appointed obedience until death . So help me God .
This title was assumed by Hitler on 23 June 1941 , at the suggestion of Himmler . On 12 December 1941 the Dutch fascist Anton Mussert also addressed him in this fashion when he proclaimed his allegiance to Hitler during a visit to the Reich Chancellery in Berlin . He had wanted to address Hitler as Führer aller Germanen ( " Führer of all Germanics " ) , but Hitler personally decreed the former style . Historian Loe de Jong speculates on the difference between the two : Führer aller Germanen implied a position separate from Hitler 's role as Führer und Reichskanzler des Grossdeutschen Reiches ( " Führer and Reich Chancellor of the Greater German Reich " ) , while germanischer Führer served more as an attribute of that main function . As late as 1944 occasional propaganda publications continued to refer to him by this unofficial title as well however . Mussert held that Hitler was predestined to become the Führer of Germanics because of his congruous personal history : Hitler originally was an Austrian national , who enlisted in the Bavarian army and lost his Austrian citizenship . He thus remained stateless for seven years , during which , according to Mussert , he was " the Germanic leader and nothing else " .
The Swastika Flag was to be used as a symbol to represent not only the National Socialist movement , but also the unity of the Nordic @-@ Germanic peoples into a single state . Using the Unification of Germany as an analogy , it was held that since the flag of the Kingdom of Prussia could not have been imposed on the other German states that would together form the new German Empire of 1871 , so too could the German national flag ( referring to the Imperial tricolour , as the Nazis had banned the black @-@ red @-@ gold version ) not be imposed on the other Germanic countries of Europe .
Hitler had long intended to architecturally reconstruct the German capital Berlin into a new imperial metropolis , which he decided in 1942 to rename Germania upon its scheduled completion in 1950 . The name was specifically chosen to make it the clear central point of the envisioned Germanic empire , and to re @-@ enforce the notion of a united Germanic @-@ Nordic state upon the Germanic peoples of Europe .
Just as the Bavarians and the Prussians had to be impressed by Bismarck of the German idea , so too must the Germanic peoples of continental Europe be programmatically steered towards the Germanic concept . He [ Hitler ] even considers it good that by renaming the Reich capital Berlin into ' Germania ' , we 'll have given considerable driving force to this task . The name Germania for the Reich capital would be very appropriate , for in spite of how far removed those belonging to the Germanic racial core will be , this capital will instill a sense of unity .
= = Policies undertaken in the countries = =
= = = Low countries = = =
The German plans of annexation were more advanced for the Low Countries than for the Nordic states , due in part because of their closer geographical proximity as well as cultural and ethnic ties to Germany . Luxembourg and Belgium were both formally annexed into the Nazi state during World War II , in 1942 and 1944 respectively , the latter as the new Reichsgaue of Flandern and Wallonien ( the proposed third one , Brabant , was not implemented in this arrangement ) and a Brussels District . On April 5 , 1942 , while having dinner with an entourage including Heinrich Himmler , Hitler declared his intention that the Low Countries would be included whole into the Reich , at which point the Greater German Reich would be reformed into the Germanic Reich ( simply " the Reich " in common parlance ) to signify this change .
In October 1940 Hitler disclosed to Benito Mussolini that he intended to leave the Netherlands semi @-@ independent because he wanted that country to retain its overseas colonial empire after the war . This factor was removed after the Japanese took over the Netherlands East Indies , the primary component of that domain . The resulting German plans for the Netherlands suggested its transformation into a Gau Westland , which would eventually be further broken @-@ up into five new Gaue or gewesten ( historical Dutch term for a type of sub @-@ national polity ) . Fritz Schmidt , a high Nazi official in the occupied Netherlands who hoped to become the Gauleiter of this new province on Germany 's western periphery stated that it could even be called Gau Holland , as long as the Wilhelmus ( the Dutch national anthem ) and similar patriotic symbols were to be forbidden . Rotterdam , which had actually been largely destroyed in the course of the 1940 invasion was to be rebuilt as the most important port @-@ city in the " Germanic area " due to its situation at the mouth of the Rhine river .
Himmler 's personal masseur Felix Kersten claimed that the former even contemplated resettling the entire Dutch population , some 8 million people in total at the time , to agricultural lands in the Vistula and Bug River valleys of German @-@ occupied Poland as the most efficient way of facilitating their immediate Germanization . In this eventuality he is alleged to have further hoped to establish an SS Province of Holland in vacated Dutch territory , and to distribute all confiscated Dutch property and real estate among reliable SS @-@ men . However this claim was shown to be a myth by Loe de Jong in his book Two Legends of the Third Reich .
The position in the future empire of the Frisians , another Germanic people , was discussed on 5 April 1942 in one of Hitler ’ s many wartime dinner @-@ conversations . Himmler commented that there was ostensibly no real sense of community between the different indigenous ethnic groups in the Netherlands . He then stated that the Dutch Frisians in particular seemed to hold no affection for being part of a nation @-@ state based on the Dutch national identity , and felt a much greater sense of kinship with their German Frisian brethren across the Ems River in East Frisia , an observation Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel agreed with based on his own experiences . Hitler determined that the best course of action in that case would be to unite the two Frisian regions on both sides of the border into a single province , and would at a later point in time further discuss the topic with Arthur Seyss @-@ Inquart , the governor of the German regime in the Netherlands . By late May of that year these discussions were apparently concluded , as on the 29th he pledged that he would not allow the West @-@ Frisians to remain part of Holland , and that since they were " part of the exact same race as the people of East Frisia " had to be joined into one province .
Hitler considered Wallonia to be " in reality German lands " which were gradually detached from the Germanic territories by the French Romanization of the Walloons , and that Germany thus had " every right " to take these back . Before the decision was made to include Wallonia in its entirety , several smaller areas straddling the traditional Germanic @-@ Romance language border in Western Europe were already considered for inclusion . These included the small Lëtzebuergesh @-@ speaking area centred on Arlon , as well as the Low Dietsch @-@ speaking region west of Eupen ( the so @-@ called Platdietse Streek ) around the city of Limbourg , historical capital of the Duchy of Limburg .
= = = Scandinavia = = =
After their invasion in Operation Weserübung , Hitler vowed that he would never again leave Norway , and favored annexing Denmark as a German province even more due to its small size and relative closeness to Germany . Himmler 's hopes were an expansion of the project so that Iceland would also be included among the group of Germanic countries which would have to be gradually incorporated into the Reich . He was also among the group of more esoteric Nazis who believed either Iceland or Greenland to be the mystical land of Thule , a purported original homeland of the ancient Aryan race . From a military point of view , the Kriegsmarine command hoped to see the Spitsbergen , Iceland , Greenland , the Faroe Isles and possibly the Shetland Isles ( which were also claimed by the Quisling regime ) under its domination to guarantee German naval access to the mid @-@ Atlantic .
There was preparation for the construction of a new German metropolis of 300 @.@ 000 inhabitants called Nordstern ( " North Star " ) next to the Norwegian city of Trondheim . It would be accompanied by a new naval base that was intended to be the Germany 's largest . This city was to be connected to Germany proper by an Autobahn across the Little and Great Belts . It would also house an art museum for the northern part of the Germanic empire , housing " only works of German artists . "
Sweden 's future subordination into the Nazis ' ' New Order ' was considered by the regime . Himmler stated that the Swedes were the " epitome of the Nordic spirit and the Nordic man " , and looked forward to incorporating central and southern Sweden to the Germanic Empire . Himmler offered northern Sweden , with its Finnish minority , to Finland , along with the Norwegian port of Kirkenes , although this suggestion was rejected by Finnish Foreign Minister Witting . Felix Kersten , claimed that Himmler had expressed regret that Germany had not occupied Sweden during Operation Weserübung , but was certain that this error was to be rectified after the war . In April 1942 , Goebbels expressed similar views in his diary , writing that Germany should have occupied the country during its campaign in the north , as " this state has no right to national existence anyway " . In 1940 , Hermann Göring suggested that Sweden 's future position in the Reich was similar to that of Bavaria in the German Empire . The ethnically Swedish Åland Islands , which were awarded to Finland by the League of Nations in 1921 , were likely to join Sweden in the Germanic Empire . In the spring of 1941 , the German military attaché in Helsinki reported to his Swedish counterpart that Germany would need transit rights through Sweden for the imminent invasion of the Soviet Union , and in the case of finding her cooperative would permit the Swedish annexation of the islands . Hitler did veto the idea of a complete union between the two states of Sweden and Finland , however .
Despite the majority of its people being of Finno @-@ Ugric origin , Finland was given the status of being an " honorary Nordic nation " ( from a Nazi racial perspective , not a national one ) by Hitler as reward for its military importance in the ongoing conflict against the Soviet Union . The Swedish @-@ speaking minority of the country , who in 1941 comprised 9 @.@ 6 % of the total population , were considered Nordic and were initially preferred over Finnish speakers in recruitment for the Finnish Volunteer Battalion of the Waffen @-@ SS . Finland 's Nordic status did not mean however that it was intended to be absorbed into the Germanic Empire , but instead expected to become the guardian of Germany ’ s northern flank against the hostile remnants of a conquered USSR by attaining control over Karelian territory , occupied by the Finns in 1941 . Hitler also considered the Finnish and Karelian climates unsuitable for German colonization . Even so , the possibility of Finland 's eventual inclusion as a federated state in the empire as a long @-@ term objective was mulled over by Hitler in 1941 , but by 1942 he seems to have abandoned this line of thinking . According to Kersten , as Finland signed an armistice with the Soviet Union and broke off diplomatic relations with her former brother @-@ in @-@ arms Germany in September 1944 , Himmler felt remorse for not eliminating the Finnish state , government and its " masonic " leadership sooner , and transforming the country into a " National Socialist Finland with a Germanic outlook " .
= = = Switzerland = = =
The same implicit hostility toward neutral nations such as Sweden was also held towards Switzerland . Goebbels noted in his diary on December 18 , 1941 , that " It would be a veritable insult to God if they [ the neutrals ] would not only survive this war unscathed while the major powers make such great sacrifices , but also profit from it . We will certainly make sure that this will not happen . "
The Swiss people were seen by Nazi ideologists as a mere offshoot of the German nation , although one led astray by decadent Western ideals of democracy and materialism . Hitler decried the Swiss as " a misbegotten branch of our Volk " and the Swiss state as " a pimple on the face of Europe " deeming them unsuitable for settling the territories that the Nazis expected to colonize in Eastern Europe .
Himmler discussed plans with his subordinates to integrate at least the German @-@ speaking parts of Switzerland completely with the rest of Germany , and had several persons in mind for the post of a Reichskommissar for the ' re @-@ union ' of Switzerland with the German Reich ( in analogy to the office that Josef Bürckel held after Austria 's absorption into Germany during the Anschluss ) . Later this official was to subsequently become the new Reichsstatthalter of the area after completing its total assimilation . In August 1940 , Gauleiter of Westfalen @-@ South Josef Wagner and the Minister President of Baden Walter Köhler spoke in favor of the amalgamation of Switzerland to Reichsgau Burgund ( see below ) and suggested that the seat of government for this new administrative territory should be the dormant Palais des Nations in Geneva .
Operation Tannenbaum , a military offensive intended to occupy all of Switzerland , most likely in co @-@ operation with Italy ( which itself desired the Italian @-@ speaking areas of Switzerland ) , was in the planning stages during 1940 @-@ 1941 . Its implementation was seriously considered by the German military after the armistice with France , but it was definitively shelved after the start of Operation Barbarossa had directed the attention of the Wehrmacht elsewhere .
= = = Eastern France = = =
In the aftermath of the Munich Agreement , Hitler and French Prime Minister Édouard Daladier in December 1938 made an agreement that officially declared that Germany was relinquishing its previous territorial claims on Alsace @-@ Lorraine in the interest of maintaining peaceful relations between France and Germany and both pledged to be involved in mutual consultation on matters involving the interests of both countries . However at the same time Hitler in private advised the High Command of the Wehrmacht to prepare operational plans for a joint German – Italian war against France .
Under the auspices of State Secretary Wilhelm Stuckart the Reich Interior Ministry produced an initial memo for the planned annexation of a strip of eastern France in June 1940 , stretching from the mouth of the Somme to Lake Geneva , and on July 10 , 1940 , Himmler toured the region to inspect its Germanization potential . According to documents produced in December 1940 , the annexed territory would consist of nine French departments , and the Germanization action would require the settlement of a million Germans from " peasant families " . Himmler decided that South Tyrolean emigrants ( see South Tyrol Option Agreement ) would be used as settlers , and the towns of the region would receive South Tyrolean place @-@ names such as Bozen , Brixen , Meran , and so on . By 1942 Hitler had , however , decided that the South Tyroleans would be instead used to settle the Crimea , and Himmler regretfully noted " For Burgundy , we will just have to find another [ Germanic ] ethnic group . "
Hitler claimed French territory even beyond the historical border of the Holy Roman Empire . He stated that in order to ensure German hegemony on the continent , Germany must " also retain military strong points on what was formerly the French Atlantic coast " and emphasized that " nothing on earth would persuade us to abandon such safe positions as those on the Channel coast , captured during the campaign in France and consolidated by the Organisation Todt . " Several major French cities along the coast were given the designation Festung ( " fortress " ; " stronghold " ) by Hitler , such as Le Havre , Brest and St. Nazaire , suggesting that they were to remain under permanent post @-@ war German administration .
However the war ends , France will have to pay dearly , for she caused and started it . She is now being thrown back to her borders of AD 1500 . This means that Burgundy will again become part of the Reich . We shall thereby win a province that so far as beauty and wealth are concerned compares more than favorably with any other German province .
= = = Atlantic islands = = =
During the summer of 1940 , Hitler considered the possibility of occupying the Portuguese Azores , Cape Verde and Madeira and the Spanish Canary islands to deny the British a staging ground for military actions against Nazi @-@ controlled Europe . In September 1940 , Hitler further raised the issue in a discussion with the Spanish Foreign Minister Serrano Súñer , offering now Spain to transfer one of the Canary islands to German usage for the price of French Morocco . Although Hitler 's interest in the Atlantic islands must be understood from a framework imposed by the military situation of 1940 , he ultimately had no plans of ever releasing these important naval bases from German control .
It had been alleged by Canadian historian Holger Herwig that both in November 1940 and May 1941 , leading into and through to the period in which Japan began planning the naval attack that would bring the United States into the war , that Hitler had stated that he had a desire to " deploy long @-@ range bombers against American cities from the Azores . " Due to their location , Hitler seemed to think that a Luftwaffe airbase located on the Portuguese Azores islands were Germany 's " only possibility of carrying out aerial attacks from a land base against the United States " , in a period about a year before the May 1942 emergence of the Amerika Bomber trans @-@ oceanic range strategic bomber design competition .
= = = Poland = = =
Relations between Germany and Poland altered from the early to the late 1930s . While Hitler and Nazi party before taking power openly talked about destroying Poland and were hostile to Poles , after gaining power until February 1939 Hitler tried to conceal his true intentions towards Poland and revealed them only to his closest associates ; the signing of non @-@ aggression pact with Poland in 1934 was a political maneuver to conceal his true intentions towards Poland . Nazi Germany publicly claimed to seek rapproachment with Poland to avoid Poland entering the Soviet sphere of influence , and appealed to anti @-@ Soviet sentiment in Poland . The Soviet Union in turn at this time competed with Germany for influence in Poland . In 1934 Poland reached several agreements with Germany . One was an agreement on the treatment of minorities in both countries . The other was a non @-@ aggression pact in which both countries agreed to peaceful settlement of disputes , including that over territory ; the agreement however still regarded the two countries as not having settled their borders . At this time , Germany sought to convince Poland that it would allow for Polish existence should Germany invade the Soviet Union resulting in Germany taking lebensraum from the Soviet Union , by offering Poland the right to annex the entirety of Ukraine from the Soviet Union while Germany would annex other Soviet territories . In 1937 , Germany condemned Poland for violating the minorities agreement , but publicly proposed that it would accept a resolution whereby Germany would reciprocally accept the Polish demand for Germany abandon assimilation of Polish minorities if Poland upheld its agreement to abandon assimilation of Germans .
Germany 's proposal was met with resistance in Poland , particularly by the Polish Western Union ( PZZ ) and the opposition party National Democratic party , with Poland only agreeing to a watered down version of the Joint Declaration on Minorities , on 5 November 1937 . Hitler welcomed this agreement and meet with representatives of Polish government and representatives of Polish minority in Germany , but in secret was frustrated and held a meeting where he declared to prepare Germany for a war to destroy Poland . However , later in December 1938 , Hitler indicated to his confidants that he was still interested in utilizing Poland in a war against the Soviet Union , claiming that Polish soldiers fighting alongside Germany against the Soviet Union would be beneficial in that it would reduce the need for German manpower in the fighting . At the same time Nazi Germany has been secretly preparing German minority in Poland for war and since 1935 weapons were being smuggled and gathered in frontier Polish regions by Nazi intelligence , and spying networks established . In November 1938 , Nazi Germany organized German paramilitary units in Polish Pomerania that were to engage in diversion , sabotage as well as murder and ethnic cleansing upon German invasion of Poland . At the end of 1938 one of the first editions of Sonderfahndungsbuch Polen was printed by the Nazis , containing several thousand names of Poles targeted for execution and imprisonment after invasion of Poland . In January 1939 , Ribbentrop held negotiations with Józef Beck , the Polish minister of foreign affairs ; and Edward Rydz @-@ Śmigły , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Polish Army ; in which Ribbentrop urged them to have Poland enter the Anti @-@ Comintern Pact under German hegemony for expansion eastward , whereby Germany offered Poland territories in Slovakia and Ukraine .
Ribbentrop in private discussion with German officials stated that he hoped that by offering Poland territories in the Soviet Union , that Germany would gain not only from Polish cooperation in a war with the Soviet Union , but also that Poland would surrender Polish Corridor to Germany in exchange for these gains , because though it would lose access to the Baltic Sea , it would gain access to the Black Sea via Ukraine . However Beck refused German demands to annex territory inhabited by majority of Poles and connecting majority of Polish exports and imports with the outside world and was shocked at the idea of a war with the Soviet Union . Polish administration saw the plan as a threat to Polish sovereignty , practically subordinating Poland to the Axis and the Anti @-@ Comintern Bloc while reducing the country to a state of near @-@ servitude as its entire trade would be dependent on Germany . With the aftermath of the German occupation of Czechoslovakia and creation of a German client state of Slovakia , the German government believed that Poland would yield to German demands , however it did not . In private , Hitler revealed in May that Danzig was not the real issue to him , but pursuit of Lebensraum for Germany .
= = Role of Britain = =
= = = United Kingdom = = =
The one Germanic @-@ language speaking country that was not included in the Pan @-@ Germanic unification aim was the United Kingdom , in spite of its near @-@ universal acceptance by the Nazi government as being part of the Germanic world . Leading Nordic ideologist Hans F. K. Günther theorized that the Anglo @-@ Saxons had been more successful than the Germans in maintaining racial purity and that the coastal and island areas of Scotland , Ireland , Cornwall and Wales had received additional Nordic blood through Norse raids and colonization during the Viking Age , and the Anglo @-@ Saxons of East Anglia and Northern England had been under Danish rule in the 9th and 10th centuries . Günther referred to this historical process as Aufnordung ( " additional nordification " ) , which finally culminated in the Norman conquest of England in 1066 . Britain was thus a nation created by struggle and the survival of the fittest among the various Aryan peoples of the isles , and was able to pursue global conquest and empire @-@ building because of its superior racial heredity born through this development .
Hitler professed an admiration for the imperial might of the British Empire in Zweites Buch as proof of the racial superiority of the Aryan race , hoping that Germany would emulate British " ruthlessness " and " absence of moral scruples " in establishing its own colonial empire in Eastern Europe . One of his primary foreign policy aims throughout the 1930s was to establish a military alliance with both the English ( Hitler conflated England with Britain and the United Kingdom in his writings and speeches ) as well as the Italians to neutralize France as a strategic threat to German security for eastward expansion .
When it became apparent to the Nazi leadership that the United Kingdom was not interested in a military alliance , anti @-@ British policies were adopted to ensure the attainment of Germany ’ s war aims . Even during the war however , hope remained that Britain would in time yet become a reliable German ally . Hitler preferred to see the British Empire preserved as a world power , because its break @-@ up would benefit other countries far more than it would Germany , particularly the United States and Japan . In fact , Hitler 's strategy during 1935 @-@ 1937 for winning Britain over was based on a German guarantee of defence of the British Empire . After the war , Ribbentrop testified that in 1935 Hitler had promised to deliver twelve German divisions to the disposal of Britain for maintaining the integrity of her colonial possessions .
The continued military actions against Britain after the fall of France had the strategic goal of making Britain ' see the light ' and conduct an armistice with the Axis powers , with July 1 , 1940 , being named by the Germans as the " probable date " for the cessation of hostilities . On May 21 , 1940 , Franz Halder , the head of the Army General Staff , after a consultation with Hitler concerning the aims envisaged by the Führer during the present war , wrote in his diary : " We are seeking contact with Britain on the basis of partitioning the world " .
One of Hitler 's sub @-@ goals for the invasion of Russia was to win over Britain to the German side . He believed that after the military collapse of the USSR , " within a few weeks " Britain would be forced either into a surrender or else come to join Germany as a " junior partner " in the Axis . Britain 's role in this alliance was reserved to support German naval and aerial military actions against the USA in a fight for world supremacy conducted from the Axis power bases of Europe , Africa and the Atlantic . On August 8 , 1941 , Hitler stated that he looked forward to the eventual day when " England and Germany [ march ] together against America " and on January 7 , 1942 , he daydreamed that it was " not impossible " for Britain to quit the war and join the Axis side , leading to a situation where " it will be a German @-@ British army that will chase the Americans from Iceland " . Nazi ideologist Alfred Rosenberg hoped that after the victorious conclusion of the war against the USSR , Englishmen , along with other Germanic nationalities , would join the German settlers in colonizing the conquered eastern territories .
From a historical perspective Britain ’ s situation was likened to that which the Austrian Empire found itself in after it was defeated by the Kingdom of Prussia in the Battle of Königgrätz in 1866 . As Austria was thereafter formally excluded from German affairs , so too would Britain be excluded from continental affairs in the event of a German victory . Yet afterwards , Austria @-@ Hungary became a loyal ally of the German Empire in the pre @-@ World War I power alignments in Europe , and it was hoped that Britain would come to fulfill this same role .
= = = Channel Islands = = =
The British Channel Islands were to be permanently integrated into the Germanic Empire . On July 22 , 1940 , Hitler stated that after the war , the islands were to be given to the control of Robert Ley 's German Labour Front , and transferred into Strength Through Joy holiday resorts . Nazi scholar Karl Heinz Pfeffer toured the islands in 1941 , and recommended that the German occupiers should appeal to the islanders ' Norman heritage and treat the islands as " Germanic micro @-@ states " , whose union with Britain was only an accident of history . He likened the preferred policy concerning the islands similar to the one pursued by the British in Malta , where the Maltese language had been " artificially " supported against the Italian language .
= = = Ireland = = =
A military operation plan for the invasion of Ireland in support of Operation Sea Lion was drawn up by the Germans in August 1940 . Occupied Ireland was to be ruled along with Britain in a temporary administrative system divided into six military @-@ economic commands , with one of the headquarters being situated in Dublin . Ireland 's future position in the New Order is unclear , but it is known that Hitler would have united Ulster with the Irish state .
= = Role of Northern Italy = =
Hitler regarded northern Italians to be strongly Aryan but not southern Italians . The Ahnenerbe , an archaeological organization associated with the SS , asserted that archaeological evidence proved the presence of Nordic @-@ Germanic peoples in the region of South Tyrol in the Neolithic era that it claimed proved the significance of ancient Nordic @-@ Germanic influence on northern Italy . The Nazis regarded the ancient Romans to have been largely a people of the Mediterranean race however they claimed that the Roman ruling classes were Nordic , descended from Aryan conquerors from the North ; and that this Nordic Aryan minority was responsible for the rise of Roman civilization . The Nazis viewed the downfall of the Roman Empire as being the result of the deterioration of the purity of the Nordic Aryan ruling class through its intermixing with the inferior Mediterranean types that led to the empire 's decay . In addition racial intermixing in the population in general was also blamed for Rome 's downfall , claiming that Italians were a hybrid of races , including black African races . Due to the darker complexion of Mediterranean peoples , Hitler regarded them as having traces of Negroid blood and therefore did not have strong Nordic Aryan heritage and were thus inferior to those that had stronger Nordic heritage . Hitler held immense admiration for the Roman Empire and its legacy . Hitler praised post @-@ Roman era achievements of northern Italians such as Sandro Botticelli , Michelangelo , Dante Alighieri , and Benito Mussolini . The Nazis ascribed the great achievements of post @-@ Roman era northern Italians to the presence of Nordic racial heritage in such people who via their Nordic heritage had Germanic ancestors , such as Nazi ideologist Alfred Rosenberg recognizing Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci as exemplary Nordic men of history . Nazi official Hermann Hartmann wrote that Italian scientist Galileo Galilei was clearly Nordic with deep Germanic roots because of his blonde hair , blue eyes , and long face . The Nazis claimed that aside from biologically Nordic people that a Nordic soul could inhabit a non @-@ Nordic body . Hitler emphasized the role of Germanic influence in Northern Italy , such as stating that the art of Northern Italy was " nothing but pure German " , and Nazi scholars viewed that the Ladin and Friulian minorities of Northern Italy were racially , historically and culturally a part of the Germanic world . Plans to incorporate northern Italy into the Greater Germanic Reich were influenced by the collapse of the Nazi regime 's ally Fascist regime in Italy .
Hitler praised Roman civilization and Roman military discipline , and emphasized the connection of the advancement of Germans as being indebted to the Romans . In particular Hitler praised the Romans for civilizing the early tribal Germans and noted that Arminius , the Germanic hero who defeated a Roman army at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest , had been honoured by being given the rank of eques by the Romans , and that what Arminius had learned from the Romans gave Germans the opportunity to become disciplined soldiers . Whereas fellow Nazi ideologist Alfred Rosenberg regarded the fall of the Roman Empire as the fault of Roman Emperor Caracalla 's " indiscriminate " grant of citizenship , Hitler blamed its fall on the Jewish influence upon Christianity as imposed by Paul the Apostle who Hitler claims twisted an Aryan faith opposed to Jewry into a faith that promoted the equality of all men ; and that the spread of Christianity in this form is what ruined Rome .
The Nazi regime 's stances in regards to northern Italy was influenced by the regime 's relations with the Italian government , and particularly Mussolini 's Fascist regime . Hitler deeply admired and emulated Mussolini . Hitler emphasized the racial closeness of his ally Mussolini to Germans of Alpine racial heritage . Hitler regarded Mussolini to not be seriously contaminated by the blood of the Mediterranean race . Other Nazis had negative views of Mussolini and the Fascist regime . The Nazi Party 's first leader , Anton Drexler was one of the most extreme in his negative views of Mussolini - claiming that Mussolini was " probably " a Jew and that Fascism was a Jewish movement . In addition there was a perception in Germany of Italians being racially weak , feckless , corrupt and corrupting , bad soldiers as perceived as demonstrated at the Battle of Caporetto in World War I , for being part of the powers that established the Treaty of Versailles , and for being a treacherous people given Italy 's abandonment of the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria @-@ Hungary in World War I to join the Entente . Hitler responded to the review of Italy betraying Germany and Austria @-@ Hungary in World War I by saying that this was a consequence of Imperial Germany 's decision to focus its attention on upholding the moribund Austro @-@ Hungarian empire while ignoring and disregarding the more promising Italy .
The region of South Tyrol had been a place of contending claims and conflict between German nationalism and Italian nationalism . One of the leading founders of Italian nationalism , Giuseppe Mazzini , along with Ettore Tolomei , claimed that the German @-@ speaking South Tyrolian population were in fact mostly a Germanicized population of Roman origin who needed to be " liberated and returned to their rightful culture " . With the defeat of Austria @-@ Hungary in World War I , the peace treaty designated to Italy the South Tyrol , with its border with Austria along the Brenner Pass . The Italian Fascist regime pursued Italianization of South Tyrol , by restricting use of the German language while promoting the Italian language ; promoting mass migration of Italians into the region , encouraged mainly through industrialization ; and resettlement of the German @-@ speaking population .
After Mussolini had made clear in 1922 that he would never give up the region of South Tyrol from being in Italy , Hitler adopted this position . Hitler in Mein Kampf had declared that concerns over the rights of Germans in South Tyrol under Italian sovereignty was a non @-@ issue considering the advantages that would be gained from a German @-@ Italian alliance with Mussolini 's Fascist regime . In Mein Kampf Hitler also made clear that he was opposed to having a war with Italy for the sake of obtaining South Tyrol . This position by Hitler of abandoning German land claims to South Tyrol produced aggravation amongst some Nazi members who up to the late 1920s found it difficult to accept the position .
On 7 May 1938 , Hitler during a public visit to Rome declared his commitment to the existing border between Germany ( that included Austria upon the Anschluss ) and Italy at the Brenner Pass .
In 1939 , Hitler and Mussolini resolved the problem of self @-@ determination of Germans and maintaining the Brenner Pass frontier by an agreement in which German South Tyroleans were given the choice of either assimilation into Italian culture , or leave South Tyrol for Germany ; most opted to leave for Germany .
After King Victor Emmanuel III of the Kingdom of Italy removed Mussolini from power , Hitler on 28 July 1943 was preparing for the expected abandonment of the Axis for the Allies by the Kingdom of Italy 's new government , and was preparing to exact retribution for the expected betrayal by planning to partition Italy . In particular Hitler was considering the creation of a " Lombard State " in northern Italy that would be incorporated into the Greater Germanic Reich , while South Tyrol and Venice would be annexed directly into Germany .
In the aftermath of the Kingdom of Italy 's abandonment of the Axis on 8 September 1943 , Germany seized and de facto incorporated Italian territories into its direct control .
After the Kingdom of Italy capitulated to the Allies in September 1943 , according to Goebbels in his personal diary on 29 September 1943 , wrote that Hitler had expressed that the Italian @-@ German border should extend to those of the region of Veneto . Veneto was to be included into the Reich in an " autonomous form " , and to benefit from the post @-@ war influx of German tourists . At the time when Italy was on the verge of declaring an armistice with the Allies , Himmler declared to Felix Kersten that Northern Italy , along with the Italian @-@ speaking part of Switzerland , was " bound to eventually be included in Greater Germany anyway " .
Whatever was once an Austrian possession we must get back into our own hands . The Italians by their infidelity and treachery have lost any claim to a national state of the modern type .
After the rescue of Mussolini and the establishment of the Italian Social Republic ( RSI ) , in spite of urging by local German officials , Hitler refused to officially annex South Tyrol , instead he decided that the RSI should hold official sovereignty over these territories , and forbade all measures that would give the impression of official annexation of South Tyrol . However , in practice the territory of South Tyrol within the boundaries defined by Germany as Operationszone Alpenvorland that included Trent , Bolzano , and Belluno , were de facto incorporated into Germany 's Reichsgau Tirol @-@ Vorarlberg and administered by its Gauleiter Franz Hofer . While the region identified by Germany as Operationszone Adriatisches Küstenland that included Udine , Gorizia , Trieste , Pola , Fiume ( Rijeka ) , and Ljubljana were de facto incorporated into Reichsgau Kärnten and administered by its Gauleiter Friedrich Rainer .
In a supplementary OKW order dated 10 September 1943 , Hitler decrees on the establishment of further Operational Zones in Northern Italy , which were the stretch all the way to the French border . Unlike Alpenvorland and Küstenland , these zones did not immediately receive high commissioners ( oberster kommissar ) as civilian advisors , but were military regions where the commander was to exercise power on behalf of Army Group B. Operation zone Nordwest @-@ Alpen or Schweizer Grenze was located between the Stelvio Pass and Monte Rosa and was to contain wholly the Italian provinces of Sondrio and Como and parts of the provinces of Brescia , Varese , Novara and Vercelli . The zone of Französische Grenze was to encompass areas west of Monte Rosa and was to incorporate the province of Aosta and a part of the province of Turin , and presumably also the provinces of Cuneo and Imperia .
From Autumn 1943 onward , members of the Ahnenerbe , associated with the SS , asserted that archaeological evidence of ancient farmsteads and architecture proved the presence of Nordic @-@ Germanic peoples in the region of South Tyrol in the Neolithic era including prototypical Lombard style architecture , the significance of ancient Nordic @-@ Germanic influence on Italy , and most importantly that South Tyrol by its past and present and historic racial and cultural circumstances , was " Nordic @-@ Germanic national soil " .
= = Expected participation in the colonization of Eastern Europe = =
Despite the pursued aim of pan @-@ Germanic unification , the primary goal of Nazi Germany ’ s territorial expansionism was to acquire sufficient Lebensraum ( living space ) in Eastern Europe for the Germanic übermenschen ( superhumans ) Aryan master race . The primary objective of this aim was to transform Germany into a complete economic autarky , the end @-@ result of which would be a state of continent @-@ wide German hegemony over Europe . This was to be accomplished through the enlargement of the territorial base of the German state and the expansion of the German population , and the wholesale extermination of the indigenous Slavic inhabitants and the Germanisation of Baltic inhabitants .
[ on German colonization of Russia ] As for the two or three million men whom we need to accomplish this task , we will find them more quickly than we think . They will come from Germany , Scandinavia , the western countries , and America . I shall no longer be here to see all that , but in twenty years the Ukraine will already be a home for twenty million inhabitants besides the natives .
Because of their perceived racial worth , the Nazi leadership was enthusiastic at the prospect of " recruiting " people from the Germanic countries to also settle these territories after the Slavic inhabitants would have been exterminated or otherwise driven out . The racial planners were partly motivated in this because studies indicated that Germany would likely not be able to recruit enough colonial settlers for the eastern territories from its own country and other Germanic groups would therefore be required . Hitler insisted however that German settlers would have to dominate the newly colonized areas . Himmler 's original plan for the Hegewald settlement was to settle Dutch and Scandinavians there in addition to Germans , which was unsuccessful .
= = Later development = =
After the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 , Hitler 's preoccupation with the Pan @-@ Germanic plan began to fade , although the idea was never abandoned . As the foreign volunteers of the Waffen @-@ SS were increasingly of non @-@ Germanic origin , especially after the Battle of Stalingrad , among the organization 's leadership ( e.g. Felix Steiner ) the proposition for a Greater Germanic Empire gave way to a concept of a European union of self @-@ governing states , unified by German hegemony and the common enemy of Bolshevism . The Waffen @-@ SS was to be the eventual nucleus of a common European army , where each state would be represented by a national contingent . Himmler himself , however , gave no concession to these views , and held on to his Pan @-@ Germanic vision in a speech given on April 1943 to the officers of SS divisions LSAH , Das Reich and Totenkopf :
We do not expect you to renounce your nation . ... We do not expect you to become German out of opportunism . We do expect you to subordinate your national ideal to a greater racial and historical ideal , to the Germanic Reich .
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= SummerSlam ( 1990 ) =
SummerSlam ( 1990 ) was the third annual SummerSlam professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view produced by the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . It took place on August 27 , 1990 , at The Spectrum in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . The card featured ten televised matches , including two main events . The Ultimate Warrior successfully defended his WWF World Heavyweight Championship against Rick Rude in a steel cage match , and Hulk Hogan defeated Earthquake by countout .
The pay @-@ per @-@ view also included two other title matches . Mr. Perfect lost his WWF Intercontinental Championship to the Texas Tornado , who was a substitute for Brutus Beefcake , who had been injured in a real @-@ life accident . The Hart Foundation won the WWF Tag Team Championship from Demolition in a two out of three falls match . Each of the matches was built up through feuds scripted by the WWF 's writers , and the matches that took place at the event had pre @-@ determined outcomes that had been decided by the WWF .
= = Background = =
Paul Roma began feuding with The Rockers ( Shawn Michaels and Marty Jannetty ) during the July 21 , 1990 , episode of WWF Superstars . Roma was attacked after a match by Dino Bravo ; when The Rockers came to the ring for the following match , Roma accused them of attacking him . The argument turned physical , and Roma was backed up by Hercules . One week later , Roma and Hercules appeared on the Brother Love Show , an interview segment , and announced that they had formed a tag team known as Power and Glory . A match between the two teams was later scheduled for SummerSlam .
The feud between Mr. Perfect and Brutus Beefcake began at the 1990 Royal Rumble . Beefcake , whose gimmick included cutting his opponents ' hair , was wrestling The Genius , Perfect 's manager . When he began giving The Genius a haircut when Perfect interfered and caused a double disqualification . Perfect and Beefcake wrestled each other at WrestleMania VI , and Beefcake won the match . Perfect won the Intercontinental Championship on April 23 , 1990 in a tournament final . He had caused Beefcake to be eliminated from the tournament by interfering in his match . Beefcake and Perfect had a series of matches at house shows leading up to their planned SummerSlam match . Shortly before SummerSlam , Beefcake was injured while he was standing on a beach and a female friend 's knees hit him in the face while she was parasailing . Several bones in his face were legitimately broken , including his jaw and nose . As a result , the Texas Tornado replaced Beefcake in the SummerSlam match .
At the 1990 Royal Rumble , Sensational Sherri , Randy Savage 's valet , appeared on the Brother Love show . Brother Love discussed the definition of a " lady " , using Sherri as an example . He then discussed " peasants " , bringing out Sapphire , Dusty Rhodes 's valet , as an example . Sherri and Sapphire fought , which led to Savage and Rhodes fighting to defend their valets . Rhodes and Sapphire faced Savage and Sherri in a mixed tag team match at WrestleMania VI . Rhodes and Sapphire won the match with assistance from Miss Elizabeth , Savage 's former valet . For SummerSlam , individual matches were scheduled , with Sapphire facing Sherri and Savage wrestling Rhodes . Meanwhile , Sapphire had been receiving gifts from an anonymous benefactor .
Tito Santana and Rick Martel formed a tag team named Strike Force in 1987 . They won the WWF Tag Team Championship together before Martel abandoned Santana during a match against the Brain Busters at WrestleMania V. This led to a lengthy feud between the two , The team split up as a result and the former partners had a lengthy feud. and a blow off match was scheduled for SummerSlam . Martel was injured prior to the SummerSlam match , so the WWF created a storyline that he was unable to compete because he was participating in a modeling competition in Paris . He was replaced in the match with The Warlord , who had been competing against Santana on house shows since April .
Demolition and The Hart Foundation had faced each other two years earlier at SummerSlam 1988 , where Demolition had successfully defended the WWF Tag Team Championship . The Hart Foundation duo of Jim Neidhart and Bret Hart later focused on singles wrestling but soon reunited as a team . They announced on the March 31 episode of WWF Superstars that they wanted to challenge for the WWF Tag Team Championship after the WrestleMania match between The Colossal Connection and Demolition . After Demolition won the match , The Hart Foundation faced The Rockers on the April 28 episode of Saturday Night 's Main Event . Demolition interfered , causing a double disqualification . On the July 14 episode of WWF Superstars , Demolition and The Hart Foundation brawled after The Hart Foundation claimed that Demolition having three members was evidence of cowardice . The following week , a match between the teams was announced for SummerSlam . The stipulations stated that it would be a two out of three falls match and that only two members of Demolition would be allowed at ringside .
The feud between Bad News Brown and Jake Roberts began when Roberts sent Brown a birthday present on the April 22 episode of Wrestling Challenge . Upon opening the package , Brown found a rubber snake ; it was revealed that Brown was afraid of snakes . On the May 5 episode of WWF Superstars , the two men agreed to a match ; Brown later claimed that his fear of snakes was cured , although he was quickly proven wrong . On the July 28 episode of WWF Superstars , it was announced that Brown and Roberts face each other at SummerSlam with the Big Boss Man as a special referee . Brown also announced that he would bring 200 pounds of Harlem sewer rats to counteract Roberts 's boa constrictor , Damien .
Nikolai Volkoff began the year partnered with Boris Zhukov in a pro @-@ Soviet tag team known as The Bolsheviks . After Lithuania , Volkoff 's homeland , declared its independence from the Soviet Union on March 11 , 1990 , The Bolsheviks split up . Volkoff became pro @-@ Western and was presented with an American flag by Jim Duggan . They were then booked to face a Japanese team known as The Orient Express at SummerSlam .
As Hulk Hogan was being interviewed on The Brother Love Show during the May 26 episode of WWF Superstars , he was attacked by Earthquake . Earthquake hit Hogan with a chair and jumped on his stomach with an Earthquake splash . Hogan was taken from the stage on a stretcher . Hogan did not appear on WWF programming for almost two months , as the company teased his possible retirement . On the July 14 episode of WWF Superstars , Hogan announced that he was returning to action and would be facing Earthquake at SummerSlam . Hogan also stated that his friend Tugboat would be in his corner during the match . Earthquake and his ally Dino Bravo attacked Tugboat during a match on the August 18 episode of WWF Superstars . Tugboat was carried offstage on a stretcher after Earthquake performed two Earthquake splashes on him . Tugboat was rescued by the Big Bossman , but the injuries he sustained were said to be severe enough to prevent him from appearing at SummerSlam . Hogan later announced that the Big Bossman would be in his corner instead .
The Ultimate Warrior and Rick Rude had been feuding since the 1989 Royal Rumble . The competed against each other in a " posedown " to show off their muscles , after which Rude attacked the Warrior . They faced each other at WrestleMania V in a match for the Warrior 's Intercontinental Championship . Rude won the title , but the Warrior regained the title belt at SummerSlam 1989 . The Ultimate Warrior defeated Hulk Hogan for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania VI ; he was forced to give up the Intercontinental Championship , and Rick Rude was named the top challenger for SummerSlam . It was later announced that the bout would be a steel cage match .
To build anticipation for the pay @-@ per @-@ view event , the WWF broadcast SummerSlam Fever on the USA Network . The show aired on August 19 and included several interviews as well as an appearance by Hulk Hogan and manager Jimmy Hart on the Brother Love show . It also featured nine matches that included wrestlers who would be competing at SummerSlam .
= = Event = =
Before the pay @-@ per @-@ view began , Shane Douglas defeated Buddy Rose in a dark match . Hercules attacked Shawn Michaels prior to the first televised bout , hitting him in the knee with a chain . Although his partner was unable to compete , Jannetty controlled the beginning of the match , using hip tosses to throw Roma and Hercules . Power and Glory then attacked Jannetty while their manager , Slick , distracted the referee . Although Jannetty was able to mount a brief comeback , Roma and Hercules wore him down and got the victory after performing a PowerPlex — a superplex from Hercules followed by a diving splash from Roma .
The Texas Tornado got an early advantage in his match with Mr. Perfect , controlling the bout with several power moves . Mr. Perfect recovered and used a neckbreaker and sleeper hold to wear down the Tornado . As Perfect was showing off for the crowd , the Tornado attacked him from behind . He wore Perfect down with a clawhold before hitting him with a discus punch to win the match and the Intercontinental Championship .
Sensational Sherri came to the ring for her match against Sapphire , but Sapphire did not come to the ring when she was announced . As a result , Sherri was awarded the victory by forfeit .
Tito Santana began his match with The Warlord by locking his opponent in a headlock and dropkicking him out of the ring . The Warlord took control of the match when he returned to the ring , using his strength to control the match . Slick , The Warlord 's manager , interfered , but Santana regained a brief advantage . The Warlord gained the victory by pinning Santana after performing a running powerslam .
In the two out of three falls tag team match , Crush and Smash represented Demolition against the team of Bret Hart and Jim Neidhart . Both teams relied on brawling tactics during the first fall , which was awarded to Demolition when they pinned Hart after performing the Demolition Decapitation . They continued to wear down Hart until Neidhart tagged back into the match . He and Hart took turns attacking Smash before performing the Hart Attack . Before they could pin him , however , Crush prevented the referee from making a pinfall count , which resulted in a disqualification . During the third fall , Demolition distracted the referee , enabling Ax , their third member , to come to hide at ringside . When Smash was knocked out of the ring , Ax took his place while Smash hid . Well rested , Ax used his power to control the match against Hart . Ax and Smash traded places again , but the Legion of Doom appeared and pulled Ax out from under the ring . With Smash distracted , Hart and Neidhart were able to tackle Crush and pin him to win the match and the WWF Tag Team Championship .
During the following match , a covered cage sat at ringside , supposedly containing 200 pounds of Harlem sewer rats , although the contents of the cage were not revealed . Bad News Brown controlled most of the early stages of his match against Jake Roberts . Roberts attempted to perform the DDT twice , including once when Brown was arguing with special referee Big Bossman , but Brown blocked the move both times . Outside the ring , Brown hit Roberts with a chair while the Big Bossman was not looking . Roberts gained the advantage by punching Brown repeatedly but was kicked to the outside after Brown reversed a DDT attempt into a back bodydrop . Brown hit Roberts with a chair again but was disqualified when the Bossman saw him . Brown tried to gain revenge after the match by attacking Roberts 's boa constrictor , Damien , but the Bossman attacked Brown to save the snake .
Sgt. Slaughter was a guest on The Brother Love Show . He presented Brother Love the " Greatest American Award " and claimed that the United States had become soft and weak . He also declared war on Nikolai Volkoff . Prior to the next match , Duggan and Volkoff sang " God Bless America " . They were attacked by The Orient Express ( Akio Sato and Pat Tanaka ) , and all four men fought in the ring . Sato and Tanaka attacked Volkoff while preventing him from tagging Duggan into the match ; Mr. Fuji , the manager of The Orient Express , also hit Volkoff with his cane . When Tanaka missed a big splash , Volkoff tagged in Duggan , who performed several clothelines on Tanaka and Sato . Volkoff and Duggan then Irish whipped their opponents into each other ; Duggan clotheslined Tanaka from a three @-@ point stance and pinned him to win the match .
As the match between Dusty Rhodes and Randy Savage was about to begin , Ted DiBiase appeared and announced that he had purchased Sapphire . Rhodes walked down the aisle toward DiBiase and Sapphire but was attacked from behind by Savage . Savage controlled most of the match , and Sherri interfered to help him while the referee was distracted . Rhodes made a brief comeback , but Savage was able to pin him after hitting him with Sherri 's purse , which was said to be loaded with a heavy object . After the match , Rhodes chased after DiBiase and Sapphire but was unable to catch up to their departing limousine .
Control went back and forth at the beginning of the match between Hulk Hogan and Earthquake . When Earthquake rolled out of the ring , both wrestlers ' corner @-@ men got involved , as Hogan and the Big Boss Man fought against Earthquake and Dino Bravo . Bravo and Earthquake powerslammed Hogan while the referee was distracted , which allowed Earthquake to lock Hogan in a Boston crab hold . After being powerslammed outside of the ring by Earthquake , Hogan tried to lift his opponent but was unsuccessful . Earthquake powerslammed Hogan and performed two Earthquake splashes but was unable to get the pinfall . Hogan recovered and bodyslammed Earthquake . He performed a legdrop on Earthquake before Earthquake 's manager , Jimmy Hart interfered . Hogan threw him out of the ring and then bodyslammed Earthquake onto a table at ringside . Hogan got back into the ring and won the match via countout . Earthquake attacked Hogan after the match , but the Big Boss Man saved Hogan by hitting Earthquake with a chair .
The Ultimate Warrior gained the early advantage in his steel cage match with Rick Rude . After the Warrior missed a splash attempt , Rude attempted to win the match by escaping the cage . The Warrior stopped him , and both wrestlers unsuccessfully attempted to perform their finishing moves . Rude was then able to perform a Rude Awakening neckbreaker but chose to continue attacking the Warrior rather than escape the cage . Rude performed a shoulderblock and tried to leave through the cage door . The Warrior held him back while Bobby Heenan , Rude 's manager , tried to pull Rude out . The Warrior pulled both Rude and Heenan into the cage . He punched Heenan and then threw him out of the cage with an atomic drop . Warrior then knocked Rude down three times with clotheslines and threw him onto the ring floor with a gorilla press drop . Warrior climbed over the cage and dropped to the arena floor to win the match and retain the WWF World Heavyweight Championship .
= = Aftermath = =
The Rockers continued to feud with Power and Glory , and the teams faced each other during an elimination match at the 1990 Survivor Series . Power and Glory 's team won the match , during which Roma eliminated Michaels after performing a PowerPlex with Hercules .
The Texas Tornado held the Intercontinental Championship for almost three months before dropping it back to Perfect on November 19 . The match was aired on the December 15 edition of WWF Superstars . The two men were also on opposite sides for an elimination match at Survivor Series . Perfect eliminated the Tornado with a PerfectPlex , but the Tornado 's team won the match . Brutus Beefcake did not wrestle again until 1993 .
Dusty Rhodes continued to feud with Randy Savage after SummerSlam . During their match on the October 22 episode of Prime Time Wrestling , Ted DiBiase interfered and attacked Rhodes 's son , Dustin . DiBiase and Dusty Rhodes faced each other as part of an elimination match at Survivor Series 1990 ; DiBiase won the match for his team . The continued rivalry led to a tag team match at the 1991 Royal Rumble that pitted Dusty and Dustin Rhodes against DiBiase and his bodyguard , Virgil . DiBiase and Virgil won the match and then began feuding with each other . Sapphire left the WWF soon after SummerSlam , and Savage stopped feuding with Rhodes in favor of challenging the Ultimate Warrior for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship .
After Martel returned from his injury , he was placed in a storyline in which he blinded Jake Roberts by spraying him in the face with cologne on the Brother Love Show . Martel and Santana faced each other on the November 11 episode of Wrestling Challenge , and Roberts interfered . Unable to see clearly , he accidentally attacked Santana but vowed revenge against Martel . Bad News Brown left the WWF after SummerSlam , citing broken promises as his reason .
The Hart Foundation held the WWF Tag Team Championship for almost seven months before dropping the title belts to The Nasty Boys on March 24 , 1991 . Demolition feuded with the Legion of Doom , including several six @-@ man matches in which the Ultimate Warrior sided with the Legion of Doom . They also faced each other at Survivor Series 1990 as part of an elimination match . During the match , Smash , Crush , and both members of the Legion of Doom were disqualified for fighting outside the ring . Demolition was disbanded altogether shortly thereafter , although Smash and Crush continued to wrestle under different gimmicks .
Nikolai Volkoff competed at Survivor Series 1990 in a match that pitted him and his partners against Sgt. Slaughter , Boris Zhukov , and The Orient Express . He was eliminated by Slaughter , who was later disqualified when his manager , General Adnan hit Tito Santana with an Iraqi flag . Slaughter and Volkoff also faced each other on many house shows throughout the second half of 1990 . Slaughter won the majority of these contests before setting his sights on the WWF World Heavyweight Championship .
At the 1990 Survivor Series , Hogan and Tugboat were members of the Hulkamaniacs team in a match against the Natural Disasters team , which included Earthquake and Bravo . Hogan eliminated Bravo , and Tugboat and Earthquake were both counted out while fighting each other . The Hulkamaniacs won the match , with Hogan as the only wrestler remaining at the end . During the 1991 Royal Rumble match , Hogan eliminated his friend Tugboat . Hogan and Earthquake were the final two wrestlers at the end ; Hogan eliminated Earthquake to win the match . Tugboat later turned heel and changed his name to Typhoon ; he and Earthquake formed a tag team known as The Natural Disasters .
Rude left the WWF in late 1990 due to a dispute with the company about money . As a result , Bobby Heenan took his place in matches that had already been booked against the Big Boss Man . The Ultimate Warrior held the WWF World Heavyweight Championship until dropping it to Sgt. Slaughter at the 1991 Royal Rumble .
= = Reception = =
Writing for Online Onslaught , Adam Gutschmidt felt that the event had some humorous moments but did not offer a solid card of wrestling . He enjoyed the match between The Hart Foundation and Demolition , but he rated the Bad News Brown vs. Jake Roberts and Orient Express vs. Jim Duggan and Nikolai Volkoff matches as duds . He gave the Randy Savage vs. Dusty Rhodes match negative one star . Julian Radbourne of Bleacher Report enjoyed the event , particularly the tag team title match . He felt that the Ultimate Warrior vs. Rick Rude match was not as good as their previous encounter , but he stated that the event was " well worth viewing " . The columnists reviewed the event for 411mania . Stuart Carapola felt that the match for the WWF Tag Team Championship was the highlight ; he enjoyed the show at the time but saw nothing particularly special looking back at the event . Arnold Furious felt that the storyline for the tag team title match was too complicated and that the main event match was " really poor " . He thought that the show had too many matches , some of which served little purpose , and that the show is not worth recommending . Sydney Brown felt that the match for the Intercontinental Championship was " nothing " but that the tag team title match was good ; Brown felt that both main events were the best of any SummerSlam to that point and gave the event a B @-@ minus .
The attendance for the event was 19 @,@ 304 , which was the lowest attendance of the first seven SummerSlams . The WWF collected $ 338 @,@ 452 from ticket revenue . The pay @-@ per @-@ view buyrate was 3 @.@ 8 , which was down from the previous year 's 4 @.@ 8 but higher than the following year 's 2 @.@ 7 buyrate .
SummerSlam 1990 was released on VHS by Coliseum Video on September 27 , 1990 , in the United States . The VHS edition was released in the United Kingdom on April 6 , 1992 . It was first released on DVD as part of Silver Vision 's WWE Tagged Classics series on August 1 , 2005 . The event is also included as part of WWE 's SummerSlam Anthology boxed DVD set . The anthology was released on August 5 , 2008 in North America and was released on October 6 , 2008 in the United Kingdom .
= = Results = =
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= Elderly Instruments =
Elderly Instruments is a musical instrument retailer in Lansing , Michigan , United States , with a reputation as a " megastore " , a repair shop and a locus for folk music including bluegrass and " twang " . Specializing in fretted instruments , including acoustic and electric guitars , banjos , mandolins , and ukuleles . Elderly maintains a selection of odd or rare instruments . Elderly is known as the premier repair shop for fretted instruments , as one of the larger vintage instrument dealers in the United States , and as a major dealer of Martin guitars in particular .
Industry publications , music retail trade , and bluegrass music journals have featured articles about the Elderly repair staff . The company also provides consignment services for rare and vintage instruments . Since its founding in 1972 , Elderly has undergone two major expansions : into mail order in 1975 and then into Internet sales in the 1990s . In 2005 it was the subject of a lawsuit by Gibson Guitar Corporation concerning trademark infringement . Today it is recognized internationally for its services and products ; its mail order and Internet business account for 65 – 70 percent of its total revenue . Elderly grossed $ 12 million in 1999 , and by 2007 was grossing $ 17 million annually .
In addition to retail and repair services , Elderly Instruments is noted as a center of local music culture for bluegrass and " twang " music . Elderly Instruments operates a wholesale record distribution business , Sidestreet Distributing , in the lower level of its complex , serving more than 300 small retail businesses .
= = History = =
In 1969 , New York City native Stan Werbin moved to Ann Arbor , Michigan to attend graduate school . He took his banjo and guitar with him and immediately developed his interest in folk music . Werbin participated in a lively local music scene that included collaborations and " open mic nights " at local venues . It was through those experiences that Werbin developed his appreciation for the variety of instruments the musicians were playing , as well as the various types of music that fall under the folk music genre .
When Werbin finished graduate school , he looked for business opportunities and decided to use his knowledge of used guitars . He searched for vintage instruments to buy at low prices , particularly those made before World War II ; Werbin then sold the instruments after repairing and restoring them . Although he initially tried to open his business in Ann Arbor , Werbin eventually decided to avoid operating there due to the high number of other musical instrument dealers . In 1972 , Werbin and Sharon McInturff , his college friend and business partner , leased retail space in East Lansing , Michigan for $ 60 a month in a building that also housed the Michigan Youth Politics Institute , a non @-@ profit organization dedicated to encouraging young adults to vote . With $ 500 of capital , the two began advertising locally . Werbin and McInturff took the " Elderly " name from a 1971 classified ad they saw , in which the seller marketed his Gibson Les Paul as a " nice , elderly instrument " .
Elderly Instruments expanded during the following years . Shortly after the 1972 United States Presidential election , the Michigan Youth Politics Institute moved out of the space across the hall , and Elderly took over the entire basement of the building . In 1975 , it expanded into the mail order business . By 1982 , Elderly Instruments had about 25 employees but little available space , and so in the following year the owners bought an Independent Order of Odd Fellows building in Lansing , Michigan . After it was renovated for retail use , the company moved into it in January 1984 , and in 1986 Werbin bought out McInturff to become the sole owner . In 1994 , Elderly expanded again by buying adjacent building space that had once been a post office and a National Cash Register Company building . Around the same time , it began taking merchandise orders over its new web site . The company does not , however , sell merchandise through online auction sites such as eBay , unlike many other independent musical instrument retailers . Werbin notes that entering the Internet business was not much of a challenge for Elderly , as the staff was already experienced at taking and shipping orders for customers throughout the world . He also notes that , with its mail order and Internet business accounting for 65 – 70 percent of its total revenue , Elderly would have experienced limited growth in Lansing had it not expanded into those markets . The company operates in around 35 @,@ 000 ft ² ( 3 @,@ 300 m ² ) of space , and is one of the largest vintage instruments dealers in the United States .
Elderly Instruments has become known due to its attention to folk music niche markets ( Eddie Collins of Bluegrass Now remarked " The roots of what today has become perhaps the world 's most well known music store for acoustic instruments can be traced directly to the folk music boom of the 1960s . " ) , its reputation as a repair shop , its selection of vintage instruments , and its position as a major Martin guitar dealer .
In May 2010 , an Elderly manager told the publication TWICE that economic recession had affected the business and forced layoffs of part @-@ time employees , and that Elderly 's being in Michigan worsened the effects . He noted that as the consumer electronics business began to recover , the musical instrument business followed .
= = Gibson Guitar Corporation lawsuit = =
In June 2005 , Gibson Guitar Corporation filed a cease and desist order and an accompanying lawsuit against Elderly Instruments . The complaint alleged that Elderly was selling a banjo on its web site marketed as a " Gibson copy " and that the phrase constituted a trademark infringement . Despite Elderly 's claim of having addressed the issue by changing the phrase first to " Famous Maker Copy " and then to " Classic Bluegrass Banjo Copy , " Gibson persisted with the complaint and asked for unspecified damages . Gibson later issued a press release stating that the lawsuit had been settled .
In the same year , Gibson severed its contract with Elderly as a retailer of Gibson products , citing a contract stipulation that retailers should not carry any competing brands of banjos and mandolins . Elderly had been one of nine retailers selling the specialized Gibson Bluegrass line of banjos and mandolins , although it also carried other brands . Werbin attempted to rectify the situation by offering a dedicated area of the store for Gibson products , but Gibson proceeded with the action . As a result , Elderly does not offer new Gibson products for sale . The incident was well @-@ publicized in the media and discussed at length in consumer forums .
= = Instrument sales = =
In 2007 , Elderly sold more than 16 @,@ 000 instruments . The company is a dealer of Martin guitars , as well as other mainstream brands such as Guild and Fender . It sells used Gibson instruments , but not new models as a result of the Gibson lawsuit . Although the bulk of its business comes from guitar sales , the company carries a range of other instruments , such as banjos , ukuleles , mandolins , accordions , concertinas , bouzoukis , sitars , musical saws , and African thumb pianos . Some of the rarer instruments are purchased as collectibles . Elderly is an exclusive retailer of " LunchBox @-@ A @-@ LeLes " , ukuleles made from various tin lunch box designs . The journal Bluegrass Unlimited has noted Elderly Instruments for carrying " elite " brands of instruments , such as Paul Duff mandolins , Huss & Dalton acoustic guitars , Stelling banjos , and Nash electric guitars . Elderly was once one of only two American retailers for Apitius Mandolins , now only sold directly . As part of its consignment business , Elderly sells " collections " of instruments that sometimes have rich histories . In September 2006 , it placed the Dopyera family 's personal collection of resonator instruments up for sale , including some of the Dobro and National brands . The Dopyera family was responsible for founding those companies and innovating the resonator instrument trade .
Elderly Instruments carries a number of Martin guitars , including valuable vintage models . In interviews , Werbin frequently mentions Martins made before World War II as especially desirable and " memorable " pieces of the Elderly Instruments inventory . The guitars are sought after by musicians from the bluegrass and other genres . Werbin purchases some of the more valuable or interesting instruments for his personal collection , and has lent them to museums as temporary exhibits .
Periodicals for the bluegrass genre such as Bluegrass Canada and Bluegrass Now have featured stories about Elderly and its selection of bluegrass instruments and repair services . Elderly employees maintain connections with the bluegrass industry by attending trade shows such as the International Bluegrass Association Trade Show in Louisville , Kentucky . At these shows , Elderly showcases typical bluegrass instruments , such as banjos , guitars , mandolins , fiddles and resophonic guitars , to musicians and businesspeople . Elderly Instruments staff members have set up organizations such as the " Friends of Bluegrass " to support local bluegrass musicians .
Michigan Living magazine noted Elderly 's liberal policy regarding the handling of instruments , something Werbin attributes to his difficulty shopping for Martin guitars in New York City in the 1960s . The magazine also notes that customers are encouraged to pick up and play any instrument , an unusual policy for a high @-@ end instrument retailer . Impromptu " jam sessions " are frequent in the store , as customers try out guitars .
= = Repair and appraisals = =
The repair shop occupies about 3 @,@ 000 ft ² ( 280 m ² ) of space in the Elderly building . A number of notable guitarists have sent their instruments to Elderly for complete restoration or other major work such as refinishing and refretting . Elderly 's repair department services other fretted instruments such as banjos , ukuleles , and balalaikas .
In February 1996 , a feature article in Guitar Shop Magazine documented the company 's restoration of a severely damaged Martin J40 @-@ M acoustic guitar . The Martin had been in the trunk of an automobile when a semi @-@ trailer truck struck the automobile . Almost every part of the guitar was damaged : the top , back , sides , fingerboard , and neck block . The worst damage , and the most challenging to repair , was caused by the neck block having punched through the back of the guitar . The owner brought the Martin to Elderly after other repair shops had rejected it as being beyond repair . The technicians at Elderly successfully restored the Martin after a labor @-@ intensive process that included a new Adirondack spruce top .
Elderly provides an appraisal service for vintage instruments . It employs five full @-@ time appraisers who use a detailed scale to rate the quality of instruments . Their appraisal services have been noted in media , such as The Music and Sound Retailer , as being among the best in the industry . Customers may either bring instruments directly into the store or send them by mail . Elderly owner Werbin attributes some of the company 's success and reputation to the quality of the appraisals .
= = Marketing and business model = =
In addition to a printed catalog , Elderly sends lists of available vintage instruments to subscribers in the U.S. and several other countries by mail and e @-@ mail . Elderly purchases some of its used instruments from customers and then offers them for sale , while others are offered on consignment . Although larger retailers dominate the Internet market share ( Elderly grossed $ 12 million in 1999 , larger retail outlets such as Guitar Center grossed $ 297 million ) , Elderly attempts to serve vertical markets by offering specialized or rare items on its web site , such as left @-@ handed guitars and instrument @-@ specific books .
Werbin notes that while discounting products by 40 percent set his business apart from the local competition in the 1970s , outlets such as Guitar Center now also offer discounts . In response to questions about his strategy for competing with larger retailers such as Guitar Center and American Musical Supply , which also operate mail order and Internet businesses , Werbin states that he has learned to operate on small margins to stay competitive : " The mom @-@ and @-@ pop businesses that have survived have learned to operate on narrow margins . "
= = Other enterprises = =
After opening its first retail space , Elderly began selling records supplied by Rounder Records , a small distributor that later grew into an independent record label specializing in roots music . After trying other distributors , Werbin started his own distribution company in 1979 , named Old Fogey Distributing . By 1987 , Old Fogey was servicing about 300 small retail operations , operating from the basement of Elderly 's Lansing showroom . In 1997 , the operation was renamed Sidestreet Distributing .
Elderly dedicates a section of its retail space to record sales . A full @-@ time purchasing manager maintains a comprehensive selection of both mainstream and rare music , much of it in the folk and bluegrass genres ; this is due to the belief that customers will become more interested in the music after making an audio purchase and then in turn buy a musical instrument . Elderly also sells instructional books and other material , much of which focuses on folk music and bluegrass genres .
The store also offers a music school focused on folk music and related instruments .
= = Twang and other folk music = =
Noise , a periodical published by the local newspaper Lansing State Journal , has written that Elderly Instruments is the focus of an emerging form of American folk music , named " twang " , sometimes referred to as " alternative country " . Several twang bands perform and record in Lansing , many including at least one Elderly employee . Current and former Elderly employees attribute the twang influence at the store to the proliferation of associated instruments , educational materials , and musicians . East Lansing radio station WDBM has been hosting a twang music show since 1995 .
Lawrence B. Johnson , music critic for The Detroit News , called Elderly a " folk music mecca " and a megastore that is a haven for folk musicians . In the past it has been one of the chief sponsors of the annual National Folk Festival .
= = Recognition = =
2008 - Best Guitar Store - Player 's Choice Awards , Acoustic Guitar magazine
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= 68th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment =
The 68th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment served in the Union Army during the American Civil War . Also known as the Cameron Rifles or the Second German Rifle Regiment , the men were mostly German immigrants . Organized in July 1861 , three months after the outbreak of war , the 68th saw service in the Eastern and Western theaters .
As a part of the Army of the Potomac , it was initially assigned to the defenses of Washington , D.C. Later , the 68th was transferred to the Shenandoah Valley and fought at the Battle of Cross Keys . The men of the 68th were then reassigned to central Virginia and found themselves in the thick of the fighting at Second Bull Run . After returning to the nation 's capital , the regiment fought in Chancellorsville and was routed by Confederate forces . At Gettysburg , they saw battle on two of the three days and took heavy losses .
The regiment was then transferred to the west and participated in the Chattanooga Campaign . The 68th fought in the battles of Wauhatchie and Missionary Ridge , assisting in the Union victories there . The regiment marched to relieve the siege of Knoxville , and then spent the last year of the war on occupation duty in Tennessee and Georgia , before being disbanded in November 1865 .
= = Raising the regiment = =
On July 22 , 1861 , the United States War Department authorized Robert J. Betge to raise a volunteer infantry regiment in New York . Recruited to serve for three years , the men came mostly from Manhattan ( New York City ) , and also from New Jersey , Maryland , and Pennsylvania . The mostly German immigrants were also called the " Second German Rifles " ( the First German Rifles , raised several months earlier , were the 8th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment ) , but Betge called the regiment the " Cameron Rifles " , after Secretary of War Simon Cameron . The officers were also German , and many had served in the armies of Austria , Prussia , and other German states . In all , 1 @,@ 020 men filled the ranks when the regiment had finished recruiting .
Accepted into service on August 19 , the 68th left New York the next day , traveling by train from Perth Amboy , New Jersey , to Washington , D.C. , to join the brigade of Brigadier General Louis Blenker in the Army of the Potomac . Blenker was a German immigrant himself , a refugee of the Revolutions of 1848 , and many of the units under his command were heavily German @-@ American . Encamped at Roach 's Mills , Virginia , the 68th participated in the defense of Washington , losing three men in their first combat , a minor skirmish with a Confederate patrol .
In November , the Army was reorganized ; the 68th was shifted to Colonel Adolph von Steinwehr 's brigade and Blenker moved up to command the division . They encamped at Hunter 's Chapel , Virginia , for the remainder of the winter . There , Betge was brought before a court @-@ martial , accused of " conduct unbecoming an officer and gentleman " : confiscating two horses and other property from " loyal " Virginia citizens , and taking a bribe to hire the 68th 's regimental sutler . He was not convicted , and was permitted to return to the regiment .
= = Shenandoah Valley = =
In March 1862 , the Army was again reorganized and Blenker 's brigade was merged into the II Corps , led by Maj. Gen. Edwin Vose Sumner . That month the 68th moved to Warrenton , Virginia , where it came into contact with Confederate cavalry ; three of the officers were captured . The following month , Blenker 's brigade was moved into Maj. Gen. John C. Frémont 's Mountain Department , necessitating a march to Winchester , Virginia , where the 68th and the rest of Frémont 's army guarded the western part of the Shenandoah Valley against incursions by Confederate forces under Lt. Gen. Stonewall Jackson . Their long march had left the 68th bereft of supplies and low on rations . Colonel Betge protested against the mistreatment of his regiment , and was placed under arrest , surrendering command to Lt. Col. , John H. Kleefish .
The initial action in Jackson 's Valley Campaign took place to their east , but in June Frémont 's force of 15 @,@ 000 joined the 10 @,@ 000 @-@ man division of Brig. Gen. James Shields to converge on Jackson south of Massanutten Mountain . Jackson was determined to attack the two Union columns separately and arranged half of his troops to block Shields on the right side of the mountain , while the other half , commanded by Maj. Gen. Richard S. Ewell , blocked the left side . Jackson 's wish was realized when , on June 8 , Frémont 's army attacked . Frémont , believing he was striking Jackson 's rear , instead attacked Ewell head @-@ on , and Jackson soon brought his whole force to bear on the Union troops in the Battle of Cross Keys . The men of the 68th came under concentrated fire for the first time but were not heavily involved in the battle , although two men were killed . The battle was a defeat for the Union , and Frémont 's force did not attack again , being blocked instead by a small holding force from Ewell 's wing . The rest of Jackson 's force then turned to attack Shields 's army the next day at Port Republic , but Frémont 's infantry did not figure in the battle , another Confederate victory , though his artillery shelled the enemy from long range .
After the battle , the 68th marched to Cedar Creek and the army was placed under the overall command of Maj. Gen. John Pope ; Frémont 's force was designated the First Corps of the Army of Virginia . Frémont , who outranked Pope , resigned in protest , and President Lincoln accepted the resignation . Lincoln replaced him with Maj. Gen. Franz Sigel , who had been commanding troops in the Western theater . Sigel was , like many in the First Corps , a German immigrant , and the 68th and the other German regiments in the First Corps were happy for the change in commanders . Sigel ordered the 68th to Luray for picket duty . When they arrived , Betge resigned his commission and Kleefish continued to command the regiment until a new colonel could be assigned .
= = Second Bull Run = =
The regiment remained in the Shenandoah Valley until August 1862 when they joined Pope 's army and moved south to engage Robert E. Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia . They arrived the day after the Battle of Cedar Mountain , and joined Pope 's army in its retreat from that Confederate victory . After a series of minor actions along the Rappahannock , Pope 's forces met Jackson 's half of Lee 's army near Manassas Station . Lee had divided his army into wings led by Jackson and Lt. Gen. James Longstreet and sent Jackson 's force to raid Pope 's rear to cut his supply line . Pope believed he had a chance to destroy the Army of Northern Virginia one half at a time , and made the decision to attack . Jackson 's men struck the first blow , however , and drove off a portion of the Union force . The next day , having taken up a strong defensive position along an unfinished railroad , Jackson awaited Pope 's advance . Pope obliged him , sending the Army forward against Jackson 's lines . The 68th and the rest of Sigel 's corps occupied the middle of the advancing line . They were unable to break Jackson 's lines , and withdrew . The Cameron Rifles had seen some action at Cross Keys , but this was their first experience of fierce fighting and they acquitted themselves well , despite the failure of the attack .
By the afternoon , Longstreet joined Jackson with the other half of Lee 's army and attacked the Union left . Longstreet believed it was too late for an attack , and did not attack that day , other than in a minor clash where his lines met some federal units at dusk . The next day , August 30 , Pope attacked Jackson again at 3 : 00 p.m. in the afternoon . Again , the attacking forces could not overcome their enemies ' positions , and this time Longstreet counterattacked and forced them back toward their original positions . Sigel 's forces , which did not take part in the initial Union assault , held firm against the Confederate counterattack , but after heavy casualties the army retreated . Among the casualties were 22 killed from the 68th ( including Kleefish ) and 59 wounded , making Second Bull Run one of the unit 's bloodiest engagements .
The Army of Virginia retreated nearly all the way back to Washington . Pope was relieved and Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan placed in charge of the army once more . After burying Kleefish in Washington , the 68th redeployed to Fairfax , Virginia . With Kleefish dead and Betge having resigned , command of the regiment fell temporarily to Major Carl von Wedell . The officers then petitioned the Governor Horatio Seymour to commission Gotthilf von Bourry d 'Ivernois as their new colonel , which he did . Von Bourry , a veteran of the Austrian army , had served on Blenker 's staff as a captain and had impressed the officers of the 68th with his tales of heroism in the Second Italian War of Independence .
= = Army of the Potomac = =
= = = Chancellorsville = = =
The 68th spent September and October 1862 defending Washington where they were attached to Alexander Schimmelfennig 's 1st Brigade of the XI Corps in the Army of the Potomac ( the re @-@ numbered I Corps formerly of the Army of Virginia ) still commanded by Sigel . In November , they advanced to Centreville with the rest of the Army , now under the command of Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside . Burnside , who had taken over the Army when McClellan was relieved of command earlier that month , was determined to bring battle to the enemy , and he ordered the Army to advance once more to the Rappahannock . The 68th , however , remained in reserve with the rest of the XI Corps , and so was spared any part in the defeat that befell the Union Army at the Battle of Fredericksburg . The Army retreated once again , and the 68th joined them in winter quarters at Stafford , Virginia .
Morale was low in the Army after Fredericksburg and the retreat that followed , and Burnside was replaced in command by Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker . Several corps commanders were also replaced , including Sigel , whose XI Corps passed to Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard on April 2 , 1863 , when he resigned in protest because he believed he deserved a larger corps . In a corps of mostly German regiments , Howard was immediately unpopular and his distribution of religious tracts to the troops did not improve the relationship . The regiment was smaller , too , than it had been : just 259 present for duty . Their new commander in the XI Corps 's 3rd Brigade was another German , Brig. Gen. Carl Schurz .
Hooker brought the Army to the Rappahannock for a third time , but rather than crossing directly into the defenses of the Confederates , he divided his much larger force to attack Lee 's army from two sides simultaneously . This time , the 68th and the other regiments of the XI Corps were part of the action , crossing the river with Hooker 's main force on May 1 , 1863 , to attack Lee 's left . Despite Hooker 's careful planning , the Battle of Chancellorsville was another Union defeat . After crossing the Rappahannock , Hooker had ordered the wing including the XI Corps to halt and await the Confederate attack . Faced with attacks on two sides , Lee daringly divided his smaller force to engage both : the pause allowed Lee to send Jackson with the bulk of the army to meet the Union advance and outflank their right wing the next day , May 2 . Although he was warned of the impending attack , Howard did not order the units under his command to entrench , and when Jackson 's men arrived the XI Corps was caught unprepared . At about 5 : 15 p.m. , Jackson 's force of 21 @,@ 500 men caught the XI Corps in the flank and by surprise as the men were preparing their dinner . Schurz ordered his brigade to shift to meet the assault , and the 68th jumped to action , but they were still overwhelmed by the force of numbers and began a disorganized retreat an hour into the attack . After falling back , the 68th and the other retreating units rallied to avoid a complete rout and held off the Confederates until nightfall . The XI Corps suffered nearly 2 @,@ 500 casualties , including 5 dead , 16 wounded , and 32 missing from the 68th . The next day , the XI Corps held the left of the Union line and was again attacked , but unlike the previous day , they were not at the focus of the Confederate attack . The entire army retreated across the Rappahannock the next day , defeated once more .
= = = Gettysburg = = =
In the wake of Chancellorsville , newspapers heaped scorn on the German regiments , blaming the 68th and the others for the defeat . The XI Corps suffered from low morale , and several officers resigned their commissions , including Lt. Col. Carl Vogel and five others from the 68th . The Army of the Potomac pulled back from the Rappahannock , and was soon on the move as the Army of Northern Virginia slipped past and marched north toward Pennsylvania . Led by still another new commander , Maj. Gen. George Meade , the Union army followed the Confederates north . The 68th , now with 267 present for duty , had been shifted to the XI Corps 's 1st Brigade under Brig. Gen. Leopold von Gilsa when the Army of the Potomac prepared to meet the rebels at the Battle of Gettysburg . The XI Corps was among the first to arrive on the scene on July 1 , 1863 . Schurz 's brigade arrived first , and he ordered them to take up defensive positions north of the town . The other two divisions arrived next , and Howard arrayed them to resist the rebel onslaught he knew was coming soon . The landscape was mostly devoid of features that would aid in defense , but Gilsa 's men were able to entrench on one low rise , Blocher 's Knoll . The 68th was sent forward to skirmish , along with the 54th New York and part of the 153rd New York , and were the first to be attacked and ousted from their positions when Lt. Gen. Jubal Early 's Confederate division came on in numbers and outflanked them . The army retreated south of the town , but Howard , after arguing with Maj. Gen. Winfield Scott Hancock over who was in command in Meade 's absence , rallied the troops there and ordered them to entrench .
The 68th began the second day in a more defensible position on Cemetery Hill . This placed them at the center of the Union line , and most of the day 's early action was on the flanks . In the evening , however , Early 's forces attacked again ; the charging Confederates quickly reached the top of the hill and some hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat broke out , but losses were light because the growing darkness made it difficult for soldiers on both sides to shoot accurately . Reinforcements from the II Corps arrived and helped the XI Corps hold the position . On the third day , the 68th remained in that position , but the major attack of the day , Pickett 's Charge , was to their left . The 68th performed better than they had at Chancellorsville , participating in their first Union victory . They paid the price with much higher casualties , 8 killed and 63 wounded ; 67 were made prisoners of war , many on the first day during the retreat to Cemetery Hill . In the thick of the action for two out of three days , the 68th lost more men at Gettysburg than in any other battle .
= = Chattanooga campaign = =
Lee 's army retreated into Virginia and , after some delay , the Army of the Potomac followed . After a skirmish in Hagerstown , Maryland , on July 12 , the 68th crossed the Potomac into Virginia on July 16 and took up guard duty along the Orange and Alexandria Railroad near Warrenton . The regiment remained there until September , when it and the rest of the XI Corps were detached from the Army of the Potomac and sent to Tennessee . The XI and XII Corps , under Hooker 's command , made up an independent force added to the Armies of the Tennessee , the Cumberland , and the Ohio , which were all operating in that theater . Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans , having just lost the Battle of Chickamauga , was besieged in Chattanooga , and the other armies were gathering to lift the siege and attack the Confederate army there , led by Lt. Gen. Braxton Bragg . Traveling for seven days by rail , the 68th arrived in Tennessee on September 30 .
The regiment spent the first month guarding railroads again , this time west of Chattanooga . Rosecrans soon found himself relieved of duty , and Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant was placed in overall command of the three armies plus Hooker 's two corps . The 68th , too , saw a change in its leadership when Col. von Bourry was cashiered for drunkenness and command passed to Lt. Col. Albert von Steinhausen . By this time , losses from Gettysburg and illness had reduced the regiment to 127 men present for duty , just over a tenth of their numbers from the start of the war .
Grant 's armies converged on Chattanooga and planned to attack Bragg 's army . Getting into place required the XI and XII Corps to cross the Tennessee River at Bridgeport , Alabama , and march rapidly for Lookout Valley , opening the supply line to Chattanooga . They did so , to the surprise of the Confederate forces there , which had not expected an attack from that quarter . On October 28 , Hooker 's two corps were attacked by a part of Bragg 's army , which had by now been joined by Longstreet and some units from the Army of Northern Virginia . Bragg ordered Longstreet to drive the federals back and he attacked . In the ensuing Battle of Wauhatchie , the XII Corps took the brunt of the initial assault . Hooker bypassed Howard and ordered Schurz to bring up the XI Corps to join the fight . The engagement was confused on both sides , but the Union forces were victorious , driving off the rebels and inflicting twice the casualties they received . With the supply lines now reopened to Chattanooga , Grant planned to dislodge Bragg 's army . At the Battle of Lookout Mountain , the 68th was held in reserve on the first day , November 24 . The battle continued the next day and a part of Howard 's XI Corps , including the 68th , was shifted to the far left of the Union lines to reinforce Sherman 's attack on Missionary Ridge . There , the 68th skirmished with the enemy , but was unable to advance . The Confederates were forced to retreat , however , as Maj. Gen. George Thomas 's troops ' assault on their center sent Bragg 's army into retreat from the ridge .
Four days later , on November 28 , the 68th , still attached to Sherman 's army , marched north to relieve Burnside 's army , which was besieged in Knoxville , Tennessee . Before they arrived , however , Burnside managed to defeat the enemy , and the regiment returned south . It spent the winter guarding railroads near their winter quarters in Bridgeport . In April , the enlistments of many three @-@ year men were due to expire , including the men of the 68th . The men were sent to Louisville , Kentucky , and then by rail back to New York City for four weeks ' leave of absence . With the war not yet over , the government encouraged re @-@ enlisting , and many of the 68th did so . The three @-@ year men of the 8th and 29th Infantry , two other German @-@ American units reduced by casualties and expiring enlistment terms , were consolidated into the 68th . Drafted men and substitutes brought the ranks up to 400 present for duty .
= = Re @-@ enlistment and the end of the war = =
Among those continuing in the army was the colonel of the 8th New York , Prince Felix Salm @-@ Salm . As the 68th had been without a colonel since von Bourry had been cashiered , Governor Seymour appointed Salm @-@ Salm to the post on June 8 , 1864 . The youngest son of a minor German prince , Salm @-@ Salm had served in the Prussian and Austrian armies before coming to America and joining the Union Army in 1861 . His appointment to lead the 68th caused consternation among the officers , who had hoped for the promotion of one of their own . They protested to the governor unsuccessfully , but accepted that Salm @-@ Salm was to be their leader . After the commissions and re @-@ enlistments were sorted out , the 68th returned to Tennessee . They were again serving under Hooker in the XX Corps , which was consolidated from the XI and XII Corps and had now been attached permanently to Thomas 's Army of the Cumberland . The 68th was assigned to Maj. Gen. James B. Steedman 's 4th Brigade of the new corps and spent the next few months patrolling the Nashville and Chattanooga Railway in Tennessee . By that time , Confederate resistance in the area was weakened , and the rails and bridges were not damaged . Salm @-@ Salm 's wife , Agnes , joined him during the winter of 1864 – 1865 , and the officers spent much of their time entertaining .
The 68th was not involved in the Battle of Nashville that December , in which Lt. Gen. John Bell Hood 's Confederate army was nearly destroyed , but Salm @-@ Salm did get permission to join the battle himself while the 68th stayed at their patrol stations . After Thomas 's victory at Nashville , the 68th was ordered to prepare to pursue what remained of Hood 's army . They redeployed to Decatur , Alabama , where Salm @-@ Salm rejoined the regiment . They skirmished with Hood 's rear guard , but the rainy weather aided the Confederates ' escape . Salm @-@ Salm led the regiment in the minor engagements following in January and February 1865 at Elrod 's Tan Yard , Hog Jaw Valley , and Johnson 's Crook . As Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman 's Army of the Tennessee advanced farther into Georgia , the 68th did as well , making Atlanta their headquarters in March 1865 . They continued to serve in northern Georgia through the spring and summer of 1865 , and were stationed there when news came that the major Confederate armies had surrendered to Grant and Sherman . While there , they were ordered to facilitate the transition from a slave @-@ based economy to a sharecropper system by encouraging plantation owners and their former slaves to sign farming contracts .
The 68th moved to Fort Pulaski , outside Savannah , Georgia , in October 1865 . The men remained there until November 30 , 1865 , when , with the war finally ended , the 68th New York was mustered out of federal service . They boarded a steamship for New York and received their final pay at Hart 's Island on December 14 , where they disbanded . The regiment had served for more than four years , and had suffered casualties of 47 killed , 133 wounded , and 116 captured .
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= Scottish castles =
Scottish castles are buildings that combine fortifications and residence , built within the borders of modern Scotland . Castles arrived in Scotland with the introduction of feudalism in the twelfth century . Initially these were wooden motte @-@ and @-@ bailey constructions , but many were replaced by stone castles with a high curtain wall . During the Wars of Independence , Robert the Bruce pursued a policy of castle slighting . In the late Middle Ages new castles were built , some on a grander scale as " livery and maintenance " castles that could support a large garrison . Gunpowder weaponry led to the use of gun ports , platforms to mount guns and walls adapted to resist bombardment .
Many of the late Medieval castles built in the borders were in the form of tower houses , smaller pele towers or simpler bastle houses . From the fifteenth century there was a phase of Renaissance palace building , which restructured them as castle @-@ type palaces , beginning at Linlithgow . Elements of Medieval castles , royal palaces and tower houses were used in the construction of Scots baronial estate houses , which were built largely for comfort , but with a castle @-@ like appearance . In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the military significance of castles declined , but they increasingly became tourist attractions . Elements of the Scots Baronial style would be revived from the late eighteenth century and the trend would be confirmed in popularity by the rebuilding of Balmoral Castle in the nineteenth century and its adoption as a retreat by Queen Victoria . In the twentieth century there were only isolated examples of new castle @-@ influenced houses . Many tower houses were renovated , and many castles were taken over by the National Trust for Scotland or Historic Scotland and are open to the public .
= = Middle Ages = =
Castles , in the sense of a fortified residence of a lord or noble , arrived in Scotland as a consequence of the centralising of royal authority in the twelfth century . Prior to the 1120s there is very little evidence of castles having existed in Scotland , which had remained less politically centralised than in England with the north still ruled by the kings of Norway . David I of Scotland ( r . 1124 – 53 ) spent time at the court of Henry I of England , becoming Earl of Huntingdon , and returned to Scotland with the intention of extending royal power across the country and modernising Scotland 's military technology , including the introduction of castles . The Scottish king encouraged Norman and French nobles to settle in Scotland , introducing a feudal mode of landholding and the use of castles as a way of controlling the contested Scottish Lowlands . Historian Lise Hull has suggested that the creation of castles in Scotland was " less to do with conquest " and more to do with " establishing a governing system " .
These were primarily wooden motte @-@ and @-@ bailey constructions , of a raised mount or motte , surmounted by a wooden tower and a larger adjacent enclosure or bailey , both usually surrounded by a fosse ( a ditch ) and palisade , and connected by a wooden bridge . They varied in size from the very large , such as the Bass of Inverurie , to more modest designs like Balmaclellan . In England many of these constructions were converted into stone " keep @-@ and @-@ bailey " castles in the twelfth century , but in Scotland most of those that were in continued occupation became stone castles of " enceinte " from the thirteenth century , with a high embattled curtain wall . The need for thick and high walls for defence forced the use of economic building methods , often continuing the Scottish tradition of dry @-@ stone rubble building , which were then covered with a lime render , or harled for weatherproofing and a uniform appearance . In addition to the baronial castles there were royal castles , often larger and providing defence , lodging for the itinerant Scottish court and a local administrative centre . By 1200 these included fortifications at Ayr and Berwick . In Scotland Alexander II ( r . 1198 – 1249 ) and Alexander III ( 1241 – 86 ) undertook a number of castle building projects in the modern style . Alexander III 's early death sparked conflict in Scotland and English intervention under Edward I in 1296 . The resulting Wars of Independence brought this phase of castle building to an end and began a new phase of siege warfare .
The first recorded siege in Scotland was the 1230 siege of Rothesay Castle where the besieging Norwegians were able to break down the relatively weak stone walls with axes after only three days . When Edward I invaded Scotland he brought with him the siege capabilities that had evolved south of the border , resulting in the rapid fall of major castles . Edinburgh Castle fell within three days , and Roxburgh , Jedburgh , Dunbar , Stirling , Lanark and Dumbarton castles all surrendered to the English king . Subsequent English sieges , such as the attacks on Bothwell and Stirling , again used considerable resources including giant siege engines and extensive teams of miners and masons . As a result , Robert the Bruce ( r . 1306 – 29 ) adopted a policy of castle destruction , rather than allow fortresses to be easily retaken and then held by the English , beginning with his own castles at Ayr and Dumfries , and including Roxburgh and Edinburgh . After the Wars of Independence , new castles began to be built , often on a grander scale as " livery and maintenance " castles , to house retained troops , like Tantallon , Lothian and Doune near Stirling , rebuilt for Robert Stewart , Duke of Albany in the fourteenth century .
Early gunpowder weapons were introduced to Scotland by the 1330s . The new technology began to be installed in Scottish castles by the 1380s , beginning with Edinburgh . In the fifteenth century , gunpowder weaponry fundamentally altered the nature of castle architecture . Existing castles were adapted to allow the use of the new weapons by the incorporation of " keyhole " gun ports , platforms to mount guns and walls that were adapted to resist bombardment . Ravenscraig , Kirkcaldy , begun about 1460 , is probably the first castle in the British Isles to be built as an artillery fort , incorporating " D @-@ shape " bastions that would better resist cannon fire and on which artillery could be mounted . It also used " letter box " gun @-@ ports , common in mainland Europe , although rarer in England , they rapidly spread across the kingdom . Scotland also led the way in adopting the new caponier design for castle ditches , as constructed at Craignethan Castle .
= = Tower houses = =
The largest number of late Medieval fortifications in Scotland built by nobles , about 800 , were of the tower house design . Smaller versions of tower houses in southern Scotland were known as peel towers , or pele houses . The defences of tower houses were primarily aimed to provide protection against smaller raiding parties and were not intended to put up significant opposition to an organised military assault . This has led historian Stuart Reid to characterise them as " defensible rather than defensive " . They were typically a tall , square , stone @-@ built , crenelated building . They were often also surrounded by a barmkyn or bawn , a walled courtyard designed to hold valuable animals securely , but not necessarily intended for serious defence . They were built extensively on both sides of the border with England from the fourteenth century . James IV 's ( 1488 – 1513 ) forfeiture of the Lordship of the Isles in 1494 led to an additional burst of tower building across the region . A number were also built in Scottish towns .
An option for small landholders and farmers was the bastle house , a form of fortified house that combined the functions of a tower house and a barmkyn . They were usually two @-@ storey houses with the ground floor acting as a byre into which animals could be driven , while the living space on the upper floor could only be reached by a removable ladder . Most are within 30 miles ( 48 km ) of the border and were built around the turn of the sixteenth century .
= = Renaissance palaces = =
An extensive building and rebuilding of royal palaces probably began under James III ( r . 1460 – 88 ) and accelerated under James IV , reaching its peak under James V ( r . 1513 – 42 ) . They used exceptional one @-@ off revenues , such as the forfeiture of key lands , to establish their power across their kingdom in various ways including constructing grander castles by extending and modifying existing fortifications . These works have been seen as directly reflecting the influence of Renaissance styles . Linlithgow was first constructed under James I , under the direction of master of work John de Waltoun and was referred to as a palace , apparently the first use of this term in the country , from 1429 . This was extended under James III and began to correspond to a fashionable quadrangular , corner @-@ towered Italian signorial palace of a palatium ad moden castri ( a castle @-@ style palace ) , combining classical symmetry with neo @-@ chivalric imagery and using harling to give them a clean , Italian appearance . There is evidence of Italian masons working for James IV , in whose reign Linlithgow was completed and other palaces were rebuilt with Italianate proportions . According to architectural historian John Dunbar , the results were the " earliest examples of coherent Renaissance design in Britain " .
The shift in architectural focus reflected changing political alliances , as James V had formed a close alliance with France during his reign . He encountered the French version of Renaissance building while visiting for his marriage to Madeleine of Valois in 1536 and his second marriage to Mary of Guise may have resulted in longer term connections and influences . Work from his reign largely disregarded the insular style adopted in England under Henry VIII and adopted forms that were recognisably European , beginning with the extensive work at Linlithgow . This was followed by re @-@ buildings at Holyrood , Falkland , Stirling and Edinburgh , described by Roger Maison as " some of the finest examples of Renaissance architecture in Britain " .
Much of this castle rebuilding was planned and financed by James Hamilton of Finnart ( c . 1495 – 1540 ) , in addition to his work at Blackness Castle , Rothesay Castle , the house at Crawfordjohn , the " New Inn " in the St Andrews Cathedral Priory and the lodging at Balmerino Abbey for the ailing Queen Madeleine . Rather than slavishly copying continental forms , most Scottish architecture incorporated elements of these styles into traditional local patterns , adapting them to Scottish idioms and materials ( particularly stone and harl ) . Similar themes can be seen in the private houses of aristocrats , as in Mar 's Wark , Stirling ( c . 1570 ) and Crichton Castle , built for the Earl of Bothwell in 1580s .
= = Sixteenth and seventeenth centuries = =
In the period of French intervention in the 1540s and 1550s , at the end of the Rough Wooing , Scotland was given a defended border of a series of earthwork forts and additions to existing castles . These included the erection of single bastions at Edinburgh , Stirling and Dunbar .
The unique style of great private houses in Scotland , later known as Scots baronial , has been located in origin to the period of the 1560s . It kept many of the features of the high walled Medieval castles that had been largely made obsolete by gunpowder weapons and may have been influenced by the French masons brought to Scotland to work on royal palaces . It drew on the tower houses and peel towers , with their parapets , corbels , and bartizans . The new estate houses built from the late sixteenth century by nobles and lairds were primarily built for comfort , not for defence , although they were often called castles . They retained many of these external features which had become associated with nobility , but with a larger ground plan . This was classically a " Z @-@ plan " of a rectangular block with towers , as at Colliston Castle ( 1583 ) and Claypotts Castle ( 1569 – 88 ) .
Particularly influential was the work of William Wallace , the king 's master mason from 1617 until his death in 1631 . He worked on the rebuilding of the collapsed North Range of Linlithgow from 1618 , Winton House for George Seton , 3rd Earl of Winton and began work on Heriot 's Hospital , Edinburgh . He adopted a distinctive style that applied elements of Scottish fortification and Flemish influences to a Renaissance plan like that used at Château d 'Ancy @-@ le @-@ Franc . This style can be seen in lord 's houses built at Caerlaverlock ( 1620 ) , Moray House , Edinburgh ( 1628 ) and Drumlanrig Castle ( 1675 – 89 ) , and was highly influential until the baronial style gave way to the grander English forms associated with Inigo Jones in the later seventeenth century , which were used to produce classically inspired and comfortable country houses .
= = Decline = =
In 1603 James VI of Scotland inherited the crown of England , bringing a period of peace between the two countries . The royal court left for London , and as a result – with the exceptions of occasional visits – building work on royal castles north of the border largely ceased . Some castles continued to have modest military utility into the eighteenth century . The royal castles of Edinburgh , Dumbarton and Stirling , along with Dunstaffnage , Dunollie , Blackness and Ruthven Castle , continued in use as practical fortifications . Tower houses were being built up until the 1640s . After the Restoration the fortified tower house fell out of fashion , but the weak state of the Scottish economy was such that , while many larger properties were simply abandoned , the more modest castles continued to be used and adapted as houses , rather than rebuilt .
In the Bishop 's Wars castles that held out for the king against the Covenanters , including Caerlaverock and Threave in 1640 , were slighted , with their roofs removed and walls breached to make them uninhabitable . Tantallon was used as a base for Scottish attacks on Oliver Cromwell 's advancing army in 1651 . As a result , it was pounded into submission by the New Model Army 's siege train , losing its end towers and ceasing to be a residence from that point . The sequence of Jacobite risings from 1689 threatened the Crown in Scotland , culminating in the rebellion in 1745 . Stirling was able to withstand the Jacobite attack in 1745 and the siege of Blair Castle , at the end of the rebellion in 1746 , was the final castle siege to occur in the British Isles . In the aftermath of the conflict Corgaff and many others castles were used as barracks for the forces sent to garrison the Highlands . Kildrummy , Huntly and Doune were destroyed as a result of their part in the rebellion .
From the late eighteenth century , castles became tourist attractions . Blair Castle was a popular location on account of its landscaped gardens , and Stirling Castle because of its romantic historic connections . Tours became increasingly popular during the nineteenth century , usually starting at Edinburgh and then spending up to two weeks further north , taking advantage of the expanding rail and steamer network . Blair Castle remained popular , but additional castles joined the circuit , with Cawdor Castle becoming popular once the railway line reached north to Fort William . Scottish castle guidebooks became well known for providing long historical accounts of their sites , often drawing on the plots of Romantic novels for the details . Sir Walter Scott 's novels set in Scotland popularised several northern castles , including Tantallon , which was featured in the poem Marmion ( 1808 ) .
= = Gothic revival = =
In Scotland there was a revival of the castle in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries as part of the wider Gothic Revival movement , as new houses were built and existing buildings remodeled in the Gothic and Scots Baronial styles . Inveraray Castle , constructed from 1746 with design input from William Adam , displays the incorporation of turrets and is among the first houses in the revived style . His son Robert Adam 's houses in this style included Mellerstain and Wedderburn in Berwickshire and Seton House in East Lothian , but it is most clearly seen at Culzean Castle , Ayrshire , remodelled by Adam from 1777 . These were largely conventional Palladian style houses that incorporated some external features of the Scots baronial style .
Important for the adoption of the revival in the early nineteenth century was Abbotsford House , the residence of Walter Scott . Re @-@ built for him from 1816 , it became a model for the modern revival of the baronial style . Common features borrowed from sixteenth- and seventeenth @-@ century houses included battlemented gateways , crow @-@ stepped gables , pointed turrets and machicolations . The style was popular across Scotland and was applied to many relatively modest dwellings by architects such as William Burn ( 1789 – 1870 ) , David Bryce ( 1803 – 76 ) , Edward Blore ( 1787 – 1879 ) , Edward Calvert ( c . 1847 – 1914 ) and Robert Stodart Lorimer ( 1864 – 1929 ) and in urban contexts , including the building of Cockburn Street in Edinburgh ( from the 1850s ) as well as the National Wallace Monument at Stirling ( 1859 – 69 ) . The rebuilding of Balmoral Castle as a baronial palace and its adoption as a royal retreat from 1855 – 58 confirmed the popularity of the style . Scots Baronial architects frequently " improved " existing castles : Floors Castle was transformed in 1838 by William Playfair who added grand turrets and cupolas . The style spread south and the architect Edward Blore added a Scots Baronial touch to his work at Windsor .
= = Twentieth century to the present = =
The Baronial style peaked towards the end of the nineteenth century , and the building of large houses declined in importance in the twentieth century . It continued to influence the construction of some estate houses , including Skibo Castle , which was rebuilt for industrialist Andrew Carnegie ( 1899 – 1903 ) by Ross and Macbeth . There was a lull in building after the First World War , and social change undermined the construction of rural country houses . Isolated examples of " castles " include houses that combine modern and traditional elements , such as Basil Spence 's Broughton Place ( 1936 ) and Glenskirlie Castle , Stirlingshire ( 2007 ) .
Restoration of castles began in the early twentieth century , with projects including the renovation of Duart Castle on Mull , and the complete reconstruction of Eilean Donan from a few fragments of masonry . The restoration movement grew after World War II with a fashion for renovating tower houses , including Oliver Hill 's restoration of Inchdrewer Castle , near Banff in Aberdeenshire , in 1965 . The restoration of tower houses and smaller castles continues , with recent examples including Fenton Tower in Lothian and Ballone Castle near Portmahomack . Historic Scotland have launched a " Scottish Castle Initiative " aimed at encouraging private investment in the restoration of Scotland 's castles , including a register of potential restoration candidates . Despite these efforts , a number of castles remain on Scotland 's Buildings at Risk Register .
Most of Scotland 's castles , whether ruined or occupied , remain in private ownership , though many are open to the public at least occasionally . During the twentieth century a number of older castles were transferred into the care of the state , and these are now the responsibility of Historic Scotland , which was created as an agency in 1991 . Historic Scotland cares for over 300 properties – all of which are publicly accessible – including around 65 castles . These include some of Scotland 's most famous castles including Edinburgh and Stirling , as well as numerous tower houses and ruined castles . The National Trust for Scotland ( founded 1931 ) cares for several post @-@ Medieval castles and estate houses , including Culzean and Craigievar that were still in occupation until the twentieth century . The Landmark Trust restores and operates historic buildings as holiday homes , including Saddell Castle and Roslin Castle . Several other castles are in the hands of local government , for example Dudhope Castle in Dundee , and some are maintained by building preservation trusts and other charitable bodies , for example Sauchie Tower , Clackmannanshire .
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= Space ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Space " is the ninth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on November 12 , 1993 . It was written by series creator Chris Carter , directed by William Graham , and featured guest appearances by Ed Lauter and Susanna Thompson . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Space " earned a Nielsen household rating of 6 @.@ 5 , being watched by 6 @.@ 1 million households in its initial broadcast , and received negative reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . When investigating possible sabotage in NASA 's shuttle program , Mulder and Scully find that an astronaut who had been Mulder 's childhood hero may be possessed by an extraterrestrial spirit .
Series creator Chris Carter was inspired to write " Space " after reading about news of the " face on Mars " — an instance of pareidolia wherein a mound in the Cydonia region of Mars was taken to resemble a human face . The episode was conceived as a low @-@ budget bottle episode , due to several earlier episodes having exceeded their budgets . Although the episode made use of a significant amount of inexpensive stock footage from NASA , the construction of the command center set was subject to cost overruns , eventually leading the episode to become the most expensive of the first season .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens with news footage from 1977 , showing the discovery of water on Mars and a face sculpted into the planet 's landscape . Lt. Col. Marcus Aurelius Belt ( Ed Lauter ) , the commander of the mission , is plagued by flashbacks of an encounter with the disembodied face during a spacewalk .
Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) are approached by Michelle Generoo ( Susanna Thompson ) , a communications commander for NASA 's Mission Control . Generoo believes that someone within NASA is sabotaging launch attempts . A recent space shuttle liftoff was aborted seconds before commencement , and Generoo fears the next launch will be similarly compromised . She also has a personal interest , as her fiancé will be aboard the next mission .
Mulder and Scully travel to NASA and meet Belt , a childhood hero of Mulder 's . Belt , who now manages the shuttle program , dismisses the agents ' concerns and states that nothing can possibly go wrong with the mission . He allows the agents to watch the launch from Mission Control . The launch is successful . As the agents are leaving however , Generoo informs them that contact is lost with the shuttle in orbit . While driving back to Mission Control , Generoo sees the face come at her through her windshield , causing her to crash her car .
The shuttle has moved into direct sunlight and Mission Control is unable to rotate it into a safe position , putting the astronauts ' lives in danger . Generoo believes that the uplink is being sabotaged . Belt orders the uplink to be cut , allowing the astronauts to rotate the craft manually . Over the objections of Generoo and the agents , Belt orders the mission to proceed and lies to the press about its progress . Belt tells Mulder that the shuttle program may be cancelled if the mission is not completed successfully .
Belt returns home and has another flashback , as he lies in bed in some agony an astral presence leaves his body and flies out the window , heading into the sky . The astronauts then report hearing a thump outside the shuttle and begin to experience an oxygen leak . Belt fixes the situation , but orders the mission to proceed . The payload is successfully deployed , but a crew member reports seeing a ghostlike entity outside the ship . Meanwhile the agents examine NASA records and find evidence that Belt played a role in other failed missions , including the Challenger disaster .
Belt begins to act irrationally then collapses screaming as he hears mention of the ghostlike entity from the astronauts . Paramedics are called to attend to him , and find him cowering under his desk whimpering and begging for help . Before Belt it taken away , he tells the agents that the shuttle will not survive reentry due to sabotage by ' the face ' , which had lived inside his body and possessed him since his time in orbit . At his urging , they alert the shuttle to change its trajectory and are just able to land it successfully . In the hospital , Belt continues to wrestle with the presence , telling Mulder he wasn 't responsible but also couldn 't stop it , as " it came to me , it lives in me " . Eventually , in a last wrestle with the re @-@ possessing entity , he shouts " no more " as he leaps from the window to his death - experiencing a lengthy flashback to his last space mission as he falls . Mulder theorizes that , while Belt was compelled to sabotage the launches by the entity possessing him , he was also the one who sent Generoo the evidence of what was taking place . He lauds Belt 's final sacrifice , stating that in the end he gave his life for the mission , as befits a true astronaut .
= = Production = =
" Space " was conceived as a low @-@ budget bottle episode , due to several earlier episodes having exceeded their budgets . Series creator Chris Carter was inspired to write the episode after reading about news of the " face on Mars " — an instance of pareidolia wherein a mound in the Cydonia region of Mars was taken to resemble a human face . Although the episode made use of a significant amount of inexpensive stock footage from NASA , the construction of the command center set was subject to cost overruns , eventually leading the episode to become the most expensive of the first season . Carter blames this on the infeasibility of showing the astronauts in the stricken shuttle , requiring additional exposition to explain their situation — something he found he could not manage " on an eight @-@ day television budget " . Carter also claims that the episode suffered from being filmed shortly after the pilot episode was broadcast , with the crew overwhelmed by the input , noting that " everything was happening at once " .
Several scenes in the episode were filmed at a Canadian Airlines operations center in Richmond , British Columbia . The crew were given permission by the airline to use their flight simulators , leading to the production being delayed while everyone had a turn simulating flights over Canada . The problematic command center set was constructed and filmed at an amphitheater in Vancouver , whose sloping surfaces helped to suggest computer terminals without needing much construction , although false computer monitors were added for shots when they would be in view .
Guest star Ed Lauter had previously worked with the episode 's director , William A. Graham , on the film Guyana Tragedy : The Story of Jim Jones . On his role in the episode , Lauter has stated " I don ’ t really have a lot to say about that , except I thought I did a nice job , and that it was nice working up there in Vancouver with David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Space " premiered on the Fox network on November 12 , 1993 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on November 17 , 1994 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 6 @.@ 5 with an 11 share , meaning that roughly 6 @.@ 5 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 11 percent of households watching TV , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 6 @.@ 1 million households watched this episode during its original airing .
The episode — reportedly Carter 's least favorite — was very poorly received . Frank Lovece , in his books The X @-@ Files Declassified , called it " perhaps the series ' dullest , least suspenseful episode " , citing the spectral antagonist 's " highly unclear motivations " . Keith Phipps , writing for The A.V. Club , reviewed the episode negatively , rating it a D + . He felt that the episode 's special effects were " pretty decidedly unscary " , and that the episode 's premise was confusing and " a little tasteless " in its treatment of the Challenger disaster . In a retrospective of the first season in Entertainment Weekly the episode was similarly derided , being rated a D- and described as " one dead hour " . Matt Haigh , writing for Den of Geek , reviewed the episode negatively , feeling that it was " nothing much to write home about " , and that the episode 's antagonist was " distinctly unimpressive , lacking any true sense of menace or intrigue " .
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= Calcium chloride =
Calcium chloride are inorganic compounds with the chemical formula CaCl2 ( H2O ) x , where x = 0 , 1 , 2 , 4 , and 6 . All of these salts are a highly soluble in water . They are mainly used for deicing and dust control . Because the anhydrous salt is hygroscopic , it is used as a desiccant .
= = Properties = =
Calcium chloride dissolves in water to afford chloride and the aquo complex [ Ca ( H2O ) 6 ] 2 + . In this way , these solutions are sources of " free " calcium and free chloride ions . This description is illustrated by the fact that these solutions react with phosphate sources to give solid precipitate of calcium phosphate :
3 CaCl2 + 2 PO43- → Ca3 ( PO4 ) 2 + 6 Cl-
Calcium chloride has a very high enthalpy change of solution , indicated by considerable temperature rise accompanying dissolution of the anhydrous salt in water . This property is the basis for its largest scale application .
Molten calcium chloride can be electrolysed to give calcium metal and chlorine gas .
CaCl2 → Ca + Cl2
= = Preparation = =
In much of the world , calcium chloride is derived from limestone as a by @-@ product of the Solvay process : North American consumption in 2002 was 1 @,@ 687 @,@ 000 tons ( 3 @.@ 7 billion pounds ) .
2 NaCl + CaCO3 → Na2CO3 + CaCl2
In the US , most of calcium chloride is obtained by purification from brine . A Dow Chemical Company manufacturing facility in Michigan houses about 35 % of the total U.S. production capacity for calcium chloride .
= = = Occurrence = = =
Calcium chloride occurs as the rare evaporite minerals sinjarite ( dihydrate ) and antarcticite ( hexahydrate ) . The related minerals chlorocalcite ( potassium calcium chloride , KCaCl3 ) and tachyhydrite ( calcium magnesium chloride , CaMg2Cl6 · 12H2O ) are also very rare .
= = Uses = =
= = = Deicing and freezing point depression = = =
By depressing the freezing point of water , calcium chloride is used to prevent ice formation and to deice . This application consumes the greatest amount of calcium chloride . Calcium chloride is relatively harmless to plants and soil . As a deicing agent , it is more effective at lower temperatures than sodium chloride . When distributed for this use , it usually takes the form of small , white spheres a few millimeters in diameter , called prills . Solutions of calcium chloride can prevent freezing at temperature as low as − 52 ° C ( − 62 ° F ) , making it ideal for filling agricultural implement tires as a liquid ballast , aiding traction in cold climates .
Also used in salt / chemical @-@ based dehumidifiers in domestic and other environments to adsorb dampness / moisture from the air .
= = = Road surfacing = = =
The second largest application of calcium chloride exploits its hygroscopic properties and the tackiness of its hydrates . A concentrated solution keep a liquid layer on the surface of dirt roads , which suppresses formation of dust . It keeps the finer dust particles on the road , providing a cushioning layer . If these are allowed to blow away , the larger aggregate begins to shift around and the road breaks down . Using calcium chloride reduces the need for grading by as much as 50 % and the need for fill @-@ in materials as much as 80 %
= = = Water treatment = = =
Calcium chloride is used to increase the water hardness in swimming pools . This process reduces the erosion of the concrete in the pool . By Le Chatelier 's principle and the common ion effect , increasing the concentration of calcium in the water will reduce the dissolution of calcium compounds essential to the structure of concrete .
= = = Food = = =
As an ingredient , it is listed as a permitted food additive in the European Union for use as a sequestrant and firming agent with the E number E509 . It is considered as generally recognized as safe ( GRAS ) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration . Its use in organic crop production is generally prohibited under US National Organic Program 's National List of Allowed and Prohibited Substances . The average intake of calcium chloride as food additives has been estimated to be 160 – 345 mg / day for individuals . In marine aquariums , calcium chloride is added to introduce bioavailable calcium for calcium carbonate @-@ shelled animals such as mollusks and some cnidarians . Calcium hydroxide ( kalkwasser mix ) or a calcium reactor can also be used to introduce calcium ; however , calcium chloride addition is the fastest method and has minimal impact on pH .
As a firming agent , calcium chloride is used in canned vegetables , in firming soybean curds into tofu and in producing a caviar substitute from vegetable or fruit juices . It is commonly used as an electrolyte in sports drinks and other beverages , including bottled water . The extremely salty taste of calcium chloride is used to flavor pickles while not increasing the food 's sodium content . Calcium chloride 's freezing @-@ point depression properties are used to slow the freezing of the caramel in caramel @-@ filled chocolate bars .
In brewing beer , calcium chloride is sometimes used to correct mineral deficiencies in the brewing water . It affects flavor and chemical reactions during the brewing process , and can also affect yeast function during fermentation .
In cheesemaking , calcium chloride is sometimes added to processed ( pasteurized / homogenized ) milk to restore the natural balance between calcium and protein in casein for the purposes of making cheeses , such as brie , Pélardon and Stilton . By adding calcium chloride to the milk before adding the coagulant , calcium levels are restored . Also , it is frequently added to sliced apples to maintain texture .
= = = Laboratory and related drying operations = = =
Drying tubes are frequently packed with calcium chloride . Kelp is dried with calcium chloride for use in producing sodium carbonate . Anhydrous calcium chloride has been approved by the FDA as a packaging aid to ensure dryness ( CPG 7117 @.@ 02 ) .
= = = Medicine = = =
It is injected to treat internal hydrofluoric acid burns . It can be used to treat magnesium intoxication . Calcium chloride injection may antagonize cardiac toxicity as measured by electrocardiogram . It can help to protect the myocardium from dangerously high levels of serum potassium in hyperkalemia . Calcium chloride can be used to quickly treat calcium channel blocker toxicity , from the side effects of drugs such as diltiazem ( Cardizem ) — helping avoid potential heart attacks .
Aqueous calcium chloride is used in genetic transformation of cells by increasing the cell membrane permeability , inducing competence for DNA uptake ( allowing DNA fragments to enter the cell more readily ) .
= = = Miscellaneous applications = = =
Calcium chloride is used in concrete mixes to accelerate ( speed up ) the initial setting , but chloride ions lead to corrosion of steel rebar , so it should not be used in reinforced concrete . The anhydrous form of calcium chloride may also be used for this purpose and can provide a measure of the moisture in concrete .
Calcium chloride is included as an additive in plastics and in fire extinguishers , in wastewater treatment as a drainage aid , in blast furnaces as an additive to control scaffolding ( clumping and adhesion of materials that prevent the furnace charge from descending ) , and in fabric softener as a thinner .
The exothermic dissolution of calcium chloride is used in self @-@ heating cans and heating pads .
In the oil industry , calcium chloride is used to increase the density of solids @-@ free brines . It is also used to provide inhibition of swelling clays in the water phase of invert emulsion drilling fluids .
CaCl2 acts as flux material ( decreasing melting point ) in the Davy process for the industrial production of sodium metal , through the electrolysis of molten NaCl .
Calcium chloride is also an ingredient used in ceramic slipware . It suspends clay particles so that they float within the solution making it easier to use in a variety of slipcasting techniques .
= = = = Animal sterilization = = = =
Calcium chloride dihydrate ( 20 % by weight ) dissolved in ethanol ( 95 % ABV ) has been used as a sterilant for male animals . The non surgical procedure consists of the injection of the solution into the testes of the animal . Within 1 month , necrosis of testicular tissue results in sterilization .
= = Hazards = =
Calcium chloride can act as an irritant by desiccating moist skin . Solid calcium chloride dissolves exothermically , and burns can result in the mouth and esophagus if it is ingested . Ingestion of concentrated solutions or solid products may cause gastrointestinal irritation or ulceration .
Consumption of calcium chloride can lead to hypercalcemia .
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= Abortion – breast cancer hypothesis =
The abortion – breast cancer hypothesis posits that having an induced abortion can increase the risk of getting breast cancer . This hypothesis is at odds with mainstream scientific opinion and is contradicted by major medical professional organizations . In early pregnancy , hormone levels increase , leading to breast growth . The hypothesis proposes that if this process is interrupted by an abortion then more immature cells could be left behind , resulting in a greater potential risk of breast cancer over time .
The abortion – breast cancer hypothesis has been the subject of extensive scientific inquiry , and the scientific community has concluded that abortion does not cause breast cancer and that breast cancer should not be a concern for women who are considering having an abortion . This consensus is supported by major medical bodies , including the World Health Organization , the U.S. National Cancer Institute , the American Cancer Society , the American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists , the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists , the German Cancer Research Center , and the Canadian Cancer Society .
Some anti @-@ abortion activists have continued to advance a discredited causal link between abortion and breast cancer . In the United States , they have sought legal action to present abortion as a cause of breast cancer when counseling women who are seeking abortion . This political intervention culminated when the George W. Bush Administration altered the National Cancer Institute website to suggest that abortion might cause breast cancer . In response to public concern over this intervention , the NCI convened a 2003 workshop bringing together over 100 experts on the issue . This workshop concluded that while some studies reported a statistical correlation between breast cancer and abortion , the strongest scientific evidence from large prospective cohort studies demonstrates that abortion is not associated with an increase in breast cancer risk , and that the positive findings were likely due to response bias .
The ongoing promotion of a link between abortion and breast cancer is seen by others as part of the anti @-@ abortion " woman @-@ centered " strategy against abortion . Anti @-@ abortion groups maintain they are providing information necessary for legally required informed consent , a concern shared by some politically conservative politicians . The abortion – breast cancer issue remains the subject of political controversy .
= = Views of medical organizations = =
Major medical organizations which have analyzed data on abortion and breast cancer have uniformly concluded that abortion does not cause breast cancer . These organizations include the World Health Organization , the U.S. National Cancer Institute , the American Cancer Society , the American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists , the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists , the German Cancer Research Center , and the Canadian Cancer Society .
The World Health Organization concluded in 2012 that " sound epidemiological data show no increased risk of breast cancer for women following spontaneous or induced abortion " , updating their earlier finding that " induced abortion does not increase breast cancer risk " .
The American Cancer Society concluded : " At this time , the scientific evidence does not support the notion that abortion of any kind raises the risk of breast cancer or any other type of cancer . "
The U.S. National Cancer Institute , which is part of the National Institutes of Health , found that " induced abortion is not associated with an increase in breast cancer risk " , assigning this conclusion the strongest possible evidence rating .
The American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists found that " early studies of the relationship between prior induced abortion and breast cancer risk were methodologically flawed . More rigorous recent studies demonstrate no causal relationship between induced abortion and a subsequent increase in breast cancer risk . "
The Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists reviewed the medical literature and concluded that " there is no established link between induced abortion or miscarriage and development of breast cancer . " The College recommended in its official clinical practice guidelines that " Women should be informed that induced abortion is not associated with an increase in breast cancer risk . "
The German Cancer Research Center concluded in 2013 that abortion and miscarriage pose no risk of breast cancer .
The Canadian Cancer Society stated in 2013 : " The body of scientific evidence does not support an association between abortion and increased breast cancer risk . "
= = Proponents = =
Joel Brind , a faculty member at Baruch College in the Department of Natural Sciences , is the primary advocate of an abortion – breast cancer ( " ABC " ) link . Brind is strongly anti @-@ abortion and began lobbying politicians with the claim that abortion caused breast cancer in the early 1990s . Brind found that his lobbying efforts were not taken seriously because he had not published his findings in the peer @-@ reviewed medical literature . He therefore collaborated with two anti @-@ abortion physicians and a statistician to publish a 1996 article in the Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health , arguing that induced abortion was a risk factor for breast cancer . The statistician who collaborated with Brind later stated of their findings : " I have some doubts . I don 't think the issue has been resolved . When we were talking about the conclusions , he [ Brind ] wanted to make the strongest statements . I tried to temper them a little bit , but Dr. Brind is very adamant about his opinion . "
Brind 's paper was criticized in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute for ignoring the role of response bias and for a " blurring of association with causation . " The amount of attention the study received prompted a cautionary editorial by a JECH editor . With the appearance of larger studies contradicting Brind 's finding , Brind failed to convince the scientific community that abortion caused breast cancer . In 2003 , Brind was invited to the NCI workshop on abortion and breast cancer , where he was the only one to formally dissent from the workshop 's finding that there is no link between the two . Brind blames the lack of support for his findings on a conspiracy , arguing that the NCI and other major medical organizations are engaged in a " cover @-@ up " for the purpose of " protecting the abortion industry " .
= = Proposed mechanism = =
In early pregnancy , levels of estrogen , progesterone , estradiol increase , leading to breast growth in preparation for lactation . It has been hypothesized that if this process is interrupted by an abortion — before full maturity ( differentiation ) in the third trimester — then more immature cells could be left than there were prior to the pregnancy . These immature cells could then be exposed to carcinogens and hormones over time , resulting in a greater potential risk of breast cancer . This mechanism was first proposed and explored in rat studies conducted in the 1980s .
Breast tissue contains many lobes ( segments ) and these contain lobules which are groups of breast cells . There are four types of lobules :
Type 1 has 11 ductules ( immature )
Type 2 has 47 ductules ( immature )
Type 3 has 80 ductules ( mature , fewer hormone receptors )
Type 4 are fully matured ( cancer resistant ) and contain breast milk
During early pregnancy , type 1 lobules quickly become type 2 lobules because of changes in estrogen and progesterone levels . Maturing into type 3 and then reaching full differentiation as type 4 lobules requires an increase of human placental lactogen ( hPL ) which occurs in the last few months of pregnancy . According to the abortion – breast cancer hypothesis , if an abortion were to interrupt this sequence then it could leave a higher ratio of type 2 lobules than existed prior to the pregnancy . Russo and Russo have shown that mature breast cells have more time for DNA repair with longer cell cycles , accounting for the slightly reduced risk of breast cancer for parous women against the baseline risk for women who have never conceived and those who have conceived and terminated their pregnancies .
Later on , Russo et al. found that placental human chorionic gonadotropin ( hCG ) induces the synthesis of inhibin by the mammary epithelium . Bernstein et al. independently observed a reduced breast cancer risk when women were injected with hCG for weight loss or infertility treatment . Contrary to the ABC hypothesis , Michaels et al. hypothesize since hCG plays a role in cellular differentiation and may activate apoptosis , as levels of hCG increase early on in human pregnancy , " an incomplete pregnancy of short duration might impart the benefits of a full @-@ term pregnancy and thus reduce the risk of breast cancer . "
= = History = =
The first study involving statistics on abortion and breast cancer was a broad study in 1957 examining common cancers in Japan . The researchers were cautious about drawing any conclusions from their unreliable methodologies . During the 1960s several studies by Brian MacMahon et al. in Europe and Asia touched on a correlation between abortion and breast cancer . Their 1973 paper published in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute inaccurately concluded that " where a relationship was observed , abortion was associated with increased , not decreased , risk . " Research relevant to the current ABC discussion focuses on more recent large cohort studies , a few meta @-@ analyses , many case @-@ control studies , and several early experiments with rats .
= = = Rat models = = =
Russo & Russo from the Fox Chase Cancer Center in Philadelphia conducted a study in 1980 examining the proposed correlation between abortion and breast cancer . While analysing the effects of the carcinogen 7 @,@ 12 @-@ Dimethylbenz ( a ) anthracene ( DMBA ) on the DNA labeling index ( DNA @-@ LI ) in terminal end buds ( TEBs ) , terminal ducts ( TDs ) and alveolar buds ( ABs ) of Sprague @-@ Dawley rats in various stages of reproductive development , they found that rats who had interrupted pregnancies had no noticeable increase in risk for cancer . However , they did find that pregnancy and lactation provided a protective measure against various forms of benign lesions , such as hyperplastic alveolar nodules and cysts . While results did suggest that rats who had interrupted pregnancies might be subject to " similar or even higher incidence of benign lesions " than virgin rats , there was no evidence to suggest that abortion would result in a higher incidence of carcinogenesis . A more thorough examination of the phenomenon was conducted in 1982 , confirming the results . A later study in 1987 further explained their previous findings . After differentiation of the mammary gland resulting from a full @-@ term pregnancy of the rat , the rate of cell division decreases and the cell cycle length increases , allowing more time for DNA repair .
Despite the fact that the Russos ' studies found similar risk rates between virgin and pregnancy interrupted rats , their research would be used to support the contention that abortion created a greater risk of breast cancer for the next twenty years . However , because rats do not exhibit naturally occurring breast cancer , the extrapolation of these results to human abortion and breast cancer is viewed as dubious .
= = Politicization = =
By the late 1980s , national politicians recognized that a focus on reducing access to abortion was not a winning political strategy . Some anti @-@ abortion activists grew more aggressive and violent in the face of political abandonment , culminating with the murder of David Gunn in 1993 and the passage of the Freedom of Access to Clinic Entrances Act in 1994 . With direct action discredited , anti @-@ abortion organizations , including the National Right to Life Committee , came to the forefront of the movement . These focused on legal tactics , including lobbying against late @-@ term abortions and access to mifepristone and demanding legislation based on the purported ABC link . More recently , anti @-@ abortion organizations have turned to lobbying to increase obstacles to abortion , such as mandated counseling , waiting periods , and parental notification , and some feel that anti @-@ abortion advocates treat ABC as simply another tactic in their campaign against abortion . There have been ongoing and incremental legal challenges to abortion in the United States by anti @-@ abortion groups . In 2005 , a Canadian anti @-@ abortion organization put up billboards in Alberta with large pink ribbons and the statement : " Stop the Cover @-@ Up , " in reference to the ABC hypothesis . The Canadian Breast Cancer Foundation was concerned by the misrepresentation of the state of scientific knowledge on the subject .
The continued focus on the ABC hypothesis by anti @-@ abortion groups has fostered a confrontational political environment . Anti @-@ abortion advocates and scientists alike have responded with criticisms . The claims by anti @-@ abortion advocates are sometimes referred to as pseudoscience .
During the late 1990s , several United States congresspeople became involved in the ABC issue . In a 1998 hearing on cancer research , congressperson Tom Coburn accused the National Cancer Institute of misleading the public by selectively releasing data . In 1999 , shortly after the House debated FDA approval of the abortion drug mifepristone , Congressperson Dave Weldon wrote a " Dear Colleague " letter , enclosing an article from John Kindley . In it , Weldon expressed concern that the majority of studies indicated a possible ABC link and that politicization was " preventing vital information from being given to women . "
As of 2006 , abortion counseling materials in Alaska , Mississippi , Texas , West Virginia , and Kansas state that the data relationship between abortion and breast cancer are inconclusive , while Minnesota materials report no link . Similar legislation requiring notification has also been introduced in 14 other states . An editor for the American Journal of Public Health expressed concern that these bills propose warnings that do not agree with established scientific findings .
Bioethicist Jacob M. Appel argues that the mandatory disclosure statutes might be unconstitutional on " rational basis " grounds . Childbirth is significantly more dangerous than abortion , data that is not required in any disclosure law but which is necessary for a meaningful understanding of risks . According to Appel , " [ i ] f the roughly fifty million abortions that have occurred in the United States since Roe v. Wade had all ended in full @-@ term deliveries , approximately five hundred additional women would have died during childbirth . "
= = = National Cancer Institute = = =
The National Cancer Institute ( NCI ) has been a target of the anti @-@ abortion movement for the conclusions presented on its website . A report from the Committee on Oversight and Government Reform found that in November 2002 the Bush administration had altered the NCI website . The previous NCI analysis had concluded that , while some question regarding an association between abortion and breast cancer existed prior to the mid @-@ 1990s , a number of large and well @-@ regarded studies had resolved the issue in the negative . The Bush administration removed this analysis and replaced it with the following :
This alteration , which suggested that there was scientific uncertainty on the ABC issue , prompted an editorial in the New York Times describing it as an " egregious distortion " and a letter to the Secretary of Health and Human Services from members of Congress . In response to the alteration the NCI convened a three @-@ day consensus workshop entitled Early Reproductive Events and Breast Cancer on 24 – 26 February 2003 . The workshop concluded that induced abortion does not increase a woman 's risk of breast cancer , and that the evidence for this had been well established . Afterwards , the director of epidemiology research for the American Cancer Society stated , " [ t ] his issue has been resolved scientifically … This is essentially a political debate . "
Brind was the only attendee at the workshop to file a dissenting opinion as a minority report criticizing the conclusions . He contends the workshop evidence and findings were overly controlled by its organizers and that the time allotted was too short for a thorough review of the literature .
= = = North Dakota lawsuit = = =
In January 2000 , Amy Jo Kjolsrud ( née Mattson ) , an anti @-@ abortion counselor , sued the Red River Women 's Clinic in Fargo , North Dakota , alleging false advertising . The suit , Kjolsrud v. MKB Management Corporation , alleged that the clinic was misleading women by distributing a brochure quoting a National Cancer Institute fact sheet on the ABC hypothesis . The brochure stated :
The case was originally scheduled for 11 September 2001 , but was delayed as a result of the terrorist attacks . On 25 March 2002 , the trial began . After four days of testimony , Judge Michael McGuire ruled in favor of the clinic .
Linda Rosenthal , an attorney from the Center for Reproductive Rights characterized the decision thus : " [ t ] he judge rejected the abortion – breast cancer scare tactic . This ruling should put to rest the unethical , anti @-@ choice scare tactic of using pseudo @-@ science to harass abortion clinics and scare women . " John Kindley , one of the lawyers representing Kjolsrud stated : " I think most citizens , whether they are pro @-@ choice or anti @-@ abortion , believe in an individual 's right to self @-@ determination . They believe people shouldn 't be misled and should be told about [ procedural ] risks , even if there is controversy over those risks . " Kindley also wrote a 1998 Wisconsin Law Review article outlining the viability of medical malpractice lawsuits based upon not informing patients considering abortion about the ABC hypothesis .
The decision was appealed and on 23 September 2003 the North Dakota Supreme Court ruled that Kjolsrud did not have standing and affirmed the lower court ruling dismissing the action . The appeal noted that Kjolsrud " concedes she had not read the brochures before filing her action . " The appeal also noted that after the lawsuit was filed , the abortion clinic updated their brochure to the following :
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= Circuit City Stores , Inc. v. Adams =
Circuit City Stores , Inc. v. Adams , 532 U.S. 105 ( 2001 ) , was a United States Supreme Court case decided in 2001 . The case concerned whether the " section one exemption " of the Federal Arbitration Act applied to an employment contract of an employee at Circuit City Stores . The Court held that the exemption was limited to the specific listing of professions contained in the text . This decision meant that general employment contracts , like the one Adams sued under , would have to be arbitrated in accordance with the federal statute .
= = Background = =
In 1995 , Saint Clair Adams , who was hired as a sales counselor , signed an employment application with Circuit City . A provision in Adams ' application required all employment disputes to be settled by arbitration . Specifically , it stated :
" I agree that I will settle any and all previously unasserted claims , disputes or controversies arising out of or relating to my application or candidacy for employment , employment and / or cessation of employment with Circuit City , exclusively by final and binding arbitration before a neutral Arbitrator ... "
In 1997 , Adams filed an employment discrimination lawsuit against Circuit City in California state court , alleging violations of state employment law . Circuit City then filed suit in Federal District Court , seeking to enjoin the state @-@ court action and to compel arbitration of Adams ' claims under the Federal Arbitration Act . The District Court entered an order to that effect because it decided that Adams was obligated by the arbitration agreement . In reversing , the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals found that the arbitration agreement between Adams and Circuit City was contained in a " contract of employment , " and thus not subject to the Act under section 1 of the Act . Section 1 of the FAA excludes " contracts of employment of seamen , railroad employees , or any other class of workers engaged in foreign or interstate commerce " from the Act 's coverage . Circuit City appealed to the Supreme Court which agreed to hear the case .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
Justice Anthony Kennedy wrote the majority opinion , reversing the Ninth Circuit and holding that the exception did not apply to this case . The main reason for this finding was the decision that section one 's exemption would only be confined to " transportation workers " . " The wording of [ section one ] calls for the application of the maxim ejusdem generis , the statutory canon that ' where general words follow specific words in a statutory enumeration , the general words are construed to embrace only objects similar in nature to those objects enumerated by the preceding specific words ... ' " . Under this method of reading the statute , he would be able to reach an understanding of what the exemption meant . He wrote , " Under this rule of construction the residual clause should be read to give effect to the terms ' seamen ' and ' railroad employees , ' and should itself be controlled and defined by reference to the enumerated categories of workers which are recited just before it ; the interpretation of the clause pressed by respondent fails to produce these results " . Therefore , section one " exempts from the FAA only contracts of employment of transportation workers " . Kennedy 's decision was joined by four other Justices to create a 5 @-@ justice majority .
= = = Dissenting opinions = = =
Justice John Paul Stevens wrote a dissent , with which Justices Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Stephen Breyer joined . Justice David Souter joined all sections of Stevens ' dissent besides a critique of previous decision of the Supreme Court in arbitration case law . Stevens examined the history of arbitration and the purpose of it throughout the century . The Federal Arbitration Act was designed , he explained , to maintain the enforceability of contractual agreements . But private arbitration is a whole other situation . Stevens wrote , " As the history of the legislation indicates , the potential disparity in bargaining power between individual employees and large employers was the source of organized labor ’ s opposition to the Act , which it feared would require courts to enforce unfair employment contracts " . He went on to quote the former Chief Justice of the Israeli Supreme Court , Aharon Barak in supporting the idea that the Court should look at the purpose of the act rather than its pure statutory language .
Justice Souter wrote a separate dissent which was joined by the other three Justices who signed onto Stevens ' dissent as listed above . He mainly attacked the method of the majority 's statutory reading and its failure to look at the statute " as a whole " . He wrote , " It is imputing something very odd to the working of the congressional brain to say that Congress took care to bar application of the Act to the class of employment contracts it most obviously had authority to legislate about in 1925 ... " With that understanding of the Act , he would have affirmed the decision and holding of the Ninth Circuit .
= = Subsequent history = =
The case was remanded to the Ninth Circuit , which declared the arbitration agreement unconscionable under California law . That precluded arbitration proceedings and allowed Adams to pursue a regular lawsuit in California courts . Adams was then able to pursue the original claims notwithstanding the decision by Justice Kennedy . In the aftermath of the case , legal analysts said that this case would be important for future arbitration case law .
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= Maman a tort =
" Maman a tort " is a 1984 song recorded by French artist Mylène Farmer . It was the debut single from Farmer 's first studio album Cendres de Lune , and marked the beginning of her collaboration with her long @-@ time composer , Laurent Boutonnat . With lyrics by Jérôme Dahan , who also helped compose the song with Boutonnat , the song was first released in March 1984 . An English @-@ language version , titled " My Mum Is Wrong " and produced by F. R. David , was released in September 1984 . " Maman a tort " was deemed as provocative at the time , as its ambiguous lyrics seem to deal with a lesbian love ; similarly , the video , which shows Farmer lightly dressed , was often censored on television when it was released . Generally well received by critics , the original French version of the song achieved modest success in comparison with the singer 's next singles , while the English @-@ language version was a commercial failure . The song did , however , allow Farmer to launch her singing career and establish her particular artistic style .
= = Background and writing = =
In December 1983 , Jerôme Dahan and Laurent Boutonnat , two friends , composed a song called " Maman a tort " , about lesbian love between a girl committed to a mental hospital and her nurse . To find a performer , they held a casting . A girl aged 15 – 16 was initially chosen to perform the song , before being rejected because she was too young to sing its sexually ambiguous lyrics . Boutonnat then decided to ask one of his friends , Mylène Gautier , to sing the track . Both composers have said that they thought Gautier seemed psychotic and thus was the ideal person to record the track . Boutonnat said : " As soon as I saw her , with her triangular face , I realized that this would be her and nobody else . She looked crazy , it was perfect . " After they decided to work with her , Gautier took the pseudonym of Farmer , as a tribute to actress Frances Farmer .
According to Jean @-@ Claude Déquéant , Farmer showed limited enthusiasm during the demo recordings and declared : " The voice was surprisingly present and she laughed after each take when listening " . Dahan was satisfied , because Farmer had a clear and deep voice and could easily reach high notes . Initial rehearsals were held at Dahan 's home . Dahan has said of these rehearsals : " There was a large room with a piano and there we repeated the staging of the song . Mylène had a hard time understanding all this , we had to teach her everything , starting with the choreography [ ... ] This probably did not look very professional . "
Recording of the French version of " Maman a tort " took place in Paris in January 1984 , with Farmer stating that the sessions were a " magic " moment . Later , the English @-@ language version of the song was recorded in an afternoon at the Dany Darras studio in Cernay . Farmer had no difficulty in singing in English because she spoke the language very well , having lived in Canada .
Initially Boutonnat and Dahan found it difficult to find a record company who would release the track , either because labels were worried about the song being censored due to the sexual nature of its lyrics or because they did not see any commercial potential in the track . In order to get a second appointment with RCA records the pair claimed they had remixed the song , even though they had not . Only after a third appointment with RCA did the label 's Francis Dacla give them a contract .
According to France Dimanche , the song saved the singer from entering into a loveless marriage . Farmer had become disillusioned with showbusiness after struggling to get even tiny roles in commercials and had resolved to wed a childhood friend , a student of the École nationale d 'administration , before she was selected to sing " Maman a tort " .
= = Release = =
The single was first released in France in March 1984 , but was not commercially successful . Several months later , it gained more success under the management of Bertrand Le Page , a famous artistic director . The song was heavily played on French radio . In view of the song 's success , Frédérick Leibovitz suggested that Farmer record an English @-@ language version of the single named " My Mum Is Wrong " , in an effort to win over a wider audience . This version was produced by F. R. David who also translated the lyrics , being motivated by affection for Le Page . The song was released in September in France and Canada . The English version was released in Germany , Italy and Scandinavia and was scheduled to be released in England and the United States . Extended versions of " Maman a tort " and " My Mum Is Wrong " were produced by Laurent Boutonnat and issued as 7 " maxi singles .
There were two covers for " Maman a tort " : the first release was produced in black and white and shows the singer looking sad and wearing a nightgown , the second release , in colour , shows her laughing . The second cover was based on an idea by Bertrand Le Page who thought that it would be better to give the public an image it wanted . The single 's Canadian release did not have a cover . A different cover was used for " My Mum Is Wrong " ' s vinyl , with the image used being similar to the second French release of " Maman a tort " . The B @-@ side of the song was an instrumental version of the track , as Farmer 's musical team had no budget to record another song . In 2003 , a remix version was produced by DJ Joaquim Garraud for the compilation album RemixeS but was not released .
= = Lyrics and music = =
The song is constructed like a nursery rhyme in which a young girl , while numbering facts between 1 and 8 , confesses her love for a female nurse . As written on the cover , the song is dedicated to the actress Frances Farmer , as well as King Ludwig II of Bavaria . Farmer explained at the time that the song was not autobiographical .
" Maman a tort " lays the foundation of Farmer 's musical universe , including many themes dealt with by the singer in subsequent releases . Among the topics discussed are transgression , love , the world of childhood , violence and death , mortality and suffering , sexuality , and social demands . The song also deals with psychoanalysis . The rhythm is catchy , and the lyrics , " dark and symbolic " , describe the conflicts between a daughter and her mother , as the title suggests . According to an analysis published by Sophie Khairallah , the lyrics could also refer to incest . They seem to be " innocent " and are sung " in the most ingenuous way " . Biographer Bernard Violet considers the song " a nursery rhyme with enigmatic but quite spicy lyrics which place it rather far from Sabine Paturel and her innocent song " Les Bêtises " " . Journalist Caroline Bee deemed the song as " a small efficient UFO , with a catchy and binary melody and a disconcerting video " .
In a 1984 interview Farmer discussed the song 's lyrics , stating : " It can happen to many children who are in hospital [ ... ] the nurses feed these children , tuck them into bed , kiss them before they sleep and therefore take the place of their mothers . So it is a little girl who tells her mother : I love the nurse " . She said in another interview : " But if people prefer to give this song a perverse sense , it is their problem " . Thus , she does not confirm the lesbian allusions that seem to emerge from the chorus ( the French verb " aimer " can mean either " to love " or " to like " ) . However , the song has been listed in several books dealing with homosexuality and explains the fact that many gay people were immediately attracted to Farmer 's world .
= = Music video = =
= = = Production and plot = = =
The music video was directed by Laurent Boutonnat who also wrote the screenplay , and produced by RCA , and was shot for one day and cost about 5 @,@ 000 francs ( 750 – 760 euro ) . Boutonnat wanted that the video would be filmed in cinemascope , but this was unusual at the time and the idea was finally withdrawn .
The video begins with a portrait of Sigmund Freud in close @-@ up , then shows a picture of Farmer 's mother . The song 's lyrics are subtitled . Still images of Farmer are then shown in silhouette wearing a white and transparent nightgown . With each line of the song , an image of Farmer appears . When the chorus begins , Farmer turns blue and begins to dance in front of a backdrop featuring stars and the moon . Three children are shown looking at Farmer . After another verse , which again features still images of Farmer , shots of the singer jumping are intercut with shots of her singing along with the track with her arms clutched to her breast . Afterwards Farmer and the three children are shown holding placards with the words " Maman a tort " . Following another verse the singer 's decapitated head is pictured on a plate on a table in front of the children who are holding knives and forks . The singer is again shown in blue and cries before being slapped in the face . A low @-@ angle shot of Farmer shows her readjusting the strap of her nightgown and is intercut with images of her in silhouette . The video ends with a portrait of Freud .
Another more ambitious and dramatic video had originally been planned by Boutonnat . Farmer would have been shown in a wheelchair pushed by a nun nurse , who she had feeling for . As the singer cannot understand this relationship , and faces the disapproval of her mother because of it , Farmer decides to commit suicide by throwing herself from the top of a cliff . The story board was even presented in the media , but Farmer 's recording company RCA did not agree with to the project , especially since this video would have cost 70 @,@ 000 euro to make . There was no video for " My Mum Is Wrong " .
= = = Reviews = = =
The video caused " a veritable stir in the music world " because " Boutonnat cast [ Farmer ] as a kind of provocative Lolita figure " . As she wears a transparent nightgown in the music video , some French television channels censored it . It was first aired on the French television programme Clip Clap in a shortened version . In an interview , Farmer deplored the censorship , saying : " [ it ] has shocked many people . I find it pretty stupid . Jacques Dutronc said " Merde in France " and everyone went into raptures . As for me , I simply say that I enjoyed the controversy " .
Despite the low cost of the video , it was described in the press as " beautiful " by Chanson and " one of the best music videos of the year " by Télé Star . In contrast , the French newspaper Le Provençal called the video " useless : static , unimaginative " and claimed that it was low @-@ budget . For his part , Violet described the video as being " half way between fotonovela and shadow play " and said that it provides " a blend of ethereal and childish sensuality , of measured provocation and of obsessive victimization " .
= = Critical reception = =
The song was generally very well received by the press at the time . Boys and Girls considered it " undoubtedly one of the hits of the summer of 1984 " , OK called it " a very promising first 7 " " , and Chanson 84 stated that it was " great : rhythmic , spicy , original ; the orchestration , based on a synth and drums , is enriched over the couplets " . Le Matin de Paris said it was " a funny perverse little song " , and Les Grands de la Variété stated : " The tone is original , the music is subtle : it 's a good surprise " .
" Maman a tort " did not appear in the French Top 50 Singles Chart because the chart had not been created at the time . The sales of the single were about 100 @,@ 000 ( 220 @,@ 000 , according to French magazine Elle ) , which was deemed as a " decent performance " and a " first success , not a triumphant one " . " My Mum Is Wrong " was not successful and its sales are unknown . In March 2014 " Maman a Tort " entered the French Singles Chart at number 104 due to digital downloads by Farmer 's fans as a tribute to her thirty @-@ year singing career .
= = Promotion and live performances = =
Bertrand Le Page provided many opportunities for Farmer to perform the song on television . French host Michel Drucker was the first to allow the singer to perform on his show , Champs Élysées . From that moment , the song was widely played on radio and aroused the curiosity of the public .
Throughout 1984 , Farmer actively promoted " Maman a tort " and performed it in on many French television programs broadcast on TF1 , Antenne 2 , FR3 and TMC . From February 1985 to December 1986 , when her next three singles — " On est tous des imbéciles " , " Plus grandir " and " Libertine " — were released , Farmer promoted them on many television shows , but she also sang " Maman a tort " on these occasions . In total , the song has been performed over twenty times on television . Her performance on Salut les Mickey was censored because of the song 's ambiguous lyrics . According to author Erwan Chuberre , Farmer 's performances on television were generally deemed as unconvincing , because she had never taken dance lessons at the time , and her colored dresses were not very tasteful . In spite of these performances , Farmer had difficulty achieving notoriety and , on an advice of Le Page , she extended the promotion of the song to include interviews in magazines for teenagers .
The song was included in the set list of Farmer 's 1989 tour and was performed as a duet . Carole Fredericks , one of Farmer 's vocalists , portrayed the nurse , and in a long monologue , she complained about one of her female patients , who was difficult to bear . Farmer , hidden beneath Frederick 's long dress , suddenly appeared , wearing pyjamas , and performed the song by waddling like a little child . The song was also performed during the Mylenium Tour but included in a medley composed of her 1980s greatest hits . A snippet of the song was performed on the opening night of the Timeless Tour on 7 September 2013 in Paris . As for " My Mum Is Wrong " , it does not appear on any of Farmer 's albums and has not been performed on stage .
= = Cover versions = =
The song has been covered five times . First , in the late 1990s , by French singer Lio for a 1984 hits compilation , then in 2000 , by Beyond the Nightmare , but this version was not released as a single . In 2003 the song was released twice : first by Yohann and Gabrielle , two contestants of À la Recherche de la Nouvelle Star , on the album 1ers Tubes on which it appears as 13th track , and then by MF2003 ; his version , released in the United Kingdom as a 7 " maxi single , included an instrumental version named " My Mum Is Dub " as a B @-@ side , was unsuccessful and failed to chart . In 2010 Momus recorded an English translation of this song titled ' The Orderly ' .
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the formats and track listings of single releases of " Maman a tort " and " My Mum Is Wrong " :
" Maman a tort "
7 " single – First and second releases
7 " maxi
Digital download ( since 2005 )
" My Mum Is Wrong "
7 " single
7 " maxi – Promo
= = Official versions = =
= = Personnel and credits = =
These are the credits and the personnel as they appear on the back of the single :
Jérôme Dahan – lyrics , music
Laurent Boutonnat – music
Jean @-@ Claude Déquéant – recording , at " Le matin calme " studio
Philippe Omnès – mixing , at Davout studio
Bertrand Le Page – editions
RCA – recording company
John Frost – photo
= = Release history = =
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= St Cwyllog 's Church , Llangwyllog =
St Cwyllog 's Church , Llangwyllog is a medieval church near Llangwyllog , in Anglesey , north Wales . St Cwyllog founded a church here in the 6th century , although the exact date is unknown . The existence of a church here was recorded in 1254 and parts of the present building may date from around 1200 . Other parts are from the 15th century , with an unusual annexe ( possibly intended for use as a schoolroom ) added in the 16th century . The church contains some 18th @-@ century fittings , including a rare Georgian three @-@ decker pulpit and reading desk .
The church is still in use for worship by the Church in Wales , as one of seven churches in a combined group of parishes . It is a Grade II * listed building , a national designation given to " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " , because it is regarded as a " good rural medieval church " with some features from the 15th century , as well as the 18th @-@ century fittings .
= = History and location = =
St Cwyllog 's Church is in a rural location in the middle of Anglesey , about 3 miles ( 5 km ) north @-@ west of Llangefni , the county town , and a short distance from the small village of Llangwyllog . The village takes its name from the church : the Welsh word llan originally meant " enclosure " and then " church " , and " – gwyllog " is a modified form of the saint 's name .
The first church on this site was established by Cwyllog , a female saint , in the 6th century , although the exact date is unknown . She was one of the daughters of St Caw , a king in northern Britain who lost his lands and sought safety with his family in Anglesey , where the ruler Maelgwn Gwynedd gave him land . There was a church here at the time of the Norwich Taxation in 1254 , and the present walls may date from around 1200 . In the 13th century , the church was under the control of the Augustinian canons of the priory at Penmon , on the east of Anglesey , with the priory gaining the income from the tithes paid to the church . The priory gradually diminished in size and importance , and in 1522 the prior and two canons ( the entire community , at that stage ) affixed their signature to the lease of Llangywllog church to Richard Bulkeley ( a member of a prominent family from the Anglesey town of Beaumaris ) for the period of 100 years at an annual rent of £ 1 .
The north doorway and the east window are from the late 15th century . An annexe was added at the west end in the latter half of the 16th century . Some restoration work was carried out in 1812 , funded by Thomas Bulkeley , 7th Viscount Bulkeley , with further work in 1854 .
St Cwyllog 's , now part of the Church in Wales , is still used for services , although in 2011 a service was only scheduled on the third Sunday of each month in the afternoon . The church is one of three in the parish of Llannerch @-@ y @-@ medd , which is part of a combined benefice with four other parishes ( Llandrygarn , Bodwrog , Heneglwys and Trewalchmai ) which have seven churches in total . The parish is in the deanery of Malltraeth and the archdeaconry of Bangor , within the Diocese of Bangor . As of 2013 , the position of vicar is vacant .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
The church is built from rubble masonry with very large boulder quoins ; the roof is made from slate with stone copings . The main part of the church is 45 feet 6 inches long by 15 feet 3 inches wide ( 13 @.@ 87 by 4 @.@ 65 m ) ; the annexe at the west end measures 20 feet 6 inches by 15 feet 6 inches ( 6 @.@ 25 by 4 @.@ 72 m ) . At the west end of the roof of the nave , there is a bellcote with a single bell decorated with three bull heads , dated 1661 ; at the east end , there is a cross . There is no structural division between the nave and the chancel . The annexe at the west end is smaller and lower in height than the main building , and was built in line with it . It may have been built for use as a schoolroom . It has a 16th @-@ century doorway at the west end , converted into a window in the 19th century , and a modern door at the east end , as well as an 18th @-@ century fireplace . The main entrance into the church is on the north side of the nave , dating from the late 15th century . The doorway is pointed , in a square frame .
The east window in the chancel is from the 15th century . There are three lights , headed with trefoils , in a pointed arch . Stained glass by the Pre @-@ Raphaelite artist Henry Holiday was added in 1882 . The windows in the north wall are from the late 16th century , and have square heads . The south wall has one similar window , and two copies from the 19th century .
The church has a cylindrical stone font dating from the 13th century , carved with decorations , particularly an elaborate leaf design and a knotwork pattern . The decoration , however , is incomplete and about one @-@ third of it was left unfinished . Other fittings date on the whole from the late 18th century , as St Cywllog 's was refurbished in 1769 . They include a triple @-@ decker pulpit combined with a reading desk , with panelling to the front and sides and further panelling at the back of the pulpit . It bears an inscription " M T I I WARDENS 1769 " . The altar has communion rails on three sides , which are probably of similar date to the pulpit , and seats nearby in the chancel on the north and south walss . There are various 18th @-@ century memorials . To the east of the pulpit , one box pew dates from the 18th century , another from the 19th ; to the west , there are open benches . The church 's chest is dated 1804 , and there are hat pegs on the walls .
St Cwyllog 's has three chalices , made from silver , from the 16th century . The lid of one of them ( dated 1578 ) was returned to the church in 2010 by an antiques dealer who had purchased it several years before , thinking it to be a Tudor sugar lid . Further investigations showed that it had once belonged to a nearby closed church that had transferred its silver to St Cwyllog 's . A chance conversation between the antiques dealer and a local clergyman at an archeology group led to the discovery that the lid had the same silversmith 's mark and fitted one of the chalices , and the dealer thereafter decided that she ought to return it to the church .
= = Assessment = =
The church has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II * listed building – the second @-@ highest ( of three ) grade of listing , designating " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " . It was given this status on 12 May 1970 , and has been listed as " a good rural medieval church which retains some C15 features and the original simple medieval plan " . Cadw ( the Welsh Assembly Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists ) also notes the 18th @-@ century fittings and memorials , and adds that the addition of a west annexe is unusual for Anglesey .
The 19th @-@ century antiquarian Angharad Llwyd described the church as " small , but remarkably well built " , and mentioned the " ancient and curious chapel at the west end of the nave . " Writing in 1859 , the clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones said that St Cwyllog 's had " rather better architectural features about it than most of the small churches in Anglesey . " A 2009 guide to the buildings of the region describes the 1854 restoration as " tactful " , and notes the " rare surviving Georgian fittings " , including the pulpit . A 2011 guide to the religious buildings of Wales says that St Cwyllog 's has " the earliest and finest of several pre @-@ ecclesiological church interiors in Anglesey " .
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= The Fighting Irish =
" The Fighting Irish " is the seventeenth episode of NBC 's first season of 30 Rock . It was written by one of the season 's co @-@ executive producers , Jack Burditt and it was directed by Dennie Gordon . It aired on March 8 , 2007 in the United States . Guest stars who appeared in this episode were Dan Bakkedahl , Katrina Bowden , Henry Boyle , Anna Chlumsky , Siobhan Fallon Hogan , Chris Hoch , Alice Kremelberg , Nathan Lane , Boris McGiver , John F Mooney , Brian Murray , Maulik Pancholy , Lonny Ross , Molly Shannon , Jason Sudeikis and Kristen Sudeikis .
The episode features the appearance of Jack Donaghy 's ( played by Alec Baldwin ) brother , Eddie Donaghy ( Nathan Lane ) , who visits Jack claiming that their father ( Brian Murray ) is dead . Jack also tells Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) that she has to fire ten percent of her staff . Liz struggles with this task until she meets Floyd 's ( Jason Sudeikis ) girlfriend , Liz Lemler ( Anna Chlumsky ) , who works in the accounting department at TGS with Tracy Jordan , a fictional sketch comedy series for which Liz is the head writer .
= = Plot = =
Jack 's down @-@ and @-@ out brother , Eddie , pays him a visit claiming that their father is dead . Jack and Eddie , after feuding , later bond and they even decide to invite their sisters ( Molly Shannon and Siobhan Fallon Hogan ) and brother @-@ in @-@ law ( Boris McGiver ) to 30 Rock for an impromptu family reunion . As his family are about to watch a taping of TGS , Jack 's supposedly dead father visits Jack in his office , claiming that Eddie is dead . This eventually leads to an argument on the TGS stage and Liz getting beaten up by one of Jack 's sisters , Katherine Catherine .
Meanwhile , Liz has been told by Jack that she has to fire ten percent of her staff . While the staff try their best to keep their jobs , Liz struggles with making a decision of whom to fire . Liz 's problem is solved when Floyd , for whom Liz has romantic feelings , tells her that his girlfriend works in accounting at TGS . After Liz fires Floyd 's girlfriend , she goes on a rampage around 30 Rock firing people , including her producer Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) , who disagrees with her decision to fire Floyd 's girlfriend for her own personal gain . Jack later tells her that he hired all the fired people back , but he is transferring Floyd 's girlfriend to General Electric headquarters in Fairfield , Connecticut .
Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) has been told by his lawyer that he should join a religion . He asks advice of people including Liz and Jack , going as far as attending church with Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) . When Eddie explains Irish Catholicism to Tracy , he decides that this is the religion he was looking for and joins .
= = Production = =
Jason Sudeikis , Molly Shannon and Siobhan Fallon Hogan , who played Floyd , Katherine Catherine and Patrica in this episode , have all appeared in the main cast of Saturday Night Live , a weekly sketch comedy series which airs on NBC in the United States .
Kristen Sudeikis , the sister of Jason Sudeikis , appeared in this episode as an " advanced hip @-@ hop groove " gym class instructor . Kristen Sudeikis is a professional choreographer .
Judah Friedlander , who portrays Frank Rossitano in 30 Rock , is known for his trademark trucker hats which he wears in and out of the Frank character . The hats normally have short words or phrases glued onto them . Friedlander has stated that he makes the hats himself . He has also said that " some are in @-@ jokes , and some are just flat out jokes . " The idea came from Friedlander 's stand @-@ up persona in which his hats are all printed with " world champion " in different languages in different appearances . In this episode , Frank wears an " extra @-@ flashy ' Liz Rocks ' hat " to try and persuade Liz not to fire him .
This episode is the third episode written by Jack Burditt after " Jack Meets Dennis " and " The Baby Show " . Also , this is the first episode directed by Dennie Gordon .
= = Reception = =
In the U.S. , this episode was viewed by 5 @.@ 2 million viewers and received a rating of 2 @.@ 5 / 6 in the key adults 18 – 49 demographic according to the Nielsen ratings system . The 2 @.@ 5 refers to 2 @.@ 5 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and the 6 refers to 6 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast .
Robert Canning of IGN wrote that " while the episode was fun , there just weren 't as many of the laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moments that have made recent episode so memorable . " Matt Webb Mitovich of TV Guide wrote that " something about this week 's episode , in which Liz claimed power , Jack found family and Tracy sought religion ( a subplot deserving of far greater screen time ) , just wasn 't clicking for [ him ] . " Julia Ward of AOL 's TV Squad thought that " this episode didn 't reach the farcical highs of ' Black Tie ' . It was more standard sitcom fare than goofy bliss , but it wasn 't bad . "
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= Hydra the Revenge =
Hydra the Revenge ( simply known as Hydra ) is a steel Floorless Coaster at Dorney Park & Wildwater Kingdom in Allentown , Pennsylvania ( USA ) . It is the only Floorless Coaster in Pennsylvania and was built where the former wooden roller coaster Hercules once stood , which was closed and demolished at the end of the park 's 2003 season . Its name comes from the Greek Mythology story where Hercules battled the Hydra .
= = History = =
Hercules was a wooden roller coaster that sat in the current location of Hydra the Revenge . In 2003 , the coaster was closed and demolished . On September 14 , 2004 , the $ 13 million Hydra the Revenge was announced . Construction began in the spring of 2004 and continued through the winter . Hydra the Revenge was topped off ( highest piece of the lift hill ) on August 20 , 2004 and the entire track layout was completed on December 4 , 2004 . The first cars for the coaster arrived at Dorney Park on December 10 , 2004 and the first ride with people on a train took place on March 24 , 2005 . The roller coaster officially opened to the public on May 7 , 2005 .
= = = Backstory = = =
The name of the roller coaster comes from the story of Hercules in Greek Mythology . According to the story , Hercules had to perform twelve labours . After defeating the Nemean lion for the first labour , the second was to defeat the Hydra , a nine @-@ headed creature with eight serpentine heads that would regrow each time they were cut off , including one that was immortal . Dorney Park altered the remainder of the story- after Hercules managed to defeat the Hydra initially , he buried the immortal head stuck under a stone , with the intention of sealing it for all time . Years later however , the head slowly grew back , resurrecting the Hydra and taking its revenge on Hercules by killing him ; hence why the Hydra roller coaster sits where Hercules once did .
= = Experience = =
Once the floor drops and the front gate opens , the train is dispatched leading straight into the first element , a heartline roll . Upon exiting the roll , the train makes a 180 degree right turn and begins to climb the 95 @-@ foot ( 29 m ) lift hill . Once at the top , the train drops down 105 feet ( 32 m ) at a 68 degree angle . Then , the train makes a slight right turn into a 62 @-@ foot ( 19 m ) inclined diving loop before going through a zero @-@ gravity roll . Next , immediately after the roll , the train enters the first of two corkscrews . After exiting the corkscrew , the train then goes through a cobra roll . After an upward left turn , followed by a downard right turn , the train goes over an airtime hill before entering the second corkscrew . The train then makes a banked right turn , then a left turn which leads into the brake run . Once back at the station , after the floors come back up and the front gate closes , the riders unload and the next ones load .
One cycle of the ride lasts about 2 minutes and 35 seconds .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Trains = = =
Hydra the Revenge operates with two steel and fiberglass trains . Each train has eight cars that can seat four riders in a single row for a total of 32 riders per train . Each train has two shades of green and pink on the bottom section while the seats and over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraints are also pink . Each seat has an over @-@ the @-@ shoulder harness with an interlocking seatbelt . The trains have no floor as the riders ' legs can dangle throughout the ride .
= = = Track = = =
The steel track of Hydra the Revenge is approximately 3 @,@ 198 feet ( 975 m ) long , the height of the lift is approximately 95 feet ( 29 m ) high , and the entire track weighs about 1 @,@ 368 @,@ 000 pounds ( 621 @,@ 000 kg ) . It was manufactured by Clermont Steel Fabricators located in Batavia , Ohio . The track has two shades of green while the supports are turquoise .
= = Reception = =
Jeremy Thompson from Roller Coaster Philosophy said that " the ride itself is okay , but I ’ m not sure if I really loved the whole experience . " , but that " still , it ’ s got a more interesting layout . " A group of roller coaster enthusiasts also came to the conclusion that the ride wasn 't the best but still good , " The general consensus is that it 's a good , but not quite great , ride that 's perfect for family @-@ oriented Dorney . "
= = = Awards = = =
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= Texas Tech University =
Texas Tech University , often referred to as Texas Tech , Tech , or TTU , is a public research university in Lubbock , Texas , and the flagship institution of the Texas Tech University System . Established on February 10 , 1923 , and originally known as Texas Technological College , it is the leading institution of the four @-@ institution Texas Tech University System . The university 's student enrollment is the sixth @-@ largest in the state of Texas , as of the Fall 2014 semester . The university shares its campus with Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center , making it the only campus in Texas to house an undergraduate university , law school , and medical school at the same location .
The university offers degrees in more than 150 courses of study through 13 colleges and hosts 60 research centers and institutes . Texas Tech University has awarded over 200 @,@ 000 degrees since 1927 , including over 40 @,@ 000 graduate and professional degrees . The Carnegie Foundation classifies Texas Tech as having " highest research activity " . Research projects in the areas of epidemiology , pulsed power , grid computing , nanophotonics , atmospheric sciences , and wind energy are among the most prominent at the university . The Spanish Renaissance @-@ themed campus , described by author James Michener as " the most beautiful west of the Mississippi until you get to Stanford " , has been awarded the Grand Award for excellence in grounds @-@ keeping , and has been noted for possessing a public art collection among the ten best in the United States .
The Texas Tech Red Raiders are charter members of the Big 12 Conference and compete in Division I for all varsity sports . The Red Raiders football team has made 36 bowl appearances , which is 17th most of any university . The Red Raiders basketball team has made 14 appearances in the NCAA Division I Tournament . Bob Knight has coached the second most wins in men 's NCAA Division I basketball history and served as the team 's head coach from 2001 to 2008 . The Lady Raiders basketball team won the 1993 NCAA Division I Tournament . In 1999 , Texas Tech 's Goin ' Band from Raiderland received the Sudler Trophy , which is awarded to " recognize collegiate marching bands of particular excellence " .
Though the majority of the university 's students originate in the southwestern United States , the school has served students from all 50 states and more than 100 countries . Texas Tech University alumni and former students have gone on to prominent careers in government , business , science , medicine , education , sports , and entertainment .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment = = =
The call to open a college in West Texas began shortly after the arrival of settlers in the area in the 1880s . In 1917 , the Texas legislature passed a bill creating a branch of Texas A & M to be located in Abilene . However , the bill was repealed two years later during the next session after it was discovered that Governor James E. Ferguson had falsely reported the site committee 's choice of location . After new legislation passed in the state house and senate in 1921 , Governor Pat Neff vetoed it , citing hard financial times in West Texas . Furious about Neff 's veto , some in West Texas went so far as to recommend that West Texas secede from the state .
In 1923 , the legislature decided , rather than a branch campus , an entirely new university would better serve the needs of the region under legislation co @-@ authored by State Senator William H. Bledsoe of Lubbock and State Representative Roy Alvin Baldwin of Slaton in southern Lubbock County . On February 10 , 1923 , Neff signed the legislation creating Texas Technological College , and in July of that year , a committee began searching for a site . When the members of the committee visited Lubbock , they were overwhelmed to find residents lining the streets to show support for the idea of hosting the institution . That August , Lubbock was chosen on the first ballot over other area towns , including Floydada , Plainview , Big Spring , and Sweetwater .
Construction of the college campus began on November 1 , 1924 . Ten days later , the cornerstone of the Administration Building was laid in front of a crowd of 20 @,@ 000 people . Governor Pat Neff , Amon G. Carter , Reverend E. E. Robinson , Colonel Ernest O. Thompson , and Representative Richard M. Chitwood , the chairman of the House Education Committee , who became the first Texas Tech business manager , spoke at the event . Chitwood served in the position only fifteen months ; he died in November 1926 . With an enrollment of 914 students — both men and women — Texas Technological College opened for classes on October 1 , 1925 . It was originally composed of four schools — Agriculture , Engineering , Home Economics , and Liberal Arts .
Texas Tech grew slowly in the early years . During the 1930s , Bradford Knapp , the university 's second president , proceeded with an expansion program , which included new dormitories , the first library ( now the mathematics building ) , a golf course , a swimming pool , paved streets and alleys , and landscaping . A proposed $ 80 @,@ 000 allocation for a football stadium was shelved . The library won the approval of Governor James V. Allred . Because the state cut appropriations by 30 % at the start of the Great Depression , President Knapp applied for assistance from the major New Deal agencies to expand Texas Tech , including the Works Progress Administration , Public Works Administration ( PWA ) , Civil Works Administration , and the National Youth Administration . Wyatt C. Hedrick , son @-@ in @-@ law of Governor Ross S. Sterling , was the architect of all campus PWA projects .
Military training was conducted at the college as early as 1925 , but formal Reserve Officers ' Training Corps training did not commence until 1936 . By 1939 , the school 's enrollment had grown to 3 @,@ 890 . Though enrollment declined during World War II , Texas Tech trained 4 @,@ 747 men in its armed forces training detachments . Following the war , in 1946 , the college saw its enrollment leap to 5 @,@ 366 from a low of 1 @,@ 696 in 1943 .
= = = Expansion and growth = = =
By the 1960s , the school had expanded its offerings to more than just technical subjects . The Faculty Advisory Committee suggested changing the name to " Texas State University " , feeling the phrase " Technological College " was insufficient to define the scope of the institution . While most students supported this change , the Board of Directors and many alumni , wanting to preserve the Double T , opposed it . Other names — University of the Southwest , Texas Technological College and State University , and The Texas University of Art , Science and Technology — were considered , but the Board of Directors chose Texas Tech University , submitting it to the state legislature in 1964 . A failed move by Governor John Connally to have the school placed into the Texas A & M University System , as well as continued disagreement and heated debate regarding the school 's new name , kept the name change from being approved . In spite of objections by many students and faculty , the Board of Directors again submitted the change in 1969 . It finally received the legislature 's approval on June 6 and the name Texas Tech University went into effect that September . All of the institution 's schools , except Law , became colleges .
Texas Tech was integrated in 1961 when three African @-@ American students were admitted . After its initial rejection of the students ' enrollment and the threat of a subsequent lawsuit , the university enacted a policy to admit " all qualified applicants regardless of color " . The university offered its first athletic scholarship to a black student in 1967 , when Danny Hardaway was recruited to play for the Red Raiders football team . In 1970 , Hortense W. Dixon became the first African American student to earn a doctorate from the university .
In the 1960s and 1970s , the university invested US $ 150 million in the campus to construct buildings for the library , foreign languages , social sciences , communications , philosophy , electrical and petroleum engineering , art , and architecture . Some other buildings were significantly expanded . On May 29 , 1969 , the 61st Texas Legislature created the Texas Tech University School of Medicine . The Texas Legislature expanded the medical school charter in 1979 , creating the Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center . TTUHSC , which is now part of the Texas Tech University System , includes Schools of Allied Health Sciences , Medicine , Nursing , Pharmacy , and the Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences . It has locations in four Texas cities in addition to the main campus in Lubbock . In 2011 , the combined enrollment in the Texas Tech University System was greater than 42 @,@ 000 students — a 48 % increase since 2000 . Chancellor Kent Hance reiterated plans for Texas Tech 's main campus to reach enrollment of 40 @,@ 000 students by 2020 , with additional 5 @,@ 000 students at Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center and 10 @,@ 000 students at Angelo State University .
= = = Recent history = = =
In 1996 , the Board of Regents of Texas Tech University created the Texas Tech University System . Former State Senator John T. Montford , later of San Antonio , was selected as the first chancellor to lead the combined academic enterprise . Regents Chair Edward Whitacre Jr. stated the move was made due to the size and complexity of the institution . " It 's time " , he said , " to take the university into the 21st century " . The Texas Tech University system originally included Texas Tech University and Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center . On November 6 , 2007 , the voters of Texas approved an amendment to the Texas Constitution realigning Angelo State University with the Texas Tech University System . Kent Hance , a Texas Tech graduate who had served as United States Representative and as one of the three elected members of the Texas Board which regulates the oil @-@ and @-@ gas industry , assumed the duties of chancellor on December 1 , 2006 .
Though growth continued at Texas Tech , the university was not immune to controversy . In 2003 , a third @-@ year student at the Texas Tech School of Law filed suit against the university over its policy on free speech zones , which restricted student speech to a single " free speech gazebo " . The following year , a federal judge declared the policy unconstitutional .
To meet the demands of its increased enrollment and expanding research , the university has invested more than $ 548 million in new construction since 2000 . It has also received more than $ 65 @.@ 9 million in private donations . In April 2009 , the Texas House of Representatives passed a bill to increase state funding for seven public universities . Texas Tech University is classified by the state as an " Emerging Research University " , and is among the universities that will receive additional state funding for advancement toward " Tier 1 " status . Three funds — the Research University Development Fund , the Texas Research Incentive Program , and the National Research University Benchmark Fund — have been established and will provide $ 500 million in grants and matching funds during fiscal years 2010 and 2011 . On September 2 , 2009 , the university announced it had received private gifts totaling $ 24 @.@ 3 million . Of these , $ 21 @.@ 5 million are eligible for match under the Texas Research Incentive Program . In January 2016 , Duane Nellis resigned from the position of President and was replaced by interim President John Opperman .
In late 2011 and throughout 2012 @-@ 13 , construction began on a several new buildings on campus . The construction included a new $ 20 million Petroleum Engineering and Research building , a new building to house the Rawls College of Business , two new residence halls , a $ 3 @.@ 5 million chapel , and extensive remodeling of the building that previously housed the Rawls College of Business .
The school 's endowment surpassed the $ 1 billion barrier for the first time in March 2014 at $ 1 @,@ 043 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
= = Academic profile = =
By enrollment , Texas Tech is the sixth @-@ largest university in Texas and the largest institution of higher education in the western two @-@ thirds of the state . In the Fall 2014 semester , Texas Tech set a record enrollment with 35 @,@ 134 students . For the 2014 enrollment year , most students came from Texas ( 95 @.@ 17 % ) , followed by New Mexico , California , Colorado , Oklahoma , and Florida . Altogether , the university has educated students from all 50 US states and over 100 foreign countries . Enrollment has continued to increase in recent years , and growth is on track with a plan to have 40 @,@ 000 students by the year 2020 . From 1927 to 2011 , the university awarded 173 @,@ 551 bachelor 's , 34 @,@ 541 master 's , 5 @,@ 906 doctoral , and 7 @,@ 092 law degrees .
The Princeton Review ranked Texas Tech among the 125 best colleges in the Western United States in its 2015 edition . The 2016 U.S. News & World Report rankings listed the university at 168th nationally and 91st amongst public schools . The 2013 Shanghai Jiao Tong Rankings placed Texas Tech University at 401 worldwide , which tied it with fellow Big 12 schools , Oklahoma and Kansas State , among others . In 2010 , the Wall Street Journal ranked the university 18th in its ranking of graduate desirability for job recruiters . Three of the University 's undergraduate programs are ranked by PayScale as in the top 20 nationally in mid @-@ career salary : Art , Physical and Life Sciences , and Education . In its 2015 edition , U.S. News & World Report noted the university has a " selective " admissions policy . As a state public university , Texas Tech is subject to Texas House Bill 588 , which guarantees Texas high school seniors in the top 10 % of their graduating class admission to any public Texas university . In 2012 , 20 @.@ 3 % of incoming freshmen were admitted in this manner . About half of incoming freshmen finished in the top quarter of their graduating classes . In 2016 , the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education listed Texas Tech among 115 most prominent research schools , commonly known as " Carnegie Tier One " .
Texas Tech University is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools . The university offers 150 bachelor 's , 104 master 's , and 59 doctoral degree programs . Texas Tech has five satellite campuses located in Texas — in Abilene , Amarillo , Fredericksburg , Highland Lakes , and Junction . Texas Tech also has a satellite campus in Europe , located in Seville , Spain . Additional study @-@ abroad programs are offered in various countries , such as Denmark , England , France , and Italy .
The Office of International Affairs supports and facilitates the international mission of Texas Tech University . It provides services for faculty and students , offers international educational and cultural experiences for the school and community , and contributes to the university 's globalization process and its effort to grow as an international educational and research center . The International Cultural Center provides a continual series of conferences , lectures , art exhibitions , and performances .
= = = Colleges and schools = = =
Texas Tech has expanded from its original four schools to comprise ten colleges and two schools . In 2008 , the College of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources ranked among the 30 largest schools of agriculture in the country by enrollment .
In the 2015 U.S. News & World Report report on higher education , the Whitacre College of Engineering was ranked 94th in the nation . In 2009 , the college 's Petroleum Engineering Department was ranked 10th best in the nation . The college offers 11 engineering programs accredited by the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology . On November 12 , 2008 , following a $ 25 million gift from AT & T in honor of alumnus Edward Whitacre Jr . , the college was formally renamed the Edward E. Whitacre Jr . College of Engineering .
The largest academic division on campus , the College of Arts and Sciences offers bachelor 's , master 's , and doctoral degrees in a wide range of subjects from philosophy to mathematics . In 2004 , the College of Mass Communications and the College of Visual and Performing Arts was created from programs that had belonged to the College of Arts and Sciences . The College of Mass Communications officially changed its name to the College of Media and Communication in 2012 and offers degrees in several areas , including advertising , journalism and electronic media , and public relations . Programs offered through the College of Visual and Performing Arts are accredited by the National Association of Schools of Art and Design , the National Association of Schools of Music , and the National Association of Schools of Theatre .
Once the Division of Home Economics , the College of Human Sciences now offers degrees in applied and professional studies , design , human development , nutrition , hospitality , and retailing . The College of Human Sciences ' Department of Personal Financial Planning was ranked in 2011 as the top program out of ten standout programs by the industry newsletter , Financial Planning . The College of Architecture , founded in 1927 , offers programs accredited by the National Architectural Accrediting Board .
The Rawls College of Business , which is accredited by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business , is the university 's business school . The college offers bachelor 's , master 's , and doctoral degrees in business disciplines . In its 2016 " Best Grad Schools " rankings , U.S. News & World Report ranked the graduate business program 91st in the United States . The college 's health organization management degree program was ranked 41st . From its origin in 1942 , the business school was known as the Division of Commerce , until it was renamed the College of Business Administration in 1956 . In 2000 , following a $ 25 million gift from alumnus Jerry S. Rawls , the college was formally renamed the Jerry S. Rawls College of Business Administration .
In 1967 , both the College of Education and the Texas Tech University School of Law were founded . The College of Education instructs future teachers and is accredited by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education . The School of Law is an American Bar Association @-@ accredited law school on the main campus in Lubbock , and came in 2nd statewide in the 2013 Bar Examination pass rate with 95 @.@ 45 percent . The school offers Juris Doctor degrees which can be earned in conjunction with Master of Business Administration or Master of Science degrees through the adjacent Rawls College of Business .
All graduate programs offered at Texas Tech University are overseen by the Graduate School , which was officially established in 1954 . The university 's Honors College allows select students to design a customized curriculum that incorporates a broad range of disciplines , and offers students the opportunity for early admission into Texas Tech University ’ s medical and law schools .
In September 2008 , the University College was established . Formerly known as the College of Outreach and Distance Education , the college was created by bringing together the Division of Off @-@ Campus Sites and the Division of Outreach and Distance Education . Texas Tech 's six in @-@ state satellite campuses are under the auspices of the college . Additionally , it oversees the Texas Tech University Independent School District .
The Texas Tech University System also operates a medical school , the Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center . It offers Schools of Allied Health Sciences , Biomedical Sciences , Medicine , Nursing , and Pharmacy . While it is a discrete entity , separate from Texas Tech University , it offers joint degrees ( such as MD / MBA ) through coordination with the university . Further , the Health Sciences Center is located on the university 's main campus in Lubbock . In addition to the Lubbock campus , TTUHSC has campuses located in Abilene , Amarillo , El Paso , and Odessa .
= = = Research = = =
Classified by the Carnegie Foundation in 2016 as one of only 115 research universities with " highest activity " , Texas Tech University hosts 71 research centers and institutes . In 2008 , a team of researchers from Texas Tech University and Harvard University announced the development of an siRNA @-@ based treatment that may ultimately counteract the human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) . Human cells infected with HIV , injected into rats , have been cured by the experimental treatment . Clinical trials on humans are expected to begin by 2010 . Texas Tech researchers also hold the exclusive license for HemoTech , a human blood substitute composed of bovine hemoglobin . HemoBioTech , the company marketing the technology , believes HemoTech will diminish the intrinsic toxicities that have stifled previous attempts to develop a human blood substitute . On January 14 , 2008 , Texas Tech University announced the creation of the West Texas Influenza Research Center . The university has concluded human clinical testing of oral interferon in a five @-@ year study of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and continues its study of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease .
Following the May 11 , 1970 , Lubbock Tornado that caused 26 fatalities and over $ 609 million ( 2013 dollars ) in damage in Lubbock , the National Wind Institute ( formerly the Wind Science and Engineering Research Center or WISE ) was established . The National Wind Institute Center , which includes 56 @,@ 000 square feet ( 5 @,@ 200 m2 ) of indoor laboratory space , is focused on research , education , and information outreach . The interdisciplinary research program studies methods to exploit the beneficial qualities of wind and to mitigate its detrimental effects . The center offers education in wind science and engineering to develop professionals who are experts in creating designs which deal effectively with problems caused by high winds . The Center instituted the nation 's first Ph.D program in Wind Science and Engineering in 2003 . National Wind Institute researchers contributed significantly to the development of the Enhanced Fujita Scale for rating the strength of tornadoes .
Texas Tech has made numerous contributions to NASA projects . Daniel Cooke , Computer Science Department Chair , and his colleagues are working to develop the technical content of the Intelligent Systems Program , and have been awarded a five @-@ year budget valued at $ 350 million . University scientists have also teamed with NASA 's guidance , navigation , and control engineers to develop the Onboard Abort Executive ( OAE ) , software capable of quickly deciding the best course of action during an ascent failure . The Texas Tech Space Research Initiative has also partnered with NASA to perfect methods for growing fresh vegetables in space and to determine the most efficient ways to recycle wastewater . In November 1996 , the university dedicated the Charles A. Bassett II Pulse Laboratory to honor engineering alumnus and Gemini @-@ era astronaut Charles A. Bassett II . In total , Texas Tech has helped to produce three astronauts : Bassett , Paul Lockhart , and Rick Husband ; Husband was commander of STS @-@ 107 , the final flight of Space Shuttle Columbia .
In 2008 , the pulsed power electronics laboratory received $ 4 million in federal funding . Among other things , the money will be used to create compact generators for weapon systems designed to destroy improvised explosive devices ( IEDs ) . The College of Engineering ’ s Nano Tech Center has received approximately $ 20 million in grants toward its work in applied nanophotonics , the creation and manipulation of advanced materials at the nanoscale that can produce and sense light . Texas Tech 's Center for Advanced Analytics and Business Intelligence performs grid computing research through collaboration with the SAS Institute that seeks to improve the speed with which large quantities of data ( such as those present in genomics and global economics ) can be processed .
Texas Tech 's College of Agricultural Science and Natural Resources has received state and federal grants for research projects including the fiber properties of cotton , the antibacterial properties of cotton fabric , and the development of chemical @-@ warfare protective fabrics . The college has also created two grass variants , Shadow Turf , a drought @-@ tolerant turf grass that thrives in shade , and Tech Turf ( marketed as Turffalo ) , a turf grass with the rich color and texture of Bermuda and the resilience of buffalo grass .
= = = Online and Regional Learning Programs = = =
Texas Tech offers online and regional programs in addition to programs offered on the main campus . There are programs that are fully online , hybrid / blended , and located at regional sites . The university offers bachelor ’ s , master ’ s , and doctoral degrees , as well as a graduate certification preparation program , at the regional sites of El Paso , Fredericksburg , Highland Lakes , Center at Junction , and Waco .
Texas Tech ’ s eLearning Program earned national recognition on January 10 , 2013 , when it ranked 11th overall among online colleges on Guide to Online Schools ’ 2013 Online College Rankings . In addition , it tied for first place among non @-@ profit schools for its high student retention rate ( 82 % ) , and ranked first among the four research universities listed among the top 25 in the rankings . The online engineering program also gained recognition from US News and World Report , ranking 20th on their list of the best graduate online engineering programs .
= = Campus = =
The Lubbock campus is home to the main academic university , law school , and medical school ( Health Sciences Center ) . This arrangement makes it the only institution in Texas to have all three units ( undergraduate institution , law school , and medical school ) on the same campus . The campus , which boasts Spanish Renaissance architecture , was described by American author James A. Michener as the " most beautiful west of the Mississippi until you get to Stanford " and by Stewart Mandel of Sports Illustrated as " easily one of the ten most beautiful campuses " he had seen . Many buildings on campus borrow architectural elements from those found at University de Alcalá in Alcalá de Henares , Spain , and Mission San José in San Antonio . A large section of the campus built between 1924 and 1951 is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as the Texas Technological College Historic District . This area is roughly bounded by 6th Street on the north , University Avenue on the east , 19th Street on the south , and Flint Street on the west . In 2008 , the Professional Grounds Management Society awarded Texas Tech the Grand Award for excellence in grounds @-@ keeping , and merit awards in 2007 , 2010 , and 2014 .
In 1998 , the Board of Regents of the Texas Tech University System created the Texas Tech University Public Art Collection to enliven the campus environment and extend the educational mission of the university . It is funded by using one percent of the estimated total cost of each new building on campus . The collection features pieces from artists such as Tom Otterness and Glenna Goodacre . The Texas Tech University Public Art Collection is ranked among the ten best university public art collections in the United States by Public Art Review .
The university also hosts the Museum of Texas Tech University , which was founded in 1929 and is accredited by the American Alliance of Museums . The museum is home to over three million objects and specimens and houses the Moody Planetarium , art galleries , a sculpture court , and a natural science research laboratory . The museum also operates the Val Verde County research site and the Lubbock Lake Landmark , an archaeological site and natural history preserve in the city of Lubbock . The site has evidence of 12 @,@ 000 years of use by ancient cultures on the Llano Estacado ( Southern High Plains ) , and allows visitors to watch active archaeological digs . Visiting scientists and tourists may also participate in the discovery process . Lubbock Lake Landmark is a National Historic Landmark , which lists it on the National Register of Historic Places , and is a designated State Archaeological Landmark . Texas Tech is also the location of the Southwest Collection of historical archives and the sponsoring institution of the West Texas Historical Association . Located on the northern edge of the campus is the National Ranching Heritage Center , a museum of ranching history . The site spans 27 @.@ 5 acres ( 0 @.@ 111 km2 ) and is home to 38 historic structures that have been restored to their original condition . Structures represented at the center include : a linecamp , a dugout , a bunkhouse , a blacksmith shop , a cowchip house , a schoolhouse , corrals , shipping pens , windmills , chuckwagons , and a coal @-@ burning locomotive .
The university maintains a number of libraries , some general @-@ purpose and some dedicated to specific topics such as architecture and law . Among the most notable of these are the Southwest Collection / Special Collections Library and the Vietnam Center and Archive , the nation 's largest and most comprehensive collections of information on the Vietnam War . On August 17 , 2007 , the Vietnam Center and Archive became the first US institution to sign a formalized exchange agreement with the State Records and Archives Department of Vietnam . This opens the door for a two @-@ way exchange between the entities .
= = Student life = =
There are over 516 student clubs and organizations at Texas Tech . Many students participate in Greek Life . Texas Tech Greek Life includes 11 Panhellenic Sororities and 24 InterFraternity Council Fraternities , as well as groups in the NPHC and Multicultural Greek Council . The Student Union Building , located centrally on campus , is the hub of daily student activity . It houses restaurants , coffee shops , a book store , meeting rooms , lecture halls , movie rooms , and study areas , as well as the offices and meeting rooms of several student organizations and the Student Government Association . Directly adjacent to the Student Union Building is the School of Music , home of the Texas Tech Goin ' Band from Raiderland . The 450 @-@ member band , which was awarded the Sudler Trophy in 1999 , performs at all home football games and at various other events .
Approximately 20 % of students live on campus , and most students live on campus for at least a portion of their academic careers. students with fewer than 30 hours of academic credit are required to live in university housing unless they receive an exemption . Specific residence halls and communities exist for graduate students , athletes , and various specific interests and academic disciplines . Every resident on campus is a member of the Texas Tech Residence Hall Association which provides various on campus programming and leadership opportunities . RHA is led by an Executive Board and Senate with student representatives from each residence hall . The organization is also a member of the South West Affiliate of College and Universities Residence Halls .
International honor societies Phi Beta Kappa ( liberal arts and sciences ) , Delta Epsilon Psi , Beta Gamma Sigma ( business ) , and Tau Beta Pi ( engineering ) have chapters at the university . Professional , service , and social fraternities and sororities on campus include Alpha Phi Omega ( service ) , Alpha Kappa Psi ( business ) , Delta Sigma Pi ( business ) , Alpha Omega Epsilon ( engineering ) , Phi Alpha Delta ( law ) , Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia ( music ) , Kappa Kappa Psi ( band ) , and Tau Beta Sigma ( band ) . Professional development and research organizations hosted by the university include the Howard Hughes Medical Institute Undergraduate Research Fellowship Program , the Center for the Integration of Science Education and Research , the Society of Engineering Technologists , Student Bar Association , and the Texas Tech Forensic Union . Spirit organizations representing Texas Tech include the High Riders , Saddle Tramps , and the Sabre Flight Drill Team .
The university maintains KTXT @-@ FM 88 @.@ 1 , formerly a student radio station focusing on alternative , indie rock , industrial , and hip hop music . After 47 years , the station went off the air on December 10 , 2008 . It returned in May 2009 with a different format and plans to eventually return to its former style . National Public Radio station KTTZ @-@ FM 89 @.@ 1 , which features classical music and news , is also found on campus . Additionally , the university owns and operates Public Broadcasting Service television station KTTZ @-@ TV . Students run a daily newspaper , The Daily Toreador , until 2005 known as The University Daily . The university also produces a yearbook , La Ventana .
= = Athletics = =
Texas Tech 's athletic teams are known as the Red Raiders with the exception of the women 's basketball team , which is known as the Lady Raiders . Texas Tech competes in NCAA Division I FBS ( formerly Division I @-@ A ) and is a member of the Big 12 Conference . From 1932 until 1956 , the university belonged to the Border Intercollegiate Athletic Association . After being rejected eight times over a period of more than 20 years , Texas Tech was admitted to the Southwest Conference on May 12 , 1956 . When the Southwest Conference disbanded in 1995 , Texas Tech , along with the University of Texas at Austin , Texas A & M University , and Baylor University , merged with schools from the former Big Eight Conference to form the Big 12 . Athletic Director Kirby Hocutt is a member of the College Football Playoff committee .
Of its varsity sports , Texas Tech 's women 's basketball team has been the only one to claim a national title . The Lady Raiders , led by player Sheryl Swoopes and head coach Marsha Sharp , won the 1993 NCAA Women 's Basketball Championship . The men 's basketball team has made 14 appearances in the NCAA Men 's Division I Tournament . Bob Knight served as men 's basketball coach from the beginning of the 2001 season until February 4 , 2008 . On January 1 , 2007 , he set the record for most coaching victories in men 's NCAA Division I basketball history , when the Red Raiders defeated the New Mexico Lobos , 70 – 68 . Upon Knight 's retirement , his son Pat Knight became the head coach of the team for several seasons before being replaced by Billy Gillispie . In 2013 , Gillispie was replaced by Tubby Smith .
Since 1999 , home basketball games have been played at United Spirit Arena , a 15 @,@ 020 @-@ seat multipurpose facility which cost $ 88 @.@ 1 million in 2016 dollars to build . In addition to serving as home to the men 's and women 's basketball teams , the arena is used by the Lady Raiders volleyball team . Texas Tech students broke the Big 12 Conference record for student attendance at the United Spirit Arena during a February 25 , 2014 loss to Kansas State . The record of 6 @,@ 086 students fell less than 2 @,@ 000 short of the national record .
The Red Raiders football team , is a member of the NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision ( formerly known as Division I @-@ A ) and is currently coached by former Red Raider quarterback Kliff Kingsbury . Throughout the 2000s , then head coach Mike Leach lead the team to national prominence . In 14 of its last 15 seasons , the Red Raiders have finished with a winning record , the fourth @-@ longest such streak in the nation at the time . The Red Raiders have made 36 bowl appearances , which is 17th most of any university . From 1932 to 1956 , as members of the Border Intercollegiate Athletic Association , the Red Raiders won eight conference championships and one co @-@ championship , the most held by a Border Conference member . After joining the Southwest Conference , the Red Raiders added conference co @-@ championships in 1976 and 1994 .
Jones AT & T Stadium serves as home to the Red Raiders football team . The stadium , named for Clifford B. and Audrey Jones , opened in 1947 . In 2000 , the stadium was renamed Jones SBC Stadium after SBC Communications made a $ 30 million contribution to the university . Following SBC Communications ' acquisition of AT & T Corporation in 2006 and its subsequent adoption of the AT & T name , the stadium was renamed Jones AT & T Stadium . The stadium 's original seating capacity was 27 @,@ 000 , but it was expanded in 1959 , 1972 , 2003 , 2009 , 2010 , and 2013 . On August 7 , 2008 , the Board of Regents of the Texas Tech University System announced a $ 25 million expansion project . The expansion added a Spanish Renaissance @-@ themed façade to the east side of the stadium . In addition to the improvements to the exterior of the facility , the expansion added 1 @,@ 000 general @-@ admission seats , 550 club seats , and 26 suites . Texas Tech allocated a total of $ 19 million to the expansion and added another $ 6 million through fund @-@ raising initiatives . On November 20 , 2008 , university officials announced the project 's fundraising goal had been exceeded . Groundbreaking ceremonies for the expansion took place on November 29 , 2008 , and construction was completed prior to the 2009 football season .
In January 2013 , construction began adding another 368 seats in the north endzone , in addition to two observation decks . The $ 11 million project also includes a significantly upgraded jumbotron with a new sound system , a Spanish Renaissance @-@ themed colonnade , and a new north end zone concourse connecting the two stadium halves . Along with the other additions , 157 feet of ribbon board will be added on the north end zone , more than 160 linear feet in the northeast and northwest corners of the stadium , and 94 lineal feet in the south end zone over the athletic offices . The construction was completed during the 2013 season . The current seating capacity of the stadium is 60 @,@ 862 , making it the third @-@ largest on @-@ campus stadium in Texas .
The Red Raiders baseball team played its first game in 1925 . The team has two conference championships , two conference tournament championships , and has made nine NCAA Division I Baseball Championship tournament appearances . Larry Hays coached the team from 1987 to 2008 and lead the team to a .639 winning percentage . Following Hays ’ retirement on June 2 , 2008 , Assistant Coach Dan Spencer was promoted to head coach . Dan Spencer was replaced by Tim Tadlock following the 2012 season and made its first appearance in the College World Series in 2013 . At least 20 former Red Raiders baseball players have gone on to play in the Major Leagues . The team plays its home games at Dan Law Field at Rip Griffin Park . The field , renovated in 2012 and located on the main campus in Lubbock , has a seating capacity of 5 @,@ 050 .
Texas Tech 's track and field teams coached by Wes Kittley have produced six Olympic medalists , 16 national champions , over 200 All @-@ Americans and 119 Big 12 Champions including Michael Mathieu , Sally Kipyego , Kennedy Kithuka , Shereefa Lloyd and others .
In addition to varsity sports , the university 's Sport Clubs Federation offers 30 recreational and competitive sport clubs , including polo , rugby union , lacrosse , fencing , and soccer . In 2006 , Texas Tech beat rival Texas A & M to win the United States Polo Association National Intercollegiate Championship .
= = = Mascots = = =
The Masked Rider is Texas Tech University 's oldest mascot . The tradition began in 1936 , when " ghost riders " were dared to circle the field prior to home football games . The Masked Rider became an official mascot in 1954 , when Joe Kirk Fulton led the team onto the field at the Gator Bowl . According to reports from those present at the game , the crowd sat in stunned silence as they watched Fulton and his horse Blackie rush onto the football field , followed by the team . After a few moments , the silent crowd burst into cheers . Ed Danforth , a writer for the Atlanta Journal who witnessed the event , later wrote , " No team in any bowl game ever made a more sensational entrance . " In 2000 , The Masked Rider tradition was commemorated with the unveiling of a statue outside of the university 's Frazier Alumni Pavilion . The sculpture , created by artist Grant Speed , is 25 % larger than life .
Today , the Masked Rider , with guns up , leads the team onto the field for all home games . This mascot , adorned in a distinctive gaucho hat like the ones worn by members of the marching band , is one of the most visible figures at Texas Tech .
Texas Tech 's other mascot , Raider Red , is a more recent creation . Beginning with the 1971 football season , the Southwest Conference forbade the inclusion of live animal mascots to away games unless the host school consented . For situations where the host school did not want to allow the Masked Rider 's horse , an alternate mascot was needed . Jim Gaspard , a member of the Saddle Tramps student spirit organization , created the original design for the Raider Red costume , basing it on a character created by cartoonist Dirk West , a Texas Tech alumnus and former Lubbock mayor . Though the Masked Rider 's identity is public knowledge , it has always been tradition that Raider Red 's student alter ego is kept secret until the end of his or her tenure . The student serving as Raider Red is a member of the Saddle Tramps or High Riders .
= = Traditions = =
= = = Carol of Lights = = =
The Carol of Lights is an annual event , sponsored by the Residence Halls Association , traditionally held the first Friday in December , to celebrate the holiday season at the university . The event begins with a carillon concert , from the 43 bells located in the west tower of the Administration Building followed a torch @-@ light processional by the Saddle Tramps and High Riders spirit organizations . The Texas Tech Trombone Choir and combined choirs lead the crowd in singing carols and the illumination ceremony culminates with a soloist performance of " O Holy Night " , in the Science Quadrangle . This is followed by the lighting ceremony , where 13 buildings within the Texas Technological College Historic District are illuminated with the over 25 @,@ 000 red , white , and orange lights . The lights remain on the campus buildings until the first week when students come back from the holiday break .
In 1959 , Texas Tech University Board of Directors member Harold Hinn planned and provided the funding to cover the Science Quadrangle and Administration Building with 5 @,@ 000 lights . However , students were away on Christmas break and did not see the display . The following year , the Residence Hall Association sponsored the event under the name " Christmas Sing " . In 1961 , the event was renamed Carol of Lights and the display increased to 16 @,@ 000 lights . The tradition has since grown to include decorations like the 38 @-@ foot lighted Christmas tree , 3 @,@ 000 luminaries lining the sidewalks of Memorial Circle , and a 21 @-@ foot fresh pine wreath hung on the Physics / Geosciences building .
= = = Double T = = =
The most readily identified symbol of Texas Tech is the Double T. The logo , generally attributed to Texas Tech 's first football coach , E. Y. Freeland , was first used as decoration on the sweaters for the football players . The Double T existed in its original form as an official logo from 1963 to 1999 and was updated in 2000 . The new logo maintains the original premise , but incorporates three @-@ dimensional beveling effects coupled with white trim .
To recognize the importance of the Double T to Texas Tech , the class of 1931 donated the Double T bench . By tradition , freshmen are not allowed to sit on the bench , which is currently located in the courtyard of the Administration Building . The logo is further embodied in the Double T neon sign , donated by the class of 1938 and affixed to the east side of Jones AT & T Stadium . At the time of its purchase , this was reputedly the largest neon sign in existence .
= = = Will Rogers and Soapsuds = = =
One of the most well @-@ known landmarks on campus is the statue of Will Rogers on his horse Soapsuds . The statue , entitled " Riding Into the Sunset " , has resided at the center of the campus since it was dedicated on February 16 , 1950 , by Rogers ' longtime friend Amon G. Carter . Carter claimed that Texas Tech was the ideal setting for the statue , and that it would be an appropriate addition to the traditions and scenery of West Texas . The statue , estimated to cost $ 25 @,@ 000 ( $ 239 @,@ 000 in 2013 dollars ) when it was dedicated , stands 9 feet 11 inches ( 3 @.@ 02 m ) and weighs 3 @,@ 200 pounds ( 1 @,@ 500 kg ) . The inscription on the plaque at the base of the statue reads : " Lovable Old Will Rogers on his favorite horse , ' Soapsuds ' , riding into the Western sunset . "
The statue continues to be a part of school tradition . Before every home football game , the Saddle Tramps wrap it with red crêpe paper , a tradition dating back to 1969 and a loss to Texas A & M after which the statue was found covered in maroon paint in an apparent prank . In times of national tragedies , the statue has also been wrapped in black crêpe paper .
According to one campus legend taught to students during freshman orientation , the statue was originally to be positioned with Will Rogers facing due west , so it would appear he was riding into the sunset . However , that position would cause Soapsuds ' posterior end to face due east , a dubious greeting to visitors entering by the main eastern campus entrance where the statue is placed . The horse 's rear would also be facing downtown Lubbock , potentially insulting the Lubbock business community . The legend holds that this problem was solved by Tech 's Civil Engineering department , who calculated that a 23 ° turn of Soapsuds ' head to the north would line up Soapsuds ' rear end directly toward College Station , Texas , home of the rival Texas A & M Aggies . Modern surveys and satellite imagery have determined the statue 's posterior end actually points roughly equidistantly between College Station and Austin , home of another rival team , the Texas Longhorns .
= = = Texas Tech ring = = =
While the class ring had occasionally used a universal design , by the late 20th century , various styles were available . In 1999 , the university reverted to a single ring design for the university 's graduates . The new Official Texas Tech Alumni Association Class Ring symbolically captures the essence of Texas Tech with the prominent Double T logo surrounded by the school ’ s full name and date of foundation . By tradition , undergraduates wear the ring with the Double T logo facing themselves . Upon graduation , the ring is turned so the logo faces outward .
One shoulder of the ring displays an image of the Administration Building , with the bells which represent victory . The other shoulder contains the university seal : an American eagle perched above a book , representing the church ; a star , representing the State of Texas ; a key , representing home ; and , a lamp , representing knowledge . These elements are separated by a cross featuring ten cotton bolls , one each for Lubbock and its nine surrounding cotton @-@ producing counties .
= = Notable people = =
The Texas Tech Alumni Association , with over 27 @,@ 000 members , operates more than 120 chapters in cities throughout the United States and the world . Throughout Texas Tech 's history , faculty , alumni , and former students have played prominent roles in many different fields . Among its Distinguished Alumni is Demetrio B. Lakas , President of the Republic of Panama from 1969 to 1978 . Three United States Governors , Daniel I. J. Thornton , Governor of Colorado from 1951 to 1955 , John Burroughs , Governor of New Mexico from 1959 to 1961 , and Preston Smith , Governor of Texas from 1968 to 1972 , are graduates of the university .
Three astronauts , including Rick Husband , the final commander of Space Shuttle Columbia and recipient of the Congressional Space Medal of Honor , graduated from the university . U.S. Marine Corps Major and Medal of Honor recipient George H. O 'Brien Jr. is a distinguished alumnus . Richard E. Cavazos is a two @-@ time Distinguished Service Cross recipient and the first Hispanic and Mexican American to advance to the rank of four @-@ star general in the U.S. Army . United States Air Force Major General Wendy Motlong Masiello , one of the highest @-@ ranking women in the United States Department of Defense , is a 1980 graduate of Texas Tech 's Rawls College of Business Administration . Alumna Arati Prabhakar , the current head of DARPA , was the first woman to head the National Institute of Standards and Technology . Texas Tech 's influence on the business world is seen in such people as General Motors Chairman and CEO Edward Whitacre Jr . , Finisar CEO Jerry S. Rawls , Belo Corporation CEO Dunia A. Shive , and Wellpoint , Inc. president and CEO Angela Braly , ranked by Fortune magazine as the most powerful woman in business . Scott Pelley , anchor and managing editor for CBS Evening News and correspondent for 60 Minutes , is a graduate of the recently renamed College of Media and Communication . Phil McGraw ( Dr. Phil ) attended Texas Tech in the 1970s , during his first marriage .
Texas Tech alumni have also made contributions to sports , music , and acting . Texas Tech Red Raiders have gone on to play in the NFL , NBA , WNBA , and MLB . Donny Anderson , World Champions Green Bay Packers , Super Bowl I & II . Current alumni standouts include Oakland Raiders wide receiver Michael Crabtree , NFL All @-@ Pros Zach Thomas of the Kansas City Chiefs , Danny Amendola of the New England Patriots , and Wes Welker of the . St. Louis Rams Others among the university 's alumni are folk rocker John Denver , country singer Pat Green , mezzo @-@ soprano Susan Graham , actor Barry Corbin , Friday Night Lights actor Brad Leland , and actor George Eads . John Hinckley Jr . , who attempted to assassinate U.S. President Ronald Reagan in 1981 , attended the university sporadically from 1973 to 1980 .
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= La Strada =
La Strada ( The Road ) is a 1954 Italian drama film directed by Federico Fellini from his own screenplay co @-@ written with Tullio Pinelli and Ennio Flaiano . The film portrays a brutish strongman ( Anthony Quinn ) and the naïve young woman ( Giulietta Masina ) whom he buys from her mother and takes with him on the road ; encounters with his rival the Fool ( Richard Basehart ) end with their destruction .
Fellini has called La Strada " a complete catalogue of my entire mythological world , a dangerous representation of my identity that was undertaken with no precedent whatsoever . " As a result , the film demanded more time , effort and suffering than any of his other films , before or since . The development process was long and tortuous ; it was extremely difficult to secure financial backing ; casting proved problematic ; injuries , personnel changes and inclement weather disrupted the production schedule more than once ; budget shortages constantly plagued the director and his production supervisor , forcing them to take extraordinary measures to keep going . Finally , just before shooting was completed , Fellini suffered a nervous breakdown that necessitated medical treatment in order to complete principal photography . Initial critical reaction was harsh , and the film 's screening at the Venice Film Festival was the occasion of a bitter controversy that escalated into a public brawl between Fellini 's supporters and detractors .
Subsequently , however , La Strada has become " one of the most influential films ever made " , according to the American Film Institute . It won the inaugural Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film in 1956 . It was placed fourth in the 1992 British Film Institute directors ' list of cinema 's top 10 films .
= = Plot = =
Gelsomina ( Giulietta Masina ) , a credulous young woman , learns that her sister Rosa has died since going on the road with the strongman Zampanò ( Anthony Quinn ) . Now the same man has returned a year later to ask her mother if Gelsomina will take Rosa 's place . The mother accepts 10 @,@ 000 lire , and her daughter departs the same day .
Zampanò makes his living as an itinerant street performer , entertaining crowds by breaking an iron chain bound tightly across his chest , then passing the hat for tips . In short order , Gelsomina 's naïve and antic nature emerges , with Zampanò 's brutish methods presenting a callous foil . He teaches her to play the snare drum and trumpet , dance a bit , and clown for the audience . Despite her willingness to please , he relies on intimidation and even cruelty at times to maintain his domination .
Finally , she rebels and leaves , making her way into town . There she watches the act of another street entertainer , Il Matto ( " The Fool " ) , a talented high wire artist and clown ( Richard Basehart ) . When Zampanò finds her there , he forcibly takes her back . They join a ragtag travelling circus where Il Matto already works . Il Matto teases the strongman at every opportunity , though he cannot explain what motivates him to do so . After Il Matto drenches Zampanò with a pail of water , Zampanò chases after his tormentor with his knife drawn . As a result , he is briefly jailed and both men are eventually fired from the travelling circus .
Gelsomina 's difficulties with her forced partnership are the subject of frequent soul searching . After Zampanò 's release from prison , Il Matto proposes that there are alternatives to Gelsomina 's servitude , and imparts his philosophy that everything and everyone has a purpose — even a pebble , even her . A nun suggests that Gelsomina 's purpose in life is comparable to her own . But , when Gelsomina offers Zampanò marriage , he brushes her off .
The separate paths of fool and strongman cross for the last time on an empty stretch of road , when Zampanò comes upon Il Matto fixing a flat tire . As Gelsomina watches in horror , the strongman strikes the clown on the head several times . Il Matto complains that his watch is broken , then collapses and dies . Zampanò hides the body and pushes the car off the road where it bursts into flames .
The killing breaks Gelsomina 's spirit . After ten days , her affect remains flat , and her eyes lifeless . Finally Zampanò abandons her while she is taking a nap , leaving some clothes , money , and his trumpet .
Some years later , he overhears a woman singing a tune Gelsomina often played . He learns that the woman 's father had found Gelsomina on the beach and kindly taken her in . However , she had wasted away and died . Zampanò gets drunk and wanders to the beach , where he breaks down in tears .
= = Cast = =
Anthony Quinn as Zampanò
Giulietta Masina as Gelsomina
Richard Basehart as Il Matto , the fool
Aldo Silvani as Il Signor Giraffa , the circus owner
Marcella Rovere as La Vedova , the widow
Livia Venturini as La Suorina , the nun
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
Fellini 's creative process for La Strada started with vague feelings , " a kind of tone " , he said , " that lurked , which made me melancholy and gave me a diffused sense of guilt , like a shadow hanging over me . This feeling suggested two people who stay together , although it will be fatal , and they don 't know why " . These feelings evolved into certain images : snow silently falling on the ocean , various compositions of clouds , and a singing nightingale . At that point , Fellini started to draw and sketch these images , a habitual tendency that he claimed he had learned early in his career when he had worked in various provincial music halls and had to sketch out the various characters and sets . Finally , he reported that the idea first " became real " to him when he drew a circle on a piece of paper to depict Gelsomina 's head , and he decided to base the character on the actual character of Giulietta Masina , his wife of five years at the time : " I utilized the real Giulietta , but as I saw her . I was influenced by her childhood photographs , so elements of Gelsomina reflect a ten @-@ year @-@ old Giulietta . "
The idea for the character Zampanò came from Fellini 's youth in the coastal town of Rimini . A pig castrator lived there who was known as a womanizer : according to Fellini , " This man took all the girls in town to bed with him ; once he left a poor idiot girl pregnant and everyone said the baby was the devil 's child . " In 1992 , Fellini told Canadian director Damian Pettigrew that he had conceived the film at the same time as co @-@ scenarist Tullio Pinelli in a kind of " orgiastic synchronicity " :
I was directing I vitelloni , and Tullio had gone to see his family in Turin . At that time , there was no autostrada between Rome and the north and so you had to drive through the mountains . Along one of the tortuous winding roads , he saw a man pulling a carretta , a sort of cart covered in tarpaulin ... A tiny woman was pushing the cart from behind . When he returned to Rome , he told me what he 'd seen and his desire to narrate their hard lives on the road . ' It would make the ideal scenario for your next film , ' he said . It was the same story I 'd imagined but with a crucial difference : mine focused on a little traveling circus with a slow @-@ witted young woman named Gelsomina . So we merged my flea @-@ bitten circus characters with his smoky campfire mountain vagabonds . We named Zampanò after the owners of two small circuses in Rome : Zamperla and Saltano .
Fellini wrote the script with collaborators Ennio Flaiano and Tullio Pinelli and brought it first to Luigi Rovere , Fellini 's producer for The White Sheik ( 1952 ) . When Rovere read the script for La Strada , he began to weep , raising Fellini 's hopes , only to have them dashed when the producer announced that the screenplay was like great literature , but that " as a film this wouldn 't make a lira . It 's not cinema . " By the time it was fully complete , Fellini 's shooting script was nearly 600 pages long , with every shot and camera angle detailed and filled with notes reflecting intensive research . Producer Lorenzo Pegoraro was impressed enough to give Fellini a cash advance , but would not agree to Fellini 's demand that Giulietta Masina play Gelsomina .
= = = Casting = = =
Fellini secured financing through the producers Dino De Laurentiis and Carlo Ponti , who wanted to cast Silvana Mangano ( De Laurentiis ' wife ) as Gelsomina and Burt Lancaster as Zampanò , but Fellini refused these choices . Giulietta Masina had been the inspiration for the entire project , so Fellini was determined never to accept an alternative to her . For Zampanò , Fellini had hoped to cast a nonprofessional and , to that end , he tested a number of circus strongmen , to no avail . He also had trouble finding the right person for the role of Il Matto . His first choice was the actor Moraldo Rossi , who was a member of Fellini 's social circle and had the right type of personality and athletic physique , but Rossi wanted to be the assistant director , not a performer . Alberto Sordi , the star of Fellini 's earlier films The White Sheik and I Vitelloni , was eager to take the role , and was bitterly disappointed when Fellini rejected him after a tryout in costume .
Ultimately , Fellini drew his three leading players from people associated with the 1954 film Donne Proibite ( Angels of Darkness ) , directed by Giuseppe Amato , in which Masina played the very different role of a madam . Anthony Quinn was also acting in the film , while Richard Basehart was often on the set visiting his wife , actress Valentina Cortese . When Masina introduced Quinn to her husband , the actor was disconcerted by Fellini 's insistence that the director had found his Zampanò , later remembering : " I thought he was a little bit crazy , and I told him I wasn 't interested in the picture , but he kept hounding me for days . " Not long afterwards , Quinn spent the evening with Roberto Rossellini and Ingrid Bergman , and after dinner they watched Fellini 's 1953 Italian comedy @-@ drama I Vitelloni . According to Quinn : " I was thunderstruck by it . I told them the film was a masterpiece , and that the same director was the man who had been chasing me for weeks . "
Fellini was particularly taken with Basehart , who reminded the director of Charlie Chaplin . Upon being introduced to Basehart by Cortese , Fellini invited the actor to lunch , at which he was offered the role of Il Matto . When asked why by the surprised Basehart , who had never before played the part of a clown , Fellini responded : " Because , if you did what you did in Fourteen Hours you can do anything . " A great success in Italy , the 1951 Hollywood drama starred Basehart as a would @-@ be suicide on a hotel balcony . Basehart , too , had been greatly impressed by I Vitelloni , and agreed to take the role for much less than his usual salary , in part because he was very attracted by Fellini 's personality , saying : " It was his zest for living , and his humor . "
= = = Filming = = =
The film was shot in Bagnoregio , Viterbo , Lazio , and Ovindoli , L 'Aquila , Abruzzo . On Sundays , Fellini and Basehart would drive around the countryside , scouting locations and looking for just the right place to eat , sometimes trying as many as six restaurants and venturing as far away as Rimini before Fellini could find the desired ambience and menu .
Production started in October , 1953 , but had to be halted within weeks when Masina dislocated her ankle during the convent scene with Quinn . With shooting suspended , De Laurentiis saw an opportunity to replace Masina , whom he had never wanted for the part and who had not yet been signed to a contract . This changed as soon as executives at Paramount viewed the rushes of the scene and lauded Masina 's performance , resulting in De Laurentiis announcing that he had her on an exclusive and ordering her to sign a hastily prepared contract , at approximately a third of Quinn 's salary .
The delay caused the entire production schedule to be revised , and cinematographer Carlo Carlini , who had a prior commitment , had to be replaced by Otello Martelli , a long @-@ time favorite of Fellini 's . When filming resumed in February , 1954 , it was winter . The temperature had dropped to -5 ° C , often resulting in no heat or hot water , necessitating more delays and forcing the cast and crew to sleep fully dressed and wear hats to keep warm .
The new schedule resulted in a conflict for Anthony Quinn , who was signed to play the title role in Attila , a 1954 epic , also produced by De Laurentiis and directed by Pietro Francisci . At first , Quinn considered withdrawing from La Strada , but Fellini convinced him to work on both films simultaneously , shooting La Strada in the morning and Attila in the afternoon and evening . The plan often required the actor to get up at 3 : 30 a.m. in order to capture the " bleak early light " on which Fellini insisted , and then leave at 10 : 30 to drive to Rome in his Zampanò outfit in order to be on the set in time to be transformed into Attila the Hun for afternoon shooting . Quinn recalled : " This schedule accounted for the haggard look I had in both films , a look that was perfect for Zampanò but scarcely OK for Attila the Hun . "
Despite an extremely tight budget , production supervisor Luigi Giacosi was able to rent a small circus run by a man named Savitri , a strongman and fire @-@ eater who coached Quinn on circus jargon and the technical aspects of chain @-@ breaking . Giacosi also secured the services of the Zamperla Circus , which supplied a number of stuntmen who could play themselves , including Basehart 's double , a high @-@ wire artist who refused to perform when firemen arrived with a safety net .
Funding shortages required Giacosi to improvise in response to Fellini 's demands . When filming continued into spring , Giacosi was able to re @-@ create the wintry scenes by piling thirty bags of plaster onto all the bedsheets he could find in order to simulate a snowscape . When a crowd scene was required , Giacosi convinced the local priest to move up the April 8 celebration of the town 's patron saint by a few days , thus securing the presence of some 4 @,@ 000 unpaid extras . In order to guarantee that the crowd would not dissipate as the hours passed by , Fellini instructed assistant director Rossi to shout out , " Get the rooms ready for Totò and Sophia Loren " , two of the most popular Italian entertainers of the period , and nobody left .
Fellini was a notorious perfectionist , and this could be trying for his cast . At an American Film Institute student seminar , Quinn spoke of Fellini 's intransigence over selecting a box in which Zampanò carries his cigarette butts , scrutinizing over 500 boxes before finding just the right one : " As for me , any of the boxes would have been satisfactory to carry the butts in , but not Federico " . Quinn also recalled being particularly proud of a certain scene in which his performance had earned applause from onlookers on the set , only to receive a phone call from Fellini late that night informing him that they would have to re @-@ do the entire sequence because Quinn had been too good : " You see , you 're supposed to be a bad , a terrible actor , but the people watching applauded you . They should have laughed at you . So in the morning we do it again . " As for Masina , Fellini insisted that she re @-@ create the thin @-@ lipped smile he had seen in her childhood photographs . He cut her hair by putting a bowl on her head and shearing off anything that wasn 't covered up , afterwards plastering what remained with soap to give it a " spiky , untidy look " , then " flicked talc into her face to give it the pallor of a kabuki performer . " He made her wear a WWI surplus cloak that was so frayed its collar cut into her neck . She complained : " You 're so nice and sweet to the others in the cast . Why are you so hard on me ? "
Under Fellini 's agreement with his producers , any budget overruns would have had to come out of his own pocket , cutting into any profit potential there might be . When it became clear that there would not be enough funding to finish the picture , Fellini stated that Ponti and De Laurentiis took him to lunch and assured him that they would not hold him to it : " Let 's pretend they were a joke . Buy us a coffee and we 'll forget about them . " According to Quinn , however , Fellini was able to obtain this indulgence only by agreeing to film some pickup shots for Attila that Francisci , the director of record , had neglected to complete .
While shooting the final scenes on the wharf of Fiumicino , Fellini suffered a severe bout of clinical depression , a condition that he and his associates tried to keep secret . He was able to complete the filming only upon receiving treatment by a prominent Freudian psychoanalyst .
= = = Sound = = =
As was the common practice for Italian films at the time , shooting was done without sound ; dialogue was added later along with music and sound effects . As a consequence , cast members generally spoke in their native language during filming : Quinn and Basehart in English , Masina and the others in Italian . Liliana Betti , Fellini 's long @-@ time assistant , has described the director 's typical procedure regarding dialogue during filming , a technique he called the " number system " or " numerological diction " : " Instead of lines , the actor has to count off numbers in their normal order . For instance , a line of fifteen words equals an enumeration of up to thirty . The actor merely counts til thirty : 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 @-@ 4 @-@ 5 @-@ 6 @-@ 7 @.@ etc . " Biographer John Baxter has commented on the usefulness of such a system : " It helps pinpoint an instant in the speech where he [ Fellini ] wants a different reaction . ' Go back to " 27 " , ' he 'll tell an actor , ' but this time , smile . ' " Since he didn 't need to worry about noise while shooting a scene , Fellini would keep up a running commentary during filming , a practice that scandalized more traditional filmmakers , like Elia Kazan : " He talked through each take , in fact yelled at the actors . ' No , there , stop , turn , look at her , look at her . See how sad she is , see her tears ? Oh , the poor wretch ! You want to comfort her ? Don 't turn away ; go to her . Ah , she doesn 't want you , does she ? What ? Go to her anyway ! ' ... That 's how he 's able ... to use performers from many countries . He does part of the acting for the actors . "
Since Quinn and Basehart did not speak Italian , both were dubbed in the original release . Unhappy with the actor who initially dubbed Zampanò , Fellini remembered being impressed by the work done by Arnoldo Foà in dubbing the Toshiro Mifune character in the Italian version of Akira Kurosawa 's Rashomon , and was able to secure Foà 's services at the very last moment . Composer Michel Chion has observed that Fellini particularly exploited the tendency of Italian films of the post @-@ war period to allow considerable freedom in the synching of voices to lip movements , especially in contrast to Hollywood 's perceived " obsessive fixation " with the matching of voices to mouths : " In Fellinian extremes , when all those post @-@ synched voices float around bodies , we reach a point where voices--even if we continue to attribute them to the bodies they 're assigned--begin to acquire a sort of autonomy , in a baroque and decentered fashion . " In the Italian version of La Strada , there are even instances when a character is heard to speak while the actor 's mouth is shut tight .
Fellini scholar Thomas Van Order has pointed out that Fellini is equally free in the treatment of ambient sound in his films , preferring to cultivate what Chion has called , " a subjective sense of point of audition " , in which what is heard on screen mirrors a particular character 's perceptions , as opposed to the visible reality of the scene . As an example , ducks and chickens appear on the screen throughout Gelsomina 's conversation with the nun , but , reflecting the girl 's growing sense of enlightenment concerning her place in the world , the quacking and clucking of barnyard fowl dissolves into the chirping of songbirds .
The visual track of the 1956 English @-@ language version of La Strada was identical to the original Italian version , but the audio track was completely re @-@ edited under the supervision of Carol and Peter Riethof at Titra Sound Studios in New York , without any involvement by Fellini . Thomas Van Order has identified dozens of changes made in the English version , classifying the alterations into four categories : " 1 @.@ lower volume of music relative to dialogue in the English version ; 2 @.@ new musical selections and different editing of music in many scenes ; 3 @.@ different ambient sound in some scenes , as well as changes in the editing of ambient sound ; 4 @.@ elimination of some dialogue . " In the English version , Quinn and Basehart dubbed their own roles , but Masina was dubbed by another actress , a decision that has been criticised by Van Order and others , since , by trying to match the childlike movements of the character , the sound editors provided a voice that is " childishly high , squeaky and insecure " . It cost $ 25 @,@ 000 to dub La Strada into English , but after the film started to receive its many accolades , it was re @-@ released in the United States on the art @-@ house circuit in its Italian version , using subtitles .
= = = Music = = =
The entire score for La Strada was written by Nino Rota after principal photography was completed . The main theme is a wistful tune that appears first as a melody played by the Fool on a kit violin and later by Gelsomina on her trumpet . Its last cue in the penultimate scene is sung by the woman who tells Zampanò the fate of Gelsomina after he abandoned her . This is one of three primary themes that are introduced during the titles at the beginning of La Strada and that recur regularly throughout the film . To these are added a fourth recurring theme that appears in the very first sequence , after Gelsomina meets Zampanò , and is often interrupted or silenced in his presence , occurring less and less frequently and at increasingly lower volumes as the film progresses . Claudia Gorbman has commented on the use of these themes , which she deems true leitmotifs , each of which is not simply an illustrative or redundant identifying tag , but " a true signifier that accumulates and communicates meaning not explicit in the images or dialogue " .
In practice , Fellini shot his films while playing taped music because , as he explained in a 1972 interview , " it puts you in a strange dimension in which your fantasy stimulates you " . For La Strada , Fellini used a variation by Arcangelo Corelli that he planned to use on the sound track . Rota , unhappy with that plan , wrote an original motif ( with echoes of the " Larghetto " from Dvořák 's Opus 22 Serenade for Strings in E major ) with rhythmic lines matched to Corelli 's piece that synchronize with Gelsomina 's movements with the trumpet and Il Matto 's with the violin .
= = Distribution = =
The film premiered at the 15th Venice International Film Festival on 6 September 1954 and won the Silver Lion . It was released in Italy on 22 September 1954 , and in the United States on 16 July 1956 . In 1994 a re @-@ mastered print was financed by filmmaker Martin Scorsese , who has acknowledged that since childhood he has related to the character of Zampanò , bringing elements of the self @-@ destructive brute into his films Taxi Driver and Raging Bull . Janus Films is the current distributor of the film on video .
= = Reception = =
= = = Initial response = = =
Tullio Cicciarelli of Il Lavoro nuovo saw the film as " an unfinished poem , " left unfinished deliberately by the filmmaker for fear that " its essence be lost in the callousness of critical definition , or in the ambiguity of classification , " while Ermanno Continin of Il Secolo XIX praised Fellini as " a master story @-@ teller " :
The narrative is light and harmonious , drawing its essence , resilience , uniformity and purpose from small details , subtle annotations and soft tones that slip naturally into the humble plot of a story apparently void of action . But how much meaning , how much ferment enrich this apparent simplicity . It is all there although not always clearly evident , not always interpreted with full poetical and human eloquence : it is suggested with considerable delicacy and sustained by a subtle emotive force .
Others saw it differently . When the 1954 Venice Film Festival jury awarded La Strada the Silver Lion while ignoring Luchino Visconti 's Senso , a physical brawl broke out when Visconti 's assistant Franco Zeffirelli started blowing a whistle during Fellini 's acceptance speech , only to be attacked by Moraldo Rossi . The disturbance left Fellini pale and shaken and Masina in tears . Marxist critics such as Guido Aristarco rejected the film on ideological grounds , particularly objecting to what they considered Christian notions of conversion and redemption : " We don 't say , nor have we ever said , that La Strada is a badly directed and acted film . We have declared , and do declare , that it is wrong ; its perspective is wrong . "
The Venice premiere began " in an inexplicably chilly atmosphere , " according to Tino Ranieri , and " the audience , who rather disliked it as the screening began , seemed to change opinion slightly toward the end , yet the movie didn 't receive — in any sense of the word — the response that it deserved . "
Reviewing for Corriere della Sera , Arturo Lanocita argued that the film " gives the impression of being a rough copy that merely hints at the main points of the story ... Fellini seems to have preferred shadow where marked contrast would have been more effective . " Nino Ghelli of Bianco e Nero regretted that after " an excellent beginning , the style of the film remains harmonious for some time until the moment when the two main characters are separated , at which point the tone becomes increasingly artificial and literary , the pace increasingly fragmentary and incoherent . "
Fellini biographer Tullio Kezich observed that Italian critics " make every effort to find faults with [ Fellini 's ] movie after the opening in Venice . Some say that it starts out okay but then the story completely unravels . Others recognize the pathos in the end , but don 't like the first half . "
Its French release the next year found a warmer reception . Dominique Aubier of Cahiers du cinéma thought La Strada belonged to " the mythological class , a class intended to captivate the critics more perhaps than the general public . " Aubier concluded :
Fellini attains a summit rarely reached by other film directors : style at the service of the artist 's mythological universe . This example once more proves that the cinema has less need of technicians — there are too many already — than of creative intelligence . To create such a film , the author must have had not only a considerable gift for expression but also a deep understanding of certain spiritual problems .
In his March 1955 review for Arts magazine , Jean Aurel cited Giulietta Masina 's performance as " directly inspired by the best in Chaplin , but with a freshness and sense of timing that seem to have been invented for this film alone . " He found the film " bitter , yet full of hope . A lot like life . " Louis Chauvet of Le Figaro noted that " the atmosphere of the drama " was combined " with a visual strength that has rarely been equalled . " For André Bazin , influential film critic and theorist , Fellini 's approach was
the very opposite of psychological realism that maintains analysis followed by the description of feelings . In this quasi @-@ Shakespearean universe , however , anything can happen . Gelsomina and the Fool carry an aura of the marvellous around with them , which confuses and irritates Zampanò , but this quality is neither supernatural nor gratuitous , nor even poetic , it appears as a quality possible in nature .
For Cicciarelli ,
The film should be accepted for its strange fragility and its often too colourful , almost artificial moments , or else totally rejected . If we try to analyze Fellini 's film , its fragmentary quality becomes immediately evident and we are obliged to treat each fragment , each personal comment , each secret confession separately .
Critical reaction in the UK and the US was equally mixed , with disparaging reviews appearing in Films in Review ( " the quagmire of cheap melodrama " ) , Sight and Sound ( " a director striving to be a poet when he is not " ) and The Times of London ( " realism crowing on a dung @-@ hill . " ) , while more favorable assessments were provided by Newsweek ( " novel and arguable " ) and Saturday Review ( " With La Strada Fellini takes his place as the true successor to Rossellini and De Sica . " ) . In his 1956 New York Times review , A.H. Weiler was especially complimentary of Quinn : " Anthony Quinn is excellent as the growling , monosyllabic and apparently ruthless strong man , whose tastes are primitive and immediate . But his characterization is sensitively developed so that his innate loneliness shows through the chinks of his rough exterior . "
In a 1957 interview , Fellini reported that Masina had received over a thousand letters from abandoned women whose husbands had returned to them after seeing the film and that she had also heard from many people with disabilities who had gained a new sense of self @-@ worth after viewing the film : " Such letters come from all over the world " .
= = = Retrospective evaluation = = =
In later years , Fellini explained that from " a sentimental point of view , " he was " most attached " to La Strada : " Above all , because I feel that it is my most representative film , the one that is the most autobiographical ; for both personal and sentimental reasons , because it is the film that I had the greatest trouble in realizing and that gave me the most difficulty when it came time to find a producer . " Of all the imaginary beings he had brought to the screen , Fellini felt closest to the three principals of La Strada , " especially Zampanò . " Anthony Quinn found working for Fellini invaluable : " He drove me mercilessly , making me do scene after scene over and over again until he got what he wanted . I learned more about film acting in three months with Fellini than I 'd learned in all the movies I 'd made before then . " Long afterwards , in 1990 , Quinn sent a note to the director and his co @-@ star : " The two of you are the highest point in my life -- Antonio . "
Critic Roger Ebert , in his book The Great Movies , has described the current critical consensus as holding that La Strada was the high point of Fellini 's career and that , after this film , " his work ran wild through the jungles of Freudian , Christian , sexual and autobiographical excess " . ( Ebert , himself , disagrees , seeing La Strada as " part of a process of discovery that led to the masterpieces La Dolce Vita ( 1960 ) , 8 1 / 2 ( 1963 ) and Amarcord ( 1974 ) " . )
The years since its initial release have solidified the high estimation of La Strada . It holds a 97 % rating on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes from 31 reviewers who , on average , scored it 8 @.@ 7 on a scale of 10 . Its numerous appearances on lists of best films include the 1992 Directors ' poll of the British Film Institute ( 4th best ) , the New York Times " Best 1 @,@ 000 Movies Ever Made " , and the " Greatest Films " list of They Shoot Pictures , Don 't They ( # 67 ) - a website which statistically calculates the most well @-@ received movies .
In 1995 , the Catholic Church 's Pontifical Commission for Social Communications issued a list of 45 films representing a " cross section of outstanding films , chosen by a committee of twelve international movie scholars " . This has come to be known as the " Vatican film list " , and includes La Strada as one of 15 films in the sub @-@ category labeled " art " . Pope Francis , has said it is " the movie that perhaps I loved the most " , because of his personal identification with its implicit reference to his namesake , Francis of Assisi .
= = Legacy = =
During Fellini 's early film career , he was closely associated with the movement known as neorealism , a set of films produced by the Italian film industry during the post @-@ World War II period , particularly 1945 – 1952 , and characterized by close attention to social context , a sense of historical immediacy , political commitment to progressive social change , and an anti @-@ Fascist ideology . Although there were glimpses of certain lapses in neorealistic orthodoxy in some of his first films as a director , La Strada has been widely viewed as a definitive break with the ideological demands of neorealist theorists to follow a particular political slant or embody a specific " realist " style . This resulted in certain critics vilifying Fellini for , as they saw it , reverting to prewar attitudes of individualism , mysticism and preoccupation with " pure style " . Fellini vigorously responded to this criticism : " Certain people still think neorealism is fit to show only certain kinds of reality , and they insist that this is social reality . It is a program , to show only certain aspects of life " . Film critic Millicent Marcus wrote that , " La Strada remains a film indifferent to the social and historical concerns of orthodox neorealism " . Soon , other Italian filmmakers , including Michelangelo Antonioni and even Fellini 's mentor and early collaborator Roberto Rossellini were to follow Fellini 's lead and , in the words of critic Peter Bondanella , " pass beyond a dogmatic approach to social reality , dealing poetically with other equally compelling personal or emotional problems " . As film scholar Mark Shiel has pointed out , when it won the first Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film in 1956 , La Strada became the first film to win international success as an example of a new brand of neorealism , " bittersweet and self @-@ conscious " .
International film directors who have named La Strada as one of their favorite films include Stanley Kwan , Anton Corbijn , Gillies MacKinnon , Andreas Dresen , Jiří Menzel , Adoor Gopalakrishnan , Mike Newell , Rajko Grlić , Laila Pakalniņa , Ann Hui , Kazuhiro Soda , Julian Jarrold , Krzysztof Zanussi , and Andrey Konchalovsky .
The film has found its way into popular music , too . Bob Dylan and Kris Kristofferson have mentioned the film as an inspiration for their songs " Mr. Tambourine Man " and " Me and Bobby McGee " , respectively , and a Serbian rock band took the film 's name as their own .
Rota 's main theme was adapted into a 1954 single for Perry Como under the title " Love Theme from La Strada ( Traveling Down a Lonely Road ) " , with Italian lyrics by Michele Galdieri and English lyrics by Don Raye . Twelve years later , the composer expanded the film music to create a ballet , also called La Strada .
The New York stage has seen two productions derived from the film . A musical based on the film opened on Broadway on December 14 , 1969 , but closed after one performance . Nancy Cartwright , the voice of Bart Simpson , was so impressed by Giulietta Masina 's work in La Strada that she attempted to obtain theatrical rights to the film in order to mount a stage production in New York . After traveling to Rome in an unsuccessful attempt to meet with Fellini , she created a one @-@ woman play , In Search of Fellini .
= = Awards and nominations = =
La Strada won more than fifty international awards , including an Oscar in 1956 for Best Foreign Language Film , the first recipient in that category .
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= Mortara case =
The Mortara case ( Italian : caso Mortara ) was an Italian cause célèbre that captured the attention of much of Europe and the United States in the 1850s and 1860s . It concerned the Papal States ' seizure from a Jewish family in Bologna of one of their children , six @-@ year @-@ old Edgardo Mortara , on the basis of a former servant 's testimony that she had administered emergency baptism to the boy when he fell sick as an infant . Mortara grew up as a Catholic under the protection of Pope Pius IX — who refused his parents ' desperate pleas for his return — and eventually became a priest . The domestic and international outrage against the pontifical state 's actions may have contributed to its downfall amid the unification of Italy .
In late 1857 , Bologna 's inquisitor Father Pier Feletti heard that Anna Morisi , who had worked in the Mortara house for six years , had secretly baptised Edgardo when she had thought he was about to die as a baby . The Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition held that this made the child irrevocably a Catholic and , because the Papal States forbade the raising of Christians by members of other faiths , ordered that he be taken from his family and brought up by the Church . Police came to the Mortara home late on 23 June 1858 and removed Edgardo the following evening .
After the child 's father was allowed to visit him during August and September , two starkly different narratives emerged — one told of a boy who wanted to return to his family and the faith of his ancestors , while the other described a child who had learned the catechism perfectly and wanted his parents to become Christians as well . International protests mounted , but the Pope would not be moved . After pontifical rule in Bologna ended in 1859 , Father Feletti was prosecuted for his role in Mortara 's seizure , but was acquitted when the court decided he had simply followed orders . With the Pope as a substitute father , Mortara trained for the priesthood in Rome until the Kingdom of Italy captured the city in 1870 , ending the Papal States . Leaving the country , he was ordained in France three years later at the age of 21 . Father Mortara spent most of his life outside Italy and died in Belgium in 1940 , aged 88 .
For many , the Vatican 's actions encapsulated all that was wrong with the Papal States and exposed pontifical rule as an anachronism . Several historians highlight the affair as one of the most significant events of Pius IX 's papacy , and juxtapose his handling of it in 1858 with the loss of most of his territory a year later . The case notably altered the policy of the French Emperor Napoleon III , who shifted from opposing the movement for Italian unification to actively supporting it . The traditional Italian historiography of unification does not give much prominence to the Mortara case , which by the late 20th century was remembered mostly by Jewish scholars , but a 1997 study by the American historian David Kertzer has marked the start of a wider re @-@ examination .
= = Background = =
= = = Political context = = =
For more than a millennium , starting around 754 , the Papal States were territories in Italy under the direct sovereign rule of the Pope . The Catholic Church 's control over Rome and a neighbouring swathe of central Italy was generally seen as a manifestation of the Pope 's secular " temporal " power , as opposed to his ecclesiastical primacy . After the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 , the other main Italian states were the Kingdom of Sardinia — governed from Piedmont on the mainland by King Victor Emmanuel II — the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in the south , and the Grand Duchy of Tuscany in the west . The French occupation during the 1790s had led the Pope 's popularity and spiritual authority to greatly increase , but had also severely damaged the geopolitical credibility of the Papal States . The historian David Kertzer suggests that by the 1850s " what had once appeared so solid — a product of the divine order of things — now seemed terribly fragile " .
Pope Pius IX , elected in 1846 , was initially widely seen as a great reformer and moderniser who might throw his weight behind the growing movement for Italian unification — referred to in Italian as the Risorgimento ( meaning " Resurgence " ) . When the revolutions of 1848 broke out , however , he refused to support a pan @-@ Italian campaign against the Austrian Empire , which controlled Lombardy – Venetia in the north @-@ east . This prompted a popular uprising in the Papal States , Pope Pius 's flight to the Two Sicilies , and the proclamation in 1849 of the short @-@ lived Roman Republic , which was crushed by Austrian and French intervention in support of the Pope . Rome was thereafter guarded by French troops while Austrians garrisoned the rest of the Papal States , much to the resentment of most of the inhabitants . Pope Pius shared the traditional pontifical view that the Papal States were essential to his independence as head of the Catholic Church . He regained some of his popularity during the 1850s , but the drive for Italian unification spearheaded by the Kingdom of Sardinia continued to unsettle him .
The Jews of the Papal States , numbering 15 @,@ 000 or so in 1858 , were grateful to Pope Pius IX because he had ended the long @-@ standing legal obligation for them to attend sermons in church four times a year , based on that week 's Torah portion and aimed at their conversion to Christianity . He had also torn down the gates of the Roman Ghetto despite the objections of many Christians . However , Jews remained under many restrictions and the vast majority still lived in the ghetto .
= = = Mortara and Morisi = = =
Edgardo Levi Mortara , the sixth of eight children born to Salomone " Momolo " Mortara , a Jewish merchant , and his wife Marianna ( née Padovani ) , was born on 27 August 1851 in Bologna , one of the Papal Legations in the pontifical state 's far north . The family had moved in 1850 from the Duchy of Modena , just west of Bologna . Bologna 's Jewish population of about 900 had been expelled in 1593 by Pope Clement VIII . Some Jews , mostly merchants like Edgardo 's father , had started to settle in Bologna again during the 1790s , and by 1858 there was a Jewish community of about 200 in the city . The Jews of Bologna practised Judaism discreetly , with neither a rabbi nor a synagogue . The Papal States officially forbade them to have Christian servants , but observant Jewish families perceived gentile maids as essential because they were not covered by Jewish laws , and thus provided a way for Jews to have household tasks carried out while still observing their Sabbath . In practice Church authorities turned a blind eye , and almost every Jewish family in Bologna employed at least one Catholic woman .
A few months after Edgardo 's birth , the Mortara family engaged a new servant : Anna " Nina " Morisi , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old Catholic from the nearby village of San Giovanni in Persiceto . Like all her family and friends , Morisi was illiterate . She had come to the city , following her three sisters , to work and save money towards a dowry , so she could eventually marry . In early 1855 , Morisi became pregnant , as was not uncommon for unmarried servants in Bologna at this time . Many employers would simply sack girls in such situations , but the Mortaras did not ; they paid for Morisi to spend the last four months of her pregnancy at a midwife 's home and deliver the child , then had her return to work with them . To protect Morisi and themselves from embarrassment , they told neighbours that their maid was sick and recuperating at home . Morisi gave her newborn baby to an orphanage , as the Papal States required unwed mothers to do , then returned to work with the Mortaras . She remained there until she was hired by another Bologna family in 1857 ; soon after that she married and moved back to San Giovanni in Persiceto .
= = Removal = =
= = = Instigation = = =
In October 1857 the inquisitor of Bologna , a Dominican friar called Father Pier Gaetano Feletti , learned of rumours to the effect that a secret baptism had been administered to one of the city 's Jewish children by a Catholic servant . If true , this would make the child a Catholic in the eyes of the Church — a fact with secular as well as spiritual ramifications since the Church stance was that children they considered to be Christians could not be raised by non @-@ Christians , and should be taken from their parents in such circumstances . Cases like this were not uncommon in 19th @-@ century Italy , and often revolved around the baptism of a Jewish child by a Christian servant . The official Church position was that Catholics should not baptise Jewish children without the parents ' consent , except if a child was on the brink of death — in these cases the Church considered the customary deferment to parental authority to be outweighed by the importance of allowing the child 's soul to be saved and go to Heaven , and permitted baptism without the parents ' assent . Many Jewish families feared clandestine baptisms by their Christian maids ; to counter this perceived threat some households required Christians leaving their employment to sign notarised statements confirming that they had never baptised any of the children .
The servant identified in the rumours was Anna Morisi . After receiving written permission to investigate from the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition ( also called the Holy Office ) , the body of cardinals responsible for overseeing and defending Catholic doctrine , Feletti interrogated her at the Basilica of San Domenico in Bologna . Morisi averred that while she was employed by the Mortaras , their infant son Edgardo had fallen gravely sick while in her care , leading her to fear he might die . She said that she had performed an emergency baptism herself — sprinkling some water on the boy 's head and saying : " I baptise you in the Name of the Father , and of the Son , and of the Holy Ghost " — but had never revealed this to the child 's family . Edgardo had since recovered . Feletti had Morisi swear to keep the story quiet and sent a transcript of the meeting to Rome , requesting permission to remove the now six @-@ year @-@ old Edgardo from his family .
It is not known by historians whether Pope Pius IX was involved in any of the early Holy Office discussions over Mortara , or was otherwise aware of Feletti 's initial investigation . He was its official head but he only occasionally attended its meetings , and was not likely to be consulted about what the cardinals saw as routine matters . For the Holy Office , situations such as that reported by Feletti presented a profound quandary — on the one hand the Church officially disapproved of forced conversions , but on the other it held that the baptismal sacrament was sacrosanct and that if it had been properly administered , the recipient was thereafter a member of the Christian communion . According to the laws of the Papal States it was illegal to take a child from non @-@ Christian parents for baptism , but if such a child was indeed baptised the Church was held to bear responsibility to provide a Christian education . The cardinals considered Morisi 's account and ultimately accepted it as bearing " all the earmarks of the truth without leaving the least doubt about the reality and the validity of the baptism she performed " . Feletti was instructed to arrange Edgardo 's removal and transport to the House of Catechumens in Rome , where instruction was given to those newly converted or in the process of converting to Catholicism .
= = = Seizure = = =
A detail of papal carabinieri ( military police ) led by Marshal Pietro Lucidi and Brigadier Giuseppe Agostini arrived at the Mortara apartment in Bologna soon after sunset on 23 June 1858 . After asking a few questions about the family , Lucidi announced : " Signor Mortara , I am sorry to inform you that you are the victim of a betrayal " , and explained that they were under orders from Father Feletti to take Edgardo as he had been baptised . Marianna screamed hysterically , ran to Edgardo 's bed and shrieked that they would have to kill her before taking him . Lucidi said repeatedly that he was only following Feletti 's orders . He reported afterwards that he " would have a thousand times preferred to be exposed to much more serious dangers in performing my duties than to have to witness such a painful scene . "
Lucidi offered to let Edgardo 's father accompany them to the inquisitor to discuss the matter with him — Momolo refused — then allowed Momolo to send his eldest son Riccardo to summon relatives and neighbours . Marianna 's uncle Angelo Padovani , a prominent member of Bologna 's Jewish community , concluded that their only hope was to appeal to Feletti . The inquisitor received Padovani and Marianna 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Angelo Moscato at San Domenico soon after 23 : 00 . Feletti said that he , like Lucidi , was merely following orders . He declined to reveal why it was thought that Edgardo had been baptised , saying that this was confidential . When the men begged him to at least give the family one last day with Edgardo , the inquisitor acquiesced on the condition that no attempt was made to spirit the child away . He gave Padovani a note to this effect to pass on to the marshal . Lucidi left as ordered , leaving two men to stay in the Mortaras ' bedroom and watch over Edgardo .
The Mortaras spent the morning of 24 June attempting to have Feletti 's order overruled by either the city 's cardinal legate , Giuseppe Milesi Pironi Ferretti , or the Archbishop of Bologna , Michele Viale @-@ Prelà , but they found that neither was in the city . Around noon , the Mortaras decided to take steps to make the separation as painless as possible . Edgardo 's siblings were taken to visit relatives while Marianna reluctantly agreed to spend the evening with the wife of Giuseppe Vitta , a Jewish family friend . Around 17 : 00 Momolo visited San Domenico to make one last plea to Feletti . The inquisitor repeated all he had said to Padovani and Moscato the previous night and told Momolo not to worry as Edgardo would be well cared for , under the protection of the Pope himself . He warned that it would benefit no @-@ one to make a scene when the carabinieri returned that evening .
Momolo came home to find the apartment empty apart from Vitta , Marianna 's brother ( also called Angelo Padovani ) , the two policemen and Edgardo himself . At about 20 : 00 the carabinieri arrived , in two carriages — one for Lucidi and his men , and another in which Agostini would drive Edgardo . Lucidi entered the apartment and took Edgardo from his father 's arms , prompting the two policemen who had guarded him to shed tears . Momolo followed the police down the stairs to the street , then fainted . Edgardo was passed to Agostini and driven away .
= = Appeal = =
= = = Initial appeal ; Morisi confronted = = =
With no way of knowing where the boy had been taken — Momolo found out only in early July — the Mortaras , supported by the Jewish communities in Bologna , Rome and elsewhere in Italy , initially focused on drafting appeals and trying to rally support from Jews abroad . The greatly expanded public voice wielded by Jews in western European countries following recent moves towards freedom of the press , coupled with Jewish political emancipation in the Kingdom of Sardinia , Britain , France and the United States , caused Mortara 's removal to gain press attention far beyond anything previously given to such incidents . The papal government was initially disposed to simply ignore Momolo 's appeals , but reconsidered after newspapers began reporting on the case ; the pontifical state 's many detractors seized on the episode as an example of papal tyranny .
Anxious to protect the Papal States ' precarious diplomatic position , the Cardinal Secretary of State Giacomo Antonelli liaised with Rome 's Jewish community to arrange a meeting with Momolo Mortara , and received him politely in early August 1858 . Antonelli promised that the matter would be referred to the Pope and granted Momolo 's request that he be allowed to visit Edgardo regularly in the House of Catechumens . Kertzer cites Antonelli 's concession of repeated visits , as opposed to the usual single meeting , as the first sign that the Mortara case would take on a special significance .
The attempts of the Mortaras and their allies to identify who was supposed to have baptised Edgardo quickly bore fruit . After their present servant Anna Facchini adamantly denied any involvement , they considered former employees and soon earmarked Morisi as a possible candidate . In late July 1858 the Mortara home was visited by Ginerva Scagliarini , a friend of Morisi 's who had once worked for Marianna 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Cesare De Angelis . Marianna 's brother Angelo Padovani tested Scagliarini by saying falsely that he had heard it was Morisi who had baptised Edgardo . The ruse worked — Scagliarini said that she had been told the same thing by Morisi 's sister Monica .
The younger Angelo Padovani went with De Angelis to confront Morisi in San Giovanni in Persiceto . Padovani recalled finding her in tears . After the visitors assured her that they meant no harm , Morisi recounted what she had told Feletti . She said that a grocer named Cesare Lepori had suggested the baptism when she mentioned Edgardo 's sickness , and shown her how to perform it . She had not mentioned it to anyone , she went on , until soon after Edgardo 's brother Aristide died at the age of one in 1857 — when a neighbour 's servant called Regina proposed that Morisi should have baptised Aristide , that she had done so to Edgardo " slipped out of my mouth " . According to Padovani , Morisi described crying during her interrogation by the inquisitor , and expressed guilt over Edgardo 's removal : " figuring that it was all my fault , I was very unhappy , and still am . " Morisi agreed to have this formally recorded , but was gone when Padovani and De Angelis returned after three hours with a notary and two witnesses . After searching for her in vain , they went back to Bologna with only their hearsay account of her story , which Padovani thought genuine : " Her words , and her demeanour , and her tears before she could launch into her story , persuaded me that what she told me was all true . "
= = = Two narratives = = =
Edgardo was visited by his father several times under the supervision of the rector of the Catechumens , Enrico Sarra , from mid @-@ August to mid @-@ September 1858 . The wildly divergent accounts of what happened during these encounters grew into two rival narratives of the entire case . Momolo 's version of events , favoured by the Jewish community and other backers , was that a family had been destroyed by the government 's religious fanaticism , that helpless Edgardo had spent the journey to Rome crying for his parents , and that the boy wanted nothing more than to return home . The narrative favoured by the Church and its supporters , and propagated in the Catholic press throughout Europe , was one of divinely ordained , soul @-@ stirring redemption , and a child endowed with spiritual strength far beyond his years — the neophyte Edgardo had faced a life of error followed by eternal damnation but now stood to share in Christian salvation , and was distraught that his parents would not convert with him .
The central theme in almost all renditions of the narrative favouring the Mortara family was that of Marianna Mortara 's health . From July 1858 onwards it was reported across Europe that as a result of her grief , Edgardo 's mother had practically if not actually gone insane , and might even die . The powerful image of the heartbroken mother was stressed heavily in the family 's appeals both to the public and to Edgardo himself . Momolo and the secretary of Rome 's Jewish community , Sabatino Scazzocchio , told Edgardo that his mother 's life was at risk if he did not come back soon . When Marianna wrote to her son in August , Scazzocchio refused to deliver the letter on the grounds that , being relatively calm and reassuring in tone , it might work against the impression they were trying to give him that she was no longer herself and that only his return could save her . One correspondent reported in January 1859 : " The father shows a great deal of courage , but the mother is having a hard time carrying on . ... If the Holy Father had seen this woman as I saw her , he would not have the courage to keep her son another moment . "
There were many different versions of the Catholic story , but all followed the same basic structure . All had Edgardo quickly and fervently embracing Christianity and trying to learn as much as possible about it . Most described a dramatic scene of Edgardo wondering at a painting of the Virgin Mary in sorrow , either in Rome or during the journey from Bologna . Agostini , the policeman who had escorted him to Rome , reported that the boy had at first stubbornly refused to enter a church with him for mass , but displayed an apparently miraculous transformation when he did . A common theme was that Edgardo had become a kind of prodigy — according to an eyewitness account published in the Catholic L 'armonia della religione colla civiltà , he had learned the catechism perfectly within a few days , " blesse [ d ] the servant who baptised him , " and declared that he wanted to convert all Jews to Christianity . The most influential pro @-@ Church article on Mortara was an account published in the Jesuit periodical La Civiltà Cattolica in November 1858 , and subsequently reprinted or quoted in Catholic papers across Europe . This story had the child begging the rector of the Catechumens not to send him back but to let him grow up in a Christian home , and initiated what became a central plank of the pro @-@ Church narrative — that Edgardo had a new family , namely the Catholic Church itself . The article quoted Edgardo as saying : " I am baptised ; I am baptised and my father is the Pope . "
According to Kertzer , the proponents of this pro @-@ Church narrative did not seem to realise that to many these accounts sounded " too good to be true " and " absurd . " Kertzer comments : " If Edgardo in fact told his father that he did not want to return with him , that he now regarded the Pope as his true father and wanted to devote his life to converting the Jews , this message seems not to have registered with Momolo . " Liberals , Protestants and Jews across the continent ridiculed the Catholic press reports . A booklet published in Brussels in 1859 outlined the two contrasting narratives , then concluded : " Between the miracle of a six @-@ year @-@ old apostle who wants to convert the Jews and the cry of a child who keeps asking for his mother and his little sisters , we don 't hesitate for a moment . " Mortara 's parents furiously denounced the Catholic accounts as lies , but some of their supporters were less certain about where Edgardo 's loyalties now lay . These included Scazzocchio , who had attended some of the disputed meetings at the Catechumens .
= = = Lepori 's denial ; Morisi discredited = = =
Momolo returned to Bologna in late September 1858 after his two brothers @-@ in @-@ law wrote to him that if he stayed in Rome any longer the family might be ruined . He left Scazzocchio to represent the family 's cause in Rome . Momolo shifted his priority to attempting to undermine Morisi 's credibility , either by disproving aspects of her story or by showing her to be untrustworthy . He also resolved to confront Cesare Lepori , the grocer who Morisi said had both suggested the baptism and shown her how to perform it . Based on Morisi 's story , Lepori had already been identified by many observers as being ultimately to blame for the affair . When Momolo visited his shop in early October , Lepori vehemently denied that he had ever spoken to Morisi about Edgardo or any baptism , and said that he was prepared to testify to this effect before any legal authority . He claimed that he did not himself know how to administer baptism , so had such a conversation occurred it could hardly have gone as Morisi described .
Carlo Maggi , a Catholic acquaintance of Momolo 's who was also a retired judge , sent a report of Lepori 's refutation to Scazzocchio , who asked Antonelli to pass it on to the Pope . A cover letter attached to Maggi 's statement described it as proof that Morisi 's story was false . Scazzocchio also forwarded an affidavit from the Mortara family doctor , Pasquale Saragoni , who acknowledged that Edgardo had fallen sick when he was about a year old , but stated that he had never been in danger of dying , and that in any case Morisi had been herself bedridden at the time she was supposed to have baptised the boy . A further report sent from Bologna in October 1858 , comprising the statements of eight women and one man , all Catholics , corroborated the doctor 's claims about the sicknesses of Edgardo and Morisi respectively , and alleged that the former maid was given to theft and sexual impropriety . Four women , including the servant Anna Facchini and the woman who had employed Morisi after she left the Mortaras , Elena Pignatti , claimed that Morisi had regularly flirted with Austrian officers and invited them into her employers ' homes for sex .
= = = Alatri , then back to Rome = = =
Momolo set out for Rome again on 11 October 1858 , this time bringing Marianna with him in the hope that her presence might make a stronger impression on the Church and Edgardo . Anxious about the possible consequences of a dramatic reunification between mother and son , the rector Enrico Sarra took Edgardo from Rome to Alatri , his own home town about 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) away . The Mortaras tracked them to a church in Alatri , where from the door Momolo saw a priest saying mass — and Edgardo by his side assisting him . Momolo waited outside , and afterwards persuaded the rector to let him see his son . Before this meeting could take place , the Mortaras were arrested on the orders of the Mayor of Alatri , himself following a request from the town 's bishop , and despatched back to Rome . Antonelli was not impressed , thinking this an undignified line of action that would give obvious ammunition to the Church 's detractors , and ordered Sarra to bring Edgardo back to the capital to meet his parents .
Edgardo returned to the Catechumens on 22 October , and was visited by his parents often over the next month . As with Momolo 's first round of visits , two different versions emerged of what happened . According to Edgardo 's parents , the boy was obviously intimidated by the clergymen around him and threw himself into his mother 's arms when he first saw her . Marianna later said : " He had lost weight and had turned pale ; his eyes were filled with terror ... I told him that he was born a Jew like us and like us he must always remain one , and he replied : ' Si , mia cara mamma , I will never forget to say the Shema every day . ' " One report in the Jewish press described the priests telling Edgardo 's parents that God had chosen their son to be " the apostle of Christianity to his family , dedicated to converting his parents and his siblings " , and that they could have him back if they also became Christians . The clerics and nuns then knelt and prayed for the conversion of the Mortara household , prompting Edgardo 's parents to leave in terror .
The pro @-@ Church accounts , by contrast , described a boy very much resolved to stay where he was , and horrified by his mother 's exhortations to return to the Judaism of his ancestors . In this narrative , the main reason for the Mortaras ' grief was not that their son had been taken , but that he now stood to grow up in the Christian faith . According to La Civiltà Cattolica , Marianna flew into a rage on seeing a medallion hanging from Edgardo 's neck bearing the image of the Virgin Mary , and ripped it off ; one article went so far as to claim the Jewish mother had done this with the words : " I 'd rather see you dead than a Christian ! " Some of the Church 's critics had charged that by keeping Edgardo , it was violating the commandment that a child should honour his father and mother — La Civiltà Cattolica countered that Edgardo still loved his family despite their religious differences and indeed , after being taught by the priests to read and write , had chosen to write his first letter to his mother , signing it " your most affectionate little son " . Louis Veuillot , the ultramontane editor of the L 'Univers newspaper and one of the Pope 's staunchest defenders , reported after meeting Edgardo in Rome that the boy had told him " that he loves his father and his mother , and that he will go to live with them when he is older ... so that he can speak to them of Saint Peter , of God , and of the most Holy Mary . "
= = Outrage = =
= = = International scandal ; political machinations = = =
Having made no progress in Rome , Momolo and Marianna Mortara returned to Bologna in early December 1858 , and soon afterwards moved to Turin , in Piedmont . The case — an anti @-@ Catholic " publicist 's dream " , to quote Kertzer — had by now become a massive controversy in both Europe and the United States , with voices across the social spectrum clamouring for the Pope to return Edgardo to his parents . Mortara became a cause célèbre not only for Jews but for Protestant Christians as well , particularly in the United States , where anti @-@ Catholic sentiment abounded — The New York Times published more than 20 articles on the case in December 1858 alone . In Britain , The Spectator presented the Mortara case as evidence that the Papal States had " the worst government in the world — the most insolvent and the most arrogant , the cruelest and the meanest " . The Catholic press both in Italy and abroad steadfastly defended the Pope 's actions . The pro @-@ Church articles often took on an overtly anti @-@ Semitic character , charging for example that if coverage in Britain , France or Germany was critical this was hardly a surprise " since currently the newspapers of Europe are in good part in the hands of the Jews " . Scazzocchio suggested that the press storm attacking the Church was actually counter @-@ productive for the Mortara family 's cause , as it angered the Pope and thereby steeled his resolve not to compromise .
Regardless of whether Pope Pius IX had been personally involved in the decision to remove Mortara from his parents — whether he had been or not was debated extensively in the press — what is certain is that he was greatly surprised by the international furore that erupted over the matter , and promptly adopted the position that to return the baptised child to his non @-@ Christian family would be totally incompatible with Church doctrine . As foreign governments and the various branches of the Rothschild family one by one condemned his actions , Pius IX stood firm on what he saw as a matter of principle . Those angered included Emperor Napoleon III of France , who found the situation particularly vexing as the pontifical government owed its very existence to the French garrison in Rome . Napoleon III had indifferently supported the Pope 's temporal rule because it enjoyed widespread support among French Catholics ; the scandal over Mortara weakened this considerably and , according to the historian Roger Aubert , provided the final straw that changed French policy . In February 1859 Napoleon III concluded a secret pact with the Kingdom of Sardinia pledging French military support for a campaign to drive the Austrians out and unify Italy — most of the pontifical domain would be absorbed along with the Two Sicilies and other minor states .
It was then an annual custom for the Pope to receive a delegation from Rome 's Jewish community shortly after the New Year . The meeting on 2 February 1859 quickly descended into a heated argument , with Pope Pius berating the Jewish visitors for " stirring up a storm all over Europe about this Mortara case " . When the delegation denied that the Jews of Rome had had any hand in the anti @-@ clerical articles , the Pope dismissed Scazzocchio as inexperienced and foolish , then shouted : " The newspapers can write all they want . I couldn 't care less what the world thinks ! " The Pope then calmed down somewhat : " So strong is the pity I have for you , that I pardon you , indeed , I must pardon you . " One of the delegates proposed that the Church should not give so much credence to Morisi 's testimony , given her spurious morals — the Pope countered that regardless of her character , so far as he could see the servant had no reason to invent such a story , and in any case Momolo Mortara should not have employed a Catholic in the first place .
Pope Pius IX 's determination to keep Edgardo developed into a strong paternal attachment . According to Edgardo 's memoirs , the pontiff regularly spent time with him and played with him ; the Pope would amuse the child by hiding him under his cassock and calling out : " Where 's the boy ? " At one of their meetings , Pope Pius told Edgardo : " My son , you have cost me dearly , and I have suffered a great deal because of you . " He then said to others present : " Both the powerful and the powerless tried to steal this boy from me , and accused me of being barbarous and pitiless . They cried for his parents , but they failed to recognise that I , too , am his father . "
= = = Montefiore 's petition ; fall of Bologna = = =
The Italian Jewish appeals brought the attention of Sir Moses Montefiore , the president of the Board of Deputies of British Jews , whose willingness to travel great distances to help his co @-@ religionists — as he had over the Damascus blood libel of 1840 , for example — was already well known . From August to December 1858 he headed a special British committee on Mortara that relayed reports from Piedmont to British newspapers and Catholic clergymen , and happily noted the support expressed by British Protestants , particularly the Evangelical Alliance led by Sir Culling Eardley . After unsuccessfully attempting to have the British government lodge an official protest with the Vatican , Montefiore resolved to personally travel to Rome to present a petition to the Pope calling for Edgardo to be returned to his parents . He arrived in Rome on 5 April 1859 .
Montefiore failed to gain an audience with the Pope , and was received by Cardinal Antonelli only on 28 April . Montefiore gave him the Board of Deputies ' petition to pass on to the Pope , and said that he would wait in the city a week for the pontiff 's reply . Two days later , news reached Rome that fighting had broken out between Austrian and Piedmontese troops in the north — the War of 1859 had begun . While most foreign dignitaries fled Rome as quickly as possible , Montefiore waited in vain for the Pope 's response ; he finally left on 10 May . On his return to Britain more than 2 @,@ 000 leading citizens — including 79 mayors and provosts , 27 peers , 22 Anglican bishops and archbishops and 36 Members of Parliament — signed a protest calling the Pope 's conduct a " dishonour to Christianity " , " repulsive to the instincts of humanity " . Meanwhile , the Church quietly had Edgardo confirmed as a Catholic in a private chapel on 13 May 1859 . Edgardo was by this time no longer in the Catechumens but at San Pietro in Vincoli , a basilica elsewhere in Rome where Pope Pius had personally decided the boy would be educated .
As the war turned against the Austrians , the garrison in Bologna left early in the morning on 12 June 1859 . By the end of the same day the papal colours flying in the squares had been replaced with the Italian green , white and red , the cardinal legate had left the city , and a group styling itself Bologna 's provisional government had proclaimed its desire to join the Kingdom of Sardinia . Bologna was promptly incorporated as part of the province of Romagna . The Archbishop Michele Viale @-@ Prelà attempted to persuade the citizenry not to co @-@ operate with the new civil authorities , but had little success . One of the new order 's first official acts was to introduce freedom of religion and make all citizens equal before the law . In November 1859 the governor Luigi Carlo Farini issued a proclamation abolishing the inquisition .
= = Retribution = =
= = = Feletti arrested = = =
Momolo Mortara spent late 1859 and January 1860 in Paris and London , trying to rally support . While he was away his father Simon , who lived about 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) west of Bologna in Reggio Emilia , successfully asked the new authorities in Romagna to launch an inquiry into the Mortara case . On 31 December 1859 Farini ordered his justice minister to pursue the " authors of the kidnapping " . Filippo Curletti , the new director @-@ general of police for Romagna , was put in charge of the investigation . After two officers identified the erstwhile inquisitor Feletti as having given the order to take Edgardo , Curletti and a detachment of police went to San Domenico and arrested him at about 02 : 30 on 2 January 1860 .
The police inspectors questioned Feletti , but each time they asked about anything to do with Mortara or his removal the monk said that a sacred oath precluded his discussing affairs of the Holy Office . When Curletti ordered him to hand over all files relating to the Mortara case , Feletti said that they had been burned — when asked when or how , he repeated that on Holy Office matters he could say nothing . Pressed further , Feletti said : " As far as the activities that I carried out as Inquisitor of the Holy Office of Bologna , I am obliged to explain myself to one forum only , to the Supreme Sacred Congregation in Rome , whose Prefect is His Holiness Pope Pius IX , and to no @-@ one else . " After the police searched the convent for documents relating to the Mortara case — they found nothing — the inquisitor was escorted to prison . The news that Feletti had been arrested caused the press storm surrounding Mortara , which had died down somewhat , to flare up again across Europe .
= = = Investigation = = =
Father Feletti 's trial was the first major criminal case in Bologna under the new authorities . The magistrate Francesco Carboni announced on 18 January 1860 that Feletti and Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Luigi De Dominicis would be prosecuted , but not Lucidi or Agostini . When Carboni interviewed Feletti in prison on 23 January , the friar said that in seizing Edgardo from his family he had only carried out instructions from the Holy Office , " which never promulgates any decree without the consent of the Roman Pontiff " . Feletti then recounted a version of the Church narrative of the case , stating that Edgardo had " always remained firm in his desire to remain a Christian " and was now studying successfully in Rome . He predicted in conclusion that Edgardo would one day be the " support and pride " of the Mortara family .
On 6 February Momolo Mortara gave an account of the case that contradicted the inquisitor 's at almost every turn ; in Rome , he said , Edgardo had been " frightened , and intimidated by the rector 's presence , [ but ] he openly declared his desire to return home with us " . Carboni then travelled to San Giovanni in Persiceto to interrogate Morisi , who gave her age as 23 rather than the actual 26 . Morisi said that Edgardo had fallen sick in the winter of 1851 – 52 , when he was about four months old . She recounted having seen the Mortaras sitting sadly by Edgardo 's crib and " reading from a book in Hebrew that the Jews read when one of them is about to die " . She repeated her account of giving Edgardo an emergency baptism at the instigation of the grocer Lepori and later telling the story to a neighbour 's servant called Regina , adding that she had also told her sisters about the baptism . As before , Lepori denied any role in the affair whatsoever , indeed saying he could not even remember Morisi . The " Regina " in Morisi 's story was identified as Regina Bussolari ; though Morisi averred to have told her the whole story , Bussolari professed to know nothing of the case . She said that she had only spoken with Morisi " once or twice , when she was going up to the storage room to get something " , and never about anything to do with the Mortaras ' children .
Elena Pignatti , who had employed Morisi after she left the Mortaras in 1857 — her words about Morisi 's misconduct had formed part of the Mortaras ' appeal to the Pope — testified that " seven or eight years ago ... a son of the Mortaras , whose name I don 't know , became sick , and it was said that he was going to die . Around then , one morning ... I ran into Morisi . Among the other things we talked about , she — without mentioning the child 's illness — asked me , ' I 've heard that if you baptise a Jewish child who 's about to die he goes to Heaven and gets indulgence ; isn 't that right ? ' I don 't remember what I told her , but when the Mortara boy was kidnapped by order of the Dominican Father , I was sure that he must have been the one who was sick " . Pignatti said that she had herself seen Edgardo during his illness , and Marianna sitting by the crib — " Since his mother was crying , and despaired for his life , I thought he was dying , also because of his appearance : his eyes were closed , and he was hardly moving . " She added that during the three months when Morisi worked for her in late 1857 , the servant had been summoned to San Domenico four or five times , and had said that the inquisitor had promised her a dowry .
Bussolari 's denial that she had discussed any baptism with Morisi raised the question of who could have reported the rumours to the inquisitor in the first place . On 6 March , Carboni interviewed Morisi again and pointed out the inconsistencies between her story and the testimony of the Mortara family doctor , the Mortaras themselves , and both Lepori and Bussolari . She replied : " It 's the Gospel truth " . Carboni put it to Morisi that she might have invented the whole story out of spite against the Mortara family in the hope that the Church might reward her . When Carboni asked Morisi if she had been to San Domenico apart from for her interrogation , she stated that she had been there on two other occasions to try to secure a dowry from Father Feletti . Carboni suggested that Morisi must have herself prompted the interrogation by recounting Edgardo 's baptism during one of these visits — Morisi insisted that the interrogation had been first and the other two visits later .
After one last interview with Feletti — who again said almost nothing , citing a sacred oath — Carboni informed him that so far as he could see , there was no evidence to support his version of events . Feletti replied : " I commiserate with the Mortara parents for their painful separation from their son , but I hope that the prayers of the innocent soul succeed in having God reunite them all in the Christian religion ... As for my punishment , not only do I place myself in the Lord 's hands , but I would argue that any government would recognise the legitimacy of my action . " The next day Feletti and De Dominicis , the latter of whom had fled to the rump Papal States , were formally charged with the " violent separation of the boy Edgardo Mortara from his own Jewish family " .
= = = Trial ; acquittal = = =
Feletti faced a court trial under the code of laws in effect in Bologna at the time of Edgardo 's removal . Carboni proposed that even under the pontifical laws , the seizure was illegal — he reported that he had seen no evidence to support the friar 's claim that he had acted following instructions from Rome , and that there was substantial evidence casting doubt on Morisi 's account , but so far as he could see Feletti had done nothing to verify what she had said before ordering the child removed . After Feletti refused to appoint a defence counsel when prompted , saying he was putting his defence in the hands of God and the Virgin Mary , the experienced Bologna lawyer Francesco Jussi was appointed by the state to defend him .
The hearing before a panel of six judges on 16 April 1860 was attended by neither the Mortara family nor Feletti — the former because they were in Turin and learned of the trial date only two days beforehand , and the latter because he refused to recognise the new authorities ' right to put him on trial . With the evidence gathered by Curletti and Carboni already in hand , the prosecution had no witnesses to call . The prosecutor Radamisto Valentini , a lawyer fighting his first major case , declared that Feletti had ordered the seizure alone and on his own initiative , and then turned his focus to Carboni 's second point of how the authorities in Rome could have possibly concluded that Morisi 's story was genuine . Valentini went over Morisi 's account in detail , arguing that even if things had happened as she said , the baptism had not been administered properly and was therefore invalid . He then highlighted the inconsistencies between her testimony and the other accounts , condemned Morisi as a silly girl " corrupted by the foul breath and touch of foreign soldiers ... [ who ] rolled over without shame with them " , and finally charged that Feletti had ordered the seizure himself out of megalomania and " an inquisitor 's hatred of Judaism " .
Jussi found himself in the unusual position of attempting to defend a client who refused to defend himself . With no evidence at his disposal to support Feletti 's testimony , he was forced to rely almost entirely on his own oratory . Jussi put forward some aspects of the sequence of events that he said suggested that orders had indeed come from Rome — for example , that Feletti had sent Edgardo straight off to the capital without seeing him — and asserted that the Holy Office and the Pope were far better placed to adjudge the validity of the baptism than a secular court . He quoted at length from Angelo Padovani 's account of his meeting with Anna Morisi in July 1858 , then cast doubt on the grocer Lepori 's claim that he did not even know how to baptise a child — Jussi produced a police report in which Lepori was described as a close friend of a Jesuit priest . Jussi proposed that Lepori and Bussolari might both be lying to protect themselves , and that Morisi 's sexual impropriety did not necessarily mean her story was false . He concluded that since Feletti had been inquisitor at the time , he had merely done what that office required him to do , and no crime had been committed .
The judging panel , headed by Calcedonio Ferrari , ruled following a swift deliberation that Feletti should be released as he had acted under instructions from the government of the time . The interval between the priest 's arrest and his trial , coupled with the swift progress being made towards Italian unification , meant that the Mortara case had lost much of its prominence , so there was little protest against the decision . The Jewish press expressed disappointment — an editorial in the Italian Jewish paper L 'Educatore israelitico suggested that it had perhaps been unwise to target Feletti rather than someone more senior . In France Archives Israélites took a similar line , positing : " what good does it do to strike at the arm when it is the head that in this case conceived , carried out , and sanctioned the attack ? "
= = = Plans to recapture Edgardo = = =
The Mortaras were not surprised by the verdict in Feletti 's trial . Momolo hoped that his son might be a major topic of discussion at an international conference on the future of Italy , but was disappointed when no such summit materialised . His cause and visit to Paris partly motivated the formation in May 1860 of the Alliance Israélite Universelle , a Paris @-@ based organisation dedicated to the advancement of Jewish civil rights across the world . As the Italian nationalist armies advanced through the peninsula , the fall of Rome seemed imminent . In September 1860 the Alliance Israélite Universelle wrote to Momolo offering him financial and logistical support if he wished to reclaim his son by force , as " getting your child back is the cause of all Israel " . A separate plan was formulated by Carl Blumenthal , an English Jew serving in Giuseppe Garibaldi 's nationalist volunteer corps : Blumenthal and three others would dress up as clergymen , seize Edgardo and spirit him away . Garibaldi approved this plan in 1860 , but it was apparently called off after one of the conspirators died .
= = Conclusion = =
= = = Italian unification ; Edgardo flees = = =
The Pope remained steadfastly determined not to give Edgardo up , declaring : " What I have done for this boy , I had the right and the duty to do . If it happened again , I would do the same thing . " When the delegation from Rome 's Jewish community attended their annual meeting at the Vatican in January 1861 , they were surprised to find the nine @-@ year @-@ old Edgardo at the pontiff 's side . The new Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed a month later with Victor Emmanuel II as king . A reduced incarnation of the Papal States , comprising Rome and its immediate environs , endured outside the new kingdom because of Napoleon III 's reluctance to offend his Catholic subjects by withdrawing the French garrison . He pulled these troops out following the entrance of a Jewish child from the Roman Ghetto , nine @-@ year @-@ old Giuseppe Coen , to the Catechumens in 1864 . The removal of the French garrison brought the Roman Question to the fore in the Italian parliament . The statesman Marco Minghetti dismissed a proposed compromise whereby Rome would become part of the kingdom with the Pope retaining some special powers , saying : " we cannot go to guard the Mortara boy for the Pope " . The French garrison returned in 1867 , following an unsuccessful attempt by Garibaldi to capture the city .
In early 1865 , at the age of 13 , Edgardo became a novice in the Canons Regular of the Lateran , adding the Pope 's name to his own to become Pio Edgardo Mortara . He wrote repeatedly to his family , he recalled , " dealing with religion and doing what I could to convince them of the truth of the Catholic faith , " but received no reply until May 1867 — his parents , who were now living in Florence , wrote that they still loved him dearly , but saw nothing of their son in the letters they had received . In July 1870 , just before Edgardo turned 19 , the French garrison in Rome was withdrawn for good after the Franco @-@ Prussian War broke out . Italian troops captured the city on 20 September 1870 .
Momolo Mortara followed the Italian Army into Rome hoping to finally reclaim his son . According to some accounts , he was preceded by his son Riccardo , Edgardo 's elder brother , who had entered the kingdom 's service as an infantry officer . Riccardo Mortara fought his way to San Pietro in Vincoli and found his brother 's convent room . Edgardo covered his eyes , raised his hand in front of him and shouted : " Get back , Satan ! " When Riccardo said that he was his brother , Edgardo replied : " Before you get any closer to me , take off that assassin 's uniform . " Whatever the truth , what is certain is that Edgardo reacted to the capture of Rome with intense panic . He later wrote : " After the Piedmontese troops entered Rome ... they used their force to seize the neophyte Coen from the Collegio degli Scolopi , [ then ] turned toward San Pietro in Vincoli to try to kidnap me as well . " The Roman chief of police asked Edgardo to return to his family to appease public opinion , but he refused . He subsequently met the Italian commander , General Alfonso Ferrero La Marmora , who told him that as he was 19 years old he could do as he wished . Edgardo was smuggled out of Rome by train along with a priest on 22 October 1870 , late at night and in lay clothes . He made his way north and escaped to Austria .
= = = Father Mortara = = =
Edgardo found shelter in a convent of the Canons Regular in Austria , where he lived under an assumed name . In 1872 he moved to a monastery at Poitiers in France , where Pope Pius regularly corresponded with the bishop about the young man . After a year , Pio Edgardo Mortara was ordained as a priest — with special dispensation as at 21 he was technically too young . He received a personal letter from the Pope to mark the occasion , as well as a lifetime trust fund of 7 @,@ 000 lire to support him .
Father Mortara spent most of the rest of his life outside Italy , travelling throughout Europe and preaching . It was said that he could give sermons in six languages , including Basque , and read three more , including Hebrew . " As a preacher he was in great demand , " Kertzer writes , " not least because of the inspirational way he was able to weave the remarkable story of his own childhood into his sermons . As he recounted it , his saga was the stuff of faith and hope : a story of how God chose a simple , illiterate servant girl to invest a small child with the miraculous powers of divine grace , and in doing so rescued him from his Jewish family — good people but , as Jews , on a God @-@ forsaken path . "
Momolo Mortara died in 1871 , shortly after spending seven months in prison during his trial over the death of a servant girl who had fallen from the window of his apartment . He had been found guilty of murdering her by the Florentine court of appeal , but then acquitted by the court of assizes . Pope Pius IX died in 1878 . The same year Marianna travelled to Perpignan in south @-@ western France , where she had heard Edgardo was preaching , and enjoyed an emotional reunion with her son , who was pleased to see her , but disappointed when she refused his pleas to convert to Catholicism . Edgardo thereafter attempted to re @-@ establish connections with his family , but not all of his relatives were as receptive to him as his mother .
Following Marianna 's death in 1890 , it was reported in French newspapers that she had finally , on her deathbed and with Edgardo beside her , become a Christian . Edgardo refuted this : " I have always ardently desired that my mother embrace the Catholic faith , " he wrote in a letter to Le Temps , " and I tried many times to get her to do so . However , that never happened " . A year later , Father Pio Edgardo Mortara returned to Italy for the first time in two decades to preach in Modena . A sister and some of his brothers came out to hear his sermon , and for the rest of his life Edgardo called on his relatives whenever he was in Italy . During a 1919 sojourn in Rome he visited the House of Catechumens he had entered 61 years before . By this time he had settled at the abbey of the Canons Regular at Bouhay in Liège , Belgium . Bouhay had a sanctuary to the Virgin of Lourdes , to which Father Mortara felt a special connection , the Lourdes apparitions of 1858 having occurred in the same year as his own conversion to Christianity . Father Pio Edgardo Mortara resided at Bouhay for the rest of his life and died there on 11 March 1940 , at the age of 88 .
= = Appraisal and legacy = =
The Mortara case is given little attention in most Risorgimento histories , if it is mentioned at all . The first book @-@ length scholarly work was Rabbi Bertram Korn 's The American Reaction to the Mortara Case : 1858 – 1859 ( 1957 ) , which was devoted entirely to public opinion in the United States and , according to Kertzer , often incorrect about details of the case . The main historical reference until the 1990s was a series of articles written by the Italian scholar Gemma Volli and published around the centenary of the controversy in 1958 – 60 . When David Kertzer began studying the case he was surprised to find that many of his Italian colleagues were not familiar with it , while specialists in Jewish studies across the world invariably were — Mortara had , as Kertzer put it , " [ fallen ] from the mainstream of Italian history into the ghetto of Jewish history " . Kertzer explored many sources that had not previously been studied and eventually published The Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara ( 1997 ) , which has become the standard reference work for the affair .
The Mortara case was , in the view of Timothy Verhoeven , the greatest controversy to surround the Catholic Church in the mid @-@ 19th century , as it " more than any other single issue ... exposed the divide between supporters and opponents of the Vatican " . Abigail Green writes that " this clash between liberal and Catholic worldviews at a moment of critical international tension ... gave the Mortara affair global significance — and rendered it a transformative episode in the Jewish world as well " . Mortara himself suggested in 1893 that his abduction had been , for a time , " more famous than that of the Sabine Women " . In the months before Pius IX 's beatification by the Catholic Church in 2000 , Jewish commentators and others in the international media raised the largely forgotten Mortara episode while analysing the Pope 's life and legacy . According to Dov Levitan , the basic facts of the Mortara case are far from unique , but it is nevertheless of particular importance because of its effect on public opinion in Italy , Britain and France , and as an example of " the great sense of Jewish solidarity that emerged in the latter half of the 19th century [ as ] Jews rose to the cause of their brethren in various parts of the world " . The Alliance Israélite Universelle , whose formation had been partly motivated by the Mortara case , grew into one of the most prominent Jewish organisations in the world and endures into the 21st century .
According to Michael Goldfarb , the Mortara controversy provided " an embarrassing example of just how out of touch with modern times the Church was " , and demonstrated that " Pope Pius IX was incapable of bringing the Church into the modern era " . Kertzer takes a similar line : " The refusal to return Edgardo contributed to the growing sense that the Pope 's role as temporal ruler , with his own police force , was an anachronism that could no longer be maintained . " Kertzer goes so far as to suggest that as a primary motivator for the French change of stance that precipitated Italian unification in 1859 – 61 , this " story of an illiterate servant girl , a grocer , and a little Jewish child from Bologna " may well have changed the course of both Italian and Church history .
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= HMS Swiftsure ( 1903 ) =
HMS Swiftsure , originally known as Constitución , was the lead ship of the Swiftsure @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships . The ship was ordered by the Chilean Navy , but she was purchased by the United Kingdom as part of ending the Argentine – Chilean naval arms race . In British service , Swiftsure was initially assigned to the Home Fleet and Channel Fleets before being transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet in 1909 . She rejoined Home Fleet in 1912 and was transferred to the East Indies Station in 1913 , to act as its flagship .
After the beginning of World War I in August 1914 , Swiftsure escorted troop convoys in the Indian Ocean until she was transferred to the Suez Canal Patrol in December . After defending the Canal in early 1915 from Ottoman attacks , the ship was then transferred to the Dardanelles in February and saw action in the Dardanelles Campaign bombarding Ottoman fortifications . Swiftsure was assigned to convoy escort duties in the Atlantic from early 1916 until she was paid off in April 1917 to provide crews for anti @-@ submarine vessels . In mid @-@ 1918 , the ship was disarmed to be used as a blockship during a proposed second raid on Ostend . Swiftsure was sold for scrap in 1920 .
= = Design and description = =
Swiftsure was ordered by Chile , with the name of Constitución , in response to the Argentine purchase of two armoured cruisers from Italy during a time of heightened tensions with Argentina . After the crisis subsided , financial problems forced Chile put the ship up for sale in early 1903 ; concerned that Russia might buy them , the United Kingdom stepped in and purchased the still @-@ incomplete ships from Chile on 3 December 1903 for £ 2 @,@ 432 @,@ 000 . The ship was designed to Chilean specifications , particularly the requirement to fit in the graving dock at Talcahuano , and was regarded by the British as a second @-@ class battleship .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Swiftsure had an overall length of 475 feet 3 inches ( 144 @.@ 9 m ) , a beam of 71 feet 1 inch ( 21 @.@ 7 m ) , and a draught of 28 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 7 m ) at deep load . She displaced 12 @,@ 175 long tons ( 12 @,@ 370 t ) at standard load and 13 @,@ 840 long tons ( 14 @,@ 060 t ) at deep load . At deep load she had a metacentric height of 4 @.@ 01 feet ( 1 @.@ 22 m ) . In 1906 , the crew numbered 729 officers and enlisted men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ship was powered by two four @-@ cylinder inverted vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one propeller . A dozen Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers provided steam to the engines which produced a total of 12 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 9 @,@ 300 kW ) which was intended to allow them to reach a speed of 19 @.@ 5 knots ( 36 @.@ 1 km / h ; 22 @.@ 4 mph ) . The engines proved to be more powerful than anticipated and Swiftsure exceeded 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) during sea trials . She carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 048 long tons ( 2 @,@ 081 t ) of coal , enough to steam 6 @,@ 210 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 500 km ; 7 @,@ 150 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . In service she and her sister proved to be more economical than first thought with an estimated range of 12 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 22 @,@ 000 km ; 14 @,@ 000 mi ) at 10 knots .
= = = Armament = = =
The ship was armed with four 45 @-@ calibre BL 10 @-@ inch Mk VI guns in two twin gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . The guns fired 500 @-@ pound ( 227 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 656 ft / s ( 810 m / s ) ; this provided a maximum range of 14 @,@ 800 yards ( 13 @,@ 500 m ) at the gun 's maximum elevation of 13 @.@ 5 ° . The firing cycle of the Mk VI guns was claimed to be 15 seconds . Each gun was provided with 90 shells .
Swiftsure 's secondary armament consisted of fourteen 50 @-@ calibre 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mk III guns . Ten of the guns were mounted in a central battery on the main deck ; the other four were in casemates abreast the fore- and mainmasts on the upper deck . A major problem with the guns on the main deck was that they were mounted low in the ship — only about 10 feet ( 3 m ) above water at deep load — and were unusable at high speed or in heavy weather as they dipped their muzzles in the sea when rolling more than 14 ° . The guns fired 200 @-@ pound ( 91 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 781 ft / s ( 848 m / s ) at a rate of four rounds per minutes . At their maximum elevation of 15 ° they had a maximum range of about 14 @,@ 000 yards ( 13 @,@ 000 m ) . The ship carried 150 rounds per gun .
Defence against torpedo boats was provided by fourteen QF 14 @-@ pounder Mk I guns , the guns were modified to use the standard 12 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 7 kg ) shell used by the QF 12 pounder 18 cwt gun in British service . They fired 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) , 12 @.@ 5 @-@ lb projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 548 ft / s ( 777 m / s ) . Their maximum range and rate of fire is unknown . 200 rounds per gun was carried by Swiftsure . The ship also mounted four QF 6 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns in the fighting tops , although these were removed in 1906 – 08 .
The ship was also armed with a pair of 18 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes , one on each broadside . She was provided with nine torpedoes .
= = = Armour = = =
The Swiftsures ' armour scheme was roughly comparable to that of the Duncan class . The waterline main belt was composed of Krupp cemented armour ( KCA ) 7 inches ( 178 mm ) thick . It was 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) high of which 5 feet 3 inches ( 1 @.@ 6 m ) was below the waterline at normal load . Fore and aft of the 2 – 6 @-@ inch ( 51 – 152 mm ) oblique bulkheads that connected the belt armour to the barbettes , the belt continued , but was reduced in thickness . It was six inches thick abreast the barbettes , but was reduced to two inches fore and aft of the barbettes . It continued forward to the bow and supported the ship 's spur @-@ type ram . It continued aft to the steering gear compartment and terminated in 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) transverse bulkhead . The upper strake of 7 @-@ inch armour covered the ship 's side between the rear of the barbettes up to the level of the upper deck . The upper deck casemates were also protected by 7 @-@ inch faces and sides , but were enclosed by rear 3 @-@ inch plates . The 7 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns on the main deck were separated by 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) screens with .5 inches ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) plating protecting the funnel uptakes to their rear . A longitudinal 1 @-@ inch bulkhead divided the battery down its centreline .
The turret faces were 9 inches ( 229 mm ) thick and their sides and rear were 8 inches ( 203 mm ) thick . Their roofs were two inches thick and the sighting hood protecting the gunners was 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) thick . Above the upper deck the barbettes were 10 inches ( 254 mm ) thick on their faces and eight inches on the rear . Below this level they thinned to three and two inches respectively . The conning tower was protected by 11 inches ( 279 mm ) of armour on its face and eight inches on its rear . The deck armour inside the central citadel ranged from 1 to 1 @.@ 5 inches in thickness . Outside the citadel , the lower deck was three inches thick and sloped to meet the lower side of the belt armour .
= = Construction and service = =
= = = Pre @-@ World War I = = =
Swiftsure was ordered by Chile as Constitución and laid down by Armstrong Whitworth at Elswick on 26 February 1902 and launched on 12 January 1903 . She was completed in June 1904 and commissioned at Chatham Dockyard on 21 June 1904 for service in the Home Fleet . Under a fleet reorganization in January 1905 , the Home Fleet became the Channel Fleet . She collided with her sister ship Triumph on 3 June 1905 and suffered damage to her propellers , sternwalk and aft hull . The ship was refitted at Chatham Dockyard in June – July 1906 . Swiftsure was briefly placed in reserve at Portsmouth Dockyard from 7 October 1908 until 6 April 1909 when she was recommissioned for service with the Mediterranean Fleet . The ship was reassigned to Home Fleet on 8 May 1912 until she was given a lengthy refit from September 1912 to March 1913 . Swiftsure was recommissioned on 26 March and assigned as the flagship of the East Indies Station .
= = = World War I = = =
During World War I , the ship escorted Indian troop convoys from Bombay to Aden from September – November 1914 , when the destruction of the German light cruiser SMS Emden , which had been raiding in the Indian Ocean , made this escort duty unnecessary . She was then transferred to the Suez Canal Patrol on 1 December to help defend the Canal , although she remained East Indies Station flagship while at Suez . From 27 January to 4 February 1915 , the ship helped to defend the Canal near Kantara during the First Suez Offensive by Ottoman forces .
Swiftsure was relieved as East Indies Station flagship by the armored cruiser Euryalus later in February 1915 and transferred to the Dardanelles for service in the Dardanelles Campaign . She joined the Dardanelles Squadron on 28 February 1915 and took part in the attack on Fort Dardanos on 2 March 1915 . She and Triumph were detached from the Dardanelles on 5 March 1915 for operations against forts at Smyrna and returned to the Dardanelles on 9 March 1915 . She participated in the main attack on the Narrows forts on 18 March 1915 and supported the main landings at West Beach at Cape Helles on 25 April and subsequent landings , including the attack on Achi Baba on 4 June . On 18 September , a German submarine unsuccessfully attacked her while she was on a voyage from Mudros to Suvla Bay . She took part in the bombardment of Dedeagatch on 18 January 1916 .
Swiftsure left the Dardanelles in February 1916 , departing Kephale on 7 February 1916 for Gibraltar , where she was attached to the 9th Cruiser Squadron for service on the Atlantic Patrol and convoy escort duty in the Atlantic . She transferred out of the 9th Cruiser Squadron in March 1917 , departing Sierra Leone on 26 March and arriving at Plymouth on 11 April . Swiftsure was paid off at Chatham on 26 April to provide crews for anti @-@ submarine vessels . She then went into reserve , undergoing a refit at Chatham in mid @-@ 1917 and being employed as an accommodation ship beginning in February 1918 . In the autumn of 1918 she was disarmed and stripped for use as a blockship in a proposed second attempt to block the entrance to the harbor at Ostend , but the war ended before this operation could take place . The ship was briefly used as a target ship before she was listed for sale in March 1920 . Swiftsure was sold for scrap on 18 June 1920 to the Stanlee Shipbreaking Company .
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= 70th Infantry Division ( United Kingdom ) =
The 70th Infantry Division was an infantry division of the British Army that fought during the Western Desert Campaign of the Second World War . What would become the 70th Division originated with the 7th Infantry Division , which was formed in 1938 to serve in the British Mandate of Palestine during the Arab Revolt . This division then transferred to Egypt on the outbreak of the Second World War and soon became the 6th Infantry Division , which went on to take part in the Battle of Crete and the Syria – Lebanon Campaign . On 10 October 1941 , the 6th Division was re @-@ created as the 70th Infantry Division , in an attempt to deceive Axis intelligence concerning the strength of the British military in the Middle East .
The Royal Navy transported the division to Tobruk from 19 September to 25 October , in a politically controversial move to relieve the mainly Australian garrison which had been defending the port for almost seven months , since the beginning of the Siege of Tobruk . Under daily aerial and artillery attacks , the division defended the port and conducted nightly offensive patrols against German and Italian positions . On 18 November , the British Eighth Army launched Operation Crusader . The division was tasked with breaking out of Tobruk , following the destruction of the Axis armoured forces . Following unexpected early success , the division began its attacks on 21 November , before the armoured formations of Germans and Italians had been defeated . Heavy fighting soon followed as the division captured several well @-@ defended and dug @-@ in German and Italian strong points . The looming threat of the Axis tanks ended the break @-@ out offensive the following day . Renewed fighting on 26 November saw the division link up with the approaching New Zealand Division , cutting the Axis lines of communication . In response , the Germans launched several counter @-@ attacks to throw back the 70th Division from the territory they had gained . The failure of these attacks had a lasting strategic impact on Operation Crusader ; the Axis forces began their retreat and lifted the siege of Tobruk . Two men — from units attached to the division — were awarded the Victoria Cross for their actions during Operation Crusader .
Following the fighting at Tobruk , the division was withdrawn from the front and placed in reserve . When Japan entered the war , the division was transferred to India . It was considered the most experienced and best trained British formation available in Asia . In India , the division formed a reserve to counter possible Japanese landings while it trained in jungle warfare . It also served as a police force , protecting railways and being used to suppress civil disobedience caused by the Quit India Movement . While it was requested that the division be sent to the front line in Burma , it was instead transferred to Special Force , commonly known as the Chindits . Such a move was opposed by the highest military commanders in India and Burma , and proved controversial with the troops themselves . Despite their pleas , the division was broken up and officially ceased to exist on 24 November 1943 . Historian Woodburn Kirby and Lieutenant @-@ General William Slim ( who led the British troops in Burma ) believed that the division could have had a greater impact against the Japanese had it been retained as a single formation .
= = Background = =
= = = Arab Revolt in Palestine = = =
During 1936 , the Arab Revolt broke out in the British Mandate of Palestine . British troops were dispatched , ending the first phase of the war by the close of the year . Fighting soon resumed and reached its zenith during the summer of 1938 . With rising tensions in Europe , the British began to withdraw troops from Palestine for use elsewhere . The conclusion of the Munich Agreement — on 30 September 1938 — calmed the rising tensions in Europe and averted war , allowing the British to resume their military build @-@ up in Palestine .
The 7th Infantry Division was formed the following month and placed under the command of Major @-@ General Richard O 'Connor . The division was deployed to Palestine on internal security duties as part of a build @-@ up of 18 @,@ 500 men in the region . This force then began to suppress the revolt . Meanwhile , Palestinian guerrillas had overrun the Old City of Jerusalem . O 'Connor 's men proceeded to sweep the area , declaring the Old City free of militants on 19 October . The same day , the division seized Acre and by the end of the month were clearing Jaffa of rebels . Many Palestinians were detained and rebel activity significantly dropped off in the area . In the north , the 8th Infantry Division , under Major @-@ General Bernard Montgomery , and Special Night Squads engaged in counter @-@ terror operations , with O 'Connor writing that one brigadier " always encouraged his men to be brutal " . General Officer Commanding British Forces in Palestine and Trans @-@ Jordan Robert Haining wrote in late 1938 that " unnecessary violence , vindictiveness ... , [ and ] killing in cold blood " had to be curbed . O 'Connor was likewise opposed to the measures in the north , and wrote " harshness and unnecessary violence on the part of our soldiers " had to be curbed . During the operation in Jerusalem , only four to nineteen guerrillas were killed . In early 1939 , the revolt finally came to an end .
= = = Second World War = = =
On 1 September 1939 , the Second World War began with the German Invasion of Poland , and two days later the United Kingdom declared war on Germany . On 31 August , the headquarters of the 7th Infantry Division gave up command of its troops . O 'Connor and the divisional staff then left Jerusalem bound for Cairo , Egypt . From Cairo , the men moved forward to Mersa Matruh arriving on 7 September . The headquarters was then assigned all troops based there , with the exception of the 7th Armoured Division . The British Official Historian , I. S. O. Playfair , comments that this decision was undertaken to relieve the burden on Lieutenant @-@ General Henry Maitland Wilson , GOC British Troops Egypt , of " direct control of operations which had been his in addition to the command of all troops in Egypt " . Due to the logistical problems in maintaining substantial forces across the Western Desert and on the Libya – Egypt border , Mersa Matruh was the forward British base of operations and supplied by rail . Positioned 200 miles ( 320 km ) west of Alexandria and 120 miles ( 190 km ) from the border , the location had been chosen to shield forward Royal Air Force ( RAF ) landing strips behind it and to defend the Nile Delta . Mersa Matruh also offered the British the strategy of drawing Italian or other forces forward to them , to allow a counter @-@ attack after they ran into supply difficulties .
On 3 November , the division was renamed the 6th Infantry Division . The division initially commanded rear area personnel and the 22nd Infantry Brigade . Over the coming months , the 14th and 16th Infantry Brigades were assigned to the division as they arrived in Egypt from Palestine . On 10 June 1940 , Italy declared war upon Britain and her allies . Seven days later , the 6th Infantry Division was dissolved and its headquarters transformed into the command staff of a corps known as the Western Desert Force ( WDF ) . In early September 1940 , Italian forces based in Libya invaded Egypt . Three months later , the WDF began a limited raid , Operation Compass . The raid succeeded and was expanded ; in two months the WDF advanced 500 miles ( 800 km ) , occupied the Italian province of Cyrenaica and destroyed the Italian 10th Army . The operation was halted in February 1941 to give priority to the Battle of Greece .
On 17 February 1941 , the 6th Infantry Division was reformed in Egypt . It was initially made up of the 16th and the 22nd Guards Brigade , who were based in Egypt , but lacked artillery or other supporting arms . The 22nd Guards Brigade was soon withdrawn , and the division was assigned the 14th and 23rd Infantry Brigade . Here , the division trained for amphibious operations in the Dodecanese . The deteriorating situation in North Africa , which saw General Erwin Rommel 's Afrika Korps retake the territory lost by the Italians during Operation Compass , resulted in the 6th Infantry Division being reassigned to defend Egypt . The division had been earmarked to deploy to Crete , where the 14th Brigade had been based since November , but instead took up defensive positions at Mersa Matruh . The 14th Brigade later defended the airfield at Heraklion during the Battle of Crete when 2 @,@ 000 German paratroopers landed in the area on 20 May . The Germans were able to penetrate into Heraklion , before Anglo @-@ Greek forces cleared the town following heavy fighting . Despite many losses , the paratroopers were able to dig @-@ in on ridges around the brigade 's positions . Due to the deteriorating situation on Crete , the 14th Brigade was evacuated by Royal Navy ships on 29 May . En route to Egypt , they were repeatedly bombed by the Luftwaffe , suffering 800 casualties .
By late April , British attention had shifted to the Middle East due to the Anglo @-@ Iraqi War , although the situation was resolved by the end of May . A greater concern was that German and Italian forces had intervened in Iraq , using bases in Vichy Syria . With Germans and Italians threatening to gain full control of the French territory , thus jeopardising the British position in the Middle East , the Allies invaded Syria ( Operation Exporter ) on 8 June . In the face of stiff resistance from the Vichy French , the British realised that reinforcements were needed . On 13 June , the 6th Infantry Division ( with two infantry brigades ) was ordered to reinforce the effort . The leading elements of the 16th Infantry Brigade arrived on 17 June and captured Kuneitra . The 23rd Infantry Brigade arrived on 28 June . The division then took part in the Battle of Damascus . The campaign ended on 14 July and the division remained in Syria .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Tobruk = = =
Operation Sonnenblume , the counter @-@ attack launched by Italian troops and the Afrika Korps across Cyrenaica , had forced the British and Commonwealth forces into retreat during March and April . Richard O 'Connor — now General Officer Commanding British Troops Egypt — had been captured . The Australian 9th Infantry Division fell back to the fortress port of Tobruk and the remaining British and Commonwealth forces withdrew a further 100 miles ( 160 km ) east to Sollum on the Libyan – Egyptian border .
These moves initiated the Siege of Tobruk . Although isolated by land , the garrison was supplied by the Royal Navy and the first Axis attacks failed to take the port . This failure was significant ; Erwin Rommel 's front line positions at Sollum were at the end of an extended supply chain that stretched back to Tripoli and was threatened by the Tobruk garrison . Besieging Tobruk also required a substantial commitment of troops and prevented Rommel from making further advances into Egypt . By maintaining possession of Tobruk , the Allies regained the initiative .
Australian policy for the use of the Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2AIF ) was to have all forces concentrated in an Australian Corps , under Australian command . By June , Australian troops were dispersed throughout the Middle East , Cyprus and North Africa . The subject had been of concern to the Australian Government since 18 April . The issue came to a head on 18 July , when Lieutenant @-@ General Thomas Blamey ( commander of the 2AIF , and deputy commander Middle East Command ) wrote a letter to General Claude Auchinleck , the new commander of all forces in North Africa and the Middle East , stating " the agreed policy for the employment of Australian troops between the British and Australian Governments is that the ... troops should operate as a single force . " Blamey also highlighted that the troops in Tobruk were showing a decline in health due to the siege and that the attrition rate they were suffering would result in " considerable " casualties , if they were not replaced by fresh troops . This caused a diplomatic row between Winston Churchill and the Australian Government that continued after the war , and turned what Graham Freudenberg called a " reasonable request in July " into " a risky one in October " .
The relief of the garrison and replacement with fresh troops were finally agreed . The first stage saw the 1st Polish Carpathian Brigade replace the 18th Australian Infantry Brigade . Next came the 6th Infantry Division 's 16th Infantry Brigade , during late September , with elements of the 32nd Army Tank Brigade , in lieu of the 24th Australian Infantry Brigade . On 10 October , for security reasons and in an attempt to confuse Axis intelligence as to when the division was fully redeployed , the 6th Infantry Division was renamed the 70th Infantry Division . Major @-@ General Ronald Scobie was given command .
The final stage of the relief effort took place between 12 and 25 October . The remaining elements of the 70th Division were transported into Tobruk and the remaining Australian garrison ( save the 2 / 13th Battalion and elements of the 2 / 15th Battalion ) were shipped out . In total , the relief effort evacuated 47 @,@ 280 men ( including prisoners ) and brought in 34 @,@ 113 men ; it also brought the garrison 's armour strength to 126 tanks . On 22 October , the 32nd Army Tank Brigade was attached to the 70th Division . With the relief effort over , command of the garrison was given to Scobie . Investing Tobruk were some German infantry and the Italian 27th Infantry Division Brescia , 25th Infantry Division Bologna , 17th Infantry Division Pavia , and 102nd Motorised Division Trento .
Prior to their withdrawal , the Australians briefed the incoming British troops . The men of the division then took over from the Australians and settled into their task of defending Tobruk , with what the Black Watch Regiment described as a sense that it was " the main post of honour open to the British fighting man . " The soldiers ' lives were uncomfortable : fresh water was scarce , washing was a luxury and done in sea @-@ water , razor blades were in short supply , meals were basic and sand storms were common . The troops were engaged in a dull routine : daily artillery bombardments by both sides , Axis air raids every night on Tobruk harbour , and for the infantry , nightly patrols . These patrols , described by the Black Watch as " pure 1914 – 18 warfare " , varied from reconnaissance missions — to identify what was located at a certain position — to capturing enemy soldiers and large scale trench raids on enemy positions . Auchinleck and Rommel had planned offensive operations simultaneously . The latter sought to capture Tobruk , aiming to launch an assault during the period of 20 November – 4 December , whereas Auchinleck planned to relieve Tobruk with a slightly earlier start date .
= = = Operation Crusader = = =
Auchinleck planned for XXX Corps ( under Lieutenant @-@ General Willoughby Norrie ) , containing the British armour , to advance around the undefended southern Axis flank , south of Sidi Omar , before moving towards Tobruk and engaging the German and Italian armoured units in battle . Once the Axis armour was defeated , the British force would attack towards Tobruk aiming to capture Sidi Rezegh , while the garrison broke out aiming to capture Ed Duda , cutting the enemy lines of communication . On 18 November , the Eighth Army began the offensive . Rommel , believing the attack was an attempt to hinder his own plans to assault Tobruk , did little to counter the British offensive . This led to the capture of Sidi Rezegh and the suggestion that the 70th Division should begin its attack on 21 November , before the Axis armour had been defeated . The plan to break out of Tobruk had been well rehearsed ; the 2nd Battalion , York and Lancaster Regiment , 2nd Black Watch , 2nd King 's Own Royal Regiment ( Lancaster ) and 2nd Queen 's Royal Regiment ( West Surrey ) would lead the attack with tanks of the 32nd Army Tank Brigade in close support .
Under cover of dark the men moved forward , creating gaps in the barbed wire and minefields in front of their positions and bridging Tobruk 's anti @-@ tank ditch . At 06 : 30 , on 21 November , the division began its attack on the positions of the Bologna Division and the German 90th Light Division ( although the latter had not been expected ) . The Axis positions were well dug @-@ in , behind mines and barbed wire , supported by machine guns and artillery . The first position , codenamed " Butch " , was captured by 09 : 00 , shortly followed by " Jill " , but two attempts to capture " Tugun " were repulsed by the Italian defenders . The mix of Italian and German troops holding " Tiger " offered up the most resistance of the day . The supporting Matilda tanks ran into undetected minefields and were engaged periodically by Axis anti @-@ tank guns . The Black Watch , under flanking fire from other Axis strong points and being fired upon directly by the defenders of " Tiger " , led a bayonet charge to the sound of bagpipes and captured the position , in conjunction with elements of the 1st Royal Tank Regiment ( 1 RTR ) and the 4th Royal Tank Regiment ( 4 RTR ) . The Black Watch suffered 75 per cent casualties , being reduced to 165 men .
Despite the losses , the Black Watch launched another attack to capture " Jack " . Major Meythaler , the commanding officer of the German sector under attack , was positioned there and reported nine more British tanks lost to mines . Minutes after his report , at 10 : 30 , the Black Watch overran the strong point . 1 RTR proceeded to overwhelm " Wolf " , but were repulsed by anti @-@ tank fire when they attempted to attack " Freddie " . During the afternoon , a further attack was launched that captured half of " Tugun " , but further progress was impeded by Italian artillery fire . The planned final thrust , to seize Ed Duda , was called off , due to the changing situation to the south . By the end of the day , a salient 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) deep and wide had been created , 550 German and 527 Italian soldiers had been captured , and 59 tanks of the 32nd Army Tank Brigade had been lost , of which half were repaired . The war diary of the German 90th Light Division described the day 's actions as " very serious " concluding " that the next day ' would probably bring a crisis ' " .
The following day the division improved its position . Strong point " Lion " , to the south west of " Tiger " , was captured , but an attempt to capture the remaining sections of " Tugun " was repelled . As a result of the fighting , the division began to face a shortage of ammunition for its artillery . Due to the tank battle raging to the south , Scobie was ordered not to make a further advance . The author of the Official History of New Zealand in the Second World War 1939 – 45 , W. E. Murphy , highlights that the fighting by the British armour and 70th Division had created much " confusion in the enemy camp " and that , had the 32nd Army Tank Brigade attempted , it " could certainly have got to Ed Duda " and in doing so would have thwarted the German plans , greatly aiding the beleaguered 7th Armoured Division .
To the south , having temporarily defeated the British armour , Rommel launched the Afrika Korps and the Italian mobile divisions towards Egypt in the " Dash to the Wire " . He sought to relieve the besieged Italian garrisons along the border , cut the British supply lines and inflict an overwhelming defeat upon the Eighth Army . Despite causing panic amongst rear echelon troops , the attack was weak and ran into difficulties against prepared positions . The 2nd New Zealand Division had advanced around the Italian border defences and on 24 November began an advance towards Tobruk . By the next day , the division had reached Zaafran and retaken the much @-@ contested Sidi Rezegh airfield .
From these positions , the New Zealanders were ordered to capture Belhamed , Sidi Rezegh proper and Ed Duda . This was to precede a renewed break @-@ out offensive by the 70th Division . Scobie had informed Lieutenant @-@ General Alfred Godwin @-@ Austen , the XIII Corps commander , responsible for all operations near Tobruk , that the positions between him and Ed Duda were strongly defended . Godwin @-@ Austen assured Scobie that he was under no obligation to attack until the New Zealand Division had taken Ed Duda . Undertaking a night assault , the New Zealand infantry captured Belhamed despite strong resistance , but their attacks to take their other objectives were repulsed .
Aware that Ed Duda was still in Axis hands and that the New Zealand Division had bogged down attempting to advance upon the feature and was caught up in heavy fighting , Scobie ordered his men to capture Ed Duda . The 1st Essex Regiment , with machine gun support from the Royal Northumberland Fusiliers and the 32nd Army Tank Brigade , began their attack just after midday on 26 November . Axis artillery fire damaged two tanks before they crossed the start line but the remaining 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) was covered without incident . The 4 RTR were able to silence several Axis gun positions , and were joined by Z Company of the Royal Northumberland Fusiliers , who helped eliminate a further position . Following the fighting , the Essex were ordered to join the tanks .
The 1st Essex now advanced on Ed Duda , which was not a fortified position as previously faced by the division . An artillery bombardment and the approaching British troops persuaded the defending Italian platoon to surrender . By 15 : 00 , Ed Duda was in British hands and the Essex began digging in to consolidate their position . Following the capture of the position , several Axis counterattacks were launched . Three German tanks inflicted heavy casualties upon a British detachment in front of the main Essex position , before being driven off . Two infantry companies advanced towards the Essex and " were badly shot up in their lorries at a range of some 200 yards . " In following engagements , the Essex took upwards of 110 prisoners . By the end of the day , the position was secure for the loss of only 65 casualties . That evening , the New Zealanders renewed their attacks and succeeded in linking with the 70th Division and cutting the Axis lines of communication .
On 27 November , Rommel abandoned his attack and ordered the Afrika Korps and accompanying Italians to return to the Tobruk area . It was not until 29 November that the Axis armour launched its attack upon the 70th and New Zealand divisions . Around 50 tanks of the 15th Panzer Division advanced on the 1st Essex and were engaged by anti @-@ tank guns and a handful of British infantry tanks . Several British tanks were hit and the rest retired . The anti @-@ tank guns of the Essex were silenced , and 300 German soldiers from II Battalion , Infantry Regiment 115 advanced . Two companies of the Essex were overrun , with 150 men captured . As darkness fell , British and German tanks again clashed before the former withdrew . Under the cover of night , the Australian 2 / 13th Battalion was ordered to counter @-@ attack along with the remnants of 4 RTR ( eleven tanks in total ) . Elements of the Essex battalion spontaneously joined the assault , retaking the lost ground and capturing 167 prisoners for the loss of around 25 men . Less than 60 German troops were able to retreat to friendly units .
Axis attention now concentrated upon the New Zealand Division ; after the recent fighting , the division , less 4 @,@ 500 men who joined the 70th Division , withdrew towards the frontier in need of rest , refitting and re @-@ organization ; the 70th Division was again cut off . On 1 December , Godwin @-@ Austen was concerned about the exposed British position at Ed Duda , as were the staff of 70th Division , who believed the area had become untenable . Infantry had reinforced the captured ground , the 14th Infantry Brigade holding a line from Ed Duda to roughly 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) to the north @-@ east . The Essex were still dug in at Ed Duda , with the 19th New Zealand Battalion to their north @-@ east , then the 4th Border Regiment , the 18th New Zealand Battalion to their east and the 1st Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire Regiment to their north at Bir ( Magen ) Belhamed and the captured Axis strong point known as " Leopard " . The commanding officer of the 1st Essex reported that the position was well prepared and he was confident of repelling any assault . Scobie sent word stating " Well done , I admire your spirit " .
For several days , the 70th Division was bombarded , and on 1 December an uncoordinated attack by the German 90th Division was repulsed by the 18th New Zealand Battalion . The following day , a larger attack was launched upon the 1st Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire Regiment . This attack was also repulsed inflicting heavy losses on one of the German battalions . On 4 December , elements of the 21st Panzer Division , supported by an ad hoc formation of 500 German infantry and Italian engineers and artillery support from the 90th Light Division , launched an assault on Ed Duda . This attack was met by the Essex , 4th Borders , 18th New Zealanders and elements of the 32nd Army Tank Brigade . The German attack was defeated and the 4th Borders , supported by tanks , counter @-@ attacked taking 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) of ground , for the loss of fifteen tanks .
The 70th Division had been planning another attack to capture El Adem but the battle made these plans redundant . The inability of the Germans and Italians to defeat the 70th Division and push the unit back inside Tobruk had strategic consequences . Rommel had come to the conclusion that his troops could not maintain the siege due to being overstretched , and decided to withdraw all of the troops he could to the east of Tobruk . The 70th Division initially joined other Eighth Army formations in advancing west in pursuit , but by 12 December it had returned to Tobruk . Over the course of December , Operation Crusader continued and the Axis forces retreated to El Agheila before fighting ceased . The 70th Division was withdrawn to Egypt for rest and refitting . Due to a lack of transport , the move took until mid @-@ January . By the end of the month , the division had returned to Syria to camp near Damascus .
= = = India and disbandment = = =
During the night of 7 / 8 December 1941 , one hour prior to the Attack on Pearl Harbor , the Empire of Japan entered the war with the Japanese invasion of Malaya . Four hours following the strike on Pearl Harbor , the Battle of Hong Kong was launched ; the city surrendered on Christmas Day . On 15 January 1942 , the Japanese attack was expanded as their troops invaded Burma . Then , on 15 February , Singapore fell . During February , the 70th Division began moving back to Egypt . On 17 February the order was given for the division to be transferred to India . The next day , Major @-@ General George Symes was given command of the division . They boarded ships at Suez , and had completely departed Egypt by 28 February . The division , without the 16th Brigade , reached Bombay on 10 March . With a Japanese invasion of British Ceylon expected , the 16th Brigade was sent in as reinforcements , arriving on 15 March . It remained until 1943 , when it rejoined the division . In June 1942 , the 70th Division was located near Ranchi ; along with the 50th Indian Armoured Brigade , it formed part of the Eastern Army reserve . The division was seen as a well @-@ trained formation and along with the 23rd Indian Infantry Division formed a mobile reserve against a Japanese landing or advance through Arakan in Burma . At Ranchi , the division also engaged in jungle warfare training .
In August 1942 , Mahatma Gandhi 's Quit India Movement resulted in civil disobedience spreading across Bihar , Orissa and Bengal . The division was deployed throughout these areas , suppressing the disturbances and protecting the railways of Bihar . After civil power was restored in the affected areas , the 70th Division was concentrated again at Ranchi and resumed training as part of XV Indian Corps . The corps commander , Lieutenant @-@ General William Slim , wrote in his memoirs that the 70th Division " was one of the best British formations I have met , with a magnificent battle hardened spirit gained in the Middle East " .
A member of the division , writing in May 1943 , commented that it would not be
... enough for us to rest on our Middle East laurels [ despite them being ] " well deserved " ... those days should only be regarded as a starting point in efficiency for only 100 % trained tps ... will defeat the Japanese in Arakan or in any other theatre of operations .
In April 1943 , Slim requested that the 70th Division be released from Eastern Army reserve to relieve other units on the Arakan front , but elements of the division were only slowly redeployed . The 23rd Infantry Brigade arrived in the Arakan area in May . As of June , the remainder of the division was still part of the army reserve .
On 14 February 1943 , Brigadier Orde Wingate launched Operation Loincloth . This operation saw the 77th Indian Infantry Brigade operate behind the Japanese lines , supplied via air drops , ambushing Japanese troops and destroying rail lines . The force returned to Allied lines during April , having lost nearly a third of its troops ; most of the remainder , as described by historian Christopher Chant , were " crippled by exhaustion , malnutrition , dysentery , and malaria . " Despite this , the operation was deemed a success . In August 1943 , Wingate ( now a major @-@ general ) was sent to attend the Quebec Conference . Churchill and the Americans were so impressed by Wingate that Special Force , commonly known as the Chindits , were ordered to be expanded . Under this expansion , the 70th Division would be broken up and its units transferred to Special Force .
Auchinleck , now Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , India , strongly opposed such a move preferring to retain the division as an entity . Instead , he proposed that the newly arrived 81st ( West Africa ) Division could be used in its place . Despite his arguments and the end of the division 's availability for operations against the Japanese @-@ occupied Ramree Island , he was over @-@ ruled by Churchill 's backing of Wingate . On 6 September , the division began reorganising for long @-@ range penetration . It had been estimated that 10 percent of the men would be unsuitable but this had been based on an erroneous report given in London ( believed to be from Wingate ) that the division was not first class , even though the standard of its infantry was high .
On 25 October , the division was broken up and all troops were transferred to Special Force . Symes , despite his seniority , became Wingate 's second @-@ in @-@ command and tried to prevent the further break @-@ up of the divisional units to retain the traditions , histories and esprit de corps of the British Army 's regimental structure , which reconciled his men and helped to ensure a smooth transition to Special Force . Having ceased to exist , the 70th Division was officially disbanded on 24 November .
The British Official Historian , Stanley Kirby , wrote that the best @-@ trained and most @-@ experienced British division had been broken up to reinforce Special Force , which eventually absorbed one @-@ sixth of the infantry in South East Asia Command . He judged that had the division been retained , it could have reinforced the Fourteenth Army , making the defence of Imphal and Kohima in 1944 easier . Historian F. W. Perry wrote , " it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that the results achieved by the force did not represent an adequate return for the resources invested " . He further argued that the force was too lightly armed to capture strongly held positions or to hold one if captured , and concluded that Special Force " inflicted more damage and disruption on the British Army than it ever did on the Japanese . " Similarly , Slim argued in his memoirs that it had been a mistake to break up the 70th Division as it was the only British division which had been trained in jungle warfare , and that it would have been twice as effective as an experienced conventional formation than it proved to be as part of Special Force .
= = General officer commanding = =
Commanders included :
= = Order of Battle = =
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= Myst III : Exile =
Myst III : Exile is the third title in the Myst series of graphic adventure puzzle video games . While the preceding games in the series , Myst and Riven , were produced by Cyan Worlds and published by Brøderbund , Exile was developed by Presto Studios and published by Ubisoft . The game was released on four compact discs for both Mac OS and Microsoft Windows on May 8 , 2001 ; versions for the Xbox and PlayStation 2 were released in late 2002 .
As in previous games , the player assumes the role of the Stranger , a friend of Atrus . A member of the D 'ni race , Atrus can create links to other worlds called Ages by writing descriptive books . In Exile , Atrus has written an Age for the D 'ni to live on while rebuilding their civilization ; it is stolen , however , by a mysterious figure . The Stranger pursues the thief in an attempt to reclaim Atrus ' book .
The creators of the Myst franchise gave the task of creating the third Myst game to Presto Studios , known for its adventure game series The Journeyman Project . Presto sought to develop a diverse and logical approach to puzzles and Ages , and worked to make the villain sympathetically multifaceted . The developers hired Jack Wall to develop a musical style different from earlier composer Robyn Miller but still recognizable as a Myst game . The project required millions of U.S. dollars and more than two years to complete .
Exile was received well by critics ; The Daily Telegraph called it the best game in the Myst series . Conversely , long @-@ time critics of the series complained that Exile continued to prove that Myst 's slower gameplay did not belong in the fast @-@ paced modern game market ; GameSpot editor Greg Kasavin described the Myst series as having lost its relevance . Despite selling more than one million copies within the first year of release , Exile fared poorer commercially than Myst and Riven , which had sold more than 10 million copies combined . Myst IV : Revelation , the fourth game in the series , was developed and published solely by Ubisoft .
= = Gameplay = =
Gameplay in Myst III : Exile is similar to that of its predecessors . The player explores immersive , pre @-@ rendered environments known as Ages by using either mouse clicks or the space bar for movement from set nodes across each Age . Unlike previous games , which employed a series of still images , Exile uses a " free look " system which gives the player a 360 @-@ degree field of view . The game also has an optional Zip mode , like Myst and Riven , to cross explored terrain quickly by skipping several nodes . Clicking allows the player to manipulate objects and pick up items . The on @-@ screen cursor changes in context to show possible actions .
Each of the game 's Ages has a distinctive look and theme . Players begin their journey on the Age of J 'nanin , which acts as a hub linking to other Ages and as a " lesson Age " demonstrating important principles for later puzzles . Three of these Ages are Amateria , a mechanical Age in the middle of a vast sea ; Edanna , a world of preserved nature , with abundant plant and animal life ; and Voltaic , a dusty island riddled with canyons filled with man @-@ made constructions .
By gathering clues and manipulating the environment , the player solves thematically linked puzzles . For example , the book leading to Voltaic is accessed by aligning beams of light across a canyon ; the Age itself contains similar energy @-@ based puzzles . Edanna 's plant @-@ filled puzzles require manipulation of the Age 's ecosystem . Puzzles often involve observing interactions between elements of the environment , then adjusting the links between them . The player can also pick up and view journals or pages written by game characters which reveal back @-@ story and give hints to solving puzzles . Cursor Mode allows the player to select items from a personal inventory at the bottom of the screen .
= = Plot = =
Exile begins 10 years after the events of Riven , when the Stranger arrives at the home of Atrus and his wife Catherine . Atrus is a scientist and explorer who has mastered an ancient practice known as the Art : he can create links to different worlds , called Ages , by writing special books . This ability is by an ancient civilization known as the D 'ni , whose society crumbles after the D 'ni city is devastated by a plague . Atrus calls the Stranger to his home to display his newest Age , Releeshahn , which Atrus has designed as a new home for the D 'ni survivors .
As Atrus is preparing to leave for Releeshahn , a mysterious man appears in Atrus ' study , steals the Releeshahn book and leaves behind another . Following the thief , the Stranger arrives at J 'nanin , an Age that Atrus had written long before as a way to teach the Art to his sons . Because the thief has caused considerable damage to the J 'nanin book , Atrus cannot accompany the Stranger .
The mysterious man is named Saavedro . Twenty years earlier , Atrus ' wayward sons Sirrus and Achenar destroyed Saavedro 's home Age of Narayan and trapped him on J 'nanin . Saavedro believes his family is dead and swears vengeance on Atrus , unaware that Atrus has already imprisoned his sons for their crimes and that Saavedro 's family is still alive . The game can end several ways depending on the player 's actions . In the most ideal scenario , Saavedro returns to Narayan peacefully after giving back the book of Releeshahn . Other endings result in Saavedro destroying Releeshahn or killing the player ; another option allows the player to leave Saavedro trapped forever .
= = Development = =
Cyan Worlds and Mattel ( then the owner of the Myst and Riven franchise ) offered the task of developing the sequel to several development companies ; according to Game Developer , interested parties developed proposals including story concepts , analysis of the first two games , technology discussion , and technology demonstration . A core team from Presto Studios held discussions which analyzed Myst and Riven , then set out specific goals for the third game . According to Presto founder and producer Greg Uhler , these goals included visual variety in the Ages , a satisfying ending , and a way for players to gauge their progress during the game . The progress goal was very important for Uhler , who stated : " Players who had failed to complete Myst or Riven did so because they were unsure of how much remained of the game and what their goals were . " Initially , Presto prepared three possible storylines for the game to follow ; a meeting between Cyan , Presto , and Mattel yielded a completely different plot , which explored some of the loose ends hinted at in Myst . Presto spent millions of U.S. dollars developing the game , using the studio 's entire staff to complete the project . Development took two and a half years , of which nine months were spent on design and pre @-@ production .
Pre @-@ rendered environments , like those in the earlier Myst games , were used , providing what producer Dan Irish described as the " photorealistic ability to present the world in a convincing way . The 360 @-@ degree camera view also allows you to experience it in a way that makes it feel real . " Particular attention was devoted to strong visual styles and mechanics , which a critic described as " a collaboration of Jules Verne , Rube Goldberg and Claes Oldenburg " .
As in Myst and Riven , the developers used live @-@ action sequences instead of computer @-@ generated actors and props ; Irish stated that using computer graphics would have reminded players they were in a game , " which would wreck the immersion that is so critical to the Myst games " . Live actors were filmed on a blue screen and then placed in the digital environments using chroma key technology . Before any shooting could begin , all the sets were constructed and filled with props the actors could use , costumes for all the characters were fashioned , and each scene was plotted out by storyboard . Rand Miller returned to play Atrus , a role he had filled since the first Myst game . Brad Dourif , a professional actor best known for the Child 's Play films , agreed to play Saavedro because he was a huge Myst fan . Dourif noted that acting for a game was much more difficult than working on movie sets , as he could not see the player or interact with the game environment . Other actors included Maria Galante as Atrus ' wife Catherine , and Greg Uhler 's daughter Audrey in a cameo as Atrus ' daughter Yeesha . Preparation for the video shoots took four months ; filming the scenes took just seven days . Uhler noted that the video was one aspect of Myst that Presto " did wrong " ; because high @-@ definition video cameras were not used , the resulting video was not as crisp as developers had hoped .
= = = Audio = = =
The music for Myst and Riven was composed by Robyn Miller ; Jack Wall created the score for the third installment . Irish stated that developing the music was one of the hardest aspects of Exile : " We had to match or exceed the surrealistic style of music that Robyn [ Miller ] had pioneered . It had to be recognizable as Myst , but unique and distinctive . " Wall looked at the increasing complexity of games as an opportunity to give players a soundtrack with as much force as a movie score . Wall also echoed Irish 's opinion that he wanted to make a very different score from the " wonderful sonic pastiche " of Myst and Riven , yet still recognizable as a sequel to the earlier games ; Wall considered copying Miller 's style as the " safe " yet unappealing route that was expected of him .
In preparation for his composition , Wall studied Miller 's music , noting that he and Miller differed on their use of music theory . Miller , according to Wall , felt that " melody could easily get in the way of the experience of playing the game " , but Wall felt that some melody provided something thematic for the player to grasp . Wall wanted the music to have a sense of purpose while still preserving interactivity , so he composed " reward music " for completing puzzles and recorded the score with a real orchestra .
= = Reception = =
Exile was generally received positively upon release ; the PC version holds a 79 % favorable rating at GameRankings and an 83 % rating at Metacritic . The game was the best @-@ selling title in North America within a week of release , selling 75 @,@ 000 copies within two weeks . Exile sold one million units within twelve months .
Exile 's graphics and sound received nearly universal praise , and were credited with completing the game 's immersion . The puzzles were described as less difficult and more contained , meaning that players did not have to experiment with switches and then click several screens away to see the effect , as in Riven . Macworld 's Peter Cohen praised Presto for giving out bits of story throughout the game , rather than providing exposition only during opening and closing sequences . The pacing and rewards system was also appreciated by reviewers . IGN concluded their review of the game by stating that Presto had done " a pretty good job with a notable addition to the series " . The Daily Telegraph offered even stronger praise , saying that Presto had crafted the best Myst game in the series thus far , a sentiment that was echoed in other publications .
Criticism of the game included complaints about the four @-@ disc format of the game , which required players to swap out the installer disc with one of the other discs every time the player entered a new Age . Gamespot 's Scott Osborne noted that due to the frame @-@ by @-@ frame nature of gameplay , it was occasionally difficult to discern where players were allowed to venture and what areas were unreachable . The Los Angeles Times reported that bugs including a lack of sound , incompatibility with certain graphics cards and system crashes were present in as many as 10 percent of the first shipment of discs . Reviewers who had not enjoyed Myst or Riven stated that there was nothing new or substantially different in the game to warrant interest ; The New York Times observed , " Exile has everything you loved or hated about Myst and Riven . "
Despite strong sales , Exile was considered commercially disappointing compared to the phenomenal sales of the first two games , which had sold nearly 10 million units by the time of Exile 's release . GameSpot editor Greg Kasavin told Time magazine that " Myst is no longer as relevant to gamers as it used to be " and that " it represents an antiquated style of gaming " compared to the 3 @-@ D action games being released at the time . Soon after Exile 's release , Presto announced it was discontinuing software development ; the Xbox title Whacked ! was to be the last title produced by the company . Presto employee Michael Saladino pointed to the maverick style of the studio and its inability to develop more than one title at a time as reasons for its folding . The next game in the Myst series , entitled Revelation , would be produced and published by Ubisoft .
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= Human Nature ( Madonna song ) =
" Human Nature " is a song recorded by American singer Madonna for her sixth studio album Bedtime Stories ( 1994 ) . It was written as an answer song to her critics , who had panned her provocative image of the previous two years and Madonna 's release of sexually explicit works . Written and produced by Madonna and Dave Hall , with additional writing from Shawn McKenzie , Kevin McKenzie and Milo Deering , " Human Nature " includes a looping sample from Main Source 's 1994 track " What You Need " . The track was released on June 6 , 1995 , by Maverick Records as the fourth and final single from Bedtime Stories .
Musically it is an R & B track where the sound of drums and the sample is heard looping throughout , with Madonna sarcastically asking rhetorical questions based on her real @-@ life actions over the last two years . The song received mostly positive reviews from music critics who have later noted its anthemic and empowering nature . " Human Nature " became a moderate hit in the United States , peaking at number 46 on the Billboard Hot 100 and at number two on the Hot Dance Club Play chart . In the United Kingdom , the single entered the chart and peaked at number eight and it also charted within the top ten in Italy .
The accompanying music video was directed by Jean @-@ Baptiste Mondino , and features Madonna and her dancers dressed in latex and leather , while executing highly choreographed dance routines . Inspired by S & M imagery , the video later influenced the work of singers Rihanna and Christina Aguilera . Madonna has performed " Human Nature " on three of her concert tours , most recently on her 2012 The MDNA Tour , where it was the subject of controversy when the singer exposed her nipples during a show in Istanbul .
= = Background and release = =
In 1992 , Madonna released the coffee table book Sex and her fifth studio album Erotica , both being of explicit sexual content . She also starred in the erotic thriller Body of Evidence the next year . Madonna promoted Erotica with The Girlie Show World Tour , which was met with protests and boycott threats due to its explicit content . In March 1994 , Madonna 's appearance on Late Show with David Letterman was highly criticized for her controversial behavior and usage of profanity . The release of her sexually explicit film , album and book , and the aggressive appearance on Letterman all made critics question Madonna as a sexual renegade . She faced strong negative publicity from critics and fans , who commented that " she had gone too far " and that her career was over .
Madonna wanted to tone down her explicit image . Her first attempt was to release the tender ballad " I 'll Remember " ( 1994 ) from the soundtrack of the film With Honors . Musically she wanted to move in a new musical direction and started exploring new @-@ jack R & B styles with a generally mainstream , radio @-@ friendly sound . She incorporated it in her sixth studio album , Bedtime Stories , released in October 1994 . Journalist Mary von Aue from Vice magazine noted that Madonna and her publicist Liz Rosenberg started promoting Bedtime Stories as an apology album with the promotional videos promising that there would be " no sexual references on the album " .
However , the singer was still seething about how the media had treated her unfairly over the last two years . When she started working with producer Dave Hall on the album , she wrote an answer song for the media . Titled " Human Nature " , it directly addressed the media and the press who had criticized her for dealing with taboo issues with her previous record and tried to punish her for that . " I 'm saying in the song that I 'm giving my back to them . I 'm not sorry " , Madonna explained . Described by Billboard as " Madonna taking on her critics more directly than ever with a logical , defiant attack on slut @-@ shaming " , the song was also about closing the book on the previous two years of her life . " Human Nature " eventually became the fourth and final single released from Bedtime Stories on June 6 , 1995 , by Maverick Records .
= = Recording and composition = =
" Human Nature " was written and produced by Madonna and Hall , with additional writing credits from Shawn McKenzie , Kevin McKenzie and Milo Deering . The song was recorded and mixed by Frederick Jorio and P. Dennis Mitchell with Robert Kiss working as an assistant engineer during the sessions and Joey Moskowitz doing the programming . Musically , " Human Nature " is a R & B song with a hip @-@ hop influenced beat . It also includes a looping sample from the song " What You Need " performed by hip @-@ hop group Main Source along with the sound of slamming doors . " Human Nature " begins in a trip hop style with the sound of bass and drums and Madonna whispering " express yourself , don 't repress yourself " . Throughout the song , the music continues looping around the same chord sequence and Madonna utters whispered phrases to counterpoint the actual lyrics . Her vocals utilized the 1990s soul style of music with a nasal , thin sound . The chorus ends with the line " I 'm not your bitch , Don 't hang your shit on me " which was often censored by the radio stations from airplay . Unlike the other tracks on the album , " Human Nature " does not employ the pentatonic melody and is devoid of the melancholy nature of Bedtime Stories , as observed by Jon Pareles of The New York Times . Composed in the time signature of common time , " Human Nature " has a key of C major while progressing in 88 beats per minute . Madonna 's " nasal " vocals range from F3 to E7 and the song follows a repetitive sequence of Fmaj7 – E7 – Am7 – Fmaj7 – E7 – Am7 as its chord progression .
Rikky Rooksby , author of The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna felt that the lyrics , along with being an answer @-@ song , could also be interpreted as a rebellious one , where Madonna looks back on a relationship where she was not allowed to speak her mind . The song 's lyrics contain sarcastic backing vocals with Madonna asking rhetorical questions based on her real @-@ life actions , such as " Did I say something wrong ? Oops , I didn 't know I couldn 't talk about sex . I must have been crazy , " as well as the line " What was I thinking ? " Madonna explained that the lyrics were about " about basically saying don 't put me in a box , don 't pin me down , don 't tell me what I can and can 't say . It 's about breaking out of the restraints . " With the Los Angeles Times she further clarified that there was a defensiveness with the lyrics for " Human Nature " :
It 's my definitive statement in regards to the incredible pay @-@ back I 've received for having the nerve to talk about the things that I did in the past few years with my Sex book and my record . It 's getting it off my chest . It is defensive , absolutely . But it 's also sarcastic , tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek . And I 'm not sorry . I do not apologize for any of it .
" Human Nature " also received nine official remixes clocking a total of 53 minutes and 26 seconds . Most of the remixes turned the R & B sounding song into a house one . The radio edit omitted the line " " I 'm not your bitch / Don 't hang your shit on me " but AllMusic 's Jose F. Promis felt that the removal made the version repetitive and made it " lack the punchline " . The " Runway Club Mix " is stripped down while the " I 'm Not Your Bitch Mix " replaced the verse and the chorus with whispered comments like " I have no regrets " , " I 'm not your bitch " , " Deal with it " and " I 'm HIV negative " which are added over a much deeper house groove . The hip hop mixes include one clean and one adult rated version . According to Promis , the " Love is the Nature Mix " was the best remix created , describing it as containing " swirling instruments " , which converted the song into a dance track .
= = Critical response = =
" Human Nature " received mostly positive reviews from music critics . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine gave the song a positive review , stating that " for years , Madonna spoke in metaphors , fantasies and blatant shock tactics , but the performer indignantly struck back at her critics on ' Human Nature ' . She didn 't just hold up a mirror , she became the mirror " . Barbara O 'Dair from Rolling Stone also gave a positive review of the song , commenting that " Madonna does a drive @-@ by on her critics , complete with a keening synth line straight outta Dre " , adding that " Madonna 's message is still ' Express yourself , don 't repress yourself . ' This time , however , it comes not with a bang but a whisper " . Scott Kearnan of The Boston Globe included the track at number 11 on his list of " 30 Ultimate Madonna Singles " , stating that the line " Absolutely no regrets " was a " Madonna mantra if ever there was one " .
Larry Flick from Billboard was also positive , and expected " radio to hungrily come to the table and dine on this wickedly catchy jeep / pop jam in which La M unapologetically snaps at her more close @-@ minded critics " . He complimented her vocals which were " playfully snide and aggressive , holding strong against a forceful hip @-@ hop groove and a host of ear @-@ pleasing funk guitar links and synth hoops " . Author Chris Wade wrote in his book , The Music of Madonna , that " Human Nature " lifted the sadness emanated from the first few tracks from the album . " There 's a great beat to this , a brilliant vocal where Madonna answers herself with whispers and an unforgettable chorus , " Wade added . Matthew Rettenmund wrote in his Encyclopedia Madonnica that " inspite of the chart performance " , the song has become a modern " self @-@ empowerment anthem " .
Charles Aaron from Spin described the song as " slinking through [ Hall 's ] low @-@ ridin ' , gum @-@ smackin ' groove , Maddy 's hard @-@ bitten ingenue expresses no regrets , but this time you feel for her . " Aaron highlighted the lyrics " Would it sound better if I were a man ? " as subversive and coy . Author Lucy O 'Brien described in her book , Madonna : Like an Icon , that " Human Nature " was one of the " quirkiest " tracks on Bedtime Stories , " throbbing with with a tightly restrained but devastating anger " . For Barry Walters from Moscow @-@ Pullman Daily News , the song had the catchiest chorus among all the other tracks from the album . Jim Farber from Entertainment Weekly gave the song a negative review , noting that Madonna 's " on far surer ground thrashing through such neurotic ( if not uncommon ) views of relationships than she is trashing the media . In striking back at her critics , Madonna simply sounds self @-@ righteous and smug . ' I didn 't know I couldn 't talk about sex , ' she sneers in ' Human Nature ' . ' Did I say something true ? ' Yes . But tooting your own horn about it just sounds petty " . Rooksby said that the repetition of the sample was " wearing " and it " did not suggest that the world of the singer was very appealing " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Human Nature " debuted at number 86 on the US Billboard Hot 100 , for the week ending June 24 , 1995 , with 7 @,@ 400 units sold . It reached its peak position three weeks later , at number 46 . " Human Nature " became Madonna 's second consecutive single not to enter the top 40 in the United States , following her previous single " Bedtime Story " , which had reached a peak of number 42 . Fred Bronson from Billboard reported that although the song had moved up the chart with a positive bullet point , the song being a risky choice for radio , it stalled progress and failed to become Madonna 's 33rd top 40 hit . " Human Nature " was a success on the dance chart , peaking at number two on Hot Dance Club Play . It also peaked at number 35 on Hot 100 Singles Sales , number 58 on Hot 100 Airplay , and number 57 on Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs . In Canada , " Human Nature " debuted at number 90 on the RPM Singles Chart on July 10 , 1995 . It reached a peak of number 64 on the chart and was present for a total of seven weeks only .
In the United Kingdom , " Human Nature " entered the chart at its peak position of number eight , but rapidly descended down the charts , being present for a total of six weeks only . According to the Official Charts Company , it has sold a total of 80 @,@ 685 copies as of August 2008 . In Australia , the single peaked within the top 20 , at number 17 , on the ARIA Charts . On the Irish Singles Chart the song peaked just outside the top 20 , at number 21 . It was not as successful in New Zealand , peaking at number 37 , making it Madonna 's poorest performing single to stay on the chart for a sole week . The song reached the top 20 in Finland and Switzerland , peaking at number 11 and number 17 respectively , while in Germany it reached a peak of number 50 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development = = =
The accompanying music video for " Human Nature " was directed by Jean @-@ Baptiste Mondino , who had previously directed Madonna 's videos for " Open Your Heart " and " Justify My Love " . It was shot over two days , May 6 to 7 , 1995 at Raleigh Studios in Hollywood , California and was created under Palomar Productions ' Anita Wetterstedt . The video was choreographed by Jamie King , who later directed Madonna 's concert tours . " She wanted me to dance in her ' Human Nature ' video . I didn 't want to do it , but she begged " , he stated . King was one of the dancers in the S & M attires hanging down from a swinging trapeze in the video . Her dancer Luca Tommassini was the choreography assistant . Madonna 's main inspiration behind the video was the work of artist Eric Stanton who did S & M inspired drawings . The singer enlisted Mondino to direct the video and wanted to be about the fun aspects of Stanton 's work and more dance @-@ oriented than her previous videos from Bedtime Stories . For Mondino , the main problem was that he did not prefer too much dancing in the videos , because that resulted in extra editing .
I remember most of the video you had shot with the crane , some Steadicam , plus some panning . So you have about five different cameras shooting a performance , and after they edit like crazy . It gives you a lot of freedom , but I feel very frustrated because I like to see somebody dancing . I hate when there 's too much editing . I like the steadiness of the performance because then you can really enjoy the movement of the body . You see the skill .
So Mondino came up with the concept of boxes and had Madonna and the dancers perform choreography inside it . The director was satisfied since the small space of the boxes meant there was not much movement , and he could create the desired graphic S & M imagery and choreography . According to Dustin Robertson , editor of the video , Mondino and Madonna both had opposite work ethics . While Mondino was " cool and laid @-@ back " , Madonna was a " stickler for details " and the former had " a wonderful way of handling her , while she demanded a strong handler to pull out the best she 's got to give " .
= = = Release and reception = = =
The music video premiered on May 19 , 1995 , through MTV . It features Madonna , her dancers , and her chihuahua Chiquita in black leather and latex outfits . The S & M inspired outfits were to symbolize the " breaking out of the restraints " as the lyrics described . Her hair , which appears brown in the video was actually blonde at the time . She had leather strips painstakingly braided into her hair to blend with her dark roots . The frizzy afro she sports halfway through the video was actually a hairpiece . During the middle of the video , Madonna and her dancers appear in a series of boxes , trying to break free . Another sequence shows the singer being thrown around within a series of ropes managed by her dancers . As the video concludes there is a shot of Madonna sitting in a chair , looking straight into the camera as she says the line " Absolutely no regrets ! " . Then there is a brief shot of her standing next to the chair as she boxes into the air .
Rettenmund complimented the video saying " God Bless [ Mondino ] ... One of Madonna 's worst performing singles was nonetheless given one of her best videos ... Simply staged , it is equal parts funny and sexy ... If its possible for one video to sum up Madonna 's Madonna @-@ ness , ' Human Nature ' is that video " . Louis Virtel from The Backlot ranked the video at number 22 on a list for " Madonna 's 55 Best Videos " , and called it " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek , pleather @-@ heavy " . He went on to say that " It 's rare that Madonna gets a chance to be both harsh and hilarious in a music video " , and in this one , " Madonna basically does whatever the hell she wants . Brandish a chihuahua ? Mock and celebrate kinkiness ? Sneer at the camera like a bored third @-@ grader ? She does it all , and even in black cornrows , she 's a vision of coolness and sexual superiority " . Carol Vernallis , writer of Experiencing Music Video : Aesthetics and Cultural Context noted that the concept of black outfit against a white background " works well , but the snare drum , which corresponds to nothing in the imagery , seems to float above the soundtrack " .
Roger Beebe , one of the authors of the book Medium Cool : Music Videos from Soundies to Cellphones noted that the video was an example of the viewer 's impulse being intensified regarding " what will happen next ? " by placing its primary performers against a stark background . In 2011 , singer Rihanna 's music video for the song " S & M " was compared to " Human Nature " ' s music video with James Montgomery from MTV News saying that the video for " S & M " was not a new concept and was done in the video for " Human Nature " . Montgomery also noted that singer Christina Aguilera 's music video for 2010 single " Not Myself Tonight " was heavily inspired by that of " Human Nature " , including scenes portraying Aguilera in " leather get @-@ ups , her dominatrix attitude and the sultry chair @-@ related activities she engages in throughout " . The music video further inspired the dancing and the video of the song " Kambaqt Ishq " , from the 2001 Bollywood film , Pyaar Tune Kya Kiya .
= = Live performances = =
Madonna has performed " Human Nature " three times on tour . During the 2001 Drowned World Tour , she performed the song while slow @-@ riding on a mechanical bull , which was considered by Rob Mancini from MTV News as " magical " . During the performance , the singer was dressed as a cowgirl . For John McAlley from Entertainment Weekly , Madonna " prompts the oddly natural sight of lap @-@ dancing a mechanical bull " . Similar review was shared by Alexis Petridis from The Guardian , who noted that the media had heavily reported on the tour making all the details available from much before the London show that he reviewed . Nevertheless , Madonna riding the bull and performing " Human Nature " was one of the " most startling moments " of the tour according to him . The performance of the song on August 26 , 2001 , at The Palace of Auburn Hills was recorded and released in the live video album , Drowned World Tour 2001 .
Madonna performed the song again on her 2008 – 09 Sticky & Sweet Tour , while playing an electric guitar and adding vocoder voice effects on the background harmonies . The singer was dressed in a black leotard and fishnet tights . She also wore a white hat and black leather boots . During the performance a video backdrop portrayed American singer Britney Spears trapped in an elevator and trying to get out , while kicking the walls . At the end of the performance , the doors opened to reveal Spears saying the phrase " It 's Britney , bitch " , from her song " Gimme More " ( 2007 ) . Madonna explained that she intended the video to stand as an analogy of Spears ' career , saying " Didn 't that explain what I thought ? ' I 'm not your bitch , don 't hang your shit on me " . On November 6 , 2008 in the Los Angeles show at Dodger Stadium , Spears joined Madonna onstage halfway through the performance . Aidin Vaziri from Gibson.com was positive in his review , saying that the best moment of the tour was when Madonna picked up her black Les Paul guitar and emulated musician Slash while performing the song . Paul Schrodt from Slant Magazine was negative in his review of the performance , saying that by the time the performance of " Human Nature " had started , " it 's the same as all her shows : A remixed mind @-@ fuck " . The performance was included on the Sticky & Sweet Tour live CD and DVD release , recorded during Madonna 's four shows in Buenos Aires , Argentina , in December 2008 .
In 2012 , Madonna performed the song on The MDNA Tour as part of the third segment of the show . She performed the song while her dancers moved mirrors around her , as she removed articles of clothing . At her concert in Istanbul on June 7 , 2012 , Madonna briefly exposed her right breast to the audience , before covering it up again . This prompted criticism about her age , with Sophie Wilkinson from Heat World asking , " at 54 , is she too old to be getting a boob out ? " The striptease towards the end of the song continued in other cities where the tour visited , and most of the times the singer had messages written across her back talking about social issues . Amy Odell from The Huffington Post said that criticizing the gesture based on her age sends " a very archaic message " , adding that " Women who are 53 still have breasts and ... sex drives ! " . The performance of the song at the November 19 – 20 , 2012 , shows in Miami , at the American Airlines Arena were recorded and released in Madonna 's fourth live album , MDNA World Tour . In April 2015 , Madonna performed " Human Nature " along with her 2005 song " Hung Up " as a medley at the Coachella Festival during Drake 's act , sporting thigh @-@ high boots and a tank top that read " Big as Madonna " . She then went on to kiss Drake ; the activity went viral on the Internet due to Drake 's reaction to the kiss .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits and personnel adapted from Bedtime Stories album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
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= Nikolai Podgorny =
Nikolai Viktorovich Podgorny ( Russian : Никола ́ й Ви ́ кторович Подго ́ рный ; IPA : [ nʲɪkɐˈlaj ˈvʲiktərəvʲɪtɕ pɐdˈgornɨj ] , Ukrainian : Микола Вікторович Підгорний ; 18 February [ O.S. 5 February ] 1903 – 11 January 1983 ) was a Soviet statesman during the Cold War . He served as First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine from 1957 to 1963 and as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet from 1965 to 1977 . He was replaced as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet in 1977 by General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev . That same year he lost his seat in the Political Bureau ( Politburo ) and was forced to resign from active politics .
Podgorny was born in the city of Karlovka in 1903 to a Ukrainian working @-@ class family . He graduated in from a local worker 's school in 1926 , and in 1931 from the Kiev Technological Institute of Food Industry . He became a member of the All @-@ Union Communist Party ( bolsheviks ) in 1930 . Like his friend and ally Andrei Kirilenko , Podgorny climbed up the Soviet hierarchy through the industrial ladder ( delivering the production goals set by the bureaucrats in charge of the centrally planned economy ) . By 1953 he had become Second Secretary of the Communist Party of Ukraine . After Anastas Mikoyan 's resignation , Podgorny was voted into office as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet . After Premier Alexei Kosygin 's fall from favour Podgorny became the second most powerful figure in the Soviet Union until his removal as head of state in 1977 .
= = Early life = =
Podgorny was born on 18 February [ O.S. 5 February ] 1903 in Karlovka , Russian Empire , to a Ukrainian working @-@ class family . Podgorny started work at the age of 17 as a student at the mechanical workshops in Karlovka . After the Russian Revolution Podgorny became one of the founders of the Karlovka Komsomol . He served as a Secretary of the Komsomol from 1921 to 1923 . In 1926 Podgorny graduated from a local workers ' school , and then from the Kiev Technological Institute of Food Industry in 1931 . In 1930 , Podgorny became a member of the All @-@ Union Communist Party ( bolsheviks ) . Following his graduation Podgorny started working in the sugar industry . He was promoted to deputy chief engineer of Vinnytsia in 1937 and was promoted in 1939 as the chief engineer of the Kamenetz @-@ Podolsk Oblast sugar trusts . By the end of 1939 Podgorny had become Deputy People 's Commissar for Food Industry of the Ukrainian SSR . The next year Podgorny was appointed Deputy People 's Commissar for Food Industry of the Soviet Union .
= = Ukraine and national politics ( 1942 – 1963 ) = =
Podgorny became the Director of the Moscow Technological Institute of Food Industry in 1942 , during the Great Patriotic War ( World War II ) . After the liberation of Ukraine from the hands of Nazi Germany , Podgorny reestablished Soviet control over Ukraine on the orders of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic ( Ukrainian SSR ) and the Soviet Government . In the post @-@ war years Podgorny regained his old office of Deputy People 's Commissar for Food Industry of the Ukrainian SSR , but was later appointed in 1946 as a Permanent Representative to the Council of Ministers of the Ukrainian SSR . In April 1950 he was made First Secretary of the Kharkiv Regional Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine ( CPU ) . In 1953 Podgorny was elevated to Second Secretary of the Central Committee ( CC ) of the CPU . From 1957 to 1963 he was First Secretary of the CC of the CPU . In this role , Podgorny worked on reorganising and modernising the Ukrainian economy , which had been destroyed during the war years . He worked to increase the rate of industrial and agricultural production and to improve people 's welfare . He paid particular attention to improving party organisation and educating new cadres .
In 1960 Podgorny became a member of the Politburo ( Political Bureau ) and by 1963 had risen to prominence within the Soviet hierarchy as a member of the Secretariat of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ( CPSU ) . As a protégé and close companion of Nikita Khrushchev , he travelled with him to United Nations headquarters in 1960 . He acted as a Soviet emissary to Czechoslovakia , East Germany , Canada , and Yugoslavia . Podgorny 's beliefs were strongly influenced by Khrushchev , and under Leonid Brezhnev 's rule , Podgorny was one of the most liberal members within the Soviet leadership , even more liberal than Premier Alexei Kosygin .
Podgorny briefly fell out of Khruschev 's favor in 1961 when he blamed bad corn yields in the Ukrainian SSR on " bad weather " . Khrushchev claimed the crops had been " stolen " and " pilfered " . However , in 1962 , Podgorny reported to Khrushchev that agricultural output had again increased : Under Podgorny 's leadership , the Ukrainian SSR had doubled Ukraine 's supply of grain to the state from the previous year . Because of his handling of agriculture , First World commentators saw Podgorny as one of Khrushchev 's many potential heirs . According to historian Ilya Zemtsov , the author of Chernenko : The Last Bolshevik : The Soviet Union on the Eve of Perestroika , Brezhnev began starting a conspiracy against Khrushchev when he found out that he had chosen Podgorny , and not himself , as his potential successor . The coup evidently took Podgorny by surprise , seeing that he left Moscow on 10 October , two days before the coup was initiated .
= = Head of state ( 1965 – 1977 ) = =
= = = Appointment and the collective leadership = = =
During the 1964 ouster to remove Khrushchev as First Secretary and Premier , Podgorny and Brezhnev appealed to the Central Committee , blaming Khrushchev for economic failures and accusing him of voluntarism and immodest behavior . Influenced by Brezhnev and his allies , Politburo members voted to remove Khrushchev from office . In the aftermath of Khrushchev 's removal , a collective leadership was formed , headed by Brezhnev as First Secretary , Alexei Kosygin as head of government , and Anastas Mikoyan as head of state . Before becoming head of state , Podgorny served as the party 's Second Secretary , and was therefore in charge of the Party 's Organisational Division . In this capacity , Podgorny threatened Brezhnev 's position as First Secretary because the Organisational Division , if Podgorny chose so , could easily be turned into his own power base within the party . Brezhnev allied himself with Alexander Shelepin , the KGB chairman , to oppose both Podgorny and Kosygin .
Podgorny 's position was constantly threatened by Brezhnev and his allies . In an article in Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta from February 1965 , the newspaper criticised the Kharkiv Party organisation which Podgorny had previously headed , but also its management of the economy . By indirectly criticising Podgorny , the article raised doubts about his qualifications as a leading member of the Soviet leadership . Podgorny launched a counterattack in his 1965 speech in Baku , Azerbaijani Soviet Socialist Republic , where he criticised the Soviet leadership 's heavy industrial policy . This , as it turned out , would be a move he would regret for life . Instead of offending just Brezhnev and Shelepin , he offended the whole conservative wing of the leadership . To make matters even worse for Podgorny , Mikhail Suslov , who had kept outside of the conflict , sided with Brezhnev , and called his views " revisionist " . Later in 1965 , Podgorny lost his seat in the Secretariat , and on 9 December 1965 he replaced Mikoyan as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet . His removal from the Secretariat also signalled the end of his wish to assume the First Secretaryship .
The majority of Politburo members under Brezhnev were conservative communists . Even so , Podgorny remained one of the most liberal @-@ minded members in the Era of Stagnation . Other liberal @-@ minded Politburo members included Kosygin and Andrei Kirilenko . Factionalism within the Soviet leadership in the 1960s led Podgorny to become more active ; he held several speeches in Moscow and went on numerous state visits at the expense of Brezhnev and Kosygin 's popularity . There was speculation in Soviet society that Podgorny was trying to replace Kosygin as Premier , or even Brezhnev as General Secretary , due to his increasing presence in the late 1960s . The 24th Party Congress , while reaffirming Brezhnev 's and Kosygin 's respective positions , made it clear that Podgorny had become a major player in Soviet politics . The collective leadership was eventually left powerless in the late 1970s when Brezhnev had close to full control over the Politburo .
= = = Diplomatic protocol = = =
In 1967 , just before the outbreak of the Six @-@ Day War , Podgorny delivered an intelligence report to Egyptian Vice President Anwar Sadat which claimed , falsely , that Israeli troops were massing along the Syrian border . That same year , he engaged in a dialogue with Pope Paul VI as part of the pontiff 's ostpolitik ; the result was greater openness for the Roman Catholic Church in Eastern Europe . In 1971 Podgorny went on two state visits , the first to the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) and the second to North Vietnam ; Kosygin went on a visit to Canada while Brezhnev visited Yugoslavia . Podgorny frequently paid visits to North Vietnam during the Vietnam War to discuss Soviet @-@ Vietnamese foreign relations . In 1973 , Podgorny visited Finland and Mohammed Daoud Khan 's Afghanistan .
Brezhnev conspired to oust Podgorny as early as 1970 . The reason was simple : Brezhnev was third , while Podgorny was first in the ranking of Soviet diplomatic protocol . Since September 1970 Brezhnev tried to form an opposition in the Politburo to oust Podgorny . According to Time , " There was some speculation in Moscow " that if Brezhnev didn 't succeed in removing Podgorny he would establish a Council of State modelled after institutions found in , for example , East Germany ( Staatsrat ) , People 's Republic of Bulgaria and the Socialist Republic of Romania . The post of Chairman of the Council of State would give Brezhnev the top state and party job in the USSR . Brezhnev 's backers were unable , and didn 't even try , to remove Podgorny from the head of state post at the 1970 Central Committee plenum . Brezhnev could count on only five votes , while another seven Politburo members were opposed to granting Brezhnev more power ; removing Podgorny would in fact mean the end of the collective leadership .
While Brezhnev was plotting , Podgorny 's position within the Politburo grew stronger . Podgorny had been able to win support from the hardline communists due to Brezhnev 's liberal @-@ minded policy regarding Yugoslavia , military disarmament deals with the First World , and forcing East Germany into a concession with West Germany in the Berlin negotiations .
= = = Later tenure = = =
In the Politburo Podgorny could count on the support of Gennady Voronov and Petro Shelest . Podgorny was constantly in conflict with Kosygin over policy issues in the Politburo . When Podgorny and Kosygin actually agreed on something Brezhnev would find himself in the minority , and forced to follow their decisions . However , Podgorny was pleased about his position within the leadership , and even more pleased by the extension of powers given to the Supreme Soviet . As head of state , Podgorny saw little threat to his position , even if a Central Committee resolution from 1971 had called for the expansion of Party activities in the Soviets .
With Brezhnev 's position consolidated in the early 1970s , he used Podgorny to weaken Kosygin 's position as Chairman of the Council of Ministers by giving the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet some executive powers . With the help from Brezhnev Podgorny managed to make the Council of Ministers subordinate to the Presidium . However , these changes threatened Brezhnev , and Brezhnev would later order Konstantin Chernenko to take a look at the 1936 Soviet Constitution to find a way to weaken Podgorny 's position . As it turned out there were none , Podgorny 's position as head of state meant that he could in fact block any measures taken by Brezhnev to circumscribe his powers . Chernenko did come up with a solution , to make it law that the Party leader would also become the leader of the Government apparatus . The 1977 Soviet Constitution was drafted to weaken the position of Podgorny by making it law that the Party leader was in fact also leader of the Government . The draft which dealt with the leading role of the Party , and its clear supremacy , in Soviet society was approved by the Soviet leadership . The approval of the 1977 Soviet Constitution is considered Podgorny 's death knell .
= = = Removal = = =
Podgorny 's removal from office in 1977 has become the most notable example of power transfer in the late Brezhnev Era . According to Robert Vincent Daniels , Podgorny was before his removal the second most powerful man in the Soviet Union , behind Brezhnev but ahead of Premier Kosygin . The post of Chairman of the Presidium had acquired more powers during his tenure , and had changed from a largely honorary office to the second most important office in the USSR . Though there were some Sovietologists who foresaw Podgorny 's fall , the decision to remove Podgorny from the Politburo took the world by surprise . On 24 May 1977 , a unanimous vote was taken by the Central Committee after Grigory Romanov proposed removing Podgorny from the Politburo . The vote seemed to have taken Podgorny by surprise , and immediately after the vote , he got up from his politburo seat to instead sit with the ordinary members . The Central Committee had however only voted him off the Politburo , and Podgorny still retained the position of Chairman of the Presidium . After his removal from the Politburo Podgorny 's name disappeared from Soviet media . The Soviet media told the Soviet people that he had retired due to his stance against détente and producing more consumer goods . Podgorny finally lost his Chairmanship of the Presidium on 16 June 1977 .
Due to his advanced age , Brezhnev was regarded as too old to carry out some of the functions of head of state . The Supreme Soviet , on Brezhnev 's orders , established the new post of First Deputy Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet , an office equivalent to the post of Vice President . Vasili Kuznetsov , at the age of 76 , was unanimously approved by the Supreme Soviet as First Deputy Chairman of the Presidium .
= = Retirement , death and recognition = =
Podgorny 's life after his resignation is not well documented . The last mention of him in any major Soviet media was his meeting with Urho Kekkonen , the President of Finland . There was never any explanation given , nor a denunciation of him , by the Soviet authorities . Podgorny retained his seat in the Supreme Soviet after his downfall . He was seen at the 61st anniversary reception of the October Revolution at the Grand Palace of the Kremlin in November 1978 by Tokichiro Uomoto , the Japanese Ambassador to the Soviet Union . Podgorny spoke to Brezhnev , Kosygin , and then to Andrei Gromyko , all of whom looked embarrassed by the presence of Podgorny , according to Uomoto . Soon after this incident , Podgorny lost his seat in the Supreme Soviet . In Tretyakov Gallery , Podgorny was removed from the 1977 painting of the Soviet leaders at the Red Square by Dmitriy Nalbandyan in which Podgorny stood between Brezhnev and Kosygin . Podgorny died of cancer on 12 January 1983 , and was buried in Moscow at the Novodevichy cemetery .
As with many other high @-@ standing Soviet officials , Podgorny was honoured with several awards . He was awarded five Orders of Lenin , one Order of the Red Banner and several medals , as well as being awarded several foreign state prizes by the People 's Republic of Bulgaria , the Mongolian People 's Republic , the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic , and Finland .
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= Steven Moffat =
Steven William Moffat , OBE ( / ˌstiːvən ˈmɒfət / , born 18 November 1961 ) is a Scottish television writer and producer , known for his work as showrunner , writer and producer of the British television series Doctor Who and Sherlock .
Moffat 's first television work was the teen drama series Press Gang . His first sitcom , Joking Apart , was inspired by the breakdown of his first marriage ; conversely , his later sitcom Coupling was based upon the development of his relationship with television producer Sue Vertue . In between the two relationship @-@ centred shows , he wrote Chalk , a sitcom set in a comprehensive school inspired by his own experience as an English teacher .
A lifelong fan of Doctor Who , Moffat 's first work on the series was the script of the parody episode The Curse of Fatal Death in 1999 . He then wrote six episodes of the revived series which began in 2005 ( " The Empty Child " , " The Doctor Dances " , " The Girl in the Fireplace " , " Blink " , " Silence in the Library " , and " Forest of the Dead " ) . In 2010 he replaced Russell T Davies as showrunner , lead writer and executive producer . The same year , he created Sherlock along with Mark Gatiss . In January 2016 , it was announced that Moffat would step down from being showrunner of Doctor Who after the spring 2017 season finale , and that Broadchurch creator Chris Chibnall would take over . He also co @-@ wrote Steven Spielberg 's The Adventures of Tintin : The Secret of the Unicorn in 2011 .
Moffat has won several awards , mainly for Doctor Who and Sherlock , including an Emmy Award , five BAFTA Awards and four Hugo Awards .
= = Early life and Press Gang = =
Moffat was born in Paisley , Scotland , where he attended Camphill High School . He studied at the University of Glasgow , where he was involved with the student television station , GUST ( Glasgow University Student Television ) . After gaining an MA degree in English from Glasgow , he worked as a teacher for three and a half years at Cowdenknowes High School , Greenock . In the 1980s he wrote a play entitled War Zones ( performed at the 1985 Glasgow Mayfest and the Edinburgh Festival Fringe ) and a musical called Knifer . His father , Bill Moffat , was a head teacher at Thorn Primary School in Johnstone , Renfrewshire ; when the school was used for Harry Secombe 's Highway in the late 1980s , he mentioned to the producers that he had an idea for a television series about a school newspaper . The producers asked for a sample script , to which Bill Moffat agreed on condition his son write it . Producer Sandra Hastie said that it was " the best ever first script " that she had read .
The resulting series was titled Press Gang , starring Julia Sawalha and Dexter Fletcher , and ran for five series on ITV between 1989 and 1993 , with Moffat writing all forty @-@ three episodes . The programme won a BAFTA award in its second series .
During production of the second series of Press Gang , Moffat was experiencing an unhappy personal life as a result of the break @-@ up of his first marriage . The producer was secretly phoning his friends at home to check on his state . His wife 's new lover was represented in the episode " The Big Finish ? " by the character Brian Magboy ( Simon Schatzberger ) , a name inspired by Brian : Maggie 's boy . Moffat brought in the character so that all sorts of unfortunate things would happen to him , such as having a typewriter dropped on his foot .
= = Joking Apart = =
By 1990 , Moffat had written two series of Press Gang , but the programme 's high cost along with organisational changes at backers Central Independent Television cast its future in doubt . As Moffat wondered what to do next and worried about his future employment , Bob Spiers , Press Gang 's primary director , suggested that he meet with producer Andre Ptaszynski to discuss writing a sitcom . Inspired by his experience working in education , Moffat 's initial proposal was a programme similar to what would become Chalk , a sitcom set in a school that eventually aired in 1997 . During the pitch meeting at the Groucho Club , Ptaszynski realised that Moffat was talking passionately about his impending divorce and suggested that he write about that instead of a school sitcom . Taking Ptaszynski 's advice , Moffat 's new idea was about " a sitcom writer whose wife leaves him " . Moffat wrote two series of Joking Apart , which was directed by Bob Spiers , and starred Robert Bathurst and Fiona Gillies . The show won the Bronze Rose of Montreux and was entered for the Emmys . In an interview with Richard Herring , Moffat says that " The sit @-@ com actually lasted slightly longer than my marriage . " Fiona Gillies , who played the adulteress Becky , says that she was aware that some of her dialogue was based on what had been said to Moffat during his own separation . Moffat recycled his own dialogue : when he had learned that his wife 's lover was a fan of Press Gang , he replied , " Well , did he have to fuck my wife ? Most people just write in ! " . The line , with the expletive replaced by " shagged " , was used in the first episode of Joking Apart .
Speaking about the autobiographical elements of the show , the writer jokes that he has to remember that his wife didn 't leave him for an estate agent ; his wife was an estate agent . Conversely , his later sitcom Coupling was based on his relationship with his second wife , TV producer Sue Vertue . Moffat reused the surname " Taylor " , which is Mark 's surname in Joking Apart , for Jack Davenport 's character Steve in Coupling .
He wrote three episodes of Murder Most Horrid , an anthology series of comedic tales starring Dawn French . The first ( " Overkill " , directed by Bob Spiers ) was identified by the BBC as a " highlight " of the series . His other two episodes were " Dying Live " ( dir . Dewi Humphreys ) and " Elvis , Jesus and Zack " ( dir . Tony Dow ) .
= = Chalk and Coupling = =
Between marriages , Moffat claims that he " shagged [ his ] way round television studios like a mechanical digger . " According to an interview with The New York Times , Moffat met television producer Sue Vertue at the Edinburgh Television Festival in 1996 . Vertue had been working for Tiger Aspect , a production company run by Peter Bennett @-@ Jones . Bennett @-@ Jones and his friend and former colleague Andre Ptaszynski , who had worked with Moffat on Joking Apart , told Moffat and Vertue that each fancied the other . A relationship blossomed and they left their respective production companies to join Hartswood Films , run by Beryl Vertue , Sue 's mother . The couple have two children together : Joshua and Louis .
Before Moffat left Pola Jones for Hartswood , Ptaszynski produced Chalk , the series that the writer had pitched to him at the beginning of the decade . Set in a comprehensive school and starring David Bamber as manic deputy head Eric Slatt and Nicola Walker as Suzy Travis , the show was based on Moffat 's three years as an English teacher . The studio audience responded so positively to the first series when it was taped that the BBC commissioned a second series before the first had aired . However , it was met less enthusiastically by critics upon transmission in February 1997 , who had taken exception to the BBC 's publicity department comparing the show to the highly respected Fawlty Towers . In an interview in the early 2000s , Moffat refuses to even name the series , joking that he might get attacked in the street .
After production wrapped on Chalk in 1997 , Moffat announced to the cast that he was marrying Vertue . When she eventually asked him for a sitcom , he decided to base it around the evolution of their own relationship . Coupling was first broadcast on BBC2 in 2000 , with his wife producing for Hartswood Films . The series proved to be highly successful , running until 2004 and producing four series and twenty @-@ eight episodes , all written by Moffat . He also wrote the original , unbroadcast pilot episode for the U.S. version , also titled Coupling , although this was less successful and was cancelled after four episodes on the NBC network . Moffat has blamed its failure on an unprecedented level of network interference .
= = Jekyll , Tintin , and Sherlock = =
He wrote the Hartswood Films drama series Jekyll , a modern version of The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde , which aired on BBC One in June and July 2007 . In an interview with The Age , James Nesbitt , who played the eponymous character , called Moffat " an eccentric , shy fellow " , while commending his writing as " inventive and dark and funny " .
In June 2007 Moffat told The Stage that he was working on a new sitcom . Provisionally titled Adam and Eve , it concerned a boss and his personal assistant , who are long @-@ term friends but never get together . In October 2007 it was reported that Moffat would be scripting a trilogy of The Adventures of Tintin : The Secret of the Unicorn films for directors Steven Spielberg and Peter Jackson . According to The Times newspaper , Moffat had to be " love bombed " by Spielberg into accepting the offer to write the films , with the director promising to shield him from studio interference with his writing . He had intended to complete work on the whole trilogy before resuming work on Doctor Who , but the intervening WGA strike meant he could submit a finished script for the first film only . In July 2008 , Moffat was quoted by the Daily Mail as saying : " I could not work on the second Tintin film and work on Doctor Who . So I chose Doctor Who . " Moffat says that Spielberg was " lovely " about his decision . The script was completed by Edgar Wright and Joe Cornish , with a part of Moffat 's script used in the film .
Moffat remains a writer for Hartswood Films even after his appointment as show @-@ runner for Doctor Who . During their journeys from London to Cardiff for Doctor Who , Moffat and Mark Gatiss conceived a contemporary update of Sherlock Holmes , called Sherlock . Benedict Cumberbatch was cast as Holmes , with Martin Freeman as Dr Watson . A 60 @-@ minute pilot , written by Moffat , was filmed in January 2009 . The pilot was not broadcast , but three 90 @-@ minute episodes were commissioned . Moffat wrote the first of these , " A Study in Pink " , which was broadcast on 25 July 2010 on BBC One and BBC HD . A second series was broadcast in January 2012 , for which Moffat wrote the episode " A Scandal in Belgravia " , with a third following in January 2014 .
= = Doctor Who = =
Moffat has been a fan of Doctor Who since childhood . In 1995 , he contributed a segment to Paul Cornell 's Virgin New Adventures novel Human Nature . His first solo Doctor Who work was a short story , " Continuity Errors " , published in the 1996 Virgin Books anthology Decalog 3 : Consequences . In 1999 he scripted the parody Doctor Who and the Curse of Fatal Death , which aired as part of Comic Relief 's Red Nose Day charity telethon . The co @-@ producer for that year 's Comic Relief telethon was Moffat 's then @-@ new wife , Sue Vertue .
In 2004 , Moffat was signed to write for the revival of Doctor Who . He became known , according to The Guardian , for writing " the clever , darker episodes " of the first four series of the show . His contribution for the 2005 series was the two @-@ part story " The Empty Child " / " The Doctor Dances " . In the DVD audio commentary he says that he waited forty years to see his name appear on top of that theme music . He wrote an episode for each of the two following series : " The Girl in the Fireplace " in the 2006 series and " Blink " in the 2007 series . Moffat won the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form three years in a row for his contributions . " The Girl in the Fireplace " and " Blink " were both nominated for Nebula Awards . " Blink " also gained him the BAFTA Craft Award for Best Writer , and a BAFTA Cymru Award for Best Screenwriter . In the Doctor Who Magazine reader poll for the 2007 series , Moffat was voted as best writer and " Blink " as the best story . He also wrote the 2007 Children in Need " special scene " " Time Crash " .
He wrote a two @-@ part story for series four in 2008 , titled " Silence in the Library " / " Forest of the Dead " , making Moffat and series executive producer Russell T Davies the only writers to have contributed scripts to the first four series of the revived show . In March 2008 , Davies said that he often rewrote scripts from other writers , but didn 't " touch a word " of Moffat 's episodes . Moffat 's script for series four secured him his fourth consecutive Hugo Awards nomination , though it did not win .
The BBC announced in May 2008 that Moffat would be taking over from Russell T Davies as head writer and executive producer for the revived show 's fifth series , to be broadcast in 2010 , although Davies had initiated discussions with Moffat regarding this as far back as July 2007 . Commenting on his appointment , Moffat said it was " the proper duty of every British subject to come to the aid of the TARDIS " . Production on Moffat 's time in charge of the programme began in July 2009 . As executive producer and head writer , he was significantly involved in casting Matt Smith as the Eleventh Doctor . Smith first appeared as the Doctor at the end of Davies and David Tennant 's final episode , the second part of The End of Time , in a short post @-@ regeneration scene that Davies left for Moffat to write himself . Moffat wrote the scene in " about ten minutes " as " a bit of fun banter " for the new Doctor .
In addition to his television episodes , Moffat has also contributed stories to Panini Publishing 's Doctor Who Storybook series , penning the short stories " What I Did on My Christmas Holidays By Sally Sparrow " for the 2006 book ( which later formed the basis of his TV episode " Blink " ) , " Corner of the Eye " for the 2007 volume and " A Letter From the Doctor " which opens the 2009 Storybook .
In June 2015 , Moffat was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire for his services to drama .
= = Writing credits = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
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= Bodyguard of Lies =
Bodyguard of Lies is a 1975 non @-@ fiction book written by Anthony Cave Brown , his first major historical work . Named for a wartime quote of Winston Churchill , it is a narrative account of Allied military deception operations during the Second World War . The British and American governments resisted Brown 's attempts to research the book . Many of the topics were still classified and he was denied access to British war records . The material in the book is predominantly based on oral testimony as well as some American records , declassified toward the end of Brown 's research .
Critical reception has been mixed , but generally negative . Contemporary historians , such as Charles B. MacDonald , praised the work – although some did comment on its length . Modern reviewers have identified inconsistencies or errors in the material , based on later declassified records . Also , some of Brown 's personal conclusions have been questioned .
= = Background = =
Bodyguard of Lies was Brown 's first published book , following his career as a journalist in the United Kingdom and Australia . The work narrates Allied deception strategy on the Western Front for the years of 1943 and 1944 . It particularly focuses on Operation Bodyguard , both the operation and the book 's title were inspired by one of Winston Churchill 's war @-@ time epigrams ; " In war @-@ time , truth is so precious that she should always be attended by a bodyguard of lies . "
Brown began researching and writing Bodyguard of Lies in 1961 . Most of the material is based on oral testimony from Second World War intelligence personnel , as well as records from the National Archives and declassified American records ( although Brown says that most of the book was written before he was able to access the latter , in 1974 ) . Brown wrote Bodyguard of Lies at a time when details of both cryptography and deception during the war were still classified . His attempts at research was resisted by the British and American governments ; he was denied access to British war records and had to undertake considerable work to obtain US records via Freedom of Information requests .
= = Synopsis = =
Bodyguard of Lies opens with an introduction to Ultra , the codename for decrypted signals intelligence . It goes on to document the origins of the London Controlling Section ( LCS ) and the work of Dudley Clarke in the Middle East . In late 1942 , Allied high command in London became aware of Clarke 's successes during the North African Campaign . Based on his theories of deception , the LCS was created under Colonel John Bevan and granted broad powers to plan deception strategy . The introduction finishes with a discussion of how the Allies evolved deception strategy prior to 1943 , including the Double @-@ Cross System ( the Allied system of double agents ) . The second section of the book introduces the German intelligence forces , in particular Admiral Canaris and his Abwehr intelligence agency . Brown discusses early deceptions , such as those surrounding Operation Torch , conducted against the Germans , and how the Abwehr struggled to decipher the information it was being fed .
The third section of the book covers Allied deceptions during 1943 , in particular Operation Mincemeat . Brown introduces Plan Jael , the early revision of Operation Bodyguard , and follows Bevan 's work in creating the deception plan . The fourth section covers the events of early 1944 , leading up to the Normandy landings on 6 June . In particular , Brown discusses Operation Fortitude and the fictional First US Army Group , a key part of Bodyguard , calling it " the greatest charade in history " . The final section of the book covers events on and after D @-@ Day , including physical deceptions carried out on the night of the invasion , and the continued impact of Bodyguard in the months after the landings .
= = Critical reception = =
The book received mixed reviews ; particularly with regards to Brown 's focus on minutiae , which received both positive and negative comment . Later reviewers also criticised the factual basis of the work – describing it as containing " a multitude of errors of detail " – with some reviewers rejecting Brown 's analysis . One such error that Brown relates was a then @-@ widely held theory that Churchill had known of German intentions to bomb Coventry in November 1940 , but that the British leader had hidden the information to avoid giving up the secrets of Ultra ( intercepted German communications ) . By 1976 , declassified records showed that the intelligence was in fact more vague than popular myth had suggested . Writing in 1996 , reviewer Russell J. Bowen ascribes this to Brown 's reliance on secondary sourcing and oral interviews ( describing the book as an " outstanding example of scholarly investigative journalism applied to the field of oral military history " ) .
Hugh Trevor @-@ Roper , writing for The New York Review of Books , was highly critical of the " encyclopedic " detail in Brown 's writing : " He piles on the illustrative ( or irrelevant ) detail . He cannot leave anything out . Every person mentioned must have a potted biography . Every place must be equipped with atmosphere , furniture , associations . " Roper also criticised the material , writing that Brown had inserted " a novel thesis " , that Allied deception during the war was controlled by MI6 , " which , in my opinion , is quite wrong . "
Some critiques of the book have been positive . A 1976 New Scientist review praised the level of detail , saying that it " would ensure a large sale " . In a letter to the editor in reply , Deputy Chief Historian for the United States Army , Charles B. MacDonald , referred to the book as " the most important work on World War II in a quarter of a century . " Writing in Military Review , Alexander Cochran noted that the book was one of the first non @-@ memoir accounts of intelligence operations during the war and was unusual ( for its genre ) in documenting sources . However , he went on to call the book " suggestive more than definitive " .
Russell J. Bowen concludes that although the writing and coverage were better than similar books then available , " Cave Brown 's work fails to escape the common stigma of intelligence narratives : considerable inaccuracy as to detail and occasional lack of validity of interpretation . "
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= Phallus ravenelii =
Phallus ravenelii , commonly known as Ravenel 's stinkhorn , is a fungus found in eastern North America . Its mushrooms commonly grow in large clusters and are noted for their foul odor and phallic shape when mature . It is saprobic , and as such it is encountered in a wide variety of habitats rich in wood debris , from forests to mulched gardens or sawdust piles in urban areas . It appears from August to October . The fruit body emerges from a pink or lavender @-@ colored egg to form a tall , cylindrical , hollow and spongy white stalk with a bell @-@ shaped cap . The remains of the egg persist as a white to pink or lilac volva at the base of the stalk . The cap is covered in a foul @-@ smelling olive @-@ green spore slime , which attracts insects that help to spread the spores . Sometimes , the cap has a " veil " attached — a thin membrane that hangs underneath . The lack of a roughly ridged and pitted cap differentiates it from the closely related Phallus impudicus . The fungus is named after Henry William Ravenel , a botanist who first discovered it in 1846 , though it remained undescribed until 1873 . It is considered to be an edible mushroom while in its egg form .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described officially in the scientific literature by English mycologist Miles Berkeley in an 1873 publication . Berkeley obtained the specimens from Moses Ashley Curtis , which had in turn been sent to him by Ravenel from collections he made at the Santee River in South Carolina in 1846 . Although the specimen had been sent with Ravenel 's extensive collection notes , Berkeley 's description was brief , and he neglected to mention the veil . American Curtis Gates Lloyd later disparaged the quality of Berkeley 's description , and noted " he was so busy that he could not take the time to consider the details , and his " description " tells nothing of the leading characters of the species . " Charles Horton Peck , upon encountering the fungus in North America , could not identify it using Berkeley 's description , and instead had to contact Ravenel to obtain his original collection notes before he could confirm its identity . Peck later wrote a full description of the species . In 1898 , Edward Angus Burt placed the taxon in the genus Dictyophora , based on the presence of the veil . Otto Kuntze transferred the taxon to the genus Aedycia ( now equivalent with Mutinus ) , resulting in the synonym Aedycia ravenelii . The mushroom is commonly known as the eastern stinkhorn or Ravenel 's stinkhorn .
= = Description = =
The mushroom begins its development in the form of pink- , lilac- , or purple @-@ tinged " eggs " that resemble a puffball . The egg expands rapidly to form a phallus @-@ shaped structure with a yellowish @-@ white stalk and thimble @-@ like cap . The cap ranges from 1 @.@ 5 to 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) in width and 3 to 4 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 8 in ) in height ; the entire fruit body can reach heights of 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) . The cap texture is finely granular and it is attached to a white open circlet at the top where it meets the stalk . In some specimens , this opening is relatively large with a broad margin , and gives the mushroom a truncated appearance . Microscopically , the cap surfaces comprises minute cells and cavities , with a spongy structure similar to that of the stem , but with smaller perforations than the stem . The lower margin of the cap is free from attachment to the stalk , and there is sometimes a membranous veil suspended like a collar around the stem under the cap ; the veil can be of varying lengths . This veil can be seen in dissected eggs where it is present as a distinct , thin membranous tissue between the stalk and the cap before expansion . In this form , the veil is continuous from its attachment with the " primordial tissue " at the base of the stalk and volva below to the tip of the stem at the point where it joins the cap . The veil produced in P. ravenelli is distinct from the flaring , net @-@ like indusium produced by Phallus species like P. indusiatus . Gleba covers the head and is olive @-@ green to dark brown in color , slimy in texture , and foul smelling . The spores measure 3 to 4 @.@ 5 µm by 1 to 2 µm , are colorless , elliptical in shape , and smooth in texture . They are thin @-@ walled and covered with a thin , hyaline ( transparent ) , sticky coating .
The stalk is hollow and measures 10 to 15 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 to 5 @.@ 9 in ) tall and 1 @.@ 5 to 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick . It can range in color from slightly yellowish to white . At the stalk 's base there is usually a white to pink volva ( a sac @-@ like cup ) . When immature , the fruit body is encapsulated within the volva present as a peridium ( skin @-@ like tissue layer ) , which ruptures as the mushroom emerges . The volva attaches to the substrate with whitish or pinkish rhizomorphs ( thick , cord @-@ like strands of mycelia ) . Rhizomorphs and mycelia that are exposed to air eventually turn whitish in color ; those freshly exposed from their substrate usually quickly turn bluish @-@ purple . The fungus produces watery and fleshy sclerotia that range in thickness from 1 to 10 mm with a length of up to 30 mm . The sclerotia are irregularly convoluted and lobed , and become hard and horny upon drying . Sclerotia have a color reaction similar to that noted for rhizomorphs , and , after long exposure to air , will gradually turn a uniform dark reddish @-@ brown . Phallus ravenelli is considered edible if in the egg form , and has a " mild " taste . The foul odor of mature mushrooms would dissuade most from collecting for the table .
= = Similar species = =
Phallus ravenelli is often confused with P. impudicus and P. hadriani . P. impudicus has a highly reticulate ( a net @-@ like pattern of grooves and ridges ) cap under the gleba . P. hadriani also has a pitted cap , and occurs less frequently than P. ravenelii . The widespread species Itajahya galericulata has a roughly spherical cap of several overlapping spongy tissue layers with gleba sandwiched in @-@ between . Phallus rugulosus is tall , thin , pale orange , and tapers towards the smooth cap . The cap is blackish @-@ olive in color , while the volva is oval and white . It is found in the eastern and southern United States and China . P. granulosodenticulatus is a rare Brazilian species with a superficial resemblance to P. ravenelii . Apart from its distribution , it is distinguished from P. ravenelii by its smaller fruit bodies up to 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) tall , a cogged cap margin , and somewhat larger spores that measure 3 @.@ 8 – 5 by 2 – 3 µm .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Ravenel 's stinkhorn is widespread in eastern North America , from Quebec in the north , south to Florida and west to Iowa and Ohio . West of the Mississippi , the common stinkhorn ( Phallus impudicus ) becomes more dominant . In the early 1900s , Lloyd called it the most common phalloid in the United States . The fungus is also found in Costa Rica .
As a saprobic mushroom , or decomposer of organic material , Ravenel 's stinkhorn can be found in almost any habitat that includes decaying wood . They are most often found growing in groups , though occasionally singly , on wood chips , rotten tree stumps or sawdust . They are common in urban flowerbeds , parks and lawns , as well as in meadows , cultivated areas and woods . The foul odor of the gleba attracts insects that walk and feed on the spore @-@ bearing surface , and later disseminate the sticky spores to other locales .
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= Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride =
" Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " is the fourth episode in the first season of the American animated television series South Park . It originally aired on September 3 , 1997 on Comedy Central in the United States . The episode was written by series co @-@ founders Trey Parker and Matt Stone , and directed by Parker . In this episode , Stan 's dog , Sparky , is revealed to be gay after humping a rival male dog . Under peer pressure , Stan tries to make him more masculine , and as a result , Sparky runs away and ends up at Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Animal Sanctuary . Stan comes to understand homosexuality and tries to make everyone in South Park accept it .
" Big Gay Al 's Gay Boat Ride " addressed open homosexuality in a way that was uncommon for television at the time , which created some anxiety among Comedy Central executives . The network initially objected to offensive remarks made by sports commentators in the episode , but the comments were kept in at the insistence of Parker and Stone . George Clooney made a guest appearance as Sparky , a small role with no dialog except for dog barks . The episode marked the first appearance of Big Gay Al .
The episode received generally positive reviews for its portrayal of homosexuality . Creators Stone and Parker considered it their favorite episode of the first season , noting that it helped elevate the credibility and relevance of South Park during its early days . It was nominated for both an Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program and a GLAAD Award , and was the episode submitted when South Park won a CableACE Award for Outstanding Animated Series .
= = Plot = =
Stan 's new dog Sparky follows the boys to the bus stop one morning . Stan believes Sparky to be the toughest dog in South Park ; but , when Sparky suddenly jumps on top of another male dog and begins humping him energetically , Cartman declares that Sparky is homosexual . At football practice for the school 's team , the South Park Cows , Stan 's Uncle Jimbo and his friend Ned show up and ask Coach Chef whether the boys can beat the betting spread of 70 points for the Cows ' game against the Middle Park Cowboys . Impressed by a play from Stan , who is the quarterback and star of the team , Jimbo and Ned go to the bookmaker , where Jimbo bets $ 500 on the Cows . As a result , everyone else bets all their money on the team , and they threaten Jimbo if the Cows lose . Intimidated , Jimbo and Ned seek a back @-@ up plan and learn that John Stamos ' brother Richard will be singing " Lovin ' You " at half @-@ time . Consequently , they plan to detonate the mascot for Middle Park , by placing a bomb to explode when Richard Stamos sings the high F note in the song .
After practice , Sparky appears and mounts another male dog . The next day , after class , Stan asks his teacher Mr. Garrison what a homosexual is , prompting Mr. Garrison to claim that " gay people are evil " . As a result , Stan attempts to make his dog heterosexual . Later , Sparky overhears a frustrated Stan ranting about how he wants a butch dog instead of a gay dog . This prompts Sparky to run away to the mountains , ending up at Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Animal Sanctuary .
Concerned about his dog , Stan goes to look for him , missing the start of the football game . When Stan finds Sparky at the Big Gay Animal Sanctuary , Big Gay Al takes Stan on a boat ride through his sanctuary and gives a speech about how homosexuality has been around for a long time , which eventually makes Stan accept his dog 's homosexuality . Meanwhile , Richard Stamos fails to hit the high note of the song at half time . Returning to the final moments of the game , Stan steps in as the quarterback , passing the ball to Kyle for a touchdown that beats the betting spread as time runs out . In his speech after the game , Stan tells the people of South Park about the Big Gay Animal Sanctuary and that " it 's okay to be gay " . He leads the people to the site of the Sanctuary , but it has mysteriously disappeared ; people 's runaway gay pets , however , return . Before leaving , Big Gay Al thanks Stan for making everyone understand homosexuality . Although the Cows beat the spread , Richard Stamos appears to prove he can hit the high note that he missed earlier , triggering the bomb and killing the Middle Park team 's mascot .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and objections raised before airing = = =
The plot for " Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " originated from an idea by series co @-@ founders Trey Parker and Matt Stone to have a boy try to convince his gay dog not to be homosexual . Michael Smith , a childhood friend of Parker and a basis for the Ned Gerblansky character , claimed that Big Gay Al was based in part on a real @-@ life resident of Fairplay , Colorado . Smith , a minister at a Fairplay church , said of the resident , " We just call him Big Al , but he cross @-@ dresses every year for Fairplay Day . He lives out of town , which is why Big Gay Al 's cartoon pet sanctuary is set out in the hills " . However , Stone said the name " Big Gay Al " and the idea of his " gay animal sanctuary " came from Pam Brady , a producer and writer with the show .
When the episode was under production in 1997 , it was relatively uncommon for a television series to openly address homosexuality in such overt terms , especially in a cartoon . As a result , Parker and Stone said Comedy Central executives expressed more concern about " Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " than any other previous South Park episode . Parker said of the network , " I don 't think they ever really discouraged it , but they were definitely freaked out " . The network , however , did object to scenes in which one of the football sports commentators made offensive jokes and was silenced by the other commentator . The network particularly objected to a joke in which , after watching Kyle run , the commentator said , " I haven 't seen a Jew run like that since Poland 1938 " , a reference to the country 's invasion by Nazi Germany ( which actually took place in 1939 ) . The jokes were based on a number of real @-@ life offensive remarks sports commentators made and gotten in trouble for . Stone said the scenes were meant to parody the commentators , not the subjects of the jokes . However , they were only allowed to stay in after what Stone called " a big fight " with Comedy Central . After the episode was scheduled to air , TV Guide refused to advertise it under its true title for fear of offending readers , and instead called the episode " Big Al 's Boat Ride " .
The episode was written by Trey Parker and Matt Stone , and was directed by Parker . Parker and Stone considered " Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " their favorite episode of the first season , and they credit it with helping elevate the credibility and relevance of South Park during the early days of the series . Although the first season of South Park received a lot of criticism from commentators who felt the show was disgusting and offensive , Parker specifically defended the episodes " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " and " Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " , which he felt included moral values and a " sweet side to it " among the sophomoric humor . Stone also said those two episodes became the specific shows people would most talk about when they discussed South Park .
= = = Animation = = =
Actor George Clooney provided the small role of the voice of Sparky , which is limited entirely to dog barks . Clooney was a vocal South Park fan and was largely responsible for generating news about " The Spirit of Christmas " , a 1995 animated short film by Parker and Stone that served as a precursor to South Park . Parker said they decided to cast a famous actor in the small role of Sparky because " we thought it was funny " , and because they wanted to do something different from the animated series The Simpsons , which is known for having prominent guest appearances on a regular basis . Parker added , " Since South Park is sort of a show that rips on celebrity , we wanted to degrade them in other ways too . And we thought let 's have celebrities on , but have them do really minor , unimportant things " . Comedy Central executives were excited at the prospect of having Clooney appear on the show , but Parker said they were disappointed to learn his role was so small .
South Park animators created the episode using PowerAnimator , the Alias Systems Corporation animation program most commonly known as " Alias " . It was particularly challenging for animators to design the complex scheme of lights during the episode 's disco club scene . Eric Stough , director of animation for the series , said it took one of the technical directors " about half a day " to set up the brief scene . Parker said he was particularly happy with the animation in " Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " , and said he believed the series was starting to settle into the defined look it has retained throughout the years . Parker said , " I think that this was where we finally felt like we got it right , we got the look of it right " . However , the animation includes some perspective errors , particularly during the football scenes , where Chef stands about as wide as a 10 @-@ yard marking on the field . Parker said the animators worked for a long time on the snow in the outdoor scenes , but ultimately decided they did not like how it came out .
The speech Big Gay Al gave while taking Stan on a boat ride through his animal sanctuary were based on actual speeches animation director Eric Stough made while working as a " jungle cruise director " at the Walt Disney World Resort in Orlando , Florida . The dirt smudges on the football player 's helmets and uniforms were intentionally designed to look like smudges on construction paper . This was done to maintain the show 's deliberately crude visual style they first created with construction paper in " The Spirit of Christmas " and the pilot episode , " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " . The characters Butters Stotch and Clyde Donovan are featured during the football game , although neither had been identified by name yet in the series . During a football crowd scene , a white character can be seen that looks identical to Token Black , an African @-@ American character introduced later in the series . The background character is wearing the same shirt Token wears , which Parker explained was the result of an animator placing a different head on the body in order to create a filler character for the crowd . The moment when Big Gay Al says , " My work here is done " and disappears into a suitcase is Stone 's favorite part of the episode , even though he admitted , " It makes no sense " . Parker said that the moment was written that way simply because the duo could not decide how to " get rid of " the character . Parker said , " We didn 't want him around all the time , ( so we asked ) how do we not make him a character each week " .
= = Theme = =
" Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " explores the central theme of homosexuality , particularly through the gay characters Sparky and Big Gay Al , who would go on to play a more prominent role in the fifth season episode , " Cripple Fight " . The episode encourages tolerance of homosexuality , with protagonist Stan initially displaying anger and dismay upon learning that his dog is gay , but eventually learning to accept homosexuality and concluding that we should accept others for who they are . Big Gay Al displays several exaggerated gay stereotypes , including his lisping voice and flamboyant wardrobe , which includes an ascot tie . Although some have described the depiction as inflammatory , other commentators have said the stereotypes are used as functions of satire . Nick Marx and Matt Sienkiewicz , PhD students in media and cultural studies at the University of Wisconsin – Madison , said in a 2009 journal article , " These episodes function not as part of a larger discursive web , but as media texts encoded in a manner similar to that of The Simpsons " .
" Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " also explores and satirizes people 's reactions to homosexuality through Stan and other characters who react to Sparky 's behavior . For example , Stan admits he does not even know what being gay includes , except simply that it " is bad " . Also , when Cartman suggests to Stan that Sparky might be at the mall buying leather pants , it satirizes the stereotype that all gay men are engaged in the leather subculture . The episode also mocks what many LGBT activists perceive as hatred and misunderstandings about homosexuality often expressed by anti @-@ LGBT and right @-@ wing activists , including Christian ministers Jerry Falwell and Fred Phelps . This is partially illustrated in this episode by Mr. Garrison 's condemnation of homosexuals , rooted in deep @-@ seated fear of his own sexuality . Basing his comment off this episode , Gardiner commented that South Park had a " Queer Lite " attitude towards homosexuality , stating " they are unemphatically tolerant , polymorphously perverse , ambiguously gay affirmative " .
= = Cultural references and impact = =
The South Park football team plays a rival team from Middle Park , Colorado . Like South Park itself , Middle Park is an actual basin in the Rocky Mountains of north @-@ central Colorado . Matt Stone said the Middle Park kids were made to seem richer and cooler than the South Park students because that was the perception real South Park residents have of the actual Middle Park . Richard Stamos , who sings during halftime in the episode 's football game , is the fictional brother of John Stamos , a real @-@ life actor best known for his roles on Full House and ER . Trey Parker and Matt Stone did not know Stamos when they wrote " Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " , but Parker said they assumed he was " a big douche " because of his role on Full House , which Parker called " just the most horrible thing ever put on television " . Since the episode aired , however , Parker and Stone have become acquainted with Stamos and found him to be " a really , really cool guy " . John Stamos told them he loved the inclusion of the Richard Stamos character in " Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " . Richard Stamos sings " Lovin ' You " , a 1975 hit single by singer @-@ songwriter Minnie Riperton . Parker chose it because he felt it was a popular song in the gay community , and also because , " I 've just always hated that song . I hate any song from that era , really . It 's just a horrible time for music . "
During the beginning of Mr. Garrison 's class , Cartman writes an essay on the TV series Simon & Simon instead of Asian culture . Also , Bill suggested that Stan take Sparky to a Barbra Streisand concert . The disappearance of Big Gay Al at the end of the episode is a spoof of Dr. Lao 's disappearance at the end of the movie The 7 Faces of Dr. Lao . Big Gay Al 's ride also features a number of miniature characters , among them Olympic figure skater Brian Boitano , singing a song called " We Are Gay " , which is a parody of the ride " It 's a Small World " , an attraction at the Disneyland theme park . Boitano was featured in " The Spirit of Christmas " , and would later be the basis for the original song " What Would Brian Boitano Do ? " from South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut . The song played during the closing credits of " Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " is " Now You 're a Man " by DVDA , a punk rock band that Parker and Stone founded . This song was also featured in their film Orgazmo .
In this episode , the sports announcer states he had not seen a " beating like that since Rodney King " , referencing to an incident in 1991 where King was beaten by six LAPD police officers . The incident sparked tensions in LA that eventually led to the 1992 LA Riots . When Pip is tackled later , the commentator states that he has not seen an Englishman take a blow like that since Hugh Grant . This references Grant 's arrest in June 1995 , when he was caught performing a lewd act in public with a Hollywood prostitute . Grant was fined $ 1 @,@ 180 , placed on probation for two years , and was ordered to complete an AIDS education program . The announcer makes an incomplete remark about a tackle , " I haven 't seen so many children molested since ... " . This was rumored to have been followed by a line , " since Michael Jackson came to town " , which was supposedly censored after the broadcast premiere , but there is no evidence of this .
Big Gay Al became one of the most popular and easily recognizable of the non @-@ regular South Park characters , and was featured in the 1999 film , South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut as the MC of a United Service Organizations show . Although not a major role , Big Gay Al performs a large musical number called " I 'm Super ( Thanks for Asking ) " , which was featured in the motion picture soundtrack . The episode also included the first appearance of Jesus and Pals , the Public @-@ access television talk show hosted by Jesus Christ . The show was mentioned in the episode " Weight Gain 4000 " , but actual footage from the show was not featured . Parker and Stone specifically sought to introduce Jesus and Pals , and the idea of Jesus as a South Park resident , as a reference to their original " The Spirit of Christmas " cartoon . Comedy Central censors were concerned about this portrayal of Jesus in South Park , but did not prevent Parker and Stone from following through with it .
= = Release and reception = =
" Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " first aired on Comedy Central in the United States on September 3 , 1997 . Comedy Central representatives told media outlets that the episode received overwhelmingly positive responses from viewers who identified themselves as gay . In 1998 , Jonathan Van Meter of The New York Times Magazine called the episode " one of their best shows " , and praised the episode for mixing a moral message with the jokes , as well as a sentimental relationship between Stan and Sparky . Van Meter wrote , " What often keeps the show from being offensive is this kind of sweetness – and that it 's funny " . The same year , The Advertiser , a North Yorkshire @-@ based publication , called the episode " one of the all @-@ time best " . Also in the same year , Rick Marin of Newsweek described the episode as " gleefully offensive and profoundly silly " , but praised it as " juxtaposing cute and crude , jaded and juvenile " .
In 2003 , Chicago Tribune writer Allan Johnson praised the tolerance toward homosexuality displayed in the episode , which he rated the tenth greatest episode in the series ' history . The same year , Chicago @-@ based RedEye ranked it the fifth greatest South Park episode . In 2007 , Lorne Chan of the San Antonio Express @-@ News declared it the second best sport @-@ themed South Park , behind " Up the Down Steroid " , praising its satire of gambling on elementary schools and sports events . Also in 2007 , Travis Fickett of IGN gave the episode an 8 @.@ 4 out of 10 rating and identified several " great moments " . In particular , he praised closeted @-@ homosexual Mr. Garrison 's claim that gay people are evil and have a " black vomitous fluid " running through their veins , and the moment when Jesus was about to explain his feelings regarding homosexuality only to be cut off by " Marty 's Movie Reviews " .
Colorado for Family Values , a Christian advocacy group with a history of lobbying against homosexuality , used " Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " in its materials when trying to mobilize Colorado to censor South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut in 1999 . The group circulated a " South Park Action Kit " , which included analyses of the South Park episode content , sample transcripts , reviews and tips on how to keep the movie from playing in local theaters . The kit also included a " Homosexual Issue Analysis " , which focused on " Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " and warned the episode taught children " tolerance and acceptance of homosexuality through the perverse idea that Stan 's dog , Sparky , is a homosexual dog " . According to Westword , a Denver @-@ based alternative weekly newspaper , this anti @-@ South Park effort by Colorado for Family Values was largerly ignored and decried by most Coloradans .
" Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " was the first episode of the series to be nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program . It was also nominated for the 1998 GLAAD Award for Outstanding TV – Individual Episode . Matt Stone and Trey Parker chose " Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " to represent South Park in their submission to the CableACE Awards in 1997 . The series won the CableACE Award for Animated Programming Special or Series as a result . It was the last year the CableACE Awards were given out before they were discontinued . Out magazine , one of the most widely circulated gay and lesbian publication in the United States , listed Big Gay Al among the most influential individuals in the gay and lesbian community in 1998 . Big Gay Al was the only fictional character listed in the " Entertainment " section of the magazine 's " Out 100 " list .
" Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " was released , alongside five other episodes , in a three @-@ VHS set on May 5 , 1998 , marking the first time South Park was made available on video . The episode was released on the " Volume II " video , along with " Weight Gain 4000 " ; other featured episodes included " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " , " Volcano " , " An Elephant Makes Love to a Pig " and " Death " . The episode , along with the other twelve from the first season , was also included in the DVD release " South Park : The Complete First Season " , which was released on November 12 , 2002 . Parker and Stone recorded commentary tracks for each episode , but they were not included with the DVDS due to " standards " issues with some of the statements ; Parker and Stone refused to allow the tracks to be edited and censored , so they were released in a CD completely separately from the DVDs .
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= Pong Tiku =
Pong Tiku ( also spelled Pontiku and Pongtiku ; 1846 – 10 July 1907 ) , known among his Buginese allies as Ne ' Baso , was a Torajan leader and guerrilla fighter who operated in southern Sulawesi , part of modern @-@ day Indonesia .
The son of the lord of Pangala ' , after Tiku captured the neighbouring kingdom Baruppu ' he became its leader , later ruling Pangala ' after his father 's death . By exploiting the coffee trade and allying with the lowlands Buginese , Tiku was able to obtain large amounts of wealth , land , and power . During the Coffee War ( 1889 – 1890 ) , his capital at Tondon was razed by another lord , but retaken the same day . When the Dutch colonials , based in Java , invaded Sulawesi in the early 1900s , Tiku and his soldiers utilised fortresses to withstand and launch attacks . Captured in October 1906 , in January 1907 he escaped and remained at large until June . He was executed several days later .
Tiku was the longest lasting resistance leader in Sulawesi , such that Governor @-@ General J. B. van Heutsz considered him damaging the stability of Dutch control over the region and dispatched the Governor of Sulawesi to oversee his capture . Since his death , Tiku has been used as a symbol of Torajan resistance . Long commemorated in Sulawesi , he was officially declared a National Hero of Indonesia in 2002 .
= = Early life and rise to power = =
Tiku was born near Rantepao in the highlands of Sulawesi ( now part of North Toraja Regency , South Sulawesi ) in 1846 . At the time , southern Sulawesi was home to a booming coffee trade and controlled by numerous warlords . Tiku was the last of six children born one of these warlords ; he was born to Siambo ' Karaeng , lord of Pangala ' , and his wife Leb 'ok . An athletic youth , Tiku was friendly with coffee traders who visited his village .
In 1880 , a war broke out between Pangala ' and Baruppu ' , a neighbouring state led by Pasusu . Tiku took an active role in a successful campaign against the neighbouring state , and when Pasusu was defeated Tiku took his place as ruler of Baruppu ' . The newly annexed kingdom was rich in rice fields and easily defensible , giving Tiku great power . Although the Torajans traditionally valued manpower and did not kill more people than necessary , Baruppu ' oral history describes Tiku as killing men , women , and children with abandon .
When , not long afterwards , Tiku 's father died , Tiku became leader of Pangala ' . As a leader , Tiku worked to strengthen the economy with an increase in the coffee trade and strategic alliances with predominantly Buginese lowlands groups . The economic success this brought led nearby rulers to respect and envy Tiku .
= = Coffee and civil wars = =
Fearing competition from the kingdoms of Luwu and Bone to the north and Sidareng and Sawitto to the south , Tiku worked on reinforcing his country 's defences . The kingdoms eventually reached several trade agreements . However , Buginese encroaches led to renewed tensions between the states , climaxing in the Coffee War ( Perang Kopi ) in 1889 . Tiku sided with the Buginese @-@ influenced southern kingdoms .
The Bone military leader Petta Panggawae and his Songko ' Borrong soldiers invaded Pangala ' and sided with Pong Maramba ' , a minor lord . Panggawae overtook Tiku 's capital at Tondon and razed the city , leading Tiku and the civilian population to abandon the area . Tiku , having sided with the Sidenreng leader Andi Guru , was able to retake the remains of the capital that night . The war ended in 1890 , after Dutch scouts – representing the colonial government on Java – reached Bone . However , the remaining states soon began another series of struggles over the arms and slave trade , where states would exchange weapons for slaves ; Tiku also participated in the trade .
Tiku eventually formed an alliance with nearby Buginese leaders , which reduced tensions and improved trade ; he also learned the group 's writing system and language , allowing him to easily correspond with Buginese leaders . By this time Tiku had captured numerous lands . To avoid a repetition of the raze of Tondon , Tiku began construction of seven fortresses in his lands , as well as several surveillance outposts and storeholds . The Torajan fortresses were designed to prevent entry to the valleys leading to population centres , and Tiku 's were divided between the eastern and western parts of his land . He instituted a tax system to fund these defensive measures : owners of rice fields were obligated to tax two thirds of their produce , while other farmers were taxed ten per cent .
= = Dutch advances = =
By 1905 the previously fragmented Buginese and Torajan lands had united into four major areas , one of which was under Tiku . In July of that year the king of Gowa , a nearby state , began collecting soldiers to fight off the invaders and prevent the remainder of the Torajan lands from conquest . Ma 'dika Bombing , a leader from a southern state , approached Tiku for his assistance . A month after the messengers had dispersed , the leaders gathered at Gowa to make a plan of action . The result was that the local lords were to stop warring amongst themselves and focus on the Dutch , who had superior strength ; these internal conflicts , however , did not completely abate . By the time the meeting adjourned , the Dutch had already begun making advances on Luwu . Tiku , tasked with diverting the Dutch from the indefensible town of Rantepo , began to build his army and work on his defences .
In January 1906 Tiku sent scouts to Sidareng and Sawitto , which the Dutch were invading , to observe their way of battle . When the scouts reported of the Dutch forces ' overwhelming strength and seemingly magical powers used against the Bugis soldiers , he ordered his fortresses to increase readiness and begin stocking up on rice ; that month , Luwu fell to Dutch forces , who then moved further inland . In February Tiku 's men , sent to reinforce the southern kingdoms , reported that there was no longer coherent leadership and that both kingdoms were losing against the Europeans . This convinced Tiku to train more troops and form a nine @-@ member military council , with himself as its leader .
By March 1906 the other kingdoms had all fallen , leaving Tiku as the last Torajan lord . The Dutch took Rantepao without a struggle , unaware that the city 's surrender had been arranged by Tiku . Through a letter , the Dutch commander Captain Kilian told Tiku to surrender , a demand Tiku was unwilling to entertain . Aware of Tiku 's gathered forces and numerous fortresses , Kilian did not attempt a direct attack . Instead , in April 1906 he sent an expeditionary party to Tondon . Although the party 's approach was not resisted , after nightfall Tiku 's troops attacked the Dutch camp in Tondon ; this forced the Dutch forces to retreat to Rantepao with Tiku 's men in pursuit , suffering numerous casualties along the way .
Tiku 's military actions were based on the experience he had gained fighting the other lords . The Dutch and their mixed native forces , on the other hand , underestimated Tiku 's forces and were unable to cope with the cold weather of the high altitudes .
= = Initial struggle = =
The failed expeditionary force led to open warfare between Tiku , who went into hiding in his fortress at Buntu Batu , and Dutch troops . Tiku kept spies on the Dutch forces at Rantepao . On 22 June they reported that the preceding night a Dutch battalion consisting of roughly 250 men and 500 porters had departed the village , headed south towards Tiku 's fortress at Lali ' Londong . Tiku ordered the road sabotaged , extending the travel time from one day to five . On the night of 26 June , Tiku 's forces attacked the Dutch forces outside of Lali ' Londong , an attack for which the Dutch were unprepared ; nobody was killed in the attack . The following morning , the Dutch began a siege on Lali ' Londong , using hand grenades and ladders . Unable to deal with the grenades , which the Dutch had not used on the other lords , that afternoon the fortress was captured .
This loss led Tiku to reinforce his men . The Torajan troops were armed with rifles , spears , boulders , swords , and chili pepper extract , sprayed into enemy eyes with a device called a tirik lada , or blowgun , to blind them . Tiku himself was armed with a Portuguese rifle , spear , and labo . He wore protective armour , a sepu ( crotch guard ) , and a songkok with protrusions in the shape of buffalo horns , and carried a decorated shield . With his soldiers , Tiku dug pits filled with bamboo stakes along Dutch supply routes ; those who wandered over the pits would fall in and be impaled . However , these were not enough to stop the advancing Dutch . On 17 October 1906 , two more fortresses , Bamba Puang and Kotu , fell , after several unsuccessful Dutch attacks since June . As the campaign against Tiku , which had already lasted longer than most other campaigns in the occupation , was thought to undermine Dutch authority in Sulawesi , Governor @-@ General J. B. van Heutsz dispatched Governor of Sulawesi Swart to personally lead the attack .
After a long siege , Andi Guru and Tiku 's former lieutenant Tandi Bunna ' – both by then working for the Dutch – approached Tiku on 26 October and offered a cease fire . Although initially unwilling , Tiku was reportedly convinced by civilians who reminded him that his mother – who had died in the siege – needed to be buried . After three days of peaceful intermingling , on the night of 30 October the Dutch forces took over the fortress , appropriated all weapons , and captured Tiku . He and his soldiers were forced to go to Tondon .
= = Second struggle and death = =
In Tondon Tiku began preparations for his mother 's funeral , preparations which , in Torajan culture , took several months . While taking care of the preparations , he had an advisor collect weapons secretly while another went to his fortresses in Alla ' and Ambeso . Tiku then made preparations to escape Dutch custody ; he also returned all property that he had taken as a lord , as he knew he would no longer use it . While in Tondon , Dutch forces may have harassed the Torajan leader . The night before his mother 's funeral , in January 1907 , Tiku and 300 of his followers escaped Tondon , heading south .
After he was told that the Dutch had followed him , Tiku ordered most of his followers to return to Tondon while he and a group of fifteen , including his two wives , continued south . They first arrived at Ambeso , but the fortress fell several days later , at which time they evacuated to Alla ' . This fortress fell at the end of March 1907 and Tiku began to work his way back to Tondon through the forest . He and the other leaders , Buginese and Torajan alike , were chased by Dutch troops . The other leaders capitulated to the Dutch and were sentenced to either three years in a prison in Makassar or exile to Buton . Tiku , meanwhile , stayed hidden in the forests .
On 30 June 1907 Tiku and two of his men were caught by the Dutch forces ; he was the last guerrilla leader to be caught . After several days in prison , on 10 July 1907 Tiku was shot and killed by the Dutch soldiers near the Sa 'dan River ; some reports have him bathing at the time . He was buried with the rest of his family in Tondol , while his cousin Tandibua ' became the native rule of Pangala ' , serving under the Dutch ;
= = Legacy = =
After Tiku 's death , the colonial powers hoped that he would be forgotten , a hope which was not realised ; Tandibua ' rebelled in 1917 , and other local rebellions arose in different areas of Sulawesi until the Dutch withdrawal following the Japanese occupation . During the occupation , the Japanese forces used Tiku as a symbol of Torajan struggle against colonial aggression , working to unite the people against Europeans . However , this was poorly received in conquered areas such as Baruppu ' and Sesean , where Tiku was remembered as a man who killed others to steal their wives .
The Tana Toraja Regency government declared Tiku a national hero in 1964 , and in 1970 a monument to him was built on the bank of the Sa 'dan . Tiku was declared a National Hero of Indonesia with Presidential Decree 073 / TK / 2002 on 6 November 2002 . On the anniversary of Tiku 's death , commemorative ceremonies are held in the provincial capital of Makassar . Aside from several streets , Pongtiku Airport in Tana Toraja is named after him .
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= Alien ( film ) =
Alien is a 1979 British @-@ American science @-@ fiction horror film directed by Ridley Scott , and starring Tom Skerritt , Sigourney Weaver , Veronica Cartwright , Harry Dean Stanton , John Hurt , Ian Holm and Yaphet Kotto . The film 's title refers to a highly aggressive extraterrestrial creature that stalks and kills the crew of a spaceship . Dan O 'Bannon wrote the screenplay from a story he wrote with Ronald Shusett , drawing influence from previous works of science fiction and horror . The film was produced by Gordon Carroll , David Giler and Walter Hill through their Brandywine Productions and distributed by 20th Century Fox . Giler and Hill made revisions and additions to the script . Shusett was executive producer . The eponymous Alien and its accompanying elements were designed by Swiss surrealist artist H. R. Giger , while concept artists Ron Cobb and Chris Foss designed the human aspects of the film . Alien launched the Alien franchise and is chronologically the first of the main series , with the prequel series set in an earlier timeframe .
Alien received both critical acclaim and box office success , receiving an Academy Award for Best Visual Effects , Saturn Awards for Best Science Fiction Film , Best Direction for Scott , and Best Supporting Actress for Cartwright , and a Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , along with numerous other award nominations . It has remained highly praised in subsequent decades , being considered one of the greatest films of all time . In 2002 the film was deemed " culturally , historically or aesthetically significant " by the Library of Congress and was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry . In 2008 , it was ranked as the seventh @-@ best film in the science fiction genre by the American Film Institute , and as the 33rd greatest film of all time by Empire magazine .
The success of Alien spawned a media franchise of novels , comic books , video games , and toys . It also launched Weaver 's acting career by providing her with her first lead role , and the story of her character Ripley 's encounters with the Alien creatures became the thematic thread that ran through the sequels Aliens ( 1986 ) , Alien 3 ( 1992 ) and Alien : Resurrection ( 1997 ) . A prequel series , which includes Prometheus ( 2012 ) and Alien : Covenant ( 2017 ) , continues in development .
= = Plot = =
The commercial spacecraft Nostromo is on a return trip to Earth with a seven @-@ member crew in stasis : Captain Dallas , Executive Officer Kane , Navigator Lambert , Science Officer Ash , Warrant Officer Ripley , and Engineers Parker and Brett . Detecting a mysterious transmission , possibly a distress signal , from a nearby planetoid , the ship 's computer , MOTHER , awakens the crew . Following standard company policy for such situations , the Nostromo lands on the planetoid and Dallas , Kane , and Lambert head out to investigate , damaging their ship upon landing in dust . They discover the signal is coming from a derelict alien spacecraft . Inside , they find the remains of a large alien creature whose ribcage appears to have exploded from the inside .
On the Nostromo , Ripley determines that the transmission is not a distress signal but a warning . In the alien ship , Kane discovers a chamber containing hundreds of eggs . As he inspects one , a creature springs out , spits acid through his space helmet and attaches itself to his face . Dallas and Lambert carry the unconscious Kane back to the Nostromo . As acting senior officer , Ripley refuses to let them aboard , citing quarantine regulations , but Ash violates protocol by overriding Ripley 's lock and letting them in . The crew are unable to remove the creature from Kane 's face , as its grip is strong and its blood is an extremely corrosive acid . It eventually lets go , crawls away , and dies .
The crew repair the ship and lift off . Kane awakens and seems healthy , but during the crew 's final meal before re @-@ entering stasis , he chokes and convulses in pain before a small alien creature bursts from his chest , killing him , and escapes into the depths of the ship . Since attacking the creature with conventional weapons could result in its corrosive blood breaching the ship 's hull , the crew attempts to locate and capture it with motion trackers , nets , electric prods , and flamethrowers .
Brett is sent to look for the crew 's cat , Jones , and the now fully grown alien attacks him and disappears with his body into the air shafts . After a heated discussion , the group devises a plan to jettison the creature out of the ship . Dallas enters the Nostromo 's labyrinthine ventilation shafts , intending to force the alien into an airlock , but it ambushes him . Lambert , realizing the alien is killing the crew one by one , implores the others to escape in the ship 's shuttle . Now in command , Ripley explains that the shuttle will not support four people , and recommends that they continue with Dallas ' plan of flushing the alien out .
Accessing MOTHER , Ripley discovers that Ash has secretly been ordered to return the alien to the crew 's employers , who consider the crew expendable . When Ripley confronts Ash , he tries to choke her to death . Parker intervenes and knocks off Ash 's head , revealing him to be an android . Parker reanimates Ash 's head , and Ripley interrogates him . They learn he was assigned to the Nostromo to convince the crew to capture the creature and return it for analysis , even at the expense of the human personnel . Ash taunts them about their chances of survival against the " perfect organism . " Parker turns a flamethrower on Ash .
Ripley , Lambert and Parker agree to set the Nostromo to self @-@ destruct and escape in the shuttle . However , Parker and Lambert are ambushed and killed by the alien while gathering life @-@ support supplies . Ripley initiates the self @-@ destruct sequence and heads for the shuttle with Jones , but the alien blocks her path . She retreats and unsuccessfully attempts to abort the self @-@ destruct sequence , then returns to retrieve Jones , finding the alien gone . She narrowly escapes in the shuttle as the Nostromo explodes .
As she prepares to enter stasis , Ripley discovers the Alien is aboard the shuttle . She dons a spacesuit and opens the shuttle 's airlock , causing explosive decompression which forces the Alien into the shuttle 's open doorway . She propels it into space by shooting it with a grappling hook , but the gun catches in the closing door , tethering the alien to the shuttle . Ripley activates the engines , blasting the alien into space . After recording the ship 's final log entry , she places herself and Jones into stasis for the voyage home .
= = Cast = =
Tom Skerritt as Dallas , the captain of the Nostromo
Skerritt had been approached early in the film 's development but declined as it did not yet have a director and had a very low budget . Later , when Scott was attached as director and the budget had been doubled , Skerritt accepted the role of Dallas .
Sigourney Weaver as Ripley , the warrant officer aboard the Nostromo
Weaver , who had Broadway experience but was relatively unknown in film , impressed Scott , Giler , and Hill with her audition . She was the last actor to be cast for the film , and performed most of her screen tests in @-@ studio as the sets were being built . The role of Ripley was Weaver 's first leading role in a motion picture , and earned her nominations for a Saturn Award for Best Actress and a BAFTA award for Most Promising Newcomer to Leading Film Role .
Veronica Cartwright as Lambert , the Nostromo 's navigator
Cartwright had previous experience in horror and science fiction films , having acted as a child in The Birds ( 1963 ) and Invasion of the Body Snatchers ( 1978 ) . She originally read for the role of Ripley , and was not informed that she had instead been cast as Lambert until she arrived in London for wardrobe . She disliked the character 's emotional weakness , but nevertheless accepted the role : " They convinced me that I was the audience 's fears ; I was a reflection of what the audience is feeling . " Cartwright won a Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance .
Harry Dean Stanton as Brett , the engineering technician
Stanton 's first words to Scott during his audition were " I don 't like sci fi or monster movies . " Scott was amused and convinced Stanton to take the role after reassuring him that Alien would actually be a thriller more akin to Ten Little Indians .
John Hurt as Kane , the executive officer who becomes the host for the Alien
Hurt was Scott 's first choice for the role but was contracted on a film in South Africa during Alien 's filming dates , so Jon Finch was cast as Kane instead . However , Finch became ill during the first day of shooting and was diagnosed with severe diabetes , which had also exacerbated a case of bronchitis . Hurt was in London by this time , his South African project having fallen through , and he quickly replaced Finch . His performance earned him a nomination for a BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role . He was the only actor aware of the extremely bloody scene of Alien 's " birth " in advance .
Ian Holm as Ash , the ship 's science officer who is revealed to be an android
Holm , a character actor who by 1979 had already been in twenty films , was the most experienced actor cast for Alien ( he was 46 at the time of filming ) .
Yaphet Kotto as Parker , the chief engineer
Kotto , an African American , was chosen partly to add diversity to the cast and give the Nostromo crew an international flavor . Kotto was sent a script off the back of his recent success with Live and Let Die , although it took some time and deliberation between Kotto and his agent before he was offered the part .
Bolaji Badejo as The Alien
Nigerian Badejo , while a 26 @-@ year @-@ old design student , was discovered in a bar by a member of the casting team , who put him in touch with Ridley Scott . Scott believed that Badejo , at 6 feet 10 inches ( 208 cm ) ( 7ft. inside the costume ) and with a slender frame , could portray the Alien and look as if his arms and legs were too long to be real , creating the illusion that there could not possibly be a human being inside the costume . Stuntmen Eddie Powell and Roy Scammell also portrayed the Alien in some scenes .
Helen Horton as the voice of Mother , the Nostromo 's computer . Mother gives the countdown to the destruction of the ship .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
While studying cinema at the University of Southern California , Dan O 'Bannon had made a science fiction comedy film with director John Carpenter and concept artist Ron Cobb entitled Dark Star . The film included an alien which had been created using a spray @-@ painted beach ball , and the experience left O 'Bannon " really wanting to do an alien that looked real . " A " couple of years " later he began working on a similar story that would focus more on horror : " I knew I wanted to do a scary movie on a spaceship with a small number of astronauts " , he later recalled , " Dark Star as a horror movie instead of a comedy . " Ronald Shusett , meanwhile , was working on an early version of what would eventually become Total Recall . Impressed by Dark Star , he contacted O 'Bannon and the two agreed to collaborate on their projects , choosing to work on O 'Bannon 's film first as they believed it would be less costly to produce . O 'Bannon had written twenty @-@ nine pages of a script titled Memory comprising what would become the film 's opening scenes : a crew of astronauts awaken to find that their voyage has been interrupted because they are receiving a signal from a mysterious planetoid . They investigate and their ship breaks down on the surface . He did not yet , however , have a clear idea as to what the alien antagonist of the story would be .
O 'Bannon soon accepted an offer to work on Alejandro Jodorowsky 's film adaptation of Dune , a project which took him to Paris for six months . Though the project ultimately fell through , it introduced him to several artists whose works gave him ideas for his science @-@ fiction story including Chris Foss , H. R. Giger , and Jean " Moebius " Giraud . O 'Bannon was impressed by Foss 's covers for science fiction books , while he found Giger 's work " disturbing " : " His paintings had a profound effect on me . I had never seen anything that was quite as horrible and at the same time as beautiful as his work . And so I ended up writing a script about a Giger monster . " After the Dune project collapsed O 'Bannon returned to Los Angeles to live with Shusett and the two revived his Memory script . Shusett suggested that O 'Bannon use one of his other film ideas , about gremlins infiltrating a B @-@ 17 bomber during World War II , and set it on the spaceship as the second half of the story . The working title of the project was now Star Beast , but O 'Bannon disliked this and changed it to Alien after noting the number of times that the word appeared in the script . He and Shusett liked the new title 's simplicity and its double meaning as both a noun and adjective . Shusett came up with the idea that one of the crew members could be implanted with an alien embryo that would later burst out of him , feeling that this was an interesting plot device by which the alien creature could get aboard the ship .
In writing the script , O 'Bannon drew inspiration from many previous works of science fiction and horror . He later stated that " I didn 't steal Alien from anybody . I stole it from everybody ! " The Thing from Another World ( 1951 ) inspired the idea of professional men being pursued by a deadly alien creature through a claustrophobic environment . Forbidden Planet ( 1956 ) gave O 'Bannon the idea of a ship being warned not to land , and then the crew being killed one by one by a mysterious creature when they defy the warning . Planet of the Vampires ( 1965 ) contains a scene in which the heroes discover a giant alien skeleton ; this influenced the Nostromo crew 's discovery of the alien creature in the derelict spacecraft . O 'Bannon has also noted the influence of " Junkyard " ( 1953 ) , a short story by Clifford D. Simak in which a crew lands on an asteroid and discovers a chamber full of eggs . He has also cited as influences Strange Relations by Philip José Farmer ( 1960 ) , which covers alien reproduction , and various EC Comics horror titles carrying stories in which monsters eat their way out of people .
With roughly eighty @-@ five percent of the plot completed , Shusett and O 'Bannon presented their initial script to several studios , pitching it as " Jaws in space . " They were on the verge of signing a deal with Roger Corman 's studio when a friend offered to find them a better deal and passed the script on to Gordon Carroll , David Giler , and Walter Hill , who had formed a production company called Brandywine with ties to 20th Century Fox . O 'Bannon and Shusett signed a deal with Brandywine , but Hill and Giler were not satisfied with the script and made numerous rewrites and revisions to it . This caused tension with O 'Bannon and Shusett , since Hill and Giler had very little experience with science fiction and according to Shusett : " They weren 't good at making it better , or in fact at not making it even worse . " O 'Bannon believed that they were attempting to justify taking his name off of the script and claiming it as their own . Hill and Giler did add some substantial elements to the story , however , including the android character Ash which O 'Bannon felt was an unnecessary subplot , but which Shusett later described as " one of the best things in the movie ... That whole idea and scenario was theirs . " In total Hill and Giler went through eight different drafts of the script , mostly concentrating on the Ash subplot but also making the dialogue more natural and trimming some sequences set on the alien planetoid .
Despite the multiple rewrites , 20th Century Fox did not express confidence in financing a science @-@ fiction film . However , after the success of Star Wars in 1977 the studio 's interest in the genre rose substantially . According to Carroll : " When Star Wars came out and was the extraordinary hit that it was , suddenly science fiction became the hot genre . " O 'Bannon recalled that " They wanted to follow through on Star Wars , and they wanted to follow through fast , and the only spaceship script they had sitting on their desk was Alien " . Alien was greenlit by 20th Century Fox at an initial budget of $ 4 @.@ 2 million . Alien was funded by American dollars , but made by Twentieth Century @-@ Fox 's British production subsidiary .
= = = Direction = = =
O 'Bannon had originally assumed that he would direct Alien , but 20th Century Fox instead asked Hill to direct . Hill declined due to other film commitments as well as not being comfortable with the level of visual effects that would be required . Peter Yates , Jack Clayton , and Robert Aldrich were considered for the task , but O 'Bannon , Shusett , and the Brandywine team felt that these directors would not take the film seriously and would instead treat it as a B monster movie . Giler , Hill , and Carroll had been impressed by Ridley Scott 's debut feature film The Duellists ( 1977 ) and made an offer to him to direct Alien , which Scott quickly accepted . Scott created detailed storyboards for the film in London , which impressed 20th Century Fox enough to double the film 's budget from $ 4 @.@ 2 million to $ 8 @.@ 4 million . His storyboards included designs for the spaceship and space suits , drawing influences from films such as 2001 : A Space Odyssey and Star Wars . However , he was keen on emphasizing horror in Alien rather than fantasy , describing the film as " The Texas Chain Saw Massacre of science fiction " .
O 'Bannon introduced Scott to the artwork of H. R. Giger ; both of them felt that his painting Necronom IV was the type of representation they wanted for the film 's antagonist and began asking the studio to hire him as a designer . 20th Century Fox initially believed Giger 's work was too ghastly for audiences , but the Brandywine team were persistent and eventually won out . According to Gordon Carroll : " The first second that Ridley saw Giger 's work , he knew that the biggest single design problem , maybe the biggest problem in the film , had been solved . " Scott flew to Zürich to meet Giger and recruited him to work on all aspects of the Alien and its environment including the surface of the planetoid , the derelict spacecraft , and all four forms of the Alien from the egg to the adult .
= = = Casting = = =
Casting calls and auditions for Alien were held in both New York and London . With only seven human characters in the story , Scott sought to hire strong actors so he could focus most of his energy on the film 's visual style . He employed casting director Mary Selway , who had worked with him on The Duellists , to head the casting in the United Kingdom , while Mary Goldberg handled casting in the United States . In developing the story O 'Bannon had focused on writing the Alien first , putting off developing the characters for a later draft . He and Shusett had therefore written all of the roles as generic male ones with a note in the script explicitly stating " The crew is unisex and all parts are interchangeable for men or women . " This left Scott , Selway , and Goldberg free to interpret the characters as they liked and to cast accordingly . They wanted the Nostromo 's crew to resemble working astronauts in a realistic environment , a concept summed up as " truckers in space " . According to Scott , this concept was inspired partly by Star Wars , which deviated from the pristine future often depicted in science fiction films of the time .
To assist the actors in preparing for their roles , Ridley Scott wrote several pages of backstory for each character explaining their histories . He filmed many of their rehearsals in order to capture spontaneity and improvisation , and tensions between some of the cast members , particularly towards the less @-@ experienced Weaver , translated convincingly on film as tension between their respective characters .
Film critic Roger Ebert notes that the actors in Alien were older than was typical in thriller films at the time , which helped make the characters more convincing :
None of them were particularly young . Tom Skerritt , the captain , was 46 , Hurt was 39 but looked older , Holm was 48 , Harry Dean Stanton was 53 , Yaphet Kotto was 42 , and only Veronica Cartwright at 30 and Weaver at 29 were in the age range of the usual thriller cast . Many recent action pictures have improbably young actors cast as key roles or sidekicks , but by skewing older , Alien achieves a certain texture without even making a point of it : These are not adventurers but workers , hired by a company to return 20 million tons of ore to Earth .
David McIntee , author of Beautiful Monsters : The Unofficial and Unauthorised Guide to the Alien and Predator Films , asserts that part of the film 's effectiveness in frightening viewers " comes from the fact that the audience can all identify with the characters ... Everyone aboard the Nostromo is a normal , everyday , working Joe just like the rest of us . They just happen to live and work in the future . "
= = = Filming = = =
Alien was filmed over fourteen weeks from July 5 to October 21 , 1978 . Principal photography took place at Shepperton Studios near London , while model and miniature filming was done at Bray Studios in Water Oakley , Berkshire . Production time was short due to the film 's low budget and pressure from 20th Century Fox to finish on schedule . A crew of over 200 workmen and technicians constructed the three principal sets : The surface of the alien planetoid and the interiors of the Nostromo and derelict spacecraft . Art Director Les Dilley created 1 / 24th scale miniatures of the planetoid 's surface and derelict spacecraft based on Giger 's designs , then made moulds and casts and scaled them up as diagrams for the wood and fiberglass forms of the sets . Tons of sand , plaster , fiberglass , rock , and gravel were shipped into the studio to sculpt a desert landscape for the planetoid 's surface , which the actors would walk across wearing space suit costumes . The suits themselves were thick , bulky , and lined with nylon , had no cooling systems and , initially , no venting for their exhaled carbon dioxide to escape . Combined with a heat wave , these conditions nearly caused the actors to pass out and nurses had to be kept on @-@ hand with oxygen tanks . For scenes showing the exterior of the Nostromo , a 58 @-@ foot ( 18 m ) landing leg was constructed to give a sense of the ship 's size . Ridley Scott still did not think that it looked large enough , so he had his two sons and the son of one of the cameramen stand in for the regular actors , wearing smaller space suits to make the set pieces seem larger . The same technique was used for the scene in which the crew members encounter the dead alien creature in the derelict spacecraft . The children nearly collapsed due to the heat of the suits , and eventually oxygen systems were added to assist the actors in breathing . Four identical cats were used to portray Jones , the Nostromo crew 's pet . During filming Sigourney Weaver discovered that she was allergic to the combination of cat hair and the glycerin placed on the actors ' skin to make them appear sweaty . By removing the glycerin she was able to continue working with the cats .
Alien originally was to conclude with the destruction of the Nostromo while Ripley escapes in the shuttle Narcissus . However , Ridley Scott conceived of a " fourth act " to the film in which the Alien appears on the shuttle and Ripley is forced to confront it . He pitched the idea to 20th Century Fox and negotiated an increase in the budget to film the scene over several extra days . Scott had wanted the Alien to bite off Ripley 's head and then make the final log entry in her voice , but the producers vetoed this idea as they believed that the Alien had to die at the end of the film .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Editing and post @-@ production work on Alien took roughly twenty weeks to complete . Terry Rawlings served as Editor , having previously worked with Scott on editing sound for The Duellists . Scott and Rawlings edited much of the film to have a slow pace to build suspense for the more tense and frightening moments . According to Rawlings : " I think the way we did get it right was by keeping it slow , funny enough , which is completely different from what they do today . And I think the slowness of it made the moments that you wanted people to be sort of scared ... then we could go as fast as we liked because you 've sucked people into a corner and then attacked them , so to speak . And I think that 's how it worked . " The first cut of the film was over three hours long ; further editing trimmed the final version to just under two hours .
One scene that was cut from the film occurred during Ripley 's final escape from the Nostromo : she encounters Dallas and Brett who have been partially cocooned by the Alien . O 'Bannon had intended the scene to indicate that Brett was becoming an Alien egg while Dallas was held nearby to be implanted by the resulting facehugger . Production Designer Michael Seymour later suggested that Dallas had " become sort of food for the alien creature " , while Ivor Powell suggested that " Dallas is found in the ship as an egg , still alive . " Scott remarked that " they 're morphing , metamorphosing , they are changing into ... being consumed , I guess , by whatever the Alien 's organism is ... into an egg . " The scene was cut partly because it did not look realistic enough and partly because it slowed the pace of the escape sequence . Tom Skerritt remarked that " The picture had to have that pace . Her trying to get the hell out of there , we 're all rooting for her to get out of there , and for her to slow up and have a conversation with Dallas was not appropriate . " The footage was included amongst other deleted scenes as a special feature on the Laserdisc release of Alien , and a shortened version of it was re @-@ inserted into the 2003 " Director 's Cut " which was re @-@ released in theaters and on DVD .
= = = Music = = =
The musical score for Alien was composed by Jerry Goldsmith , conducted by Lionel Newman , and performed by the National Philharmonic Orchestra . Ridley Scott had originally wanted the film to be scored by Isao Tomita , but 20th Century Fox wanted a more familiar composer and Goldsmith was recommended by then @-@ President of Fox Alan Ladd , Jr . Goldsmith wanted to create a sense of romanticism and lyrical mystery in the film 's opening scenes , which would build throughout the film to suspense and fear . Scott did not like Goldsmith 's original main title piece , however , so Goldsmith rewrote it as " the obvious thing : weird and strange , and which everybody loved . " Another source of tension was editor Terry Rawlings ' choice to use pieces of Goldsmith 's music from previous films , including a piece from Freud : The Secret Passion , and to use an excerpt from Howard Hanson 's Symphony No. 2 ( " Romantic " ) for the end credits .
Scott and Rawlings had also become attached to several of the musical cues they had used for the temporary score while editing the film , and re @-@ edited some of Goldsmith 's cues and re @-@ scored several sequences to match these cues and even left the temporary score in place in some parts of the finished film . Goldsmith later remarked that " you can see that I was sort of like going at opposite ends of the pole with the filmmakers of the picture . " Nevertheless , Scott praised Goldsmith 's score as " full of dark beauty " and " seriously threatening , but beautiful . " It was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score , a Grammy Award for Best Soundtrack Album , and a BAFTA Award for Best Film Music . The score has been released as a soundtrack album in several versions with different tracks and sequences .
= = Design = =
O 'Bannon brought in artists Ron Cobb and Chris Foss ( with whom he had worked on Dark Star and Dune , respectively ) to work on designs for the human aspects of the film such as the spaceship and space suits . Cobb created hundreds of preliminary sketches of the interiors and exteriors of the ship , which went through many design concepts and possible names such as Leviathan and Snark as the script continued to develop . The final name of the ship was derived from the title of Joseph Conrad 's 1904 novel Nostromo , while the escape shuttle , called Narcissus in the script , was named after Conrad 's 1897 novella The Nigger of the ' Narcissus ' . The production team particularly praised Cobb 's ability to depict the interior settings of the ship in a realistic and believable manner . Under Ridley Scott 's direction the design of the Nostromo shifted towards an 800 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 240 m ) tug towing a refining platform 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) long and 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) wide . Cobb also created some conceptual drawings of the Alien , but these were not used . Moebius was attached to the project for a few days as well , and his costume renderings served as the basis for the final space suits created by costume designer John Mollo .
= = = Sets = = =
The sets of the Nostromo 's three decks were each created almost entirely in one piece , with each deck occupying a separate stage and the various rooms connected via corridors . To move around the sets the actors had to navigate through the hallways of the ship , adding to the film 's sense of claustrophobia and realism . The sets used large transistors and low @-@ resolution computer screens to give the ship a " used " , industrial look and make it appear as though it was constructed of " retrofitted old technology " . Ron Cobb created industrial @-@ style symbols and color @-@ coded signs for various areas and aspects of the ship . The company that owns the Nostromo is not named in the film , and is referred to by the characters as " the company " . However , the name and logo of " Weylan @-@ Yutani " appears on several set pieces and props such as computer monitors and beer cans . Cobb created the name to imply a business alliance between Britain and Japan , deriving " Weylan " from the British Leyland Motor Corporation and " Yutani " from the name of his Japanese neighbor . The 1986 sequel Aliens named the company as " Weyland @-@ Yutani " , and it has remained a central aspect of the film franchise .
Art Director Roger Christian used scrap metal and parts to create set pieces and props to save money , a technique he employed while working on Star Wars . Some of the Nostromo 's corridors were created from portions of scrapped bomber aircraft , and a mirror was used to create the illusion of longer corridors in the below @-@ deck area . Special effects supervisors Brian Johnson and Nick Allder made many of the set pieces and props function , including moving chairs , computer monitors , motion trackers , and flamethrowers .
H. R. Giger designed and worked on all of the alien aspects of the film , which he designed to appear organic and biomechanical in contrast to the industrial look of the Nostromo and its human elements . For the interior of the derelict spacecraft and egg chamber he used dried bones together with plaster to sculpt much of the scenery and elements . Veronica Cartwright described Giger 's sets as " so erotic ... it 's big vaginas and penises ... the whole thing is like you 're going inside of some sort of womb or whatever ... it 's sort of visceral " . The set with the deceased alien creature , which the production team nicknamed the " space jockey " , proved problematic as 20th Century Fox did not want to spend the money for such an expensive set that would only be used for one scene . Ridley Scott described the set as the cockpit or driving deck of the mysterious ship , and the production team was able to convince the studio that the scene was important to impress the audience and make them aware that this was not a B movie . To save money only one wall of the set was created , and the " space jockey " sat atop a disc that could be rotated to facilitate shots from different angles in relation to the actors . Giger airbrushed the entire set and the " space jockey " by hand .
The origin of the jockey creature was not explored in the film , but Scott later theorized that it might have been the ship 's pilot , and that the ship might have been a weapons carrier capable of dropping Alien eggs onto a planet so that the Aliens could use the local lifeforms as hosts . In early versions of the script the eggs were to be located in a separate pyramid structure which would be found later by the Nostromo crew and would contain statues and hieroglyphs depicting the Alien reproductive cycle , offering a contrast of the human , Alien , and space jockey cultures . Cobb , Foss , and Giger each created concept artwork for these sequences , but they were eventually discarded due to budgetary concerns and the need to trim the length of the film . Instead the egg chamber was set inside the derelict ship and was filmed on the same set as the space jockey scene ; the entire disc piece supporting the jockey and its chair were removed and the set was redressed to create the egg chamber . Light effects in the egg chamber were created by lasers borrowed from English rock band The Who . The band was testing the lasers for use in their stage show in the sound stage next door .
= = = Spaceships and planets = = =
The spaceships and planets for the film were shot using models and miniatures . These included models of the Nostromo , its attached mineral refinery , the escape shuttle Narcissus , the alien planetoid , and the exterior and interior of the derelict spacecraft . Visual Effects Supervisor Brian Johnson , supervising modelmaker Martin Bower , and their team worked at Bray Studios , roughly 25 miles ( 40 km ) from Shepperton Studios where principal filming was taking place . The designs of the Nostromo and its attachments were based on combinations of Ridley Scott 's storyboards and Ron Cobb 's conceptual drawings . The basic outlines of the models were made of wood and plastic , and most of the fine details were added from model kits of warships , tanks , and World War II bombers . Three models of the Nostromo were made : a 12 @-@ inch ( 30 cm ) version for medium and long shots , a 4 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) version for rear shots , and a 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) , 7 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 6 @.@ 4 t ) rig for the undocking and planetoid surface sequences . Scott insisted on numerous changes to the models even as filming was taking place , leading to conflicts with the modeling and filming teams . The Nostromo was originally yellow , and the team filmed shots of the models for six weeks before Johnson left to work on The Empire Strikes Back . Scott then ordered it changed to gray , and the team had to begin shooting again from scratch . He ordered more and more pieces added to the model until the final large version with the refinery required a metal framework so that it could be lifted by a forklift . He also used a hammer and chisel on sections of the refinery , knocking off many of its spires which Bower had spent weeks creating . Scott also had disagreements with miniature effects cinematographer Dennis Ayling over how to light the models .
A separate model , approximately 40 feet ( 12 m ) long , was created for the Nostromo 's underside from which the Narcissus would detach and from which Kane 's body would be launched during the funeral scene . Bower carved Kane 's burial shroud out of wood and it was launched through the hatch using a small catapult and filmed at high speed , then slowed down in editing . Only one shot was filmed using blue screen compositing : that of the shuttle racing past the Nostromo . The other shots were simply filmed against black backdrops , with stars added via double exposure . Though motion control photography technology was available at the time , the film 's budget would not allow for it . The team therefore used a camera with wide @-@ angle lenses mounted on a drive mechanism to make slow passes over and around the models filming at 2 ½ frames per second , giving them the appearance of motion . Scott added smoke and wind effects to enhance the illusion . For the scene in which the Nostromo detaches from the refinery , a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) docking arm was created using pieces from model railway kits . The Nostromo was pushed away from the refinery by the forklift , which was covered in black velvet , causing the arm to extend out from the refinery . This created the illusion that the arm was pushing the ship forward . Shots from outside the ship in which the characters are seen through windows moving around inside were filmed using larger models which contained projection screens showing pre @-@ recorded footage .
A separate model was created for the exterior of the derelict alien spacecraft . Matte paintings were used to fill in areas of the ship 's interior as well as exterior shots of the planetoid 's surface . The surface as seen from space during the landing sequence was created by painting a globe white , then mixing chemicals and dyes onto transparencies and projecting them onto it . The planetoid was not named in the film , but some drafts of the script gave it the name Acheron after the river which in Greek mythology is described as the " stream of woe " , a branch of the river Styx , and which forms the border of Hell in Dante 's Inferno . The 1986 sequel Aliens named the planetoid as " LV @-@ 426 " , and both names have been used for it in subsequent expanded universe media such as comic books and video games .
= = = Creature effects = = =
The scene of Kane inspecting the egg was shot during post @-@ production . A fiberglass egg was used so that actor John Hurt could shine his light on it and see movement inside , which was provided by Ridley Scott fluttering his hands inside the egg while wearing rubber gloves . The top of the egg opened via hydraulics , and the innards were made of a cow 's stomach and tripe . Initial test shots of the eggs were filmed using hen 's eggs , and this footage was used in early teaser trailers . For this reason a hen 's egg was used as the primary image for the film 's advertising poster , and became a lasting image for the series as a whole rather than the Alien egg that actually appears in the film .
The " facehugger " and its proboscis , which was made of a sheep 's intestine , were shot out of the egg using high @-@ pressure air hoses . The shot was acted out and filmed in reverse , then reversed and slowed down in editing to prolong the effect and show more detail . The facehugger itself was the first creature that Giger designed for the film , going through several versions in different sizes before deciding on a small creature with humanlike fingers and a long tail . Dan O 'Bannon drew his own version based on Giger 's design , with help from Ron Cobb , which became the final version . Cobb came up with the idea that the creature could have a powerful acid for blood , a characteristic that would carry over to the adult Alien and would make it impossible for the crew to kill it by conventional means such as guns or explosives , since the acid would burn through the ship 's hull . For the scene in which the dead facehugger is examined , Scott used pieces of fish and shellfish to create its viscera .
The design of the " chestburster " was inspired by Francis Bacon 's 1944 painting Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion . Giger 's original design resembled a plucked chicken , which was redesigned and refined into the final version seen onscreen . Screenwriter Dan O 'Bannon credits his experiences with Crohn 's disease for inspiring the chest @-@ busting scene .
For the filming of the chestburster scene the cast members knew that the creature would be bursting out of Hurt , and had seen the chestburster puppet , but they had not been told that fake blood would also be bursting out in every direction from high @-@ pressure pumps and squibs . The scene was shot in one take using an artificial torso filled with blood and viscera , with Hurt 's head and arms coming up from underneath the table . The chestburster was shoved up through the torso by a puppeteer who held it on a stick . When the creature burst through the chest a stream of blood shot directly at Veronica Cartwright , shocking her enough that she fell over and went into hysterics . According to Tom Skerritt : " What you saw on camera was the real response . She had no idea what the hell happened . All of a sudden this thing just came up . " The creature then runs off @-@ camera , an effect accomplished by cutting a slit in the table for the puppeteer 's stick to go through and passing an air hose through the puppet 's tail to make it whip about .
The real @-@ life surprise of the actors gave the scene an intense sense of realism and made it one of the film 's most memorable moments . During preview screenings the crew noticed that some viewers would move towards the back of the theater so as not to be too close to the screen during the sequence . In subsequent years the chestburster scene has often been voted as one of the most memorable moments in film . In 2007 , the British film magazine Empire named it as the greatest 18 @-@ rated moment in film as part of its " 18th birthday " issue , ranking it above the decapitation scene in The Omen ( 1976 ) and the transformation sequence in An American Werewolf in London ( 1981 ) .
For the scene in which Ash is revealed to be an android and has his head knocked off , a puppet was created of the character 's torso and upper body which was operated from underneath by a small puppeteer . During a preview screening of the film this scene caused an usher to faint . In the following scene Ash 's head is placed on a table and re @-@ activated ; for portions of this scene an animatronic head was made using a face cast of actor Ian Holm . However , the latex of the head shrank while curing and the result was not entirely convincing . For the bulk of the scene Holm knelt under the table with his head coming up through a hole and milk , caviar , pasta , fiber optics , and glass marbles were used to show the android 's inner workings and fluids .
= = = The Alien = = =
Giger made several conceptual paintings of the adult Alien before crafting the final version . He sculpted the creature 's body using plasticine , incorporating pieces such as vertebrae from snakes and cooling tubes from a Rolls @-@ Royce . The creature 's head was manufactured separately by Carlo Rambaldi , who had worked on the aliens in Close Encounters of the Third Kind . Rambaldi followed Giger 's designs closely , making some modifications in order to incorporate the moving parts which would animate the jaw and inner mouth . A system of hinges and cables was used to operate the creature 's rigid tongue , which protruded from the main mouth and had a second mouth at the tip of it with its own set of movable teeth . The final head had about nine hundred moving parts and points of articulation . Part of a human skull was used as the " face " , and was hidden under the smooth , translucent cover of the head . Rambaldi 's original Alien jaw is now on display in the Smithsonian Institution , while in April 2007 the original Alien suit was sold at auction . Copious amounts of K @-@ Y Jelly were used to simulate saliva and to give the Alien an overall slimy appearance . The creature 's vocalizations were provided by Percy Edwards , a voice artist famous for providing bird sounds for British television throughout the 1960s and 1970s as well as the whale sounds for Orca : Killer Whale ( 1977 ) .
For most of the film 's scenes the Alien was portrayed by Bolaji Badejo . A latex costume was specifically made to fit Badejo 's 6 @-@ foot @-@ 10 @-@ inch ( 208 cm ) slender frame , made by taking a full @-@ body plaster cast of him . Scott later commented that " It 's a man in a suit , but then it would be , wouldn 't it ? It takes on elements of the host – in this case , a man . " Badejo attended t 'ai chi and mime classes in order to create convincing movements for the Alien . For some scenes , such as when the Alien lowers itself from the ceiling to kill Brett , the creature was portrayed by stuntmen Eddie Powell and Roy Scammell ; in that scene a costumed Powell was suspended on wires and then lowered in an unfurling motion .
Scott chose not to show the Alien in full through most of the film , showing only pieces of it while keeping most of its body in shadow in order to heighten the sense of terror and suspense . The audience could thus project their own fears into imagining what the rest of the creature might look like : " Every movement is going to be very slow , very graceful , and the Alien will alter shape so you never really know exactly what he looks like . " The Alien has been referred to as " one of the most iconic movie monsters in film history " in the decades since the film 's release , being noted for its biomechanical appearance and sexual overtones . Roger Ebert has remarked that " Alien uses a tricky device to keep the alien fresh throughout the movie : It evolves the nature and appearance of the creature , so we never know quite what it looks like or what it can do ... The first time we get a good look at the alien , as it bursts from the chest of poor Kane ( John Hurt ) . It is unmistakably phallic in shape , and the critic Tim Dirks mentions its ' open , dripping vaginal mouth . ' "
= = Marketing = =
Around and shortly after Alien 's release in theaters , a number of merchandise items and media were released and sold to coincide with the film . These included a novelization by Alan Dean Foster , in both adult and " junior " versions , which was adapted from the film 's shooting script . Heavy Metal magazine published a comic strip adaptation of the film entitled Alien : The Illustrated Story , as well as a 1980 Alien calendar . Two behind @-@ the @-@ scenes books were released in 1979 to accompany the film : The Book of Alien contained many production photographs and details on the making of the film , while Giger 's Alien contained much of H. R. Giger 's concept artwork for the movie . A soundtrack album was released as an LP featuring selections of Goldsmith 's score , and a single of the main theme was released in 1980 . A twelve @-@ inch tall model kit of the Alien was released by the Model Products Corporation in the United States and by Airfix in the United Kingdom . Kenner also produced a larger @-@ scale Alien action figure , as well as a board game in which players raced to be first to reach the shuttle pod while Aliens roamed the Nostromo 's corridors and air shafts . Official Halloween costumes of the Alien were released for October 1979 . Several computer games based on the film were released , but not until several years after its theatrical run .
= = Release = =
An initial screening of Alien for 20th Century Fox representatives in St. Louis suffered from poor sound in the theater . A subsequent screening in a newer theater in Dallas went significantly better , eliciting genuine fright from the audience . Two theatrical trailers were shown to the public . The first consisted of rapidly changing still images set to some of Jerry Goldsmith 's electronic music from Logan 's Run . The second used test footage of a hen 's egg set to part of Goldsmith 's Alien score . The film was previewed in various American cities in the spring of 1979 and was promoted by the tagline " In space no one can hear you scream . "
Alien was rated " R " in the United States , " X " in the United Kingdom , and " M " in Australia . In the UK , the British Board of Film Classification almost passed the film as an " AA " ( for ages 14 and over ) , although there were concerns over the prevalent sexual imagery . 20th Century Fox eventually relented in pushing for an AA certificate after deciding that an X rating would be a better choice commercially for selling a horror film .
Alien opened in American theaters on May 25 , 1979 . The film had no formal premiere , yet moviegoers lined up for blocks to see it at Grauman 's Egyptian Theatre in Hollywood where a number of models , sets , and props were displayed outside to promote it during its first run . Religious zealots set fire to the model of the space jockey , believing it to be the work of the devil . In the United Kingdom , Alien premiered at a gala performance at the Edinburgh Film Festival on September 1 , 1979 , before starting an exclusive run at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on September 6 , 1979 , but it did not open widely in Britain until January 13 , 1980 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critical reaction to the film was initially mixed . Some critics who were not usually favorable towards science fiction , such as Barry Norman of the BBC 's Film series , were positive about the film 's merits . Others , however , were not : Reviews by Variety , Sight and Sound , Vincent Canby and Leonard Maltin were mixed or negative . ( Maltin , however , reassessed the film upon the release of the Director 's Cut and gave Alien a positive review . ) A review by Time Out said the film was an " empty bag of tricks whose production values and expensive trickery cannot disguise imaginative poverty " . In a 1980 episode of Sneak Previews discussing science fiction films of the 1950s and 1970s , critics Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert were critical of Alien . Ebert called it " basically just an intergalactic haunted house thriller set inside a spaceship " and one of several science fiction pictures that were " real disappointments " compared to Star Wars , Close Encounters of the Third Kind , and 2001 : A Space Odyssey , though he did compliment the early scene of the Nostromo 's crew exploring the alien planet as showing " real imagination " . However , the film later made it onto Ebert 's Great Movies list , giving it four stars and stating , " Ridley Scott 's 1979 movie is a great original . "
= = = Box office = = =
The film was a commercial success , making $ 78 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 in the United States and £ 7 @,@ 886 @,@ 000 in the United Kingdom during its first run . It ultimately grossed $ 80 @,@ 931 @,@ 801 in the United States , though international box office figures have varied from $ 24 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to $ 122 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 . Its total worldwide gross has been listed within the range of $ 104 @,@ 931 @,@ 801 to $ 203 @,@ 630 @,@ 630 .
According to 20th Century Fox accounts , however , by April 1980 when the film had earned a reported $ 100 million at the box office , after advertising , distribution fees , penalties and other costs were deducted , it was still recorded as having made a loss to the studio of $ 2 @.@ 4 million . This was seen as an example of Hollywood creative accounting and was much criticised . By August 1980 Fox was saying the film was $ 4 million in profit .
= = = Accolades = = =
Alien won the 1979 Academy Award for Visual Effects and was also nominated for Best Art Direction ( for Michael Seymour , Leslie Dilley , Roger Christian , and Ian Whittaker ) . It won Saturn Awards for Best Science Fiction Film , Best Direction for Ridley Scott , and Best Supporting Actress for Veronica Cartwright , and was also nominated in the categories of Best Actress for Sigourney Weaver , Best Make @-@ up for Pat Hay , Best Special Effects for Brian Johnson and Nick Allder , and Best Writing for Dan O 'Bannon . It was also nominated for British Academy of Film and Television Arts ( BAFTA ) awards for Best Costume Design for John Mollo , Best Editing for Terry Rawlings , Best Supporting Actor for John Hurt , and Most Promising Newcomer to Leading Film Role for Sigourney Weaver . It also won a Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation and was nominated for a British Society of Cinematographers award for Best Cinematography for Derek Vanlint , as well as a Silver Seashell award for Best Cinematography and Special Effects at the San Sebastián International Film Festival . Jerry Goldsmith 's score received nominations for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score , the Grammy Award for Best Soundtrack Album , and a BAFTA Award for Best Film Music .
= = = Home video = = =
Alien has been released in many home video formats and packages over the years . The first of these was a seventeen @-@ minute Super @-@ 8 version for home projectionists . It was also released on both VHS and Betamax for rental , which grossed it an additional $ 40 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 in the United States alone . Several VHS releases were subsequently sold both singly and as boxed sets . LaserDisc and Videodisc versions followed , including deleted scenes and director commentary as bonus features . A VHS box set containing Alien and its sequels Aliens and Alien 3 was released in facehugger @-@ shaped boxes , and included some of the deleted scenes from the Laserdisc editions . When Alien : Resurrection premiered in theaters , another set of the first three films was released including a Making of Alien : Resurrection tape . A few months later the set was re @-@ released with the full version of Alien : Resurrection taking the place of the making @-@ of video . Alien was released on DVD in 1999 , both singly and , as The Alien Legacy , packaged with Aliens , Alien 3 and Alien : Resurrection . This set , which was also released in a VHS version , included a commentary track by Ridley Scott . The first three films of the series have also been packaged as the Alien Triple Pack .
In 2003 20th Century Fox was preparing the Alien Quadrilogy DVD box set , which would include Alien and its three sequels . In addition , the set would also include alternate versions of all four films in the form of " special editions " and " director 's cuts " . Fox approached Ridley Scott to digitally restore and remaster Alien , and to restore several scenes which had been cut during the editing process for inclusion in an expanded version of the film . Upon viewing the expanded version , Scott felt that it was too long and chose to recut it into a more streamlined alternate version :
Upon viewing the proposed expanded version of the film , I felt that the cut was simply too long and the pacing completely thrown off . After all , I cut those scenes out for a reason back in 1979 . However , in the interest of giving the fans a new experience with Alien , I figured there had to be an appropriate middle ground . I chose to go in and recut that proposed long version into a more streamlined and polished alternate version of the film . For marketing purposes , this version is being called " The Director 's Cut . "
The " Director 's Cut " restored roughly four minutes of deleted footage while cutting about five minutes of other material , leaving it about a minute shorter than the theatrical cut . Many of the changes were minor , such as altered sound effects , while the restored footage included the scene in which Ripley discovers the cocooned Dallas and Brett during her escape of the Nostromo . Fox decided to release the Director 's Cut in theaters , and it premiered on October 31 , 2003 . The Alien Quadrilogy box set was released December 2 , 2003 , with both versions of the film included along with a new commentary track featuring many of the film 's actors , writers , and production staff , as well as other special features and a documentary entitled The Beast Within : The Making of Alien . Each film was also released separately as a DVD with both versions of the film included . Scott noted that he was very pleased with the original theatrical cut of Alien , saying that " For all intents and purposes , I felt that the original cut of Alien was perfect . I still feel that way " , and that the original 1979 theatrical version " remains my version of choice " . He has since stated that he considers both versions " director 's cuts " , as he feels that the 1979 version was the best he could possibly have made it at the time .
The Alien Quadrilogy set earned Alien a number of new awards and nominations . It won DVDX Exclusive Awards for Best Audio Commentary and Best Overall DVD , Classic Movie , and was also nominated for Best Behind @-@ the @-@ Scenes Program and Best Menu Design . It also won a Sierra Award for Best DVD , and was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best DVD Collection and Golden Satellite Awards for Best DVD Extras and Best Overall DVD . In 2010 both the theatrical version and Director 's Cut of Alien were released on Blu @-@ ray Disc , as a stand @-@ alone release and as part of the Alien Anthology set .
In 2014 , to mark the film 's 35th anniversary , a special re @-@ release box set named Alien : 35th Anniversary Edition , containing the film on Blu @-@ ray , a digital copy , a reprint of Alien : The Illustrated Story , and a series of collectible art cards containing artwork by H.R. Giger related to the film , was released . The disk itself is the same as the respective disk on the 2010 Anthology Blu @-@ ray release , and contains MU @-@ TH @-@ UR mode , despite the lack of the required bonus disk . A reprint of the novel by Alan Dean Foster was also released .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Sequels = = =
The success of Alien led 20th Century Fox to finance three direct sequels over the next eighteen years , each by different writers and directors . Sigourney Weaver remained the only recurring actor through all four films , and the story of her character Ripley 's encounters with the Aliens became the thematic thread running through the series . James Cameron 's Aliens ( 1986 ) focused more on action and involved Ripley returning to the planetoid accompanied by marines to confront hordes of Aliens . David Fincher 's Alien 3 ( 1992 ) had nihilistic tones and found her on a prison planet battling another Alien , ultimately sacrificing herself to prevent her employers from acquiring the creatures . Jean @-@ Pierre Jeunet 's Alien : Resurrection ( 1997 ) saw Ripley resurrected through cloning to battle more Aliens even further in the future .
The success of the film series resulted in the creation of a media franchise with numerous novels , comic books , video games , toys , and other media and merchandise appearing over the years . A number of these began appearing under the Alien vs. Predator crossover imprint , which brought the Alien creatures together with the titular Predators of the Predator franchise . The film series eventually followed suit , with Paul W. S. Anderson 's Alien vs. Predator ( 2004 ) and Colin and Greg Strause 's Aliens vs. Predator : Requiem ( 2007 ) . These stories are set in the 2000s .
Sigourney Weaver has expressed interest in reuniting with Ridley Scott to revive her character for another Alien film . In the 2003 commentary track for the Alien DVD included in the Alien Quadrilogy set , she and Scott both speculated on the possibility , with Weaver stating : " There is an appetite for a fifth one , which is something I never expected ... it 's really hard to come up with a fifth story that 's new and fresh ... but I have wanted to go back into space ... I think outer space adventure is a good thing for us right now , ' cause Earth is so grim ... so we 've been talking about it , but very generally . " Scott remarked that , if the series were to continue , the most logical course would be to explore the origins of the space jockey and the Aliens . Weaver supported this idea , stating that " I think it would be great to go back , because I 'm asked that question so many times : ' Where did the Alien come from ? ' People really want to know in a very visceral way . " David Giler stated that he , Walter Hill , and Gordon Carroll , the producers of the first four films in the series , would not be willing to produce another unless it was about the Aliens ' homeworld and Weaver was on board ( although they were among the producers of Aliens vs. Predator and its sequel ) . Weaver , in turn , indicated that she would only return to the franchise if either Scott or James Cameron were directing . Cameron had been working on a story for a fifth Alien film which would explore the origins of the creatures , but ceased work on it when he learned that Fox was pursuing Alien vs. Predator , which he felt would " kill the validity of the franchise " . Weaver has continued to express interest in another installment , stating in 2008 that " I would definitely do another if I had a director like Ridley Scott and we had a good idea . Ridley is enthusiastic about it . "
In July 2009 , 20th Century Fox announced that Jon Spaihts had been hired to write a prequel to Alien , with Scott attached to direct . The script was subsequently re @-@ worked by Scott and Damon Lindelof . Titled Prometheus , it went into production in May 2011 , and was subsequently released in 2012 . Scott released a statement : " While Alien was indeed the jumping @-@ off point for this project , out of the creative process evolved a new , grand mythology and universe in which this original story takes place . The keen fan will recognize strands of Alien 's DNA , so to speak , but the ideas tackled in this film are unique , large and provocative . "
Variety reported on February 18 , 2015 that a new Alien film will be directed by Neill Blomkamp . On February 25 , it was confirmed that Sigourney Weaver would have a role in the film .
= = = Imitations = = =
Alien had both an immediate and long @-@ term impact on the science fiction and horror genres . Shortly after its debut , Dan O 'Bannon was sued by another writer named Jack Hammer for allegedly plagiarising a script entitled Black Space . However , O 'Bannon was able to prove that he had written his Alien script first . In the wake of Alien 's success a number of other filmmakers imitated or adapted some of its elements , sometimes by copying its title . One of the first was The Alien Dead ( 1979 ) , which was titled at the last minute to cash in on Alien 's popularity . Contamination ( 1980 ) was initially going to be titled Alien 2 until 20th Century Fox 's lawyers contacted writer / director Luigi Cozzi and made him change it , and it built on press coverage of Alien 's chestburster scene by having many similar creatures , which originated from large , slimy eggs , bursting from characters ' chests . An unauthorized sequel to Alien , titled Alien Terror ( later Alien 2 : On Earth ) , was released in 1980 and included alien creatures which incubate inside human hosts . Other science fiction films of the time that borrowed elements from Alien include Galaxy of Terror ( 1981 ) , Inseminoid ( 1981 ) , Forbidden World ( 1982 ) , Xtro ( 1982 ) , and Dead Space ( 1991 ) .
The film studio The Asylum has produced two mockbuster based on the Alien franchise : AVH : Alien vs. Hunter ( based on the crossover Alien vs. Predator : Requiem ) and Alien Origin ( based on Prometheus ) .
= = = Analysis = = =
Critics have analyzed Alien 's sexual overtones . Following Barbara Creed 's analysis of the Alien creature as a representation of the " monstrous @-@ feminine as archaic mother , " Ximena Gallardo C. and C. Jason Smith compared the facehugger 's attack on Kane to a male rape and the chestburster scene to a form of violent birth , noting that the Alien 's phallic head and method of killing the crew members add to the sexual imagery . Dan O 'Bannon has argued that the scene is a metaphor for the male fear of penetration , and that the " oral invasion " of Kane by the facehugger functions as " payback " for the many horror films in which sexually vulnerable women are attacked by male monsters . McIntee claims that " Alien is a rape movie as much as Straw Dogs ( 1971 ) or I Spit on Your Grave ( 1978 ) , or The Accused ( 1988 ) . On one level it 's about an intriguing alien threat . On one level it 's about parasitism and disease . And on the level that was most important to the writers and director , it 's about sex , and reproduction by non @-@ consensual means . And it 's about this happening to a man . " He notes how the film plays on men 's fear and misunderstanding of pregnancy and childbirth , while also giving women a glimpse into these fears . Film analyst Lina Badley has written that the Alien 's design , with strong Freudian sexual undertones , multiple phallic symbols , and overall feminine figure , provides an androgynous image conforming to archetypal mappings and imageries in horror films that often redraw gender lines . O 'Bannon himself later described the sexual imagery in Alien as overt and intentional : " One thing that people are all disturbed about is sex ... I said ' That 's how I 'm going to attack the audience ; I 'm going to attack them sexually . And I 'm not going to go after the women in the audience , I 'm going to attack the men . I am going to put in every image I can think of to make the men in the audience cross their legs . Homosexual oral rape , birth . The thing lays its eggs down your throat , the whole number . ' "
In the decades since its original release critics have analyzed and acknowledged Alien 's roots in earlier works of fiction . It has been noted as sharing thematic similarities with earlier science fiction films such as The Thing from Another World ( 1951 ) and It ! The Terror from Beyond Space ( 1958 ) as well as a kinship with other 1970s horror films such as Jaws ( 1975 ) and Halloween ( 1978 ) . Literary connections have also been suggested , including thematic comparisons to And Then There Were None ( 1939 ) . Many critics have also suggested that the film derives in part from A. E. van Vogt 's The Voyage of the Space Beagle ( 1950 ) , particularly the stories " The Black Destroyer " , in which a cat @-@ like alien infiltrates the ship and hunts the crew , and " Discord in Scarlet " , in which an alien implants parasitic eggs inside crew members which then hatch and eat their way out . O 'Bannon , however , denies that this was a source of his inspiration for Alien 's story . Van Vogt initiated a lawsuit against 20th Century Fox over the similarities , but Fox settled out of court . Rick Sanchez of IGN noted the " striking resemblance " to Mario Bava 's cult classic Planet of the Vampires ( 1965 ) , especially in a celebrated sequence in which the crew discovers a ruin containing the skeletal remains of long dead giant beings , and in the design and shots of the ship itself , similar to the derelict spacecraft in Alien . Despite the visual similarities , both O 'Bannon and director Ridley Scott claimed in a 1979 interview that they had not seen Planet of the Vampires .
Writer David McIntee has also noted similarities to the Doctor Who episode " The Ark in Space " ( 1975 ) , in which an insectoid queen alien lays larvae inside humans which later eat their way out , a life cycle inspired by that of the ichneumon wasp . He has also noted similarities between the first half of the film , particularly in early versions of the script , to H.P. Lovecraft 's At the Mountains of Madness , " not in storyline , but in dread @-@ building mystery " , and calls the finished film " the best Lovecraftian movie ever made , without being a Lovecraft adaptation " , due to its similarities in tone and atmosphere to Lovecraft 's works . In 2009 , Dan O 'Bannon said the film was " strongly influenced , tone @-@ wise , by Lovecraft , and one of the things it proved is that you can 't adapt Lovecraft effectively without an extremely strong visual style ... What you need is a cinematic equivalent of Lovecraft 's prose . " Regarding O 'Bannon 's initial Alien storyline , H. R. Giger stated , " I liked it particularly because I found it was in the vein of Lovecraft , one of my greatest sources of inspiration . "
= = = Lasting critical praise = = =
Alien has continued to receive critical acclaim over the years , particularly for its realism and unique environment . It has a 97 % approval rating at the online review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes based on 89 reviews , while Metacritic gives an 83 % approval rating based on 22 reviews . Critical interest in the film was re @-@ ignited in part by the theatrical release of the " Director 's Cut " in 2003 . Despite having criticized Alien in 1980 , Roger Ebert included it in his " Great Movies " column in 2003 , ranking it among " the most influential of modern action pictures " and praising its pacing , atmosphere , and settings :
One of the great strengths of Alien is its pacing . It takes its time . It waits . It allows silences ( the majestic opening shots are underscored by Jerry Goldsmith with scarcely audible , far @-@ off metallic chatterings ) . It suggests the enormity of the crew 's discovery by building up to it with small steps : The interception of a signal ( is it a warning or an SOS ? ) . The descent to the extraterrestrial surface . The bitching by Brett and Parker , who are concerned only about collecting their shares . The masterstroke of the surface murk through which the crew members move , their helmet lights hardly penetrating the soup . The shadowy outline of the alien ship . The sight of the alien pilot , frozen in his command chair . The enormity of the discovery inside the ship ( " It 's full of ... leathery eggs ... " ) .
McIntee praises Alien as " possibly the definitive combination of horror thriller with science fiction trappings . " He notes , however , that it is a horror film first and a science fiction film second , since science fiction normally explores issues of how humanity will develop under other circumstances . Alien , on the other hand , focuses on the plight of people being attacked by a monster : " It 's set on a spaceship in the future , but it 's about people trying not to get eaten by a drooling monstrous animal . Worse , it 's about them trying not to get raped by said drooling monstrous animal . " Along with Halloween and Friday the 13th ( 1980 ) , he describes it as a prototype for the slasher film genre : " The reason it 's such a good movie , and wowed both the critics , who normally frown on the genre , and the casual cinema @-@ goer , is that it is a distillation of everything that scares us in the movies . " He also describes how the film appeals to a variety of audiences : " Fans of Hitchcockian thrillers like it because it 's moody and dark . Gorehounds like it for the chest @-@ burster . Science fiction fans love the hard science fiction trappings and hardware . Men love the battle @-@ for @-@ survival element , and women love not being cast as the helpless victim . "
David Edelstein wrote , " Alien remains the key text in the ' body horror ' subgenre that flowered ( or , depending on your viewpoint , festered ) in the seventies , and Giger ’ s designs covered all possible avenues of anxiety . Men traveled through vulva @-@ like openings , got forcibly impregnated , and died giving birth to rampaging gooey vaginas dentate — how ’ s that for future shock ? This was truly what David Cronenberg would call ' the new flesh , ' a dissolution of the boundaries between man and machine , machine and alien , and man and alien , with a psychosexual invasiveness that has never , thank God , been equaled . "
In 2002 , Alien was deemed " culturally , historically or aesthetically significant " by the National Film Preservation Board of the United States , and was inducted into the National Film Registry of the Library of Congress for historical preservation alongside other films of 1979 including All That Jazz , Apocalypse Now , The Black Stallion , and Manhattan . In 2008 the American Film Institute ranked Alien as the seventh @-@ best film in the science fiction genre as part of AFI 's 10 Top 10 , a CBS television special ranking the ten greatest movies in ten classic American film genres . The ranks were based on a poll of over 1 @,@ 500 film artists , critics , and historians , with Alien ranking just above Terminator 2 : Judgment Day ( 1991 ) and just below Ridley Scott 's other science fiction film Blade Runner ( 1982 ) . The same year , Empire magazine ranked it thirty @-@ third on its list of the five hundred greatest movies of all time , based on a poll of 10 @,@ 200 readers , critics , and members of the film industry .
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= French ironclad Belliqueuse =
The French ironclad Belliqueuse ( " Bellicose " ) was a wooden @-@ hulled , armored corvette , built for the French Navy in the 1860s and designed as a cheap ironclad . She was the first French ironclad to sail around the world , which she did between December 1867 and May 1869 . She spent the bulk of her career in the Pacific before returning to Toulon , where she was used as a target in 1886 .
= = Design and description = =
Belliqueuse was designed as a small and cheap ironclad suitable for foreign deployments . Her armament and armor was concentrated in the middle of the ship like a central battery ironclad , but unlike those ships she lacked armored transverse bulkheads and was very vulnerable to raking fire . Like most ironclads of her era she was equipped with a bronze ram ; hers weighed 2 @,@ 200 kilograms ( 4 @,@ 900 lb ) .
Belliqueuse measured 68 @.@ 05 meters ( 223 ft 3 in ) at the waterline and 70 meters ( 229 ft 8 in ) between perpendiculars , with a beam of 14 @.@ 01 meters ( 46 ft 0 in ) . She had a draft of 6 @.@ 97 meters ( 22 ft 10 in ) and displaced 3 @,@ 777 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 717 long tons ) .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ship had a single horizontal return connecting @-@ rod steam engine driving a single propeller . Her engine was powered by four oval boilers . The engine produced a total of 1 @,@ 200 indicated horsepower ( 890 kW ) and gave a top speed of 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) . On sea trials the engine produced 1 @,@ 227 indicated horsepower ( 915 kW ) and the ship reached 11 @.@ 83 knots ( 21 @.@ 91 km / h ; 13 @.@ 61 mph ) . Belliqueuse carried 250 metric tons ( 250 long tons ) of coal which allowed the ship to steam for 1 @,@ 410 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 610 km ; 1 @,@ 620 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Belliqueuse was barque @-@ rigged ; initially she had a sail area of 1 @,@ 450 square meters ( 15 @,@ 600 sq ft ) , but this was later increased to 1 @,@ 800 square metres ( 19 @,@ 000 sq ft ) in 1869 .
= = = Armament = = =
Belliqueuse mounted her four 194 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) Modèle 1864 guns in the central battery on the battery deck along with four of her six 164 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) Modèle 1864 guns . The other two 164 mm guns were carried on pivot mounts fore and aft on the upper deck . She was partially rearmed in 1870 and exchanged her 164 @-@ mm pivot guns for a pair of 138 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) Modèle 1870 guns . In addition four 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss 5 @-@ barrel revolving guns each were added . They fired a shell weighing about 500 g ( 1 @.@ 1 lb ) at a muzzle velocity of about 610 m / s ( 2 @,@ 000 ft / s ) to a range of about 3 @,@ 200 meters ( 3 @,@ 500 yd ) . They had a rate of fire of about 30 rounds per minute .
= = = Armor = = =
Belliqueuse was completely armored with 150 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) of wrought iron from the battery deck down to 1 @.@ 5 meters ( 4 ft 11 in ) below the waterline . The sides of the battery itself were protected with 120 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) of armor , but the ends were closed only by light screens . Fore and aft of the battery , her sides were unprotected .
= = Service = =
Belliqueuse was laid down at Toulon in September 1863 , and launched on 6 September 1865 . The ship began her sea trials on 30 December 1865 , but did not enter service until 30 October 1866 . That day she was commissioned as the flagship of the Pacific Station under command of Rear Admiral Penhoat . On 22 December 1867 , the ship departed Toulon in an attempt to circumnavigate the world . Belliqueuse arrived at Brest on 26 May 1869 after 396 days at sea , the first French ironclad to do so . On 15 November 1869 she hoisted the flag of Rear Admiral Chevalier as commander of the Levant Squadron . During 1870 she was transferred to New Caledonia as flagship of the Western Pacific Division ( French : Division de l 'Océanie Occidentale ) , but returned to Toulon on 5 June 1871 after the death of Rear Admiral Chevalier . In 1872 the ship was sent to the China Station and relieved French ironclad Alma as flagship of the station on 1 October 1872 . She returned to Toulon on 3 May 1874 .
Belliqueuse served with the Evolutionary Squadron for six months from 5 June 1877 and was reduced to reserve afterwards . She was paid off on 15 November 1884 and struck off the Navy List on 3 May 1886 . Belliqueuse was used as a target afterwards .
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= Delaware Route 92 =
Delaware Route 92 ( DE 92 ) is a 8 @.@ 83 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 14 @.@ 21 km ) road in northern New Castle County , Delaware that runs a short distance to the south of the Pennsylvania / Delaware state line for most of its length . The route runs from DE 100 near Montchanin east to U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) in Claymont . The road is a two @-@ lane rural road between the western terminus and US 202 , passing through Brandywine Creek State Park . East of US 202 , DE 92 is a four @-@ lane divided highway called Naamans Road that passes through suburban areas to the north of Wilmington , interchanging with Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) in Claymont . DE 92 was first built as a state highway east of US 202 during the 1920s and 1930s . By 1968 , the route was designated onto its current alignment . In the 1990s , DE 92 east of US 202 was widened into a divided highway .
= = Route description = =
DE 92 begins at the intersection with DE 100 and Adams Dam Road near Montchanin . The route runs northeast on a two @-@ lane undivided road called Thompson Bridge Road , passing through farmland to the north of Brandywine Creek State Park . The road continues into forested areas of the state park , crossing the Brandywine Creek . After the state park , DE 92 heads into areas of fields within First State National Historical Park , continuing northeast along Ramsey Road before curving to the north . The route turns east onto Beaver Valley Road , widening into a four @-@ lane divided highway as it passes south of business parks and intersects US 202 .
Past the US 202 intersection , DE 92 becomes Naamans Road and passes to the south of Brandywine Town Center as it continues into residential and commercial areas and intersects Shipley Road . Past the Brandywine Town Center , the route heads through neighborhoods in Brandywine Hundred and passes to the south of Concord High School before intersecting Ebright Road , which goes north to the highest point in Delaware ( Ebright Azimuth ) and into Pennsylvania . After this , the road comes to an intersection with DE 261 .
Farther east , DE 92 reaches a junction with the northern terminus of DE 3 . From here , the road crosses over CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision and turns to the east @-@ southeast . The route heads into business areas in Claymont and comes to an interchange with I @-@ 95 at the northern terminus of I @-@ 495 . After the I @-@ 95 interchange , DE 92 passes to the south of the Tri @-@ State Mall and has an intersection with the southern terminus of DE 491 . Past this intersection , the route turns southeast before ending at US 13 south of the Robinson House .
DE 92 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 28 @,@ 720 vehicles at the Shipley Road intersection to a low of 8 @,@ 065 vehicles at the Creek Road intersection . The portion of DE 92 east of US 202 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
By 1920 , what is now DE 92 originally existed as a county road , with the portion east of Foulk Road proposed to become a state highway . The state highway between Foulk Road and Philadelphia Pike was completed four years later . By 1931 , the portion of road between Grubb Road and Foulk Road was upgraded to a state highway . The state highway portion was extended west to Concord Pike by 1936 .
By 1968 , DE 92 was designated onto its current alignment between DE 100 and US 13 , with the easternmost portion replacing what had been designated a part of US 13 Bypass . DE 92 was widened into a divided highway by 1997 between US 202 and DE 261 and between DE 3 and DE 491 . Two years later , the road was upgraded to a divided highway between DE 261 and DE 3 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in New Castle County .
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= Azusa Street Revival =
The Azusa Street Revival was a historic Pentecostal revival meeting that took place in Los Angeles , California and is the origin of the Pentecostal movement . It was led by William J. Seymour , an African American preacher . It began with a meeting on April 9 , 1906 , and continued until roughly 1915 . The revival was characterized by ecstatic spiritual experiences accompanied by miracles , dramatic worship services , speaking in tongues , and inter @-@ racial mingling . The participants were criticized by the secular media and Christian theologians for behaviors considered to be outrageous and unorthodox , especially at the time . Today , the revival is considered by historians to be the primary catalyst for the spread of Pentecostalism in the 20th century .
= = Background = =
= = = Los Angeles = = =
In 1905 , William J. Seymour , the one @-@ eyed 34 @-@ year @-@ old son of former slaves , was a student of well @-@ known Pentecostal preacher Charles Parham and an interim pastor for a small holiness church in Houston , Texas . Neely Terry , an African American woman who attended a small holiness church pastored by Julia Hutchins in Los Angeles , made a trip to visit family in Houston late in 1905 . While in Houston , she visited Seymour 's church , where he preached receiving the Holy Ghost with the evidence of speaking in other tongues , and though he had not experienced this personally , Terry was impressed with his character and message . Once home in California , Terry suggested that Seymour be invited to speak at the local church . Seymour received and accepted the invitation in February 1906 , and he received financial help and a blessing from Parham for his planned one @-@ month visit .
Seymour arrived in Los Angeles on February 22 , 1906 , and within two days was preaching at Julia Hutchins ' church at the corner of Ninth Street and Santa Fe Avenue . During his first sermon , he preached that speaking in tongues was the first biblical evidence of the inevitable infilling in the Holy Ghost . On the following Sunday , March 4 , he returned to the church and found that Hutchins had padlocked the door . Elders of the church rejected Seymour 's teaching , primarily because he had not yet experienced the blessing about which he was preaching . Condemnation of his message also came from the Holiness Church Association of Southern California with which the church had affiliation . However , not all members of Hutchins ' church rejected Seymour 's preaching . He was invited to stay in the home of congregation member Edward S. Lee , and he began to hold Bible studies and prayer meetings there .
= = = North Bonnie Brae Street = = =
Seymour and his small group of new followers soon relocated to the home of Richard and Ruth Asberry at 216 North Bonnie Brae Street . White families from local holiness churches began to attend as well . The group would get together regularly and pray to receive the baptism of the Holy Spirit . On April 9 , 1906 , after five weeks of Seymour 's preaching and prayer , and three days into an intended 10 @-@ day fast , Edward S. Lee spoke in tongues for the first time . At the next meeting , Seymour shared Lee 's testimony and preached a sermon on Acts 2 : 4 and soon six others began to speak in tongues as well , including Jennie Moore , who would later become Seymour 's wife . A few days later , on April 12 , Seymour spoke in tongues for the first time after praying all night long .
News of the events at North Bonnie Brae St. quickly circulated among the African American , Latino and White residents of the city , and for several nights , various speakers would preach to the crowds of curious and interested onlookers from the front porch of the Asberry home . Members of the audience included people from a broad spectrum of income levels and religious backgrounds . Hutchins eventually spoke in tongues as her whole congregation began to attend the meetings . Soon the crowds became very large and were full of people speaking in tongues , shouting , singing and moaning . Finally , the front porch collapsed , forcing the group to begin looking for a new meeting place . A resident of the neighborhood described the happenings at 216 North Bonnie Brae with the following words :
They shouted three days and three nights . It was Easter season . The people came from everywhere . By the next morning there was no way of getting near the house . As people came in they would fall under God 's power ; and the whole city was stirred . They shouted until the foundation of the house gave way , but no one was hurt .
= = Azusa Street = =
= = = Conditions = = =
The group from Bonnie Brae Street eventually discovered an available building at 312 Azusa Street in downtown Los Angeles , which had originally been constructed as an African Methodist Episcopal Church in what was then a poverty part of town . The rent was $ 8 @.@ 00 per month . A newspaper referred to the downtown Los Angeles building as a " tumble down shack " . Since the church had moved out , the building had served as a wholesale house , a warehouse , a lumberyard , stockyards , a tombstone shop , and had most recently been used as a stable with rooms for rent upstairs . It was a small , rectangular , flat @-@ roofed building , approximately 60 feet ( 18 m ) long and 40 feet ( 12 m ) wide , totaling 2 @,@ 400 square feet ( 220 m2 ) , sided with weathered whitewashed clapboards . The only sign that it had once been a house of God was a single Gothic @-@ style window over the main entrance .
Discarded lumber and plaster littered the large , barn @-@ like room on the ground floor . Nonetheless , it was secured and cleaned in preparation for services . They held their first meeting on April 14 , 1906 . Church services were held on the first floor where the benches were placed in a rectangular pattern . Some of the benches were simply planks put on top of empty nail kegs . There was no elevated platform , as the ceiling was only eight feet high . Initially there was no pulpit . Frank Bartleman , an early participant in the revival , recalled that " Brother Seymour generally sat behind two empty shoe boxes , one on top of the other . He usually kept his head inside the top one during the meeting , in prayer . There was no pride there .... In that old building , with its low rafters and bare floors ... "
The second floor at the now @-@ named Apostolic Faith Mission housed an office and rooms for several residents including Seymour and his new wife , Jennie . It also had a large prayer room to handle the overflow from the altar services below . The prayer room was furnished with chairs and benches made from California Redwood planks , laid end to end on backless chairs .
By mid @-@ May 1906 , anywhere from 300 to 1 @,@ 500 people would attempt to fit into the building . Since horses had very recently been the residents of the building , flies constantly bothered the attendees . People from a diversity of backgrounds came together to worship : men , women , children , black , white , Hispanic , Asian , rich , poor , illiterate , and educated . People of all ages flocked to Los Angeles with both skepticism and a desire to participate . The intermingling of races and the group 's encouragement of women in leadership was remarkable , as 1906 was the height of the " Jim Crow " era of racial segregation , and fourteen years prior to women receiving suffrage in the United States .
= = = Services and worship = = =
Worship at 312 Azusa Street was frequent and spontaneous with services going almost around the clock . Among those attracted to the revival were not only members of the Holiness Movement , but also Baptists , Mennonites , Quakers , and Presbyterians . An observer at one of the services wrote these words :
No instruments of music are used . None are needed . No choir- the angels have been heard by some in the spirit . No collections are taken . No bills have been posted to advertise the meetings . No church organization is back of it . All who are in touch with God realize as soon as they enter the meetings that the Holy Ghost is the leader .
The Los Angeles Times was not so kind in its description :
Meetings are held in a tumble @-@ down shack on Azusa Street , and the devotees of the weird doctrine practice the most fanatical rites , preach the wildest theories and work themselves into a state of mad excitement in their peculiar zeal . African Americans and a sprinkling of whites compose the congregation , and night is made hideous in the neighborhood by the howlings of the worshippers , who spend hours swaying forth and back in a nerve racking attitude of prayer and supplication . They claim to have the " gift of tongues " and be able to understand the babel .
The first edition of the Apostolic Faith publication claimed a common reaction to the revival from visitors :
Proud , well @-@ dressed preachers came to ' investigate ' . Soon their high looks were replaced with wonder , then conviction comes , and very often you will find them in a short time wallowing on the dirty floor , asking God to forgive them and make them as little children .
Among first @-@ hand accounts were reports of the blind having their sight restored , diseases cured instantly , and immigrants speaking in German , Yiddish , and Spanish all being spoken to in their native language by uneducated black members , who translated the languages into English by " supernatural ability " .
Singing was sporadic and in a cappella or occasionally in tongues . There were periods of extended silence . Attenders were occasionally slain in the Spirit . Visitors gave their testimony , and members read aloud testimonies that were sent to the mission by mail . There was prayer for the gift of tongues . There was prayer in tongues for the sick , for missionaries , and whatever requests were given by attenders or mailed in . There was spontaneous preaching and altar calls for salvation , sanctification and baptism of the Holy Spirit . Lawrence Catley , whose family attended the revival , said that in most services preaching consisted of Seymour opening a Bible and worshippers coming forward to preach or testify as they were led by the Holy Spirit . Many people would continually shout throughout the meetings . The members of the mission never took an offering , but there was a receptacle near the door for anyone that wanted to support the revival . The core membership of the Azusa Street Mission was never much more than 50 – 60 individuals with hundreds and thousands of people visiting or staying temporarily over the years .
= = = Charles Parham = = =
By October 1906 , Charles Parham was invited to speak for a series of meetings at Azusa Street , but was quickly un @-@ invited . Several reasons can be given for Azusa Street 's disassociation from him . Firstly , Parham had personality conflicts with Seymour and wanted to be the chief authority figure of the movement that was taking place , but the presiding leaders of the Apostolic Faith Mission were slow to make any changes to their methods or leadership .
= = = Criticism = = =
In a skeptical front @-@ page story titled " Weird Babel of Tongues " , a Los Angeles Times reporter attempted to describe what would soon be known as the Azusa Street Revival . " Breathing strange utterances and mouthing a creed which it would seem no sane mortal could understand " , the story began , " the newest religious sect has started in Los Angeles " . Another local paper reporter in September 1906 described the happenings with the following words :
... disgraceful intermingling of the races ... they cry and make howling noises all day and into the night . They run , jump , shake all over , shout to the top of their voice , spin around in circles , fall out on the sawdust blanketed floor jerking , kicking and rolling all over it . Some of them pass out and do not move for hours as though they were dead . These people appear to be mad , mentally deranged or under a spell . They claim to be filled with the spirit . They have a one eyed , illiterate , Negro as their preacher who stays on his knees much of the time with his head hidden between the wooden milk crates . He doesn 't talk very much but at times he can be heard shouting , ' Repent , ' and he 's supposed to be running the thing ... They repeatedly sing the same song , ' The Comforter Has Come.'
The attenders of the meetings were often described as " Holy Rollers " , " Holy Jumpers " , " Tangled Tonguers " and " Holy Ghosters " . Reports were published throughout the U.S. and the world of the strange happenings in Los Angeles .
Christians from many traditions were critical , saying the movement was hyper @-@ emotional , misused Scripture and lost focus on Christ by overemphasizing the Holy Spirit . Within a short time ministers were warning their congregations to stay away from the Azusa Street Mission . Some called the police and tried to get the building shut down .
= = = Apostolic Faith publication = = =
Also starting in September 1906 was the publication of the revival 's own newsletter , the Apostolic Faith . Issues were published occasionally up until May 1908 , mostly through the work of Seymour and a white woman named Clara Lum , a member of the Apostolic Faith Mission . The Apostolic Faith was distributed without charge , and thousands of laypersons and ministers received copies worldwide . Five thousand copies of the first edition were printed , and by 1907 the press run reached over 40 @,@ 000 .
The Apostolic Faith publication reported the happenings at the Azusa Street Mission to the world . Its first issue 's lead story was titled " Pentecost has Come " . It contained a letter from Charles Parham , an article on Pentecost from Acts , and a series of anecdotes of people 's experience within the revival . One edition in 1907 wrote , " One token of the Lord 's coming is that He is melting all races and nations together , and they are filled with the power and glory of God . He is baptizing by one spirit into one body and making up a people that will be ready to meet Him when He comes " . The Apostolic Faith brought increasing attention to the happenings at Azusa Street and the fledgling movement that was emerging from the revival .
= = Legacy = =
By 1913 , the revival at Azusa Street had lost momentum , and by 1915 most of the media attention and crowds had left . Seymour remained there with his wife , Jennie , for the rest of their lives as pastors of the small African American congregation , though he often made short trips to help establish other smaller revivals later in life . After Seymour died of a heart attack on September 28 , 1922 , Jennie led the church until 1931 , when the congregation lost the building .
= = = Sending of missionaries = = =
As The Apostolic Faith and many secular reports advertised the events of the Azusa Street Revival internationally , thousands of individuals visited the Mission in order to witness it firsthand . At the same time , thousands of people were leaving Azusa Street with the intentions of evangelizing abroad . Reverend K. E. M. Spooner visited the revival in 1909 and became one of the Pentecostal Holiness Church 's most effective missionaries in Africa , working among the Tswana people of Botswana . A. G. Garr and his wife were sent from Azusa Street as missionaries to Calcutta , India , where they managed to start a small revival . Speaking in tongues in India did not enable them to speak the native language , Bengali . The Garrs later traveled to China where they arrived in Hong Kong and began to spread Pentecostalism in mainland China . They did this by working through other Protestant churches and organizations that had already been established . Garr significantly contributed to early Pentecostalism through his later work in redefining the " biblical evidence " doctrine and changing the doctrine from a belief that speaking in tongues was explicitly for evangelism to a belief that speaking in tongues was a gift for " spiritual empowerment " .
Missionary Bernt Bernsten traveled all the way from North China to investigate the happenings after hearing that the biblical prophecy of Acts 2 : 4 was being fulfilled . Other visitors left the revival to become missionaries in remote areas all over the world . So many missionaries went out from Azusa ( some thirty @-@ eight left in October 1906 ) that within two years the movement had spread to over fifty nations , including Britain , Scandinavia , Germany , Holland , Egypt , Syria , Palestine , South Africa , Hong Kong , China , Ceylon and India . Christian leaders visited from all over the world .
= = = Birth of Pentecostal movement = = =
By the end of 1906 , most leaders from Azusa Street had spun off to form other congregations , such as the 51st Street Apostolic Faith Mission , the Spanish AFM , and the Italian Pentecostal Mission . These missions were largely composed of immigrant or ethnic groups . The Southeast United States was a particularly prolific area of growth for the movement , since Seymour 's approach gave a useful explanation for a charismatic spiritual climate that had already been taking root in those areas . Other new missions were based on preachers who had charisma and energy . Nearly all of these new churches were founded among immigrants and the poor .
Many existing Wesleyan @-@ holiness denominations adopted the Pentecostal message , such as the Church of God ( Cleveland , Tennessee ) , the Church of God in Christ , and the Pentecostal Holiness Church . The formation of new denominations also occurred , motivated by doctrinal differences between Wesleyan Pentecostals and their Finished Work counterparts , such as the Assemblies of God formed in 1914 and the Pentecostal Church of God formed in 1919 . An early doctrinal controversy led to a split between Trinitarian and Oneness Pentecostals , the latter founded the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World in 1916 .
Today , there are more than 500 million Pentecostal and charismatic believers across the globe , and it is the fastest @-@ growing form of Christianity today . The Azusa Street Revival is commonly regarded as the beginning of the modern @-@ day Pentecostal Movement .
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= Jaws 2 =
Jaws 2 is a 1978 American thriller film , the first sequel to Steven Spielberg 's Jaws ( 1975 ) , and the second installment in the Jaws franchise . Directed by Jeannot Szwarc , it stars Roy Scheider as Police Chief Martin Brody , who must deal with another great white shark terrorizing the waters of Amity Island , a fictional seaside resort , with Lorraine Gary and Murray Hamilton reprising their respective roles as Martin 's wife Ellen Brody and mayor Larry Vaughn .
Like the first film , the production of Jaws 2 was troubled . The original director , John D. Hancock , proved to be unsuitable for an action film and was replaced by Szwarc . Scheider , who only reprised his role to end a contractual issue with Universal , was also unhappy during production and had several heated exchanges with Szwarc .
Jaws 2 was briefly the highest @-@ grossing sequel in history until The Empire Strikes Back was released in 1980 . The film 's tagline , " Just when you thought it was safe to go back in the water ... , " has become one of the most famous in film history and has been parodied and homaged several times . Jaws 2 is widely considered to be the best Jaws sequel .
Jaws 2 was followed by Jaws 3 @-@ D and Jaws : The Revenge , released in 1983 and 1987 , respectively .
= = Plot = =
Prior to a new hotel opening on Amity Island , an enormous great white shark ambushes and kills two divers who are photographing the wreck of the Orca , the late Quint 's boat . A couple of days later , their camera is recovered , and the shark goes after a female water skier and speedboat driver , devouring the skier while the driver fends off the shark using a gas tank and flare gun , causing the boat to explode , which kills her and severely burns the shark 's face .
Along with these disappearances , a killer whale bearing large wounds is beached . Police Chief Martin Brody believes these events are the work of a shark . Brody explains his concerns to Mayor Larry Vaughn , who doubts the town has another shark problem . Later , Brody finds a piece of the destroyed speedboat in the surf just off the beach . He wades over to retrieve it and uncovers the boat driver 's burnt remains .
The following day , at the beach , Brody sees a dark shadow that approaches the swimmers . Thinking it is a shark , he frantically orders everyone out of the water and causes a panic by firing his gun . However , the shadow is revealed to be a school of bluefish , making people think Brody 's insane . His fears are later confirmed when he acquires a close @-@ up picture of the shark from the diver 's camera . The Amity town council , including local developer Len Peterson , deny the evidence and vote Brody out as Police Chief .
The next morning , Brody 's teenage son Mike ( who witnessed the shark attack in the estuary last time ) disobeys his father by sneaking out to go sailing with his friends after his love interest Jackie Peters goads him to , but his younger brother Sean catches him , and encourages Mike to bring him along . After an argument at the dock , Marge , one of Mike 's friends , playfully lets Sean come in her boat with her , and after a couple other grouping arrangements , they head out , going past a team of divers , led by instructor Tom Andrews . Moments after going underwater , one of the divers encounters the shark . Panicking , he rushes to the surface , causing an embolism . Soon after , the shark hits teenagers Tina Wilcox and Eddie Marchand ; Eddie falls in the water and is killed by the shark .
Brody and his wife Ellen follow an ambulance to the docks , where they find Tom as he is put on a stretcher ; the divers suspect something scared him underwater . Deputy Len Hendricks , Brody 's replacement , tells them Mike went sailing with his friends , so Brody , along with Ellen and Hendricks , takes the police boat to rescue them . While searching , they come across Tina 's boat , and find her hiding in the bow ; she fearfully mentions the shark 's presence . Hendricks and Ellen take Tina to shore , where the truth is revealed , while Brody goes on to find the kids .
Meanwhile , the shark attacks the other kids , hitting one of their boats and causing most of them to capsize and crash into each other in the ensuing panic , throwing several of them , including Mike and Sean , in the water . The other teens help them out of the water while two of them pull Mike out as the shark goes for him and head back to get help . Sean and the others remain adrift on the wreckage of tangled boats . A Coast Guard marine helicopter that Brody contacted arrives to tow them to shore . Before the pilot can tow them , the shark attacks and sinks the chopper , and then knocks Sean into the water , but Marge sacrifices herself to save him from the shark .
Brody runs into Mike , who tells his father that Sean is with his friends , drifting towards Cable Junction , a small island housing an electrical relay station , and apologizes for not knowing about the shark . Brody accepts his apology while telling him to get to safety and quickly finds them , but when the shark reappears , he panics and maroons the police boat on Cable Junction . He then tries to pull them with a winch but hooks an underwater power cable . The shark 's next attack sends most of the teenagers into the water , and they swim to Cable Junction while Sean and Jackie are trapped on the boats . Using an inflatable raft , Brody hits the power cable with an oar to attract the shark and encourages it to bite the cable ; the shark is fatally electrocuted , and its corpse sinks to the bottom of the sea . The shaken kids rejoice as Brody picks up Sean and Jackie and they join them on Cable Junction to await rescue .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
Universal wanted a sequel to Jaws early into the success of the original film . Producers Brown and Zanuck realized that someone else would produce the film if they did not , and preferred to be in charge of the project themselves .
In October 1975 , Steven Spielberg told the San Francisco Film Festival that " making a sequel to anything is just a cheap carny trick " and that he did not even respond to the producers when they asked him to direct Jaws 2 . He claimed that the planned plot was to involve the sons of Quint and Brody hunting a new shark . Brown said that Spielberg did not want to direct the sequel because he felt that he had done the " definitive shark movie " . The director later added that his decision was influenced by the problems the Jaws production faced - " I would have done the sequel if I hadn ’ t had such a horrible time at sea on the first film . "
Despite Spielberg 's rejection , the studio went ahead with plans to make the sequel , leading to an arduous 18 @-@ month pre @-@ production process . Howard Sackler , who had contributed to the first film 's script but chose not to be credited , was charged with writing the first draft . He originally proposed a prequel based on the sinking of the USS Indianapolis , the story relayed by Quint in the first film . Although Universal president Sidney Sheinberg thought Sackler 's treatment for the film was intriguing , he rejected the idea . On Sackler 's recommendation , theatre and film director John D. Hancock was chosen to helm the picture . Sackler later felt betrayed when Dorothy Tristan , Hancock 's wife , was invited to rewrite his script .
The film , under Hancock 's direction and Tristan 's writing , had originally a different tone and premise than what would eventually be seen in the final film . The two had envisioned Amity as a sort of ghost @-@ town when the film opened with several businesses shuttered and the island 's overall economy in ruins due to the events seen in the first film . The new resort and condos built on the island by developer Len Peterson were to help celebrate its rebirth giving the island 's economy a much needed boost . Tristan had borrowed a subplot from the original Jaws novel and from a discarded early draft of the first film , in which Amity officials were in debt to the Mafia . Both Mayor Vaughn and Len Peterson were anxious for the new island resort to be a success not only to revive Amity but to pay back loans from the Mob that helped build it , thus leading to Vaughn 's and Peterson 's ignoring of Brody 's warning . Tristan and Hancock felt this treatment would lead to more character development that would make the overall story that much more believable .
Hancock began filming in June 1977 . However , after nearly a month of filming , Universal and MCA executives disliked the dark , subtle tone that the film was taking and wanted a more lighthearted and action oriented story . Additionally , Hancock ran into trouble with Sheinberg , who suggested to Hancock and Tristan that his wife , actress Lorraine Gary ( Ellen Brody ) , " should go out on a boat and help to rescue the kids . " When told of the idea , Zanuck replied , " Over my dead body . " The next draft of the film 's screenplay was turned in with Gary not going out to sea . Hancock says that this , and his later firing of another actress who turned out to be a Universal executive 's girlfriend , contributed to his own dismissal from the film .
Hancock began to feel the pressure of directing his first epic adventure film " with only three film credits , and all small @-@ scale dramas " . The producers were unhappy with his material , and on a Saturday evening in June 1977 , after a meeting with the producers and Universal executives , the director was fired . He and his wife left for Rome and production was shut down for a few weeks . The couple had been involved in the film for eighteen months . Hancock blamed his departure on the mechanical shark , telling a newspaper that it still couldn 't swim or bite after a year and a half ; " You get a couple of shots and [ the shark ] breaks . " Echoing the first film 's production , Carl Gottlieb was enlisted to further revise the script , adding humor and reducing some of the violence . Gottlieb wrote on location at Fort Walton Beach , Florida . It cost the producers more money to hire Gottlieb to do the rewrite than it would have if they had hired him in the first place .
At this point , Spielberg considered returning to direct the sequel . Over the Bicentennial weekend in 1976 , Spielberg had hammered out a screenplay based on Quint 's Indianapolis speech . Because of his contract for Close Encounters of the Third Kind , however , he would not be able to work on the film for a further year , a gap too long for the producers . Production designer Joe Alves ( who would direct Jaws 3 @-@ D ) and Verna Fields ( who had been promoted to vice @-@ president at Universal after her acclaimed editing on the first film ) proposed that they co @-@ direct it . The request was declined by the Directors Guild of America , partly because they would not allow a DGA member to be replaced by someone who was not one of its members , and partly because they , in the wake of events on the set of The Outlaw Josey Wales , had instituted a ban on any cast or crew members taking over as director during a film 's production . The reins were eventually handed to Jeannot Szwarc , best known for the film Bug and whom Alves knew from working on the TV series Night Gallery . Szwarc recommenced production by filming the complicated waterskier scene , giving Gottlieb some time to complete the script . He reinstated the character of Deputy Hendricks , played by Jeffrey Kramer , who had been missing from the earlier script . Many of the teenagers were sacked , with the remaining roles developed .
Three sharks were built for the film . The first was the " platform shark " , also referred to as the " luxurious shark " . Special mechanical effects supervisor Robert Mattey and Roy Arbogast used the same body mould used for the shark in the first film . The sharks from the original film had rotted behind sheds on the lower lot of Universal Studios in the intervening years , and the only pieces that were salvageable were the chromoly tube frames . Mattey 's design was much more complicated and ambitious than the first film . The same ( male ) body was used , but a brand new head was made by sculptor Chris Mueller which made use of an all @-@ new mouth mechanism , one which incorporated jowls to disguise the pinching of the cheeks that had proven to be a problem with the shark in the original film . The sharks for Jaws 2 were known as Bruce Two ( the sharks for the original film had been nicknamed " Bruce " , after Steven Spielberg 's lawyer ) , but on set they were referred to as " Fidel " and " Harold " , the latter after David Brown 's Beverly Hills lawyer . The other shark props used were a fin and a full shark , both of which could be pulled by boats . " Cable Junction " , the island shown in the film 's climax , was actually a floating barge covered with fiber @-@ glass rocks . This was created in order to enable the shark platform to be positioned to it as close as possible ( a real island would have hindered this due to the upward slope of the seabed making the shark platform visible ) . Like the first film , footage of real sharks filmed by Australian divers Ron & Valerie Taylor were used for movement shots that could not be convincingly achieved using the mechanical sharks .
Although the first film was commended for leaving the shark to the imagination until two thirds of the way through , Szwarc felt that they should show it as much as possible because the dramatic " first image of it coming out of the water " in the first film could never be repeated . Szwarc believed that the reduction of the first film 's Hitchcockian suspense was inevitable because the audience already knew what the shark looked like from the first film . Reviewers have since commented that there was no way that they were ever going to duplicate the original 's effectiveness . The filmmakers gave the new shark a more menacing look by scarring it in the early boat explosion .
Like the first film , shooting on water proved challenging . Scheider said that they were " always contending with tides , surf and winds [ ... ] jellyfish , sharks , waterspouts and hurricane warnings . " After spending hours anchoring the sailboats , the wind would change as they were ready to shoot , blowing the sails in the wrong direction . The saltwater 's corrosive effect damaged some equipment , including the metal parts in the sharks .
Susan Ford , daughter of U.S. President Gerald Ford , was hired to shoot publicity photographs . Many of these appeared in Ray Loynd 's Jaws 2 Log , a book documenting the film 's production , similar to what Carl Gottlieb had done for the first film .
= = = Location = = =
Martha 's Vineyard was again used as the location for the town scenes . Although some residents guarded their privacy , many islanders welcomed the money that the company was bringing . Shortly after the production arrived in June 1977 , local newspaper the Grapevine wrote :
The Jaws people are back among us , more efficient , more organized and more moneyed . Gone are the happy @-@ go @-@ lucky days of the first Jaws , where the big trucks roved about the Island from day to day , always highly visible with miles of cables snaking here and there over roads and lawns . Gone are the acrimonious wrangles and Select persons over noise and zoning regulations and this and that . What is still here is money — about $ 2 million of it .
Many residents enjoyed being cast as extras . Some people , however , were less pleased by the film crew 's presence and refused to cooperate . Only one drugstore allowed its windows to be boarded up for the moody look that Hancock wanted . " Universal Go Home " T @-@ shirts began appearing on the streets in mid @-@ June 1977 .
When Szwarc took over , the majority of the film was shot at Navarre Beach in Florida , because of the warm weather and the water 's depth being appropriate for the shark platform . The company was at this location from August 1 until December 22 , 1977 . The production " was a boost to the local economy because local boaters , extras and stand @-@ ins or doubles were hired . Universal brought in actors , directors , producers and their wives , camera and crew people who needed housing , food and clothing for the movie . Services were needed for laundry , dry @-@ cleaning and recreation . " Navarre 's Holiday Inn " Holidome " was used as the film 's headquarters , with the ground floor converted into production offices , and some of the Gulf @-@ front suites remodelled for David Brown and Roy Scheider . Universal rented 100 of the hotel 's 200 rooms , spending $ 1 million . The Holiday Inn was destroyed in the 2004 Atlantic hurricane season . Boats and parts for their maintenance were purchased from local businesses . One proprietor said that he sold " Universal approximately $ 400 @,@ 000 worth of boats and equipment " .
On one occasion , the Cable Junction Island set , which was built on a barge , broke loose from its anchorage and had to be rescued . Szwarc was contacted one night and told that his island was drifting towards Cuba . Real hammerhead sharks circled the teen actors during the filming of one shot . Because the characters they were playing were meant to be in distress , the crew ( filming from a distance ) did not realize that the actors were genuinely calling for help .
The interior shots of the teen hang @-@ out where they play pinball were filmed in the original location of the Hog 's Breath Saloon on Okaloosa Island . This restaurant later relocated to Destin , Florida as its original building was susceptible to hurricane damage . The production company had to seek dredge and fill permits from Florida 's Department of Environmental Regulation to sink the revised platform that controlled the shark on the sea bottom .
Principal photography ended three days before Christmas 1977 , on the Choctawhatchee Bay , near Destin , Florida . The actors had to put ice cubes in their mouths to prevent their breath showing on camera . The final sequence to be filmed was the shark being electrocuted on the cable . In mid @-@ January , the crew reconvened in Hollywood with some of the teenage actors for five weeks of post @-@ production photography .
Jaws 2 cost $ 30 million to produce , over three times more than the original . David Brown says that they did not budget the film " because Universal would never have given a green light to a $ 30 million budget in those days . " The Marine Division Head for Universal on location , Philip Kingry , says that " It cost approximately $ 80 @,@ 000 per day to make that movie . " When Kingry asked Brown what his budget was , the producer responded , " We 're not wasteful , but we 're spending the profit from Jaws , and it will take what it takes . "
= = = Casting = = =
Roy Scheider reluctantly returned to reprise his role as Martin Brody . In 1977 , he had quit the role of Steven Pushkov in The Deer Hunter two weeks before the start of filming because of " creative differences " . Scheider was contracted to Universal at the time for a three @-@ picture deal , but the studio offered to forgive his failure to fulfill his contractual obligation if he agreed to appear in Jaws 2 . The actor heavily resisted the film , claiming that there was nothing new to create and that people would be watching the film to see the shark , not him . According to his biographer , Scheider was so desperate to be relieved from the role that he " pleaded insanity and went crazy in The Beverly Hills Hotel " . However , he was given an attractive financial package for appearing in Jaws 2 ; he quadrupled his base salary from the first film , and negotiated points ( a percentage of the film 's net profits ) . The Star newspaper reported that Scheider received $ 500 @,@ 000 for 12 weeks work , plus $ 35 @,@ 000 for each additional week that the schedule ran over .
Despite his reluctance , Scheider pledged to do the best job that he could , wanting to make Brody believable . However , the atmosphere was tense on the set , and he often argued with Szwarc . On one occasion , Scheider complained ( in front of extras ) that Szwarc was wasting time with technical issues and the extras while ignoring the principal actors . A meeting was called with the two , David Brown and Verna Fields , in which Scheider and Szwarc were encouraged to settle their differences . The discussion became heated and a physical fight broke out , which Brown and Fields broke up . The rift was also articulated in written correspondence . In a letter to Szwarc , Scheider wrote that " working with Jeannot Szwarc is knowing he will never say he is sorry or ever admitting he overlooked something . Well , enough of that shit for me ! " He requested an apology from the director for not consulting him . Szwarc 's reply focused upon completing the film to the " best possible " standard :
Time and pressure are part of my reality and priorities something I must deal with .
You have been consulted and your suggestions made part of my scenes many times , whenever they did not contradict the overall concept of the picture .
If you have to be offended , I deplore it , for no offense was meant . At this point in the game , your feelings or my feelings are immaterial and irrelevant , the picture is all that matters .
Sincerely , Jeannot
Many extras were recruited from Gulf Breeze High School . The students were paid $ 3 per hour , well above the minimum wage at the time ( $ 2 @.@ 65 / hr ) , and revelled in being able to miss classes . Casting director Shari Rhodes , requested members of the Gulf Breeze band performed as the Amity High Band , seen in an early scene in the film showing the opening of the Holiday Inn Amity Shores " Amity Scholarship Fund Benefit " . " The GBHS band consisted of approximately 100 members , and band director John Henley chose 28 student musicians , including the band 's section known as Henley 's Honkers . " Universal scheduled their involvement for mid @-@ afternoons to prevent them missing too much time in school . Universal made a contribution of $ 3 @,@ 500 to the school and the band for their part in the film . Several other GBHS students were hired as stand @-@ ins or doubles for the teenage actors to appear in the water scenes and to maintain and sail the boats .
= = = Music = = =
John Williams returned to score Jaws 2 after winning an Academy Award for Original Music Score for his work on the first film . Williams says that it was assumed by everyone that " the music would come back also and be part of the cast ... it would require new music , certainly , but the signature music of Jaws should be used as well " . He compares this to " the great tradition " for repeating musical themes in Hollywood serials such as Roy Rogers and The Lone Ranger . In addition to the familiar themes , Szwarc says Williams also composed a " youthful counterpoint to the shark that is always around when the kids are sailing or going out to sea . It was very inventive " .
Szwarc said that the sequel 's music should be " more complex because it was a more complex film " . Williams says that this score is broader , allowing him to make more use of the orchestra , and use longer notes , and " fill the space " created by the director . Williams used a larger ensemble than for the first film , and " the orchestral palette may have been broader or had longer notes " . Delays in shooting meant that Williams was forced to start working on the score before the film was completed . Szwarc discussed the film with the composer , showing him edited sequences and storyboards . The director praises Williams in being able to work under such difficult conditions . Critic Mike Beek suggests these time constraints enabled Williams " to create themes based on ideas and suggestions , rather than a locked down print . "
Critics have praised Williams ' score , comparing it favorably to the original . Williams " uses a few basic elements of the original — the obligatory shark motif , for one — and takes the music off in some new and interesting directions . " The score is " more disturbing in places " than the original , and " Williams fashion [ sic ] some new and hugely memorable out to sea adventure music . " Because Jaws 2 " isn 't a film that requires subtlety ... Williams pulls out all the stops to make it as exciting and hair raising as possible . "
According to the liner notes on the soundtrack album , Williams ' " sense of the dramatic , coupled with his exquisite musical taste and knowledge of the orchestra definitely stamp this score as truly one of his best . " It is " brilliantly performed by a mini @-@ symphony made up of the finest instrumentalists to be found anywhere . " Mike Beek makes positive comments about the film , saying that " the music certainly elevates it to a level it would otherwise never have achieved . "
In 2015 , Intrada Records issued a two @-@ disc edition with Williams ' complete score in chronological order on disc one ( listed below ) , and the original 1978 soundtrack album on disc two .
= = Release = =
= = = Box office = = =
Jaws 2 was the most expensive film that Universal had produced up until that point , costing the studio $ 20 million . It opened to a $ 9 @,@ 866 @,@ 023 gross in 640 theaters across the United States and Canada , ranking first and giving it the highest grossing opening weekend of all time up to that point . ; It went on to earn $ 77 @,@ 737 @,@ 272 during its initial release , making it one of the highest @-@ grossing films of 1978 . It eventually surpassed the $ 100 million with reissues , ultimately earning $ 102 @,@ 922 @,@ 376 , and $ 208 @,@ 900 @,@ 376 worldwide . Despite grossing less than half of its predecessor , it became the highest @-@ grossing sequel in history up to that point .
Jaws 2 inspired much more merchandising and sponsors than the first film . Products included sets of trading cards from Topps and Baker 's bread , paper cups from Coca @-@ Cola , beach towels , a souvenir program , shark tooth necklaces , coloring and activity books , and a model kit of Brody 's truck . A novelization by Hank Searls , based on an earlier draft of the screenplay by Sackler and Tristan , was released , as well as Ray Loynd 's The Jaws 2 Log , an account of the film 's production . Marvel Comics published a comic book adaptation of the film by writer Rick Marschall and artists Gene Colan and Tom Palmer in Marvel Super Special # 6 ( also based on the earlier script ) .
= = = Reception = = =
The film , throughout the years , has received mixed reviews , though it is widely regarded as the best of the Jaws sequels . John Kenneth Muir comments that opinions towards Jaws 2 depend upon which side of the series it is being compared . Against Spielberg 's original , " it is an inferior sequel to a classic " , but comparison with the subsequent films Jaws 3 @-@ D and Jaws : The Revenge shows Szwarc 's film to be " a decent sequel , and one produced before the franchise hit troubled waters . " Jaws 2 , he says , is " at the deep end of the pool , better than its two shallow follow ups , and there is enough of Jaws ' lingering greatness floating about to make it an entertaining and exciting two hours . "
On the film 's Rotten Tomatoes listing , 53 % of critics gave the film positive reviews from a total of 19 reviews . DVD Authority says " After this one , the other Jaws movies seemed to just not be as good . " One review says : " it 's obviously not a patch on Spielberg 's classic , but it 's about as good as could be hoped for , with some excellent sequences , almost worthy of the original , several genuine shocks , a different enough story and some pretty decent characters . " The performances of Scheider , Gary and Hamilton are particularly praised . George Morris for the Texas Monthly preferred Jaws 2 over the original because it is " less insidious in its methods of manipulation " and " because director Jeannot Szwarc streamlines the terror ... By crosscutting among the teenagers , Scheider , and the officials ' efforts to rescue them , Szwarc works up enough suspense to keep the adrenaline going . " However , Morris ' review is not entirely complimentary . He would have preferred the shark to have been seen less , positing " producers and audiences alike seem to have forgotten that the greatest suspense derives from the unseen and the unknown , and that the imagination is capable of conceiving far worse than the materialization of a mere mechanical monster . " Similarly , John Simon felt that the " shark 's waning is caused by a decline in direction : Jeannot Szwarc has none of Steven Spielberg 's manipulative cleverness . For one thing , he allows us close and disarming close @-@ ups of the shark almost immediately ... " A reviewer for the BBC complained that the additional screen time awarded to the shark makes it " seems far less terrifying than its almost mystical contemporary " . The Radio Times was not pleased with Jaws 2 , calling it a " pale imitation of the classic original " and stating that " the suspense comes unglued because the film floats in all @-@ too @-@ familiar waters . You just know how everyone is going to react — from the stars to the director , and even the mechanical shark . "
Although many critics identify some flaws , often comparing Szwarc negatively to Spielberg , they say that " this sequel does have some redeeming qualities going for it that make it a good movie in its own right " . The presence of Richard Dreyfuss and Robert Shaw are missed , especially since the teenage characters are labeled " largely annoying ' Afterschool Special ' archetypes " who are " irritating and incessantly screaming " and " don 't make for very sympathetic victims " . Because of its emphasis upon the teenage cast , some critics have compared the film to the slasher films that were rising in popularity at that time . Also comparing the film 's " interchangeable teens to slasher films , particularly the Friday the 13th franchise , Muir says that " it feels wrong for a Jaws film to dwell in that shallow domain . " However , Muir commends the teen characters ' comradeship and heroism , citing the girl killed when saving Sean from the shark .
The film 's tagline , " Just when you thought it was safe to go back in the water ... " , has become one of the most famous in film history . Andrew J. Kuehn , who developed the first film 's trailer , is credited with coining the phrase . It has been parodied in numerous films ; most notably the tagline of the 1996 feature film adaptation of the television series , Flipper , " This summer it 's finally safe to go back in the water . "
= = Home media = =
In 1980 , MCA Home Video ( then known as MCA Videocassette Inc . ) released Jaws 2 on VHS and Laserdisc , following its 1980 theatrical re @-@ release . In the 1990s , MCA @-@ Universal Home Video reissued it on both formats . The film received a DVD release on May 22 , 2001 . Many reviewers praised it for the quantity of special features , with DVD Authority asserting that it had " more than a lot of titles labeled as ' special edition ' discs " . It includes a 45 @-@ minute documentary produced by Laurent Bouzereau , who is responsible for many of the documentaries about Universal 's films . Actor Keith Gordon reminisces in a short feature , and Szwarc explains the phonetic problem with its original French title , Les Dents de la mer 2 , as it sounded like it ended with the expletive merde ( mer deux ) . This was combated by using the suffix Part 2 .
The disc also contains a variety of deleted scenes . These scenes show the animosity between Brody and his wife 's boss , Len Peterson ( Joseph Mascolo ) , Brody explaining to Ellen that he 's not about to take any chances letting Mike go sailing , saying that the " smell of death " is the same in Amity as it is in New York , and the selectmen voting to fire Brody ; the Mayor ( Murray Hamilton ) is the only person to vote to save him . These scenes were cut because they were slowing the film 's pace . Also included is footage of the shark attacking the coast guard pilot underwater after his helicopter had capsized . The scene was cut because of the struggle with the ratings board to acquire a PG certificate . In the storyboard , it is shown that the helicopter pilot would have escaped and saved Marge ( Martha Swatek ) from being eaten after she saves Sean , and saves himself as well .
Although the audio was presented in Dolby Digital 2 @.@ 0 mono , a reviewer for Film Freak Central comments that " Williams ' score often sounds deceptively stereophonic " . The BBC , though , suggest that the mix " really demands the added bass that a 5 @.@ 1 effort could have lent it " .
Universal Studios Home Entertainment released Jaws 2 on Blu @-@ ray in Australia on 2 June 2016 , USA and Canada on June 14 , 2016 , most European counties in July 2016 and Japan in August 2016 . The Blu @-@ ray contains the bonus materials from the 2001 DVD release , with the exception of the text based bonus features .
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= SMS Derfflinger =
SMS Derfflinger was a battlecruiser of the German Kaiserliche Marine built just before the outbreak of World War I. She was the lead vessel of her class of three ships ; her sister ships were Lützow and Hindenburg . The Derfflinger @-@ class battlecruisers were larger and featured significant improvements over the previous German battlecruisers , in terms of armament , armor protection , and cruising range . The ship was named after Field Marshal Georg von Derfflinger who fought in the Thirty Years ' War .
Derfflinger was part of the I Scouting Group for most of World War I , and was involved in several fleet actions during the war . She took part in the bombardments of English coastal towns , as well as the Battles of Dogger Bank and Jutland , where her stubborn resistance led to the British nicknaming her " Iron Dog " . The ship was partially responsible for the sinking of two British battlecruisers at Jutland ; Derfflinger and Seydlitz destroyed Queen Mary , and Lützow assisted her elder sister in the sinking of Invincible . Derfflinger was interned with the rest of the High Seas fleet at Scapa Flow following the armistice in November 1918 . Under the orders of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , the interned ships were scuttled on 21 June 1919 ; Derfflinger sank at 14 : 45 .
= = Construction = =
Built by Blohm & Voss at their yard in Hamburg , Derfflinger 's keel was laid in January 1912 . She was to have been launched on 14 June 1913 , but the wooden sledges upon which the ship rested became jammed ; the ship moved only 30 – 40 centimeters . A second attempt was successful on 12 July 1913 . A crew composed of dockyard workers took the ship around the Skagen to Kiel . In late October , the vessel was assigned to the I Scouting Group , but damage to the ship 's turbines during trials prevented her from joining the unit until 16 November .
On completion she displaced 26 @,@ 600 t ( 26 @,@ 200 long tons ) and was 210 @.@ 40 m ( 690 ft 3 in ) long . The ship had a crew of 44 officers and 1 @,@ 068 enlisted men . Derfflinger was equipped with two sets of high- and low @-@ pressure turbines powered by 14 coal @-@ burning boilers that drove four propellers . She was capable of a top speed of 26 @.@ 5 knots ( 49 @.@ 1 km / h ; 30 @.@ 5 mph ) , and could steam for 5 @,@ 600 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 400 km ; 6 @,@ 400 mi ) at a cruising speed of 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) . In early August 1915 , a derrick was mounted amidships , and tests with Hansa @-@ Brandenburg W seaplanes were conducted .
Mounting a main armament of eight 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 in ) guns , Derfflinger was the largest and most powerful German battlecruiser at the time . The ship 's armament was rounded out by twelve 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns in single casemate mounts and eight 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) guns , also placed in casemates , though four of these were removed in 1916 . An additional four 8 @.@ 8 cm flak guns were installed amidships . Four 50 cm ( 20 in ) submerged torpedo tubes were carried ; one was located in the bow , two on the broadside , and one in the stern .
= = Service = =
= = = Bombardment of Scarborough , Hartlepool , and Whitby = = =
Derfflinger 's first combat operation was a raid on the English coastal towns of Scarborough , Hartlepool , and Whitby . One raid had already been conducted by the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group , on the town of Yarmouth in late 1914 . Admiral Friedrich von Ingenohl , the commander of the High Seas Fleet , decided to conduct another raid on the English coast . His goal was to lure a portion of the Grand Fleet into combat where it could be isolated and destroyed . At 03 : 20 on 15 December , Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper , with his flag in Seydlitz , departed the Jade estuary . Following Seydlitz were Derfflinger , Moltke , Von der Tann , and Blücher , along with the light cruisers Kolberg , Strassburg , Stralsund , and Graudenz , and two squadrons of torpedo boats . The ships sailed north past the island of Heligoland , until they reached the Horns Reef lighthouse , at which point the ships turned west towards Scarborough . Twelve hours after Hipper left the Jade , the High Seas Fleet departed to provide distant cover . The main fleet consisted of 14 dreadnoughts , eight pre @-@ dreadnoughts and a screening force of two armored cruisers , seven light cruisers , and 54 torpedo boats .
Some four months earlier , on 26 August 1914 , the German light cruiser Magdeburg had run aground in the Gulf of Finland ; the wreck was captured by the Russian navy , which found code books used by the German navy , along with navigational charts for the North Sea . The Russians passed these documents to the Royal Navy , whose cryptographic unit — the so @-@ called Room 40 — began decrypting German signals . On 14 December , they intercepted messages relating to the planned bombardment of Scarborough . However , the exact details of the plan were unknown , and the British assumed that the High Seas Fleet would remain safely in port , as in the previous bombardment . Vice Admiral David Beatty 's four battlecruisers , supported by the 3rd Cruiser Squadron and the 1st Light Cruiser Squadron , along with the 2nd Battle Squadron 's six dreadnoughts , were to ambush Hipper 's battlecruisers .
During the night of 15 December , the main body of the High Seas Fleet encountered British destroyers . Fearing the prospect of a nighttime torpedo attack , Admiral Ingenohl ordered the ships to retreat . Hipper was unaware of Ingenohl 's reversal , and so he continued with the bombardment . Upon reaching the British coast , Hipper 's battlecruisers split into two groups . Derfflinger and Von der Tann went south to shell Scarborough and Whitby while Seydlitz , Moltke , and Blücher went north to shell Hartlepool . By 09 : 45 on the 16th , the two groups had reassembled , and they began to retreat eastward .
By this time , Beatty 's battlecruisers were positioned to block Hipper 's chosen withdrawal route , while other forces were en route to complete the encirclement . At 12 : 25 , the light cruisers of the II Scouting Group began to pass through the British forces searching for Hipper . One of the cruisers in the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron spotted Stralsund and signaled a report to Beatty . At 12 : 30 , Beatty turned his battlecruisers towards the German ships . Beatty presumed that the German cruisers were the advance screen for Hipper 's ships ; however , those were some 50 km ( 31 mi ) ahead . The 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron , which had been screening for Beatty 's ships , detached to pursue the German cruisers , but a misinterpreted signal from the British battlecruisers sent them back to their screening positions . This confusion allowed the German light cruisers to slip away and alerted Hipper to the location of the British battlecruisers . The German battlecruisers wheeled to the northeast of the British forces and escaped .
Both the British and the Germans were disappointed that they failed to effectively engage their opponents . Admiral Ingenohl 's reputation suffered greatly as a result of his timidity . Moltke 's captain was furious ; he stated that Ingenohl had turned back " because he was afraid of 11 British destroyers which could have been eliminated ... under the present leadership we will accomplish nothing . " The official German history criticized Ingenohl for failing to use his light forces to determine the size of the British fleet , stating : " he decided on a measure which not only seriously jeopardized his advance forces off the English coast but also deprived the German Fleet of a signal and certain victory . "
= = = Battle of Dogger Bank = = =
In early January 1915 , the German naval command became aware that British ships were reconnoitering in the Dogger Bank area . Admiral Ingenohl was initially reluctant to attempt to destroy these forces , because the I Scouting Group was temporarily weakened while Von der Tann was in drydock for periodic maintenance . Konteradmiral Richard Eckermann , the Chief of Staff of the High Seas Fleet , insisted on the operation , and so Ingenohl relented and ordered Hipper to take his battlecruisers to the Dogger Bank . On 23 January , Hipper sortied , with Seydlitz in the lead , followed by Moltke , Derfflinger , and Blücher , along with the light cruisers Graudenz , Rostock , Stralsund , and Kolberg and 19 torpedo boats from V Flotilla and II and XVIII Half @-@ Flotillas . Graudenz and Stralsund were assigned to the forward screen , while Kolberg and Rostock were assigned to the starboard and port , respectively . Each light cruiser had a half @-@ flotilla of torpedo boats attached .
Again , interception and decryption of German wireless signals played an important role . Although they were unaware of the exact plans , the cryptographers of Room 40 deduced that Hipper would be conducting an operation in the Dogger Bank area . To counter it , Beatty 's 1st Battlecruiser Squadron , Rear Admiral Archibald Moore 's 2nd Battlecruiser Squadron and Commodore William Goodenough 's 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron were to rendezvous with Commodore Reginald Tyrwhitt 's Harwich Force at 08 : 00 on 24 January , approximately 30 mi ( 48 km ) north of the Dogger Bank .
At 08 : 14 , Kolberg spotted the light cruiser Aurora and several destroyers from the Harwich Force . Aurora challenged Kolberg with a search light , at which point Kolberg attacked Aurora and scored two hits . Aurora returned fire and scored two hits on Kolberg in retaliation . Hipper immediately turned his battlecruisers towards the gunfire , when , almost simultaneously , Stralsund spotted a large amount of smoke to the northwest of her position . This was identified as a number of large British warships steaming towards Hipper 's ships .
Hipper turned south to flee , but was limited to 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) , which was the maximum speed of the older armored cruiser Blücher . The pursuing British battlecruisers were steaming at 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) , and quickly caught up to the German ships . At 09 : 52 , the battlecruiser Lion opened fire on Blücher from a range of approximately 20 @,@ 000 yards ( 18 @,@ 300 m ) ; shortly thereafter , Queen Mary and Tiger began firing as well . At 10 : 09 , the British guns made their first hit on Blücher . Two minutes later , the German ships began returning fire , primarily concentrating on Lion , from a range of 18 @,@ 000 yards ( 15 @,@ 460 m ) . At 10 : 28 , Lion was struck on the waterline , which tore a hole in the side of the ship and flooded a coal bunker . At 10 : 30 , New Zealand , the fourth ship in Beatty 's line , came within range of Blücher and opened fire . By 10 : 35 , the range had closed to 17 @,@ 500 yards ( 16 @,@ 000 m ) , at which point the entire German line was within the effective range of the British ships . Beatty ordered his battlecruisers to engage their German counterparts . Confusion aboard Tiger led the captain to believe he was to fire on Seydlitz , which left Moltke able to fire without distraction . During this period of the battle , Derfflinger was hit once , but the shell did only minor damage . Two armor plates in the hull were forced inward and some of the protective coal bunkers were flooded .
At 10 : 40 , one of Lion 's 13 @.@ 5 in ( 34 cm ) shells struck Seydlitz causing nearly catastrophic damage that knocked out both of the rear turrets and killed 159 men . The executive officer ordered the flooding of both magazines to avoid a flash fire that would have destroyed the ship . By this time , the German battlecruisers had zeroed in on Lion , scoring repeated hits . At 11 : 01 , an 11 in ( 28 cm ) shell from Seydlitz struck Lion and knocked out two of her dynamos . At 11 : 18 , two of Derfflinger 's 12 in ( 30 cm ) shells hit Lion , one of which struck the waterline and penetrated the belt , allowing seawater to enter the port feed tank . Lion had to turn off its engines due to seawater contamination and as a result fell out of the line .
By this time , Blücher was severely damaged after having been pounded by heavy shells . The chase ended when there were several reports of U @-@ boats ahead of the British ships ; Beatty quickly ordered evasive maneuvers , which allowed the German ships to increase the distance to their pursuers . At this time , Lion 's last operational dynamo failed , which dropped her speed to 15 knots ( 28 km / h ) . Beatty , in the stricken Lion , ordered the remaining battlecruisers to " Engage the enemy 's rear , " but signal confusion caused the ships to solely target Blücher , allowing Moltke , Seydlitz , and Derfflinger to escape . Blücher was hit by over 70 shells from the British battlecruisers over the course of the battle . The severely damaged warship capsized and sank at approximately 13 : 10 . By the time Beatty regained control over his ships , after having boarded Princess Royal , the German ships had too great a lead for the British to catch them ; at 13 : 50 , he broke off the chase .
= = = Bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft = = =
Derfflinger also took part in the bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft on 24 – 25 April 1916 . Hipper was away on sick leave , so the German ships were under the command of Konteradmiral Friedrich Boedicker . Derfflinger , her newly commissioned sister ship Lützow , and the veterans Moltke , Seydlitz and Von der Tann left the Jade Estuary at 10 : 55 on 24 April . They were supported by a screening force of 6 light cruisers and two torpedo boat flotillas . The heavy units of the High Seas Fleet , under the command of Admiral Reinhard Scheer , sailed at 13 : 40 , with the objective to provide distant support for Boedicker 's ships . The British Admiralty was made aware of the German sortie through the interception of German wireless signals , and deployed the Grand Fleet at 15 : 50 .
By 14 : 00 , Boedicker 's ships had reached a position off Norderney , at which point he turned his ships northward to avoid the Dutch observers on the island of Terschelling . At 15 : 38 , Seydlitz struck a naval mine , which tore a 50 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) hole in her hull , just abaft of the starboard broadside torpedo tube , allowing 1 @,@ 400 short tons ( 1 @,@ 250 long tons ) of water to enter the ship . Seydlitz turned back , with the screen of light cruisers , at a speed of 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The four remaining battlecruisers turned south immediately in the direction of Norderney to avoid further mine damage . By 16 : 00 , Seydlitz was clear of imminent danger , so the ship stopped to allow Boedicker to disembark . The torpedo boat V28 brought Boedicker to Lützow .
At 04 : 50 on 25 April , the German battlecruisers were approaching Lowestoft when the light cruisers Rostock and Elbing , which had been covering the southern flank , spotted the light cruisers and destroyers of Commodore Tyrwhitt 's Harwich Force . Boedicker refused to be distracted by the British ships , and instead trained his ships ' guns on Lowestoft . At a range of approximately 14 @,@ 000 yd ( 13 @,@ 000 m ) , the German battlecruisers destroyed two 6 in ( 15 cm ) shore batteries and inflicted other damage to the town , including the destruction of some 200 houses .
At 05 : 20 , the German raiders turned north , towards Yarmouth , which they reached by 05 : 42 . The visibility was so poor that the German ships fired one salvo each , with the exception of Derfflinger , which fired fourteen rounds from her main battery . The German ships turned back south , and at 05 : 47 encountered for the second time the Harwich Force , which had by then been engaged by the six light cruisers of the screening force . Boedicker 's ships opened fire from a range of 13 @,@ 000 yards ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) . Tyrwhitt immediately turned his ships around and fled south , but not before the cruiser Conquest sustained severe damage . Due to reports of British submarines and torpedo attacks , Boedicker broke off the chase and turned back east towards the High Seas Fleet . At this point , Scheer , who had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's sortie from Scapa Flow , turned back towards Germany .
= = = Battle of Jutland = = =
Almost immediately after the Lowestoft raid , Admiral Reinhard Scheer began planning another foray into the North Sea . He had initially intended to launch the operation in mid @-@ May , but the mine damage to Seydlitz had proved difficult to repair — Scheer was unwilling to embark on a major raid without his battlecruiser forces at full strength . At noon on 28 May , the repairs to Seydlitz were finally completed , and the ship returned to the I Scouting Group .
Derfflinger and the rest of Hipper 's I Scouting Group battlecruisers lay anchored in the outer Jade roadstead on the night of 30 May 1916 . The following morning , at 02 : 00 CET , the ships steamed out towards the Skagerrak at a speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . Derfflinger was the second ship in the line of five , ahead of Seydlitz , and to the rear of Lützow , the group flagship . The II Scouting Group , consisting of the light cruisers Frankfurt , Rear Admiral Boedicker 's flagship , Wiesbaden , Pillau , and Elbing , and 30 torpedo boats of the II , VI , and IX Flotillas , accompanied Hipper 's battlecruisers .
An hour and a half later , the High Seas Fleet under the command of Admiral Scheer left the Jade ; the force was composed of 16 dreadnoughts . The High Seas Fleet was accompanied by the IV Scouting Group , composed of the light cruisers Stettin , München , Hamburg , Frauenlob , and Stuttgart , and 31 torpedo boats of the I , III , V , and VII Flotillas , led by the light cruiser Rostock . The six pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the II Battle Squadron had departed from the Elbe roads at 02 : 45 , and rendezvoused with the battle fleet at 05 : 00 .
Shortly before 16 : 00 , Hipper 's force encountered the six ships of Vice Admiral Beatty 's 1st and 2nd battlecruiser squadrons . The German ships were the first to open fire , at a range of approximately 15 @,@ 000 yards ( 14 @,@ 000 m ) . When the British ships began returning fire , confusion amongst the British battlecruisers resulted in Moltke being engaged by both New Zealand and Tiger . The British rangefinders had misread the range to their German targets , and so the first salvos fired by the British ships fell a mile past the German battlecruisers . Due to errors in British communication , Derfflinger was unengaged during the first 10 minutes of the battle . Derfflinger 's gunnery officer , Korvettenkapitän Georg von Hase later remarked " By some mistake we were being left out . I laughed grimly and now I began to engage our enemy with complete calm , as at gun practice , and with continually increasing accuracy . " At 17 : 03 , the British battlecruiser HMS Indefatigable exploded after 15 minutes of gunfire from Von der Tann . Shortly thereafter the second half of Beatty 's force , the four Queen Elizabeth @-@ class battleships of the 5th Battle Squadron , came into range and began firing at Von der Tann and Moltke .
Following severe damage inflicted by Lützow on Lion , Derfflinger lost sight of the British ship , and so at 17 : 16 transferred her fire to HMS Queen Mary . Seydlitz was also engaging Queen Mary , and under the combined fire of the two battlecruisers , Queen Mary was hit repeatedly in quick succession . Observers on New Zealand and Tiger , the ships behind and ahead , respectively , reported three shells from a salvo of four struck the ship at the same time . Two more hits followed , and a gigantic explosion erupted amidships ; a billowing cloud of black smoke poured from the burning ship , which had broken in two .
The leading ships of the German High Seas fleet had by 18 : 00 come within effective range of the British battlecruisers and Queen Elizabeth @-@ class battleships and had begun trading shots with them . Between 18 : 09 and 18 : 19 , Derfflinger was hit by a 38 cm ( 15 in ) shell from either Barham or Valiant . At 18 : 55 , Derfflinger was hit again ; this shell struck the bow and tore a hole that allowed some 300 tons of water to enter the ship .
Shortly after 19 : 00 , the German cruiser Wiesbaden had become disabled by a shell from the battlecruiser Invincible ; the German battlecruisers made a 16 @-@ point turn to the northeast and made for the crippled cruiser at high speed . At 19 : 15 , they spotted the British armored cruiser Defence , which had joined the attack on Wiesbaden . Hipper initially hesitated , believing the ship was the German cruiser Rostock , but at 19 : 16 , Kapitan zur See Harder , Lützow 's commanding officer , ordered his ships ' guns to fire . The other German battlecruisers and battleships joined in the melee ; Defence was struck by several heavy @-@ caliber shells from the German ships . One salvo penetrated the ship 's ammunition magazines and a massive explosion destroyed the cruiser .
By 19 : 24 , the 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron had formed up with Beatty 's remaining battlecruisers ahead of the German line . The leading British ships spotted Lützow and Derfflinger and began firing on them . In the span of eight minutes , the battlecruiser Invincible scored eight hits on Lützow . In return , both Lützow and Derfflinger concentrated their fire on their antagonist , and at 19 : 31 , Derfflinger fired her final salvo at Invincible . Shortly thereafter the forward magazine detonated and the ship disappeared in a series of massive explosions .
By 19 : 30 , the High Seas Fleet , which was by that point pursuing the British battlecruisers , had not yet encountered the Grand Fleet . Scheer had been considering retiring his forces before darkness exposed his ships to torpedo boat attack . He had not yet made a decision when his leading battleships encountered the main body of the Grand Fleet . This development made it impossible for Scheer to retreat , for doing so would have sacrificed the slower pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of the II Battle Squadron . If he chose to use his dreadnoughts and battlecruisers to cover their retreat , he would have subjected his strongest ships to overwhelming British fire . Instead , Scheer ordered his ships to turn 16 points to starboard , which would bring the pre @-@ dreadnoughts to the relative safety of the disengaged side of the German battle line .
Derfflinger and the other battlecruisers followed the move , which put them astern of König . Hipper 's badly battered ships gained a temporary moment of respite , and uncertainty over the exact location and course of Scheer 's ships led Admiral Jellicoe to turn his ships eastward , towards what he thought was the likely path of the German retreat . The German fleet was instead sailing west , but Scheer ordered a second 16 @-@ point turn , which reversed course and pointed his ships at the center of the British fleet . The German fleet came under intense fire from the British line , and Scheer sent Derfflinger , Seydlitz , Moltke , and Von der Tann at high speed towards the British fleet , in an attempt to disrupt their formation and gain time for his main force to retreat . By 20 : 17 , the German battlecruisers had closed to within 7 @,@ 700 yards ( 7 @,@ 000 m ) of Colossus , at which point Scheer directed the ships to engage the lead ship of the British line . Three minutes later , the German battlecruisers turned in retreat , covered by a torpedo boat attack .
A pause in the battle at dusk ( approximately from 20 : 20 to 21 : 10 ) allowed Derfflinger and the other German battlecruisers to cut away wreckage that interfered with the main guns , extinguish fires , repair the fire control and signal equipment , and prepare the searchlights for nighttime action . During this period , the German fleet reorganized into a well @-@ ordered formation in reverse order , when the German light forces encountered the British screen shortly after 21 : 00 . The renewed gunfire gained Beatty 's attention , so he turned his battlecruisers westward . At 21 : 09 , he sighted the German battlecruisers , and drew to within 8 @,@ 500 yards ( 7 @,@ 800 m ) before opening fire at 21 : 20 . In the ensuing melee , Derfflinger was hit several times ; at 21 : 34 , a heavy shell struck her last operational gun turret and put it out of action . The German ships returned fire with every gun available , and at 21 : 32 hit both Lion and Princess Royal in the darkness . The maneuvering of the German battlecruisers forced the leading I Battle Squadron to turn westward to avoid collision . This brought the pre @-@ dreadnoughts of the II Battle Squadron directly between the two lines of battlecruisers . In doing so , this prevented the British ships from pursuing their German counterparts when they turned southward . The British battlecruisers opened fire on the old battleships ; the German ships turned southwest to bring all of their guns to bear against the British ships . This engagement lasted only a few minutes before Admiral Mauve turned his ships 8 @-@ points to starboard ; the British inexplicably did not pursue .
Close to the end of the battle , at 03 : 55 , Hipper transmitted a report to Admiral Scheer informing him of the tremendous damage his ships had suffered . By that time , Derfflinger and Von der Tann had only two operational guns each , Moltke was flooded with 1 @,@ 000 tons of water , Lützow had sunk , and Seydlitz was severely damaged . Hipper reported : " I Scouting Group was therefore no longer of any value for a serious engagement , and was consequently directed to return to harbor by the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , while he himself determined to await developments off Horns Reef with the battlefleet . "
During the course of the battle , Derfflinger was hit 17 times by heavy caliber shells and nine times by secondary guns . She was in dock for repairs until 15 October . Derfflinger fired 385 shells from her main battery , another 235 rounds from her secondary guns , and one torpedo . Her crew suffered 157 men killed and another 26 men wounded ; this was the highest casualty rate on any ship not sunk during the battle . Because of her stalwart resistance at Jutland , the British nicknamed her " Iron Dog . "
= = = Later operations = = =
During the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight in November 1917 , Derfflinger sailed from port to assist the German light cruisers of the II Scouting Group , but by the time she and the other battlecruisers arrived on the scene , the British raiders had fled northward .
In late 1917 , the High Seas Fleet began to conduct anti @-@ convoy raids in the North Sea between Britain and Norway . In October and December , German cruisers and destroyers intercepted and destroyed two British convoys to Norway . This prompted Beatty , now the Commander in Chief of the Grand Fleet , to detach several battleships and battlecruisers to protect convoys in the North Sea . This presented to Admiral Scheer the opportunity for which he had been waiting the entire war : the chance to isolate and eliminate a portion of the Grand Fleet . At 05 : 00 on 23 April 1918 , the High Seas Fleet left harbor with the intention of intercepting one of the heavily escorted convoys . Wireless radio traffic was kept to a minimum to prevent the British from learning of the operation . By 14 : 10 , the convoy had still not yet been located , and so Scheer turned the High Seas Fleet back towards German waters .
= = = Fate = = =
Derfflinger was to have taken part in what would have amounted to the " death ride " of the High Seas Fleet shortly before the end of World War I. The bulk of the High Seas Fleet was to have sortied from its base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet ; Scheer — by now the Großadmiral of the fleet — intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , in order to retain a better bargaining position for Germany , whatever the cost to the fleet . While the fleet was consolidating in Wilhelmshaven , war @-@ weary sailors began deserting en masse . As Derfflinger and Von der Tann passed through the locks that separated Wilhelmshaven 's inner harbor and roadstead , some 300 men from both ships climbed over the side and disappeared ashore .
On 24 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors mutinied on several battleships ; three ships from the III Squadron refused to weigh anchors , and the battleships Thüringen and Helgoland reported acts of sabotage . The order to sail was rescinded in the face of this open revolt . The following month , the German Revolution toppled the monarchy and was quickly followed by the Armistice that ended the war .
Following Germany 's capitulation , the Allies demanded that the majority of the High Seas Fleet be interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow . On 21 November 1918 , under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , the ships sailed from their base in Germany for the last time . The fleet rendezvoused with the light cruiser Cardiff , before meeting a massive flotilla of some 370 British , American , and French warships for the voyage to Scapa Flow . Once the ships were interned , their breech locks were removed , which disabled their guns .
The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Versailles Treaty . It became apparent to Reuter that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June , which was the deadline by which Germany was to have signed the peace treaty . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to 23 June , Reuter ordered his ships be sunk . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers . With the majority of the British fleet away , Reuter transmitted the order to his ships at 11 : 20 . Derfflinger sank at 14 : 45 . The ship was raised in 1939 and was anchored , still capsized , off the island of Risa until 1946 . Derfflinger was then sent to Faslane Port and broken up by 1948 . The ship 's bell was delivered to the German Federal Navy on 30 August 1965 . Her bell is now on display outside the church of St Michael on the Outer Hebrides island of Eriskay .
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= ArtRave : The Artpop Ball =
ArtRave : The Artpop Ball ( stylized as artRAVE : The ARTPOP Ball ) was the fourth headlining concert tour by American singer Lady Gaga . Supporting her third studio album Artpop ( 2013 ) , the tour ran from May 4 , 2014 to November 24 , 2014 . The tour dates included cities where Gaga had canceled shows of her previous Born This Way Ball tour after suffering a hip injury . The ArtRave tour was preceded by a performance at the South by Southwest music festival , which drew controversy due to a segment where an artist vomited on Gaga , and a seven @-@ day residency at the Roseland Ballroom in Manhattan , New York .
ArtRave 's concept and name are derived from the similarly named release party for Artpop . The stage resembled a cave and consisted of two sections connected by catwalks made of translucent lucite , allowing the audience to move underneath the catwalks while still being able to watch the show . Gaga 's costumes in the show included one with tentacles , one with bejeweled wings , a rave @-@ inspired outfit and a necklace made of marijuana leaves . Costume designers and choreographers aspired to make a single , coherent show . The lighting fixtures used for the concert were from Clay Paky and the main idea was to create an immersive rave experience with the lights . They were also designed to accommodate minor changes in the show sequences .
The tour was produced by Live Nation , and promoted by Absolut Vodka in the United States and O2 in the United Kingdom . Tickets for several shows sold out immediately once available , prompting additional dates . Negative reports about the tour 's commercial performance were dismissed by Live Nation chairman Arthur Fogel . Gaga repeatedly placed within the top @-@ ten of the Billboard Boxscore lists for the 2014 tour grosses . At the end , ArtRave : The Artpop Ball grossed a total of $ 83 million from 920 @,@ 088 sold tickets at the 74 reported performances . Billboard also listed it as the ninth best concert tour of the year with 76 reported shows . The tour additionally received positive response from reviewers , but some criticized it for being disjointed . On November 24 , 2014 , the concert was streamed live from Bercy Arena in France .
= = Background = =
While releasing her third studio album Artpop , Gaga held a private event in New York known as ArtRave , where she performed songs from the album and showcased art pieces . Later , she took the concept of ArtRave and created ArtRave : The Artpop Ball tour . After abruptly cancelling the North American leg of her previous Born This Way Ball ( 2012 – 13 ) tour due to a major hip injury , the tour began with its first leg in the United States on May 4 , 2014 , in Fort Lauderdale , Florida . ArtRave : The Artpop Ball had the singer visiting cities where she canceled tour dates in order to undergo the surgery , as well as playing new cities . Gaga explained to The Independent : " When I 'm onstage with the Artpop Ball , the point of the show is to take what was the mess of my life and make art of it – to raise the spirit of artistic dreams and creativity and take all the things I was feeling in pain about , and rage ... I take a much more meditative approach to the performance . I 've got wide @-@ open ears . The ArtRave has routines , and there 's a performance @-@ art aspect that has been designed . " Prior to the beginning of the tour , Gaga headlined six shows ( March 28 , 30 , 31 and April 2 , 4 , and 6 ) at the Roseland Ballroom in Manhattan , New York , and these shows were the final performances at the venue . A seventh show was also added for April 7 and officially closed the venue .
Gaga also held a one @-@ off concert for ArtRave : The Artpop Ball inside a six @-@ storey vending machine at Doritos ' annual South by Southwest ( SXSW ) music festival at Austin , Texas . The city 's Music and Entertainment division had initially denied permission to Gaga for playing inside the venue citing that it was for " public safety concerns " . Don Pitts from the division said that the venue being in close proximity with a parking lot was the reason they had to cancel Gaga 's application . On March 6 , 2014 , it was announced that Gaga would indeed play at the venue . Tickets were sold to the fans through different competitions and challenges . Randal Lane from Forbes reported that the concert would support Gaga 's Born This Way Foundation and charity events , but nevertheless opined that " the way they 're doling out the tickets is still crass " . The concert was criticized when artist Millie Brown vomited a green liquid over Gaga during the performance of " Swine " from Artpop . The performance received complaints about " glamorizing " eating disorders . In response to the controversy , Brown told MTV News : " I can understand why people would make that association , but my performance is really not a statement about eating disorders themselves . " Gaga herself told Today " Millie and I know that not everybody 's going to love that performance , but we both really believe in artistic expression and strong identities , and I support her and what she does . Artpop , my new album , is about bringing art and music together in the spirit of creative rebellion , and for us , that performance was art in its purest form . "
= = Development = =
= = = Stage setup = = =
For the tour , Gaga told Capital FM that she wanted something other than the " Monster Pit " arrangement she previously had in the Born This Way Ball tour , since she was always limited to performing on one portion of the arena . Hence Gaga and her team thought of building two stages , one main stage and an accompanying one on the far end of the arena . It would be enhanced by the addition of a catwalk which would wind all around the arena floor , enabling the singer to interact with the audience . In March 2014 , Gaga tweeted a picture of the stage which showed a runway extending from the main platform up to the general admission seats and then bifurcating into two additional runways , ending in small stages within the audience . At the end of the first runway , another platform was constructed which descended into the crowd directly . Gaga noted that the 110 feet ( 34 m ) long runways would be made of lucite rendering them translucent , so that the crowd can dance underneath it while still being able to watch the show . The main stage was described as a white cave , reminiscent of Atlantica from the 1989 Disney film The Little Mermaid , and featured a digital backdrop showing stars and the moon .
The band was placed inside the white dome like structures on the stage , described by John Jurgenson from The Wall Street Journal as like the planet Tatooine in the Star Wars series . At the end of one of the Lucite runways , a piano was hidden beneath enormous stalagmite @-@ like structures reminiscent of Superman 's Fortress of Solitude in the comics . There was also a bar overlooking the piano area , where the audience could order drinks while watching the show . Carl Williot from Idolator website compared the stage with that of ArtRave , and felt that it looked like an " insect " with the extended runway and smaller stages . Following the reveal of the image , the hashtag # LadyGagaTourStage started trending globally in Twitter . According to Stacy Lambe from Out magazine , the stage took over 21 @,@ 000 hours to construct , including the catwalks . There are 15 inflatable trees which are air hosed on the stage to re @-@ create a garden during one of the segments . The whole set up took three hours to dismantle and 21 trucks to carry it from one venue to another . Production manager Jason " JD " Danter explained that the whole set up started from 8 : 00 am in the morning , with lighting and sound checks taking six hours to complete .
For the production of the show , Gaga enlisted choreographer Richard Jackson and together with him and the Haus of Gaga , they came up with ideas regarding how the show should be constructed and what music should be performed . They also had to find a way to co @-@ mingle all the different ideas to make a single , coherent show . For the choreography , which encompassed all the stages present , Jackson had to employ a different approach , so that the audience could see the performance from every angle .
= = = Costume design = = =
Gaga did not preview the costumes for the tour until the opening night . There were seven outfits created for the show , all throughout the different segments . The first was a bejeweled leotard which had the Jeff Koons blue gazing ball attached in the middle ; the ball was previously used in the album cover art for Artpop . Gaga accessorized the dress with a pair of feathered wings while wearing a blond bob wig reminiscent of her looks from The Fame era . A rave inspired outfit was worn for the last segment and consisted of colorful dreadlocks and legwarmers made of fur . She added a shirt consisting of straps and plastic sleeves with it . One of the complex outfits was made of latex and consisted of a polka dotted leotard and a number of tentacles attached to the dress as well as a headpiece with two tentacles from it .
The singer also wore a short dress coupled with a platinum bob wig ; another version of the dress had a gown attached to it , with Gaga wearing a long wig inspired by Donatella Versace . Before the final performance Gaga wore black latex pants and a top , with a green wig on her head and a necklace made of marijuana leaves . Finally , Gaga also wore a seashell bikini top and voluminous wig ; the ensemble had been worn by Gaga in previous live performances for the Artpop era . Her dancers wore neon colored outfits with matching head gears and accessories . Gaga also had a number of unique props , including a Gibson Flying V guitar during " Venus " , a plastic chair shaped like a claw and a keytar which was shaped like a sea horse .
BBC News reported that some of the costumes for the tour were designed by Sunderland University fashion graduate Dayne Henderson . He had been chosen by one of Gaga 's stylists after seeing his tweet to the singer with a photo of his design which included clothing inspired by fetish fashion . Henderson developed hoods , masks and head pieces for Gaga and her dancers . He had to produce the clothes in latex , and within 12 days had to deliver it to Gaga 's management .
= = = Lighting fixtures = = =
Production and lighting designer Roy Bennett used Clay Paky 's A.leda B @-@ Eye K20 LED @-@ based moving lights and Clay Paky Sharpys as lighting attachments . Also around 120 B @-@ Eyes by PKG , were obtained for the tour as well with lighting control from three full @-@ sized grandMA2s and 10 NPUs . According to lighting programmer Jason Baeri , " Bennett 's approach to the show was to make it an immersive rave that reflected Gaga 's non @-@ stop party aesthetic ... That means active , alive , vibrant and high energy — it requires us to be just as active on stage as in the crowd . The audience is every bit as much a set piece as they are a room of spectators , so we had to include them as part of Gaga 's same party not just watching the spectacle from afar . Cue wise , that 's almost like programming two shows at once : Both had to behave as one cohesive element . "
Bennett had started designing the lighting from November 2013 and three months later presented it to Gaga . She approved off the audience experience theme that Bennett developed . The B @-@ Eyes , which were previously used in the Roseland shows , were mounted above the 3 by 40 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m × 12 m ) video screens in the tour . Sharpy rigging were used throughout , in the front of the stage , rear , side , as well as on the pods over the audience . They were the main lighting accessory for the tour . Baeri explained that they had faced technical challenges , due to high pixel content . The B @-@ Eyes added a total of 4 @,@ 500 pixel and was varied through all possible configurations . The lighting effects varied along with the tone and the inflections of the song being performed . Clay Paky was distributed by A.C.T Lighting in North America . Solotech were signed as the video contractor , while 8th Day Sound group were the audio contractors throughout the tour .
= = Concert synopsis = =
The show starts off with a video introduction about the tour , followed by dancers appearing on stage with balloons and blue gazing balls . The video continues to play as Gaga emerges from beneath the stage , wearing a golden leotard with wings . She proceeds to sing " Artpop " and then " G.U.Y. " , the latter having choreography from its music video . The song transitions to " Donatella " with the screen showing flashing stars and colorful cloud formations . Gaga then performs " Fashion ! " on the piano and goes back for a costume change as the band plays the remaining part of the song .
Next section starts with " Venus " as large inflatable flowers rise from below on stage . Gaga appears in the seashell bikini ensemble and also uses a guitar as a prop . After a short speech , " Manicure " and " Cake Like Lady Gaga " are performed . Gaga disappears inside for another outfit change as the band plays an outro . She emerges back onto stage in the white outfit and wig as a video shows her twirling on screen . A short version of " Just Dance " is sung , with her dancers dressed as " sea people " . The sea horse shaped keytar is used for the performance . It is followed by short versions of " Poker Face " and " Telephone " , transitioning to another outfit .
The section begins with Gaga wearing the tentacle dress , performing " Partynauseous " and " Paparazzi " with some ambient and quiet music . As she makes her way down the runways , her dancers bring the " Monster Paw Chair " and puts it on one of the small stages . There Gaga sings " Do What U Want " and near the end she reaches for the piano to perform an acoustic version of " Born This Way " . A speech ensues , which is followed by " Jewels n ' Drugs " , as Gaga disappears beneath the stage . A video interlude starts showing the singer dancing . Gaga rises from the stage , wearing the black latex dress near the piano , to sing the chorus of " Jewels n ' Drugs " .
" Aura " triggers off the next act with Gaga and the dancers performing on the main stage . A red couch is brought out on which " Sexxx Dreams " is sung . Following this , white chairs are brought out onto the stage by the dancers for " Mary Jane Holland " , during which a choreography is shown with the chairs . " Alejandro " takes place on the lucite runways while Gaga declares that she would change costume on stage . " Ratchet " plays as an intro as Gaga strips naked while her stylists help change into the rave inspired outfit and wig . The performance of " Bad Romance " starts with the original choreography from its music video , followed by " Applause " , during which a video backdrop shows the singer in various disguises . Next Gaga begins performing " Swine " , during which her dancers fire stuffed animals into the crowd using cannons . Gaga leaves the stage for a final costume change , appearing to perform " Gypsy " for the encore . Gaga performs most of the song at the piano then makes her way along the runway to finish the performance on the main stage and closes the show .
= = Commercial reception = =
= = = Ticket sales = = =
The tickets were first available to members of Gaga 's social network website , Littlemonsters.com. They were provided with a unique code for ordering tickets from online , but were limited to four tickets per member . According to Live Nation , the first batch of tickets for the tour went on sale from December 9 , 2013 , and sell @-@ out shows were reported from Toronto , Winnipeg , Calgary , Los Angeles and Edmonton within hours . This led to two new dates being added to the itinerary : June 26 at Milwaukee 's Marcus Amphitheater , and June 28 at Atlantic City 's Boardwalk Hall . On January 29 , 2014 , Gaga released the dates for the European leg of the tour , which would begin September 23 , 2014 , from Belgium . The singer partnered with British mobile network O2 , for a deal which would enable the company 's customers to avail tickets for the tour three days prior to the general release . The deal included Gaga being featured in a new advertisement , for promoting the UK leg of the tour and showed her wearing a dress with large , glittering shoulder pads while running towards a concert stage . This was the second time Gaga partnered with O2 , first in November 2013 , for exclusive access to the tracks from Artpop , ahead of its UK release . Upon release , Ticketmaster reported that the UK venues sold out within five minutes , prompting the singer to add another two dates in London . In April and May 2014 , she released more floor tickets for sale , after ensuring larger crowd capacity for all the UK venues and a total of eight new dates .
For the US dates , Gaga partnered with Absolut Vodka , who transformed the bar adjacent to the stage into a lounge called " Absolut Artpop Lounge " , where some of the lucky fans could watch the show , while ordering cocktails of their choice . Two fans would be chosen on the spot to have seats at the bar ; tickets could also be won through a contest at the Absolut website . Gaga explained that with the help of Absolut she could " [ create ] a special experience where fans can actually sit inside the stage and have their own bar . It 's going to be a huge rave in the spirit of art and creativity . " Other promotions announced at the website included winning an all @-@ expense @-@ paid trip to see Gaga 's show on September 30 at Stockholm , Sweden , and Gaga @-@ inspired runway shows at LGBT bars across the nation , from where another set of tickets could be won . Four dates were added in Australia , starting from August 20 , 2014 , at Perth . She had one concert at Dubai 's Meydan Racecourse on September 10 , but newspaper Gulf News reported that the show would be censored for respecting cultural traditions in the UAE . According to Marco Riois , chairman of AMI Live which organized the show in Dubai , " there will be some edits ... It cannot be the full show , because it wouldn 't be allowed . So it 's a special show for Dubai and for the culture " .
= = = Boxscore = = =
Forbes spoke about the commendable ticket pricing ensued by Live Nation for the tour . Jesse Lawrence from the magazine noticed how the ticket prices were lowered to an average of $ 68 in Gaga 's primary markets and ensuing fast sell @-@ outs , compared to those of her contemporaries , like Miley Cyrus ' Bangerz Tour which had an average ticket price at $ 86 . Conversely , the average price was raised to as high as $ 269 in Gaga 's secondary markets , although with fewer tickets available than Cyrus ' tour . This again ensued that the revenue was earned with profit . Lawrence concluded by saying that " Lady Gaga 's pricing , seems to be taking a longer @-@ term view and is focused on providing access to as many of her fans as possible as opposed to wringing out every last dollar on the current tour . " In April 2014 , Lawrence reported that following Gaga 's performance at Roseland Ballroom , the tour ticket prices in the secondary markets went up by 5 @.@ 3 % , with major increases being visible at Philips Arena in Atlanta . Tickets at Madison Square Garden rose up to $ 338 @.@ 81 , which was 42 @.@ 6 % higher than the average price . Other locations where ticket prices saw an increase were MGM Grand Garden Arena in Las Vegas , TD Garden Arena in Boston and United Center in Chicago . A higher price was set for the first of two nights at Staples Center in Los Angeles , resulting in one of the costliest tickets in the show . The pricing was leveled off for the second night and they gradually decreased with the tour 's progress . This was evident in the tour date switch up between May 12 and 15 at Washington and Philadelphia , respectively , where the ticket prices fell by 29 @.@ 5 % .
Reports arose in the media that the ticket sales for the tour were falling , leading Arthur Fogel , Chairman of Live Nation 's Global Touring division , to brand them as " ridiculous " . He clarified to Billboard that the about 80 % of the tickets were sold in North America and Europe , and they were still in the process of releasing future dates for numerous venues . The 29 shows in North America had grossed around US $ 26 million , with an average of almost $ 900 @,@ 000 per show . Fogel also addressed concerns that Live Nation had lost $ 30 million from Gaga 's tour , saying that if a similar situation really happened , then the company would have cancelled the concerts . " I just don 't know how this shit gets any traction without people doing their homework ... Just a complete fool would say something like that and it could only come from somebody who has an agenda , because it makes absolutely no sense , on any level " , Fogel concluded . A total of 800 @,@ 000 tickets have been sold for the tour , as reported by Billboard .
In June 2014 , Billboard released the first boxscore figures for the tour , up to the June 2 date . Gaga placed at number four on the boxscore list with total gross of $ 13 @.@ 9 million , and more than 171 @,@ 000 tickets sold . The boxscore figure for her Roseland Ballroom performance was also revealed to have grossed $ 1 @.@ 5 million with more than 24 @,@ 000 tickets sold . In October 2014 , the second set of boxscore were released , with sales of 509 @,@ 741 tickets and a gross of $ 46 @,@ 933 @,@ 594 , ranking at number two on the boxscore list . Final boxscores were released in December 2014 , with the last performance at Paris ' Palais Omnisports Bercy grossing $ 1 @.@ 2 million and audience of 13 @,@ 013 . In total , ArtRave : The Artpop Ball grossed $ 83 million from 920 @,@ 088 sold tickets at the 74 reported performances to Billboard Boxscore . On Pollstar 's Year @-@ end Top 20 Worldwide Tours list , Gaga ranked at number seven with $ 88 @.@ 7 million in gross and 947 @,@ 852 tickets sold for 84 shows , including the seven shows from Roseland Ballroom . Billboard listed it as the ninth best concert tour of the year with 76 reported shows .
= = Critical response = =
= = = North America = = =
John Walker from MTV News reviewed the opening concert in Fort Lauderdale , and was impressed with the show . He particularly liked the segment , when after the performance of " Alejandro " , Gaga decided to change her costume onstage and did so with the help of her stylists . Walker added that " to prove this , [ Gaga ] ripped the green , shoulder @-@ length wig right off of her head . Yes , she literally snatched her own wig . Reverse Warholian expedition says what ? " Walker further emphasized in another review for MTV that the tour expanded on Gaga 's characteristic " fan @-@ to @-@ artist " connections and theatrics she had developed with the Born This Way Ball . Adam Carlson from Billboard praised the show saying that it turned the " spectacle " into a " surprise " . He complimented the choreography and the constant costume changes , explaining that " talking about [ Gaga 's ] performances is more fun than listening to them , but don 't take that as an insult . There 's just a lot to talk about . " Chris Richards from The Washington Post said that " for a pop concert in an arena [ Verizon Center ] , it felt good . As a public exercise in reciprocal , unconditional love , it felt unique [ from Gaga ] . "
Glenn Gamboa from Newsday was impressed with the performances , saying " Whether it was the goofiness of ' Venus ' , the playfulness of ' Donatella ' or the throwback soul of ' Do What U Want ' , which she crowned with an a cappella bit of gospel , she filled the songs with an intensity that was infectious . " Lauren Moraski from CBS News felt that Gaga was in " full @-@ force " during the concert and " seemed right at home " with the New York crowd . Frank Scheck from The Hollywood Reporter commended the stage setup , the costumes and the overall entertainment aspect of the tour , saying that " Unlike Madonna , who engages in similar , but decidedly chillier , over @-@ the @-@ top theatrics , Gaga invests her spectacles with an undeniable sweetness and heart . " Scheck was positive about the performances of " Gypsy " and " Born This Way " .
Negative commentary came from Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone who reviewed the show at Madison Square Garden and was disappointed , calling it " a run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill arena @-@ rock show , the kind where a band has a shoddy new album to flog " . He was not impressed that Gaga chose to ignore songs from Born This Way and its successful singles . Dan DeLuca from Philadelphia Daily News wrote that " the show was seriously marred by too many electro powered would @-@ be dance cuts from ARTPOP whose weaknesses were exposed whenever she reached back to her more enticing greatest hits " and that she performed " far too many songs " from Artpop . The Boston Globe writer James Reed felt that " something " was missing from Gaga 's performance , and it felt " hollow " . He also criticized Gaga 's reliance on backing tracks to sing her songs . Joey Guerra from Houston Chronicle found the show to be " disjointed " , saying that there was " little in the way of real transition between sequences , particularly in the later moments . "
= = = Oceania , Asia , and Europe = = =
Candice Barnes from The Sydney Morning Herald gave the show positive review , saying that Gaga " delivered a show fit for a queen " at Perth Arena . " Plugged as an ' art rave ' , it was hard to distinguish where the art finished and the music began " , she concluded . Conversely , Ross McCrae from The West Australian panned the show calling it " middle of the road arena rock show " , and noticed the public 's lack of interest in the performances . The lack of ticket sales was also noted by a reviewer for News.com.au , who went on to add that " one could never accuse Lady Gaga of lacking attention to detail in her live productions or failing to put in a wholehearted and energetic performance . " Jenny Valentish from Time Out awarded the show in Melbourne five stars , calling Gaga " a phenomenal singer with an immense voice ( ... ) who could try her hand at any genre " , also praising her live band and the costume changes .
The National critic Saeed Saeed described the show as " hugely entertaining " and something that " delivers pop music 's ultimate mandate : to dance your worries away " . Writing about the subdued concert in Dubai due to religious sentiments , Mohammed Kadry from Khaleej Times noted that Gaga could still put on a " spectacle " and she " was determined to connect with her local audience as she attempted to piece together flattering colloquial phrases " . Debra Kamin from The Times of Israel praised Gaga 's vocals , adding that " show was everything Gaga promised and everything fans have come to expect from her — loud , florescent , sexually explicit and mind @-@ numbingly bright . "
Dave Simpson from The Guardian gave a positive review for the Birmingham concert , awarding the show with 4 out of 5 stars . He stated that " Gaga has often been accused of being all artifice and no heart , but tonight 's show is a powerful statement from a star who refuses to be pinned down or written off . " Daniel Dylan Wray from The Independent awarded the Birmingham concert with 4 out of 5 stars and described ArtRave as " loud , colourful and frequently emblematic of feel @-@ good , throwaway party times " . Katie Fitzpatrick from Manchester Evening News awarded the concert with 5 out of 5 stars . She praised Lady Gaga 's voice , her live band , the outfits and the connection of the fans – especially in this show that Gaga helped a fan to propose to his partner on stage . Katie stated that " the ostentatiously named ArtRave may reaffirm that Gaga the show @-@ woman is definitely about her art . But this little lady with the powerful set of lungs is also undoubtedly all heart . " Ludovic Hunter @-@ Tilney from the Financial Times rated the concert three out of five stars . He criticized the songs from Artpop except the title track , but complimented the acoustic and piano sequences .
= = Broadcast and recording = =
On November 17 , 2014 , Gaga announced through her social medias that the last concert show , which took place at Bercy Arena in France on November 24 , would be streamed live around the world , online on Yahoo ! Live . The concert started with a 30 @-@ minute video presentation of Gaga 's portraits , as shot by Robert Wilson , and which were previously exhibited at the Louvre Museum in Paris . The live stream broke records for Yahoo ! Live and Live Nation .
= = Set list = =
This setlist is representative of the show in Milan , Italy . It does not represent all dates throughout the tour .
= = Shows = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Management
Main personnel
Personnel taken from ArtRave : The Artpop Ball tour book .
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= Evander Kane =
Evander Frank Kane ( born August 2 , 1991 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey left winger currently playing for the Buffalo Sabres of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Kane was selected fourth overall in the first round of the 2009 NHL Entry Draft by the Atlanta Thrashers .
During his major junior career , Kane won the Memorial Cup with the Vancouver Giants of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) in 2007 , finished as runner @-@ up for the Jim Piggott Memorial Trophy as WHL rookie of the year in 2008 and was named to the WHL West First All @-@ Star Team in 2009 . Kane also set the Giants ' franchise record for single @-@ season goals in 2008 – 09 .
Internationally , Kane has won gold medals with Team Canada at the 2008 Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament and 2009 World Junior Championships . He has also competed in the 2010 IIHF World Championship .
= = Early life = =
Kane was born on August 2 , 1991 , in Vancouver , British Columbia , to Perry and Sheri Kane , who named him after American boxer Evander Holyfield ( he later met Holyfield at age 18 ) . Kane has two sisters , Brea and Kyla , who are two and four years younger , respectively .
Coming from an athletic lineage , his father was an amateur boxer and hockey player . Kane 's mother was a professional volleyball player . His uncle , Leonard Kane , is a member of the Canadian Ball Hockey Hall of Fame . Kane 's cousin , Dwayne Provo , played in the Canadian Football League ( CFL ) for seven years and spent one season with the New England Patriots of the National Football League ( NFL ) . Another cousin , Kirk Johnson , boxed for Canada at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona and later fought John Ruiz for the 2002 World Boxing Association ( WBA ) Heavyweight title .
Growing up in East Vancouver , Kane attended high school at John Oliver Secondary . In addition to hockey , he played baseball , basketball and soccer growing up . After beginning to skate at the age of three , he began playing minor hockey at eight . His father instructed him in his early years and initially wanted to keep him out of organized hockey until Kane was ten . At the age of 14 years , Kane recorded 140 points in 66 games with the bantam North Shore Winter Club , followed by a 22 @-@ goal , 54 @-@ point campaign to finish fourth in league scoring with the Greater Vancouver Canadians of the BC Hockey Major Midget League ( BCMML ) . Kane also played minor hockey with the Vancouver Thunderbirds , prior to bantam and midget .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Amateur = = =
= = = Vancouver Giants ( 2006 – 09 ) = = =
Kane was drafted 19th overall in the 2006 WHL Bantam Draft by the Vancouver Giants . He received his first WHL call @-@ up for a game against the Seattle Thunderbirds on December 13 , 2006 , due to other Giants players international commitments in the World Junior Championships . Kane scored his first WHL goal , a game @-@ tying marker , on March 25 , 2007 , the last game of the regular season . He also suited up for five WHL post @-@ season games , being originally called up for the playoffs after Giants forward Tim Kraus was suspended for game three of the opening round . He later appeared in two Memorial Cup games , tallying an assist , as part of the Giants ' 2007 Memorial Cup championship .
Set to begin his rookie campaign with the Giants the following season , Kane experienced a minor setback , as he was forced to miss the start of training camp with a case of mononucleosis . He nevertheless recovered and joined the Giants full @-@ time to tally 24 goals – third in team scoring – and 41 points in his first WHL season . Finishing tenth in rookie scoring , he was nominated for the Jim Piggott Memorial Trophy as WHL rookie of the year , which was awarded to Brayden Schenn of the Brandon Wheat Kings .
Kane emerged with an impressive start to the 2008 – 09 season , registering at least a point in each of his first 22 games . After recording his first WHL hat @-@ trick on October 10 , 2008 , against the Kelowna Rockets , he was named WHL Player of the Week on October 12 , succeeding linemate Casey Pierro @-@ Zabotel , who had been chosen the previous week . Kane earned a spot as an injury replacement at the 2009 World Junior Championships with Team Canada . Upon returning with a gold medal , Kane was named player of the week for the second time in the season on January 12 , 2009 , after scoring six points in two games immediately following the World Juniors . Later that month , he participated in the 2009 CHL Top Prospects Game as captain for Team Cherry .
Kane finished his second WHL season with 48 goals and 96 points , fourth in League scoring . He surprassed Adam Courchaine 's team record of 43 goals in a single season , set in 2002 – 03 . Second in team scoring to Pierro @-@ Zabotel 's 115 points , the linemates finished one @-@ two in all @-@ time Giants ' single @-@ season scoring as Pierro @-@ Zabotel and Kane both surpassed Gilbert Brulé 's previous 87 @-@ point mark . Kane received WHL West First Team All @-@ Star honours along with teammates Pierro @-@ Zabotel and Jonathon Blum . In the subsequent 2009 playoffs , after the Giants swept the Prince George Cougars in the first round , Kane scored a double @-@ overtime game @-@ winner to force a seventh game in the second round against the Spokane Chiefs . After eliminating the Chiefs in the seventh game , the Giants were then defeated by the Kelowna Rockets in six games in the semi @-@ finals . In 17 post @-@ season games , Kane accumulated 15 points .
= = = Professional = = =
= = = Atlanta Thrashers / Winnipeg Jets ( 2009 – 2015 ) = = =
Kane was selected fourth overall by the Atlanta Thrashers . Less than a month later , the Thrashers signed Kane to an entry @-@ level contract on July 20 , 2009 .
Kane made the Thrashers ' lineup out of his first NHL training camp for the 2009 – 10 season . He recorded his first career NHL point in his debut on October 3 , 2009 , earning an assist on a goal by Rich Peverley against the Tampa Bay Lightning . His first goal was scored five days later , on October 8 , beating Chris Mason with a snap shot in a 4 – 2 win over the St. Louis Blues . He suffered a bone fracture , late in his rookie season , blocking a shot during a game against the Tampa Bay Lightning on March 6 , 2010 . Kane missed 15 games before returning to the lineup on April 3 . Kane finished his NHL rookie campaign with 14 goals and 26 points in 66 games , ranked 12th among first @-@ year point @-@ scorers .
Kane suffered several minor injuries during his second NHL season in 2010 – 11 season . During a game against the Colorado Avalanche on November 30 , 2010 , Kane suffered a left knee injury after he was struck by a shot from teammate Tobias Enström ; he missed two games . The following month , he missed one game due to an arm injury , sustained during a game against the Pittsburgh Penguins on December 7 . In January 2011 , he missed an additional six games due to a lower @-@ body injury . Kept from the lineup for a total nine games , Kane increased his points total to 43 with 19 goals and 24 assists . He ranked fifth in team point @-@ scoring – third among forward behind captain Andrew Ladd and Bryan Little .
During the off @-@ season , the Thrashers franchise was bought and relocated by True North Sports and Entertainment , becoming the Winnipeg Jets . Kane was enjoying a successful first season as a Jet , leading his team in scoring with 18 goals and 31 points by mid @-@ January 2012 . During that month , however , he was sidelined with a concussion that was reported on January 21 . Later in the season , he recorded a four @-@ point game ( two goals and two assists ) in a 7 – 0 win against the Florida Panthers on March 1 , 2012 . On September 15 , 2012 , Kane signed a six @-@ year , $ 31 @.@ 5 million contract extension with the Jets .
As a result of the 2012 – 13 NHL lockout , Kane joined Dinamo Minsk of the Kontinental Hockey League ( KHL ) . He was the first Canadian NHL player to sign a contract with the KHL . However , after 12 games with the club , in which he recorded one goal , Kane was released . The club 's athletic director suggested that Kane " could not adapt to hockey in the KHL , " but also said that both sides mutually agreed to end the contract .
On April 3 , 2014 , Kane was accused of assault , after an incident in Vancouver , and sued for financial damages . On April 5 , 2014 , Kane was a healthy scratch under new head coach Paul Maurice , in a game against the Toronto Maple Leafs . After the game , Maurice said it was a coach 's decision , and that if Kane wanted back in the lineup , all he needed to do was " probably just come to the rink . " On February 3 , 2015 Kane was a healthy scratch against the Vancouver Canucks . It was later determined that he was scratched because of an incident with his teammates . Kane revealed in an October 2015 interview that he felt the Jets did not " have his back " throughout his legal and behavioral issues but instead felt that they traded away their problem .
= = = Buffalo Sabres ( 2015 – present ) = = =
The Jets traded Kane on February 11 , 2015 , as well as Zach Bogosian and the rights to Jason Kasdorf , to the Buffalo Sabres in exchange for Tyler Myers , Drew Stafford , Joel Armia , Brendan Lemieux and a conditional first @-@ round pick in the 2015 NHL Entry Draft ( Jack Roslovic ) .
= = International play = =
Kane competed in the 2008 Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament , capturing gold with Canada 's under @-@ 18 team . He totalled four points in four games , including an assist in the 6 – 3 gold medal game win against Russia . Later that year , Kane competed on Team Canada during the 2009 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships . As the youngest player on the team , Kane contributed six points in six games , helping Canada to a fifth @-@ straight gold medal with a 5 – 1 victory over Sweden in the final .
Following his rookie season in the NHL , Kane was named to the Canadian men 's team for the 2010 IIHF World Championship in Germany . General Manager Mark Messier made a specific effort to assemble a young team ; as a result , Kane was one of five teenagers on the roster . He finished the tournament with two goals and two assists in seven games . Canada was eliminated in the quarterfinal by Russia and finished in seventh place .
The following year , Kane returned to the national team for the 2011 IIHF World Championship in Slovakia . Kane recorded two assists over seven games as Canada suffered a second consecutive defeat in the quarterfinal to Russia .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards = =
= = = CHL = = =
= = = WHL = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Records = =
Vancouver Giants franchise record ; most goals , single @-@ season – 48 in 2008 – 09 ( surpassed Adam Courchaine – 43 in 2002 – 03 )
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= Military career of Audie Murphy =
The military career of Audie Murphy ( 20 June 1925 – 28 May 1971 ) encompassed two separate careers . His U. S. Army service covered nine World War II campaigns fought by the 3rd Infantry Division : Tunisia , Sicily , Naples @-@ Foggia , Anzio , Rome @-@ Arno , Southern France , Ardennes @-@ Alsace , Rhineland and Central Europe . He lied about his age to enlist in the United States Army in 1942 . Before his 20th birthday he had earned every Army combat award for valor available during his period of service and had risen to the rank of first lieutenant . On the day he was awarded the Medal of Honor for his January 1945 actions at the Colmar Pocket in France , he was considered to be America 's most decorated World War II soldier and received national recognition as such when Life magazine made him their cover story . His superior officers , as well as the Speaker of the U. S. House of Representatives , encouraged him to apply for enrollment at West Point and offered to provide any assistance and influence needed to help him be accepted as a cadet . Murphy eventually passed on the opportunity of enrollment at West Point , in part because of limitations resulting from his war injuries . At the end of his active Army service , he was given 50 percent disability classification and transferred to the Officers ' Reserve Corps . The psychological effects of the war remained with him for the rest of his life in the form of combat stress . Although the military did little for Murphy 's post @-@ war stress , he was publicly forthcoming about it in hopes of prodding the government into providing better treatment and medical benefits for other veterans suffering the same issues .
At the 1950 onset of the Korean War , Murphy was commissioned with the rank of captain in the 36th Infantry Division of the Texas National Guard . He was charged with training new recruits and fully believed that he and the 36th would be sent to the Korean front for combat duty . His film career began to take off in 1951 , limiting Murphy 's Guard involvement . The Korean Armistice Agreement of 1953 ended hostilities without the 36th ever being sent to Korea . Murphy , however , remained with the Guard actively participating in recruitment drives and allowing his name and image to be used for that purpose . He retired with the rank of major in 1966 and was transferred to the United States Army Reserve . In 1969 the Army transferred him to Retired Reserve . For his combined service in the Army and the Guard , his home state posthumously awarded Murphy the Texas Legislative Medal of Honor .
= = United States Army = =
= = = Enlistment and initial training = = =
Murphy had wanted to be a soldier all his youth and dreamed about combat . The death of his mother in May 1941 added even more impetus to his desire to achieve that goal . When he heard the news of Japan 's 7 December attack on Pearl Harbor he tried to enlist in the Marines , the Navy and the Army , but was turned down for being underweight and underage . He added weight with a change in diet , and gave the Army an affidavit from his sister Corinne that falsified his birth date by a year . Murphy enlisted on 30 June 1942 in Dallas . During his physical examination his height was recorded as 5 feet 5 @.@ 5 inches ( 1 @.@ 66 m ) and his weight as 112 pounds ( 50 @.@ 8 kg ) . Assigned to the infantry , during basic training at Camp Wolters , Texas , Murphy earned the Marksman Badge with Rifle Clasp and the Expert Badge with Bayonet Clasp . While participating in a close @-@ order drill during that hot Texas summer , he passed out . His company commander thought his build was too slight for service in the infantry , and tried to have him transferred to a cook and bakers ' school , but Murphy insisted on becoming a combat soldier . He completed the 13 @-@ week basic training course and in October was given leave to visit his family , after which he was sent to Fort George G. Meade in Maryland for advanced infantry training until January 1943 .
= = = Mediterranean Theater = = =
= = = = North Africa = = = =
In January 1943 , Murphy was processed through Camp Kilmer , New Jersey . He arrived at Casablanca , in French Morocco on 20 February and was assigned to Company B , 1st Battalion , 15th Infantry Regiment , 3rd Infantry Division .
As part of Operation Torch the United States seized Port Lyautey in French Morocco on 8 November 1942 , and the 3rd Infantry Division was sent there on 7 March 1943 . The Division was placed under the command of Major General Lucian Truscott , who took them through rigorous training at Arzew in Algeria , for an amphibious landing at Sicily . Private Murphy participated with his division in 30 @-@ mile ( 48 km ) 8 @-@ hour marches , known as the " Truscott Trot " . For the first hour , the men marched at a pace of 5 mph ( 8 @.@ 0 km / h ) , and slowed to 4 mph ( 6 @.@ 4 km / h ) for the second hour , taking the final 21 miles ( 34 km ) at a pace of 3 @.@ 5 mph ( 5 @.@ 6 km / h ) . They also performed bayonet and land mine drills , obstacle course training and other exercises . Murphy was promoted to private first class on 7 May . After the 13 May surrender of the Axis forces in French Tunisia , the division was put in charge of the prisoners . They returned to Algeria on 15 May for " Operation Copycat " , training exercises in preparation for the assault landing in Sicily .
= = = = Italy = = = =
= = = = = Sicily = = = = =
The 3rd Infantry Division , as part of the U. S. Seventh Army under the command of Lieutenant General George S. Patton , sailed from Tunisia on 7 July , 1943 , for the Allied invasion of Sicily , landing at Licata on 10 July . Murphy was promoted to the rank of corporal on 15 July . Company B later took part in fighting around Canicattì , during which Murphy killed two fleeing Italian officers .
They arrived in Palermo on 20 July , and Murphy was sidelined by illness for a week . Allied capture of the transit port of Messina was crucial to taking Sicily from the Axis . En route there , Company B was assigned to a hillside location protecting a machine @-@ gun emplacement , while the rest of the 3rd Infantry Division fought at San Fratello . The Axis began their evacuation of Messina on 27 July . Although the 3rd Infantry Division 's 7th Infantry Regiment secured the port on 17 August , the Axis had already completed their evacuation hours before . During the fighting in Sicily , Murphy became realistic about military duty : " I have seen war as it actually is , and I do not like it . But I will go on fighting . "
= = = = = Mainland invasion = = = = =
With Sicily secured from Axis forces , Supreme Commander General Dwight D. Eisenhower made the decision to invade Italy in early September 1943 . As part of the Salerno landings , the 3rd Infantry Division came ashore at Battipaglia . One of the early skirmishes recounted by author Don Graham involved Murphy , his best friend Lattie Tipton ( referred to as " Brandon " in Murphy 's book To Hell and Back ) and an unnamed soldier in their unit as they traveled along the Volturno River . The trio were near a bridge when the third soldier was killed by German machine @-@ gun fire . Tipton tossed hand grenades in the direction of the fire and Murphy responded with a Thompson submachine gun , killing five German soldiers .
Allied forces entered Naples on 1 October . The 3rd Division took part in the Allied assault on the Volturno Line . Near Mignano Monte Lungo Hill 193 , Company B repelled a reconnaissance by seven German soldiers , killing three and taking four prisoners .
Murphy was promoted to sergeant on 13 December . By this time , the 3rd Infantry Division had suffered heavy casualties : 683 dead , 170 missing , and 2 @,@ 412 wounded .
= = = = = Anzio = = = = =
The 3rd Infantry Division was notified in December 1943 of the planned January 1944 storming of Anzio beachhead , the beginning of the liberation of Rome . The division began training near Naples and practiced an amphibious landing at Salerno . Murphy was made section leader on 4 January and promoted to staff sergeant on 13 January . He was hospitalized in Naples with malaria on 21 January , and was unable to participate in the initial landing commanded by Major General John P. Lucas . Murphy returned to his unit in time to take part in the unsuccessful First Battle of Cisterna , which was fought between 30 January and 1 February . It was the most fierce and sustained fighting Murphy had experienced to date .
Lieutenant Colonel Michael Paulick , commander of the 1st Battalion of the 15th Infantry , temporarily took charge of Company B when the company commander 's wounds left him unable to lead . Paulick later stated that the ensuing 3 @-@ day battle decimated the company , leaving fewer than 30 soldiers alive .
If the suffering of men could do the job , the German lines would be split wide open . Replacements cannot begin to keep pace with the slaughter . Some of the companies have been reduced to twenty men . Not a yard of ground has been gained by the murderous three days of assault . A doomlike quality hangs over the beachhead .
Lucas was replaced in February by Truscott . The men were forced back to Anzio and remained there for months . Taking shelter in an abandoned farmhouse on 2 March , their artillery fire disabled a German tank . Although the tank crew were killed as they tried to escape , Murphy knew the tank could be repaired by the Germans and put back into use . Leaving his men in the farmhouse , Murphy advanced towards the tank by crawling on his stomach . He then used rifle grenades to permanently put the tank out of commission . For this action , he received the Bronze Star with " V " Device . Murphy continued to make scouting patrols to take German prisoners before being hospitalized for a week on 13 March with a second bout of malaria .
The 3rd Division was taken off the front line in late March and placed in reserve status . 1 to 11 April , the Division was put through additional combat training at Torre Astura . The training was so intense that Murphy felt his men needed relief and refused to put them through the required close order drill . Although already recommended for a promotion to technical sergeant , his refusal on behalf of his men cost him the promotion . Upon completion of the training , Murphy and his men occupied the area of Campo Morto @-@ Padigliano . On 1 May , the 3rd Division was sent back to Torre Astura , where they remained until 21 May . Sixty @-@ one infantry officers and enlisted men of Company B , 15th Infantry , including Murphy , were awarded the Combat Infantryman Badge on 8 May . Murphy was also awarded an Oak Leaf Cluster for his Bronze Star .
The 3rd Division began its assault of German troops in the Second Battle of Cisterna on 22 May , and by 25 May , Cistern and Cori were in Allied hands . Audie 's platoon moved towards Artena on 26 to 27 May , regrouping with the Division at Valmontone . Combat action 29 May to 1 June put Valmontone and Labico under Allied control . After Rome was liberated , the Division was assigned to patrol the city 6 to 15 June . The Division was moved to southwest of Rome 16 June where they remained bivouacked until the end of July . Murphy was made platoon sergeant on 4 August . He moved out of Italy with the Division on 8 August 1944 .
= = = European Theater = = =
= = = = Southern and southeastern France = = = =
The U.S. Seventh Army under the command of Lieutenant General Alexander Patch was the initial amphibious landing force for the 15 August 1944 , Allied invasion of southern France , known as Operation Dragoon . The 3rd Infantry Division was now under the command of Major General John W. O 'Daniel . At 0800 military time , they came ashore on Yellow Beach near Ramatuelle with the first wave of the assault . They began to move inland through a vineyard . As the 3rd Platoon progressed toward an incline , one of their own light machine @-@ gun squads got detached . German soldiers began firing at them , initially killing one and wounding another . Murphy ran out alone to locate the lost squad and led them back to the unit . He then used the retrieved machine gun to return fire at the German soldiers , killing two and wounding one . When he relinquished the machine gun back to his own men and took up a new position , he was joined by his best friend Lattie Tipton . At that moment , two Germans exited a house about 100 yards ( 91 m ) away , and feigned surrender by waving a white flag . Tipton believed it to be a real surrender gesture , and made himself visible , beckoning to the German soldiers to come towards him . He was immediately killed by machine @-@ gun fire coming from within the house .
I remember the experience as I do a nightmare . A demon seems to have entered my body . My brain is coldly alert and logical . I do not think of the danger to myself . My whole being is concentrated on killing .
Murphy advanced alone on the house , impervious to the German fire being directed at him . He wounded two , killed six , and took the others as prisoners . His actions that day took approximately one hour , during which he had killed eight German soldiers , wounded three and taken eleven prisoners . Murphy received the Distinguished Service Cross .
During 27 – 28 August , at Montélimar , Murphy and the 1st Battalion , 15th Infantry Regiment , 3rd Infantry Division , along with the 36th Infantry Division , engaged in an offensive battle to secure the area from the Germans . The 3rd and 36th divisions took 500 prisoners in the city on 29 August . For these actions the 1st Battalion of the 15th Infantry Regiment received the Presidential Unit Citation .
= = = = Northeastern France = = = =
The 3rd Infantry Division was part of an offensive plan to break through German resistance in northeastern France , as far as Saint @-@ Dié @-@ des @-@ Vosges . In the area of Genevreuille on 15 September 1944 , Murphy narrowly escaped death from a mortar shell hit that killed two others and wounded three . Although his resulting heel wound was not serious , he received his first Purple Heart . By this point , all but Murphy and two others of Company B 's original group had either been killed or taken off the lines with wounds . General O 'Daniel moved the 15th Infantry , 3rd Division to the Moselle and the Cleurie river valley in late September . Stone quarries dotted the hills and provided good defensive positions for the Germans . The 15th was met with fierce resistance north of St. Ame at the heavily fortified multi @-@ tunneled L 'Omet quarry . On 2 October at L 'Omet , Murphy advanced alone to the location of a machine gun manned by a unit of German soldiers . Within 15 yards ( 14 m ) of the machine gun nest , he rose to his feet . " The Germans spot me instantly " , he recalled . " The gunner spins the tip of his weapon toward me . But the barrel catches in a limb , and the burst whizzes to my right " . Murphy lobbed two hand grenades at the men , killing four and wounding three . He was awarded the Silver Star for this action . The 15th achieved success in its continued attack when Germans began evacuating the quarry on 5 October . On that date , Murphy advanced carrying a SCR @-@ 536 radio for 50 yards ( 46 m ) towards the Germans while they continually fired directly at him . Around 200 yards ( 180 m ) from the German location , he relayed firing orders by radio to the artillery , and remained at his position alone for an hour directing his men . When Murphy 's men finally took the hill , 15 German combatants were killed and 35 wounded . Murphy 's actions earned him an Oak Leaf Cluster for his Silver Star .
Murphy was awarded a battlefield commission to second lieutenant on 14 October , which elevated him to platoon leader . Operation Dogface was the 3rd Infantry Division 's support role for the VI Corps in securing Bruyères and Brouvelieures , with the goal of getting the U. S. Sixth Army Group through the Belfort Gap by November . While en route to Brouvelieures on 26 October , the 3rd Platoon of Company B was attacked by a German sniper group . Murphy captured two before being shot in the hip by a sniper whom he in turn killed .
Because of the rain and the mud , we cannot be evacuated for three days . We lie on cots , six to a pyramidal tent , while the fever spreads through our flesh . Delirious men moan and curse .
The wounded waited at an aid station for hours for their turn with a medic . After the 3 @-@ day delay caused by the weather , they were transported to the 3rd General Hospital at Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence , where they were met with more delays before treatment and hospitalization . Gangrene developed in Murphy 's wound , for which he was treated with penicillin and multiple surgeries to remove the dead tissue . He remained hospitalized until 28 December 1944 . As a result of the injury , Murphy received the first Oak Leaf Cluster for his Purple Heart .
= = = = = Colmar Pocket = = = = =
The Colmar Pocket was 850 square miles ( 2 @,@ 200 km2 ) in the Vosges Mountains and had been held by German troops since November 1944 . Murphy was still hospitalized on 15 December when General O 'Daniel moved the 3rd Infantry Division into the area . Murphy described it as " a huge and dangerous bridgehead thrusting west of the Rhine like an iron fist . Fed with men and materiel from across the river , it is a constant threat to our right flank ; and potentially it is a perfect springboard from which the enemy could start a powerful counterattack . " He rejoined his platoon on 14 January 1945 , the date Lieutenant General Jacob Devers ordered the 3rd Division reinforced by the 28th Infantry Division . The 3rd Division engaged in sixteen days of battle to secure the bridgeheads west of the Rhine at the Colmar Canal . After crossing the Ill river through the Riedwihr Woods on 24 January , the 3rd Division was ordered to the town of Holtzwihr , where they met with a strong German counterattack . Two officers in the division were killed by mortar shells in an attack the following day during which Murphy was wounded in both legs , and for which he received a second Oak Leaf Cluster for his Purple Heart .
From its peak of 235 men , disease , injuries and casualties had reduced Company B 's fighting strength to 18 men . Murphy being the only officer remaining on 26 January was made the company commander . The company awaited reinforcements as Murphy watched the approaching Germans , " I see the Germans lining up for an attack . Six tanks rumble to the outskirts of Holtzwihr , split into groups of threes , and fan out toward either side of the clearing . Then wave after wave of white dots , barely discernible against the background of snow , start across the field . They are enemy infantrymen " . The Germans scored a direct hit on an M10 tank destroyer , setting it on fire and causing its crew to abandon it . Murphy ordered his men to retreat to positions in the woods , remaining alone at his post shooting his M1 carbine and relaying orders via his telephone while the Germans aimed fire directly at his position . Murphy mounted the abandoned , burning tank destroyer and began firing its .50 caliber machine gun at the advancing Germans , killing a squad crawling through a ditch towards him .
It was like standing on top of a time bomb ... he was standing on the TD chassis , exposed to enemy fire from his ankles to his head and silhouetted against the trees and the snow behind him .
For an hour , Murphy stood on the tank destroyer returning German fire from foot soldiers and advancing tanks , during which he sustained a leg wound . He stopped only after he ran out of ammunition .
As if under the influence of some drug , I slide off the tank destroyer and , without once looking back , walk down the road through the forest . If the Germans want to shoot me , let them . I am too weak from fear and exhaustion to care .
He rejoined his men with complete disregard for his own wound , leading them back to successfully repel the Germans . Only afterwards would he allow treatment of his leg wound , and still insisted on remaining with his men .
... during his indomitable one @-@ man struggle , Lieutenant Murphy broke the entire attack of the Germans and held hard @-@ won ground that it would have been disastrous to lose .
While standing on the burning tank destroyer Murphy killed or wounded 50 Germans . For his actions that day he was awarded the Medal of Honor .
On 4 February , Murphy led Company B in a battle to successfully rid the Jewish Cemetery near Biesheim of German troops holed up inside , killing six and taking the remainder prisoners . Two days later , Company B advanced to Neuf @-@ Brisach . By 8 February , the city of Colmar surrendered to combined Allied forces , ending the battle . The 3rd Division was charged with guarding the Rhine west bank 10 to 18 February . Murphy was promoted to first lieutenant on 16 February . The 3rd Infantry Division was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation for its actions. which earned Murphy an Oak Leaf Cluster for the PUC awarded for action at Montelimar .
While the Division was stationed at Nancy , General O 'Daniel held a ceremony on 5 March to award Murphy his previously won Distinguished Service Cross and Silver Star . Murphy was reassigned as 15th Infantry Regiment liaison officer on 11 March . From then until 20 May , he was assigned to the Director for Plans and Operations , a non @-@ combat assignment that moved with the regiment . Although not authorized to do so , he did step out of that role when a message arrived that Company B 's senior officers had been killed , leaving the unit in charge of an inexperienced officer . He commandeered a jeep , a driver and an interpreter and advanced to the Siegfried Line to successfully rescue the company .
= = = = = Medal of Honor and other decorations = = = = =
Brigadier General Ralph B. Lovett and Lieutenant Colonel Hallet D. Edson recommended Murphy for the Medal of Honor for his actions at Holtzwihr , the awarding of which was confirmed by an official press release on 24 May 1945 . Near Salzburg , Austria on 2 June , General Patch presented Murphy with both the Medal of Honor and the Legion of Merit . As of that presentation , Murphy was then considered " the most decorated American soldier in World War II . " When asked after the war why he had seized the machine gun and taken on an entire company of German infantry , Murphy replied simply , " They were killing my friends . " For his war @-@ time service , Murphy had earned every Army combat award for valor available during his period of service .
He was awarded the American Campaign Medal , the European @-@ African @-@ Middle Eastern Campaign Medal with nine combat campaign stars ( one silver representing 5 , and 4 bronze ) and one arrowhead device for amphibious landings in Sicily and Southern France , the World War II Victory Medal , and the Army of Occupation Medal with Germany Clasp .
On 16 April 1945 , France awarded Murphy the French Croix de guerre with Silver Star , which was presented to him in Dallas on 15 September by U.S. Army Brigadier General William Albert Collier . At a public ceremony in Paris on 19 July 1948 , French General Jean de Lattre de Tassigny presented Murphy the French Legion of Honor – Grade of Chevalier and the French Croix de guerre with Palm . He was also the recipient of the French Liberation Medal . Belgium awarded Murphy the Belgian Croix de guerre with 1940 Palm on 10 December 1955 .
The 3rd Infantry Division received the Croix de guerre with Palm as a unit award , and all individual members were awarded the French Fourragère .
= = = Homecoming and discharge = = =
Murphy received orders on 8 June 1945 , to report to Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio , Texas . At a 13 June San Antonio homecoming parade held for returning Texas veterans , a quarter of a million people cheered Murphy , Charles P. Cabell , Lucian Truscott , Harold L. Clark and others . He was then assigned to the Army Ground & Services Redistribution Station at the base and given 30 days leave . Murphy was the home grown hero , and on a visit to Dallas , the media followed his every move , interviewing and photographing him . Farmersville pulled out all the stops , giving him an escort caravan , and five thousand local citizens showed up to hear a band concert and speeches in his honor . He was the star attraction at the 2 to 4 July McKinney rodeo where he opened the event every night . The 16 July issue of Life magazine brought Murphy national attention when its cover story proclaimed him " most decorated " next to a smiling image of him in full dress uniform . Photographers for the magazine followed him to a birthday party in his honor , to his first civilian haircut since 1942 , and around to visit friends and relatives .
While on leave , he discussed with family and friends the possibility of his enrolling in West Point and making the Army a lifetime career . Inquiries on his behalf had been sent through military channels before he left Europe , and Patch had encouraged him to enroll . Both Edson and Paulick had also counseled Murphy about attending the military academy , with Paulick offering to tutor him for the entrance examinations . Speaker of the U. S. House of Representatives Sam Rayburn supported the idea and offered to use his influence to help Murphy enroll at West Point . Murphy expressed concerns to Edison and others that his war injuries might prevent him from passing the physical examination required to enroll . Texas A & M University was another military school Murphy considered as a possibility . In the end , he enrolled in neither school . A belated Good Conduct Medal was presented to Murphy on 21 August . He was discharged with the rank of first lieutenant at a 50 percent disability classification on 21 September and transferred to the Officers ' Reserve Corps .
= = = Post @-@ war trauma = = =
When Murphy returned from World War II , symptoms of combat stress immediately became evident to family and friends . He was on medication for stomach problems and tightly wound , with any unexpected sound triggering a defensive reflex reaction to an imagined attack . When he slept , it was with a loaded pistol under his pillow . Recurring nightmares had him reliving the war , repeatedly calling out to individual soldiers . Turning the lights on sometimes brought relief , if only to keep him from falling asleep again . He had waking graphic flashbacks that caused him to freeze , reliving a life @-@ threatening moment on the battlefield . His first wife Wanda Hendrix stated that he once held her at gunpoint . She witnessed her husband being moved to tears by newsreel footage of German war orphans , guilt @-@ ridden that his war actions might have been the cause of their having no parents . As others had noticed since his return from Europe , Hendrix said his dreams were punctuated with the battles he had fought . She tried to coax him into seeking psychiatric help . During a publicity tour in 1952 , his dreams caused him to beat the wall of his motel room until his fists bled .
His service medical records reveal that the Army was aware of the symptoms and provided sleeping pills . There is no indication that the military otherwise provided any counseling or treatment for his post @-@ combat stress . Murphy briefly found a creative stress outlet in writing poetry after his Army discharge . His poem " The Crosses Grow on Anzio " appeared in his book To Hell and Back , but was attributed to the fictitiously named Kerrigan . In the mid @-@ 1960s , he recognized his dependence on Placidyl , and locked himself alone in a hotel room for a week to successfully break the addiction . His friend David " Spec " McClure who helped him write the book said he never recovered from the war . In an effort to draw attention to the combat – related problems of returning Korean War and Vietnam War veterans , Murphy spoke out candidly about his own problems . He called on the government to give increased consideration and study to the emotional impact of combat experiences , and to extend Veteran 's Administration benefits to cover combat stress treatment .
After the war , they took Army dogs and rehabilitated them for civilian life . But they turned soldiers into civilians immediately , and let ' em sink or swim .
= = Texas National Guard = =
The 36th Infantry Division was federalized as part of the United States Army during both World War I and World War II . It was called the Texas Division due to most of its members being from the Texas National Guard . During World War II , they were in Operation Dragoon and participated in the same battles to liberate Rome as Murphy had . At the end of the war , the 36th reverted to state control as part of the Texas National Guard . When the Korean War commenced on 25 June 1950 , the 36th looked to recruit experienced veterans to help it gain federal recognition . Major General H. Miller Ainsworth and Brigadier General Carl L. Phinney were the 36th 's commander and deputy commander respectively . Both men were acquaintances of Murphy , who at the time was being considered for the lead in The Red Badge of Courage . He was having doubts about his acting career and was considering re @-@ enlisting in the Army . The onset of the Korean conflict became the deciding factor in his returning to active military service , and he believed the 36th would be deployed to Korea . On 14 July , Murphy was accompanied by Ainsworth to his physical examination at Camp Mabry . As of his swearing in with the rank of captain in the Guard , he received federal recognition of the promotion in rank from first lieutenant to captain . Attending a lunch for Murphy afterwards were Ainsworth , Phinney , 36th Chief of Staff Colonel James E. Taylor and the State Director of the Selective Service Brigadier General Paul Wakefield . A press conference followed during which Murphy expressed his concerns that World War III was about to erupt .
Murphy was initially assigned to the Intelligence Office headquarters , 1st Battalion , 141st Infantry as S @-@ 2 , and attended the Guard 's two @-@ week summer training at Fort Hood as a range officer . 19 December 1950 , Murphy was transferred to division headquarters as an aide to Ainsworth . At the 1951 summer training camp at Fort Polk , Louisiana , Murphy was in charge of training approximately 500 inexperienced new recruits in bayonet , marksmanship and close order drill . Fellow instructor Captain Tom Berry remembered , " In my opinion , Audie Murphy set the tone for the obvious high esprit de corps for the 36th Division which lasted throughout my association with the Division [ eighteen years ] . Audie Murphy walked the way he talked . "
He requested to transfer to inactive status on 1 October 1951 , due to his film commitments with MGM Studios . On 21 January 1952 , Murphy was relieved of his assignment as aide . Fort Hood was the location of the 1952 summer training camp , during which Murphy was in charge of field application of classroom training . The 1953 summer training at Fort Hood once again had Murphy in charge of bayonet training . The Korean Armistice Agreement was signed on 27 July , without the 36th having been called up . He missed the 1954 summer training camp due to his location shooting for To Hell and Back
During his service he granted the Guard permission to use his name and image in recruiting materials . His activities aside from being an instructor at the training camps also included touring the state to make unit inspections and to visit local commanders . On 22 June 1955 , Murphy requested a temporary waiver of his Army disability pension from the Veteran 's Administration while he was put on active duty with the Guard . 6 July 1955 , at his request , Murphy 's status with the Guard was changed back to active . In doing so , he hoped to be promoted to the rank of major , in spite of his being short on the requirement of first serving seven years as a captain . He was recommended by several superior officers ; Major General K. L. Berry , Adjutant General of the Texas National Guard , requested a waiver for the 7 @-@ year requirement to the National Guard Bureau in Washington D.C. The waiver was granted and Murphy was promoted by the Guard to major on 14 February 1956 , receiving federal recognition of the promotion in rank from captain to major . Upon attaining the new rank , Murphy and General Phinney toured the state of Texas to help promote the " Guard Muster Recruiting Drive " set for 22 February . 1 July 1957 , Murphy transferred back to inactive status , and remained inactive until his separation from the Guard as of 7 November 1966 . On 8 November 1966 , he transferred to the United States Army Reserve , and remained with the USAR until his 1969 transfer to the Retired Reserve .
On 18 August 2013 , Texas Governor Rick Perry signed bill HCR3 , which authorized the awarding of the Texas Legislative Medal of Honor to Murphy . It is the highest military decoration that may be awarded to a member of the Texas military , and was awarded in recognition of Murphy 's combined military service in the Army and the Guard . The medal was presented to Murphy 's sister Nadine at a public ceremony in Farmersville , Texas on 29 October 2013 .
= = Death = =
In his civilian life , Murphy was at odds with what he perceived as an innate film industry culture of phoniness , once likening his own acting career to prostitution . He was uncomfortable being an iconic war hero , and felt used because of that image . However , he often spoke of his kinship with the military , " I have to admit that I love the damned Army . It was father , mother , brother to me for years . It made me somebody , gave me self @-@ respect . " Although he was officially retired from the military when he died in a private plane crash on 28 May 1971 at Brush Mountain , near Catawba , Virginia , his ties to the military and to his home state were evident in the aftermath .
The Texas state legislature ordered all flags on state buildings to be flown at half staff to honor Murphy . The memorial service held in his hometown of Farmersville , Texas was in part sponsored by the Thomas Glenn Caraway Post of the VFW , and Farmersville businesses closed their doors for an hour in memoriam . His eulogy at the memorial service in the Hollywood Hills was delivered by an Army chaplain . While very few Hollywood celebrities attended , among the mourners were six Medal of Honor recipients , General John W. O 'Daniel and several 3rd Infantry Division veterans who had fought with him . A month later on 4 July , Sacramento , California cancelled its annual Independence Day parade because Murphy was to have been the grand marshal . In its place a memorial service at Capitol Park was attended mostly by veterans . He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery with full military honors on 7 June . The U.S. Army Band marched in front of six black horses that pulled the caisson with his flag @-@ draped casket from Fort Myer Chapel to the cemetery . Among the mourners at the cemetery were government dignitaries and multiple veterans groups .
As a result of legislation introduced by U.S. Congressman Olin Teague five months after Murphy 's death in 1971 , the Audie L. Murphy Memorial VA Hospital in San Antonio , now a part of the South Texas Veterans Health Care System , was dedicated in 1973 . VFW Post 5311 in Virginia worked for 3 years with the United States Forest Service for permission to erect a monument at the site of Murphy 's death . Made from a donated granite slab and carved by a stone cutter who volunteered his services , other expenses involved were paid for by Post 5311 . Members dug the road and cleared the area where the monument was dedicated on 10 November 1974 .
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= All the Way ... A Decade of Song =
All the Way … A Decade of Song is the first English @-@ language greatest hits album by Canadian recording artist Celine Dion . Released by Sony Music Entertainment on November 12 , 1999 , it features nine previously released and seven new recordings . Dion worked on new songs mainly with David Foster . Other producers include Max Martin , Kristian Lundin , Robert John " Mutt " Lange , James Horner and Matt Serletic .
All the Way ... A Decade of Song garnered positive reviews from music critics . They praised the first uptempo single " That 's the Way It Is " and a ballad " If Walls Could Talk . " Some criticism was directed towards including a small number of hits and many new recordings . Despite that , the album became a commercial success throughout the world and peaked at number one in every major music market around the globe . All the Way ... A Decade of Song has sold 8 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , according to Nielsen SoundScan . It has also sold five million copies in Europe and shipped two million copies in Japan and one million in Canada . During the first two years of its release , the album had sold over seventeen million copies worldwide .
The lead single , " That 's the Way It Is " was well received by critics and became a commercial success around the world . The following singles were released in selected countries only and without any promotion from Dion , who was on her two @-@ year break from the music industry , they performed moderately on the charts .
= = Background = =
After ten years of standing in the spotlight , Celine Dion decided go on vacation . " I 'm looking forward to having no schedule , no pressure , to not caring about whether it 's raining or not , just visiting with family and friends , cooking at home , trying to seriously have a child . I want no pressure for a while , " she said . But before Dion embarked on her two @-@ year respite from the music industry beginning January 1 , 2000 , she prepared All the Way ... A Decade of Song to cap a ten @-@ year period in which she has sold over 100 million records worldwide . In the ' 90s , Dion has transformed herself from a regional Canadian success into one of the world 's most successful pop artists . In that time , she 's released seven English @-@ language albums , from 1990 's Unison to All the Way ... A Decade of Song , and six newly recorded French albums , picking up numerous awards , including five Grammys .
The process of putting together All the Way … A Decade of Song was laborious for all involved , from balancing the number of hits and new songs to ensuring that each of the latest tracks showed a new side of Dion . " We had hourly conversations , back and forth , about what the combination should be , " said John Doelp , the album 's co @-@ executive producer . " We wanted to make sure we had some new sounds and that we were able to go to new places . " Co @-@ executive producer Vito Luprano added : " The first idea was to record three new songs , then Dion said , ' Let 's go for five , ' her lucky number . But we had so many great songs coming in that we ended up recording nine . Out of that , we decided to go with seven . "
= = Content = =
= = = Album = = =
All the Way ... A Decade of Song contains nine greatest hits ( ten on the Japanese version ) with seven new songs in one single @-@ disc package . Collaborators include Max Martin ; Robert John " Mutt " Lange ; James Horner and Will Jennings , who wrote " My Heart Will Go On " ; French songwriter / producer Luc Plamondon ; Diane Warren ; and David Foster . The Jennings / Horner track " Then You Look at Me was also placed in December 1999 on the film soundtrack Bicentennial Man , starring Robin Williams ; and Plamondon 's " Live ( for the One I Love ) , " which has been translated from its original French version " Vivre , " appeared in February 2000 on the French stage @-@ show album Notre @-@ Dame de Paris .
The first single , " That 's the Way It Is " is an optimistic uptempo song , co @-@ written and co @-@ produced by Max Martin , best known for his work with young pop artists . Other highlights on All the Way ... A Decade of Song include a remake of Roberta Flack 's " The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face " , which Dion has performed acoustically in her Let 's Talk About Love World Tour ; the Robert John " Mutt " Lange ballad " If Walls Could Talk " , with Shania Twain on background vocals ; the power ballad " I Want You to Need Me " from Diane Warren ; another , orchestrated power ballad " Then You Look at Me ; " and a song Dion and René Angélil got married to , " All the Way " , here in a virtual duet with Frank Sinatra .
Sony Music Entertainment released eight different versions of her greatest hits , tailored to Dion 's individual successes in North America , Europe , France , Australia / New Zealand , Asia , Japan , Latin America and Brazil .
= = = DVD = = =
In 2001 , Sony Music Entertainment released All the Way ... A Decade of Song & Video on DVD . It includes music videos for " If Walls Could Talk " and " Then You Look at Me " , which weren 't released as singles . It also contains two videos from the 1999 CBS television special , " All the Way " and " The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face " , and music videos for All the Way ... A Decade of Song singles : " That 's the Way It Is " , " Live ( for the One I Love ) " and " I Want You to Need Me . " The DVD also includes previous hits , some of them in live versions from the Live in Memphis concert . In late 2003 , Sony Music Entertainment released a combo of All the Way ... A Decade of Song CD and All the Way ... A Decade of Song & Video DVD in Europe and Australia .
= = Promotion = =
On October 7 , 1999 , Celine Dion taped her second CBS television special at the Radio City Music Hall in New York City . She performed : " Love Can Move Mountains " , " To Love You More " ( with Taro Hakase on violin ) , " That 's the Way It Is " ( with ' N Sync ) , " All the Way " ( virtual duet with Frank Sinatra ) , " The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face " and a medley of " Here We Are / Because You Loved Me / Conga " in duet with Gloria Estefan . The television special aired on November 22 , 1999 and was the second @-@ most @-@ watched program in its time slot , with an 8 @.@ 3 rating and a 14 share . Dion also performed " That 's the Way It Is " in various television and award shows in late 1999 , before taking a two @-@ year break from the music industry . On December 31 , 1999 , she performed her last concert at Montral 's Molson Center , with guest Bryan Adams and a host of French @-@ Canadian singers .
= = Singles = =
" That 's the Way It Is " was released as the first single from the album in November 1999 . It reached number six on the US Billboard Hot 100 and became a top ten hit around the world . In February 2000 , " Live ( for the One I Love ) " was released as the second single in selected European countries and in March 2000 , " The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face " was issued as the next single in the United Kingdom , peaking at number nineteen . The second North American single , " I Want You to Need Me " , was released in April 2000 and reached number @-@ one on the Canadian Singles Chart .
= = Critical reception = =
All the Way ... A Decade of Song garnered generally positive reviews from music critics . Michael Paoletta from Billboard gave it a very positive review , calling the album a reminder of why the decade has been Dion 's signature era – and why the future looks bright for her . According to him , regarding seven new songs , All the Way ... A Decade of Song is Dion 's most focused album yet , drawing on a team of collaborators that understands this artists 's strengths . Among the highlights Paoletta mentioned : the first single " That 's the Way It Is " , a welcone uptempo number ; " I Want You to Need Me " , a consummate love song ripe for a second single ; " If Walls Could Talk ; " " Then You Look at Me " , a characteristically " roof @-@ raising , fan @-@ stoking " Dion anthem ; her " beyond @-@ the @-@ pale " duet with Frank Sinatra on " All the Way " ; and " The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face " , a remake that " affirms Dion 's ability to lay low and still scintillate . "
Chuck Taylor from Billboard also praised " That 's the Way It Is . " He wrote that Dion at last " ups the tempo with the irresistible " first single . According to Taylor , this new track , a joyful ode to holding the faith but allowing love to take its course when it 's ready , matches Dion with a new team of collaborators , consistent hitmakers : Max Martin , Kristian Lundin and Andreas Carlsson . " Replete with a festive mandolin and a midtempo beat to bring new heights to her as @-@ ever splendid vocal , " this song is " destined to enrapture " top forty and AC the first time through , at last stripping away mainstream radio 's gripe that Dion is " too adult . " He said that , youthful and yet elegant , and glowing brightly with warmth , the song also represents a bold step forward for Martin , who is best known for his work with chart @-@ topping youth acts . All in all , " That 's the Way It Is " is " one of the most compelling radio releases yet " from " one of the core voices of the decade . "
Chuck Taylor also reviewed " I Want You to Need Me " and wrote that linking Dion and Diane Warren has always been about " as fine a fit as a trusty pair of Thom McAn 's . " Between Warren 's " heart @-@ drenched " words and dramatic melody writing and Dion 's " potent vocals straight from soulside , divadom has never sounded so mighty . " According to him , for fans of Dion 's " high @-@ caliber " power ballads , this is truly among the best ever and a highlight on All the Way ... A Decade of Song . Longing for romantic attention , Dion sings , " I want you to need me , like the air you breathe / I want you to feel me , in everything / I want you to see me , in your every dream / The way that I taste you , feel you , breathe you , need you . " Taylor stated that Warren 's trusty melody is wholly natural and free @-@ flowing , while production from the usually rock @-@ oriented Matt Serletic is " sheer perfection . " It all peaks from the glorious midsection through to the end , where Dion delivers exactly what we 've come to expect : a crescendo as " spine @-@ tingling " as those first few times we heard " My Heart Will Go On . "
Although Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave the album four out of five stars , he criticized it for including seven new songs and just nine hits . According to him , if it had been a straight hits collection , with " That 's the Way It Is " and " If Walls Could Talk " added to the end , it would have been fine , but padding it with nearly a full album worth of new material hurts it . He also noticed that Dion 's first American hit , " Where Does My Heart Beat Now " , isn 't here , nor is her duet with Barbra Streisand , " Tell Him . " Erlewine stated that the best of the hits , like the Meat Loaf @-@ ian epic " It 's All Coming Back to Me Now " and " My Heart Will Go On , " are certainly among the best adult contemporary songs of the decade . In comparison to the new material , he felt that the danceable " That 's the Way It Is " and the " pretty " ballad " If Walls Could Talk , " work , but he did not like " The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face " and " All the Way . " According to him , the remaining three new songs " aren 't bad , " but they 're not particularly memorable , especially compared to the hits .
= = Commercial reception = =
All the Way ... A Decade of Song debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200 with sales of 303 @,@ 000 copies , the second @-@ largest opener in Dion 's career at that time , exceeded only by the 334 @,@ 000 units that 1997 's Let 's Talk About Love spun in its first week . Thanks to Dion 's CBS television special , she earned a second @-@ week gain of 30 % ( 394 @,@ 000 copies ) and the third number @-@ one album of her career . The next week , All the Way ... A Decade of Song stayed at number one , selling another 328 @,@ 000 units . In the following week , it fell to number two with sales of 415 @,@ 000 copies . In the fifth week , it topped the chart again , selling 537 @,@ 000 units . All the Way ... A Decade of Song draw the biggest weekly sales in its sixth week when it sold 640 @,@ 000 copies , falling to number two . On the Billboard 's list of best @-@ selling records of 1999 in the US , All the Way ... A Decade of Song was placed at number thirteen with sales of 2 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 units . As of February 4 , 2016 , it has sold over 8 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 copies in the US . It was certified seven @-@ times Platinum by the RIAA . All the Way ... A Decade of Song is also the fourth best @-@ selling greatest hits album in the US in the Nielsen SoundScan era and the best @-@ selling greatest hits album by a female artist . According to Billboard , it became the 26th best @-@ selling album of the decade ( 2000 – 09 ) in the US .
In Canada , All the Way ... A Decade of Song debuted at number one . The album shipped one million copies and was certified Diamond by the CRIA . All the Way ... A Decade of Song was also successful in Japan where it peaked at number one and was certified two @-@ times Million by the RIAJ , denoting shipment of two million copies . Also in Australia , the album topped the chart for two weeks and was certified three @-@ times Platinum by the ARIA . In the United Kingdom , All the Way … A Decade of Song debuted at number one selling 74 @,@ 681 copies . It became one of five Dion albums to sell more than one million copies in the UK . As of October 2008 , the album has sold 1 @,@ 318 @,@ 223 units in the UK and was certified four @-@ times Platinum by the BPI . Also in Germany , the album entered the chart at number one spending six non @-@ consecutive weeks at the top . It was certified seven @-@ times Gold by the BVMI after it shipped 1 @,@ 050 @,@ 000 copies . Overall , it sold over five million copies in Europe and was certified five @-@ times Platinum by the IFPI .
All the Way … A Decade of Song topped the charts around the world and was certified multi @-@ platinum in various countries . During the first two years of its release , the album had sold over seventeen million copies globally .
= = Awards = =
All the Way ... A Decade of Song received the 2000 Japan Gold Disc Award for International Pop Album of the Year and " All the Way " , duet with Frank Sinatra , was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals at the 43rd Grammy Awards .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications and sales = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits taken from AllMusic .
= = Release history = =
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= Impossible Remixes =
Impossible Remixes is the fifth remix album by Australian singer and songwriter Kylie Minogue . It was released on 8 July 1998 by Mushroom Records . The album was materialized while on her Intimate and Live Tour ( 1998 ) and contains remixes from her sixth studio album Impossible Princess ( 1997 ) . Originally scheduled for a 1999 release , Mushroom released Impossible Remixes in Australia in July 1998 after releasing the UK counterpart Mixes ( 1998 ) earlier than its original date .
The cover sleeve for the album was shot by British photographer Simon Emmett ; Minogue had personally commended the cover sleeve for showing " a lot of heart " . Impossible Remixes received negative reviews from music critics , who viewed the release as tedious and the material as repetitive . Impossible Remixes is Minogue 's highest charting remix album in her native country , reaching 37 on the Australian ARIA Albums Chart .
= = Background = =
Impossible Remixes is Kylie Minogue 's fifth remix album . In November 1997 , Minogue released her sixth studio album Impossible Princess . Then in January 1998 , Minogue begun rehearsals on the low @-@ budget tour Intimate and Live . Minogue intended to only perform in Australia , but strong public demand in the United Kingdom prompt Minogue to tour there too . With tickets selling out instantly , more shows were announced in both Australia and the UK . Minogue started the tour in early June 1998 and confirmed that she would release " Cowboy Style " , the fourth single from the Impossible Princess album , and revealed plans of two remix albums , one for Australia and one for the UK .
In July 1998 , Deconstruction and Mushroom confirmed the release of two remix albums entitled Mixes and Impossible Remixes respectively . Deconstruction said the Mixes album would be released as a triple @-@ vinyl set and set the release date for the following year . However , fans voiced their concerns on expensive import prices for global shipping and with increasingly popular demand , Deconstruction scrapped the idea and released the remixes on a two @-@ set compact disc , and forward the triple vinyl at a later date . This allowed Deconstruction to release the album earlier and Mixes was released on August 3 , 1998 in the UK . Mushroom released Impossible Remixes on 8 July 1998 , but initial pressings were on sale two months earlier .
= = Material = =
The album shares majority of the tracks from Mixes and features remixes of three singles ; four remixes of " Breathe " , two remixes of " Did It Again " and one remix of " Some Kind of Bliss " , along with three remixes of Minogue 's promotional single " Too Far " . The remixes had all been previously featured in Minogue 's CD singles . Impossible Remixes features one remix that did not appear on Mixes , this being the " Breathe " TNT Club remix , a club commissioned edit of Tee 's Freeze Mix . All tracks were co @-@ written by Minogue , with additional song writing assistance by James Dean Bradfield , Dave Ball , Ingo Vauk , Steve Anderson and David Seaman . In 1997 , Minogue traveled to Los Angeles , California to re @-@ record her vocals for the " Breathe " remixes .
= = Artwork and sleeve = =
The cover sleeve was shot by English photographer Simon Emmett and designed by Andrew Murabito . The cover art of the album , as well as other promotion shoots , show Minogue sitting down and kneeling . After completing the shoot , Emmett was asked by Minogue to shoot the sleeve for her single " Cowboy Style " , and his most recent work with Minogue was shooting her on Glamour magazine in July 2012 . One of the shoot outtakes appeared on Minogue 's photo albums including Kylie / Fashion and on her 1997 extended play Other Sides .
In the photo book Kylie / Fashion , Emmett commented on the " Cowboy Style " and Impossible Remixes photo shoot ; : " There are no fashion constraints with Kylie ... Her natural poise and dynamism transcended all typical props and accessories . We 've made great use here of our easy rapport . " Minogue commended the photo shoot at the time , saying " So much of what I was doing at this time had a tiny budget so I brought a lot of pieces , including the pink glitter stick roll , from home [ ... ] It was a great , simple shoot with a lot of heart . "
= = Reception = =
Impossible Remixes received negative reviews from music critics . Jenny Stanley @-@ Clarke , who wrote the biography Kylie : Naked , felt the release " seemed nothing more than to run out Kylie 's contractual obligation for a required third Deconstruction album . " She favoured the contributions of " high profiled " DJ 's . Brendan Swift from Allmusic awarded the compilation only one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , making this Minogue 's lowest scoring remix album and overall album on the website . In his review , he argued the material was not new and felt the release tedious and the material was repetitive ; he viewed the Razor @-@ n @-@ Go Remix of " Did it Again " as an example , despite highlighting it . In his extended review , he explained ;
Pint @-@ sized pop diva Kylie Minogue 's continued crossover from lightweight pop puppet to respected artist continued with the release of this , a compilation of remixed singles from the Impossible Princess album . [ Impossible Remixes ] walks an unrelenting line — with ten versions of four songs ( " Breathe " clocks in with the highest total at four versions ) , there 's not a lot of room for variation — and the repetition certainly makes for classic club fodder . This is the voice of the new Minogue doing dance as the faded remnants of the Stock , Aitken and Waterman patsy is left well and truly behind — she 's now the voice behind the DJs — and there 's plenty of their work on this double CD set to sink your teeth into [ ... ] Hardcore Minogue fans with a good pair of dancing shoes may find this gyrating repetition worthwhile ; general fans , however , may find the original Impossible Princess more accommodating .
Early pressings of Impossible Remixes helped the album debut at number thirty @-@ seven on the Australian Albums Chart on 26 July 1998 , the fourth highest debuting album that week . During its debut week , Minogue 's album Impossible Princess also charted at number nine . This became her highest and only remix album to chart in Australia and her second compilation album to chart . The album slipped to number thirty nine the next week , whereas Impossible Princess fell to eleven .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
All credits and personnel adapted from Impossible Remixes liner notes :
= = Charts = =
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= John Bingham , 7th Earl of Lucan =
Richard John Bingham , 7th Earl of Lucan ( born 18 December 1934 ; presumed dead ) , commonly known as Lord Lucan , was a British peer suspected of murder who disappeared in 1974 . He was born into an Anglo @-@ Irish aristocratic family in Marylebone , the eldest son of George Bingham , 6th Earl of Lucan by his marriage to Kaitlin Dawson . An evacuee during the Second World War , Lucan returned to attend Eton College , and then from 1953 to 1955 served with the Coldstream Guards in West Germany . He developed a taste for gambling and , skilled at backgammon and bridge , became an early member of the Clermont Club . Although his losses often exceeded his winnings , he left his job at a London @-@ based merchant bank and became a professional gambler . He was known as Lord Bingham from April 1949 until January 1964 .
Once considered for the role of James Bond , Lucan was noted for his expensive tastes ; he raced power boats and drove an Aston Martin . In 1963 he married Veronica Duncan , with whom he had three children . When the marriage collapsed late in 1972 , he moved out of the family home at 46 Lower Belgrave Street , in London 's Belgravia , to a property nearby . A bitter custody battle ensued , which Lucan lost . He began to spy on his wife and record their telephone conversations , apparently obsessed with regaining custody of the children . This fixation , combined with his gambling losses , had a dramatic effect on his life and personal finances .
On the evening of 7 November 1974 , the children 's nanny , Sandra Rivett , was bludgeoned to death in the basement of the Lucan family home . Lady Lucan was also attacked ; she later identified Lucan as her assailant . As the police began their murder investigation , Lucan telephoned his mother , asking her to collect the children , and then drove a borrowed Ford Corsair to a friend 's house in Uckfield , East Sussex . Hours later , he left the property and was never seen again . The car was later found abandoned in Newhaven , its interior stained with blood and its boot containing a piece of bandaged lead pipe similar to one found at the crime scene . A warrant for Lucan 's arrest was issued a few days later , and in his absence the inquest into Rivett 's death named him as her murderer , the last occasion in Britain a coroner 's court was allowed to do so .
Lucan 's fate remains a fascinating mystery for the British public . Since Rivett 's murder , hundreds of reported sightings have been made in various countries around the world , although none have been substantiated . Despite a police investigation and huge press interest , Lucan has not been found and is presumed dead ; a death certificate was issued in 2016 .
= = Early life and education = =
Richard John Bingham was born on 18 December 1934 at 19 Bentinck Street , Marylebone , London , the second child and elder son of George Bingham , 6th Earl of Lucan , an Anglo @-@ Irish peer , and his wife Kaitlin Elizabeth Anne Dawson . A blood clot found in her lung forced his mother to remain in a nursing home , so John , as he became known , was initially cared for by the family 's nurserymaid . Aged three years , he attended a pre @-@ prep school in Tite Street with his elder sister , Jane , but in 1939 , with war approaching , the two were taken to the relative safety of Wales . The following year , joined by their younger siblings , Sally and Hugh , the Lucan children travelled to Toronto , moving shortly thereafter to Mount Kisco , New York . They stayed for five years with multi @-@ millionairess Marcia Brady Tucker ; John was enrolled at The Harvey School and spent summer holidays away from his siblings at a summer camp in the Adirondack Mountains .
While in the U.S. , John and his siblings lived in grandeur and wanted for nothing , but on their return to England in February 1945 they were faced with the stark realities of wartime Britain . Rationing was still in force , their former home at Cheyne Walk had been bombed , and the house at 22 Eaton Square had had its windows blown out . Despite the family 's rich ancestry , the 6th Earl and his wife were agnostics and socialists and preferred a more austere existence than that offered by Tucker , an extremely wealthy Christian . For a time , John suffered nightmares and was taken to a psychotherapist . As an adult he remained an agnostic , but ensured his children attended Sunday school , preferring to give them a traditional childhood .
At Eton College , John developed a taste for gambling . He supplemented his pocket money with income from bookmaking , placing his earnings into a " secret " bank account , and regularly left the school 's grounds to attend horse races . Although according to his mother his academic record was " far from creditable " , he became Captain of Roe 's House , before leaving in 1953 to undertake his National Service . He became a second lieutenant in his father 's regiment , the Coldstream Guards , and was stationed mainly in Krefeld , West Germany . While there , he also became a keen poker player .
= = Career = =
On leaving the army in 1955 , Lucan joined a London @-@ based merchant bank , William Brandt 's Sons and Co . , on an annual salary of £ 500 ( equivalent to £ 11 @,@ 830 in 2015 ) . In 1960 he met Stephen Raphael , a rich stockbroker who was a skilled backgammon player . They holidayed together in the Bahamas , went water @-@ skiing , and played golf , backgammon and poker . Lucan became a regular gambler and an early member of John Aspinall 's Clermont gaming club , located in Berkeley Square . Although he often won at games of skill like bridge and backgammon , he also accumulated huge losses . On one occasion he lost £ 8 @,@ 000 , or about two @-@ thirds of the money he received annually from various family trusts . On another disastrous night at a casino he lost £ 10 @,@ 000 . That time his stockbroker uncle , John Bevan , helped him to pay the debt , and Lucan repaid his uncle two years later .
Lucan left Brandt 's in about 1960 , shortly after he had won £ 26 @,@ 000 playing chemin de fer . A colleague had been promoted before him , and he protested and then gave up his job , saying " why should I work in a bank , when I can earn a year 's money in one single night at the tables ? " He travelled to the US , where he played golf , raced powerboats , and drove his Aston Martin around the West Coast of the United States . He also visited his elder sister , Jane , and his former guardian , Marcia Tucker . On his return to England he moved out of his parents ' home in St John 's Wood and into a flat in Park Crescent .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Marriage = = =
Lucan met his future wife , Veronica Duncan , early in 1963 . She was born in 1937 to Major Charles Moorhouse Duncan and his wife Thelma . Her father had died in a car accident while she was still very young , following which the family had moved to South Africa . Her mother remarried , and when her new step @-@ father became manager of a hotel in Guildford , the family returned to England . Along with her sister , Christina , she was educated at St Swithun 's School , Winchester , and after displaying a talent for art she went on to study at an art college in Bournemouth . The two sisters later shared a flat in London , where Veronica worked as a model and later as a secretary . Christina 's marriage to the rich William Shand @-@ Kydd introduced her to London high society , and it was at a golf @-@ club function in the country that Veronica and Lucan first met .
News of their engagement appeared in the Times and Telegraph newspapers on 14 October 1963 , and the two were married at Holy Trinity Brompton Church on 20 November . After a high society ceremony attended by , amongst other dignitaries , Princess Alice , Countess of Athlone , the couple honeymooned in Europe , travelling first class on the Orient Express . Lucan 's already embattled finances were given a welcome boost by his father , who provided him with a marriage settlement designed to finance a larger family home and any future additions to the Lucan family tree . Lucan repaid some of his creditors and leased number 46 Lower Belgrave Street , Westminster , redecorating it to suit Veronica 's tastes . Two months after the wedding , on 21 January 1964 , the 6th Earl of Lucan died of a stroke . In addition to a reputed £ 250 @,@ 000 inheritance , Lucan acquired his father 's titles : Earl of Lucan ; Baron Lucan of Castlebar ; Baron Lucan of Melcombe Lucan and Baronet Bingham of Castlebar . His wife became the Countess of Lucan . Their first child , Frances , was born on 24 October 1964 , and early the next year they employed a nanny , Lillian Jenkins , to look after her . Lucan tried to teach Veronica about gambling and traditional pursuits like hunting , shooting , and fishing . He bought her golf lessons , although she later gave up the sport .
Lucan 's daily routine consisted of breakfast at 9 : 00 am , coffee , dealing with the morning 's letters , reading the newspapers , and playing the piano . He sometimes jogged in the park and , while he had him , took his Doberman Pinscher for walks . Lunch at the Clermont Club was followed by afternoon games of backgammon . Returning home to change into evening dress , the earl typically spent the remainder of the day at the Clermont , gambling into the early hours , watched sometimes by Veronica . In 1956 , while still working at Brandt 's , he had written of his desire to have " £ 2m in the bank " , claiming that " motor @-@ cars , yachts , expensive holidays and security for the future would give myself and a lot of other people a lot of pleasure " . Although he was described by his friends as a shy and taciturn man , with his tall stature , " luxuriant guardsman 's moustache " and masculine pursuits , his exploits made him popular . His profligacy extended to hiring private aircraft to take his friends to the races , asking a car dealer he knew to source an Aston Martin drophead coupé , drinking expensive Russian vodka and racing powerboats . In September 1966 he unsuccessfully screen tested for a part in Woman Times Seven , prompting him to automatically decline a later offer from film producer Cubby Broccoli , to screen test him for the role of James Bond .
As a professional gambler he was undoubtedly a skilled player , once rated amongst the world 's top ten backgammon competitors . He won the St James 's Club tournament and was Champion of the West Coast of America . He gained the moniker " Lucky " Lucan , but as his losses easily outweighed his winnings , in reality he was anything but lucky . He had interests in thoroughbred horses , although in 1968 he paid more in race entry fees than he received in winnings . Despite some arguments over money , his wife remained largely ignorant of his losses , retaining the use of accounts at Savile Row tailors and various Knightsbridge shops . Following the births of George ( b . 1967 ) and Camilla ( b . 1970 ) , she struggled with post @-@ natal depression . Lucan became increasingly involved in her mental well @-@ being and in 1971 took her for treatment at a psychiatric clinic in Hampstead , although she refused to be admitted . Instead , she agreed to home visits from a psychiatrist and a course of anti @-@ depressants . In July 1972 the family holidayed in Monte Carlo but Veronica quickly returned to England , leaving Lucan with their two elder children . The combined pressures of maintaining their finances , paying for Lucan 's gambling addiction and Veronica 's weakened mental condition took their toll on the marriage ; two weeks after a strained family Christmas in 1972 , Lucan moved into a small property in Eaton Row .
= = = Separation = = =
Some months later Lucan moved again , to a larger rented flat in nearby Elizabeth Street . Despite an early attempt by his wife at reconciliation , by that point all Lucan wanted from the marriage was custody of his children . In an effort to demonstrate that Veronica was unfit to look after them , he began to spy on his family ( his car was regularly seen parked in Lower Belgrave Street ) , later employing private investigators to perform the same task . Lucan also canvassed doctors , who explained that his wife had not " gone mad " , but was suffering from depression and anxiety . Lucan told his friends that nobody would work for Veronica ( she sacked the children 's long @-@ term nanny , Lillian Jenkins , in December 1972 ) . Of the series of nannies employed in the house , one , 26 @-@ year @-@ old Stefanja Sawicka , was told by Veronica that Lucan had hit her with a cane and had , on one occasion , pushed her down the stairs . The countess apparently feared for her safety and told Sawicka not to be surprised " if he kills me one day . "
Sawicka 's time at the Lucan household ended late in March 1973 . While with two of the children near Grosvenor Place , she was confronted by Lucan and two private detectives . They told her that the children had been made wards of court and that she must release them into his custody , which she did . Frances was collected from school later in the day . Lady Lucan applied to the court to have the children returned , but concerned about the case 's complexity , the judge set a date for the hearing three months ahead , for June 1973 . To defend herself against Lucan 's claims about her mental state , Veronica booked herself a four @-@ day stay at the Priory Clinic in Roehampton . While it was acknowledged that she still required some psychiatric support , the doctors reported that there was no indication that she was mentally ill . Lucan 's case depended upon Veronica being unable to care for the children , but at the hearing , he was instead forced to defend his own behaviour toward her . After several weeks of witnesses and protracted arguments in camera , on the advice of his lawyers he conceded the case . Unimpressed by Lucan 's character , Mr Justice Rees awarded custody to Veronica . The earl was allowed access every other weekend .
Thus began a bitter dispute between the two , involving many of their friends and Veronica 's own sister . Lucan again began to watch his wife 's movements . He recorded some of their telephone conversations with a small Sony tape recorder and played excerpts to any friends prepared to listen . He also told them — and his bank manager — that Lady Lucan had been " spending money like water " . He continued to pay her £ 40 a week , although he may have cancelled their regular food order with Harrods . He delayed payment to the milkman and — knowing that Veronica was required by the court to employ a live @-@ in nanny — the childcare agency . With no income of her own , Veronica took a part @-@ time job in a local hospital . A temporary nanny , Elizabeth Murphy , was befriended by Lucan , who bought her drinks and asked her for information on his wife . He instructed his detective agency to investigate Murphy , looking for evidence that she was failing in her duty of care to his children . This they found , although he dispensed with the detective agency 's services when they presented him with bills amounting to several hundred pounds . Murphy was later hospitalised with cancer . Another temporary nanny , Christabel Martin , reported strange telephone calls to the house , some with heavy breathing and some from a man asking for non @-@ existent people . Following a series of temporary nannies , Sandra Rivett started work in late 1974 .
= = = Gambling = = =
Losing the court case proved devastating for Lucan . It had cost him an estimated £ 20 @,@ 000 and by late 1974 his financial position was dire . As he drank more heavily and started chain @-@ smoking , his friends began to worry . In drunken conversations with some of them , including Aspinall 's mother , Lady Osborne , and her son , Lucan discussed murdering his wife . Greville Howard later gave a statement to the police describing how Lucan had talked of how killing his wife might save him from bankruptcy , how her body might be disposed of in the Solent and how he " would never be caught " . Lucan borrowed £ 4 @,@ 000 from his mother and asked Marcia Tucker for a loan of £ 100 @,@ 000 . Having no luck there , he wrote to Tucker 's son , explaining how he wished to " buy " his children from Veronica ; the money was not forthcoming . He turned to his friends and acquaintances , asking anyone plausible to loan him money to fund his gambling addiction . The financier James Goldsmith guaranteed a £ 5 @,@ 000 overdraft for him , which for years remained unpaid . Lucan also applied to the discreet Edgware Trust . On request , he supplied details of his income , which was apparently around £ 12 @,@ 000 a year from various family trusts . He was required to provide a surety and received only £ 3 @,@ 000 of the £ 5 @,@ 000 he asked for . Much to their managers ' consternation , his four bank accounts were hugely overdrawn ; Coutts , £ 2 @,@ 841 ; Lloyds , £ 4 @,@ 379 ; National Westminster , £ 1 @,@ 290 ; Midland , £ 5 @,@ 667 . Even though by then he was playing for much lower stakes than had previously been the case , Lucan 's gambling remained completely out of control . Ranson ( 1994 ) estimates that between September and October 1974 alone , the earl ran up debts of around £ 50 @,@ 000 .
Despite these problems , from late October 1974 his demeanour appeared to change for the better . His best man , John Wilbraham , remarked that Lucan 's apparent obsession over regaining his children had diminished . While having dinner with his mother he cast aside talk of his family problems and turned instead to politics . On 6 November he met his uncle John , apparently in good spirits . Later that day he met 21 @-@ year @-@ old Charlotte Andrina Colquhoun , who said that " he seemed very happy , just his usual self , and there was nothing to suggest that he was worried or depressed " . He also dined at the Clermont with racing driver Graham Hill . At the time , casinos could open only between 2 : 00 pm and 4 : 00 am , so Lucan often gambled into the early hours of the morning . He took tablets to deal with his insomnia and therefore usually awoke around lunchtime . On 7 November though , he broke routine and called his solicitor early that morning , and at 10 : 30 am took a call from Colquhoun . They arranged to eat at the Clermont at about 3 : 00 pm , but Lucan failed to appear . Colquhoun drove past the Clermont and Ladbroke clubs , and past Elizabeth Street , but could not find his car anywhere . Lucan also failed to arrive for his 1 : 00 pm lunch appointment with artist Dominic Elwes and banker Daniel Meinertzhagen , again at the Clermont .
At 4 : 00 pm Lucan called at a chemist 's on Lower Belgrave Street , close to Veronica 's home , and asked the pharmacist there to identify a small capsule . It turned out to be Limbitrol 5 , a drug for the treatment of anxiety and depression . Lucan had apparently made several similar visits since he separated from his wife , although he never told the pharmacist where he got the drugs . At 4 : 45 pm he called a friend , literary agent Michael Hicks @-@ Beach , and between 6 : 30 pm and 7 : 00 pm met with him at his flat on Elizabeth Street . Lucan wanted his help with an article on gambling he had been asked to write for an Oxford University magazine . He drove Hicks @-@ Beach home for about 8 : 00 pm , not in his Mercedes @-@ Benz , but in " an old , dark and scruffy Ford " , possibly the Ford Corsair he borrowed from Michael Stoop several weeks earlier . At 8 : 30 pm he called the Clermont to check on a reservation for dinner with Greville Howard and friends . Howard had called him at 5 : 15 pm and asked if he wished to come to the theatre , but Lucan had declined and made the alternative suggestion to meet at the Clermont at 11 : 00 pm . He failed to arrive and did not answer his telephone when called .
= = Murder = =
= = = Sandra Rivett = = =
Sandra Eleanor Rivett was born on 16 September 1945 , the third child of Albert and Eunice Hensby . The family moved to Australia when she was two years old , but returned in 1955 . Sandra was a popular child , described at school as " intelligent , although she does not excel academically " . She worked for six months as an apprentice hairdresser before taking a job as a secretary in Croydon . Following a failed romance she became a voluntary patient at a mental hospital near Redhill , Surrey , where she was treated for depression . She became engaged to a builder named John and took a job as a children 's nanny for a doctor in Croydon . On 13 March 1964 , she gave birth to a boy named Stephen , but , as her relationship with John was failing , she returned home to live with her parents and considered giving the baby up for adoption . Her parents took on the responsibility and adopted him in May 1965 . Sandra later worked at an old people 's home , before moving to Portsmouth to stay with her elder sister . While there she met Roger Rivett ; the two married on 10 June 1967 in Croydon . Roger was serving as a Royal Navy able seaman and later worked as a loader for British Road Services , while Sandra worked part @-@ time at Reedham Orphanage in Purley . In summer 1973 he took a job on an Esso tanker , returning to their flat in Kenley a few months later by which time Sandra was employed by a cigarette company in Croydon . Their marriage collapsed in May 1974 when , suspicious of Sandra 's movements while he was away , Roger went to live with his parents . She was by then listed on the books of a Belgravia domestic agency and had been caring for an elderly couple in that district . A few weeks later she began to work for the Lucans .
Sandra normally went out with her boyfriend , John Hankins , on Thursday nights , but had decided to change her night off and thus , had seen him the previous day . The two last spoke on the telephone at about 8 : 00 pm on 7 November . After putting the younger children to bed , at about 8 : 55 pm she asked Veronica if she would like a cup of tea , before heading downstairs to the basement kitchen to make one . As she entered the room , she was bludgeoned to death with a piece of bandaged lead pipe . Her killer then placed her body into a canvas mailsack . Meanwhile , wondering what had delayed her nanny , Lady Lucan descended from the first floor to see what had happened . She called to Rivett from the top of the basement stairs and was herself attacked . As she screamed for her life , her attacker told her to " shut up " . Lady Lucan later claimed at that moment to have recognised her husband 's voice . The two apparently continued to fight ; she bit his fingers , and when he threw her face down to the carpet , managed to turn around and squeeze his testicles , causing him to release his grip on her throat and give up the fight . When she asked where Rivett was , Lucan was at first evasive , but eventually admitted to having killed her . Terrified , Lady Lucan told him she could help him escape if only he would remain at the house for a few days , to allow her injuries to heal . Lucan walked upstairs and sent his daughter to bed , then went into one of the bedrooms . When Veronica entered , to lie on the bed , he told her to put towels down first to avoid staining the bedding . Lucan asked her if she had any barbiturates and went to the bathroom to get a wet towel , supposedly to clean Veronica 's face . Lady Lucan realised her husband would be unable to hear her from the bathroom , and made her escape , running outside to a nearby public house , the Plumbers Arms .
Lucan may have called at the Chester Square home of Madelaine Florman ( mother of one of Frances 's school friends ) sometime between 10 : 00 pm and 10 : 30 pm . Alone in the house , Florman ignored the door , but shortly afterwards she received an incoherent telephone call and put the receiver down . Blood stains , which after forensic examination were found to be a mixture of blood groups A and B , were later discovered on her doorstep . Lucan certainly called his mother between 10 : 30 pm and 11 : 00 pm and asked her to collect the children from Lower Belgrave Street . According to the Dowager Countess , he spoke of a " terrible catastrophe " at his wife 's home . He told her that he had been driving past the house when he saw Veronica fighting with a man , in the basement . He had entered the property and found his wife screaming . The location from which he made this , and possibly the call to Florman , remains unknown . The police forced their way into Lady Lucan 's home and discovered Sandra Rivett 's body , before his wife was taken by ambulance to St George 's Hospital . Lucan drove the Ford Corsair 42 miles ( 68 km ) to Uckfield , in East Sussex , to visit his friends , the Maxwell @-@ Scotts . Susan Maxwell @-@ Scott 's meeting with Lucan was his last confirmed sighting .
= = = Investigation = = =
By the time Detective Chief Superintendent Roy Ranson arrived at Lower Belgrave Street early on Friday 8 November , the divisional surgeon had pronounced Sandra Rivett dead and forensic officers and photographers had been called to the property . Other than the front door , which the first two officers on the scene had kicked in , there was no sign of a forced entry . A blood @-@ stained towel was found in Veronica 's first @-@ floor bedroom . The area around the top of the basement staircase was heavily blood @-@ stained . A blood @-@ stained lead pipe lay on the floor . Pictures hanging from the staircase walls were askew and a metal banister rail was damaged . At the foot of the stairs , two cups and saucers lay in a pool of blood . Rivett 's arm protruded from the canvas sack , which lay in a slowly expanding pool of blood . The light fitting at the bottom of the stairs was missing its bulb ; one was noted nearby , on a chair . Blood was also found on various leaves in the adjoining rear garden .
Officers also searched 5 Eaton Row , into which Lucan had moved early in 1973 , and after interviewing his mother ( who had called to take the children to her home in St John 's Wood ) , his last address at 72a Elizabeth Street . Nothing untoward was found , although on the bed , a suit and shirt lay alongside a book on Greek shipping millionaires , and Lucan 's wallet , car keys , money , driving licence , handkerchief and spectacles were on a bedside table . His passport was in a drawer and his blue Mercedes @-@ Benz parked outside , its engine cold and its battery flat . Ranson then visited Veronica Lucan at St George 's Hospital . Although heavily sedated , she was able to describe what had happened to her . A police officer was left to guard her , should her assailant return . Rivett 's body was taken to the mortuary , and a search was undertaken of all local basement areas and gardens , skips and open spaces .
After removing her corpse from the canvas sack and beginning the post mortem examination , pathologist Keith Simpson told Ranson he was certain that Rivett had been killed before her body was placed in the sack , and that in his opinion the lead pipe found at the scene could be the murder weapon . Her estranged husband , Roger , had an alibi for the night concerned , and was eliminated from the police 's enquiries . Other male friends and boyfriends were questioned and discounted as suspects . Her parents confirmed that Sandra had a good working relationship with Lady Lucan , and was extremely fond of the children . Meanwhile , Lucan had yet to make an appearance , and so his description was circulated to police forces across the country . Newspapers and television stations were told only that Lucan was wanted by the police for questioning .
Hours earlier , Lucan had again called his mother , at about 12 : 30 am . He told her that he would be in touch later that day , but declined to speak with the police constable who had accompanied her to her flat ; instead , he said he would call the police later that morning . Ranson discovered that Lucan had travelled to Uckfield when he was called by Ian Maxwell @-@ Scott , who told him that Lucan had arrived at his home a few hours after the murder , and spoken with his wife , Susan . While there , the earl had written two letters to his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Bill Shand @-@ Kydd , and posted them to his London address . Maxwell @-@ Scott also called Shand @-@ Kydd at his country house near Leighton Buzzard and told him about the letters , prompting the latter to immediately drive to London to collect them . After reading them , and noting that they were bloodstained , he took them to Ranson .
When asked why she did not immediately inform the police of Lucan 's presence , Susan Maxwell @-@ Scott said she had not seen any newspapers or television news , or listened to any radio broadcasts that might have warned her of the importance of his visit . Meanwhile , Lucan 's children were taken by their aunt , Lady Sarah Gibbs , to her home in Guilsborough , Northamptonshire , where they would remain for several weeks . On the day Veronica Lucan was discharged from hospital , a High Court hearing confirmed that the children could return to live with her . Repeated press intrusions later forced the family to move to a friend 's home in Plymouth .
The Ford Corsair that Lucan had been seen driving and whose details had the previous day been circulated across the country was found on Sunday in Norman Road , Newhaven , about 16 miles ( 26 km ) from Uckfield . In its boot was a piece of lead pipe covered in surgical tape , and a full bottle of vodka . The car was removed for forensic examination . Later statements from two witnesses suggest that it was parked there sometime between 5 : 00 am and 8 : 00 am on the morning of Friday 8 November . Its owner , Michael Stoop , also received a letter from Lucan , delivered to his club , the St James 's . However , Stoop threw the envelope away and it was therefore not possible to check its postmark to see where it had been sent from .
Ranson suspected a suicide , but a thorough search of Newhaven Downs was judged impossible . A partial search was made , using tracker dogs , although all that was found were the skeletal remains of a judge who had disappeared years earlier . Police divers searched the harbour , and a partial search using infra @-@ red photography was undertaken the following year , to no avail . A warrant for Lucan 's arrest , to answer charges of murdering Sandra Rivett , and attempting to murder his wife , was issued on Tuesday 12 November 1974 . Descriptions of his appearance , already issued to police forces across the UK , were then issued to Interpol .
= = = Forensics = = =
The forensic examination of the lead pipes found at the murder scene and in the Corsair 's boot revealed traces of blood on the pipe from 46 Lower Belgrave Street . This proved to be a mixture of Lady Lucan 's ( blood group A ) and Sandra Rivett 's ( B ) blood . Hair belonging to Veronica Lucan was also found on that pipe , but none belonging to Sandra Rivett . The pipe found inside the car had neither blood nor hair on it . Home Office scientists were unable to prove conclusively that both pipes were cut from the same , longer , piece of piping , although they thought it likely . The tape wrapped around both was similar , but those too could not be conclusively linked . The letters written to Bill Shand @-@ Kydd were stained with blood considered to be from both women . The letter to Michael Stoop had no blood on it , but it was later proven that the paper it was written on had been torn from a writing pad found in the Corsair 's boot .
An examination of the blood stains found inside 46 Lower Belgrave Street demonstrated that Rivett had been attacked in the basement kitchen , while Lady Lucan had been attacked at the top of the basement stairs . The bloodstains found inside the Ford Corsair were of the AB blood group ; the report concluded that this might have been a mixture of blood from both women . Hair similar to Lady Lucan 's was also found inside the car .
= = = Media reaction = = =
By the afternoon of Friday 8 November , the newspapers ' early editions carried photographs of the Lucans across their front pages , accompanied by headlines like " body in sack ... countess runs out screaming " , and " belgravia murder – earl sought " . A meeting that day at the Clermont , between John Aspinall , Daniel Meinertzhagen , Charles Benson , Stephen Raphael , Bill Shand @-@ Kydd and Dominic Elwes , became the cause of much press speculation . Meinertzhagen and Raphael later insisted that the gathering was just a rational discussion between concerned friends , keen to share anything they knew about what had happened , but the relationship between the police and Lucan 's social circle was strained ; some officers complained that an " Eton mafia " worked against them . Susan Maxwell @-@ Scott refused to add to her statement , and when Aspinall 's mother , Lady Osborne , was asked if she could help locate Lucan 's body , she replied " The last I heard of him , he was being fed to the tigers at my son 's zoo " , prompting the police to search the house and the animal cages there . They searched fourteen country houses and estates , including Holkham Hall and Warwick Castle , to no avail . Amidst concerns expressed by the Labour MP Marcus Lipton that some people were " being a bit snooty " with the police , Benson wrote a letter to The Times asking him to either identify those people or " kindly withdraw his remarks " . To their cost , Private Eye accused James Goldsmith of being at the Clermont meeting , when he was actually in Ireland . Dominic Elwes went to see Lady Lucan in hospital and was reportedly deeply shocked both by her appearance and her statement " Who 's the mad one now ? " Elwes was apparently unhappy at some of the negative press coverage of the countess , and was later ostracised by his friends for his part in an article critical of Lucan , which appeared in the Sunday Times Magazine . He committed suicide in September 1975 .
Rivett 's case made headlines around the world . Within days of the murder , newspapers reported on Veronica Lucan 's statement to the police , with claims that she had pretended to collude with her husband to ensure her safety . In January 1975 Veronica gave an exclusive interview to the Daily Express . She also appeared in a murder reconstruction , in the same newspaper , complete with posed photographs taken inside the house .
= = = Inquest = = =
The inquest into Sandra Rivett 's death opened on 13 November 1974 and was led by the Coroner for Inner West London , Gavin Thurston . Two witnesses were called to the courtroom , which was packed with reporters ; Roger Rivett , who confirmed that he had identified his wife 's body , and the pathologist , Keith Simpson , who confirmed that Rivett had died from being hit on the head with a blunt instrument . At Ranson 's request , the hearing was then adjourned . Further adjournments were made on 11 December 1974 and 10 March 1975 , before a full inquest was scheduled for 16 June 1975 .
The hearing began with the swearing @-@ in of the jury and introductions from various legal representatives , including a lawyer hired for Lucan by his mother . Thurston introduced the jury to the case and explained their duties . He had selected 33 witnesses to be called over the following few days , including Veronica Lucan , who each day wore a dark coat and white headscarf . Thurston questioned her on her relationship with Lucan , her marriage , her financial affairs , her employment of Rivett and what had happened on the night of the attack . The Dowager Countess 's QC attempted to ask Lady Lucan about the nature of their relationship , if she hated her husband , but Thurston ruled his line of questioning inadmissible . Woman Detective Constable Sally Blower , who had taken a statement from Frances on 20 November 1974 , read the young girl 's words to the court . Frances had heard a scream , and a few minutes later had watched as her mother ( blood on her face ) and father had entered the room . Her mother had then sent her to bed . She later heard her father calling for her mother , asking where she was , and watched as he left the bathroom and walked downstairs . She also described how Sandra Rivett did not normally work on Thursday nights .
The landlord of " The Plumbers Arms " described how Lady Lucan had entered his bar covered " head to toe in blood " before she fell into " a state of shock " . He claimed that she shouted " Help me , help me , I 've just escaped from being murdered " and " My children , my children , he 's murdered my nanny " , although no name was mentioned . Pathologist Keith Simpson outlined his post mortem examination , concluding that death was caused by " blunt head injuries " and " inhalation of blood " . He confirmed that the lead pipe found at the scene was most likely responsible for Rivett 's injuries , although some , to the left eye and mouth , he thought more likely to have been caused by punches from a clenched fist . The last person to confirm seeing Lucan alive , Susan Maxwell @-@ Scott , told the court that the earl looked " dishevelled " , and his hair " a little ruffled " . His trousers had a damp patch on the right hip . Lucan had told her that he was walking , or passing by the house when he saw Veronica being attacked by a man . He let himself in but slipped in a pool of blood at the bottom of the stairs . He told Maxwell @-@ Scott that the attacker ran off , and that Veronica was " very hysterical " and accused him of having hired a hitman to kill her .
Once the hearing had ended , Thurston made a summary of the evidence presented and told the jury their options . At 11 : 45 am , their foreman announced " Murder by Lord Lucan " . Lucan became the first member of the House of Lords to be named a murderer since 1760 , when Laurence Shirley , 4th Earl Ferrers , was hanged for killing his bailiff . He was also the last person to be committed by a coroner to a Crown Court for unlawful killing ; the coroner 's power to do so was removed by the Criminal Law Act 1977 .
Rivett 's body , which had been held for several weeks following the murder , was released to her family and cremated at Croydon crematorium on 18 December 1974 . A police spokesman cited Lady Lucan 's desire not to upset the family as a reason for her non @-@ attendance at the cremation .
= = = Lucan 's defence = = =
Lucan 's friends and family were critical of the inquest , which they felt offered a one @-@ sided view of events . His mother told reporters that it did not serve " any useful purpose at all " . Veronica 's sister , Christina , said she felt " great sadness and sorrow " at the verdict . Susan Maxwell @-@ Scott continued to press the earl 's claims of innocence and claimed to feel " awfully sorry " for the countess . However , as Lucan remained absent , his description of " a traumatic night of unbelievable coincidence " came only from the letters he authored and the people he spoke with soon after Rivett 's murder . While his fingerprints were not found at the scene , his assertions make no provision for the lead pipe discovered in the boot of the Ford Corsair , the claims by some that he discussed murdering his wife , or the lack of a viable suspect for the man he claimed to have seen fighting her . No sign of a forced entry was found , and officers attempting to demonstrate that Lucan could have seen into the basement kitchen , from the street , could only do so by stooping low to the pavement . The basement light was not working , making it even more difficult to see into the room ; its lightbulb ( which was tested and found to be in working order ) was found removed from its holder and left lying on a chair . Furthermore , Lady Lucan claimed not to have entered the basement that night , contradicting the earl 's version of events ; his wife 's account is supported by the forensic examination made of the blood splashes and stains around the property . Some traces of her blood were found in the basement , the rear garden and on the canvas sack used to store Rivett 's body , although this may have been due to contamination at the scene . The man Lucan claimed to have seen could not have left through the basement 's front door as it was locked , and the rear door led to a walled garden through which no trace of an escape was found . No signs that the man left by the ground level front door were discovered , and no witnesses reported seeing any such person near 46 Lower Belgrave Street .
In contrast to his defenders , the national press were almost unanimous in their condemnation of Lucan . Their leader @-@ writers ignored the threat of libel and identified him as Rivett 's killer .
= = Bankruptcy and estate = =
As Lucan 's bankruptcy proceeded , in August 1975 his creditors were informed that the missing earl had unsecured debts of £ 45 @,@ 000 and preferential liabilities for £ 1 @,@ 326 . His assets were estimated at £ 22 @,@ 632 . The family silver was sold in March 1976 for around £ 30 @,@ 000 . His remaining debts were repaid by the Lucan family trust in the years immediately following his disappearance . His family was granted probate over his estate in 1999 , although no death certificate was issued , and his heir , George Bingham , Lord Bingham , was refused permission to take his father 's title and seat in the House of Lords . Following the passage of the Presumption of Death Act 2013 , Bingham began a new attempt to have his father declared dead , which proved successful in a High Court hearing at the Rolls Building on 3 February 2016 . He therefore inherited his father 's title , becoming the 8th Earl of Lucan .
= = Ultimate fate and reported sightings = =
The last confirmed sighting of Lucan was at about 1 : 15 am on 8 November 1974 as he exited the driveway of the Maxwell @-@ Scott property , in his friend 's Ford Corsair . Since then , his whereabouts and ultimate fate remain a mystery . Detective Chief Superintendent Roy Ranson initially claimed that Lucan had " done the honourable thing " and " fallen on his own sword " , a view publicly repeated by many of Lucan 's friends , including John Aspinall , who shortly before his death in 2000 said he believed the earl was guilty of Rivett 's murder , and that his body lay " 250 feet under the Channel " . Veronica Lucan believes her husband killed himself " like the nobleman he was " .
Ranson later changed his view , explaining that he considered it more likely that suicide was far from Lucan 's thoughts , that a rumoured drowning at sea was implausible and that the earl had moved to southern Africa . Thirty years after the murder , the detective leading a new investigation into Lucan 's disappearance told the Telegraph that " the evidence points towards the fact that Lord Lucan left the country and lived abroad for a number of years . " Speaking to author John Pearson before she died , Susan Maxwell @-@ Scott suggested that Lucan might have been helped out of the country by shadowy underground financiers , before being judged too great a risk and killed and buried in Switzerland . A similar theory was proposed by advertising executive Jeremy Scott , who was familiar with some of the Clermont Set .
Lucan 's disappearance has captivated the public 's imagination for decades , with thousands of sightings reported across the world . One of the earliest , shortly after the murder , turned out to be a British ex @-@ politician , John Stonehouse , who had attempted to fake his own death . The police travelled to France in June the following year to hunt another lead , to no avail . A sighting in Colombia turned out to be an American businessman . John Miller , a bounty hunter who kidnapped the fugitive train robber Ronnie Biggs , claimed in 1982 to have captured the earl , but was later exposed by the News of the World as a hoaxer . In 2003 a former Scotland Yard detective thought he had tracked the earl to Goa , India , although the man he traced was actually Barry Halpin , a folk singer from St Helens . In 2007 , reporters in New Zealand interviewed a homeless British expatriate who neighbours claimed was the missing earl .
More recently , responding to claims that the two eldest Lucan children were sent to Gabon in the early 1980s so that their father might secretly watch them " from a distance " , George Bingham denied ever visiting the country . His mother dismissed the newspaper claims of sightings as " nonsense " , reiterating that in her opinion " he was not the sort of Englishman to cope abroad " .
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= Emmett Watson =
Emmett Watson ( November 22 , 1918 – May 11 , 2001 ) was an American newspaper columnist in Seattle , Washington , whose columns ran in a number of Seattle newspapers over a span of more than fifty years . Initially a sportswriter , he is primarily known for authoring a social commentary column for the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer ( P @-@ I ) from 1956 until 1982 , when he moved to The Seattle Times and continued there as a columnist until shortly before his death in 2001 .
Watson , who grew up in Seattle in the 1920s and 1930s , was a tireless advocate , through his column as well as through a fictional organization he created called Lesser Seattle , for limiting the seemingly unbridled growth and urban renewal that dramatically altered the Seattle landscape during the second half of the twentieth century .
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Born in Seattle , Watson and twin brother Clement were the sons of Garfield and Lena McWhirt . Emmett 's mother and twin brother died of Spanish Influenza the following year ; his father , an itinerant laborer unable to care for his 14 @-@ month @-@ old son , arranged for Emmett 's adoption by long @-@ time friends John and Elizabeth Watson of West Seattle .
= = = School and baseball = = =
Watson suffered an ear infection as a child that permanently damaged his hearing . He attended West Seattle High School before transferring to Franklin . A catcher on the Quakers baseball team , he played with future major league pitcher Fred Hutchinson. and graduated in 1937 .
Watson enrolled at the University of Washington and played baseball for the Huskies under head coach Tubby Graves . He played very briefly with the Seattle Rainiers of the Pacific Coast League , amassing one hit in a total of two at @-@ bats . He often blamed his lack of success in professional baseball on his inability to hit a curveball . He graduated from the university in 1942 with a bachelor 's degree in communications . After leaving baseball , Watson worked in the Seattle @-@ Tacoma Shipyard during World War II .
= = = Early writing career = = =
During the war , Watson and some friends produced a newsletter to send to baseball players serving in the military . The newsletter brought him to the attention of an editor at the Seattle Star ( a now defunct daily newspaper ) where Watson was hired to cover the Rainiers in 1944 . It was while working at the Star that Watson contracted polio .
In 1946 , The Seattle Times lured Watson away from the Star , where he continued to cover sports until 1950 , when he received an offer from the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer that The Seattle Times chose not to match . He initially wrote a sports column at the P @-@ I. In 1956 the P @-@ I was pitched the idea of an " Around the Town " column by a group of restaurant owners who offered to partially underwrite the costs of producing the column in exchange for an occasional plug . The new column , " This , Our Town , " was assigned to Watson .
= = Columnist at the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer = =
Watson 's new column quickly broadened its scope to cover all aspects of life in Seattle . In 1959 it was rechristened " This , Our City . " By 1962 , the column , primarily a " three dot " compilation of short items , was running five days a week . When a particular issue caught his attention , Watson would produce a longer , essay @-@ style column . It was these essay @-@ style columns that provided most of the fodder for his 1993 book , My Life in Print .
In his column , as in his life , Watson was an early champion of civil rights , social reform , and the anti @-@ war movement . He denounced urban renewal plans aimed at flattening Pioneer Square and radically altering Seattle 's Pike Place Public Market . He was the founder and leader of " Lesser Seattle , " a parody of Greater Seattle , Inc . , which advocated several schemes for Seattle 's civic improvement and development that Watson considered ill @-@ advised . Feeling that the influx of outsiders , primarily from California , was ruining the city , Watson often published tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek columns suggesting ways to make visitors to Seattle feel unwelcome . He also invented a fictional organization called Keep the Bastards Out ( KBO ) that fought against the influx of newcomers to the Puget Sound area from out of state .
= = = Reporting the suicide of Ernest Hemingway = = =
Watson received international notoriety in 1961 when he broke the story of novelist Ernest Hemingway 's suicide in Idaho , which had initially been incorrectly reported by Hemingway 's wife as an accidental shooting .
= = = Major League Baseball in Seattle = = =
Watson and long @-@ time friend U.S. District Judge Bill Dwyer were ringleaders in the anti @-@ trust suit against Major League Baseball when the Seattle Pilots were moved to Milwaukee after a single expansion season in Seattle in 1969 . It was the effectiveness of this action that proved to be instrumental in Seattle being awarded the Seattle Mariners in 1977 .
= = = Growing disenchantment with the Seattle P @-@ I = = =
In the early 1980s , Watson left the P @-@ I after he believed he was treated unfairly by a new editor , although he still contributed to the paper as a freelancer . Watson 's criticisms of then Mariners owner George Argyros eventually led to the P @-@ I reducing the frequency of his column . Watson remembered , " I picked up the paper and saw the column wasn 't in there . The managing editor called and said he was thinking of cutting me back to one column a week . I said maybe we should make it zero columns a week . " On October 30 , 1983 , after a hiatus of more than three decades , Watson 's column appeared once again in The Seattle Times .
= = Columnist at The Seattle Times = =
At The Seattle Times Watson continued to write his column in the style that had made him a well @-@ known fixture of Seattle journalism . As was his custom , he continued to skewer the rich and powerful in his columns , always fighting against the kind of development and modernization that he felt was destroying the city he knew and loved . Over the years the tone in his columns softened somewhat and they often consisted of his reminisces of " Old Seattle . " In November 2000 , when his union , The Newspaper Guild , went on strike against The Seattle Times , Watson , then in his eighties , made regular , daily appearances on the picket lines . During the strike he wrote for the Seattle Union Record , the strike paper of the Pacific Northwest Newspaper Guild .
= = Oyster Bar = =
Emmett , along with his friend Sam Bryant , opened the city 's first oyster bar on February 18 , 1979 Watson sold his share of the Oyster Bar to Bryant in 1987 . Still in business today , Emmett Watson 's Oyster Bar is located in Seattle 's Pike Place Market and is currently owned by Sam Bryant 's son , Thurman .
= = Death = =
In March 2001 , 82 @-@ year @-@ old Watson underwent surgery for an abdominal aneurysm at Virginia Mason Medical Center in Seattle and died of complications from the surgery on May 11 .
= = Accomplishments = =
Watson was called " one of the greats " by contemporaries Herb Caen of the San Francisco Chronicle and Jimmy Breslin of the New York Daily News and he considered himself a protégé of Caen 's . He wrote four books ( including My Life in Print ) and received the Distinguished Service Award from the Society of Professional Journalists ' Western Washington Chapter in 1998 .
= = Published works = =
1982 Digressions of a Native Son ISBN 0 @-@ 9609450 @-@ 0 @-@ 8
1992 Once Upon a Time in Seattle ISBN 0 @-@ 9634102 @-@ 1 @-@ 0
1993 My Life in Print ISBN 0 @-@ 9634102 @-@ 2 @-@ 9
1994 Above Seattle ( with Robert Cameron , photographer ) ISBN 0 @-@ 918684 @-@ 41 @-@ 2
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= Dornier Do 17 =
The Dornier Do 17 , sometimes referred to as the Fliegender Bleistift ( " flying pencil " ) , was a World War II German light bomber produced by Claudius Dornier 's company , Dornier Flugzeugwerke . It was designed as a Schnellbomber ( " fast bomber " ) , a light bomber which , in theory , would be so fast that it could outrun defending fighter aircraft .
The Dornier was designed with two engines mounted on a " shoulder wing " structure and possessed a twin tail fin configuration . The type was popular among its crews due to its handling , especially at low altitude , which made the Do 17 harder to hit than other German bombers .
Designed in the early 1930s , it was one of the three main Luftwaffe bomber types used in the first three years of the war . The Do 17 made its combat debut in 1937 during the Spanish Civil War , operating in the Condor Legion in various roles . Along with the Heinkel He 111 it was the main bomber type of the German air arm in 1939 – 1940 . The Dornier was used throughout the early war , and saw action in significant numbers in every major campaign theatre as a front line aircraft until the end of 1941 , when its effectiveness and usage was curtailed as its bomb load and range were limited .
Production of the Dornier ended in mid @-@ 1940 , in favour of the newer and more powerful Junkers Ju 88 . The successor of the Do 17 was the much more powerful Dornier Do 217 , which started to appear in strength in 1942 . Even so , the Do 17 continued service in the Luftwaffe in various roles until the end of the war , as a glider tug , research and trainer aircraft . A considerable number of surviving examples were sent to other Axis nations as well as countries like Finland . Few Dornier Do 17s survived the war and the last was scrapped in Finland in 1952 .
On 3 September 2010 , the Royal Air Force Museum London announced the discovery of a Henschel @-@ built Dornier Do 17Z buried in the Goodwin Sands off the coast of Kent , England . On 10 June 2013 , the salvage team raised the airframe from the seabed .
= = Development = =
In 1932 , the Ordnance Department ( Heereswaffenamt ) issued a specification for the construction of a " freight aircraft for German State Railways " , and a " high speed mail plane for Lufthansa " . The factory at Friedrichshafen began work on the design on 1 August 1932 .
When the Nazis took power in 1933 , Hermann Göring became National Commissar for aviation with former Deutsche Luft Hansa employee Erhard Milch as his deputy , soon forming the Ministry of Aviation . The Ministry of Aviation designated the new aircraft Do 17 , and on 17 March 1933 , just three months after taking office , Milch gave the go ahead for the building of prototypes . At the end of 1933 , the Ministry of Aviation issued an order for a " high speed aircraft with double tail , " and for a " freight aircraft with special equipment , " in other words , a bomber . The original design ( the Do 17 V1 ) configuration in 1932 had sported a single vertical stabilizer , and Dornier continued developing that model . The Do 17 was first demonstrated in mock @-@ up form in April 1933 . The " special equipment " was to be fitted later , to disguise its offensive role .
In April 1934 , the Dornier works at Manzell began project " definition . " During this month , the defensive armament was designed and the bomb release mechanism details ironed out . Production of these prototypes began on 20 May 1934 and , on 23 November 1934 , the Do 17 V1 , with a single fin and powered by two BMW VI 7 @.@ 3 motors , took off on its first flight . Testing was delayed by a series of accidents , with V1 being damaged in landing accidents in February and April 1935 . The twin @-@ tailed V2 ( powered by low @-@ compression BMW VI 6 @.@ 3 engines ) first flew on 18 May 1935 and was evaluated together with the V1 by the Ministry of Aviation at Rechlin in June . During the tests , the single fin proved to be only marginally stable , resulting in the V1 being modified with a twin tail . The aircraft was destroyed in a crash after an engine failure on 21 December 1935 . The V3 , also fitted with a twin tail , was originally planned to be powered by Hispano @-@ Suiza 12Ybrs engines , but as these were unavailable , it was fitted with BMW VI 7 @.@ 3 engines like the V1 and flew on 19 September 1935 . The V1 prototype remained the only built machine with the single stabilizer .
It is claimed that , unlike the Heinkel He 111 series , whose military use was planned from the start , the Do 17 V1 was contracted as a fast six @-@ passenger mail plane to compete with the smaller Heinkel He 70 monoplane It has been suggested that it was rejected by Luft Hansa , as the cramped cabin was too uncomfortable for passenger use and the operating costs were too high for a mail plane . According to the story , the three prototypes remained unused in the Dornier factory in Lowental for almost six months , until Flight Captain Untucht of Luft Hansa came across them . After receiving permission to fly one of the machines , he proceeded to put it through an almost stunt flying routine . After landing , he said that " the machine is as nimble as a fighter , give it more lateral stability and we 'll have a high speed bomber ! " Untucht 's comments prompted Dornier to redesign the tail unit and revived interest in the type .
Dornier was then ordered to produce the V4 prototype . Some sources state this differed from the V3 in that the passenger portholes were removed and the single fin was replaced with two smaller ones . Photographic evidence demonstrates the V3 had twin stabilizers from the start of its construction . The tests of the " twin @-@ tailed " V4 , V6 and V7 prototypes were positive and more prototypes like the V8 emerged as the forerunner of the long @-@ range reconnaissance version , while the V9 was tested as a high @-@ speed airliner . The V9 machine was still flying in 1944 .
= = Design = =
The cockpit and forward fuselage had a conventional stepped cockpit , and its nose was fully glazed . Early variants had been labelled the " flying pencil " owing to its sleek and continuous " stick @-@ like " lines . As a result of the lessons learned in the Spanish Civil War , the cockpit roof was raised and the lower , or bottom half , of the crew compartment was a typical under @-@ nose " Bodenlafette " , abbreviated Bola , inverted @-@ casemate design ventral defensive armament position , a common feature of most German medium bombers . The Bola was extended back to the leading edge of the wings where the lower @-@ rear gunners position and upper @-@ rear gunner position were level with each other . As with contemporary German bombers , the crew were concentrated in a single compartment . The cockpit layout consisted of the pilot seat and front gunner in the forward part of the cockpit . The pilot sat on the left side , close up to the Plexiglas windshield . One of the gunners sat on the right seat , which was set further back to provide room for the 7 @.@ 92 mm ( 0 @.@ 312 in ) MG 15 machine gun to be traversed in use . The Do 17 usually carried a crew of four : the pilot , a bombardier and two gunners . The bomb @-@ aimer also manned the MG 15 in the nose glazing and Bola @-@ housed rear lower position . The two gunners operated the forward @-@ firing MG 15 installed in the front windshield , the two MGs located in the side windows ( one each side ) and the rearward firing weapon . The cockpit offered a bright and panoramic view at high altitude . The standard ammunition load was 3 @,@ 300 rounds of 7 @,@ 92 mm ammunition in 44 double @-@ drum magazines .
The wings were of a broad 55 m ² ( 590 ft ² ) area and had a span of 18 m ( 59 ft 0 ⅝ in ) with a straight leading edge which curved in a near @-@ perfect semicircle into the trailing edge . The positions of the wing roots were offset . The leading edge wing root merged with the top of the fuselage and cockpit . As the wing extended backwards , by roughly two thirds , it declined downwards at a sharp angle so that the trailing edge wing root ended nearly halfway down the side of the fuselage increasing the angle of incidence . This design feature was used on all future Dornier bomber designs , namely the Dornier Do 217 . The trailing edge was faired into the round fuselage shape . The engine nacelle was also faired into the flaps . The extreme rear of the nacelle was hollow and allowed the flap with an attached vertical slot to fit into the cavity when deployed .
The fuselage was 15 @.@ 80 m ( 51 ft 9 ⅝ in ) long . It was thin and narrow , which presented an enemy with a difficult target to hit . The fuselage had twin vertical stabilizers to increase lateral stability . The power plant of the Z @-@ 1 was to have been the Daimler @-@ Benz DB 601 but , owing to shortages from priority allocation for Bf 109E and Bf 110 fighter production , it was allocated Bramo 323 A @-@ 1 power plants . The Bramos could only reach 352 km / h ( 220 mph ) at 1 @,@ 070 m ( 3 @,@ 500 ft ) . The limited performance of the Bramo 323s ensured the Do 17 could not reach 416 km / h ( 260 mph ) at 3 @,@ 960 m ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) in level flight when fully loaded . The range of the Do 17Z @-@ 1 at ground level was 635 nmi ( 1 @,@ 176 km ) ; this increased to 1 @,@ 370 km ( 850 nm ) at 4 @,@ 700 m ( 15 @,@ 500 ft ) . This gave an average attack range of 400 nmi ( 740 km ) . The introduction of the Bramo 323P increased the Z @-@ 2 performance slightly in all areas .
The Dornier had self @-@ sealing fuel tanks to protect fuel stored in the wings and fuselage . This reduced the loss of fuel and risk of fire when hit in action , and often enabled the aircraft to return . Twenty oxygen bottles were provided for crew use during long flights above 3 @,@ 660 m ( 12 @,@ 000 ft ) .
Communications usually consisted of FuG X , the later FuG 10 ( Funkgerät ) , navigational direction finder PeilG V direction finder ( PeilG - Peilgerät ) and the FuG 25 IFF and FuBI 1 blind @-@ landing devices . The crew communicated by EiV intercom . A primitive autopilot device , the Siemens K4Ü , was installed and could maintain bearing using the rudder 's control surfaces .
The bomb bay accommodated four bomb racks , the No. 5 for SC50 bombs and two ETC 500 racks to carry heavier loads of up to 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) each . A Lotfe A , or B bombsight was issued together with the BZA @-@ 2 aperture ( a modernised optical lens system ) . The aircraft 's bomb bay allowed two options . The first was to carry four 250 kg ( 550 lb ) bombs for a load of 1000 kg ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) , which reduced aircraft range . With half the maximum load , ten 50 kg ( 110 lb ) bombs , additional fuel tanks could be placed into the forward part of the bomb bay to increase range . The bomb aimer would deploy the bomb load via the Lotfe ( A , B or C 7 / A , depending on the variant ) bomb sight which was in the left side of the nose compartment directly under and forward of the pilot . When fully loaded , the Z @-@ 1 weighed 7 @,@ 740 kg ( 17 @,@ 200 lb ) .
= = Variants = =
= = = Early Daimler @-@ Benz @-@ powered variants = = =
The initial production variants were the Do 17E @-@ 1 bomber , which was tested with two Daimler @-@ Benz DB 600 , and Do 17F @-@ 1 reconnaissance aircraft , powered like the early prototypes with BMW VI engines , which entered production in late 1936 . The first Luftwaffe units converted to the Do 17 in early 1937 .
The Do 17E @-@ 1 was equipped with two BMW VI 7.3D inline engines of 750 PS each . The crew numbered three . The radio operator manned the two 7 @.@ 92 mm MG 15 machine guns within a B @-@ Stand pod in the rear cockpit . They had 750 rounds of ammunition . The bomb bay was divided into two compartments . Each had five bomb racks with individual capacity of 50 kg ( 110 lb ) . A single ETC 500 / IX bomb rack could be mounted externally underneath the aircraft to carry a 500 kg bomb . A Do 17 E @-@ 1 with the designation D @-@ AJUN was tested with an unusual configuration , two SC 500 bombs mounted side by side under the fuselage . It showed a notable performance reduction due to the increase in weight and drag , this configuration was not used operationally . The E @-@ 1 continued to carry low bomb loads into the Second World War . The performance of the E @-@ 1 enabled it to reach a speed of 330 km / h ( 205 mph ) at 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 842 ft ) . Conducting a shallow dive the light frame of the Do 17 could reach 500 km / h ( 310 mph ) . Its maximum ceiling was 5 @,@ 500 m ( 18 @,@ 044 ft ) .
Several E @-@ 1s were rebuilt as E @-@ 2 or E @-@ 3 , at least three E @-@ 2 and one E @-@ 3 were used by DVL and Hansa @-@ Luftbild GmbH ( Hansa Aerial Photography Ltd ) in a secret military reconnaissance role prior to the war .
The Do 17F @-@ 1 was a long @-@ range reconnaissance aircraft based on field modified Do 17Es . The Do 17 prototype V8 was used to test the configuration of the F @-@ 1 and V11 for the F @-@ 2 . The defensive armament consisted of a MG 15 in the B- and C @-@ Stand ( B @-@ Stand - an upper rear firing position , C @-@ Stand — lower gun emplacement ) . The fuselage had two cameras along with six ejector tubes for flashlight cartridges . The F @-@ 1 would see service until replaced by the Do 17 P in 1938 . Only one F @-@ 2 was ever built , it was designated D @-@ ACZJ and was used by Zeiss @-@ Jena Company as a factory aircraft .
Conversion of two E @-@ 2 series aircraft with two BMW 132F radial engines led to the Do 17 J @-@ 1 and J @-@ 2 . These aircraft served as flight testing machines to evaluate the BMW 132 for usage in the Do 17 . The aircraft were the V18 ( Wrk Nr , or Werknummer meaning works / factory number , 2021 ) and V19 ( Wrk Nr 2022 ) prototypes . Trials began in late 1937 . A similar conversion , but with Bramo 323 radial engines , led to the designation Do 17 L @-@ 1 and L @-@ 2 . Two Do 17 ( Wrk Nr 2031 and 2032 ) were renamed as V20 and V21 prototypes and used to evaluate the Bramo 323 fur usage in the Do 17 . The test were satisfactory and all future production models would be equipped with this engine .
After seeing the Do 17M V1 at the Zürich air races in 1937 , the Yugoslav Royal Air Force bought license rights for production at the Drzavna Fabrika Aviona factory in 1938 . They equipped it with the more powerful Gnome @-@ Rhône 14N radial engine ( although the French exaggerated its performance ) Dornier designs were delivered to the Pomorsko Vazduhoplovstvo ( Naval Aviation - PV ) in 1926 , namely the Dornier Komet and Dornier Do Y heavy bombers . The Yugoslavs were familiar with Dornier designs , and on 19 November 1935 Yugoslav pilots test @-@ flew the Do 17 V @-@ 3 prototype , D @-@ ABIH , W.Nr. 258 . They decided to select the Do 17 for service , despite it being more expensive than any other aircraft , because of the German willingness to deliver them quickly without limitations on numbers .
The Do 17L @-@ 0 and Do 17M @-@ 0 were developed in parallel as replacements for the earlier E and Fs , the L being the reconnaissance version . Both were designed around the more powerful DB 600A engines , delivering about 746 kW ( 1 @,@ 000 hp ) . Two L and one M versions were built as prototypes , both with another MG 15 in the nose . The first prototype of the revised version , the Do 17M V1 ( D @-@ ABVD ) was powered by two DB 600s , and demonstrated impressive performance , including a maximum speed of 425 km / h ( 264 mph ) .
At the International Military Aircraft Competition at Zürich , Switzerland in 1937 , the Dornier Do 17M V1 proved a leader in its class and was faster than the fastest foreign fighter , the French Dewoitine D.510. The Do 17 , along with the Messerschmitt Bf 109 , won many prizes , demonstrating the prowess of German aviation design .
= = = The radial variants = = =
Despite its success , owing to shortages in the supply of the Daimler @-@ Benz engine , the production Do 17M was fitted with the Bramo 323 engine , with the corresponding reconnaissance aircraft , the Do 17P , being powered by BMW 132Ns to give better range .
The supply of the DB 600 remained extremely limited as production was soon switched over to the fuel @-@ injected DB 601 , which was reserved for the Messerschmitt Bf 109 and Messerschmitt Bf 110 fighters . Therefore , production versions of the basic Do 17M model airframe were fitted with the new Bramo 323A @-@ 1 Fafnir engines of 670 kW ( 900 hp ) , which gave reasonable performance and raised the bomb load to 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) . The resulting Do 17M @-@ 1 was produced in small numbers and operated until 1941 .
The prototypes for the M @-@ 1 series were Do 17M V1 ( Wrk Nr 691 ) and Do 17M V2 ( Wrk Nr 692 ) which were tested with bomb loads of a medium bomber . The third prototype , Do 17M V3 was evaluated as a fast bomber . The MV1 was fitted with two Daimler Benz DB 601 inline engines while the MV2 and MV3 had the Bramo 323 A and D respectively . The Ministry of Aviation favoured the widespread use of the DB 601 , but demand for the DB 601s in fighter aircraft and the lack of production forced the use of the Bramo .
The Do 17M @-@ 1 started its service as a medium bomber and was able to carry 2 @,@ 200 lb ( 1 @,@ 000 kg ) of bombs . It was equipped with two air @-@ cooled Bramo 323 A @-@ 1 or A @-@ 2 . The defensive armament consisted of two , and later three , MG 15 machine guns . The first was operated in an A @-@ Stand pod operated by the navigator through the windshield . The position was allocated 370 rounds of ammunition . The rearward firing B @-@ Stand was operated by the radio operator and allocated 750 rounds . The rear position in the lower fuselage was allocated 375 rounds in a C @-@ Stand pod . The Do 17M could carry a bomb load of either 20 SC50 50 kg ( 110 lb ) or two SC250 250 kg ( 550 lb ) bombs or 10 SC50 and a single SC250 bomb . The speed of the M was superior to that of the E variant . The Do 17M could reach 420 km / h ( 250 mph ) at altitudes of 3 @,@ 500 m ( 11 @,@ 500 ft ) and could achieve a maximum service ceiling of 5 @,@ 790 m ( 19 @,@ 000 ft ) and a range of 850 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 570 km ) .
Reconnaissance aircraft based on the M @-@ 1 , the under @-@ surfaces of the wing were covered with duralumin and it had a wider engine axis and longer engine nacelles . The demand for a reconnaissance aircraft based on the M @-@ 1 led to the development of the P @-@ 1 variant .
The L version would not be able to enter production with the DB 600 owing to its use in the Bf 109 , and the Bramo engine was rather thirsty on fuel and left the M models with too short a range for reconnaissance use . BMW 132N radials of 865 PS were selected instead , which had lower fuel consumption for better range . Another two prototypes with DB 600 engines were produced as the Do 17R @-@ 0 , but did not enter production . During reconnaissance missions the P @-@ 1 was armed with four MG 15s in the A , B and C — Stands . One machine gun was located in the rear of the cockpit , another in the lower rear Bola mount , one facing forward through the windscreen and the other in the nose glazing . In earlier variants the B @-@ Stand ( the gun position in the upper rear cockpit ) was open to the elements , but the P @-@ 1 now provided an enclosed bulb @-@ shaped mount protecting the radio operator from the weather .
The P variant had similar features to the Do 17M @-@ 1 , with added blind flying and camera equipment for reconnaissance work . The Do 17P @-@ 1 was powered by two Bramo 132 N radial engines with a maximum performance of 865 PS ( 853 hp , 636 kW ) each . The machine was fitted with several radio variations . The FuG IIIaU radio ( Funkgerät ) , the PeilG V direction finder ( PeilG - Peilgerät ) and the FuBI 1 radio blind @-@ landing device ( FuBI - Funkblindlandegerät ) . The crew of three communicated with each other via the EiV intercom ( EiV -Eigenverständigungsanlage ) . The P @-@ 1 was equipped with either Rb 20 / 30 and Rb 50 / 30 or Rb 20 / 18 and Rb 50 / 18 cameras . The P @-@ 1 / trop was fitted with filters and protection for the cameras . The cameras were controlled remotely by the crew from the cockpit .
Due to a shortage of night fighters , at least one Do 17P @-@ 1 was assigned to this role . A smooth metal sheet was installed in place of its glass nose and it was armed with three 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) MG 151 / 20 cannons . The machine operated under Luftflotte 1 .
The Do 17P @-@ 2 was identical to the P @-@ 1 , with the additional installation of an ETC 500 bomb rack under the fuselage . These aircraft were designed for night reconnaissance . It is assumed that Dornier converted most , if not all , P @-@ 2 models from existing P @-@ 1 production aircraft .
Unlike the P @-@ 2 , the Do 17R @-@ 1 did not see series production . The experiences of the Spanish Civil War proved that unarmed aircraft were easy prey for fighter aircraft . The R @-@ 1 was to be a fast long @-@ range reconnaissance aircraft with two additional fuel cells inside the fuselage aft of the bomb bay . Two variants were suggested , the first ( variant I ) had a single Rb 50 / 30 and two Rb 20 / 30 cameras , while variant II had a third fuel cell to replace the rear Rb 20 / 30 . The aircraft had a gross weight of 7 @,@ 250 kg ( 15 @,@ 980 lb ) but could be overloaded to 7 @,@ 500 kg ( 16 @,@ 500 lb ) in emergencies . The crew usually numbered three , but a fourth was added depending on the missions to be flown . To achieve a high performance at increased altitudes two DB 600 Gs were to be used . The power plants were tested in the Do 17RV1 prototype registered D @-@ ABEE . The second , the RV2 , registered D @-@ ATJU , received the even more powerful DB 601 Aa engines . The power plant of the R @-@ 1s that did exist are not known .
The lessons from the Spanish Civil War had led Dornier 's designers to incorporate more defensive machine guns . Battles with Soviet @-@ built fighter aircraft had demonstrated that the Dornier was not as fast and invulnerable as was first thought . To cope with this , a completely new pod @-@ like cockpit was designed to give the crew more room and better visibility . The roof was extended upward over the line of the fuselage , sloping down to meet it just in front of the wing . The dorsal gun was moved to the rear of the pod where it had a considerably better field of fire . Likewise , the floor was dropped under the fuselage as a Bola casemate @-@ style defensive armament emplacement , and the ventral gun moved to the back of the Bola , allowing it to fire directly to the rear . The changes in the roof and floor made the whole front of the aircraft much larger . The rest of the airframe remained the same . The new cockpit design was nicknamed Kampfkopf ( German : " Battle head " ) .
Three S variant prototypes with the DB 600 G inline engines were tested . The S @-@ 01 ( designation D @-@ AFFY ) , 03 and 04 were flown . The inverted V @-@ 12 engines were constructed as the Do 17 S @-@ 0 reconnaissance version , but it did not go into production . An additional 15 Do 17 U @-@ 1 pathfinder models were built , similar to the S @-@ 0 but adding another crewman ( taking the total to five ) to operate the extra radio equipment . The U models were to fly ahead of other bombers on night missions , using the radio equipment to locate the target and drop flares on it . They were personally requested by KG 100 as experimental models for this role . The U @-@ 1 had a maximum speed of 265 mph ( 424 km / h ) and a combat ceiling of 4 @,@ 500 m ( 15 @,@ 000 ft ) . The U @-@ 1 had a cruising speed of 384 km / h ( 240 mph ) and a maximum reachable height of 5 @,@ 700 m ( 19 @,@ 000 ft ) , owing to the " rather low performance of the Bramo 323 A @-@ 1 engines " . The three prototypes ( U @-@ 01 - U @-@ 03 ) and twelve production aircraft were built by 1938 .
= = = Dornier Do 17Z : The main variant = = =
The Dornier Do 17Z series was the most recognised and mass @-@ produced variant , and saw more combat service than the E @-@ U types . The type was modified as a result of combat experience during the Spanish Civil War . The forward fuselage was redesigned , with the cockpit area being " dropped " , or extended further to enable a rear firing gunner position to be installed , and the canopy extended aft , until it was nearly parallel with the leading edge and wing root .
To test the design , the Do 17S and Do 17U were produced , both to be powered by the DB 600 power plants . However , a call for all DB 600 series engines to be reserved for fighters led to the variants being fitted with Bramo Fafnir 323 A radial engines . The bomb load was increased to 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) and a fourth crew member was added . It proved to be underpowered , so Bramo 323 P engines were then fitted . Only three Do 17S and 15 Do 17Us were built . With the updates , the Dornier , with a full bomb load , had a combat radius of 322 km ( 200 mi ) . Later variants , in the Do 17 Z @-@ 3 , Z @-@ 4 and Z @-@ 5 , which were fitted with cameras , dual trainer controls and flotation aids ( for maritime operations ) respectively , still could not solve the problems with range and bomb load .
At first , a batch of Z @-@ 0s were built with the Fafnir for testing , the DB 600 again proving to be too hard to obtain . These were quickly replaced with the Z @-@ 1 model , which added another gun for the bombardier , but the additional weight of the nose and guns meant the bomb load was reduced to 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) . The Luftwaffe , not being satisfied with the test outcome of the Z series , immediately ordered performance and design studies to increase the overall performance of the bomber . These resulted in very optimistic speeds and altitudes for all future Z variants , especially for the Z @-@ 5 aircraft . Planned performance altitudes of up to 7 @,@ 620 m ( 25 @,@ 000 ft ) at a maximum speed of 418 km / h ( 260 mph ) with an aircraft weight of 8 @,@ 100 kg ( 17 @,@ 800 lb ) were planned . Unfortunately , production aircraft never reached these optimistic performances during the service career of the Do 17Z . At 7 @,@ 740 kg ( 17 @,@ 200 lb ) , the heavy Do 17Z @-@ 1 used two Bramo 323 A @-@ 1 engines with self @-@ sealing fuel cells in the fuselage and wings . The crew of four consumed approximately 20 bottles of oxygen during long flights above 3 @,@ 700 m ( 12 @,@ 100 ft ) . The Do 17Z @-@ 1 had a speed of 352 km / h ( 220 mph ) at 1 @,@ 100 m ( 3 @,@ 500 ft ) . However , the performance of the Bramo 323s did not permit the Do 17 to reach 416 km / h ( 260 mph ) at 3 @,@ 900 m ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) and level flight when fully loaded . Range of the Z @-@ 1 at ground level was 635 nmi ( 1 @,@ 176 km ) while at 4 @,@ 700 m ( 15 @,@ 500 ft ) this increased to 850 nmi ( 1 @,@ 570 km ) . This gave an average range of 400 nmi ( 740 km ) . The introduction of the Bramo 323P increased subsequent performance in the following sub variants .
This was addressed in the major production model , the Do 17 Z @-@ 2 . The Z @-@ 2 mounted the new 323P @-@ 1 version of the Fafnir with 746 kW ( 1 @,@ 000 hp ) , which was specifically tuned to the performance needs of the Do 17 by decreasing supercharger power at lower altitudes and thus improving low @-@ level performance . The increase in takeoff power allowed the bomb load to be increased from 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 102 lb ) to 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) . However the combat range with a full 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) bomb load was a very short 330 km ( 200 mi ) . The armament was further upgraded by adding another pair of guns firing out of the sides of the upper part of the pod , but as the three guns were all fired by a single gunner , only one of them could be fired at a time . From May 1940 , 422 Do 17 Z @-@ 2s flew with Kampfgeschwader 2 , Kampfgeschwader 3 , Kampfgeschwader 76 and Kampfgeschwader 77 . The upgrades of the Z @-@ 2 had its overall weight increased from 17 @,@ 600 lbs to 17 @,@ 920 lbs ( 7 @,@ 983 to 8128 kg ) . After heavy losses of Do 17s during the Battle of Britain it was decided to replace the MG FF cannon with the more powerful MG 151 / 15 . Losses had mounted in spite of an increase of up to eight machine guns in some Dorniers . The standard MG 15 machine guns were retained . These features were present in the next variant the Z @-@ 3 .
The Z @-@ 3 formed part of the bomber versions of the Z series , it was , however , also used as a reconnaissance aircraft by the staff flight of the particular unit . The engines and the general equipment were identical to the Z @-@ 2 standard ; however two cameras — the Rb 50 / 30 and Rb 20 / 30 - were incorporated into the crew entry hatch . A handheld camera was issued to the crew to validate the success during bombing missions . Autopilot equipment was added later . The Z @-@ 2 and Z @-@ 3 were identical visually , and could only be distinguished from each other by the altered crew hatch on the Z @-@ 3 . Owing to spacing problems because of the added camera equipment , the ammunition supply was reduced from 44 to 42 magazines . The power plant of the Z @-@ 3 was upgraded to the Bramo 323P @-@ 2 . The Bramo P @-@ 2 remained the engine of all the remaining Z series variants .
The Z @-@ 4 was designed as trainer . Although nearly identical to the Z @-@ 2 and Z @-@ 3 , it featured several equipment changes optimised for blind flying training . The four @-@ seat aircraft had a single control column with dual steering , which was achieved by a jib protruding to the right . Rudder pedals were in front of both seats . The defensive armament and bomb racks were reduced , or in most cases omitted to reduce weight .
The Z @-@ 5 was similar to the Z @-@ 3 with a weight of 19 @,@ 000 lb ( 8 @,@ 600 kg ) . Designed as an anti @-@ shipping aircraft , the Z @-@ 5 , was fitted with flotation cells in the fuselage and engine nacelles in case it was forced down on water . Usually the flotation devices took the form of inflatable bags stored in the rear of the engine nacelles and in bulges on either side of the nose , just behind the front glazing .
Later variants of the Z model were developed . The Z @-@ 6 was to be a reconnaissance aircraft , although it was only built as a prototype . During the war only a few were converted from existing combat variants . The type was selected for weather check flights . It was identical to the Z @-@ 1 / Z @-@ 2 variants , but offensive armament was omitted and extra fuel cells fitted . This increased the fuel load to 2 @,@ 890 l ( 578 Imperial Gallons ) . As flights required higher altitude , the oxygen supply was increased from 20 to 24 bottles . For long @-@ range flights over water , the larger dinghy of the Z @-@ 5 with its updated emergency escape equipment was mandatory during operations . The Z @-@ 6s were also used for night fighter operations . Some of the few converted Z @-@ 6s had the Ju 88C @-@ 6 nose installed and were equipped with machine guns and cannons . The nose proved to be unsatisfactory , and it was redesigned . In the tip of the new nose was an infrared spotlight which was soon made redundant after the introduction of Lichtenstein radar which was fitted to some of the Z @-@ 6 .
The Z @-@ 8 Geier was not produced . It was intended as a ground attack aircraft and reached the first planning phase but was given up due to lack of performance and protective armour allocation against anti @-@ aircraft artillery . An increase in armour would have meant a decrease in speed which would have exposed the aircraft further to enemy fire .
The Z @-@ 9 , which was fitted with special bomb release equipment , and delayed release gear for low @-@ level attack missions . Its purpose was to suppress enemy air defences . Therefore , it was designed to fly over anti @-@ aircraft positions and drop Butterfly Bombs , an early form of cluster bomb munitions . This could only be done with air superiority , as the Z @-@ 9 was unarmoured . The airframe and equipment was identical to the Z @-@ 1 / Z @-@ 2 version . Only the bomb bay was altered to accommodate 16 bomb @-@ dispenser systems . The maximum weight of the Z @-@ 9 was 7 @,@ 800 kg ( 17 @,@ 200 lb ) . The design did not reach serial production .
After bomber production ended in 1940 , the Z model was modified with a " solid " nose from the Ju 88C , fitted with one 20 mm MG FF cannon and three 7 @.@ 92 mm ( .312 in ) MG 17 machine guns , to be used as night fighters . Three prototypes were converted from existing Z @-@ series airframes to the Do 17 Z @-@ 7 Kauz I ( " screech @-@ owl " ) configuration . The standard Z @-@ 7 was fitted with Bramo 323P @-@ 1 radial engines and had a crew of three airmen . In comparison to the standard bomber version , the fuel load arrangement was altered by subdividing into cells . Two cells were in the wings , with a capacity of 770 litres ( 154 imperial gallons ) each . A third cell was placed in the bomb bay within the main fuselage , having a capacity of 895 litres ( 179 imperial gallons ) . The oxygen supply for the three man crew was reduced to nine bottles , as intercepts at high altitudes were not anticipated . Add @-@ on armour in the form of heavy steel plates was bolted to the nose bulkhead to protect the crew against frontal fire . Originally , it was planned to completely armour the crew compartment . This idea , was given up again as the increased weight would have reduced flight performance of an already slow aircraft . The ammunition loads for the three 7 @.@ 92 mm MG 17 amounted to 3 @,@ 000 rounds and 400 rounds of ammunition for the 20 mm MG 151 cannon ( although some Do 17Z bombers carried a single 20 mm for ground attack missions ) .
Later , the design was further modified to the Do 17 Z @-@ 10 Kauz II , the solid nose now containing an infra @-@ red searchlight for the Spanner Anlage infrared detection system . The infrared lamp in the nose was used to illuminate the target while the display unit in the windshield made the reflection visible to the target . The Z @-@ 10 was armed with four 7 @.@ 92 mm ( .312 in ) MG 17 machine guns grouped above the IR light and two 20 mm MG FF in the lower nose . The crew could reload the 20 mm cannons ' drum magazines internally . The Z @-@ 10 contained an IR searchlight ( Spanner @-@ Anlage ) for the Spanner infrared detection system . A single Kauz II was equipped with and tested the Lichtenstein radar .
Only 10 of these Kauz II designs were converted from existing Z @-@ series airframes . The Spanner system proved to be essentially useless and many Z @-@ 10 were left without any detection system . At least one Z @-@ 10 , coded CD + PV , was used as a flying test bed to help developing the early low @-@ UHF band B / C version of the Lichtenstein radar system in late 1941 – 1942 . When the Z @-@ 10 was stripped of all non @-@ night fighter equipment , it had a maximum weight of 7 @,@ 300 kg ( 16 @,@ 100 lb ) . Armament fit was similar to that of the Z @-@ 7 , with an added MG 17 and an additional 1 @,@ 000 rounds of ammunition in the nose section . Defensive gun positions included the B and C stand , each equipped with a single MG 15 .
= = Production = =
= = = German = = =
Official figures state 2 @,@ 139 Do 17s were built on German assembly lines . At the Dornier factory at Oberpfaffenhofen , 328 Do 17Es were built along with a further 77 Do 17Fs and 200 Do 17M variants . Do 17Z production figures for Oberpfaffenhofen stand at 420 . At Friedrichshafen , 84 Do 17Ks were built , some of which were sold to the Yugoslav Royal Air Force . Do 17P production was spread out over different factory lines . At Siebel / Halle , eight were built . At the Henschel factory at Berlin @-@ Schönefeld 73 were constructed . At the HFB plant in Hamburg 149 were built . Henschel also produced some 320 Do 17Zs , HFB contributed to construction of 74 at its Hamburg plant , and another 73 were built at Siebel . Some 105 examples of the Dornier Do 215B was later built at Oberpfaffenhofen .
By 19 September 1938 , the Luftwaffe had received 579 Dornier Do 17s . These were mostly Do 17E , F , M and P variants . During 1939 – 1940 , some 475 Dornier Do 17Z bombers , 16 reconnaissance aircraft and nine night fighters were built . Another 100 Dornier Do 215s , an updated variant of the Do 17 , were built during this period also .
= = = Yugoslav = = =
Other governments were interested in the Do 17 . In June 1936 , the Yugoslav government ordered 36 Do 17E variants from Germany . The negotiations for a licence were completed on 27 June 1938 for 36 Do 17Ka 's at the cost of 1 @,@ 829 @,@ 825 Reichsmark ( RM ) . On 18 March 1938 , Yugoslavia ordered 16 complete Do 17 Ka @-@ 2 's and Ka @-@ 3 's at a cost of 3 @,@ 316 @,@ 788 RM . They received the last on 21 April 1939 . The machines were from 72 @-@ 96 % complete .
The Dorniers were devoid of German equipment , including engines . The Yugoslavs found a French manufacturer to supply the powerplants instead . Gnome et Rhône was the supplier chosen , and the Gnome @-@ Rhône Mistral Major engine was to be used in the Dornier . The French had inflated the performance data of the engine , claiming it to have 649 kW ( 870 hp ) and a speed of 420 km / h ( 261 mph ) at 3 @,@ 850 m ( 12 @,@ 320 ft ) . The constant @-@ speed propellers were also poor , and delivered late . This led to trials with Piaggio Aero and Ratier propellers . Only one of the Do 17s delivered was fitted out complete with German equipment . The rest of the Dorniers were equipped with Belgian FN 7 @.@ 9 mm ( .31 in ) machine guns , Czech camera equipment and eventually Telefunken radio sets . Altogether , 70 Do 17s were produced by Yugoslav factories .
= = Operators and operational history = =
Bulgaria
The Bulgarian Air Force received 11 Do 17 Ms and Ps in 1940 and at least 11 ex @-@ Yugoslav aircraft in 1941 . Six more Do 17 Ms were delivered in 1943 . They remained in service until at least 1945 .
Independent State of Croatia
The Air Force of the Independent State of Croatia ( Zrakoplovstvo Nezavisne Države Hrvatske ) received at least 21 Do 17Zs ( the last 12 in 1945 ) , 11 ex @-@ Yugoslav Do 17Ka 's in 1942 and 30 Do 17Es in 1943 .
Finland
Finnish Air Force
46 Squadron received 15 aircraft in January 1942 :
Germany
Luftwaffe
Hungary
Royal Hungarian Air Force received one ex @-@ Yugoslavian Do 17Ka @-@ 3 .
Italy
Regia Aeronautica operated at least one ex @-@ Yugoslavian Do 17Ka @-@ 3 under 1 ° Centro Sperimentale in Guidonia , where it was tested until September 1943 .
Romania
Royal Romanian Air Force received 10 worn Do 17Ms in November 1942 .
Spanish Republic
Spanish Republican Air Force received ex @-@ Legion Condor Do 17E , F , and Ps and 13 remained in service after the end of the Spanish Civil War .
Switzerland
Swiss Air Force operated a single Do 17Z @-@ 2 , interned after landing at Basel Airport in April 1940 .
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
Royal Yugoslav Air Force
United Kingdom
Royal Air Force pressed into service two Yugoslav @-@ built Do 17Ks which escaped Yugoslavia carrying King Peter and gold . The aircraft were given the serials AX706 and AX707 . Both aircraft were destroyed in an air attack on Ismaïlia airfield on 27 August 1941 .
United States
United States Army Air Forces operated at least one Do 17E @-@ 1 , WkNr 2095 . Renamed Axis Sally , it was taken to the United States after the war and tested .
= = Survivors = =
Until 2007 none of the Dornier twin @-@ engined bomber variants were thought to have survived intact , but various large relics of the Do 17 and Do 215 are held by public museums and private collectors . In September 2007 a Do 215 B @-@ 5 ( variant of Do 17Z ) was found largely intact in the shallow waters off Waddenzee in the Netherlands .
= = = Dornier Do 17Z Werknummer 1160 = = =
On 3 September 2010 , the RAF Museum announced that a Do 17 had been discovered in 50 ft ( 15 m ) of water off the coast of England . The aircraft had been discovered in September 2008 on the Goodwin Sands , a large sandbank 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) off the coast of Kent , but the discovery was kept a closely guarded secret . The Dornier Do 17Z @-@ 2 , Werknummer 1160 , built under license by Henschel with the full Geschwaderkennung ( combat wing aircraft ID code ) of 5K + AR , was operated by 7 Staffel , III Gruppe , Kampfgeschwader 3 ( KG 3 ) .
On 26 August 1940 , 5K + AR was taking part in a raid by KG 2 and KG 3 , targeting the RAF stations RAF Debden and RAF Hornchurch . While flying over clouds , the aircraft became separated from the bomber formation and lost its bearings ; it was then attacked by Boulton Paul Defiant fighters of No. 264 Squadron RAF . One of the Dornier 's engines was disabled and the other damaged , so the wounded pilot , Feldwebel ( Flight Sergeant ) Willi Effmert , elected to make a crash landing on the Goodwin Sands . He and another crew member survived and were taken prisoner . The other two crew were killed ; one is buried at Cannock Chase German war cemetery and the other in the Netherlands . The identity of the Defiant that shot down the Dornier is not certain – it may have been one of three 264 Squadron aircraft that was shot down soon after in a battle with Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighter escorts from Jagdgeschwader 3 .
In June 2010 diving operations were carried out and the survey report indicated that the aircraft was largely complete , although 5K + AR lay inverted on the seabed , indicating that it ground @-@ looped on landing . The port rudder , starboard stabiliser , forward nose glazing , undercarriage doors and engine cowling were missing , but the discovery of a small debris field associated with the wreck indicates that some or all of those parts may still be present at the site . Some items , including two of the Dornier 's six MG 15 machine guns , are missing and are believed to have been stolen by unauthorized divers sometime after the aircraft 's discovery .
It was then taken to the Michael Beetham Restoration Centre at the Royal Air Force Museum 's Cosford site , where metallurgists from Imperial College London have a significant role in the post @-@ recovery conservation of the aircraft .
= = = Dornier Do 17M @-@ 1 ( Hansakollen , Norway ) = = =
On 2 July 1942 , a Dornier Do 17M @-@ 1 crashed in Hansakollen in Maridalen , outside of Oslo , Norway . The Do 17 was heading to the airport at Gardermoen , but crashed into a mountainside . All three German aviators on board were killed . They are buried at the German war cemetery at Alfaset . The wreck is well preserved and remains clearly visible , over 70 years after the accident .
= = Specifications ( Do 17 Z @-@ 2 ) = =
Data from Aircraft of the Third Reich , Fighters and Bombers of World War II and Do 17 Z @-@ 2 Baubeschreibung , April 1938
General characteristics
Crew : 4
Length : 15 @.@ 8 m ( 51 ft 10 in )
Wingspan : 18 m ( 59 ft 1 in )
Height : 4 @.@ 56 m ( 15 ft 0 in )
Empty weight : 5 @,@ 210 kg ( 11 @,@ 486 lb )
Empty equipped : 5 @,@ 888 kg ( 12 @,@ 981 lb ) to 5 @,@ 963 kg ( 13 @,@ 146 lb )
Max takeoff weight : 8 @,@ 837 kg ( 19 @,@ 482 lb )
Fuel capacity : standard fuel 1 @,@ 540 l ( 339 imp gal ) , with aux tank in forward bomb bay 2 @,@ 435 l ( 536 imp gal )
Powerplant : 2 × Bramo 323P 9 @-@ cyl. air @-@ cooled radial piston engines with 1 @,@ 000 PS ( 986 hp , 736 kW ) for take @-@ off
Propellers : 3 @-@ bladed variable @-@ pitch propellers
Performance
Maximum speed : 350 km / h ( 217 mph ; 189 kn ) at 8 @,@ 040 kg ( 17 @,@ 725 lb ) at sea level
410 km / h ( 255 mph ) at 8 @,@ 040 kg ( 17 @,@ 725 lb ) at 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 404 ft )
Cruising speed : 300 km / h ( 186 mph ; 162 kn ) at 8 @,@ 837 kg ( 19 @,@ 482 lb ) at 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 123 ft )
Combat range : 660 km ( 410 mi ; 356 nmi ) with 1 @,@ 540 l ( 339 imp gal ) fuel and 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 2 @,@ 205 lb ) of bombs
1 @,@ 010 km ( 628 mi ) with 2 @,@ 435 l ( 536 imp gal ) fuel and 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 102 lb ) of bombs
Service ceiling : 8 @,@ 200 m ( 26 @,@ 903 ft )
Wing loading : 156 kg / m2 ( 32 lb / sq ft )
Power / mass : 0 @.@ 170 kW / kg ( 0 @.@ 11 hp / lb )
Armament
Guns : 6 × 7 @.@ 92 mm ( 0 @.@ 312 in ) MG 15 machine guns in front , rear upper , rear lower and cockpit side positions
Bombs : 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 2 @,@ 205 lb ) of bombs carried internally , either 20 x 50 kg ( 110 lb ) bombs or 4 x 250 kg ( 551 lb ) bombs
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= Lightning Bolt ( band ) =
Lightning Bolt is an American noise rock duo from Providence , Rhode Island , United States , composed of Brian Chippendale on drums and vocals and Brian Gibson on bass guitar . The band met and formed in 1994 , when the members of the then @-@ trio attended the Rhode Island School of Design . The band signed to Load Records in 1997 , and released their self @-@ titled debut two years later . In total , Lightning Bolt has released seven full @-@ length albums , numerous vinyl singles , and appeared on several compilations . Lightning Bolt were listed 8th in Metacritic 's Artists of the Decade 2000 @-@ 09 .
Lightning Bolt are known for their guerrilla @-@ style live performances , where they typically play on the ground rather than a stage , with the crowd gathered around them . The band 's sound is typically loud and aggressive , though the group cites composers Philip Glass and Sun Ra as compositional influences .
Their song St. Jaques has been used as the main theme for the Fox ADHD block .
= = History = =
The band formed while Chippendale and Gibson attended the Rhode Island School of Design in Providence , Rhode Island , and Chippendale had heard about " a new kid who was a whiz on the bass guitar . " The two formed Lightning Bolt , with Brian Chippendale on drums , Brian Gibson on bass guitar , and with Hisham Bharoocha on guitar and vocals joining the group after their first show . Bharoocha left the group in 1996 to continue with another RISD band that would eventually become Black Dice , and Chippendale took over vocal duties . The only officially released music with Bharoocha was a track on the Repopulation Program compilation . For the first few years , Lightning Bolt was primarily an improvisational band , touring the United States for months at a time and " just playing " . The concept of writing songs and recording an album didn 't occur to the band until 1997 , when Ben McOsker , founder of Load Records , approached the duo .
During these formative years , Chippendale and his freshman @-@ year college roommate Matt Brinkman began to set up Fort Thunder , a disused warehouse space in the Olneyville district of Providence . The space eventually came to house a number of local avant @-@ garde artists and musicians , including Brian Ralph as well as Lightning Bolt .
In 2006 , Lightning Bolt was deported from Japan days after they arrived to continue their tour from the UK . Band members were detained on arrival on the grounds that they did not have work permits . Their official appeal was rejected after 48 hours , and they were deported back to the United States .
= = Recordings = =
Lightning Bolt have released a total of seven full @-@ length albums , a number of 7 inch singles and splits , and have appeared on numerous compilations . The band 's first full @-@ length album was a self @-@ titled vinyl record on the Load Records label . The album was initially released in a limited edition pressing of 750 copies , and a 50 @-@ minute companion cassette titled " Zone " was released later . In 1999 the album was re @-@ released on CD , including " Zone " as bonus tracks and alternative cover art . Lightning Bolt 's second full @-@ length album was Ride the Skies , released in 2001 , followed by Wonderful Rainbow in 2003 . In 2005 , Lightning Bolt released Hypermagic Mountain , their most critically acclaimed album to date . In 2009 , their album Earthly Delights was released on Load Records .
The band starred in the 2003 tour @-@ DVD The Power of Salad directed by Peter Glantz and Nick Noe . Lightning Bolt have also performed in DVD compilations such as Pick a Winner ( 2004 ) and Sleep When You are Dead by performance artists Mighty Robot ( 2007 ) .
Rumors have persisted concerning the release of an improvisational album entitled Frenzy . A post on Lightning Bolt 's official website in early 2004 read " The next Lightning Bolt album , Frenzy , is currently in the works over at Load Records . It is expected to be available at the end of the summer . " No further word was given , and the next Lightning Bolt album released was in fact Hypermagic Mountain in 2005 . In an early 2007 interview , Chippendale said " When it comes to weird improv stuff , sometimes we 're just at a weird stalemate . " No official word has since been released .
On October 13 , 2009 , Lightning Bolt released the album Earthly Delights on the label Load . It has been the band 's first release in almost four years since Hypermagic Mountain .
On March 9 , 2015 , the group 's full length " Fantasy Empire " became available to stream via NPR 's First Listen . The accompanying writeup praised the increased clarity and fidelity of the recording , as compared to their earlier work , citing as a parallel example " ... the scene in The Wizard Of Oz where a sepia tone gives way to Technicolor ; it opens up new vistas to the sound , while giving the band an opportunity to exhibit more involved musicianship . " It was released on the Thrill Jockey label on March 25 , 2015 .
= = Musical and lyrical style = =
The band 's music takes cues from Japanese noise rock bands such as Boredoms and Ruins , although composers Philip Glass and Sun Ra are acknowledged influences . The band 's sound consists of Chippendale 's frenetic drumming , his usually incomprehensible vocals , and Gibson 's rhythmic bass guitar – an example of which is the song " 13 Monsters " , where Chippendale sings a playground style counting chant through heavy distortion over the instrumentals of his drums and Gibson 's bass guitar . As for the band 's genre , Brian Gibson is quoted as saying , " I hate , hate , hate the category " noise @-@ punk " I really don 't like being labeled with two words that have so much baggage . It ’ s gross . "
As the group 's vocalist , Chippendale eschews a conventional microphone , instead using the type of microphone built into a household telephone receiver , held in his mouth or attached to a mask , which is then run through an effects processor to further alter the sound . Chippendale has also used a KMD 8021 Drum Exciter , a simple drum @-@ synth module , triggered by the bass drum .
Gibson plays his bass guitar tuned to cello standard tuning , in intervals of fifths ( C G D A ) , using a banjo string for the high A. He used this four @-@ string setup for several years , but has recently been seen using a five @-@ string setup , tuned to C G D A E , with banjo strings for the A and E. Gibson also uses several effects pedals , including overdrive pedals , an octaver , a delay pedal , and a whammy pedal ( pitch shifter ) .
Like many noise rock bands , Lightning Bolt mostly plays extremely loud , aggressive music . In the film The Power of Salad , Gibson attributes much of their success to volume :
We used to get more negative reactions when [ we ] didn 't have as loud of stuff . It 's just , be super loud and you 're all set . ( laughs ) The rock and roll has been revealed . I do feel that that 's the message - if there 's any message , that 's what it is . This is kinda what we do to keep ourselves excited these days . In these days - everyone knows what I 'm talking about . ( laughs )
The band have reportedly never been fans of the studio recording process . When they recorded five tracks for their eponymous debut album released in 1999 , they discarded four of them and replaced them with lo @-@ fidelity tracks recorded at various live shows from 1997 and 1998 . However , their following two albums , Ride the Skies and Wonderful Rainbow , were recorded more traditionally in a studio . For Hypermagic Mountain , half the tracks were recorded in studio , while the rest were performed and recorded in a house direct to a 2 @-@ track DAT master tape , where the audio engineer was unable to tell exactly how the final result would sound .
Since the band has only two members and two instruments , their sound has a somewhat limited range , though this is often noted as a positive thing . In one interview , Gibson states that his experiences in Lightning Bolt " has showed [ him ] the power of an extremely limited palette . "
Lightning Bolt 's lyrics , when decipherable , are generally tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek , covering such topics as fairy tales , heavy metal clichés , terrorism , anarchy , and superheroes . They delve occasionally into more political subjects , such as the anti @-@ Bush " Dead Cowboy " from Hypermagic Mountain .
= = Live performances = =
Lightning Bolt are known for their so @-@ called " guerrilla gigs " , preferring to play on the floor of the venue rather than the stage , creating a tight circle of spectators around the band . They have also been known to start playing only a few seconds after the opening band finishes , often taking the audience by surprise . In 2004 , Lightning Bolt played on the doorstep of radio DJ John Peel 's chalet at noon during the All Tomorrow 's Parties festival , about which neighbor Steve Albini of Shellac and Big Black commented " Best alarm clock I 've ever had . " They have also staged concerts in kitchens , on sidewalks , and in parking lots .
= = Members = =
Brian Chippendale - drums , vocals ( 1994 @-@ present )
Brian Gibson - bass ( 1994 @-@ present )
Former Members
Hisham Bharoocha - vocals , guitar ( 1994 @-@ 1996 )
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
Lightning Bolt ( Load ) ( 1999 )
Zone ( 50 @-@ minute companion cassette ) ( Load ) ( 1999 )
Ride the Skies ( Load ) ( 2001 )
Wonderful Rainbow ( Load ) ( 2003 )
Hypermagic Mountain ( Load ) ( 2005 )
Earthly Delights ( Load ) ( 2009 )
Oblivion Hunter ( Load ) ( 2012 )
Fantasy Empire ( Thrill Jockey ) ( 2015 )
= = = Video = = =
The Power of Salad DVD ( 2003 )
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= Lily van Java =
Lilly van Java ( Lily of Java ) , also known as Melatie van Java ( Jasmine of Java ) , is a 1928 film from the Dutch East Indies directed by Nelson Wong . Initially meant to be produced by South Sea Film and shot by an American director , the film – which follows a woman told to marry a man she does not love – was ultimately completed by Wong 's Halimoen Film . Details on its cast and performance are contradictory , although the film is recognised as the first of a long series of ethnic Chinese @-@ produced films in the country . It is likely a lost film .
= = Premise = =
The young daughter of a rich man , already in a loving relationship , is forced to marry someone she does not love .
= = Production = =
The first two films produced in the Dutch East Indies , Loetoeng Kasaroeng ( 1926 ) and Eulis Atjih ( 1927 ) , were made by the Dutch filmmakers L. Heuveldorp and G. Kruger , respectively . Ethnic Chinese businessmen , capitalising on the success of films produced in Shanghai , China , established two production houses , one in Batavia ( modern day Jakarta ) and the other in Surabaya . South Sea Film , the production house in Batavia established by Liem Goan Lian and Tjan Tjoen Lian , was advertised as the first Chinese filmmaking cooperative in the country . Its first script was for Lily van Java ; which the company had to pass through the Film Commissie ( national censorship bureau ) for fear of violating traditional values .
According to JB Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia ( Indonesian Film Catalogue ) , an American named Len Ross was initially booked to direct the film ; Ross was reportedly in the country to film a work entitled Java for Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer and shot several scenes in mid @-@ 1928 . The cast was ethnic Chinese , and the female stars – Lie Lian Hwa and Lie Bo Tan – were reportedly daughters of the Surabayan gangster Lie Bauw Kie and trained in silat ; other cast members included Kwee Tiang An and Yah Kwee Pang . However , after Ross withdrew the script was put on hold .
Nelson Wong , who had formerly been booked with his brothers Joshua and Othniel to record a film for Tio Tek Djien , approached David Wong ( no relation ) , a high @-@ ranking General Motors employee in Batavia , for funding . With this the Wong Brother 's Halimoen Film was able to finish the film . Some sources indicate that the same cast was used , while others suggest that the leading role was taken by a student from Shanghai named Lily Oey .
The silent film was shot in black and white ; its intertitles were bilingual , written in both Malay and Chinese . The American film historian Richard Abel writes that the film 's technical quality , like all other local productions of the time , was poor and unable to compete with imported works , and the Indonesian film scholar Misbach Yusa Biran writes that the shots were considered blurry even at the time .
= = Release and reception = =
Lily van Java was released in 1928 . Its success is disputed . The reporter Leopold Gan wrote that the film was highly successful , to the point that after several years copies were worn through from overplaying . However , Joshua Wong later recalled in an interview that the film had been a failure ; David Wong is reported to have avowed to no longer fund any films after Lily van Java . Lacking a backer , the Wong Brothers went on hiatus .
Lily van Java continues to be recorded as the first Chinese @-@ produced film of the area . Although the Wongs went on hiatus , other ethnic Chinese became involved in film . Several Chinese owned start @-@ ups are recorded from 1929 on , including Nancing Film with Resia Boroboedoer ( 1928 ) and Tan 's Film with Njai Dasima ( 1929 ) . By the early 1930s Chinese @-@ owned businesses were the dominating force in the country 's film industry .
The film is likely a lost film . The American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider writes that all Indonesian films from before 1950 are lost . However , JB Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia ( Indonesian Film Catalogue ) records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia 's archives , and Biran writes that several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service .
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= 1951 National League tie @-@ breaker series =
The 1951 National League tie @-@ breaker series was a best @-@ of @-@ three playoff series at the conclusion of Major League Baseball 's ( MLB ) 1951 regular season to decide the winner of the National League ( NL ) pennant . The games were played on October 1 , 2 , and 3 , 1951 , between the New York Giants and Brooklyn Dodgers . It was necessary after both teams finished the season with identical win – loss records of 96 – 58 . It is most famous for the walk @-@ off home run hit by Bobby Thomson of the Giants in the deciding game , which has come to be known as baseball 's " Shot Heard ' Round the World " .
This was the second three @-@ game playoff in NL history . After no tiebreakers had been needed since the American League ( AL ) became a major league in 1901 , this was the third such tie in the previous six seasons . The Dodgers had been involved in the previous one as well , losing to the St. Louis Cardinals during the 1946 season in two straight games . In addition to the 1946 series , the AL had a one @-@ game playoff in 1948 .
The Giants won game one , while the Dodgers came back to win game two . After trailing for most of game three , the Giants rallied to win the game and the series . Consequently , they advanced to the 1951 World Series , in which they were defeated by the New York Yankees . In baseball statistics , the tie @-@ breaker series counted as the 155th , 156th , and 157th regular season games by both teams ; all events in the games were added to regular season statistics .
= = Background = =
Sportswriters projected that the Giants , Dodgers , and Philadelphia Phillies would face off during the 1951 Major League Baseball season . The previous season , the Phillies won the NL pennant with a 91 – 63 record , while the Dodgers and Giants finished in second and third place , two and five games behind the Phillies , respectively . In the annual Associated Press poll , Brooklyn was projected as the favorite to win the pennant with 1 @,@ 413 points , New York was second with 1 @,@ 281 , and Philadelphia was third with 1 @,@ 176 . The United Press , however , had New York winning the pennant ; they had 81 votes compared to 55 for Brooklyn and 18 for Philadelphia .
Throughout the first half of the season , the Dodgers stayed in first place by a large margin . By August 10 , they were 12 1 ⁄ 2 games ahead of the Giants and 14 1 ⁄ 2 games ahead of the Phillies , and as a result they were already looking ahead to facing the New York Yankees in the 1951 World Series ; the Associated Press commented on their dominance , saying that " unless they completely fold in their last 50 games , they 're in . " While the Phillies fell out of contention , the Giants won 16 consecutive games from August 12 to August 27 , cutting their deficit from 12 1 ⁄ 2 games to six .
By September 20 , the Dodgers had ten games left to play while the Giants had seven , and the Dodgers had a 4 1 ⁄ 2 game advantage , making a pennant win appear imminent . However , the Giants won their last seven games , and the Dodgers needed to defeat the Phillies in the final game of the season to force a playoff ; they did so by winning 9 – 8 in 14 innings , leaving both teams with a record of 96 – 58 .
The National League used a three @-@ game playoff ( prior to 1969 ) to break a tie for the pennant , the winner of which would face the American League champion Yankees in the 1951 World Series . The Dodgers won the coin toss for home field advantage , but opted to host game one at Ebbets Field on October 1 , while the Giants would as a result get to host games two and three at the Polo Grounds on October 2 and 3 . The Dodgers chose Ralph Branca , who also started the first game of the 1946 tiebreaker , to start game one because he had beaten the Giants twice in the regular season , while the Giants chose Jim Hearn , who had beaten the Dodgers twice that year .
= = Game 1 summary = =
Branca began the game by retiring the first three batters ; Eddie Stanky and Alvin Dark flied out while Don Mueller grounded out . In the bottom of the first , Carl Furillo grounded out , and Pee Wee Reese hit a single . After Duke Snider flied out , Reese was caught stealing second base to end the inning . In the second inning , Branca retired all three hitters ; when the Dodgers came up to bat , Jackie Robinson flied out and Roy Campanella grounded out . Andy Pafko scored the game 's first run with a home run to left field to make the score 1 – 0 . After the third out , Willie Mays walked to start the third inning , and after the first out Stanky got the Giants ' first hit , a single . After a fly out by Dark , the Giants remained without a run ; Hearn retired all three batters in the bottom of the third to end the inning .
In the fourth inning , Monte Irvin was hit by a pitch between outs by Mueller and Whitey Lockman . Bobby Thomson then hit a home run to put the Giants up , 2 – 1 . After the third out , the Dodgers came back to the plate . Reese grounded out , but Snider and Robinson hit back @-@ to @-@ back singles . Campanella grounded into a double play to end the inning . The Giants got one man on base in the top of the fifth inning , when Stanky singled with two outs . Pafko reached on an error to start off the bottom of the fifth , but was caught stealing second base ; Gil Hodges and Branca both struck out to end the fifth . The only hit in the sixth inning was a single by Lockman , and the two teams entered the seventh inning with the score still 2 – 1 .
There were no hits in the seventh inning , as both pitchers retired the first three batters they faced . In the top of the eighth inning , Irvin hit the third home run of the game , his 24th of the year , to make the score 3 – 1 . Lockman then reached first base on an error and was able to advance to third base , but Mays and Hearn both struck out to keep the score intact . No Dodgers managed a hit in the bottom of the eighth , though the Dodgers brought in Jim Russell to use as a pinch hitter for Branca . In the ninth inning , Alvin Dark doubled for the Giants , but he was the only player on either team to earn a hit ; Hearn retired all three Dodgers hitters to end the game with the 3 – 1 victory , earning a complete game win after allowing five hits to the Dodgers . Those in attendance included Bill Dickey , a coach for the Yankees who attended the game to scout both teams .
= = Game 2 summary = =
The series moved to the Polo Grounds for game two . Sheldon Jones took the mound for the Giants despite a 6 – 10 record going into the game , allowing the Giants to save Sal Maglie for the series ' game three or the first game of the World Series . The Dodgers used Clem Labine , a rookie who had started just six games for the Dodgers in his career , because they lacked pitchers who were ready for the game . The Yankees were among those in attendance as spectators .
Pee Wee Reese singled and Jackie Robinson homered , scoring two runs for the Dodgers in the first inning ; the Giants had one player reach base on an error , making the score 2 – 0 after one inning . In the second inning , Gil Hodges singled and reached third base on an error , allowing the Dodgers to potentially score again . After Rube Walker 's hit the Giants threw Hodges out at home plate , and two further outs ended their turn at bat . The Giants had two consecutive hits in their half , a double hit by Thomson and a single hit by Mays , but they failed to score as well after two groundouts , leaving the score 2 – 0 . After one out , Duke Snider walked and Robinson singled to start the third inning , and Jones was removed from pitching duties , replaced by George Spencer .
Spencer ended the inning by throwing Snider out at home to keep the score 2 – 0 . Eddie Stanky reached base after a Dodgers error , marking the second error for both teams ; after another hit , the inning ended with a strikeout by Thomson . In the fourth inning , three players hit singles but did not score . Snider doubled in the fifth inning with one out , and a Jackie Robinson single made the score 3 – 0 for the Dodgers . The inning ended for the Dodgers on a double play , and Don Mueller hit a single in the bottom of the fifth before the Giants recorded three straight outs . The Dodgers opened up the game in the sixth inning , as Hodges led off with a home run . Billy Cox then reached base on an error and scored on a second error to make the game 5 – 0 . After Labine walked to get on base , there was a rain delay , and play did not resume until that night .
After the game resumed , Labine scored on back @-@ to @-@ back singles by Reese and Snider . The Giants then came up to bat , failing to earn a hit as the score became 6 – 0 after six innings . To start the seventh inning , Al Corwin replaced Bill Rigney for the Giants , who had pinch hit for Spencer . Andy Pafko hit a home run to start the inning , and Hodges walked ; he later scored on the fifth and final error made by the Giants to make the score 8 – 0 . The bottom of the seventh and the eighth inning passed without a hit . In the ninth inning , Walker hit a home run , the fourth of the game , to make the score 10 – 0 . The Giants failed to get a hit in the bottom of the ninth , ending the game . Labine pitched a six @-@ hit shutout , not allowing a hit in the final four innings as the series went to a deciding third game .
= = Game 3 summary = =
Game three was also held at the Polo Grounds . With each team having won one game , it was time for a matchup between the two teams ' ace pitchers . Sal Maglie was on the mound for New York , while Brooklyn called on Don Newcombe ; both pitchers had winning records against the opposing team heading into the matchup . After Maglie walked two batters in the top of the first inning , Jackie Robinson singled , scoring the game 's first run when Pee Wee Reese crossed home plate . No further hits were allowed until the bottom of the second , when Whitey Lockman and Bobby Thomson singled ; neither scored , and it remained 1 – 0 through two innings .
The game then became a pitcher 's duel ; Maglie and Newcombe did not allow a hit in the third or fourth innings . In the fifth , Billy Cox singled on a bunt , and Thomson hit a double , but the score remained 1 – 0 through five innings . Duke Snider singled in the sixth inning , but was caught stealing second . Neither team got another hit until the seven inning . Rube Walker singled for the Dodgers , and Monte Irvin led off the bottom of the seventh with a double for the Giants . He reached third base after a bunt , and scored on a sacrifice fly by Thomson , tying the score at one run each .
In the top of the eighth , the Dodgers scored three runs off Maglie . Reese and Snider hit back @-@ to @-@ back singles , and Maglie threw a wild pitch , allowing Reese to score . After Robinson was walked , Andy Pafko hit a single to score Snider . Cox added another single to score Robinson before the inning ended , making made the score 4 – 1 in favor of the Dodgers . Newcombe got the Giants out in order in the bottom of the eighth , and Larry Jansen did the same in relief of Maglie in the top of the ninth .
Alvin Dark led off with a single in the bottom of the ninth , and Don Mueller followed with another . After Monte Irvin popped out to first base , Whitey Lockman hit a double to left @-@ center field , scoring Dark and putting Mueller on third . Upon sliding into third , Mueller sprained his ankle and had to leave the game . As Mueller went to the locker room , Dodger manager Chuck Dressen summoned game 1 starter Ralph Branca in to relieve Newcombe on only one day 's rest . Bobby Thomson came up to bat , and on Branca 's second pitch , Thomson drove a pitch to deep left field for a walk @-@ off home run to clinch the pennant for the Giants . This home run came to be known as the " Shot Heard ' Round the World " as the Giants won the National League pennant , advancing to the World Series .
= = Aftermath = =
The following day , sportswriter Red Smith opened his recap of the game for the New York Herald Tribune with the following lead : " Now it is done . Now the story ends . And there is no way to tell it . The art of fiction is dead . Reality has strangled invention . Only the utterly impossible , the inexpressibly fantastic , can ever be plausible again . " After winning the pennant , the Giants lost to the Yankees in the World Series four games to two . The Brooklyn Dodgers rebounded to win the National League pennant in 1952 , but lost the 1952 World Series to the Yankees four games to three .
The three games counted statistically as regular season games . As a result , Hodges and Furillo led the league with 158 games played , which could not have been equaled by anyone but a Brooklyn or New York player . Monte Irvin increased his runs batted in total to 121 , leading the NL that year . Larry Jansen 's win in the final game gave him 23 wins on the year , tying him for the MLB lead with Maglie ; had he finished the game he would have led all of baseball with 24 . Newcombe 's two strikeouts in game three totalled 164 on the season for him , tying him for the NL lead with Warren Spahn and the MLB lead with Spahn and Vic Raschi . Campanella finished the season with a .325 batting average , 33 doubles , 33 home runs , and 108 runs batted in , and won the Major League Baseball Most Valuable Player Award at the end of the season . Mays finished the season with a .274 batting average , 22 doubles , and 20 home runs in 121 games , and won the Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award .
In 2001 , Journalist Joshua Prager published that the Giants secretly learned opponents ' finger signals , when several players told the Wall Street Journal that beginning on July 20 , 1951 , the team used a telescope and buzzer wire to steal the finger signals of opposing catchers careless enough to leave their signs unprotected . Giants catcher Sal Yvars told Prager that he relayed to Thomson the stolen sign for Branca 's fastball . Thomson always insisted that he had no foreknowledge of Branca 's pitch . Branca had been aware of the rumors and was skeptical of Thomson 's denial , but later told The New York Times in 2001 , " I didn 't want to diminish a legendary moment in baseball . And even if Bobby knew what was coming , he had to hit it .... Knowing the pitch doesn 't always help . "
= = Quotes = =
Ernie Harwell on NBC
Russ Hodges on WMCA
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= 6th Airborne Division in Palestine =
The 6th Airborne Division in Palestine was initially posted to the region as the Imperial Strategic Reserve . It was envisioned as a mobile peace keeping force , positioned to be able to respond quickly to any area of the British Empire . In fact the division became involved in an internal security role between 1945 and 1948 .
Palestine had been a British Mandate since the end of World War I. Under the terms of the mandate , Great Britain was responsible for the government and security of the country . It had long been a stated British aim to establish a Jewish homeland in Palestine and between 1922 and 1939 over 250 @,@ 000 Jewish immigrants had arrived in the country . However , Arab resistance and World War II prompted the British to curtail immigration . The time also saw the rise of the Jewish Resistance Movement , which eventually came into conflict with the British authorities .
When the British 6th Airborne Division arrived in response to increasing terrorist activity , it became involved in internal security , being responsible for cordons and search operations , guarding convoys and key installations . As the situation worsened , the men of the division had to patrol the towns and cities , enforce curfews and deal with rioting by the civilian population . They also protected Jewish and Arab settlements from sectarian violence . This was not without loss to the division and several members were killed and wounded during this time .
The end of the British mandate coincided with the post war reduction of the British Army back to peace time levels , and the division 's numbers were gradually reduced . By the end of their tenure in Palestine , the division 's strength was reduced in real terms , to less than brigade size . In 1948 it was disbanded soon after its withdrawal from Palestine .
= = Background = =
In July 1922 , the British Mandate of Palestine was created . Under the terms of the mandate , Great Britain was responsible for the government and defence of the country and for the establishment of a Jewish homeland . Then in September 1922 , the League of Nations and Great Britain decided that any Jewish homeland would not be formed in the land to the east of the River Jordan . This instead became a separate country known as the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan .
Encouraged by the British , 265 @,@ 000 Jewish immigrants , mainly from Europe , came to settle in Palestine between 1919 and 1939 . Arab resistance and violence to this influx of immigrants came to a head in 1937 , and the Peel Commission recommended that two states should be formed , one Arab and one Jewish , which would divide the country between them . Then in May 1939 , the British restricted the number of Jewish immigrants to 75 @,@ 000 in the White Paper of 1939 .
By the end of 1945 , Jewish immigration had almost reached the 75 @,@ 000 White Paper limit . Arab concerns led to the British putting further restrictions on immigration . Even when the scale of the Holocaust became known , the British stance remained the same . This led to an inevitable confrontation between the British authorities , illegal Jewish immigrants , and militant Zionist groups . It became a widespread belief within the Jewish community that the British were practising antisemitism and were no different from Nazi Germany . However , between 1945 and 1948 a further 85 @,@ 000 Jewish immigrants , mostly survivors of the Holocaust , entered the country illegally .
= = = Jewish resistance movements = = =
During this time the Jewish Resistance Movement was formed , comprising several pre @-@ existing Jewish groups . In 1921 , the part @-@ time Haganah was formed and trained as a national army . Most Jewish males and some females were required to join . After the Second World War , it obtained numerous surplus weapons to equip its members . The Haganah gave priority to increasing the Jewish population by bringing immigrants into the country from Europe . It always attempted to give prior notice of an attack so that any security service personnel in the area could be evacuated .
When Axis forces posed a threat to the Middle East in the Second World War , the Haganah organized a full @-@ time , elite force , the Palmach . By 1947 , this organization numbered around 2 @,@ 200 members . Palmach members were subject to military discipline ; many of them had served in the British forces during the war .
In 1937 , a splinter group was formed by those not happy with the Haganah methods . This group was called the National Military Organization in the Land of Israel or Irgun in short . It launched a campaign of violence against the government in 1944 , carrying out several terrorist attacks . By 1945 , Irgun had an estimated membership of 1 @,@ 500 . A third group was the Lehi , the Hebrew acronym of " Fighters for the Freedom of Israel " , known in the British press as the Stern Gang . Lehi membership consisted of only around fifty men . It was the only Jewish group that contemplated working with the Italians and Germans during the war , and afterwards assassinated members of the British authorities . By 1946 , both the Irgun and Lehi had declared war on Great Britain .
= = = British 6th Airborne Division = = =
Despite its name , the 6th Airborne Division was one of only two airborne divisions raised by the British Army during the Second World War . Before being deployed to Palestine , the division had served only in Europe . It had participated in the Normandy landings in June 1944 and later the Battle of the Bulge in December . After the Rhine crossing in March 1945 , it spent six weeks advancing across Germany to the Baltic Sea .
At the end of the war in Europe , it had been planned to send the division to Burma to form an airborne corps with the 44th Indian Airborne Division . However , the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , and the Japanese surrender , ended the war and changed British plans . The 6th Airborne Division was nominated to be the Imperial Strategic Reserve . Together with a Royal Air Force troop @-@ carrier formation , they were to be located in the Middle East as a quick reaction peace keeping force for the British Empire . Initially No. 283 Wing RAF had two squadrons of transport aircraft , 620 and 644 , available to provide troop transport .
By September 1945 , the division was en route to the region for airborne training . However , conditions in Palestine were deteriorating . By the time the division arrived , instead of training , it was deployed on internal security .
During the Second World War , the division comprised the 3rd Parachute Brigade and 5th Parachute Brigade , both consisting of parachute infantry , and the 6th Airlanding Brigade , composed of glider infantry . However the 5th Parachute Brigade had been sent to ] India ahead of the rest of the division . So when the division was dispatched to the Middle East , the 2nd Parachute Brigade was assigned to bring them up to strength . In May 1946 , after the 1st Airborne Division was disbanded , the 1st Parachute Brigade joined the division , replacing the 6th Airlanding Brigade . In August 1946 , the 5th Parachute Brigade returned from the Far East , and joined the division , but was disbanded soon afterwards . The next major manpower development came in 1947 , when the 3rd Parachute Brigade was disbanded and the 2nd Parachute Brigade , while remaining part of the division , was withdrawn to England , then sent to Germany .
= = Operations = =
= = = 1945 = = =
Still commanded by its last wartime commander , Major General Eric Bols , the division began deployment to Palestine in 1945 . The advance party arrived on 15 September , followed by the Tactical Headquarters on 24 September , then the 3rd Parachute Brigade on 3 October , the 6th Airlanding Brigade on 10 October and the 2nd Parachute Brigade on 22 October . After arriving by sea at Haifa , the newly arrived troops were sent to camps in the Gaza Subdistrict to acclimatize to the conditions , and to regain their fitness after the long sea journey from England . By the end of the month divisional headquarters was established at Bir Salim . The 2nd Parachute Brigade at remained at Gaza , the 3rd Parachute Brigade moved to the Tel Aviv and Jaffa region , while the 6th Airlanding Brigade moved to Samaria .
It was not long before the division became involved in operations , enforcing a night time curfew at the end of October after the railway in the divisional area was sabotaged . On 13 November the British Government confirmed they would examine the conditions of Jews in Europe and consult the Arabs to ensure Jewish immigration , at the time around 1 @,@ 500 persons a month , was not hindered .
Unhappy that the announcement did not go far enough , the Jewish National Council arranged a twelve @-@ hour strike for the next day . Rioting started in Tel Aviv and the Jewish part of Jerusalem , which resulted in the 3rd Parachute Brigade being deployed to patrol the streets for the following five days .
The first operation involving the 6th Airlanding Brigade followed two attacks by the Palmach on coastguard stations over the night of 24 / 25 November . Palestine Police Force dogs tracked the attackers to the settlements of Rishpon and Sidna Ali . In the following cordon and search operation , the police were stoned by the inhabitants , and the soldiers on the cordon had to prevent reinforcements from other settlements reaching the villages . The next day , 26 November , the police were involved in hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting with the villagers and eventually withdrew , calling on the brigade to enter the settlements and enforce law and order . Leaving some men behind on the cordon to hold back the estimated 3 @,@ 000 crowd , the remainder of the brigade entered the settlements . Here they carried out several baton charges and for the first time used tear gas to disperse the crowds . In the cleanup operation , 900 persons were later arrested .
Near the end of the year , over the night of 26 / 27 December , several attacks were carried out by the Irgun on police stations , Palestine Railways installations and one British Army armoury . The 3rd Parachute Brigade again enforced a night time curfew on Tel Aviv . Then on 29 December , it took part in Operation Pintail , the search of Ramat Gan , for Irgun members involved in the attacks . The brigade questioned the 1 @,@ 500 inhabitants , arresting eighty @-@ nine .
= = = 1946 = = =
The first mission of 1946 was Operation Hebron on 8 January . This time the objective was the cordon and search of the town of Rishon LeZion by the 3rd Parachute Brigade and the police , during which fifty @-@ five suspects were taken into custody . For the rest of the month , the brigade was involved in several smaller operations . In Operation Pigeon on 30 January , they searched the Shapira district of Tel Aviv .
On 5 March Major General James Cassels took over command of the division . The next action involving the division was over the night of 2 / 3 April , when units of the Irgun attacked railway installations in the divisional area . While one attack on the Yibna railway station and police post was in progress , a mobile patrol from the 9th Parachute Battalion arrived , detonating a mine while crossing a bridge . Three of the patrol were wounded , but the others took off after the saboteurs . Reinforcements arrived from the 5th and 6th Parachute Battalions . In the morning , tracks of around thirty men were discovered leading away from the area . A spotter plane later located the men and directed a section of the 8th Parachute Battalion to intercept them . After a small battle , fourteen of the saboteurs were wounded and twenty @-@ six prisoners taken .
In March the 1st Parachute Brigade joined the division . The 6th Airlanding Brigade left the division on 13 April , but remained in Palestine as the 31st Independent Infantry Brigade . This reduced the division 's manpower by around twenty @-@ five per cent as the strength of the airlanding brigade had been almost equal to that of two parachute brigades combined .
At 20 : 45 on 25 April , the Lehi carried out an attack on a divisional car park in Tel Aviv . On that night , the car park was guarded by ten men from the 5th Parachute Battalion . The attackers , around thirty men , established a fire base in a house overlooking the car park . The attack began with a bomb thrown into a guard tent . Gunfire was directed at all of the soldiers in the area , then twenty of the attackers stormed the car park . Once inside the compound , they entered the guard tents , killing four unarmed soldiers and looting the rifle racks of weapons . Another two off @-@ duty soldiers , responding to the attack , were killed approaching the car park . In total , seven men from the division were killed .
This was the first deliberate attack by any group targeting the British Army , which had not established defences against any form of assault . During the following day seventy suspects were rounded up , but no evidence of their involvement could be found . In response to the attack , the British imposed a road curfew from 18 : 00 to 06 : 00 each night and all cafes , restaurants and public entertainment venues in Tel Aviv were closed between 20 : 00 and 05 : 00 . However this was not enough for some members of the division , who attacked Jewish houses in Qastina and Be 'er Tuvia , injuring some of the occupants . Those involved were later punished by the British Army .
Attacks on the security services had increased to a level that on 19 June all ranks were ordered to be armed at all times on or off duty , and to travel in pairs during the day and in threes at night . Near the end of June the division received orders for Operation Agatha , the arrest of Jewish leaders " suspected of condoning " or being involved in sabotage or murder of civil and military personnel . Agatha was a nationwide operation involving not only the 6th Airborne Division but the Palestinian Police Force and all other army units in the country . Secondary objectives were to gather intelligence and arrest any members of the Palmach that could be found .
Operation Agatha started at 04 : 15 on 29 June . The 2nd Parachute Brigade was responsible for Tel Aviv , the 1st Parachute Brigade for Jewish settlements around Ma 'abarot and the 3rd Parachute Brigade for those around Givat Brenner . The operation ended on 1 July after 2 @,@ 718 suspects had been arrested . Many had no connection to the resistance movements and were instead arrested for harassing the searchers or for refusing to give their names when asked . The 6th Airborne Division alone arrested 636 persons , 135 of them for being suspected Palmach members and ten were Jewish leaders .
The next major incident was on 22 July , when the British administrative and military headquarters located in the King David Hotel were bombed . No members of the division were directly involved , but the Royal Engineers of the 9th Airborne Squadron were called in to take charge of the search for survivors and secure the part of the building left standing . Over the next three days they located six survivors and the bodies of ninety @-@ one victims . To assist in the search for those responsible , the 8th and 9th Parachute Battalions moved into Jerusalem on 23 July .
The British response to the bombing came on 30 July , when the division carried out Operation Shark . Believing that the bombers were being sheltered in Tel Aviv , every dwelling and building was searched for members of the Lehi and Irgun , and the population questioned . During the operation , a cordon surrounded the city and a curfew was imposed on its inhabitants . To allow the population to buy food and other essentials , the curfew was lifted for two hours every second day , until the end of the operation . The division 's three parachute brigades were each given one quarter of the city to cordon and search while the fourth quarter was the responsibility of the 2nd Infantry Brigade , attached to the division for the operation . Over four days each brigade questioned around 100 @,@ 000 people , and 787 were detained for further questioning . During the searches , five arms dumps were found , containing four machine guns , twenty @-@ three mortars , 176 rifles and pistols , and 127 @,@ 000 round of ammunition . Also found were £ 50 @,@ 000 of forged bearer bonds , forging equipment and a large amount of explosives .
The division 's next operations were Bream and Eel , searching for arms in Dorot and Ruhama , by the 3rd and 8th Parachute Battalions , and the 9th Airborne Squadron Royal Engineers . The two villages were cordoned at dawn on 28 August . Over the next six days the settlements were searched , during which a large quantity of assorted weapons , including heavy machine guns and mortars , were found .
Over the remaining months of the year the division carried out patrols of the rail and road networks , which were being mined . Some of the mines killed men from the division attempting to disarm them , until orders were issued to blow the mines up rather than disarm them . Then on 2 December a road mine killed four men from the 2nd Forward Observation Unit ( Airborne ) .
A change in command occurred on 13 December when Major General Cassels left the division and was replaced by Eric Bols , now commanding the division for the second time .
= = = 1947 = = =
Between 29 December 1946 and 3 January the division 's brigades carried out seven search operations in Tel Aviv , arresting 191 people . On 2 January several attacks were made on roads in the division 's area . One attack wounded eight men of the 4th and 5th Parachute Battalions . Another attack on the same day was carried out by the Lehi against the 1st Parachute Battalion headquarters in Tel Aviv , killing a Jewish policeman and wounding two soldiers and another police officer . Then on 18 January the 6th Airborne and 1st Infantry Division swapped locations , the airborne division now assuming responsibility for the north of the country . Although it remained part of the division , the 2nd Parachute Brigade was withdrawn to England on 24 January .
Upon their arrival in the north , the 1st Parachute Brigade assumed responsibility for the District of Galilee , and the 3rd Parachute Brigade for the District of Haifa , with division headquarters located in the Stella Maris Monastery . The 1st Parachute Brigade also took under its command the Transjordan Frontier Force and a battalion of the Arab Legion to cover their large area . In the north the division was mainly responsible for the security of the port of Haifa , the largest in the country , where they protected oil installations , the Mosul @-@ Haifa oil pipeline and prevented illegal immigrants from landing on the coastline . On 31 January it was announced that all non @-@ essential British civilians were to be evacuated , due to the worsening situation . The evacuation took place from Haifa between 5 and 8 February , under the control of the 8th Parachute Battalion and the Royal Navy .
On 4 May a group of around forty men carried out the Acre Prison break , releasing forty @-@ one Jews and 214 Arabs . At the same time a mortar attack was carried out on the 2nd Parachute Battalion 's camp , as a diversion . The first unit to reach the prison was a platoon from the 1st Parachute Battalion , 35 minutes later . Other men from the battalion and some divisional units were bathing in the sea a short distance from the prison . A truck load of escaping prisoners opened fire on one unit 's armoured car . The escaping truck then reached an improvised road block set up by some bathers and crashed under fire . The division 's bathing party killed four attackers , four Jewish and one Arab escapee , and recaptured thirteen Jews . The bathers had eight men wounded during the short battle . While this was going on , the 1st Parachute Brigade was establishing a cordon around Acre and the surrounding area but no further escapees were caught .
The next attack was on officers from the 9th Parachute Battalion on 28 June . The officers were dining at a restaurant when two men of the Irgun approached and fired machine guns through the windows . One officer was killed outright while several others were wounded . The officers returned fire and the car the gunmen were escaping in crashed ; later examination revealed at least one of them had been wounded . On 19 July two police officers on patrol in Haifa were shot in the back and killed . The following day the 3rd Parachute Brigade cordoned the area and imposed a night time curfew , which was not lifted until 30 July .
Leadership of the division changed again on 19 August , when Major General Hugh Stockwell was given command . In October the British War Office announced the division would be reduced by one brigade . The 3rd Parachute Brigade was disbanded , leaving the 1st Parachute Brigade in Palestine and the 2nd Parachute Brigade in England . The 1st Parachute Brigade assumed responsibility for Haifa and to cover all its commitments the 2nd Battalion Middlesex Regiment was attached to the brigade .
At a meeting on 29 November , the United Nations General Assembly decided to end the British Mandate on 1 August 1948 . Palestine would be partitioned into separate Arab and Jewish states , with Jerusalem becoming an international city . The Jewish state would have fifty @-@ six per cent of the land with a population of 490 @,@ 000 Jews and 325 @,@ 000 Arabs , while the Arab state would have 807 @,@ 000 Arabs , but only 10 @,@ 000 Jews . The population of Jerusalem would be around 105 @,@ 000 Arabs to 100 @,@ 000 Jews .
On 13 December trouble came from another quarter , in the town of Safed , opposite the Golan Heights . Fighting had started between the Arab and Jewish inhabitants . The police requested help from the army and a company from the 8th Parachute Battalion was assigned the task . Arabs fired at the British unit on 21 December without causing any injuries .
= = = 1948 = = =
Tension in the Golan Heights area remained high and on 9 January the Jewish settlements of Dan and Kfar Szold were attacked by Arab irregulars from the Arab Liberation Army , who crossed the border from Syria . The division responded by immediately sending a troop of armoured cars from the 17th / 21st Lancers to each village . By the afternoon the 1st Parachute Battalion had joined the battle and air support from the Royal Air Force was called in . The battle ended with the Arabs withdrawing ; their casualties are not known . Nine Jews were killed or wounded by the Arabs , the British troops uninjured .
To assist in controlling the region , an ad @-@ hoc formation called Craforce was established . Under the command of the division 's commander , Royal Artillery Brigadier C. H. Colquhoun , were the division 's artillery , the 17th / 21st Lancers , the 1st Parachute Battalion and the 1st Battalion Irish Guards . Craforce became involved with breaking up attacks between Arab and Jewish forces . The Arabs did not directly attack the British , but did engage them when British attempted to intervene in an attack on Jewish settlements .
In February the Arab Liberation Army , under the command of Fawzi al @-@ Qawuqji , was estimated to be around 10 @,@ 000 strong . It was believed around 1 @,@ 000 volunteers from neighbouring Arab states joined each month .
On 18 February it was announced that the 6th Airborne Division would be disbanded when they left Palestine . The 1st Parachute Brigade handed over Haifa to the 1st Guards Brigade on 6 April . Gradually the division 's units left the country . The division 's last units , comprising part of divisional headquarters , the 1st Parachute Battalion and the 1st Airborne Squadron Royal Engineers , departed on 18 May .
= = Aftermath = =
Since the end of the Second World War , the campaign in the British Mandate of Palestine had cost the British 338 dead . The numbers for the 6th Airborne Division between October 1945 and April 1948 were fifty @-@ eight men dead and 236 wounded due to enemy action , a further ninety @-@ nine men died , from causes not associated with a hostile act . During their searches of Jewish and Arab settlements , men from the division had located 99 mortars , 34 machine guns , 174 sub machine guns , 375 rifles , 391 pistols , 97 land mines , 2 @,@ 582 hand grenades and 302 @,@ 530 rounds of ammunition .
In February 1948 the 2nd Parachute Brigade moved from England to Germany , becoming part of the British Army of the Rhine . The 6th Airborne Division was disbanded in April 1948 , shortly after their return to England , leaving the 2nd Parachute Brigade as the only brigade @-@ sized airborne formation in the British Army .
On 14 May , the day before the end of the British mandate , David Ben @-@ Gurion , chairman of the Jewish Agency for Palestine , announced the establishment of the state of Israel in parts of what was known as the British Mandate of Palestine . The announcement was the catalyst for the start of the 1948 Arab – Israeli War .
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= Royal Standard of Scotland =
The Royal Banner of the Royal Arms of Scotland , also known as the Royal Banner of Scotland , or more commonly the Lion Rampant of Scotland , and historically as the Royal Standard of Scotland , ( Scottish Gaelic : Bratach rìoghail na h @-@ Alba , Scots : Ryal banner o Scotland ) or Banner of the King of Scots , is the Royal Banner of Scotland , and historically , the Royal Standard of the Kingdom of Scotland . Used historically by the King of Scots , the banner differs from Scotland 's national flag , the Saltire , in that its correct use is restricted by an Act of the Parliament of Scotland to only a few Great Officers of State who officially represent the Sovereign in Scotland . It is also used in an official capacity at royal residences in Scotland when the Sovereign is not present .
The earliest recorded use of the Lion rampant as a royal emblem in Scotland was by Alexander II in 1222 ; with the additional embellishment of a double border set with lilies occurring during the reign of Alexander III ( 1249 – 1286 ) . This emblem occupied the shield of the royal coat of arms of the ancient Kingdom of Scotland which , together with a royal banner displaying the same , was used by the King of Scots until the Union of the Crowns in 1603 , when James VI acceded to the thrones of the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Ireland . Since 1603 , the Lion rampant of Scotland has been incorporated into both the royal arms and royal banners of successive Scottish then British monarchs in order to symbolise Scotland ; as can be seen today in the Royal Standard of the United Kingdom . Although now officially restricted to use by representatives of the Sovereign and at royal residences , the Royal Banner continues to be one of Scotland 's most recognisable symbols .
= = Design = =
Displaying a red lion rampant , with blue tongue and claws , within a red double border on a yellow background , the design of the Royal Banner of Scotland is formally specified in heraldry as : Or , a lion rampant Gules armed and langued Azure within a double tressure flory counter @-@ flory of the second , meaning : A gold ( Or ) background , whose principal symbol is a red ( Gules ) upright lion ( lion rampant ) with blue ( Azure ) claws and tongue ( armed and langued ) , surrounded by a two @-@ lined border ( tressure ) decorated with opposing pairs of floral symbols ( flory counter @-@ flory ) of the second colour specified in the blazon ( Gules ) . Used as a house flag , its proportions are 5 : 4 ; however , flag manufacturers themselves may also adopt alternative ratios , including 1 : 2 or 2 : 3 .
= = History = =
The Lion rampant was legally used by King William I of Scotland as the great grandson of King Malcolm III Canmore . The Lion Rampant has been used as a heraldic symbol by Royal descendants of Malcolm III beginning with King David I of Scotland The Great Seal was also used by his 2nd great @-@ grandson , Alexander II ( 1214 – 1249 ) . Its use in Scotland originated during the reign of Malcolm III ( 1058 – 1093 ) , The Lion rampant motif is also used as a badge by those Irish clans who has lineage in common with Malcolm III . They are linked to the legendary Milesian genealogies . An earlier recorded Scottish royal standard featured a dragon , which was used at the Battle of the Standard in 1138 by David I ( 1124 – 1153 ) .
Following the Union of the Crowns of England , Ireland and Scotland in 1603 , the Royal Standard of Scotland was incorporated into the royal standards of successive Scottish then , following the Acts of Union in 1707 , British monarchs ; with all such royal standards being quartered to include the banner of the arms of each individual realm . Since 1603 , the Royal Banner of Scotland has appeared in both the first and fourth quarters of the quartered royal standard used in Scotland , while appearing only in the second quarter of that version used elsewhere .
= = Protocol = =
= = = Use at royal residences = = =
The Royal Banner of Scotland is used officially at the Scottish royal residences of the Palace of Holyroodhouse , Edinburgh , and Balmoral Castle , Aberdeenshire , when the Queen is not in residence . The Royal Standard of the United Kingdom used in Scotland is flown when the Sovereign is present .
= = = Use by representatives of the Sovereign = = =
In the tradition of Scottish heraldry , use of the Royal Standard of Scotland is not restricted to the Sovereign . Several Great Officers of State who officially represent the Sovereign in Scotland are permitted to use the Royal Banner of Scotland , including ; the First Minister of Scotland ( as Keeper of the Great Seal of Scotland ) , Lord Lieutenants within their respective Lieutenancies , the Lord High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland , the Lord Lyon King of Arms and other lieutenants who may be specially appointed by the Sovereign .
= = = Use by the Heir Apparent = = =
A variation of the Royal Standard of Scotland is used by the heir apparent to the King of Scots , the Duke of Rothesay , whose standard is the Royal Standard of Scotland defaced with an Azure coloured plain label of three points . The personal banner of the current Duke , Prince Charles , also features the same , displayed upon an inner shield .
= = = Legal status = = =
As the personal banner of the Sovereign , use of the Royal Banner of Scotland is restricted under the Act of the Parliament of Scotland 1672 cap . 47 and 30 & 31 Vict. cap . 17 , and any unauthorised use of such is an offence under the Act . In 1978 a St Albans linen merchant , Denis Pamphilon , was fined £ 100 daily for usurpation of the banner on decorative bedspreads until he desisted , and both Rangers F.C. and the Scottish National Party have been admonished by the Court of the Lord Lyon for their improper and non @-@ authorised use of the banner . Despite such action , the flag continues to feature on a variety of merchandise and souvenirs produced commercially for Scotland 's economically important tourism industry .
In 1934 , George V issued a Royal Warrant authorising use of the Royal Banner of Scotland during the Silver Jubilee celebrations , due to take place the following year . However , such use was restricted to hand @-@ held flags for " decorative ebullition " as a mark of loyalty to the Sovereign ; the banner was not to be flown from flagpoles or public buildings . The use of hand @-@ held flags at state occasions , such as the opening of the Scottish Parliament , and at sporting events , continues to be authorised by this Royal Warrant , although according to former Lord Lyon Robin Blair , in an interview given to the Sunday Post in November 2007 , such use at sporting events " was not envisaged in 1935 " .
= = Appearance in other Royal Standards = =
As well as forming the basis of the standard of the Duke of Rothesay , the Royal Standard of Scotland has since 1603 been a component of what is now styled the Royal Standard of the United Kingdom ; both that version used exclusively in Scotland and that used elsewhere . It similarly appears in the Royal Standard of Canada , with the arms of Canada reflecting the royal symbols of England , Scotland , Ireland and France .
= = = Gallery = = =
= = National Flag of Scotland = =
The Flag of Scotland , also known as the Saint Andrew 's Cross or more commonly The Saltire , is the national flag of Scotland . The Saltire is the correct flag for all individuals and corporate bodies to fly in order to demonstrate both their loyalty and Scottish nationality . It is also , where possible , flown from Scottish Government buildings every day from 8am until sunset , with certain exceptions ; for example United Kingdom National Days .
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= Petarded =
" Petarded " is the sixth episode of the fourth season of the American animated television series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on June 19 , 2005 . It was written by Alec Sulkin and Wellesley Wild and directed by Seth Kearsley . The episode sees Peter taking the MacArthur Fellows Program to see if he is a genius . However , he performs so poorly that he is declared technically mentally retarded . Attempting to take advantage of the situation , he accidentally hospitalizes Lois while attempting to steal from a restaurant and loses custody of Meg , Chris , and Stewie . The episode 's title is a portmanteau between " Peter " and " Retarded " ; this title practice would later be used on a couple more episodes , namely " Peterotica " and " Petergeist " .
" Timer " , a character from 1970s Saturday morning public service announcements , made an appearance in the episode . Series producers tried to get Lennie Weinrib , the actor who had voiced him in the original cartoon segments , to make a guest appearance in the episode . However , Weinrib declined reprising the role as he could not accurately recall the character . " Petarded " gained a Nielsen rating of 4 @.@ 4 , making it the week 's 42nd most @-@ watched program . Critics and news sources responded with high praise and many highly regard this episode as one of Family Guy 's best . Various scenes in the episode were removed by broadcast censors , including one musical number ( " Peter is Slow " ) . It features the guest performances of LeVar Burton , Gary Cole , Barclay DeVeau , Indigo , Phil LaMarr , Cloris Leachman , Len Maxwell , Natasha Melnick , Nicole Sullivan , and Lisa Wilhoit , as well as several recurring voice actors for the series .
= = Plot = =
The Griffins invite their neighbors over for game night . While playing Trivial Pursuit , Lois uses questions from the preschool edition for Peter in order to let him win . When Peter wins , he brags to everyone , believing himself to be smarter than everyone else . Irritated at Peter 's arrogance , Brian challenges Peter to take the MacArthur Fellows Program test to prove he is a genius . The results of the test show that Peter is not a genius ; in fact , the results show that , technically speaking , Peter is " mentally retarded . " Peter sinks into depression after being publicly labeled as retarded . While driving home with Lois , Peter accidentally knocks down Tom Tucker . Tucker , recognizing Peter as " the retarded fellow , " does not press charges , and Peter realizes his condition means he can get away with anything .
While testing the limits of what he can get away with , such as interrupting church attendants by having a Bible fight , kicking open the stall doors in a girls ' bathroom , and saying " testicles " through a microphone at a fast food restaurant , Peter goes behind the counter and sees a " Fryolator " and wants to take it home . However , he accidentally drenches Lois with boiling oil . While she is recovering , Child Protection Services take away Peter 's custody of Meg , Chris , and Stewie on the grounds that Peter is mentally unfit to look after them . The three are placed in the care of Cleveland . When Brian tells Peter that he just has to show that he is a good parent , Peter thinks that the best way to do that is to show what a bad parent Cleveland is , so he brings seven prostitutes into Cleveland ’ s house . This does not work as Agent Jessup sees through the plot and Cleveland orders Peter and five of the prostitutes out . In a last attempt , he appeals to the court for custody of the children , but he is denied and avoids imprisonment only because the judge forgets that prisons exist .
After returning home and accepting that the Griffins may never be together again , Lois walks in , revealing she has completely recovered and reobtained custody of the children . Peter is overjoyed that everything is back to normal , as well as the fact that Lois will smell like French fries for the next six months .
= = Production = =
" Petarded " was written by Alec Sulkin and Wellesley Wild and directed by former The Goode Family director Seth Kearsley before the conclusion of the fourth production season . Despite Sulkin and Wild writing the episode , the idea for " Petarded " came from series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane . The episode featured an appearance by " Timer " , a character from 1970s Time for Timer Saturday morning cartoon public service announcements . Seth MacFarlane attempted to hire Lennie Weinrib , the actor who provided his voice for the character to appear in " Petarded " but , as MacFarlane describes in the DVD commentary , " he was a little old [ ... ] and he didn 't remember doing it " . Weinrib died one year after the debut of " Petarded " .
In the original draft of the episode , Peter being asked easy questions during Trivial Pursuit was meant to be by chance , but executive producer David A. Goodman proposed the storyline of easy questions being given to Peter by Lois . Prior to the episode broadcast , several sequences were shown after Peter discovers he can get away with anything on the basis that he is mentally challenged including a " how loud can I yell " experiment , as well as tackling down an opponent going for a touchdown while attending a New England Patriots game , but they were not deemed funny enough and scrapped .
Various scenes in the episode were changed or removed because of broadcast censors . Originally , just after Peter hands Brian his test results from the MacArthur Program , Peter was to ask " Would a retarded person have peed in their pants ? " , then urinate in his trousers . However , because broadcasting standards prohibited this , it was changed to " Well , would a mentally retarded guy have hired a bulldozer with a drunk driver to level half of his house in celebration of his fantastic test results ? " . Brian stating to Peter " In your fucking face , Fuckwad " after Peter performs poorly on the test was censored from television broadcasting and on the censored track on the DVD , but can be heard uncensored on the uncensored audio track . This marks the first time that the word " fuck " has been heard uncensored in a Family Guy episode . The Family Guy orchestra sung and recorded a song for a sequence which showed several Quahog citizens learning and talking about Peter being declared as retarded . However , this was removed from the episode because broadcasting standards believed it used the word " retarded " too many times . After Peter loses custody of the kids , Chris was originally to stay with Mort Goldman , Stewie with Cleveland and Meg with Quagmire . During this original sequence , Mort was to tell Chris that he has two anuses , causing Quagmire to force Meg to lock him in a safe room as he could not trust himself around Meg 's friends , but the series was prohibited from broadcasting it by an unknown authority , presumably broadcasting standards .
In the episode 's DVD commentary , MacFarlane addressed what viewers perceived to be a rather abrupt ending to the episode . As Peter has lost all hope in getting custody of his kids back , Lois walks through the front door , returning from the hospital , and has brought the kids home with her . MacFarlane stated , " Some of the fans actually noticed , commented on the fact that this was a very abrupt resolution , but , to that I would say , you 're not watching CSI [ ... ] wouldn 't you rather we throw in more jokes and fill up the time , and then hustle to the finish line at the last minute ? " .
In addition to the regular cast , actor LeVar Burton , voice actor Gary Cole , actress Barclay DeVeau , actress Indigo , voice actor Phil LaMarr , actress Cloris Leachman , actor Len Maxwell , actress Natasha Melnick , voice actress Nicole Sullivan , and actress Lisa Wilhoit guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Johnny Brennan , Ralph Garman , writer Mike Henry , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin , and writer John Viener made minor appearances . Recurring guest cast member Patrick Warburton reprised his role of Joe Swanson in the episode .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode is based on the 1985 movie Mask , a film about Roy L. Dennis who suffered from a rare bone disorder .
Lois is seen having developed a tumor due to constantly repressing negative thoughts about having married a mentally retarded man . The tumor sings an altered version of the 1985 Falco song " Rock Me Amadeus " .
Peter is shown taking the MacArthur Fellows Program ( also known as the " MacArthur Genius Grant " ) in his attempt to prove to Brian that he is a genius . When Peter takes the test , he uses a See ' n ' Say instead of a calculator .
The Time for Timer character shown singing and dancing is a reference to public service announcements broadcast in the 1970s on ABC on Saturday mornings ( referencing in particular the well @-@ known " I Hanker for a Hunk of Cheese " episode ) . When Peter thought what he would do with all his money from the MacArthur Genius Grant , he thought of legally buying Cloris Leachman , forcing her to juggle . Also on the Season 4 DVD commentary , Seth MacFarlane explained he wanted to hire Lennie Weinrib to reprise Timer for the gag , but Weinrib was suffering from failing health when " Petarded " was being produced and as MacFarlane explained , he " didn 't remember doing it . " Indeed , Lennie Weinrib died about a year after " Petarded " first aired .
A deleted scene showing Quahog residents singing about Peter being retarded was a reference to music from Bye Bye Birdie .
When Peter is talking about how it was more out of place than when Stewie was in an iPod commercial , the song performed is " The Warrior " by Scandal .
While stalling in answering a Trivial Pursuit question , Peter arbitrarily mumbles the name of the superhero group The Fantastic Four .
Peter watches an episode of Jake and the Fatman where " Fatman " McCabe 's fatness and laziness is exaggerated .
Vern , Peter 's state @-@ appointed inspiration counselor parodies a character of the same name in the movie Rain Man . His reference to Peter as his " main man " mirrors the movie in which Vern refers to Dustin Hoffman 's autistic character in the same way .
When Quagmire complains after being shot by Peter , Peter replies " Relax , you 're doing better than Peter Weller in the opening scene from RoboCop " . This a reference to a scene in the film RoboCop where Peter Weller is on his knees , wearing a police uniform , and is shot repeatedly .
When Cleveland sees the seven prostitutes in his house , Peter says , " Seven . Seven prostitutes " , referencing The Count from Sesame Street .
= = Reception = =
On June 19 , 2005 , the episode was first broadcast on Fox . It gained a Nielsen rating of 4 @.@ 4 , making it the 42nd most @-@ watched show of the week of June 13 to June 19 .
" Petarded " was met with widespread critical acclaim and is widely regarded as one of the best episodes in the series . In 2014 , to celebrate the show 's 15th year anniversary , IGN published a list of the 15 best Family Guy episodes , with this episode ranked the best , saying : " The show is at its comedic best with this episode , with musical numbers and family drama to back up the offensive humour . " In his review of Family Guy , volume 3 , Francis Rizzo III of DVD Talk wrote " [ ... ] I will say there are some very good episodes in this set , starting with ' Petarded ' , which sees Peter declared mentally retarded . The ways he takes advantage of this status is classic Family Guy material , while the musical montage here , involving phone calls all over town , is actually quite funny . Plus , the appearance of the Naked , Greased @-@ Up Deaf Guy gave hope that the creators still had that sense of the bizarre in them . " John Nigro of The Pitt News considered " Petarded " one of volume 3 's best episodes along with " Breaking Out is Hard to Do " and " Perfect Castaway " . The Sydney Morning Herald critic Marc McEvoy commented " Petarded " to be " a real thigh @-@ slapper . " Kim Voynar of TV Squad gave the episode a mixed review , saying " [ ... ] it just seemed to wrap up a little too quickly for me , like they ran out of time and were like , ' Oops , let 's wrap this up now ' . Other than that quibble , though , it was a fairly funny episode . "
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= Kepler @-@ 11b =
Kepler @-@ 11b is an exoplanet discovered around the star Kepler @-@ 11 by the Kepler spacecraft , a NASA @-@ led mission to discover Earth @-@ like planets . Kepler @-@ 11b is less than about three times as massive and twice as large as Earth , but it has a lower density ( ≤ 3 g / cm3 ) , and is thus most likely not of Earth @-@ like composition . Kepler @-@ 11b is the hottest of the six planets in the Kepler @-@ 11 system , and orbits more closely to Kepler @-@ 11 than the other planets in the system . Kepler @-@ 11b , along with its five counterparts , form the first discovered planetary system with more than three transiting planets — the most densely packed known planetary system . The system is also the flattest known planetary system . The discovery of this planet and its five sister planets was announced on February 2 , 2011 , after follow @-@ up investigations .
= = Naming and discovery = =
Kepler @-@ 11b is named in two parts . The first part of its name is derived from the fact that it orbits the star Kepler @-@ 11 . As the discovery of Kepler @-@ 11b was announced simultaneously with those of other planets , Kepler @-@ 11b was given the designation b because it was the innermost of the six announced planets . The host star , Kepler @-@ 11 , was named for the Kepler Mission that flagged it as host to several potential transit events under the name KOI @-@ 157 . The Kepler satellite is a NASA @-@ run space telescope that is tasked with the discovery of terrestrial planets that transit , or cross in front of , their host stars as seen from Earth . These transits cause fluctuations in the host star 's brightness ; these changes may suggest the presence of a planet , which can then be verified by follow @-@ up observations .
Ground @-@ based telescopes in California , Hawaii , the Canary Islands , Arizona , and Texas , as well as the Spitzer Space Telescope , were used to conduct these follow @-@ up observations and verify Kepler @-@ 11b 's existence . In particular , the detection of an orbital resonance effect between Kepler @-@ 11b and Kepler @-@ 11c confirmed the find . Kepler @-@ 11b 's discovery was announced to the public on February 2 , 2011 . It is part of the first system discovered with more than three transiting planets , and is also part of the most compact and flat system yet discovered . Kepler @-@ 11 's planetary system is the second known system to have multiple transiting planets , surpassing the three confirmed planets ( two transiting ) orbiting the star Kepler @-@ 9 .
= = Host star = =
Kepler @-@ 11 is a sunlike star in the constellation Cygnus that has a mass of 0 @.@ 95 ( ± 0 @.@ 1 ) Msun and a radius of 1 @.@ 1 ( ± 0 @.@ 1 ) Rsun . In other words , Kepler @-@ 11 is approximately 5 % less massive and 10 % wider than the Sun . The star 's metallicity is 0 ( ± 0 @.@ 1 ) , meaning that the level of iron ( and , presumably , other elements ) in the star is almost the same as that of the Sun . Metallicity plays an important role in planetary systems , and stars with higher metallicity are more likely to have planets detected around them . This may be because the higher metallicity provides more material with which to quickly build planets into gas giants or because the higher metallicity increases planet migration towards the host star , making the planet easier to detect . The star has five other known planets in orbit : Kepler @-@ 11c , Kepler @-@ 11d , Kepler @-@ 11e , Kepler @-@ 11f , and Kepler @-@ 11g . The first five planets in the system are all able to fit within the orbit of planet Mercury , while Kepler @-@ 11g orbits further out .
Kepler @-@ 11 has an apparent magnitude of 14 @.@ 2 . It is too dim to see from Earth with the naked eye .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 11b is estimated to be ≤ 3 @.@ 3 Earth masses and 1 @.@ 8 Earth radii , making it around three times ( or less ) as massive and nearly twice as large as Earth . While the radius of Kepler @-@ 11b is fairly well known ( with a range of likely radii between 1 @.@ 75 and 1 @.@ 83 Earth radii ) , the mass is not as well constrained , with a range between 0 @.@ 9 and 3 @.@ 3 Earth masses . The mass is determined using transit timing variations of Kepler @-@ 11c , and is limited by the quality of the data . Kepler @-@ 11b is the closest planet to its host star in the Kepler @-@ 11 planetary system . With an estimated density of 1 @.@ 7 g / cm3 , comparable to Neptune 's , Kepler @-@ 11b is denser than the solar system 's gas giants but significantly less dense than the terrestrial planets . The estimated density range suggests that it is not of Earth @-@ like composition , yet it is nonetheless composed mostly of elements heavier than helium . The planet 's effective temperature is 900 K , and is thus the hottest of the planets discovered in the Kepler @-@ 11 system . Kepler @-@ 11b orbits its host star every 10 @.@ 30375 days at a distance of .091 AU . Planet Mercury , in comparison , orbits the Sun every 87 @.@ 97 days from a distance of .387 AU . Kepler @-@ 11b 's inclination of 88 @.@ 5 ° means that it deviates slightly from the orbital plane , but it does so more than the other five planets with which Kepler @-@ 11b was discovered . Its close proximity to the star implies a strong insolation , which caused the planet to lose all of light @-@ element envelope acquired during formation . The observed low density does require the presence of a gaseous envelope though , which was most likely produced via outgassing of hydrogen or evaporation of H2O from the condensed core .
Kepler @-@ 11b and Kepler @-@ 11c orbit Kepler @-@ 11 with a strong orbital resonance , which gravitationally tugs the planets into stable orbits at a set ratio . The ratio of the resonance between Kepler @-@ 11b and c is 5 : 4 .
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= The Cat and the Canary ( 1927 film ) =
The Cat and the Canary is a 1927 American silent horror film adaptation of John Willard 's 1922 black comedy play of the same name . Directed by German Expressionist filmmaker Paul Leni , the film stars Laura La Plante as Annabelle West , Forrest Stanley as Charles " Charlie " Wilder , and Creighton Hale as Paul Jones . The plot revolves around the death of Cyrus West , who is Annabelle , Charlie , and Paul 's uncle , and the reading of his will 20 years later . Annabelle inherits her uncle 's fortune , but when she and her family spend the night in his haunted mansion they are stalked by a mysterious figure . Meanwhile , a lunatic known as " the Cat " escapes from an asylum and hides in the mansion .
The film is part of a genre of comedy horror films inspired by 1920s Broadway stage plays . Paul Leni 's adaptation of Willard 's play blended expressionism with humor , a style Leni was notable for and critics recognized as unique . Leni 's style of directing made The Cat and the Canary influential in the " old dark house " genre of films popular from the 1930s through the 1950s . The film was one of Universal 's early horror productions and is considered " the cornerstone of Universal 's school of horror . " The play has been filmed five other times , with the most notable in 1939 starring comedic actor Bob Hope and Paulette Goddard .
= = Plot = =
In a decaying mansion overlooking the Hudson River , millionaire Cyrus West approaches death . His greedy family descends upon him like " cats around a canary " , causing him to become insane . West orders that his last will and testament remain locked in a safe and go unread until the 20th anniversary of his death . As the appointed time arrives , West 's lawyer , Roger Crosby ( Tully Marshall ) , discovers that a second will mysteriously appeared in the safe . The second will may only be opened if the terms of the first will are not fulfilled . The caretaker of the West mansion , Mammy Pleasant ( Martha Mattox ) , blames the manifestation of the second will on the ghost of Cyrus West , a notion that the astonished Crosby quickly rejects .
As midnight approaches , West 's relatives arrive at the mansion : nephews Harry Blythe ( Arthur Edmund Carewe ) , Charles " Charlie " Wilder , Paul Jones , his sister Susan Sillsby ( Flora Finch ) and her niece Cecily Young ( Gertrude Astor ) , and niece Annabelle West . Cyrus West 's fortune is bequeathed to the most distant relative bearing the name West : Annabelle . The will , however , stipulates that to inherit the fortune , she must be judged sane by a doctor , Ira Lazar ( Lucien Littlefield ) . If she is deemed insane , the fortune is passed to the person named in the second will . The fortune includes the West diamonds which her uncle hid years ago . Annabelle realizes that she is now like her uncle , " in a cage surrounded by cats . "
While the family prepares for dinner , a guard ( George Siegmann ) barges in and announces that an escaped lunatic called the Cat is either in the house or on the grounds . The guard tells Cecily , " He 's a maniac who thinks he 's a cat , and tears his victims like they were canaries ! " Meanwhile , Crosby suspects someone in the family might try to harm Annabelle and decides to inform her of her successor . Before he speaks the person 's name , a hairy hand with long nails emerges from a secret passage in a bookshelf and pulls him in , terrifying Annabelle . When she explains what happened to Crosby , the family immediately concludes that she is insane .
Alone in her assigned room , Annabelle examines a note slipped to her which reveals the location of the family jewels , fashioned into an elaborate necklace . She follows the note 's instructions and soon discovers the hiding place , in a secret panel above the fireplace . She retires for the night , wearing the diamond @-@ encrusted necklace and begins to toss and turn .
While Annabelle sleeps , the same mysterious hand emerges from the wall behind her bed and snatches the diamonds from her neck . Once again , her sanity is questioned , but as Harry and Annabelle search the room , they discover a hidden passage in the wall and in it the corpse of Roger Crosby . Mammy Pleasant leaves to call the police , while Harry searches for the guard ; Susan runs away in hysterics and hitches a ride with a milkman ( Joe Murphy ) . Paul and Annabelle return to her room to search for the missing envelope , and discover that Crosby 's body is missing . Paul vanishes as the secret passage closes behind him . Wandering in the hidden passages , Paul is attacked by the Cat and left for dead . He regains consciousness in time to rescue Annabelle . The police arrive and arrest the Cat , who is Charlie Wilder in disguise ; the guard is his accomplice . Wilder is the person named in the second will ; he hoped to drive Annabelle insane so that he could receive the inheritance .
= = Cast = =
Laura La Plante as Annabelle West
Creighton Hale as Paul Jones
Forrest Stanley as Charles Wilder
Tully Marshall as Roger Crosby
Gertrude Astor as Cecily
Flora Finch as Susan
Arthur Edmund Carewe as Harry
Martha Mattox as Mammy Pleasant , housekeeper
George Siegmann as the Guard
Lucien Littlefield as Dr. Ira Lazar
Hal Craig as Policeman
Billy Engle as Taxi Driver
Joe Murphy as Milkman
= = Production = =
The Cat and the Canary is the product of early 20th century German expressionism . According to art historian Joan Weinstein , expressionism is a loosely defined term that includes the art styles of Die Brücke and Der Blaue Reiter , cubism , futurism , and abstraction . The key element that connects these styles is the concern for the expression of inner feelings over verisimilitude to nature . Film historian Richard Peterson notes that " German cinema became famous for stories of psychological horror and for uncanny moods generated through lighting , set design and camera angles . " Such filmmaking techniques drew on expressionist themes . Influential examples of German expressionist film include Robert Wiene 's The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari ( 1920 ) about a deranged doctor and Paul Leni 's Waxworks ( 1925 ) about a wax figure display at a fair .
Waxworks impressed Carl Laemmle , the German @-@ born president of Universal Pictures . Laemmle was struck by Leni 's departure from expressionism by the inclusion of humor and playfulness during grotesque scenes . Meanwhile , in the United States , D. W. Griffith 's One Exciting Night ( 1922 ) began a Gothic horror film trend that Laemmle wanted to capitalize on ; subsequent films in the genre like Alfred E. Green 's now lost The Ghost Breaker ( 1922 ) , Frank Tuttle 's Puritan Passions ( 1923 ) , Roland West 's The Monster ( 1925 ) and The Bat ( 1926 ) , and Alfred Santell 's The Gorilla ( 1927 ) — all comedy horror film adaptations of Broadway stage plays — proved successful .
Laemmle turned to John Willard 's popular play The Cat and the Canary , which centered on an heiress whose family tries to drive her insane to steal her inheritance . Willard hesitated in permitting Laemmle to film his play because , as historian Douglas Brode explains , " that would have exposed to virtually everyone the trick ending , ... destroying the play 's potential as an ongoing moneymaker . " Nevertheless , Willard was convinced and the play was adapted into a screenplay by Alfred A. Cohn and Robert F. Hill .
= = = Casting = = =
The Cat and the Canary features veteran silent film stars Laura La Plante , Creighton Hale , and Forrest Stanley . La Plante played roles in more than 50 films before starring in The Cat and the Canary . According to film historian Gary Don Rhodes , her part in The Cat and the Canary was typical for women in horror and mystery films : " The female in the horror film ... becomes the hunted , the quarry . She has little to do , and so the question becomes ' What will be done with her ? ' " Rhodes adds , " The heroines are young and beautiful , but represent more a prize to be possessed — whether ' stolen ' by a villain or ' owned ' by a young hero at the film 's conclusion . " Following The Cat and the Canary , La Plante maintained a career with Universal , but she is described as a " victim of talkies . " She received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame before her death in 1996 from Alzheimer 's disease .
Universal chose Irish actor Creighton Hale to play hero Paul Jones , Annabelle 's cousin . Hale had appeared in 64 silent films before The Cat and the Canary , notably the 1914 serial The Exploits of Elaine and D. W. Griffith 's Way Down East ( 1920 ) and Orphans of the Storm ( 1921 ) . Hale 's role in The Cat and the Canary was to provide comedic relief . According to critic John Howard Reid , " He is forever backing into furniture or finding himself in a risqué position under a bed or wrestling with stray objects like falling books or enormous bed @-@ springs . " Hale had trouble finding a solid career in sound film . Many of his parts were minor and uncredited .
The villain Charles Wilder was played by Forrest Stanley , an actor who had been cast in films such as Bavu ( 1923 ) , Through the Dark ( 1924 ) and Shadow of the Law ( 1926 ) . After his performance in The Cat and the Canary , Stanley played lesser roles in films such as Show Boat ( 1936 ) and Curse of the Undead ( 1959 ) and the television series Alfred Hitchcock Presents , Studio 57 , and Gunsmoke .
The film contained a supporting cast referred to by one film historian as " second @-@ rate " and " excellent " by another . Tully Marshall played the suspicious lawyer Roger Crosby , Martha Mattox was cast as the sinister and superstitious housekeeper Mammy Pleasant , and Gertrude Astor and Flora Finch played greedy relatives Cecily Young and Aunt Susan Sillsby , respectively . Lucien Littlefield was cast as deranged psychiatrist Dr. Ira Lazar who bore an eerie resemblance to Werner Krauss 's title character in The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari .
= = = Directing = = =
As Universal anticipated , director Paul Leni turned Willard 's play into an expressionist film suited to an American audience . Historian Bernard F. Dick observes that " Leni reduced German expressionism , with its weird chiaroscuro , asymmetric sets , and excessive stylization , to a format compatible with American film practice . " Jenn Dlugos argues that " many stage play movie adaptations [ of the 1920s ] fall into the trap of looking like ' a stage play taped for the big screen ' with minimal emphasis on the environment and plenty of stage play overacting . " This , however , was not the case for Leni 's film . Richard Scheib notes that " Leni 's style is something that lifts The Cat and the Canary up and away from being merely a filmed stage play and gives it an amazing visual dynamism . "
Leni used similar camera effects found in German expressionist films such as The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari to set the atmosphere of The Cat and the Canary . The film opens with a hand wiping cobwebs away to reveal the title credits . Other effects include " dramatic shadows , portentous superimpositions and moody sequences in which the camera glides through corridors with billowing curtains . " Film historian Jan @-@ Christopher Horak explains that a " matched dissolve from an image of the mansion and its oddly shaped towers to the oversized bottles of medicine that the dearly departed has been forced to consume functions as a double image of a prison , dwarfing the old man who sits alive with his will in a corner of the frame . " Leni worked with the cast to add to the mood created by lighting and camera angles . Cinematographer Gilbert Warrenton recalled that Leni used a gong to startle the actors . Warrenton mused , " He beat that thing worse than the Salvation Army beat a drum . "
While the film contains elements of horror , according to film historian Dennis L. White it " is structured with an end other than horror in mind . Some scenes may achieve horror , and some characters dramatically experience horror , but for these films conventional clues and a logical explanation , at least an explanation plausible in hindsight , are usually crucial , and are of necessity their makers ' first concern . "
Besides directing , Leni was a painter and set designer . The sets of the film were designed by Leni and fabricated by Charles D. Hall , who later designed the sets of Dracula ( 1931 ) and Frankenstein ( 1931 ) . Leni hoped to eschew realism for visual designs that reflected the emotions of characters . He wrote , " It is not extreme reality that the camera perceives , but the reality of the inner event , which is more profound , effective and moving than what we see through everyday eyes .... " Leni went on to direct the Charlie Chan film The Chinese Parrot ( 1927 ) , The Man Who Laughs ( 1928 ) , and The Last Warning ( 1929 ) before his death in 1929 from blood poisoning .
= = Reception and influence = =
The Cat and the Canary debuted in New York City 's Colony Theatre on September 9 , 1927 , and was a " box office success " . Variety opined , " What distinguishes Universal 's film version of the ... play is Paul Leni 's intelligent handling of a weird theme , introducing some of his novel settings and ideas with which he became identified .... The film runs a bit overlong .... Otherwise it 's a more than average satisfying feature .... " A New York Times review expounded , " This is a film which ought to be exhibited before many other directors to show them how a story should be told , for in all that he does Mr. Leni does not seem to strain at a point . He does it as naturally as a man twisting the ends of his mustache in thought . " Nonetheless , as film historian Bernard F. Dick points out , " [ e ] xponents of Caligarisme , expressionism in the extreme ... naturally thought Leni had vulgarized the conventions [ of expressionism ] " . Dick , however , notes that Leni had only " lighten [ ed ] [ expressionist themes ] so they could enter American cinema without the baggage of a movement that had spiraled out of control . "
Modern critics address the film 's impact and influence . Michael Atkinson of The Village Voice remarks , " [ Leni 's ] adroitly atmospheric film is virtually an ideogram of narrative suspension and impact " ; Chris Dashiell states that " [ e ] verything is so exaggerated , so lacking in subtlety , that we soon stop caring what happens , despite a few mildly scary effects " , although he admits that the film " had a great effect on the horror genre , and even Hitchcock cited it as an influence . " Tony Rayns has called the film " the definitive ' haunted house ' movie .... Leni wisely plays it mainly for laughs , but his prowling , Murnau @-@ like camera work generates a frisson or two along the way . It is , in fact , hugely entertaining .... " John Calhoun feels that what makes the film both " important and influential " was " Leni 's uncanny ability to bring out the period 's slapstick elements in the story 's hackneyed conventions : the sliding panels and disappearing acts are so fast paced and expertly timed that the picture looks like a first @-@ rate door @-@ slamming farce .... At the same time , Leni didn 't short @-@ circuit the horrific aspects .... "
Although not the first film set in a supposed haunted house , The Cat and the Canary started the pattern for the " old dark house " genre . The term is derived from English director James Whale 's The Old Dark House ( 1932 ) , which was heavily influenced by Leni 's film , and refers to " films in which murders are committed by masked killers in old mansions . " Supernatural events in the film are all explained at the film 's conclusion as the work of a criminal . Other films in this genre influenced by The Cat and the Canary include The Last Warning , House on Haunted Hill ( 1959 ) , and the monster films of Abbott and Costello and Laurel and Hardy .
A tinted version produced by David Shepard , film preservationist , was released on both VHS and DVD in 1997 and 2005 by Image Entertainment . The 2005 " Special Edition " contains an original score by Franklin Stover . The original black @-@ and @-@ white version airs infrequently on the cable television network Turner Classic Movies .
= = Other film versions = =
The Cat and the Canary has been filmed five other times . Rupert Julian 's The Cat Creeps ( 1930 ) and the Spanish language La Voluntad del muerto ( The Will of the Dead Man ) directed by George Melford and Enrique Tovar Ávalos were the first talkie versions of the play ; they were produced and distributed by Universal Pictures in 1930 . Although the first sound films produced by Universal , neither was as influential on the genre as the first film and The Cat Creeps is lost .
The plot had become too familiar , as film historian Douglas Brode notes , and it " seemed likely the play would be put away in a drawer [ indefinitely ] . " Yet Elliott Nugent 's film , The Cat and the Canary ( 1939 ) , proved successful . Nugent " had the inspired idea to openly play the piece for laughs . " The film was produced by Paramount and starred comedic actor Bob Hope . Hope played Wally Campbell , a character based on Creighton Hale 's performance as Paul Jones . One critic suggests that Hope developed the character better than Hale and was funnier and more engaging . In later years , Universal themselves acquired the rights to the 1939 version .
Other film adaptations include Katten och kanariefågeln ( The Cat and the Canary ) , a 1961 Swedish television film directed by Jan Molander and The Cat and the Canary ( 1979 ) , a British film directed by Radley Metzger . The 1979 version was produced by Richard Gordon , who explains why he and Metzger made their film version : " Well , it hadn 't been done since the Bob Hope version , it had never been done in color , it was a well @-@ known title , had a certain reputation , and it was something that logically could or in fact should be made in England . "
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= Alexios Philanthropenos =
Alexios Doukas Philanthropenos ( Greek : Ἀλέξιος Δούκας Φιλανθρωπηνός ) was a Byzantine nobleman and notable general . A relative of the ruling Palaiologos dynasty , he was appointed commander @-@ in @-@ chief in Asia Minor in 1293 and for a time re @-@ established the Byzantine position there , scoring some of the last Byzantine successes against the Turkish emirates . In 1295 he rose up in revolt against Andronikos II Palaiologos , but was betrayed and blinded . Nothing is known of him until 1323 , when he was pardoned by Andronikos II and sent again against the Turks , relieving a siege of Philadelphia , allegedly by his mere appearance . He was then named briefly governor of Lesbos in 1328 , and again in 1336 , when he recovered the island 's capital from Latin occupation . He ruled the island thereafter , probably until his death in the 1340s .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and family = = =
Alexios was born circa 1270 as the second son of prōtovestiarios and megas domestikos Michael Tarchaneiotes . His mother , Maria , belonged to the noble family of the Philanthropenoi , which rose to prominence in the latter half of the 13th century . She was the daughter of prōtostratōr and megas doux Alexios Doukas Philanthropenos , after whom Alexios was named . On his father 's side , Alexios was also closely related to the imperial family of the Palaiologoi , through his grandmother , Martha Palaiologina , a sister of Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos ( r . 1259 – 1261 ) . Alexios married Theodora Akropolitissa , daughter of Constantine Akropolites and granddaughter of the historian George Akropolites . They had one child , Michael Philanthropenos , who also became a general .
= = = First command in Asia and uprising = = =
Alexios 's uncle , Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos ( r . 1282 – 1328 ) , took an active interest in the defence of the Anatolian possessions of the Byzantine Empire against the encroaching Turkic emirates in the early 1290s : hoping to re @-@ establish the akritai , he settled refugees from Venetian @-@ held Crete in military colonies along the border and appointed Alexios as doux of the Thracesian theme , awarding him the high court title of pinkernēs .
Alexios commanded all of the Byzantine possessions in Asia , except for the Ionian coast , but his main area of responsibility was the interior of the old Thracesian Theme , which comprised the southeastern parts of Byzantine Anatolia . A certain Libadarios deputized for him in the northern provinces ( Neokastra ) . During the next two years , Alexios achieved several victories : he defeated the Turks of Mysia at Achyraous and forced them to recognize Byzantine rule , and then moved south . Based at Nymphaion , he scoured the valley of the Maeander river , managing to stop the Turkish raids and advance into the Emirate of Menteshe , recapturing the fortress of Melanoudion , the town of Hieron , and rid Miletus of the payment of tribute to the Turks . Many Turks , fleeing from Mongol pressure , joined his army , and so many prisoners were made during his campaigns , that the monk and scholar Maximus Planudes , a friend of Alexios , wrote that " a sheep was more expensive to buy than a Muslim prisoner " . His successes made him popular with the locals , who reportedly began suggesting that he should make himself emperor . Philanthropenos at first refused to heed them and even asked Andronikos to transfer him away from Anatolia , but in vain . In mid @-@ 1294 , Philanthropenos was ordered by the emperor to transfer the region of Lydia to Libadarios 's control . In summer 1295 , while Philanthropenos was at Tralleis , a Turkish general named Karman used the opportunity to launch an attack on Priene , but was beaten back with heavy losses , and Philanthropenos 's troops recovered Hieron .
At this point , in the autumn of 1295 , Alexios rose up against Andronikos . The exact circumstances and reasons for this move remain obscure , but the revolt was fuelled by the discontent of the Asian provinces over high taxation and what many perceived as the neglect of the defence of Asia by the Palaiologoi . His rebellion certainly had the support of the people : as George Pachymeres recounts , " in the monasteries [ .. ] , the name of the Emperor was no longer commemorated , but only that of Philanthropenos . " At Ephesus Alexios seized Theodore Palaiologos , the Emperor 's brother , but failed to gain the support of all provincial governors ; Libadarios , most notably , who was also Theodore 's father @-@ in @-@ law , remained loyal to Andronikos . Negotiations began , with Andronikos offering Alexios the title of Caesar to lull him into a false sense of security , while he prepared to get rid of him . Around Christmas , Libadarios persuaded some Cretan soldiers to seize Alexios and had him blinded , the punishment usually meted out to rebels .
= = = Rehabilitation and rescue of Philadelphia = = =
Alexios was replaced as commander by John Tarchaneiotes , first cousin of Andronikos II , and disappeared from the scene for 30 years . His successors proved greatly inferior , and by 1323 , Byzantine possessions in Asia had been greatly reduced . At that point , Patriarch Jesaias urged Andronikos to recall the aged general . A desperate Andronikos agreed and pardoned Alexios in 1324 . Alexios was tasked with relieving the isolated exclave of Philadelphia , which had been long under siege and was ready to fall . He was given no army , but , according to the Byzantine chroniclers , the mere news of Alexios 's approach , and the respect in which the Turks held him , was enough for the siege to be lifted . Alexios was appointed governor of the city , a position he retained until 1327 .
= = = Governor of Lesbos = = =
Philanthropenos remained at Philadelphia until 1326 , possibly also 1327 , but it appears that he was then appointed as governor of the strategically important Byzantine island of Lesbos , since he was dismissed from the same post in 1328 by Andronikos III Palaiologos .
In 1335 , Lesbos was seized by a Latin army under the Genoese Lord of Phocaea , Domenico Cattaneo , and Andronikos III raised a fleet of 83 ships to recover the island , which arrived in June 1336 . The fleet disembarked an army , led by Alexios Philanthropenos , which swiftly secured the entire island except for the capital , Mytilene . Philanthropenos countered the strong garrison of 500 Latin mercenaries by inducing them , group by group , to come over to him . The siege lasted until November , when Domenico capitulated , returning Lesbos and Phocaea to the Empire . In the next year , Philanthropenos was able to thwart a Turkish attack on the island by bribing the Turks . Exuberantly praised by contemporaries like Nikephoros Gregoras as the " Belisarius of the Palaiologan era " , Alexios Philanthropenos was left by Andronikos III as governor of the island , where he lived until his death , which occurred probably in the 1340s .
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= History of the New York Yankees =
The history of the New York Yankees Major League Baseball ( MLB ) team spans more than a century . Frank J. Farrell and William Stephen Devery bought the rights to an American League ( AL ) club in New York City after the 1902 season . The team , which became known as the Yankees in 1913 , rarely contended for the AL championship before the acquisition of outfielder Babe Ruth after the 1919 season . With Ruth in the lineup , the Yankees won their first AL title in 1921 , followed by their first World Series championship in 1923 . Ruth and first baseman Lou Gehrig were part of New York 's Murderers ' Row lineup , which led the Yankees to a then @-@ AL record 110 wins and a Series championship in 1927 under Miller Huggins . They repeated as World Series winners in 1928 , and their next title came under manager Joe McCarthy in 1932 .
The Yankees won the World Series every year from 1936 to 1939 with a team that featured Gehrig and outfielder Joe DiMaggio , who recorded a record hitting streak during New York 's 1941 championship season . New York set a major league record by winning five consecutive championships from 1949 to 1953 , and appeared in the World Series nine times during the next 11 years . Mickey Mantle , Yogi Berra , and Whitey Ford were among the players fielded by the Yankees during the era . After the 1964 season , a lack of effective replacements for aging players caused the franchise to decline on the field , and the team became a money @-@ loser for owners CBS while playing in an aging stadium .
George Steinbrenner bought the club in 1973 and regularly invested in new talent , using free agency to acquire top players . Yankee Stadium was renovated and reopened in 1976 as the home of a more competitive Yankees team . Despite clubhouse disputes , the team reached the World Series four times between 1976 and 1981 and claimed the championship in 1977 and 1978 . New York continued to pursue their strategy of signing free agents into the 1980s , but with less success , and the team eventually sank into mediocrity after 1981 . In the early 1990s , the team began to improve as their roster was rebuilt around young players from their minor league system , including Derek Jeter and Mariano Rivera . After earning a playoff berth in 1995 , the Yankees won four of the next five World Series , and the 1998 – 2000 teams were the last in MLB to win three straight Series titles .
As the 2000s progressed , the Yankees ' rivalry with the Boston Red Sox increased in intensity as the sides met multiple times in the American League Championship Series ( ALCS ) , trading victories in 2003 and 2004 . New York regularly reached the postseason , but were often defeated in the first two rounds . In 2009 , the Yankees opened a new Yankee Stadium and won the World Series for the 27th time in team history . The furthest the Yankees have gone in the postseason since then is the ALCS , in 2010 and 2012 .
= = Pre @-@ World War II = =
= = = Background : 1901 – 02 Baltimore Orioles = = =
At the end of the 1900 baseball season , the Western League was positioned by its president , Ban Johnson , as a new major league that would compete with the established National League ( NL ) . The league was reorganized and renamed the American League ( AL ) , and eight cities fielded teams in the 1901 season . A Baltimore team had played in the NL through the 1899 season , after which the club was shut down by the league . Baltimore was one of three former NL cities where the AL placed teams in an effort to reach underserved fans . The new Orioles ' first manager was John McGraw , who had held the same position for the previous Baltimore team in 1899 ; McGraw also held an ownership stake .
In 1901 , their first season , the Orioles had a 68 – 65 win – loss record and finished in fifth place in the AL . During the season , there were numerous disputes between Johnson and McGraw over disciplinary issues , which continued into the following year . Rumors began to spread that Johnson was interested in relocating the team to New York City , in an attempt to compete directly with the NL . McGraw left the Orioles and joined the New York Giants as their manager ; he transferred his interest in the Baltimore team to the Giants as part of the deal . Several Orioles — including Roger Bresnahan and Joe McGinnity — joined the Giants after McGraw 's departure , and the Giants gained a majority of the Orioles ' stock . The league managed to take back control of the team from the Giants ; after the Orioles forfeited a game because they lacked enough active players , Johnson ordered that the team be " restocked with players essentially given away by the other teams in order to play out the schedule " , according to author Marty Appel . The Orioles finished last in the league both in the standings and in attendance .
The AL and NL signed an agreement after the 1902 season that ended the leagues ' battles for players , which had led to increasing salaries . Johnson sought the right to locate an AL team in New York City , which was granted as part of the leagues ' peace agreement . His intention was for the team to play in Manhattan , but the idea was opposed by Giants owner John T. Brush and former owner Andrew Freedman , who were connected to the city 's Tammany Hall political organization . They blocked several potential stadium locations , before a pair of Tammany Hall politicians , Frank J. Farrell and William Stephen Devery , purchased the New York franchise in the AL . The pair paid US $ 18 @,@ 000 for the team . It is not clear whether Farrell and Devery purchased the remains of the Orioles and moved them to New York , or if they received an expansion franchise . It was the last change in the lineup of MLB teams for half a century .
= = = 1903 – 12 : Early years = = =
The ballpark for the New York team was constructed between 165th and 168th Streets , on Broadway in Manhattan . Formally known as American League Park , it was nicknamed Hilltop Park because of its relatively high elevation . The team did not have an official nickname ; it was often called the New York Americans in reference to the AL . Another common nickname for the club was the Highlanders , a play on the last name of the team 's president , Joe Gordon , and the British military unit , the Gordon Highlanders . The team acquired players such as outfielder Willie Keeler and pitcher Jack Chesbro . The player @-@ manager was Clark Griffith , obtained from the Chicago White Sox . On April 22 , 1903 , the Highlanders began their season with a 3 – 1 loss to the Washington Senators ; eight days later , they won their first game in Hilltop Park , defeating the Senators 6 – 2 . New York fell out of contention for the AL pennant in May , falling to seventh place after playing games away from Hilltop Park for a 24 @-@ day period while construction on the stadium concluded . With a final record of 72 – 62 after wins in 19 of 29 games played in September , New York finished in fourth .
Chesbro won 41 games in New York 's 1904 season , still an AL record . New York contended for the AL pennant with the Boston Americans ( later nicknamed the Red Sox ) ; Johnson aided New York by helping the team acquire multiple players in trades , including Boston 's Patsy Dougherty . Boston and New York faced each other in a season @-@ ending five @-@ game series that decided the pennant winner , and was played from October 7 – 10 . Boston won two of the first three games , which meant that New York needed to win the two contests scheduled on October 10 to win the AL title . With the score of the first game tied 2 – 2 in the ninth inning , Chesbro threw a wild pitch that allowed a runner on third base to score , giving Boston a 3 – 2 victory that clinched the AL pennant ; New York won the now @-@ meaningless second game .
New York 's performance declined in 1905 , as numerous pitchers dealt with arm injuries and conditioning issues . After losing 18 of 25 games in May , the Highlanders ended the season in sixth . In its 1906 season , New York again contended for the AL championship . With 13 games left , the team held a one @-@ game lead over the White Sox , but finished in second place three games behind Chicago . According to Appel , " What would follow would be a string of mediocre to bad seasons and not a very good attraction for baseball @-@ crazed New York fans . " New York recorded a fifth @-@ place finish in 1907 , with 70 wins , 22 fewer than the league champion Detroit Tigers . The 1908 and 1909 teams finished last and fifth , respectively , and there were multiple managerial changes in the period .
New York had a second @-@ place finish in 1910 , but did not seriously contend for the pennant . Manager George Stallings and first baseman Hal Chase , the team captain , clashed towards the end of the season ; facing opposition from Ban Johnson , who wanted him to resign as manager , Stallings left the position . Chase managed New York 's last 14 games . The following season , New York had a sixth @-@ place finish . Early in the season , New York allowed the Giants to play in Hilltop Park after the Giants ' stadium , the Polo Grounds , burned down ; the arrangement lasted until June 28 , when the rebuilt Polo Grounds opened . Chase resigned as manager before New York 's 1912 season ; Harry Wolverton accepted the position . That year , New York had a last @-@ place finish with a record of 50 – 102 , the winning percentage of .329 the lowest @-@ ever for the club .
After their first couple of seasons in New York City , team ownership infrequently invested in new players . The ownership group of Farrell and Devery spent their money on personal pursuits such as gambling , leaving them with little to put into the team . New York 's star player , Chase , consorted frequently with gamblers . Author Jim Reisler dubbed him " the most crooked player to ever play the game " because of reports that he took part in game fixing . The club also had difficulty drawing fans to Hilltop Park . Appel wrote that " maybe the best thing you could say about the ballpark was that it never burned down . " By the end of the 1912 season , Farrell was searching for a site to build a new stadium on .
= = = 1913 – 20 : New ownership and acquisition of Babe Ruth = = =
New York started playing home games at the Polo Grounds in 1913 as tenants of the Giants . Before the 1913 season , the team gained an official nickname for the first time . Either " Yankees " or " Yanks " had been used frequently since 1904 in newspapers such as the New York Evening Journal , since " Highlanders " was hard to fit in headlines . Such unofficial nicknames were common during that era , but thereafter the official name took hold — the New York Yankees .
A third major league , the Federal League ( FL ) , began play in 1914 and lasted for two years . While the Yankees did not have to contend with direct competition for fans , as the FL chose to place its New York City franchise in Brooklyn instead of Manhattan , the team nearly lost leading pitcher Ray Caldwell to the rival league after the 1914 season . With the Yankees finishing seventh in 1913 and sixth in 1914 , Farrell and Devery sold the team to brewery magnate Jacob Ruppert and former United States Army engineer Tillinghast L 'Hommedieu Huston . The Yankees had rarely been profitable over the previous 10 years , and carried debts of $ 20 @,@ 000 . The sale was completed on January 11 , 1915 , as the pair paid a combined $ 460 @,@ 000 . Ruppert called the team " an orphan ball club , without a home of its own , without players of outstanding ability , without prestige . " The new owners intended to spend freely to improve the club 's talent level and made a major purchase in 1915 , buying pitcher Bob Shawkey from the Philadelphia Athletics . In spite of this , the Yankees ' 69 wins were only enough for fifth in the league . After wearing different designs during the Highlanders years , in 1915 the Yankees introduced white uniforms with pinstripes and an interlocking " NY " logo during games at the Polo Grounds ; this remains their home uniform design today . For road games , the team began to wear gray uniforms with " New York " across the chest from 1913 ; the Yankees still wear similar garb .
Following the acquisition of third baseman Frank " Home Run " Baker from the Athletics , the 1916 Yankees had 80 wins and contended for the AL pennant for most of the season , before suffering a run of injuries to key players , including Baker . In the Yankees ' 1917 season , New York finished in sixth ; Bill Donovan , the club 's manager since 1915 , was fired in the offseason . Ruppert replaced him with Miller Huggins , completing the hire while Huston was overseas fighting in World War I. The Yankees contended for first place in the war @-@ shortened 1918 campaign along with the Red Sox and Cleveland Indians , but lost numerous players to military service and were fourth at 60 – 63 . After the season , the Yankees acquired three players — including outfielder Duffy Lewis and pitcher Ernie Shore — in a trade with the Red Sox , the winners of the 1918 World Series . In 1919 , the club made another trade with Boston , acquiring pitcher Carl Mays for two players and $ 40 @,@ 000 . The midseason deal provoked a dispute between the teams and Ban Johnson , who unsuccessfully attempted to block it . Mays had a 9 – 3 pitching record as a Yankee , and the team improved to 80 – 59 for the season ; the mark was good for third in the AL .
The 1919 season was the first in which the Yankees played games at the Polo Grounds on Sundays ; until then , blue laws had banned Sunday baseball in New York state . The Yankees ' attendance more than doubled in 1919 , rising to about 619 @,@ 000 . The Giants soon moved to force the Yankees out of the Polo Grounds , in an effort to secure more Sunday home games . On December 26 , 1919 , the Yankees made an agreement with the Red Sox to purchase outfielder Babe Ruth for $ 25 @,@ 000 cash and $ 75 @,@ 000 in promissory notes . The deal , which was announced on January 5 , 1920 , was called " the most famous transaction in sports " by author Glenn Stout . After tying for the MLB home run lead in 1918 with the Athletics ' Tilly Walker ( with 11 ) , Ruth broke the single @-@ season record with 29 in 1919 . At the same time , he sought a new contract that would double his $ 10 @,@ 000 yearly salary . After the trade , Boston did not win another World Series championship until 2004 ; an alleged jinx against the Red Sox , which was known as the Curse of the Bambino ( after a nickname for Ruth ) , was first brought up when they lost the 1986 World Series and became widely discussed after Dan Shaughnessy authored a book with the title . The deal became a symbol of " how things [ would ] always go wrong for the Red Sox and right for the Yankees " , according to Stout .
With Ruth in the lineup , the Yankees ' fortunes were transformed . Playing on four World Series champion teams , Ruth hit 659 home runs and scored 1 @,@ 959 runs ; both marks are team records as of 2016 . He is second in club history with 1 @,@ 978 runs batted in and accumulated 2 @,@ 518 hits as a Yankee , third on the team 's all @-@ time list . As well as prowess on the field , Ruth had a larger @-@ than @-@ life personality , bringing him and his team a huge amount of press and public attention . The addition of Ruth helped the Yankees increase their attendance to 1 @,@ 289 @,@ 422 for the 1920 season ; it was the first time that any MLB team drew more than one million fans in a year . His skills and charm appealed to large segments of the New York City population ; Stout wrote that " He belonged to everyone . " New York was the AL attendance leader for 13 of Ruth 's 15 seasons with the team ; the Yankees became solidly profitable as well , making over $ 370 @,@ 000 in 1920 and remaining in the black for the rest of the decade .
In 1920 , Ruth hit 54 home runs for a new record ; his total was higher than that of all other MLB teams but the Philadelphia Phillies . New York had 95 wins , the most in team history to that point , but fell three wins short of the AL championship and finished third . In an August 16 game against the Indians , a pitch from Mays hit Indians shortstop Ray Chapman in the head , leading to his death ; the Yankees slumped after the incident as Cleveland captured the pennant . After the season , the Yankees hired general manager Ed Barrow from the Red Sox . Barrow made numerous trades with his former club , including one immediately after his departure that brought catcher Wally Schang and pitcher Waite Hoyt to New York . The Yankees also became involved in another dispute with Ban Johnson , this time over the replacement of baseball 's existing governing body , the National Commission , after reports came out that the 1919 World Series had been fixed . The Yankees and 10 other franchises — including the entire NL — supported the idea of a three @-@ man committee drawn from outside baseball running MLB , and for a time a move by the Yankees to the NL was rumored ; ultimately , Judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis was named MLB 's first commissioner .
= = = 1921 – 28 : First World Series win and Murderers ' Row = = =
The 1921 season began a 44 @-@ year period in which the Yankees were , according to author Richard Worth , " The greatest sustained winning ' empire ' in sports " . Ruth surpassed his own record by hitting 59 home runs . He also led MLB in on @-@ base percentage with a .512 mark for the season . The Yankees won the AL pennant for the first time , winning 98 games in the regular season ; the total gave them the league championship by a margin of 4 1 ⁄ 2 games over Cleveland . In the best @-@ of @-@ nine 1921 World Series , they faced the Giants and won the first two games , but their opponents claimed the Series title when they won four of the next five games . Ruth suffered an arm infection , which limited his playing time in the later part of the Series . He and Bob Meusel participated in exhibition games during the offseason , in violation of MLB rules forbidding players on pennant @-@ winning teams from barnstorming after the World Series . Season @-@ long suspensions were considered a possibility , but Landis decided to suspend the pair for six weeks . Despite the setback , New York had 94 wins and repeated as AL champions . The St. Louis Browns were the closest pursuers , finishing one game behind New York . In the World Series , the Yankees again faced the Giants in an all @-@ New York matchup ; the Series changed to a best @-@ of @-@ seven format that year . The Giants defeated the Yankees in five games , including one that ended in a tie when it was suspended because of darkness .
By 1923 , the teams no longer shared the Polo Grounds , as Giants owner Charles Stoneham had attempted to evict the Yankees in 1920 . Although the attempt was unsuccessful , and Stoneham and the Yankees ' owners agreed to a two @-@ year lease renewal , the Giants indicated that the Yankees would not receive an extension after 1922 . The treatment pushed the Yankees into seeking their own stadium . In 1921 , the team bought a plot of land in the Bronx , and the construction crew finished the new ballpark before the 1923 season . Yankee Stadium , a triple @-@ deck facility , was originally designed to hold more than 55 @,@ 000 spectators ; it was later able to hold over 70 @,@ 000 . Writer Peter Carino called the stadium " a larger and more impressive facility than anything yet built to house a baseball team . " At Yankee Stadium 's inaugural game on April 18 , 1923 , Ruth hit the first home run in the stadium , which sportswriter Fred Lieb named " the House That Ruth Built " as the Yankees would not have needed such a large stadium without the Ruth @-@ driven attendance . Ruth himself had a resurgence after receiving vocal criticism for his 1922 World Series performance . He shared the MLB lead with Cy Williams by hitting 41 home runs in the 1923 season , and had a career @-@ best .393 batting average ; his performance earned him the AL Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) Award . The Yankees finished first for the third consecutive year , and faced the Giants again in the 1923 World Series . Giants outfielder Casey Stengel hit game @-@ winning home runs in two of the first three games of the World Series , but Ruth 's three home runs helped the Yankees win in six games for their first MLB title . Off the field , Ruppert purchased Huston 's share of the Yankees for $ 1 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 , assuming full ownership of the club .
The Yankees did not return to the World Series in either of the following two seasons . By 1925 , New York had fallen to seventh place . That year marked the team 's last losing season until 1965 ; the 39 @-@ year streak of winning seasons is an MLB record . First basemen Lou Gehrig debuted in 1925 , earning a spot in the lineup he would not relinquish for almost 15 years , a then @-@ record consecutive games played streak . The Yankees made more talent upgrades before their 1926 season , which included the signing of infielder Tony Lazzeri , who spent over a decade with the club . New York 's performance on the field surpassed preseason expectations , and a 16 @-@ game winning streak in May gave the team a substantial lead . With a three @-@ game final margin over the Indians , the Yankees won the pennant and a spot in the 1926 World Series against the St. Louis Cardinals . After the Yankees took a 3 – 2 series lead , the Cardinals won the final two games in Yankee Stadium to claim the Series title . Ruth hit three home runs in the fourth game , but made the final out of the Series on a failed stolen base attempt .
The Yankees ' lineup in the 1927 season , which featured Ruth , Gehrig , Lazzeri , Meusel , Mark Koenig , and Earle Combs , was known as Murderers ' Row for its power hitting . The team led in the standings throughout . The Yankees took first place in early May , and by the end of June had posted a 49 – 20 record , giving them a large lead in the AL standings ; by mid @-@ September , they had clinched the pennant . The 1927 Yankees had a 110 – 44 record in the regular season , and broke the AL record for wins in a year . Ruth 's total of 60 home runs set a single @-@ season home run record that stood for 34 years . Gehrig added 47 home runs and his 175 RBI topped the AL ; he won the first of his two AL MVP Awards . The Yankees completed the season by sweeping the Pittsburgh Pirates in the 1927 World Series . The 1927 Yankees squad is included among the great teams in baseball history .
To begin the 1928 season , the Yankees went on a 34 – 8 run and took a sizable lead . The Athletics chased them for the AL pennant towards the end of the season , but New York won the title again and faced the Cardinals in the 1928 World Series , sweeping them in four games . Coming off a 54 @-@ home run regular season , Ruth had three more and a .625 batting average in the Series , while Gehrig batted .545 with four home runs . With the Yankees ' run of three straight league pennants and two World Series titles came criticism from fans of other teams , who decried the team 's dominance . Calls to " Break up the Yankees ! " were made , and critics hoped that the team would sell Gehrig to separate him from Ruth ; Ruppert declined to do so .
= = = 1929 – 35 : Hiring of Joe McCarthy and Ruth 's called shot = = =
The Yankees ' run of pennants was broken up by a rising Philadelphia Athletics team , which denied the Yankees a fourth straight AL championship in 1929 . The team 's manager , Huggins , died on September 25 . After Art Fletcher managed for the rest of the year , Shawkey took the position for the 1930 season , in which the Yankees had a third @-@ place finish . The Yankees fired Fletcher and hired Joe McCarthy ; in his first season as manager , the team won 94 games but finished second behind the Athletics . McCarthy 's team was undergoing a transition from Murderers ' Row ; new contributors included Bill Dickey , who had first played for the Yankees in 1928 , and pitchers Red Ruffing and Lefty Gomez . Ruffing , who had a 39 – 96 record with the Red Sox before being traded to New York , ended up 231 – 124 in his Yankees career .
In 1932 , McCarthy 's Yankees returned to the top of the AL with 107 wins , enough for a 13 @-@ game margin over the Athletics . The Yankees met the Chicago Cubs in the 1932 World Series and swept them four games to none . Gehrig had three home runs , eight RBI , and a .529 batting average for the Series , while Ruth contributed a pair of home runs in the third game at Chicago 's Wrigley Field . The second of Ruth 's home runs was his " called shot " ; after pointing towards the center field stands , according to some post @-@ game press reports , Ruth homered to break a 4 – 4 tie in the fifth inning . Although accounts of the incident vary greatly , author Eric Enders called the home run " the most talked @-@ about hit in baseball history " .
The Yankees began cutting their payroll in 1933 , as their finances were strained by the Great Depression . Regardless , the makeup of the team was minimally impacted in comparison to the Athletics , who were forced to sell key players to lower their expenses . From 1933 to 1935 , the Yankees posted three consecutive second @-@ place finishes . Ruth 's performance declined from previous seasons in 1933 and 1934 , his final years with the team . The Yankees released Ruth from his contract before the 1935 season , and Gehrig took a leadership role for the club ; he was named New York 's captain . New York was beginning to see results from an initiative to buy minor league teams in an effort to reduce the cost of obtaining players ; after buying their first minor league club in 1929 , the Yankees had a 15 @-@ team system by 1937 . Players developed in the farm system entered the Yankee lineup beginning in the mid @-@ 1930s , and into the early 1960s this remained the team 's primary player acquisition method . McCarthy worked to regulate player behavior in areas such as mental focus and off @-@ field attire ; the Yankees acquired a " corporate image " that they retained for many years .
= = = 1936 – 41 : Renewed domination = = =
New York 's 1936 season was Joe DiMaggio 's first with the club . The young center fielder was signed in 1934 from the Pacific Coast League 's San Francisco Seals , and made his debut with the Yankees in 1936 , gaining an extra year 's experience with the Seals . DiMaggio had a .323 batting average , 29 home runs , and 125 RBI in his rookie season . Gehrig won the AL MVP Award for his season , in which he hit a career @-@ high 49 home runs , with a .354 batting average and 152 RBI . Behind these performances , the Yankees had a 102 @-@ win season and won the AL pennant , before defeating the Giants in the 1936 World Series , four games to two . After a second consecutive 102 @-@ win regular season and AL championship in the 1937 season , the Yankees again defeated the Giants in the Series — this time winning 4 – 1 . The 1938 Yankees had 48 victories in 61 games during one stretch , and won the team 's third straight AL championship despite a drop in batting performance by Gehrig . In the 1938 World Series , the Yankees swept the Chicago Cubs in four games . Ruppert died early in 1939 ; before his death , he sold his ownership interest to Barrow , who took over as the Yankees ' president . Financially , the club 's position had improved from earlier in the decade ; after posting a net loss of around $ 170 @,@ 000 from 1931 to 1935 , the team made over $ 1 million during the next four years .
The 1939 Yankees lost the services of Gehrig early in the season . After starting the year poorly , he ended his streak of 2 @,@ 130 consecutive games played ; he was later diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis , which forced him to retire . Despite the loss of Gehrig , New York fielded a team that posted 106 victories in 1939 , 17 more than the second @-@ place team . DiMaggio was named MVP of the league ; he led the AL in batting average ( .381 ) and was second in RBI ( 126 ) . Ruffing led the Yankees ' pitchers with 20 wins . In the 1939 World Series , the Yankees swept the Cincinnati Reds in four games for the club 's fourth consecutive Series championship . Writers have given the 1936 – 39 Yankees acclaim for their success in regular season and World Series play ; Stout wrote that the 1939 squad was " magnificent " , and that their campaign was " wholly without drama " besides Gehrig 's departure from the lineup . In response to the Yankees ' dominance , after the 1939 season the AL temporarily barred most transactions between the last pennant winner and other league teams in an attempt to prevent New York from improving its roster . The Yankees ' run of championships ended in 1940 ; the team had 18 more losses than in the previous season and finished second , two games behind the Tigers .
DiMaggio recorded base hits in 56 consecutive games for the Yankees during the 1941 season , breaking the MLB record of 44 games that had been set by Willie Keeler in 1897 . His hitting streak lasted from May 15 to July 17 , when DiMaggio failed to record a hit during a game against the Indians at Cleveland Stadium . After winning the AL pennant , the Yankees met the Brooklyn Dodgers in the 1941 World Series , prevailing in five games . In Game 4 , the Yankees trailed 4 – 3 in the ninth inning and were on the verge of defeat when Tommy Henrich struck out ; Dodgers catcher Mickey Owen was unable to field the pitch , allowing Henrich to reach base . That began a four @-@ run game @-@ winning rally , and New York won the championship in Game 5 the following day .
= = World War II to free agency = =
= = = 1942 – 47 : Pre @-@ Stengel era = = =
The attack on Pearl Harbor occurred during the offseason , and some baseball players immediately joined the Armed Forces . Most of the Yankees ' roster remained with the team in 1942 , and the club repeated as AL champions despite Gomez 's departure . In the 1942 World Series , the Cardinals gave the Yankees their first Series loss since 1926 , after winning in eight consecutive appearances . DiMaggio and other Yankees entered the military before the 1943 season , but the club won the AL championship for the 14th time and 7th since 1936 . The Cardinals met the Yankees in a World Series rematch , and New York won four games to one .
After 1943 , more of the team 's players were drafted into military , and the Yankees ended 1944 in third place , one position higher than they finished the following season . A group consisting of Larry MacPhail , Dan Topping , and Del Webb bought the Yankees , their stadium , and the franchise 's minor league teams for $ 2 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 in 1945 . Under the new ownership , Yankee Stadium underwent extensive renovations that included the installation of lights . With the war over and the return of players from overseas , the Yankees set an MLB single @-@ season home attendance record by attracting 2 @,@ 265 @,@ 512 fans in 1946 . McCarthy resigned as manager early in the season . The Yankees used two other managers during the year ( Bill Dickey and Johnny Neun ) , and ended 1946 in third place . Catcher Yogi Berra made his Yankees debut that year ; in his 18 @-@ season career , Berra won the AL MVP Award three times . Bucky Harris was brought in to be the manager , and his 1947 team won the AL pennant and defeated the Dodgers in a seven @-@ game World Series . After the end of the Series , MacPhail sold his share of Yankees ownership to Topping and Webb for $ 2 million .
= = = 1948 – 56 : Stengel hire and five straight World Series wins = = =
Despite contending late into the season , the 1948 Yankees finished in third place . Harris was released and the Yankees brought in Casey Stengel to manage . At the time , Stengel had " a reputation as a bit of a clown " , according to Appel , and had been unsuccessful in two previous MLB managing stints . As the Yankees ' manager , he optimized matchups by using a platoon system , playing more left @-@ handed batters against right @-@ handed pitchers . Numerous injuries affected the team during the 1949 season but it battled with the Red Sox for the AL pennant ; before a season @-@ ending two @-@ game series at Yankee Stadium , New York trailed Boston by one game and needed a pair of wins . By scores of 5 – 4 and 5 – 3 , the Yankees won the two games and the league championship . New York won a World Series rematch with the Dodgers in five games . Stengel was named AL Manager of the Year in his first season . The Yankees faced another competitive pennant race in 1950 , as the Tigers joined New York and Boston at the top of the AL . Late in the season , the Yankees broke a tie with the Tigers for first place and went on to win the pennant . In the 1950 World Series , the Yankees swept the Phillies ; the second game was decided by a DiMaggio home run in the tenth inning . Following the season , Yankee Phil Rizzuto was named AL MVP after recording 200 base hits during the regular season .
Fan interest in attending games had begun declining throughout MLB in the late @-@ 1940s , and the Yankees faced a drop @-@ off in their crowds after 1947 , when they sold about 2 @.@ 2 million tickets . By 1957 , season attendance was down by over 700 @,@ 000 . New York baseball fans had the option of watching games on television instead by the early 1950s . The Yankees joined the other New York City franchises in allowing game telecasts . This was a departure from the team 's strategy when radio broadcasts were introduced . Regular season games of the Yankees were not broadcast until 1939 , as management believed that fewer fans would attend games if they could listen on radios .
DiMaggio played his final MLB season in 1951 , while highly touted outfielder Mickey Mantle made his debut for New York . Pitcher Allie Reynolds threw two no @-@ hitters during 1951 , as the Yankees claimed the AL pennant for the third straight year . They then won the 1951 World Series against the Giants , four games to two . When their 1952 team took the AL pennant , the Yankees had an opportunity to match the four straight World Series championships won by the team from 1936 to 1939 . In another Yankees – Dodgers matchup , New York fell behind three games to two , but victories in games six and seven gave the Yankees the title . New York and Brooklyn were matched again in the 1953 World Series , and a Billy Martin base hit that decided the sixth and final game of the Series gave the Yankees another four games to two victory and a fifth title in a row . As of 2016 , the 1949 – 1953 Yankees are the only MLB teams to win five straight World Series ; no team since has won more than three in a row .
The Yankees won 103 games in 1954 , the most yet for a Stengel @-@ managed team , but the Indians took the pennant with a then @-@ AL record 111 wins . One year later , the 1955 Yankees faced the Dodgers in the World Series . After the teams split the first six games of the Series , the Yankees lost the seventh and final game 2 – 0 , giving the Dodgers their first Series win . Elston Howard , the first African American player in Yankees history , made his debut in 1955 . His arrival came eight years after MLB 's color line had been broken , as the Yankees ' management had sought to avoid integrating the club 's roster . As teams such as the Dodgers added black players , the Yankees turned down numerous opportunities to acquire Negro league talent . Management feared alienating white fans and harbored stereotypes of African American players . Author Robert Cohen called these views " symbolic of the overall arrogance of Yankee ownership and management , as well as their prevailing racial attitudes . "
In 1956 , Mantle won the MVP award for a season in which he led the AL and MLB in batting average ( .353 ) , home runs ( 52 ) , and RBIs ( 130 ) , becoming the second Yankee ( after Gehrig in 1934 ) to win a Triple Crown . The 1956 Yankees won the franchise 's seventh AL championship under Stengel and advanced to a World Series rematch with the Dodgers . In Game 5 , with the Series even at 2 – 2 , Yankees pitcher Don Larsen threw a perfect game . In seven games , the Yankees won the Series .
= = = 1957 – 64 : Continued success = = =
By 1957 , the Yankees had won 15 of the last 21 AL pennants . The team 's minor @-@ league system had been reduced to 10 teams from a peak of 22 , and its scouting system was acclaimed by Sports Illustrated 's Roy Terrell as " the best in all baseball . " Instead of signing many players for their organization , the Yankees concentrated on acquiring a smaller number of highly skilled players , according to head scout Paul Krichell . The club recruited players by selling them on the " fame , fortune and fat shares of a World Series pot " that came with making New York 's roster .
The 1957 Yankees reached that year 's World Series , but lost in seven games to the Milwaukee Braves . Following the Series , the Giants and Dodgers left New York City for California , leaving the Yankees as New York 's only MLB team . Despite their status as the sole New York City @-@ based franchise , the Yankees ' 1958 attendance decreased from previous seasons as the team could not attract bereft Giants and Dodgers fans . In the 1958 World Series , the Yankees had an opportunity to avenge their defeat to the Braves . The Yankees fell behind by losing three of the first four games , but won the final three games of the Series to claim another championship . The Yankees were unable to defend their AL and World Series championships in 1959 , as they ended up with a 79 – 75 record , their worst record since 1925 , good for third place .
When Arnold Johnson ( a friend of Topping and Yankees general manager George Weiss ) became the owner of the Kansas City Athletics in 1955 , his new team made many transactions with the Yankees . From 1956 to 1960 , the Athletics traded many young players to the Yankees for cash and aging veterans . The trades strengthened the Yankees ' roster , but brought criticism from rival clubs . Before their 1960 season , the Yankees made one such trade with the Athletics in which they acquired outfielder Roger Maris . In his first Yankees season , Maris led the league in slugging percentage , RBIs , and extra base hits , finished second with 39 home runs , and won the AL MVP Award . The 1960 Yankees won the AL pennant for the 10th time in 12 years under Stengel , and outscored the Pirates 55 – 27 in the seven World Series games . However , the team lost four of them , falling short of a Series championship after Bill Mazeroski hit a walk @-@ off home run in the final game , ending a contest that Appel called " one of the most memorable in baseball history . " The season turned out to be Stengel 's last as Yankees manager ; he indicated that his age played a role in the team 's decision , saying , " I 'll never make the mistake of being seventy again . "
Ralph Houk was chosen to replace Stengel . During the 1961 season , both Mantle and Maris chased Ruth 's single @-@ season home run record of 60 , and the pair attracted much press attention as the year progressed . Ultimately , an infection forced Mantle to leave the lineup and bow out of the race in mid @-@ September with 54 home runs . Maris continued , though , and on October 1 , the final day of the season , he homered against Red Sox pitcher Tracy Stallard into the right field stands of Yankee Stadium , breaking the record with 61 . Commissioner Ford Frick decreed that two separate records be kept , as the Yankees played a 154 @-@ game schedule in 1927 ( beginning in 1961 , AL teams played 162 games to accommodate the league 's expansion to 10 teams ) . MLB did away with the dual records 30 years later , giving Maris sole possession of the single @-@ season home run record before it was broken in 1998 by Mark McGwire . The Yankees won the pennant with 109 regular season wins , at the time the club 's second @-@ highest single @-@ season total , and defeated the Cincinnati Reds in five games to win the franchise 's 19th World Series . The team hit 240 home runs to break the MLB single @-@ season record . Maris won another AL MVP Award , while Whitey Ford captured the Cy Young Award , having posted a 25 – 4 record . The team gained a reputation as one of the strongest the Yankees had fielded , along with the 1927 and 1939 Yankees . New York returned to the World Series in 1962 , facing the San Francisco Giants . After exchanging victories in the first six games of the Series , the Yankees won the decisive seventh game 1 – 0 to clinch the title .
The Yankees again reached the World Series in their 1963 campaign , but were swept in four games by the Los Angeles Dodgers . Houk left the manager 's position to become the team 's general manager and the newly retired Berra was named manager . After dealing with player injuries and internal dissension , the Yankees rallied from third place late in the 1964 season and won the AL pennant by one game over the White Sox . It was their fifth straight World Series appearance and fourteenth in the past sixteen years . The team faced the St. Louis Cardinals in a series that included a walk @-@ off home run by Mantle to end the third game . Despite Mantle 's game @-@ winning hit , the Yankees were defeated by the Cardinals in seven games , and Berra was fired .
= = = 1965 – 72 : New ownership and decline = = =
In 1964 , CBS announced that it was purchasing 80 percent of the Yankees for $ 11 @.@ 2 million . The television network bought the remaining 20 percent , originally retained by Topping and Webb , during the next two years . Topping left as team president after the sale ; CBS executive Mike Burke replaced him . From 1962 to the sale , Topping and Webb had sharply curtailed the Yankees ' investment in their minor league system , to show greater profits . As a result , the team lacked capable replacements for its aging players . Other factors affected the club 's fortunes as well . The team had been slow in signing African American players even after Howard , and lost the opportunity to sign future stars . As most American League clubs dragged their feet in integrating their rosters , the rapid decline of the Yankees ' white stars left them on the same footing as the rest of the league . Also , the 1965 introduction of the MLB draft , which allowed the clubs with the worst records to have the first selections , meant that the Yankees could not outbid other teams for young talent . Their trade pipeline with the A 's had dried up by 1960 , as new A 's owner Charlie Finley announced his intention to avoid trading with New York . Competition for the attention of local fans had been provided by the expansion New York Mets , founded in 1962 . By 1964 , the new club started a 12 @-@ year streak of outdrawing the Yankees ; the Mets also won the 1969 World Series .
The Yankees had a record of 77 – 85 in 1965 , and their sixth @-@ place finish was their lowest since 1925 . It was only their second finish in the second division since 1918 . Johnny Keane , who was hired to succeed Berra as manager , was fired after the Yankees lost 16 of 20 games to start their 1966 season ; Houk named himself as Keane 's replacement . A last @-@ place finish — their first since 1912 — followed at season 's end , and the Yankees ended up one position higher , ninth , the following season . Ford , Howard , Mantle , and Maris all retired or were traded to other clubs between 1966 and 1969 . Attendance at Yankee Stadium fell to between 1 and 1 @.@ 3 million fans per season from 1965 to 1971 , and dropped below 1 million in 1972 . One 1966 game had a crowd of 413 fans ; television announcer Red Barber was fired by the Yankees after discussing the low attendance during his telecast .
After fifth @-@ place finishes in 1968 and 1969 ( the latter in the newly created six @-@ team American League East division ) , the 1970 Yankees improved to second in the AL East with a 93 – 69 record , finishing behind the Baltimore Orioles . Catcher Thurman Munson played his first full season for the Yankees and won AL Rookie of the Year honors for 1970 . New York had 11 more losses during their 1971 season than they had in 1970 , but in 1972 they contended for the AL East title and a playoff berth . Late in the season , the Yankees were in a four @-@ way tie for the most wins in the division , but a slump caused them to fall to fourth by the end of their campaign with a record of 79 – 76 .
= = = 1973 – 76 : Steinbrenner takes over = = =
Less than a decade into its ownership of the Yankees , CBS moved to sell the team in 1972 . In eight years , the team posted an $ 11 million loss under CBS ; losing money in all but two years . Along with the decrease in attendance , the Yankees ' television revenues fell by more than 80 percent from their peak , and in 1973 were more than $ 1 million below what the Mets earned from their broadcasting agreement . A group of investors , led by Cleveland @-@ based shipbuilder George Steinbrenner , purchased the club from CBS on January 3 , 1973 for $ 10 million . Despite an initial promise that he would " stick to building ships " and remain in the background , Steinbrenner proved to be a hands @-@ on owner , clashing with Burke and forcing him out of his leadership position . Describing the level of control displayed by the lead owner , investor John McMullen stated , " There is nothing in life quite so limited as being a limited partner of George Steinbrenner . "
The 1973 Yankees held the AL East lead entering August , but faded and ended the year fourth . The 1973 season was the team 's last in Yankee Stadium before the building was renovated . The Yankees had become concerned about the drop in attendance and the poor conditions of the stadium 's surroundings . For a time , New Jersey sought to attract sports teams to the Meadowlands Sports Complex , and New York City acted to prevent the Yankees from moving . The city paid $ 24 million to buy Yankee Stadium and the adjacent land , and in 1972 agreed to renovations . Work on the stadium finished in 1976 , and the Yankees were required to play at the Mets ' home field , Shea Stadium , in 1974 and 1975 . During the first of those seasons , the team nearly won the AL East , finishing behind the Orioles in a race that was decided in the final games . The Yankees were helped by an early @-@ season trade that brought first baseman Chris Chambliss to the team , and improved to 89 wins from 1973 's 80 victories .
After the 1974 season , star pitcher Catfish Hunter was declared a free agent because of a skipped insurance payment . The Yankees signed him to a $ 3 @.@ 75 million , four @-@ year contract . It was the beginning of a long @-@ term franchise philosophy of using free agency to acquire talent ; Stout writes that they " were the first team to comprehend what free agency meant " , as it provided an advantage over lower @-@ spending rivals and generated fan and media interest . Hunter had 23 wins during the Yankees ' 1975 season , but the team did not contend for the playoffs after July . New York fired manager Bill Virdon in August and hired Billy Martin as his replacement . With Martin as the helm , the Yankees returned to the postseason in their first season in the renovated Yankee Stadium , winning the 1976 AL East title by a 10 1 / 2 @-@ game margin over the Orioles . Munson was named AL MVP , with a .302 batting average and a total of 105 RBIs that was second @-@ best in the AL . The 1976 American League Championship Series ( ALCS ) between the Yankees and Kansas City Royals went to a deciding fifth game , which was won by New York on a walk @-@ off home run by Chambliss . The Yankees did not win a game against the Cincinnati Reds in the 1976 World Series .
= = Free agency era = =
= = = 1977 – 81 : " The Bronx Zoo " = = =
Free agency was introduced more fully from the 1976 offseason ; outfielder Reggie Jackson , who had spent one season with the Orioles after being traded by the Athletics , was the most significant player available in that first offseason . Steinbrenner signed Jackson to a five @-@ year , $ 2 @.@ 96 million contract , giving the Yankees a key player , but one who had difficulty fitting in with the rest of the team . Martin had opposed Jackson 's signing , and many players were angered by comments Jackson made that were critical of Munson . Jackson and Martin nearly came to blows in the Yankees ' dugout during one game against the Red Sox , in which Martin removed Jackson for being slow to field a ball . The incident sparked media reports of disputes between Martin and Steinbrenner , and further conflict between Martin and Jackson . The Yankees of the late @-@ 1970s , noted for clubhouse conflict and on @-@ field success , were later nicknamed " The Bronx Zoo " , after a book of the same name by pitcher Sparky Lyle , and at the time , New York and the baseball world were agog at their antics . The 1977 Yankees won the AL East and defeated the Royals in the 1977 ALCS . Trailing 3 – 2 in the top of the ninth inning of the decisive fifth game , the Yankees scored three times to gain a berth in the World Series . Against the Dodgers , the Yankees prevailed in six games for their first Series championship since 1962 . Jackson hit a record five home runs in the Series , including three in Game 6 on consecutive pitches , against three different Dodgers pitchers . Jackson gained his own candy bar and the nickname " Mr. October " .
Before their 1978 season , the Yankees added relief pitcher Goose Gossage , even though their closer was reigning Cy Young Award winner Lyle . By the middle of July , the team was 14 games behind the Red Sox and infighting had begun again . After making comments to reporters criticizing both Jackson and Steinbrenner , Martin resigned and Bob Lemon was hired as manager . The Yankees closed the gap that Boston had opened on them , and by the start of a four @-@ game series at Fenway Park on September 7 , the Red Sox ' lead was down to four games . Over the course of the series , nicknamed " The Boston Massacre " , the Yankees outscored the Red Sox 42 – 9 , winning each game . The teams finished the regular season with identical records , and an AL East tie @-@ breaker game was held on October 2 . Losing 2 – 0 in the seventh inning , the Yankees took the lead on a three @-@ run home run by shortstop Bucky Dent , and eventually won 5 – 4 . After beating the Kansas City Royals for the third consecutive year in the ALCS , the Yankees faced the Dodgers again in the 1978 World Series . They lost the first two games on the road , but then returned to Yankee Stadium and won three consecutive games before clinching a Series championship in Game 6 in Los Angeles . Pitcher Ron Guidry was the Cy Young Award winner in 1978 , having posted 25 wins against 3 losses with a 1 @.@ 74 ERA , and 248 strikeouts . Eighteen of his strikeouts came in his June 17 appearance against the California Angels , which broke the franchise record .
On August 2 , 1979 , Munson was killed in a plane crash . Martin , who had returned as manager after Steinbrenner fired Lemon in June , said that with his death , " The whole bottom fell out of the team . " The 1979 Yankees finished fourth with an 89 – 71 record . Steinbrenner fired Martin after the season and replaced him with Dick Howser , who led the Yankees to 103 wins and the AL East title in 1980 . Jackson led the AL with 41 home runs and posted a .300 batting average for the Yankees , who finished three games ahead of the Orioles . Their stay in the postseason was brief , as the Royals beat them in three straight games to win the ALCS . Before their 1981 campaign , the Yankees signed Dave Winfield to a 10 @-@ year contract worth $ 23 million , a record at the time . The season was shortened by a strike , and the Yankees qualified for the playoffs by virtue of leading the AL East when the work stoppage began . They defeated the Milwaukee Brewers in a divisional playoff round in five games. and won the AL pennant with three straight wins over the Athletics in the ALCS . The Yankees won the first two games of the 1981 World Series against Los Angeles , but the Dodgers won the next four games and the championship .
= = = 1982 – 95 : Struggles and return to postseason = = =
Following the team 's loss to the Dodgers in the 1981 World Series , the Yankees had a 15 @-@ year absence from the World Series , the longest since the time before their initial appearance in 1921 . As the 1980s progressed , the Yankees regularly spent heavily on free agents who were often aging and proved to be declining in performance . The atmosphere of turmoil around the club discouraged some players from signing contracts with New York ; they either ignored the Yankees ' offers or used them to get more money from other teams . Steinbrenner traded prospects for veterans ; sportswriter Buster Olney called this " a practice that ultimately inflicted serious damage on the organization , leaving the team without the needed influx of young and cheap talent . " With Steinbrenner at the helm , the team continued to change managers frequently ; there were 21 managerial changes in his first two decades of ownership ; Martin served five separate stints as New York 's manager .
The 1982 and 1983 Yankees were fifth and third , respectively . Henry Fetter wrote of the following year 's team , which had several aging players , " The 1984 Yanks had assembled an all @-@ star lineup — but it was that of 1979 . " In what became a trend in future seasons , the Yankees lacked effective pitching , undoing the efforts of a top @-@ tier offense that included players such as Winfield and first baseman Don Mattingly , one of the few star hitters produced by the farm system during the era . Mattingly led the AL in batting average in 1984 — beating out Winfield for the league lead . The Yankees ' 1985 season began with a batting lineup improved by an offseason trade for Rickey Henderson , the future MLB career stolen base and runs scored record holder . Mattingly was AL MVP in 1985 , with 145 RBI and a personal @-@ best 35 home runs , while Guidry won 22 games . The Yankees had 97 wins , two off the division leader Toronto Blue Jays . The 1986 side 's win total fell to 92 , but it was only enough for second place again behind Boston . Mattingly hit an MLB record six grand slam home runs in 1987 , but dealt with back pain that limited his effectiveness in his remaining years . The Yankees fell to fourth , beginning a six @-@ year streak of fourth or worse . The Yankees had the most wins of any MLB team during the 1980s , but missed the playoffs eight times during the decade and did not win a World Series . Many New York baseball fans chose to support an exciting Mets team . From 1984 to 1992 , a period that featured their 1986 World Series victory , the Mets ' attendance topped that of the Yankees every year . Despite falling attendance , the Yankees ' finances were not significantly harmed , as they had a 12 @-@ year television rights contract with the Madison Square Garden network that gave them a record $ 500 million and flexibility to increase their payroll if desired .
Winfield 's tenure with the team ended when he was traded in May 1990 . The 1990 team lost 95 games to finish at the bottom of the AL East , and its .414 winning percentage was the franchise 's worst since 1913 . The Yankees underwent a dramatic change in their front office that year , which Glenn Stout cites as a turning point for the club . Winfield had become a target of Steinbrenner in previous years . At one 1985 game , he criticized Winfield by calling him " Mr. May " , that is , a player who only performed well early in the season . Steinbrenner also resented Winfield 's salary as too high , and was critical of a charitable foundation run by him . A gambler was paid by Steinbrenner " for damaging information " about Winfield , an incident that resulted in an indefinite suspension from then @-@ commissioner Fay Vincent in 1990 . Under new general manager Gene Michael , the Yankees allowed their minor league talent more time to improve their skills and more of a chance to play for the Yankees if they were good enough . Michael focused on on @-@ base percentage in deciding which hitters to pursue , and emphasized left @-@ handed batters who might take advantage of Yankee Stadium 's short right @-@ field porch . The players developed by the team during its rebuilding years included outfielder Bernie Williams , a future AL batting average leader , and a group — Derek Jeter , Andy Pettitte , Jorge Posada , and Mariano Rivera — that became the centerpiece of the championship teams of the 1990s , and was later nicknamed the " Core Four " .
After a 71 @-@ win 1991 season , the Yankees replaced their incumbent manager , Stump Merrill , with Buck Showalter , who increased the playing time given to young players . While the 1992 Yankees were 20 games behind the AL East winner , offseason acquisitions — third baseman Wade Boggs , pitcher Jimmy Key , and outfielder Paul O 'Neill — helped the 1993 team to an 88 – 74 record and New York 's highest finish ( second ) in seven seasons . By 1994 , the Yankees had progressed to the point where they led the AL with a 70 – 43 record going into the homestretch of the regular season . Their campaign was cut short by a players ' strike , which resulted in the cancellation of the playoffs and 1994 World Series . Many media members believed that the Yankees might have reached the World Series if not for the strike . A year later , the team reached the playoffs and gave Mattingly his first career postseason appearance by winning the first AL wild card berth , but it was eliminated in a five @-@ game Division Series ( ALDS ) against the Seattle Mariners .
= = = 1996 – 2001 : Championship run = = =
Mattingly did not return to the Yankees for their 1996 season , and the club replaced Showalter with Joe Torre . Although the managerial change met with a mixed reception by the press , Torre received praise for his handling of players as his managerial career progressed ; Olney remarked that he was able to " defuse powder @-@ keg issues and serve as a buffer between Steinbrenner and the players . " Jeter won the AL Rookie of the Year Award in his first full season with the Yankees , and Pettitte with 21 wins was second in AL Cy Young Award voting and Rivera posted an 8 – 3 record and 2 @.@ 09 ERA as the club won a division title . New York reached the 1996 World Series , where they lost the first two games at home to the Atlanta Braves by a combined score of 16 – 1 . But New York won three straight contests in Atlanta , including a Game 4 in which they scored eight straight runs to rally from a 6 – 0 deficit . With a 3 – 2 win in Game 6 , the Yankees won the World Series for the first time in 18 years . For 1997 , the Yankees signed starting pitcher David Wells and allowed closer John Wetteland to leave in free agency , enabling Rivera to inherit the role . The 1997 Yankees earned a wild card playoff berth , but lost three games to two against the Cleveland Indians in the ALDS .
In preparation for their 1998 season , the Yankees replaced general manager Bob Watson with Brian Cashman . The club made many player acquisitions , gaining the services of third baseman Scott Brosius , second baseman Chuck Knoblauch , and starting pitcher Orlando Hernández . The Yankees won 28 of their first 37 games — a stretch that concluded with a perfect game pitched by Wells — and by August were 76 – 27 . The 1998 Yankees are considered by some writers to be among the greatest teams in baseball history , having compiled a then @-@ AL record of 114 regular @-@ season wins against 48 losses . After playoff series wins over the Texas Rangers and Indians , New York defeated the San Diego Padres in four consecutive World Series games for their 24th Series title .
After the 1998 season , Wells was traded to the Toronto Blue Jays for Roger Clemens , who had just completed two consecutive Cy Young Award @-@ winning seasons . In a regular season that included another perfect game by a Yankees pitcher , this one by David Cone , New York led the AL East with 98 wins and beat the Rangers in the ALDS . This led to an ALCS against the rival Red Sox . New York won the first two games en route to a 4 – 1 series win , and went on to sweep the Braves in the 1999 World Series . The postseason results gave the 1998 – 99 Yankees a 22 – 3 playoff record , and the team held a 12 @-@ game winning streak in World Series competition dating back to 1996 . Although the 2000 Yankees had an 87 – 74 regular season record that was the worst among playoff qualifiers , the team won consecutive playoff series to claim the AL championship . New York 's pennant placed them in the 2000 World Series against the cross @-@ town Mets , the first Subway Series in 44 years . With a four games to one victory , the Yankees gained their third successive title . As of 2016 , the 2000 Yankees are the most recent MLB team to repeat as World Series champions and the Yankees of 1998 – 2000 are the last team to win three consecutive World Series .
Free agent pitcher Mike Mussina signed with the Yankees before their 2001 season began , and the club pulled away from the Red Sox as the year progressed to claim another divisional championship , as Clemens won 20 games . The September 11 attacks interrupted the season , and the resumption of baseball in New York became a symbol of how the city recovered from the destruction of the Twin Towers . After falling behind 2 – 0 in the ALDS against the Athletics , the Yankees won three straight contests to advance to the ALCS . They prevailed in five games against the Seattle Mariners , who had tied a single @-@ season MLB record with 116 regular season wins , for the team 's fourth straight AL pennant . The Arizona Diamondbacks gained a two @-@ game lead in the 2001 World Series before the Yankees won three consecutive ballgames ; New York home runs with two outs in the ninth inning of Games 4 and 5 led to extra inning wins in both games , with Game 4 ended by a Jeter home run . The Yankees ' championship streak ended , though , as the Diamondbacks won the Series in seven games with a late rally in the final inning of Game 7 .
= = = 2002 – 08 : Final years in old Yankee Stadium = = =
After the 2001 season , several players from the late 1990s and early 2000s Yankees teams departed . New York won their fifth AL East title in a row in its 2002 campaign , but the Anaheim Angels defeated the Yankees in the ALDS . The Yankees ' major acquisition in the offseason was leading Japanese hitter Hideki Matsui of the Yomiuri Giants . Another signing , that of Cuban pitcher José Contreras , led to complaints from Red Sox CEO Larry Lucchino , who dubbed his team 's rivals " the Evil Empire " . Tensions between the rivals increased in the coming seasons , and writers called the rivalry one of the most intense and well known in North American professional sports . By 2003 , New York 's overall payroll had reached almost $ 153 million , more than the Padres , Brewers , Royals , and Tampa Bay Devil Rays combined . Criticism of the Yankees ' spending such as Lucchino 's was frequently raised ; during a 15 @-@ year stretch from 1999 to 2013 , they had the biggest MLB player payroll every year .
Jeter became the Yankees ' captain in their 2003 season . The team faced the Red Sox in the ALCS . The series came down to a seventh game , and the Yankees fell behind before three eighth @-@ inning runs forced a 5 – 5 tie and extra innings . Aaron Boone , a third baseman acquired by New York in a mid @-@ season trade , hit a walk @-@ off home run in the eleventh inning to give New York the pennant . The Yankees were then defeated by the Florida Marlins in the World Series , four games to two . The Yankees added power hitting to their lineup in the offseason , signing free agent Gary Sheffield and trading for shortstop Alex Rodriguez , who became a third baseman with New York . Three of the starting pitchers from the previous season — Clemens , Pettitte , and Wells — left the team before the season . Despite the losses , the 2004 Yankees managed to top the AL East with 101 wins and defeat the Twins three games to one in the ALDS . The victory set up an ALCS rematch with the Red Sox . The Yankees took a 3 – 0 series lead before losing four consecutive games , becoming the first team in MLB history to lose a best @-@ of @-@ seven series after winning the first three games .
The 2005 season featured an AL MVP performance by Rodriguez , who hit a league @-@ leading 48 home runs with 130 RBIs and a .321 batting average . The Yankees beat the Red Sox for the division title because they won 10 of their 19 contests against Boston ; both teams had 95 – 67 records . The Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim defeated the Yankees in five games in the first round of the postseason . The 2006 Yankees kept at the same level , as they won the AL East for the ninth straight year but were eliminated in the ALDS by the Detroit Tigers three games to one .
Rodriguez again won the AL MVP award in 2007 , as his 54 home runs and 156 RBIs topped the AL ; he scored 143 runs , the highest single @-@ season number by a player since 1985 . After starting the year 21 – 29 , the Yankees rallied to win the AL 's wild card berth ; it was the first time in 10 seasons that they did not win the AL East . New York 's season ended in the first round of the playoffs ; the Indians won the opening two games of the ALDS and finished the series in four games . Manager Torre did not re @-@ sign after the season , and Joe Girardi took his place . Rodriguez , who used an opt @-@ out clause in his contract to become a free agent , stayed with the Yankees by signing for $ 275 million over 10 seasons , an MLB record . The 2008 season was the Yankees ' last in which they played at the original Yankee Stadium . The club had sought a new stadium to increase revenues , following the example set by other MLB teams . It was also the first in which Hal and Hank Steinbrenner ran the team as general partners ; though George Steinbrenner was still the principal owner on paper , he yielded operational responsibilities during the 2007 offseason . Yankee Stadium was the site of the 2008 All @-@ Star Game , but for the first time in 14 years did not host playoff action . New York ended the year third in the AL East and failed to qualify for the postseason .
= = = 2009 – present : New stadium and 27th championship = = =
The new Yankee Stadium , which cost a record $ 1 @.@ 5 billion , was constructed near the old facility . As built , it had a capacity of approximately 52 @,@ 000 , with 52 luxury suites . Monument Park , which holds plaques and monuments honoring former Yankees personnel , was built beyond the center field fence ; its collection was transplanted from the old stadium . For the 2009 season , the team committed over $ 400 million in future salaries to three free agents : pitchers CC Sabathia and A. J. Burnett , and first baseman Mark Teixeira . New York won 90 of its last 134 games , and broke the franchise single @-@ season record by hitting 244 home runs . Another club record was broken by Jeter , who passed Gehrig as the Yankees ' all @-@ time hits leader on September 11 . New York posted 103 wins in 2009 and beat out the Red Sox for the division title by eight games . In the AL playoffs , the Yankees defeated the Twins in the ALDS and the Angels in the ALCS , advancing to the 2009 World Series . There they faced the Philadelphia Phillies , the defending Series champions . Behind a six @-@ RBI effort by Matsui in the sixth and final game , the Yankees defeated the Phillies to win the franchise 's 27th Series championship .
George Steinbrenner died in July 2010 . The Yankees won the league 's wild card berth , but their title defense was ended by the Texas Rangers in the ALCS . Multiple Yankees players set individual marks in 2011 . Jeter joined the 3 @,@ 000 hit club on July 9 ; he was the first player to do so while playing for the club . Later in the season , Rivera posted the 602nd save of his career , breaking the all @-@ time record that had been held by Trevor Hoffman . The Yankees won the AL East , but lost in the ALDS to the Tigers . Rivera suffered a season @-@ ending injury to his right knee in May 2012 while catching fly balls before a game against the Royals . Even without their longtime closer , the 2012 Yankees gained a 10 @-@ game lead by mid @-@ July , and held off the Orioles to win the division title by a final margin of two games . After defeating the Orioles in a five @-@ game ALDS , the Yankees were swept by the Tigers in the ALCS .
During Game 1 of the 2012 ALCS , Jeter broke his right ankle while attempting to field a ball . He was one of many Yankees to miss playing time during the club 's 2013 campaign ; 20 players were placed on the disabled list at least once . The team had an opportunity to win a wild @-@ card playoff spot , but faded late in the season . It was only the second time since 1995 that New York did not qualify for postseason play . In the offseason , second baseman Robinson Canó departed New York for the Mariners in free agency , but the Yankees signed starting pitcher Masahiro Tanaka , who was coming off a 24 – 0 year with Japan 's Tohoku Rakuten Golden Eagles , to a seven @-@ year contract . Rodriguez was suspended for the 2014 season by MLB for using performance @-@ enhancing drugs . The 2014 Yankees , the last with Jeter in their lineup , fell four games short of a postseason berth with an 84 – 78 record . Despite signing several new hitters prior to the season , the team finished third from last in the AL in runs scored . The offense improved in 2015 , ending the regular season with the second @-@ most runs in MLB . New York gained a wild card berth with a second @-@ place finish , but was defeated by the Houston Astros in a one @-@ game playoff .
As of 2016 , the Yankees ' 27 World Series championships are 16 more than the number won by the St. Louis Cardinals , who have the second @-@ most titles among MLB teams . New York 's championship total is the highest of any franchise in a major North American league ; the National Hockey League 's Montreal Canadiens are second behind the Yankees with 24 Stanley Cup wins . The 40 AL titles won by the Yankees places them 17 in front of the Cardinals for the most pennants won by an MLB team . The Giants and Dodgers are the only other clubs with 20 or more pennants . The Baseball Hall of Fame has inducted over 40 players and managers who have worn Yankees pinstripes . Forbes magazine has labeled the Yankees the most valuable team in baseball every year since 1998 ; the franchise was worth an estimated $ 3 @.@ 4 billion in 2016 .
In Glenn Stout 's Yankees history book , the author wrote :
More often than not , they have shown just how the game of baseball is supposed to be played . Ruth , Gehrig , DiMaggio , Mantle , Mattingly , Jeter , and dozens of other players impossible to forget have worn their uniform . Yankee Stadium has been their stage . The very definition of a dynasty , they have created the collective memories that make friends of strangers , given their city a face , and displayed its heart and soul .
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= Kalmashapada =
In Hindu mythology , Kalmashapada ( Kalmasapada , कल ् माषपाद ) , also known as Saudasa ( सौदास ) , Mitrasaha ( मित ् रसह ) , Amitrasaha and Kalmashanghri ( Kalmasanghri ) , was a king of the Ikshvaku dynasty ( the Solar dynasty ) , who was cursed to be a rakshasa ( demon ) by the sage Vashishtha . He is described as an ancestor of Rama , the avatar of the god Vishnu and the hero of the Hindu epic Ramayana . Many texts narrate how Kalmashapada was cursed to die if he had intercourse with his queen , so he obtained a son from Vashishtha by niyoga , an ancient tradition whereby a husband can nominate another man to impregnate his wife . Kalmashapada 's story is narrated in various works including the classic epic poems Mahabharata and Ramayana , and the Puranas .
= = Background = =
The Mahabharata and the Puranas agree that Kalmashapada was the son of the king Sudasa ( Sudhasana ) ; however , the Ramayana names his father as Raghu , a king whom the other texts identify as a descendant of Kalmashapada . All texts agree that his ancestors include Sagara and Bhagiratha , though the generations between Bhagiratha and Kalmashapada may vary among the texts .
Some texts state that Kalmashapada 's birth name was Mitrasaha , but he was known by his patronymic Saudasa . A commentator on the Vishnu Purana says that Mitra @-@ saha ( literally , " one who forbears a friend " ) is an epithet the king acquires from the curse of the sage Vashishtha . The king restrains ( saha ) himself from retaliation against his friend ( mitra ) Vashishtha 's curse , though he possesses the power to do so . The Vayu Purana , the Agni Purana , the Brahma Purana , and the Harivamsa call him Amitrasaha , " one who forbears ( saha ) a foe ( amitra ) " ; here , Vashishtha is taken to be an enemy .
Kalmashapada was the king of Ayodhya ( Kosala ) and was married to Queen Madayanti . The Bhagavata Purana notes that she was also known as Damayanti .
= = The curse = =
= = = Shakti 's curse = = =
The Mahabharata narrates : Once , Kalmashapada was roaming the forest for hunting . He encounters the sage Vashishtha 's eldest son Shakti on a narrow path . As a kshatriya ( member of the ruler class ) , Kalmashapada does not make way for Shakti , a brahmin ( priestly class ) . Nevertheless , Shakti refuses to budge . Finally , an enraged Kalmashapada hits Shakti with his whip . In turn , the sage curses the king to wander the forest for 16 years . The sage Vishwamitra , the arch @-@ enemy of Vashishtha who desires to have Kalmashapada as his disciple , sends a rakshasa to possess the king 's body . Vishwamitra plots to destroy his enemy 's family with the help of the king . Under the influence of the rakshasa , the king serves human flesh to a Brahmin , who sets Shakti 's curse into effect . The king turns into a cannibalistic rakshasa .
= = = Vashishtha 's curse = = =
The Uttara Kanda of the Ramayana and the Shiva Purana narrate about Vashishtha cursing Kalmashapada with slight variation . The Uttara Ramayana tells that once , while hunting in the forest , Kalmashapada mistakenly kills a rakshasa disguised as a tiger cub . His fellow rakshasa – who was also disguised as a cub – assumes his true form and warns the king that he will take his revenge against the wrongful death at the proper time . The Shiva Purana and the Bhagavata Purana identify the other rakshasa as the brother of the slain one , and does not mention the tiger cub disguise . The Vishnu Purana also notes that the demons appeared in the form of tigers .
The king returns to his capital and invites his guru Vashishtha to the Ashwamedha sacrifice . The sage accepts . The vengeful rakshasa assumes the form of the sage and informs the king that he secretly desires to eat meat ( a taboo for sages ) , and that the king should come to his ashram and offer him meat . Deceived by the rakshasa 's disguise , Kalmashapada with his queen goes to Vashishtha 's ashram and presents him with meat . The sage feels insulted seeing the taboo offering , and curses the king to be a rakshasa .
In the Shiva Purana , the Bhagavata Purana , and the Vishnu Purana , the rakshasa disguises himself as a Brahmin cook and gains entry to the king 's kitchen . When Vashishtha arrives in Ayodhya on the king 's invitation for a Shraddha ceremony , or simply dinner , the demon cooks human flesh and offers that to the sage on behalf of the king . The enraged sage curses him to be transformed into a human @-@ eating rakshasa and wander the forests . The pious king is outraged by the unjust curse and quarrels with the sage . Vashishtha reduces the curse to 12 years when he hears of the rakshasa 's deception . But the king is not satisfied . He takes water in his hand to cast a curse on Vashishtha , but the queen dissuades him . However , the curse @-@ ridden water cannot be wasted . If thrown on the ground , it will destroy the crop . If thrown in the air , it will spoil the rains . Throwing in any direction would harm some living beings . Ultimately , the king throws the water on his own feet . Since the king 's feet become black and white in colour , he gains the epithets Kalmashapada and Kalmasanghri ( literally , " pied feet " ) .
= = Life as a rakshasa = =
The Mahabharata narrates that Kalmashapada cultivates an intense hatred for Vashishtha and his sons . He eats Shakti and his 99 brothers to seek his vengeance . The grief @-@ stricken Vashishtha leaves his ashram and starts roaming the forest . He even tries to kill himself , but fails every time . Texts such as the Mahabharata , the Linga Purana , and the Kanchipuranam blame Vishwamitra for provoking Kalmashapada to slay Vashishtha 's sons . An older scripture , Brihaddevata , also mentions that multiple Saudasas ( sons of Sudasa ) slay the hundred sons of Vashishtha .
Various texts relate that in the forest , Kalmashapada encounters a young Brahmin couple engaged in coitus . Kalmashapada disturbs the act before climax and captures the Brahmin youth . His wife pleads that her husband has not impregnated her yet , and that it is improper to kill a Brahmin . However , Kalmashapada devours the youth . The chaste Brahmin widow wails and curses Kalmashapada that he will die if he touches any woman with amorous intent . The wife cremates her husband and commits sati by jumping into his funeral pyre .
The Shiva Purana adds an continuation : The sin of killing a Brahmin transforms into a monster called Brahmahatya , who starts following Kalmashapada . The latter tries to escape the monster , and finally reaches King Janaka 's court . There , the sage Gautama teaches Kalmashapada divine knowledge and directs him to the Shiva temple of Gokarna to free him of his sins . At Gokarna , Kalmashapada performs intense austerities and is liberated from Brahmahatya .
The Mahabharata also records an encounter between the sage Uttanka and Kalmashapada . After serving his guru Gautama for a hundred years , Uttanka is allowed to go , but must provide Gautama with Gurudakshina , a traditional repayment for his teacher 's services . Gautama 's wife Ahalya suggests that he bring her the divine earrings of Madayanti , Kalmashapada 's wife , as repayment . Uttanka meets the cannibalistic Kalmashapada , who approaches Uttanka to eat him , but Uttanka stops him and explains that he is duty @-@ bound to get Madayanti 's earrings as gurudakshina and that he , Uttanka , will return to Kalmashapada after fulfilling his obligation . Kalmashapada agrees and directs him to his wife , who refuses to part with her earrings until Uttanka brings some token from Kalmashapada as proof of his consent . Upon returning from Kalmashapada with a token , Madayanti gives him the earrings .
= = Liberation from the curse and children = =
The Mahabharata narrates that Vashishtha meets Kalmashapada at the end of the 12 @-@ year period and frees the king of the curse . The king returns to his original form and accepts the sage as his guru and purohita ( priest ) . Both of them return to Ayodhya . However , Kalmashapada is still heirless and cannot unite with his wife in coitus due to the Brahmin widow 's curse . The king requests Vashishtha to inseminate Madayanti , following the practice of niyoga . The queen becomes pregnant by the sage but does not deliver for 12 years . Finally , the frustrated queen breaks her womb with a stone and her son is born . Since the son is born with the aid of a stone ( Ashman ) , he is named Ashmaka ( " the child born of a stone " ) . The Mahabharata adds that this act of " giving " his wife to a Brahmin helps Kalmashapada attain heaven .
A central character of the epic , King Pandu , who is cursed to die upon having sex with his wife , convinces his wife Kunti to have niyoga with the gods and mother children for him , citing the example of Kalmashapada . The scholar Meyer suggests that the tale of Pandu may be inspired by the much older narrative of Kalmashapada .
Other texts agree that Vashishtha ends Kalmashapada 's curse ; however , there is some variation . In the Bhagavata Purana , Vashishtha himself strikes the queen 's belly with a stone after seven years to free the child . The Vishnu Purana credits the queen for opening her own womb , but the period is seven years .
All texts agree that Kalmashapada is an ancestor of Dasharatha and his divine son Rama , the hero of the Ramayana . The names of Kalmashapada 's children and the number of generations between Kalmashapada and Dasharatha varies . The Vishnu Purana , the Vayu Purana , the Bhagavata Purana , the Kurma Purana , and the Linga Purana contain a few variations of the names . According to them , Ashmaka was the son of Kalmashapada , and nine generations lie between Kalmashapada and Dasharatha . The Matsya Purana , the Agni Purana , the Brahma Purana , and the Harivamsa call Kalmashapada 's son Sarvakarma ( who is said to be the grandfather of Kalmashapada in the Vishnu Purana , et al . ) , but agree as to the number of generations with the Vishnu Purana , et al . The Ramayana identifies the son as Shankhana and states that ten generations lie between Kalmashapada and Dasharatha .
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= Archaeoindris =
Archaeoindris fontoynontii is an extinct giant lemur and the largest primate known to have evolved on Madagascar , comparable in size to a male gorilla . It belonged to a family of extinct lemurs known as " sloth lemurs " ( Palaeopropithecidae ) , and because of its extremely large size , it has been compared to the ground sloths that once roamed North and South America . It was most closely related to Palaeopropithecus , the second largest type of sloth lemur . Along with the other sloth lemurs , Archaeoindris was related to the living indri , sifakas , and woolly lemurs , as well as the recently extinct monkey lemurs ( Archaeolemuridae ) . The genus , Archaeoindris , translates to " ancient indri @-@ like lemur " , even though it probably became extinct recently , around 350 BC .
Archaeoindris was first described by Herbert F. Standing in 1909 based on subfossil fragmentary jaws , although Charles Lamberton later discovered a complete skull . Only six bones from the lower skeleton have been found , and excavations in the 1980s offered no leads for new finds . Its remains have been found at only one location : Ampasambazimba , a subfossil site in central Madagascar . Following its initial discovery , some subfossil remains of Megaladapis grandidieri ( a type of extinct koala lemur ) were mistakenly associated with Archaeoindris , while smaller leg bones from a juvenile and a massive adult leg bone were erroneously assumed to belong to two separate species . These errors were gradually corrected between the 1930s and 1980s . The skeleton of Archaeoindris was massive and robust , and shared many traits with that of Palaeopropithecus . The arms were longer than the legs , but no hand or foot bones have been found for comparison with the other sloth lemurs .
Size estimates based on the limited remains have varied widely , ranging as high as 244 @.@ 1 kilograms ( 538 pounds ) , but the most thorough statistical investigation using regression analyses predicts a mass of 160 kg ( 350 lb ) . Misattributions and limited remains have resulted in varying opinions about the way Archaeoindris moved in its environment , ranging from tree @-@ dwelling to ground @-@ dwelling . Its skeleton suggests it was a deliberate climber that visited the ground to travel . The diet of Archaeoindris was mostly leaves , and its habitat — prior to human arrival — was a mix of woodlands , bushlands , and savanna , rich in lemur diversity . Today , the region is dominated by grasslands and lemur diversity is very low in the nearest protected area , Ambohitantely Special Reserve . Although it was a rare lemur , it was still extant when humans first arrived on Madagascar , and it would have been vulnerable to hunting and habitat loss .
= = Etymology = =
The generic name Archaeoindris , meaning " ancient indri @-@ like lemur " , is derived from the Greek word ἀρχαῖος ( archaios , or " ancient " ) and indris , a common variation of the generic name Indri . The species name , fontoynontii ( sometimes spelled fontoynonti ) , was selected in honor of Antoine Maurice Fontoynont , the president of the Académie Malgache ( Malagasy Academy ) at the time . Fontoynont was reported to have been supervising the excavation when it was discovered .
= = Evolutionary history = =
Archaeoindris was a type of sloth lemur ( family Palaeopropithecidae ) , a recently extinct family of giant lemurs ( known as subfossil lemurs ) native to Madagascar . Its ancestors were likely arboreal ( tree @-@ dwelling ) , and this giant sloth lemur has been compared to the extinct giant ground sloths of North and South America .
Archaeoindris was most closely related to Palaeopropithecus , a genus containing the second largest of the sloth lemurs and specialized for suspensory behavior in its arboreal habitat . Traits of the postcranium ( skeleton below the skull ) indicate that Babakotia was the next most closely related sloth lemur to Archaeoindris and Palaeopropithecus , followed by Mesopropithecus , the smallest of the sloth lemurs .
All four genera of sloth lemurs are known to be a sister taxon ( close relatives ) of family Indriidae , which includes the indri ( Indri ) , sifakas ( Propithecus ) , and woolly lemurs ( Avahi ) . This relationship is supported by data from morphological , developmental , and molecular research . Another member of this clade ( related group ) is the family of monkey lemurs ( Archaeolemuridae ) . Dental features , such as the morphology of their molar teeth and the modified number of teeth in their toothcomb ( a specialized grooming structure found in lemuriforms ) , have long suggested a relationship . However , other anatomical and developmental traits suggested that monkey lemurs might be more closely related to family Lemuridae , which include five genera of lemur , including the ring @-@ tailed lemur ( Lemur catta ) . Molecular analysis has shown strong support for the former , placing the monkey lemurs in a clade with the sloth lemurs and indriids .
= = = Taxonomic classification = = =
The family Palaeopropithecidae contained a large number of species compared to most other subfossil lemur families . It included four genera and seven species , all of which are now extinct . Among these was the genus Archaeoindris , one of only a few monotypic lemur taxa .
Archaeoindris fontoynontii was first described by Herbert F. Standing in 1909 from two fragments of a maxilla ( upper jaw ) and a complete mandible ( lower jaw ) . These type specimens — AM @-@ 6239 ( maxillae ) and AM @-@ 6237 ( mandible ) — are stored in the collection at the University of Antananarivo . The mandible contains a complete set of upper teeth , the left maxillary fragment contains the last premolar ( P4 ) and all three molars ( M1 – M3 ) , and the right maxillary fragment bears both premolars ( P2 and P4 ) and the first molar ( M1 ) . At the time , Standing noted similarities with the dentition of Palaeopropithecus . Sixteen years after Standing 's discovery , Charles Lamberton discovered the first and only complete cranium ( skull ) and associated mandible for Archaeoindris , both of which were well preserved . He published this find in 1934 .
Only six postcranial specimens of Archaeoindris have been found . Two of these belonged to an adult and include a damaged humerus ( upper arm bone ) and an almost complete femur ( thigh bone ) . The other four come from an immature individual and include a damaged humerus , a damaged ulna ( lower arm bone ) , and two femurs , both lacking the epiphyses ( rounded end of the bone ) on both ends . Archaeoindris is one of the least common of the subfossil lemurs , and the few known specimens were all found at Ampasambazimba in the Central Highlands . Excavations run by a multi @-@ disciplinary Malagasy @-@ American team at this fossil site between 1983 and 1984 yielded no new subfossil remains , and no other potential sites are known for this species .
Historically , some remains from other subfossil lemurs have been mistakenly attributed to Archaeoindris , resulting in incorrect interpretations of its anatomy and behavior . In 1934 , Lamberton missed earlier attribution errors and incorrectly labeled a tibia and two fibulae ( lower leg bones ) from a species of koala lemur ( Megaladapis grandidieri ) as belonging to Archaeoindris . Because of these misattributions and Lamberton 's use of the immature bones , his reconstruction was inaccurate . In 1936 , Alice Carleton corrected Lamberton by identifying the tibia and fibulae as belonging to a koala lemur . Carleton 's corrections were later confirmed and other misattributions were corrected in the 1960s and 1970s by Alan Walker and William L. Jungers .
In 1910 , twenty @-@ four years before Lamberton 's monograph on Archaeoindris , Standing identified a massive right femur from Ampasambazimba as a new species , Lemuridotherium madagascariense . Although Standing recognized the strong similarities between Lemuridotherium and Archaeoindris , he placed them in separate genera due to what he perceived as a great size difference . Lamberton was also persuaded by the size difference , partly because he failed to recognize the smaller tibia and fibulae as belonging to the smaller Megaladapis grandidieri . Furthermore , Lamberton did not realize that the smaller femurs he assigned to Archaeoindris belonged to a juvenile . Although some later authors considered Lemuridotherium a synonym of Archaeoindris , it was not until 1988 that Martine Vuillaume @-@ Randriamanantena provided a definitive proof . Vuillaume @-@ Randriamanantena also established associations between the postcrania and crania of Archareoindris , summarized what is known about the postcranial skeleton , and documented the strong similarity with the genus Palaeopropithecus .
= = Anatomy and physiology = =
Though similar to Palaeopropithecus , Archaeoindris was significantly larger and more robust . Archaeoindris was one of the largest primates to ever evolve , and was the largest @-@ known strepsirrhine primate , weighing an estimated 160 kg ( 350 lb ) . It was roughly the size of an adult male gorilla , which was first noted by Lamberton .
Since its discovery , size estimates have varied from " larger than a human " to " possibly the largest primate ever " . In a study by Jungers from 1990 , the area of its molar teeth predicted a mass of 230 @.@ 5 kg ( 508 lb ) , while the femoral head diameter predicted a mass of 244 @.@ 1 kg ( 538 lb ) . In 1995 , Laurie Godfrey estimated a mass of 197 @.@ 5 kg ( 435 lb ) using the midshaft circumferences of the humerus and femur . Based on multiple regressions of the cortical area of the femur in 2008 , Jungers and colleagues generated the current best estimate of 161 @.@ 2 kg ( 355 lb ) with a possible range of 150 – 187 @.@ 8 kg ( 331 – 414 lb ) . These estimates were considered to be more accurate since the harder cortical bone in the midshaft of the femur supported an animal 's weight , and its thickness better correlated with the animal 's mass than the midshaft diameter ( which includes both hard cortex and spongy bone ) . The only fossil primate that was probably larger than Archaeoindris was Gigantopithecus blacki , a close relative of orangutans .
Like all three species of Palaeopropithecus , Archaeoindris exhibited derived traits not seen in the two other less specialized genera of sloth lemur . These traits included deflated auditory bullae and paired protrusions of bone around the nasal opening consisting of part of the premaxilla and the nasal bones . Its skull was wider than that of Megaladapis , but shorter , measuring 269 millimeters ( 10 @.@ 6 inches ) . Its face was shorter than that of Palaeopropithecus , with its eyes directed further forward . The neurocranium ( braincase ) was small and elevated relative to the face , unlike Palaeopropithecus . Postorbital constriction ( narrowing of the skull behind the eye sockets ) is pronounced . The skull also bore a low , broad sagittal crest ( a ridge of bone on the top of the skull to which jaw muscles attach ) and robust but smaller nuchal crests ( ridges of bone on the back of the skull to which neck muscles attach ) . Unlike Palaeopropithecus the rims of the orbits ( eye sockets ) were not as thick . The area of the orbit was 946 mm2 ( 1 @.@ 466 sq in ) , comparable to that of gorillas . Based on the ratio of its orbit area to the size of its optic canal , Archaeoindris had low retinal summation , meaning its eyes were less sensitive to light ( like living diurnal lemurs ) . Yet the ratio was not as low as in comparably sized apes , suggesting Archaeoindris had low visual acuity and lacked trichromatic color vision .
The jaw exhibited a long , robust mandibular symphysis ( joining of the two halves of the lower jaw ) , which fused early during development . Its palate ( bones on the roof of the mouth ) was rectangular . Like other sloth lemurs , it likely experienced accelerated dental development , and had an adult dental formula of 2 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 @.@ 32 @.@ 0 @.@ 2 @.@ 3 . Its teeth were also similar to those of Palaeopropithecus , both in morphology and proportions . The four lower incisors that would have made up the toothcomb were modified , being shorter and more robust , possibly for feeding purposes . The canines were short and stout , but sharp . Also , there was a diastema ( gap ) between the lower premolars ( p2 and p4 ) . Other dental similarities with Palaeopropithecus included small third upper and lower molars ( M3 and m3 ) , the first and second molars were narrow and long , and the enamel of its cheek teeth was crenulated ( low and rounded ) , though not as wrinkled and slightly higher @-@ crowned .
Most bones of the postcranial skeleton , including the bones of the hands , feet , vertebral column , ribs , radius ( lower arm bone ) , tibia , and fibula , have not been found for Archaeoindris . As with many cranial features , the postcranial bones that have been discovered are similar to that of Palaeopropithecus , but significantly larger and more robust . The head of the femur was large and lacked a fovea capitis femoris ( a small depression in the head of the femur ) . The femur was short and extremely robust , had a very high collodiaphyseal angle ( the angle of the neck and shaft of the bone ) , and the greater trochanter was small . In the adult , the humerus was significantly longer than the femur , while in the immature specimen , both the humerus and ulna were much longer than the femur , making the arms considerably longer than the legs , as also seen in Palaeopropithecus . The relative length of the arms to the legs was shorter in Archaeoindris , so although its intermembral index was over 100 , it was lower than that of Palaeopropithecus .
= = Behavior = =
Archaeoindris is thought to have been a leaf @-@ eater ( folivorous ) , a view supported by wear patterns on its teeth . Its fused mandibular symphyses and the likelihood of accelerated dental development suggest that it began processing fibrous foods in the mouth with thorough chewing . Its diet may also have included some fruits and seeds . Like most of the other giant lemurs , Archaeoindris is thought to have been diurnal because of its relatively small orbits , which are comparable to those of gorillas .
Both Standing and Lamberton assumed Archaeoindris to be a slow @-@ moving tree @-@ dweller like Megaladapis , primarily due to the misattributed bones . Lamberton also speculated that it would have resembled a ground sloth — a view later supported by Jungers in 1980 after several misattributions had been corrected and having considered its gorilla @-@ like size . Jungers went on to propose that it would have spent most of its time on the ground ( terrestrial ) . However , the functional morphology of its hip joint indicates a degree of mobility typically seen in more arboreal animals . Other traits shared with Palaeopropithecus , particularly seen in the femur , suggest that Archaeoindris spent considerable time in the trees for feeding and possibly nesting , although it also would have visited the ground to feed and travel . It is described as a deliberate , scansorial ( climbing ) browser , and it is unknown whether it was like Palaeopropithecus in performing hang @-@ feeding since hand and foot bones are missing . Given its bulky size , this would be unexpected .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Archaeoindris is only known from one subfossil site , Ampasambazimba , in central Madagascar , and all remains date to the Late Quaternary . The area today is dominated by grasslands , particularly of the grass genus Aristida . Prior to human arrival , the area around Ampasambazimba was not completely forested , but more of an open habitat , consisting of a mix of woodlands , bushlands , and savanna . Animal remains at this subfossil site have yielded about 20 species of lemur living in sympatry ( sharing the same geographic area ) . In comparison , the nearby Ambohitantely Special Reserve today contains only 4 species , roughly 20 % of the area 's original lemur diversity .
= = Extinction = =
Despite being the most species @-@ rich family among the giant lemurs , all four genera of sloth lemur , including Archaeoindris , have gone extinct . Radiocarbon dating of the stratigraphic level of some of the Archaeoindris remains were dated to 8000 BP , while two other specimens were dated to 2362 – 2149 BP ( 412 – 199 BCE ) and 2711 – 2338 BP ( 761 – 388 BCE ) . From these dates , it is likely that Archaeoindris was still alive on the high plateau in 350 BCE when the first humans reached the west coast of Madagascar , despite being rare by that time . Consequently , it would have been especially vulnerable to hunting and habitat loss .
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= 1942 Belize hurricane =
The 1942 Belize hurricane was the only known hurricane to strike Belize in the month of November . The thirteenth observed tropical cyclone , eleventh tropical storm , and fourth hurricane of the 1942 Atlantic hurricane season , this storm was detected in the vicinity of Turks and Caicos Islands on November 5 . Initially a tropical storm , it strengthened slowly while moving westward and then south @-@ southwestward across the Bahamas . On November 6 , the storm became a Category 1 hurricane on the modern day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Later that day , it made landfall in Cayo Romano , Camagüey Province , Cuba . Impact in Cuba and the Bahamas was limited to lower barometric pressure readings and strong winds . While crossing Cuba , the system weakened to a tropical storm early on November 7 , shortly before emerging into the Caribbean Sea . The storm re @-@ strengthened into a hurricane later that day and headed southwestward .
Late on November 8 , this system curved westward and intensified into a Category 2 hurricane . Six hours later , it peaked with winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) . Early on November 9 , the storm struck Caye Caulker and northern Belize District . Rapidly weakening , the system fell to tropical storm status within 12 hours of landfall . By early on November 10 , it emerged into the Bay of Campeche . The storm meandered erratically until striking the Yucatán Peninsula on November 11 and dissipating hours later . Strong winds were observed in Belize and Mexico 's Yucatan Peninsula . Severe damage was reported in the former . About 90 % of structures in San Pedro Town were destroyed , while Newtown was completely obliterated , causing its residents to relocate and establish the village of Hopkins . Trees and crops such as coconuts also suffered heavy losses . Overall , nine deaths and approximately $ 4 million ( 1942 USD ) in damage were reported .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved through the West Indies between November 3 and November 4 . The wave reached the vicinity of Turks and Caicos Islands on November 5 , where it developed into a tropical storm at 0000 UTC . The storm moved north @-@ northwestward and then westward across the southern Bahamas . A ridge aloft blocked the storm 's westward progress and caused it to re @-@ curve west @-@ southwestward on November 6 . The system strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane at 1200 UTC on the modern day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Around 1800 UTC on November 6 , the storm made landfall on Cayo Romano in Camagüey Province with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . The system quickly weakened while crossing the mountainous terrain of Cuba and fell to tropical storm intensity early on November 7 , shortly before emerging into the northwestern Caribbean Sea . Later that day , the storm re @-@ intensified into a Category 1 hurricane and continued on a southwestward path .
Around midday on November 8 , the storm curved westward while approaching Belize and strengthened into a Category 2 hurricane . Shortly thereafter , the hurricane attained its maximum sustained wind speed of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) ; this may be a conservative assessment , as it is possible the storm strengthened into a major hurricane , but there was no conclusive data . This storm was the only known hurricane to strike Belize in the month of November . At about 0000 UTC on November 9 , the storm struck Caye Caulker and then northern Belize District at the same intensity . An observatory in Belize City recorded a barometric pressure of 991 mbar ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) – the lowest in association with this storm . The storm rapidly weakened inland and fell to tropical storm intensity by 1200 UTC on November 9 . It then curved northwestward , reaching the Bay of Campeche early on November 10 . The storm drifted erratically to the west of the Yucatán Peninsula and eventually curved southeastward . Around 1200 UTC on November 11 , the system made another landfall near Campeche , Campeche with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . Less than six hours later , the storm weakened to a tropical depression and dissipated shortly thereafter .
= = Impact = =
In the Bahamas , a barometric pressure reading of 997 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) and force 9 sustained winds on the Beaufort scale were observed on at Georgetown on Exuma . No damage was reported in that country . Strong winds were reported in some areas of Cuba . Cayo Paredon Grande in Camagüey Province recorded sustained winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , while the city of Camagüey observed wind gusts up to 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) . In Mexico , the storm struck the Gulf Coast of the Yucatan Peninsula near Campeche , Campeche , where wind gust of force 9 on the Beaufort scare were observed . In Quintana Roo , damaged vegetation fueled a large forest fire .
Although the storm 's intensity was equivalent to a Category 2 hurricane , sustained winds in Belize reached only 54 mph ( 87 km / h ) . Damage from the hurricane was mainly limited to an area along the coast about 100 miles ( 160 km ) north to south and 40 to 50 miles ( 64 to 80 km ) east to west . In San Pedro Town , about 90 % of structures were destroyed . Newtown was completely demolished , causing its resident to establish the city of Hopkins further south . At Ambergris Caye , many houses and coconut plantations were damage or destroyed . This forced many laborers and coconut plantation owners to seek new professions ; most of them entered the fishing industry . Nine deaths were reported , though the toll may have been higher , as numerous small fishing boats were beached or swept out to sea . Widespread damage to vegetation and trees occurred . An assessment of damage after the storm indicated that more than 75 % of the canopy species had been destroyed . Although the low bush was not badly damaged , about 25 % to 50 % of the pine trees were toppled . Damage on deep soils was largely from breakage while on shallow soils mostly from wind throw . Tides along the coast split Caye Caulker into three separate islands and swept away " everything in its path " . Overall , damage totaled approximately $ 4 million , with $ 1 million to private and public property , including buildings and dwellings . The remaining $ 3 million in damage was incurred to coconuts and other crops ; this total possibly includes damage to the mahogany and chicle industries .
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= Weinen , Klagen , Sorgen , Zagen , BWV 12 =
Weinen , Klagen , Sorgen , Zagen ( Weeping , lamenting , worrying , fearing ) , BWV 12 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed it in Weimar for Jubilate , the third Sunday after Easter , and led the first performance on 22 April 1714 in the Schlosskirche , the court chapel of the Schloss in Weimar .
Bach was appointed Konzertmeister in Weimar in the spring of 1714 , a position that called for the performance of a church cantata each month . He composed Weinen , Klagen , Sorgen , Zagen as the second cantata in the series , on a text probably written by court poet Salomon Franck . The work is structured in seven movements , an instrumental Sinfonia , a choral passacaglia , a recitative on a Bible quotation , three arias and , as the closing chorale , the last stanza from Samuel Rodigast 's hymn " Was Gott tut , das ist wohlgetan " ( 1674 ) . The cantata is scored for three vocal soloists , a four @-@ part choir , trumpet , oboe , bassoon , two violins , two violas , and basso continuo .
Bach performed the cantata again in his first year as Thomaskantor – director of church music – in Leipzig , on 30 April 1724 . He reworked the first section of the first chorus to form the Crucifixus movement of the Credo in his Mass in B minor . Franz Liszt based extended keyboard compositions on the same material .
= = History and words = =
On 2 March 1714 Bach was appointed concertmaster of the Weimar court capelle of the co @-@ reigning dukes Wilhelm Ernst and Ernst August of Saxe @-@ Weimar . As concertmaster , he assumed principal responsibility for composing new works , specifically cantatas for the Schlosskirche ( palace church ) , on a monthly schedule . Weinen , Klagen , Sorgen , Zagen is the second cantata in this series , composed for the third Sunday after Easter , Jubilate , after Himmelskönig , sei willkommen , BWV 182 , for Palm Sunday and Annunciation , and before Erschallet , ihr Lieder , erklinget , ihr Saiten ! BWV 172 , for Pentecost . The prescribed readings for that Sunday were from the First Epistle of Peter , " Submit yourselves to every ordinance of man " ( 1 Peter 2 : 11 – 20 ) , and from the Gospel of John , Jesus announcing his second coming in the so @-@ called Farewell Discourse , saying " your sorrow shall be turned into joy " ( John 16 : 16 – 23 ) . The text , depicting the affliction that Christians have to pass , is assumed to have been written by Salomon Franck , the Weimar court poet who wrote most texts for Bach cantatas of the Weimar period . It follows details of the Gospel and the idea from the epistle reading : " For this is thankworthy , if a man for conscience toward God endure grief , suffering wrongfull . " ( verse 19 ) . The text of the opening chorus corresponds to John 16 : 20 , the text of the first recitative is taken from Acts 14 : 22 , " we must through much tribulation enter into the kingdom of God " . Franck contends that this is true not only for the disciples who were addressed directly , but for every Christian . Movement 4 sees the suffering of Jesus as a consolation for the afflicted Christian , movement 5 voices a decision to follow Jesus even in suffering , movement 6 offers the consolation that it will be only a short time until all sadness is overcome , alluding to ( as in movement 4 ) Revelation 2 : 10 . The cantata is closed by the sixth and final stanza of the hymn " Was Gott tut , das ist wohlgetan " ( 1674 ) by Samuel Rodigast . Theme of the first part of the text is a situation of God 's temporary absence .
Bach first performed the cantata in the Weimar court chapel on 22 April 1714 , then performed it in Leipzig in his first year as Thomaskantor on 30 April 1724 . In Leipzig , Jubilate was the beginning of the trade fair Ostermesse ( Easter fair ) which attracted visitors for three weeks . His predecessor , Johan Kuhnau , had already noted that " visitors and distinguished gentlemen certainly want to hear something fine in the principal churches . "
Bach reworked the first section of the first chorus to form the Crucifixus movement of the Credo in his Mass in B minor , the central movement of that work , three decades later . Franz Liszt based works for keyboard ( organ or piano ) on the first section of movement 2 , Prelude after a theme from Weinen , Klagen , Sorgen , Zagen by J. S. Bach ( S.179 , 1854 ) and Variations on a theme from Weinen , Klagen , Sorgen , Zagen by J. S. Bach ( S.180 , 1862 ) .
= = Scoring and structure = =
The cantata in seven movements is scored for three vocal soloists ( alto ( A ) , tenor ( T ) and bass ( B ) ) , a four @-@ part choir SATB , trumpet ( Tr ) , oboe ( Ob ) , bassoon ( Fg ) , two violins ( Vl ) , two violas ( Va ) and basso continuo ( Bc ) . The duration is given as c . 28 minutes .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) .
= = Music = =
The autograph score is titled " Concerto a 1 Oboe , 2 Violini , 2 Viole , Fagotto è 4 Voci coll ' Organo " . John Eliot Gardiner notes that the keys of the arias and the closing chorale move upwards like a ladder , ascending by thirds .
= = = 1 = = =
The cantata is opened by a Sinfonia , marked adagio assai , which resembles the slow movement of an oboe concerto , with an expressive and plaintive solo .
= = = 2 = = =
The first choral movement , " Weinen , Klagen , Sorgen , Zagen " ( Weeping , lamentation , worry , despair ) , is in da capo form . The first section is built on a basso ostinato as an old @-@ style passacaglia in 3 / 2 time . The lamento , a chromatic fourth ostinato , is repeated twelve times . Musicologist Julian Mincham notes that Henry Purcell arrived at a similar motif in Dido 's Lament in the opera Dido and Aeneas , which Bach probably did not know . The first four words are each sung by a different vocal part , each overlapping the next . Beginning with the highest voice , each part sings an extended sigh . The setting is intensified , until in the seventh repeat all voices continue the text simultaneously : " Angst und Not " ( " dread and need " or " anguish and trouble " ) . The ninth repeat is similar to the first , but in more extreme harmonies . The twelfth repeat is instrumental . The middle section of the line about the Christians " die das Zeichen Jesu tragen " ( that bear the marks of Jesus ) , first marked " un poco allegro " , is in a contrasting mood . Its last section is marked andante , the voices enter one after the other , beginning with the lowest and rising . Throughout the middle section , the instruments play colla parte with the voices . John Eliot Gardiner describes the first section as a " tombeau , one of the most impressive and deeply affecting cantata movements Bach can have composed to that point " .
= = = 3 = = =
The only recitative , " Wir müssen durch viel Trübsal in das Reich Gottes eingehen " ( We must enter the Kingdom of God through much sorrow ) , is accompanied by the strings in a recitativo accompagnato .
In German , sorrow is mentioned first , then the final Kingdom of God . Bach repeats the beginning text four times , while the singular destination appears only once . The key word " Trübsal " is illustrated each time by a downward line , each time with more intensity . In the end , an ascending scale in the first violin illustrates the idea of entering the kingdom of God . The scale is in C major , while the movement is in C minor , a symbol of the Kingdom of God which is a seen but not yet present . The scale is related to the beginning of the tune of the closing chorale .
= = = 4 = = =
The first of three arias , " Kreuz und Krone sind verbunden " ( Cross and crown are bound together ) , reflects the conflicting motifs of " Kreuz und Krone " ( cross and crown ) and " Kampf und Kleinod " ( conflict and jewel ) . The aria for alto voice and an oboe which almost always present , is in da capo form , ABA . A ritornello frames part A , but also accompanies the vocal entry . It is thus heard six times in different context , related to the repetitions of the passacaglia of movement 2 . The music illustrates the union of the four contrasting elements ( all beginning with K ) : Kampf is sung as a melisma with a trill in measure 15 , the preciousness of the jewel appears as a trill in the voice or the accompaniment . The text is also repeated in the middle section , as Bach was still experimenting with the da capo form .
= = = 5 = = =
In the second aria , " Ich folge Christo nach " ( I follow after Christ ) , the decision to follow Jesus is made . " Walking steps " in imitation symbolize the following . The first motif is an upward scale , illustrating the direction of Heaven , played by the first violin , imitated in fast succession by the second violin and then the continuo . The voice enters with the same motif . Towards the end , the steps are expanded to more than an octave , reaching Heaven . The bass singer and the continuo are in unison , interpreted as a mystical union of man and God .
= = = 6 = = =
During the last aria , " Sei getreu , alle Pein " ( Be faithful , all pain ) , the trumpet plays the chorale tune " Jesu , meine Freude " as a cantus firmus ; Bach may have thought of the stanza " Weicht , ihr Trauergeister " ( Go away , mournful spirits ) . The form of the aria follows the bar form of the chorale instead of the usual da capo form .
= = = 7 = = =
The closing chorale , " Was Gott tut , das ist wohlgetan " ( What God does , is well done ) , is set for four parts , illuminated by an instrumental obbligato part . Masaaki Suzuki and Gardiner use the trumpet that played the cantus firmus in the preceding aria .
= = Selected recordings = =
The table entries are excerpted from the list of recordings from the selection on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Choirs are roughly marked as large by red background to One voice per part ( OVPP ) by green background , orchestras from large ( red ) to period instruments in historically informed performances ( green ) .
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= Long War ( mod ) =
Long War is a fan @-@ made partial conversion mod for the turn @-@ based tactics video game XCOM : Enemy Unknown and its expansion , XCOM : Enemy Within . It was first released in early 2013 , and it exited beta at the end of 2015 . Almost every aspect of the original game is altered , creating a longer , more difficult campaign that presents players with more strategic choices and customization options . Long War adds a significant number of new soldier classes , abilities , weapons , armors , and usable items , and also introduces new features , including soldier fatigue and improvements to alien units over the course of the game .
The mod was developed by a team that came to include four core members , with assistance from 29 contributors , 20 voice actors , and three members of Firaxis Games , the developer of Enemy Unknown and Enemy Within . According to one of the mod 's core developers , Amineri , the mod started as a series of changes to the base game 's configuration file , and grew more expansive as the team 's capabilities grew . By the end of the mod 's development , the team was working directly with the Unreal Development Kit , and had created a Java @-@ based tool to help manage the changes that the mod was making .
Long War has received praise from both video game journalists and from the developers at Firaxis . It has been downloaded over 650 @,@ 000 times , by over 500 @,@ 000 different users . Firaxis announced that XCOM : Enemy Unknown 's sequel , XCOM 2 , would have built @-@ in support for modding . XCOM 2 's lead developer pointed to Long War as a reason for that decision .
= = Background and development = =
XCOM : Enemy Unknown is a turn @-@ based tactics video game developed by Firaxis Games and released in October 2012 . In XCOM : Enemy Unknown , the player assumes the role of the commander of a secret multinational military organization , XCOM , as it fights off an invasion by a numerically and technologically superior invading alien force . The player directs the organization 's research and development , manages its finances , and controls its soldiers in combat . XCOM : Enemy Within is an expansion of Enemy Unknown , and was released in November 2013 . Enemy Within added two additional ways for players to upgrade their soldiers - through genetic modification and through cybernetic combat suits called MECs - as well as new alien units and a new enemy faction , a secret paramilitary organization called EXALT .
Long War is a partial conversion mod for XCOM : Enemy Unknown and XCOM : Enemy Within . It was first uploaded to NexusMods on 4 January 2013 , and exited beta with the release of version 1 @.@ 0 on 28 December 2015 . The developers announced in July 2015 with beta 15f2 that they had finished adding new features , and that any future releases would only correct bugs or balance issues . At the time that it exited beta , the mod 's development was led by four core members , JohnnyLump ( John J. Lumpkin ) , Amineri ( Rachel Norman ) , XMarksTheSpot , and Ellatan . They were joined by four senior contributors , 20 voice actors , and 29 contributors assisting with programming , art , sound engineering , translations , research , and porting the mod to Mac and Linux . Three members of Firaxis Games also provided assistance . The team released separate versions for Enemy Unknown and Enemy Within until the end of 2013 , and thereafter only released versions for Enemy Within . Long War has been downloaded from NexusMods over 650 @,@ 000 times by over 500 @,@ 000 separate users .
The aim of the Long War mod is , in the words of its developers , to create " much deeper strategic and tactical play and a greater variety of problems to throw at the player " . The mod makes changes to many of the game 's existing features , adds new concepts , and brings back concepts from the first game in the franchise , Julian Gollop 's UFO : Enemy Unknown . As the mod 's name implies , a campaign in Long War takes significantly longer than a campaign in the unmodified game , with Eurogamer 's Chris Bratt estimating it at around 150 hours . However , the mod does have an option that significantly shortens the campaign . ( at 3 : 20 )
According to Amineri , one of the mod 's core developers , initial versions of Long War used changes to the game 's configuration file to change content in the game . After other mod makers that were not part of the Long War project discovered how to make changes to the game by directly working with its Unreal Engine , more significant game alterations became possible , and the forums of NexusMods became a hub where such changes were exchanged . Many of the mod 's key features , including the increased number of soldiers and the lengthened campaign , first appeared in version beta 1 @.@ 9 , which was released in mid 2013 . Shortly after Enemy Within released , Amineri and XMarksTheSpot completed development of a Java @-@ based tool called upkmodder that allowed the team to more effectively manage and implement the changes made by the mod . In the late stages of the mod 's development , the team worked directly with the Unreal Development Kit .
= = Gameplay differences = =
Long War introduced several new concepts into the game . Soldiers that are sent on missions come back fatigued . If they are sent back out on another mission before resting off their fatigue , they return from the second mission with injuries . The combination of fatigue and much longer injury times requires players to maintain a larger number of soldiers . ( at 2 : 10 ) The mod also adds improvements over time for the enemy forces . Over the course of the game , both the aliens and the EXALT paramilitary group introduced in Enemy Within conduct their own research , granting their units new abilities . The player has the opportunity to slow down this research by defeating the aliens or EXALT when they launch missions , and conversely the research happens faster when the player is unable to stop missions and when members of the council of nations that fund the player pull out of the council . It is difficult to halt their research completely , as the aliens capture a council nation early in the game and will occasionally launch missions with vastly superior forces that the player does not have a reasonable chance to defeat . The mod does add special missions that the player can launch to re @-@ take council nations that have fallen under alien control . ( at 3 : 45 )
In the original game , players can initially field four soldiers at a time , which can be upgraded to six soldiers later in the game . In the mod , players begin the game able to deploy six soldiers , which can be upgraded to eight , with certain missions allowing the player to bring as many as twelve soldiers . The number of classes that the soldiers can be is doubled from four to eight , with each original class being split into two in the mod . Each class has a corresponding class of cybernetic MEC soldier that they can be upgraded into . The mod also adds new classes of weapons including battle rifles , carbines , and sub @-@ machine guns . These choices affect soldiers damage and movement compared to the assault rifle from the base game . ( at 0 : 45 ) New usable items and armor types are also added . The mod increases the number of soldier abilities and gives players three choices instead of two when selecting new abilities each time a soldier levels up . Additionally , some of the abilities that were only available to one class in the base game became available to other classes in the mod . The mod increases psionic abilities , and gives players access to psionics earlier than in the base game . Underpinning all of these changes is a larger technology tree . Research also takes longer and has a higher cost . ( at 1 : 20 )
= = Reception = =
The developers of the base game have been effusive in their praise for Long War . XCOM 2 lead producer Garth DeAngelis said " It 's unbelievable what they did " and called it his " go @-@ to recommendation " for hardcore fans . Jake Solomon , the lead designer of XCOM : Enemy Unknown and XCOM 2 , and Ryan McFall , the lead engineer for XCOM 2 , praised the technical skill of the team behind Long War in a panel discussion at Firaxion . Solomon , who recommended the mod in a tweet in 2014 , also praised the mod for adding so much content and for answering a desire within the player community . He called the base game " basically a 20 @-@ hour tutorial for The Long War " , which Chris Bratt of Eurogamer considered an exceptionally strong recommendation for the mod . ( at 0 : 00 )
The mod has also been warmly received by video game journalists . Wired praised the amount of content added by the game and called it " the absolute best way to play XCOM " . In a video explaining the mod , Eurogamer 's Chris Bratt also praised the amount of new content , but was especially appreciative that the mod forced players to develop new strategies instead of relying on the tactics they used in the base game . ( at 1 : 20 ) Alec Meer of Rock , Paper , Shotgun complimented the mod for keeping the game fresh and capturing the feeling of surviving impossible odds , and gave the mod his strongest possible recommendation . The mod was profiled in PC Gamer 's " Mod of the Week " feature in late 2014 , and in a separate piece a year later , the publication praised how much the team behind the mod was able to accomplish considering that the base game was not built to support modding . Rock , Paper , Shotgun 's Adam Smith , in an article announcing that the Long War team were in " pre @-@ Kickstarter development " of their own game , called Long War " one of the best mods of all time " .
= = Legacy = =
In his article recommending the mod , Alec Meer of Rock , Paper , Shotgun speculated that the Long War mod influenced the development of XCOM 2 . One area where Long War 's influence was acknowledged was in the decision to support modding . The development team recognized that Enemy Unknown and Enemy Within were exceptionally difficult to mod , and aimed to make modding more accessible in the sequel . At a panel with XCOM 2 developers , Ryan McFall remarked that " we kind of watched in morbid fascination the Long War crew kind of hacking our game apart " before going on to provide a list of features and assets that would be available to people interested in modding XCOM 2 . Jake Solomon pointed to the successes of Long War and mods to games in the Civilization franchise in explaining the decision to support modding .
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= Eriskay Pony =
The Eriskay Pony is a breed of pony from Scotland . It is generally grey in colour , and has a dense , waterproof coat that protects it in harsh weather . The breed developed in ancient times in the Hebrides islands in Scotland , and a small population remained pure and protected from crossbreeding by the remoteness of the islands . It is used for light draught work , as a mount for children , in many equestrian disciplines , and for driving . The breed is rare today , with the Rare Breeds Survival Trust considering their status critical . There are two breed registries for the Eriskay , the first formed in 1971 and the second in 1986 .
= = Characteristics = =
The Eriskay Pony generally stands between 12 and 13 @.@ 2 hands ( 48 and 54 inches , 122 and 137 cm ) . It is usually grey in colour , although a few are bay or black . Dark coloured animals generally have the pangaré characteristics of a light @-@ coloured muzzle and ring around their eye . However , according to breed standards , they should not have an eel stripe . Chestnut , piebald , skewbald and excess white markings are discouraged by breed registries . The winter coat is dense and waterproof to protect from the harsh climate , with a thick mane and tail . The head is large , with a wide forehead . The neck and shoulders are well muscled , and the chest deep but generally not broad . The rib @-@ cage is long and the loins short , which increases the strength of the back . The croup is slightly sloping . It is quite similar to the Exmoor pony in body type . The Eriskay has an easy @-@ going temperament and is suitable as a mount for children . It is used for light draught work , as well as dressage , show jumping , three @-@ day eventing , western riding and driving . Eriskays have successfully competed in combined driving at highly competitive international level competitions sanctioned by the Fédération Équestre Internationale . They have also been used in therapeutic horse @-@ riding .
= = History = =
The Eriskay Pony developed in the Hebrides , a group of western isles in Scotland . The origins of the breed are ancient , with roots in Celtic and Norse breeding . It is physically similar to drawings of ponies on ancient Pictish stones found in north and west Scotland . It is related to other northern breeds , including the Icelandic horse and the Faroe pony . The Eriskay takes its name from the island of Eriskay in the Outer Hebrides . Originally , the breed had a fairly large population , and until the mid @-@ 19th century the Eriskay and similar ponies were found throughout the western islands of Scotland . They were used as crofters ' ponies , as pack animals , for light draught and as mounts for children .
During the 19th century numbers were much reduced through increased crossbreeding . The crossbreeding was used to produce larger ponies for draught work , and Eriskays and other island ponies were crossed with horse breeds from mainland Europe , including Arabs and Clydesdales . Other horses , including the Norwegian Fjord , were crossed with island ponies , including the Eriskay , to produce the Highland pony . A few specimens of the Eriskay were preserved on the remotest islands of Scotland , mainly due to the difficulties of accessing the islands . This stock of ponies remained pure , but through the advent of mechanisation , declined in population to around 20 animals in the early 1970s . In 1941 the SS Politician foundered off the Eriskay coast , and the islanders , using the Eriskay ponies , carried away the cargo of 250 @,@ 000 bottles of whisky .
Today the Eriskay is rare . Its population is considered to be at critical status by the UK @-@ based Rare Breeds Survival Trust , meaning that there are 300 or fewer breeding females registered in the world today . In 2006 , there were believed to have been around 300 mares and 4 purebred stallions , and by 2009 this number had risen to around 420 ponies worldwide . It is possible that the Eriskay is the last surviving Hebrides pony breed . There are two breed registries that represent the breed . The first ( the Eriskay Pony ( Purebred ) Studbook Society or Comann Each nan Eilean , formed in 1971 has the goal of maintaining the purity of the Eriskay breed , and disallows all crossbreeding . The second ( the Eriskay Pony Society , formed in 1986 aims to produce ponies with desirable traits , which the registry feels will help promote their survival – this registry has considered the possibility of cross @-@ breeding . The Eriskay Pony Society achieved legal recognition as a breed society and passport issuing organisation for the UK in 1995 ; Comann Each nan Eilean did not receive legal recognition until 2002 .
In addition to the domesticated ponies there is a small herd of Eriskay ponies living in a feral state on the Holy Isle . These ponies are descended from a group of five ponies brought to the Holy Isle to when it was owned by the Universities Federation for Animal Welfare in the 1970s to form a nature reserve . Today the island is owned by the Samye Buddhist Centre for World Peace and Health . They operate a policy of non @-@ intervention , allowing the ponies to live without human interference .
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= New York State Route 335 =
New York State Route 335 ( NY 335 ) is a north – south state highway located within the town of Bethlehem in Albany County , New York , in the United States . It extends for 1 @.@ 77 miles ( 2 @.@ 85 km ) from an intersection with Feura Bush Road near the hamlet of Delmar to a junction with NY 443 in the hamlet of Elsmere . The two @-@ lane route , named Elsmere Avenue , also has an intersection with NY 32 about halfway through the route . NY 335 was assigned to its current alignment in the 1930s .
= = Route description = =
NY 335 begins at an intersection with Feura Bush Road southeast of the hamlet of Delmar in the town of Bethlehem . Although Feura Bush Road is now NY 910A , an unsigned reference route , it was once part of NY 32 . From Feura Bush Road , NY 335 heads northward as a two @-@ lane street named Elsmere Avenue , passing several housing tracts in an otherwise open area of the town . After a half @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) , the route meets the Delmar Bypass , a four @-@ lane divided highway carrying NY 32 through Bethlehem . Past the bypass , NY 335 traverses dense residential neighborhoods on its way to the hamlet of Elsmere , one of several communities located along NY 443 .
In Elsmere , the route runs along the east side of Bethlehem Cemetery on its way to a junction with Kenwood Avenue , a local east – west street that becomes NY 140 at a junction less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the west in the adjacent hamlet of Delmar . Continuing on , NY 335 serves two more blocks of homes before passing under an overpass that once carried a Delaware and Hudson Railway line . The abandoned overpass serves as a divider between the residential section of the community and Elsmere 's central business district , where NY 335 ends at a junction with NY 443 ( Delaware Avenue ) one block north of the old railroad bridge .
= = History = =
On May 11 , 1914 , the state of New York awarded a contract to rebuild Elsmere Avenue to state highway standards . The project cost $ 18 @,@ 489 ( equivalent to $ 436 @,@ 795 in 2016 ) , and the reconstructed road was added to the state highway system on October 27 , 1914 , as unsigned State Highway 1184 . It did not receive a posted designation until the 1930s , when it was designated NY 335 . At the time , the route connected to NY 32 at Feura Bush Road . In 1959 , the state of New York developed plans for the Delmar Bypass , which would intersect NY 335 a short distance north of Feura Bush Road . The Bethlehem Central Board of Education had called for a grade @-@ separated interchange between the highway and NY 335 to ensure the safety of school buses on the latter road , a major bus route ; however , the junction was ultimately built as an at @-@ grade intersection .
The Delmar Bypass was opened in December 1963 , connecting Elm Avenue in the west to U.S. Route 9W in the east . The state did not add traffic lights to any of the four intersections on the bypass as a late 1963 study indicated that the signals were unnecessary . In mid @-@ January 1964 , the Bethlehem Town Board pushed the state to add traffic lights to every intersection in the wake of several accidents and near @-@ misses at the crossings . This request was eventually granted . The Delmar Bypass did not have a signed route number until the 1970s when NY 32 was realigned to follow the highway . As a result , NY 335 no longer connected to a signed route at its south end .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Bethlehem , Albany County .
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= Mythodea =
Mythodea — Music for the NASA Mission : 2001 Mars Odyssey is a 1993 choral symphony by Greek electronic composer and artist Vangelis . Originally premiered in concert in 1993 , it was published in 2001 by Vangelis ' new record label Sony Classical , which also set up the NASA connection and promoted a new concert .
The 2001 version of Mythodea was recorded and played on @-@ stage by : Vangelis on synthesizers and keyboards , the London Metropolitan Orchestra augmented by two harpists , sopranos Kathleen Battle and Jessye Norman , the chorus of the Greek National Opera , and , for the concert only , the Seistron and Typana percussion ensembles . The concert was held in Athens , Greece on June 28 , 2001 , and the record was officially released on October 23 , 2001 , to coincide with the 2001 Mars Odyssey spacecraft entering the orbit of planet Mars . A video of the concert was released in early 2002 .
= = First concert : 1993 = =
The world premiere of Mythodia ( first spelling ) took place on July 13 , 1993 as a public performance at the Herodes Atticus Theater , in Athens , Greece , for charity purposes . On stage were : Vangelis , who provided the full musical score accompanied by two harpists ; mezzo @-@ soprano Markella Hatziana , soprano Lucienne Deval , and the chorus and percussion of the Greek National Lyric Stage , conducted by Yvan Cassar .
Mythodia was then a piece in seven movements . Vangelis not only composed the music , he also wrote the lyrics in Ancient Greek . In a 2001 interview with KLEMblad magazine , Vangelis stated ,
" This piece was composed in an hour . Yes , it took me an hour . [ … ] I 'm not using the technology in the conventional way . I 'm not using computers . "
For the encore , Vangelis played a selection of his repertoire , including " La Petite Fille de la Mer " ( from the album L 'Apocalypse des Animaux ) , " Chariots of Fire " , " Pulstar " ( from the album Albedo 0 @.@ 39 ) , three tracks from the soundtrack of the film Conquest of Paradise ( " Hispañola " , " City of Isabel " and " Conquest of Paradise " ) , and finished with a performance of the Greek national anthem .
= = Second concert : 2001 = =
Mythodea would remain unheard in public for the next eight years , but Vangelis kept a recording of the 1993 concert for himself . Around the year 2000 , Peter Gelb was the head of Sony Classical and was steering the record company in the direction of crossover music rather than mainstream classical repertoire . He had just signed with Vangelis and was in the process of selecting their first release together . Gelb was listening to some tapes that Vangelis had sent to him when he came upon Mythodea . He described the event in an interview : " When I first heard Mythodea I was in ecstasy with its rhythm and power themes , and with no further hesitation I suggested it was recorded immediately . "
With the approval of Vangelis to record Mythodea with a full orchestra as Gelb had suggested , Sony Classical developed a marketing plan of Mythodea that with the help of Vangelis ' friend and colleague , Dr. Scott Bolton , grew to include a promotional tie @-@ in with NASA , a dedicated website , an audio CD and a live concert that involved the Greek Government and was broadcast on TV and published on video . The deal with NASA made Mythodea the official music of the mission involving the spacecraft 2001 Mars Odyssey . This mission took the spacecraft to the orbit of Mars on October 23 , 2001 , and the audio CD of Mythodea was scheduled to be officially released on the same day . Vangelis described the connection he felt between the music and the mission on the 2001 Mars Odyssey official website :
The premiere of the new version of Mythodea was held on June 28 , 2001 . By this date , the album had already been recorded and was finished . The concert was a live performance of the album , with everyone involved in the recording reprising their roles plus additional performers . The setting was the ancient ( 6th century BC ) Temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens , Greece , featured on the album and video covers . Vangelis commented on the selection of location in an interview : " The record company wanted to promote this work and asked me ' where [ ... ] ? ' and I thought that [ ... ] Greece was really appropriate . And at the same time I had a proposition from the Minister of Culture [ ... ] and this is what happened . "
The concert was taped for later broadcast on TV and release on DVD . The budget was set at US $ 7 million , split in half between the record company , Sony Classical , and the Greek government , which considered the concert a good promotion for Greece abroad and included it as part of the Greek Cultural Olympiad leading to the 2004 Summer Olympics . There were some objections raised , mainly by fellow musician Mikis Theodorakis , over the use of both public money and an archaeological site . Vangelis himself , like in 1993 , waived payment for his performance .
The spectacle involved 224 musicians on stage , the same involved in the recording : Vangelis , two harpists , the 75 @-@ person London Metropolitan Orchestra , the 120 @-@ person chorus of the Greek National Opera , plus newcomers Greek percussion ensembles Seistron and Typana , that provided 24 timpani . In the back , a projection screen measuring 180 metres in length and 24 metres in height ( 591 ft by 79 ft ) showed images of Mars supplied by NASA , combined with elements of ancient Greek mythology .
The number of attending spectators to the ticket @-@ paid event was between 2 @,@ 000 and 2 @,@ 500 , with another 30 @,@ 000 people watching for free on a giant screen at the nearby Panathinaiko Stadium . The concert lasted just over one hour , after which three encores were played : Chariots of Fire , Conquest of Paradise , and a combination of Movements 9 and 10 . Mars itself made a special appearance at the concert as an announcer told the spectators to look for an orange spot shining in the clear sky above the orchestra . The concert was repeated the following day without an audience , to get extra camera angles . Despite not having been announced , around 50 people who showed up at the venue were admitted for free , authorized by Vangelis himself . Mythodea was expected to be performed by other orchestras , without Vangelis ' participation , but as of 2007 that had not happened .
= = Album = =
The album was recorded at the Athens Μέγαρο Μουσικής ( Megaro Moussikis , lit . Music Hall ) , chosen for its excellent acoustics . For the recording , Vangelis expanded the original composition of 1993 by adding two movements , extending two more and inserting some new cues throughout . The chorus parts were also touched upon , with lyrics and melodic changes .
Except for Vangelis , none of the performers of the 1993 concert reprised their roles . Instead , Vangelis was accompanied by the London Metropolitan Orchestra augmented with two harpists , sopranos Kathleen Battle and Jessye Norman ( both Sony Classical artists as well ) , and the Greek National Opera Choir and percussion ensemble . Vangelis asked musician Blake Neely to make the instrument transcriptions and conduct the orchestra as well .
Although the album was finished by the date of the concert in June 2001 , its release was held back until October . A promotional CD @-@ audio was nevertheless given to the press at the date of the concert and a CD @-@ audio in a blue velvet box was given to guests of a private dinner that took place after the concert . In 2004 , two of these boxes were auctioned off online for charity purposes , fetching a total of US $ 2 @,@ 435 .
= = = Track listing = = =
" Introduction " – 2 : 43
" Movement 1 " – 5 : 41
" Movement 2 " – 5 : 39
" Movement 3 " – 5 : 51
" Movement 4 " – 13 : 42
" Movement 5 " – 6 : 35
" Movement 6 " – 6 : 27
" Movement 7 " – 4 : 58
" Movement 8 " – 3 : 07
" Movement 9 " – 5 : 00
" Movement 10 " – 3 : 03
The album was officially released in the audio CD format only , on October 23 , 2001 to coincide with the entry of the 2001 Mars Odyssey spacecraft in the orbit of Mars , but copies were already on sale by September in some markets . Two CD @-@ singles were also released , both featuring a track called " Mythodea Special Edit " ( 3 : 57 ) which combined parts of " Movement 9 " and " Movement 1 " , plus either " Movement 1 " or " Movement 7 " . They were not widely available , so their original purpose may have been purely promotional , as were specifically a number of other CD @-@ single releases .
There were variations on the track listing : some releases of the album carried alternative titles " Movement 1 " through " Movement 11 " , and " Mythodea Special Edit " was sometimes included either as a bonus or as a hidden track .
The audio CD is CD @-@ Text @-@ enhanced , with the following header appearing on compatible players : Mythodea - Music for the NASA Mission : 2001 Mars Odyssey - Kathleen Battle , Jessye Norman , Vangelis . Text for tracks appears like this one for track 4 : Movement 3 / Vangelis - London Metropolitan Orchestra - Athens Opera Choir - K.Battle - J.Norman.
= = = Sales and awards = = =
The album reached # 1 in the sales charts of Greece , where it attained platinum certification and was nominated for the 2002 " Arion " Greek music awards , in the category " Best instrumental music " . In Portugal , the album reached # 2 in the charts and attained silver certification for over 10 @,@ 000 sales . The album reached # 46 in Germany and # 75 in Switzerland and remained in the charts for several weeks .
= = = Other appearances = = =
A remixed version of " Movement 1 " is included in the Vangelis compilation Odyssey : The Definitive Collection ( 2003 ) . The opening march starts with less sound effects , instruments join in one by one more clearly , and an initial spoken countdown is absent . The same " Movement 1 " was used as the title theme of reality TV series Der Maulwurf ( lit . The Mole ) , which was broadcast by German station Pro7 in 2001 . It was also used in the soundtracks of the trailers for the Hollywood films X @-@ Men ( 2000 ) and The Scorpion King ( 2002 ) . Finally , " Movement 9 " is included in the compilation album Classic Kathleen Battle / A Portrait .
= = Video = =
A one @-@ hour condensed edit of the concert was made available for broadcast by TV stations and later released on video , cutting the intervals and leaving just the first encore , for a total running time of 76 minutes . More significantly , the live playing and singing were replaced by the album version mixed with live applause , except the encore which retained the original full @-@ live recording . The synchronization of the live performance with the album recording was achieved with a click track being played to the performers .
The DVD @-@ Video and VHS were released on February 17 , 2002 . The DVD featured PCM stereo and 5 @.@ 1 Dolby Digital sound , 16 : 9 non @-@ anamorphic image , and had as extras : artist biographies , " Making of Mythodea " , music video , an introduction by NASA , and written notes by Vangelis . The DVD @-@ video reached gold status in Portugal , for over 14 @,@ 000 sales .
= = Personnel = =
= = = 1993 = = =
Music composed , arranged and produced by Vangelis
Concert conceived , designed and directed by Vangelis
Vangelis : synthesizers , keyboards
Markella Hatziana , mezzo @-@ soprano
Lucienne Deval , soprano
Choir and percussion of the National Lyric Stage , Yvan Cassar : conductor
= = = 2001 = = =
Album composed , arranged and produced by Vangelis
Concert conceived , designed and directed by Vangelis
Vangelis : synthesizers , keyboards
Kathleen Battle , Jessye Norman : sopranos
London Metropolitan Orchestra , Blake Neely : conductor
Greek National Opera Choir , Fani Palamidi : conductor
Greek National Opera percussion emsemble ( album only )
Seistron , Typana : percussion ensembles ( concert only )
Frederick Rousseau : sound engineer and coordinator
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= Toxin @-@ antitoxin system =
A toxin @-@ antitoxin system is a set of two or more closely linked genes that together encode both a protein ' poison ' and a corresponding ' antidote ' . When these systems are contained on plasmids – transferable genetic elements – they ensure that only the daughter cells that inherit the plasmid survive after cell division . If the plasmid is absent in a daughter cell , the unstable anti @-@ toxin is degraded and the stable toxic protein kills the new cell ; this is known as ' post @-@ segregational killing ' ( PSK ) . Toxin @-@ antitoxin systems are widely distributed in prokaryotes , and organisms often have them in multiple copies .
Toxin @-@ antitoxin systems are typically classified according to how the antitoxin neutralises the toxin . In a type I toxin @-@ antitoxin system , the translation of messenger RNA ( mRNA ) that encodes the toxin is inhibited by the binding of a small non @-@ coding RNA antitoxin to the mRNA . The protein toxin in a type II system is inhibited post @-@ translationally by the binding of another protein antitoxin . A single example of a type III toxin @-@ antitoxin system has been described whereby a protein toxin is bound directly by an RNA molecule . Toxin @-@ antitoxin genes are often transferred through horizontal gene transfer and are associated with pathogenic bacteria , having been found on plasmids conferring antibiotic resistance and virulence .
Chromosomal toxin @-@ antitoxin systems also exist , some of which perform cell functions such as responding to stresses , causing cell cycle arrest and bringing about programmed cell death . In evolutionary terms , toxin @-@ antitoxin systems can be considered selfish DNA in that the purpose of the systems are to replicate , regardless of whether they benefit the host organism or not . Some have proposed adaptive theories to explain the evolution of toxin @-@ antitoxin systems ; for example , chromosomal toxin @-@ antitoxin systems could have evolved to prevent the inheritance of large deletions of the host genome . Toxin @-@ antitoxin systems have several biotechnological applications , such as a method of maintaining plasmids in cell lines , targets for antibiotics , and as positive selection vectors .
= = Evolutionary advantage = =
Plasmid stabilising toxin @-@ antitoxin systems have been used as examples of selfish DNA as part of the gene centered view of evolution . It has been theorised that toxin @-@ antitoxin loci serve only to maintain their own DNA , at the expense of the host organism . Other theories propose the systems have evolved to increase the fitness of plasmids in competition with other plasmids . Thus , the toxin @-@ antitoxin system confers an advantage to the host DNA by eliminating competing plasmids in cell progeny . This theory was corroborated through computer modelling . This does not , however , explain the presence of toxin @-@ antitoxin systems on chromosomes .
Chromosomal toxin @-@ antitoxin systems have a number of adaptive theories explaining their success at natural selection . The simplest explanation of their existence on chromosomes is that they prevent harmful large deletions of the cell 's genome , though arguably deletions of large coding regions are fatal to a daughter cell regardless . MazEF , a toxin @-@ antitoxin locus found in E. coli and other bacteria , induces programmed cell death in response to starvation , specifically a lack of amino acids . This releases the cell 's contents for absorption by neighbouring cells , potentially preventing the death of close relatives , and thereby increasing the inclusive fitness of the cell that perished . This is an example of altruism and how bacterial colonies resemble multicellular organisms .
Another theory states that chromosomal toxin @-@ antitoxin systems are designed to be bacteriostatic rather than bactericidal . RelE , for example , is a global inhibitor of translation during nutrient stress , and its expression reduces the chance of starvation by lowering the cell 's nutrient requirements . A homologue of mazF toxin called mazF @-@ mx is essential for fruiting body formation in Myxococcus xanthus . When nutrients become limiting in this swarming bacteria , a group of 50 @,@ 000 cells converge into a fruiting body structure . The maxF @-@ mx toxin is a component of this nutrient @-@ stress pathway ; it enables a percentage of cells within the fruiting body to form myxospores . It has been suggested that M. xanthus has hijacked the toxin @-@ antitoxin system , replacing the antitoxin with its own molecular control to regulate its development .
It has also been proposed that chromosomal copies of plasmid toxin @-@ antitoxin systems may serve as anti @-@ addiction modules – a method of omitting a plasmid from progeny without suffering the effects of the toxin . An example of this is an antitoxin on the Erwinia chrysanthemi genome that counteracts the toxic activity of an F plasmid toxin counterpart .
Nine possible functions of toxin @-@ antitoxin systems have been proposed . These are :
Junk – they have been acquired from plasmids and retained due to their addictive nature .
Stabilisation of genomic parasites – chromosomal remnants from transposons and bacteriophages .
Selfish alleles – non @-@ addictive alleles are unable to replace addictive alleles during recombination but the opposite is able to occur .
Gene regulation – some toxins act as a means of general repression of gene expression while others are more specific .
Growth control – bacteriostatic toxins , as mentioned above , restrict growth rather than killing the host cell .
Persisters – some bacterial populations contain a sub @-@ population of ' persisters ' controlled by toxin @-@ antitoxin systems that are slow @-@ growing , hardy individuals , which potentially insure the population against catastrophic loss .
Programmed cell arrest and the preservation of the commons – the altruistic explanation as demonstrated by MazEF , detailed above .
Programmed cell death – similar to the above function , although individuals must have variable stress survival level to prevent entire population destruction .
Antiphage mechanism – when bacteriophage interrupt the host cell 's transcription and translation , a toxin @-@ antitoxin system may be activated that limits the phage 's replication .
An experiment where five TA systems were deleted from a strain of E. coli found no evidence that the TA systems conferred an advantage to the host . This result casts doubt on the growth control and programmed cell death hypotheses .
= = System types = =
= = = Type I = = =
Type I toxin @-@ antitoxin systems rely on the base @-@ pairing of complementary antitoxin RNA with the toxin 's mRNA . Translation of the mRNA is then inhibited either by degradation via RNase III or by occluding the Shine @-@ Dalgarno sequence or ribosome binding site . Often the toxin and antitoxin are encoded on opposite strands of DNA . The 5 ' or 3 ' overlapping region between the two genes is the area involved in complementary base @-@ pairing , usually with between 19 – 23 contiguous base pairs .
Toxins of type I systems are small , hydrophobic proteins that confer toxicity by damaging cell membranes . Few intracellular targets of type I toxins have been identified , possibly due to the difficult nature of analysing proteins that are poisonous to their bacterial hosts .
Type I systems sometimes include a third component . In the case of the well @-@ characterised hok / sok system , in addition to the hok toxin and sok antitoxin , there is a third gene , called mok . This open reading frame almost entirely overlaps that of the toxin , and the translation of the toxin is dependent on the translation of this third component . Thus the binding of antitoxin to toxin is sometimes a simplification , and the antitoxin in fact binds a third RNA , which then affects toxin translation .
= = = = Example systems = = = =
= = = Type II = = =
Type II toxin @-@ antitoxin systems are generally better @-@ understood than type I. In this system a labile protein antitoxin tightly binds and inhibits the activity of a stable toxin . The largest family of type II toxin @-@ antitoxin systems is vapBC , which has been found through bioinformatics searches to represent between 37 and 42 % of all predicted type II loci .
Type II systems are organised in operons with the antitoxin protein typically being located upstream of the toxin . The antitoxin inhibits the toxin by downregulating its expression . The proteins are typically around 100 amino acids in length , and exhibit toxicity in a number of ways : CcdB protein , for example , affects DNA gyrase by poisoning DNA topoisomerase II whereas MazF protein is a toxic endoribonuclease that cleaves cellular mRNAs at specific sequence motifs . The most common toxic activity is the protein acting as an endonuclease , also known as an interferase .
A third protein can sometimes be involved in type II toxin @-@ antitoxin systems . In the case of the aforementioned MazEF addiction module , in addition to the toxin and antitoxin there is a regulatory protein involved called MazG . MazG protein interacts with E. coli 's Era GTPase and is described as a ' nucleoside triphosphate pyrophosphohydrolase , ' which hydrolyses nucleoside triphosphates to monophosphates . Later research showed that MazG is transcribed in the same polycistronic mRNA as MazE and MazF , and that MazG bound the MazF toxin to further inhibit its activity .
= = = = Example systems = = = =
= = = Type III = = =
Type III toxin @-@ antitoxin systems rely on direct interaction between a toxic protein and an RNA antitoxin . The toxic effects of the protein are neutralised by the RNA gene . One example is the ToxIN system from the bacterial plant pathogen Erwinia carotovora . The toxic ToxN protein is approximately 170 amino acids long and has been shown to be toxic to E. coli . The toxic activity of ToxN is inhibited by ToxI RNA , an RNA with 5 @.@ 5 direct repeats of a 36 nucleotide motif ( AGGTGATTTGCTACCTTTAAGTGCAGCTAGAAATTC ) . Crystallographic analysis of ToxIN has found that ToxN inhibition requires the formation of a trimeric ToxIN complex , whereby three ToxI monomers bind three ToxN monomers ; the complex is held together by extensive protein @-@ RNA interactions .
= = Biotechnological applications = =
The biotechnological applications of toxin @-@ antitoxin systems have begun to be realised by several biotechnology organisations . A primary usage is in maintaining plasmids in a large bacterial cell culture . In an experiment examining the effectiveness of the hok / sok locus , it was found that segregational stability of an inserted plasmid expressing beta @-@ galactosidase was increased by between 8 and 22 times compared to a control culture lacking a toxin @-@ antitoxin system . In large @-@ scale microorganism processes such as fermentation , progeny cells lacking the plasmid insert often have a higher fitness than those who inherit the plasmid and can outcompete the desirable microorganisms . A toxin @-@ antitoxin system maintains the plasmid thereby maintaining the efficiency of the industrial process .
Additionally , toxin @-@ antitoxin systems may be a future target for antibiotics . Inducing suicide modules against pathogens could help combat the growing problem of multi @-@ drug resistance .
Ensuring a plasmid accepts an insert is a common problem of DNA cloning . Toxin @-@ antitoxin systems can be used to positively select for only those cells that have taken up a plasmid containing the inserted gene of interest , screening out those that lack the inserted gene . An example of this application comes from CcdB @-@ encoded toxin , which has been incorporated into plasmid vectors . The gene of interest is then targeted to recombine into the CcdB locus , inactivating the transcription of the toxic protein . Thus , cells containing the plasmid but not the insert perish due to the toxic effects of CcdB protein , and only those that incorporate the insert survive .
Another example application involves both the CcdB toxin and CcdA antitoxin . CcdB is found in recombinant bacterial genomes and an inactivated version of CcdA is inserted into a linearised plasmid vector . A short extra sequence is added to the gene of interest that activates the antitoxin when the insertion occurs . This method ensures orientation @-@ specific gene insertion .
Genetically modified organisms must be contained in a pre @-@ defined area during research . Toxin @-@ antitoxin systems can cause cell suicide in certain conditions , such as a lack of a lab @-@ specific growth medium they would not encounter outside of the controlled laboratory set @-@ up .
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= Australian green tree frog =
The Australian green tree frog , simply green tree frog in Australia , White 's tree frog , or dumpy tree frog ( Litoria caerulea ) is a species of tree frog native to Australia and New Guinea , with introduced populations in the United States and New Zealand , though the latter is believed to have died out . The species belongs to the genus Litoria . It is morphologically similar to some other members of the genus , particularly the magnificent tree frog ( L. splendida ) and the white @-@ lipped tree frog ( L. infrafrenata ) .
Larger than most Australian frogs , the Australian green tree frog reaches 10 cm ( 4 in ) or more in length . Its average lifespan in captivity , about 16 years , is long compared with most frogs . Docile and well suited to living near human dwellings , Australian green tree frogs are often found on window sills or inside houses , eating insects drawn by the light . The green tree frog screams when it is in danger to scare off its foe , and squeaks when it is touched .
Due to its appearance and behavioral traits , the green tree frog is a popular exotic pet throughout the world . The skin secretions of the frog have antibacterial and antiviral properties that may prove useful in pharmaceutical preparations and which have rendered it relatively immune to the population declines being experienced by many species of amphibian . It is a common species and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being " least concern " .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Australian green tree frog is a member of the New World tree frog family Hylidae and is placed in the subfamily " Pelodryadinae " which is endemic to Australia and New Guinea and includes about 160 species in the genera Cyclorana , Litoria and Nyctimystes . Frogs in the genus Litoria are distinguishable from other tree frogs by the presence of horizontal irises and the lack of pigmentation on the eyelids . The common name of the species , " White 's tree frog " , is in honor of John White 's first description in 1790 . The green tree frog was the first Australian frog to be scientifically described ; the original specimen found its way into the collection of Sir Joseph Banks , but was destroyed when the Hunterian Museum at the Royal College of Surgeons in London was bombed in World War II .
The species was originally called the " blue frog " ( Rana caerulea ) despite its green color . The specimens White sent to England were damaged by the preservative and appeared blue . The color of the frog is caused by blue and green pigments covered in a yellow layer ; the preservative destroyed the yellow layer and left the frog with a blue appearance . The specific epithet , caerulea , which is Latin for blue , has remained . This frog is sometimes referred to as Pelodryas caerulea in the scientific literature . In Australia , the frog is also known more simply as the " green tree frog " , but that name is often given to the most common green arboreal species in a region , such as the American green tree frog ( Hyla cinerea ) .
= = Description = =
The green tree frog is a plump , rather large tree frog , and can grow up to 11 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) in length , with fully @-@ grown females being slightly larger than males . There is a distinctive fatty ridge over the eye and the parotoid gland is moderately large . The iris is golden and has a horizontal slit pupil , as is typical of the Litoria genus , and the tympanum ( a skin membrane similar to an eardrum ) is visible just behind the eye . The limbs are short and robust and there are large adhesive discs at the end of the digits which provide grip while climbing . The fingers are about one @-@ third webbed , and the toes nearly three @-@ quarters webbed . The dorsal color depends on the temperature and nature of the environment , ranging from brownish- or greyish @-@ green to bright emerald green . The frog occasionally has small , irregularly @-@ shaped white spots on its back . Males have a greyish , wrinkled vocal sac under the throat while the throat of females is white . The ventral surface in both sexes is creamy @-@ white and rough in texture .
This frog is similar in appearance to the magnificent tree frog ( L. splendida ) , which inhabits only north @-@ western Australia . Older members of that species have very large parotoid glands , which cover the entire top of their heads and droop over their tympana . The parotoid gland of the green tree frog is much smaller , and it also lacks the yellow speckling on the back and the yellow markings on the hand , groin and thigh . It can be distinguished from the giant tree frog ( L. infrafrenata ) by the distinct white stripe that that species has along the edge of the lower jaw and extending to the shoulder , which is not present in the green tree frog .
The tadpoles ' appearance changes throughout their development . When newly hatched , they are 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) long and when fully developed , 44 mm ( 1 @.@ 7 in ) . They are initially mottled with brown , and increase in pigmentation ( to either green or brown ) during development . Their underside is initially dark but later becomes lighter in hue . The eggs are brown and are wrapped in a clear jelly ; they are 1 @.@ 1 to 1 @.@ 4 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 043 to 0 @.@ 055 in ) in diameter .
The call is a low , slow brawk @-@ brawk @-@ brawk , repeated many times . For most of the year , the frogs call from high positions , such as trees and gutters , but during the breeding season they descend to near the ponds and pools where they will breed . Like many frogs , green tree frogs call not only to attract a mate , but also to advertise their location outside the mating season . They are particularly vocal after rain , but the reasons for this are unclear . They emit a stress call when they are in danger , such as when being attacked by a predator or when a person steps on the log in which one is concealed .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The green tree frog is native to northern and eastern regions of Australia and to the lowlands of New Guinea . Distribution is limited mostly to areas with warm , wet tropical climates . Its range spans from Irian Jaya to Port Moresby , and is most abundant on Daru Island . The International Conservation Union ( IUCN ) suggests " scattered locations " in both New Guinea and Indonesia . In Australia its range extends from the Kimberley region of Western Australia through the Northern Territory and Queensland to north and central New South Wales and the extreme northeasterly part of South Australia . Its total extent of land occupancy is approximately 4 @,@ 078 @,@ 600 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 574 @,@ 800 sq mi ) .
The species has been introduced to both the United States and New Zealand . In the United States , it is restricted to two regions within Florida , where it was possibly introduced through the pet trade . Only small populations have been found there and it is unknown whether they have caused any ecological damage as an invasive species . In New Zealand , a number of individuals were liberated in various locations in 1897 and 1899 , and a further accidental introduction was made in the 1940s . No sightings have been reported of this species since the 1950s .
Depending on their location , green tree frogs occupy various habitats , but are not usually found in tropical rainforests . They are often found in the canopy of trees near water bodies but also occupy terrestrial habitats well away from water . They favor old stands of Eucalyptus where the trees have hollows in which water collects . They are common along inland waterways and can survive in swamps ( among the reeds ) or in grasslands in cooler climates .
Green tree frogs are little troubled by the presence of man and often live in close association with humans . They sometimes stray inside houses and are found in such places as sinks and toilets . They can also be found on outside windowsills at night , eating insects attracted to the light , and they may gather under outdoor lighting for the same reason . They sometimes occupy tanks ( cisterns ) , downpipes ( downspouts ) , and gutters , as these have high humidity and are usually cooler than the external environment . They may be drawn to the downpipes and tanks during the mating season because the fixtures amplify their calls . Green tree frogs seem to have homing abilities , being able to return to locations from which they were caught from a considerable distance after being displaced .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
Green tree frogs are very docile and unafraid of humans . They are nocturnal and come out in early evenings to call ( in spring and summer ) and hunt for food . During the day , they find cool , dark and moist areas , such as tree holes or rock crevices , in which to sleep . They are not a rainforest species but make use of the rain that falls almost daily and collects on leaves and in crevices , to keep themselves moist . Their skin exudes a waxy coating that helps prevent evaporation . In dry periods , they avoid desiccation by concealing themselves in a cool spot , perhaps by burrowing , and enveloping themselves in a cocoon made of shed skin and mucus .
The diet of the green tree frog consists mainly of insects such as moths , cockroaches and locusts . They also eat spiders and can include smaller frogs and even small mammals ( including bats ) among their prey . Frog teeth are not suited to cutting up prey , so the food item must be small enough to fit inside its mouth . Many frogs flick out their sticky tongues at prey and the victim sticks to the tip and is drawn back into the mouth and consumed . A green tree frog will use this technique for smaller prey ; for larger items however , it pounces , then pushes the prey into its mouth with its hands .
The frog has a few native predators , among them snakes and birds . Since the European settlement of Australia , non @-@ native predators have been introduced , primarily dogs and cats . The species has an average life expectancy in captivity of 16 years , but some have been known to live for over 20 years .
= = Reproduction = =
Breeding occurs between November and February . During the mating season , the males call from slightly elevated positions close to the still @-@ water sources in which they choose to breed . Clumps of between two hundred and two thousand eggs are laid which initially float , but sink within twenty @-@ four hours . The development of the tadpoles takes about six weeks , after which they undergo metamorphosis and leave the water as juvenile frogs .
= = Domestication = =
The green tree frog is one of the most popular pet frogs throughout the world . Its docile nature and long life expectancy make it an attractive choice for exotic @-@ pet owners . It is also one of the easier frogs to maintain : its diet is broad and it has a strong resistance to disease . One problem commonly associated with keeping this species as a pet is overfeeding ; green tree frogs tend to become obese if overfed . In the wild , exertion of energy is required for a frog to capture its prey . However , in captivity , they are usually given live feed in a confined space . This lessens the activity needed for feeding , resulting in weight gain . An overweight member of the species will deposit fat layers over the top of the head and body , giving it a " dumpy " appearance . Thus the name , " dumpy tree frog " .
Fireflies , genus Photinus , are poisonous to lizards , and there has been an incident when a firefly was fed to a green tree frog which subsequently died .
= = Conservation = =
Australian law gives protected status to the green tree frog — along with all Australian fauna — under the federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 . The International Union for Conservation of Nature lists the green tree frog 's conservation status as being of " least concern " , given its broad range , its large total population and its tolerance of a variety of habitat types . The population trend seems to be stable , and any decline in numbers is not likely to be at a fast enough rate to justify listing it in a more threatened category .
In suburban areas , this frog is threatened by pollution and by predation by domestic animals . Also , some of the frogs have been found to be infected with the chytrid fungus which causes the fatal amphibian disease chytridiomycosis . The frog 's status in New Guinea is poorly studied , but in 2002 , some 75 @,@ 000 individuals were exported from Indonesia as part of the pet trade and this may impact populations in some locations . The frog is present in a number of protected areas in New Guinea and it has been successfully bred in some Australian zoos . Overall the main threat to this species is the potential for a widespread disease epidemic .
= = Use in research = =
Although frogs have lungs , they absorb oxygen through their skin ; and for this to occur efficiently , the skin must be moist . A disadvantage of moist skin is that pathogens such as molds and bacteria can thrive on it , increasing the chance of infection . To counteract this , frogs secrete peptides that destroy these pathogens . The secretion from the paratoid gland of the green tree frog contains twenty @-@ five caerins , a group of peptides with antibacterial and antiviral properties . It has been found that the caerins produced by frogs of this species from different geographical localities have subtle but reproducible differences . The secretions also contain caeruleins , which have the same physiological effects as CCK @-@ 8 , a digestive hormone and hunger suppressant . These caeruleins now have a number of clinical applications . Several peptides from the skin secretions of the green tree frog have been found to destroy HIV without harming healthy T cells .
The fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis , the causal agent of chytridiomycosis , is causing declines in many species of amphibian , but it has been shown that the secretions produced by the green tree frog and certain other Australian species of frog ( Litoria chloris and Litoria genimaculata ) are protective against this fungus . The peptides inhibit the growth of the fungus in vitro and these frog species are believed not to be in decline .
Green tree frogs are sometimes used as model animals in research . The structure of their toepads was used to investigate the microstructure and properties of the epithelium that allows the animals to adhere to wet surfaces .
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= Atlantic Ocean Road =
The Atlantic Ocean Road or the Atlantic Road ( Norwegian : Atlanterhavsveien ) is an 8 @.@ 3 @-@ kilometer ( 5 @.@ 2 mi ) long section of County Road 64 that runs through an archipelago in Eide and Averøy in Møre og Romsdal , Norway . It passes by Hustadvika , an unsheltered part of the Norwegian Sea , connecting the island of Averøy with the mainland and Romsdalshalvøya peninsula . It runs between the villages of Kårvåg on Averøy and Vevang in Eida . It is built on several small islands and skerries , which are connected by several causeways , viaducts and eight bridges — the most prominent being Storseisundet Bridge .
The route was originally proposed as a railway line in the early 20th century , but this was abandoned . Serious planning of the road started in the 1970s , and construction started on 1 August 1983 . During construction the area was hit by 12 European windstorms . The road was opened on 7 July 1989 , having cost 122 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) , of which 25 percent was financed with tolls and the rest from public grants . Collection of tolls was scheduled to run for 15 years , but by June 1999 the road was paid off and the toll removed . The road is preserved as a cultural heritage site and is classified as a National Tourist Route . It is a popular site to film automotive commercials , has been declared the world 's best road trip , and been awarded the title as " Norwegian Construction of the Century " . In 2009 , the Atlantic Ocean Tunnel opened from Averøy to Kristiansund ; together they form a second fixed link between Kristiansund and Molde .
= = Route description = =
The road is a 8 @.@ 274 @-@ kilometer ( 5 @.@ 141 mi ) long section of County Road 64 that connects the island and municipality of Averøy with the mainland at Eide . The road runs across an archipelago of partially inhabited islands and skerries . To the north lies Hustadvika , an unsheltered section of the Norwegian Sea , to the south Lauvøyfjorden . The road has a width of 6 @.@ 5 meters ( 21 ft ) and a maximum gradient of eight percent . It consists of eight bridges and four resting places and viewpoints . Several tourist sites , including dining , fishing and scuba diving resorts , have been established on the islands . Along with the section from Vevang to Bud , the road has been designated one of 18 National Tourist Routes .
The road begins at Utheim on Averøy , close to the village of Kårvåg . It runs onto the island of Kuholmen and then across the 115 @-@ meter ( 377 ft ) long Little Lauvøysund Bridge onto the island of Lille Lauvøy . It continues across the 52 @-@ meter ( 171 ft ) long Store Lauvholmen Bridge onto Store Lauvøy . Next it crosses the equally long Geitøysund Bridge to Geitøya , which features a viewpoint and parking . It then runs across Eldhusøya and Lyngholmen , before reaching Ildhusøya , where there are a resting place , parking and a viewpoint . Next is Storseisundet Bridge , a cantilever bridge 260 meters ( 850 ft ) long . The municipal boundary between Eide and Averøy runs under the bridge . It then runs across Flatskjæret , where there is a viewpoint , before crossing onto Hulvågen via the three Hulvågen Bridges , which combined are 293 @-@ meter ( 961 ft ) long . From there the road runs through Skarvøy and Strømsholmen , both with a resting place . The route reaches the mainland over the 119 @-@ meter ( 390 ft ) long Vevangstraumen Bridge .
= = History = =
The first proposals to use the route were made in the early 20th century . Planning of the Rauma Line to connect the national railway network to Møre og Romsdal was under way , and several proposals were made to extend it to the coastal towns . In 1921 , Møre og Romsdal County Council chose the outer route , which would have followed a path close to that of the road . The Rauma Line was not built beyond Åndalsnes , and in 1935 the Parliament of Norway decided to connect the coastal towns in Møre og Romsdal to Åndalsnes by road instead of rail .
Although the plans were officially shelved , locals continued to work with the idea of a road connecting Averøy with the mainland . The toll company Atlanterhavsveien AS was established in 1970 . Arne Rettedal , who was Minister of Local Government and Regional Development in the early 1980s , proposed that job creation funds could be allocated to road projects . The proposal was approved in 1983 , after it had been supported by the municipalities of Averøy , Eide and Fræna . Construction started as a municipal road project on 1 August 1983 , but progressed slowly . From 1 July 1986 , the Norwegian Public Roads Administration took over the project , speeding up construction and allowing it to open on 7 July 1989 . During construction , the area was hit by 12 hurricanes . The opening of the road allowed the Tøvik – Ørjavik Ferry to be terminated .
Construction cost NOK 122 million and was financed 25 percent by debt to be recollected through tolls , 25 percent by job creation funds and 50 percent by ordinary state road grants . There was significant local opposition against toll financing , as few people believed it would be possible to pay off the road in the stipulated 15 years . However , by June 1999 the road was paid off and tolls removed . The accelerated amortization was caused both by greater than predicted local traffic and by large amounts of tourist traffic .
In 2009 , the road was Norway 's ninth @-@ most @-@ visited natural tourist attraction , with 258 @,@ 654 visitors from May through August . The route won the title " Norwegian Construction of the Century " , awarded by the Norwegian construction industry in 2005 . In 2006 , The Guardian declared it the world 's best road trip . The road has become a popular place for the automotive industry to film advertisements ; more than ten manufacturers have made television commercials along the route , often depicting the harsh weather . The Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage preserved the road as a cultural heritage in December 2009 . The Atlantic Ocean Tunnel between Averøy and Kristiansund opened on 19 December 2009 . In combination with the road it provides a fixed link between Kristiansund and Molde . This is the second fixed link between the two towns , after the 1992 opening of the Kristiansund and Frei Fixed Link .
= = Junctions = =
The following is a list of bridges and major road junctions along the road . For bridges , it lists the name , overall length and clearance below ; for junctions , the distance from the starting point and the name of the road it intersects with .
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= George E. Smith ( gambler ) =
George Elsworth Smith ( 1862 – 1905 ) was an American gambler and Thoroughbred horse racing enthusiast who became a multi @-@ millionaire during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century . Smith was given the nickname " Pittsburgh Phil " in 1885 by Chicago gambler William " Silver Bill " Riley to differentiate him from the other Smiths that also frequented Riley 's pool halls . Pittsburgh Phil is considered by many handicappers to have been an expert strategist , winning large sums of money at a time when racing statistic publications , such as The Daily Racing Form , were not widely available . At the time of his death from tuberculosis in 1905 , he had amassed a fortune worth $ 3 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 , which is comparable to $ US 85 @,@ 595 @,@ 370 today . His racing Maxims , published posthumously in 1908 , are considered to be the foundations of many modern handicapping strategies and formulas .
= = Early life and initial occupation = =
= = = Family = = =
George Elsworth Smith was born in Sewickley , Pennsylvania in 1862 to Elizabeth ( " Eliza " ) and Christian Smith . The Smith family also included two sisters , Annie and Elizabeth , and another son , William C. Smith , that was a few years younger than George Smith . His mother was originally from Ireland and emigrated to the United States in 1857 , and his father was a carpenter from Baden , Germany . Eliza remarried after Christian Smith 's death in the early 1870s to retail grocer Edward Downing , who died in the 1880s . She remarried a second time on November 20 , 1906 to real estate and coal developer Thomas S. Wood after George Smith 's death .
George Smith 's sister Anne married and had a son named James Christian McGill ( 1880 – 1972 ) . McGill was orphaned at a young age when his parents died in the mid @-@ 1880s during an unspecified epidemic and was subsequently raised , along with his infant sister Eleanor , by Mrs. Smith and George Smith . Smith was a notoriously reticent and shy individual that only granted one interview during his lifetime , in which he relayed only information pertaining to racing matters . Consequently , much of the published biographical information on Pittsburgh Phil 's early life , his rise to fame and the reasoning behind his methods on the track comes from interviews with his nephew , James McGill , who was a close confidant in the ten years preceding George Smith 's death .
= = = Cork cutting and early sporting exploits = = =
The Smith family initially lived on a small farm in Sewickley , Pennsylvania but moved in 1872 to Allegheny City when George Smith was 10 years old . The Smiths eventually settled in the neighborhood of Pleasant Valley , which was located across the Ohio River from Pittsburgh in the present day city neighborhood of California @-@ Kirkbride . George Smith 's father died within a year ( in late 1872 or 1873 ) , which created financial hardships for his mother and sisters and resulted in George going to work at the age of 12 at the local cork cutting factory ( possibly Armstrong Cork Co . ) for $ 5 per week . Smith was not happy with this occupation , once remarking on the banality of the profession later in life : " [ I ] thought [ I ] could do a little better than cutting corks , inasmuch as [ I ] knew how to divide six by two . " Smith set aside money from his weekly pay ( after giving the majority to his mother ) to purchase and train gamecocks , hiding the fowl from his devout Roman Catholic mother and sisters who greatly disapproved of gambling . He also bet on the outcomes of National League baseball games in Pittsburgh pool halls and would attribute his often sizable winnings to pay raises at the cork factory .
Most of the pool halls in 1870s Pittsburgh also broadcast horse races via telegraph . The often colorful race descriptions soon captured young Smith 's attention and he wrote down and stockpiled the names and times of the winning horses for a year to form crude racing charts . In the fall of 1879 , Smith placed his first bet on a 5 : 1 odds horse named Gabriel running in a race at the Brighton Beach racetrack at Coney Island . He won $ 38 when the horse won by 2 lengths but did not show any outward signs of emotion while the race was run . Determined that he could win at horse racing , Smith quit his job at the cork factory and accrued more than $ 5 @,@ 000 from betting on horse races in the next two years , hiding the proceeds under his mattress at home . Upon his mother eventually discovering the money , he reasoned with her that he was not really gambling because he was making logical predictions based on the past performances of horses and not merely guessing . By 1885 , Smith had become one of the most touted gamblers in Pittsburgh and had won over $ 100 @,@ 000 without ever seeing a horse race run firsthand . However , Smith was becoming too famous in Pittsburgh . He could not maintain the favorable , high odds when placing bets that he had attained earlier in his career when he was a virtual unknown because everyone in the crowd would lower the odds by betting his choices .
= = " Pittsburgh Phil " = =
= = = A new name = = =
The first horse race that Smith witnessed live was the 1885 Kentucky Derby in which Joe Cotton was the favorite and won at 4 : 5 odds , but he did not bet on the outcome . Smith decided that the best gambling prospects at the time were in Chicago and made his way to William " Silver Bill " Riley 's poolroom in late 1885 . Riley was a Civil War veteran from Brooklyn with prematurely gray hair that owned one of the first clubs in Chicago dedicated to betting on horse racing . It was Riley that saddled Smith with the nickname " Pittsburgh Phil " on their first meeting to differentiate George Smith 's bets from the rest of the " room full of Smiths . " Riley usually named his customers based on their appearances , but by McGill 's reckoning he chose the name " Pittsburgh Phil " because Smith was from Pittsburgh and Phil was short for Philadelphia . Smith quickly gained a reputation as being one of the most successful " plungers " , or men that bet large sums of money on races , in Chicago . Within a few years , he relocated to New York and focused most of his betting operations out of New York tracks .
= = = King Cadmus and Parvenu = = =
Smith also purchased and raced Thoroughbred horses under the name Pleasant Valley Stable . His racing colors during the early 1890s were royal @-@ purple and canary yellow . Smith 's brother , Bill , became his principal horse trainer during the 1890s and early 1900s . One of his most successful horses was a two @-@ year @-@ old bay colt named King Cadmus . Smith purchased King Cadmus as a yearling in 1890 for $ 4 @,@ 000 at the stable dispersal sale of the late August Belmont . The colt was a son of Kingfisher and was a full brother to another popular racehorse named King Crab . The horse only won two races in his entire racing career , but Smith won $ 195 @,@ 000 from Cadmus ' two victories . The first win occurred on September 3 , 1891 at Sheepshead Bay Race Track and resulted in Smith winning approximately $ 115 @,@ 000 , which was the largest payout from a horse race recorded in the US at that time . Cadmus ' other win occurred at Morris Park Racetrack in 1892 with Smith netting another $ 80 @,@ 000 . King Cadmus was a fast runner but he had a vicious temperament , seriously injuring several of Smith 's employees , in addition to weak legs and was sold as a three @-@ year @-@ old in 1892 .
Parvenu ( sired by Uncas , out of Necromancy ) was purchased by Smith in 1891 as a two @-@ year @-@ old and was initially considered to be a poor racing prospect by the general public due to his repeated losses early in the season . However , Smith saw potential in the colt and recognized that he could win a large amount of money if the horse could win a race against high odds . On August 29 , 1892 , Parvenu was entered in a race at Sheepshead Bay and was given 30 : 1 initial odds by bookmakers , which would have won Smith close to $ 300 @,@ 000 . However all bets had to be rescinded before the start of the race because there was a miscalculation of the horse handicapping weights , causing the odds on Parvenu to drop to 10 : 1 in the new pool . As a result , Smith only won $ 50 @,@ 000 . But despite this mishap , Smith was rewarded when the horse won nine consecutive races , netting approximately $ 200 @,@ 000 before Parvenu was retired at age four due to a spinal injury .
= = = Professional relationship with Tod Sloan = = =
Smith employed several jockeys on a race @-@ to @-@ race basis during his career as a Thoroughbred owner , including Henry " Skeets " Martin , Fred Taral , Edward R. Garrison and Sam Doggett . However , Smith considered Tod Sloan to be the best jockey in his employ and commissioned the rider to race in only his colors from 1895 to 1897 . Smith met Sloan in the fall of 1895 at a San Francisco racetrack after Sloan had been suspended for ten days for trying to " beat the barrier " , or disregarding the starting barrier that had recently been adopted at US tracks . Smith was taken with Sloan 's unique riding style , later termed the " monkey crouch " , that redistributed the rider 's weight over the neck and withers and allowed horses to run faster . However , Smith did not trust the bookmakers at the California tracks and suspected them , as well as the trainers , of rampant cheating and paying off jockeys to not win on certain horses . Consequently , Smith paid Sloan $ 500 for every race he won , insuring that his jockey would always be trying to win on any of Smith 's mounts . Sloan returned to New York with Smith in 1896 where he became one of the top jockeys on the east coast , giving Smith the most profitable years of his career .
Smith soon tired of Sloan 's off @-@ track antics , which included lavish parties and often arrogant statements that questioned Smith 's judgment on the track . A case in point was Sloan 's behavior prior to the running of 1897 Brooklyn Handicap which occurred over a sloppy , mud @-@ laden track that year . Sloan had won several races on Belmar , a gray 5 @-@ year old by Belvidere , and felt confident that the horse would win the Brooklyn Handicap , openly criticizing Smith 's choice of Howard Mann in front of his other employees . However , Smith knew that Belmar was not a fast runner in the mud and that Sloan would not push the horse to win because he disliked being splattered with mud . Smith instead put Skeets Martin , who was better at racing on sloppy tracks , on the 4 @-@ year old Howard Mann . He advised Martin to , " Use your own judgment with this horse , and don 't bother about Belmar . Tod probably won 't be anywhere near you after the first hundred yards . " Howard Mann won easily , winning $ 50 @,@ 000 for Smith , while Belmar finished in 8th place . When James R. Keene asked Smith in late 1897 for permission to take Sloan to England to race in the Cambridgeshire Handicap , Smith accepted the offer . Sloan achieved great success while racing in England , but he lost his racing license permanently in 1900 . Sloan and Smith remained friends after dissolving their partnership , the later loaning Sloan $ 5 @,@ 000 without interest after his license was revoked . After Sloan 's departure , Smith used Skeets Martin as his principal jockey , but in 1899 Martin also left the US for better racing prospects in England . Willie Shaw was ultimately hired to replace Sloan and raced for Smith from 1899 until 1903 .
= = = Suspension = = =
Smith kept few horses in 1902 and consequently allowed James R. Keene to employ Willie Shaw for much of the season . While his overall percentage of wins was still high , Shaw lost some races in a way that the general public thought was suspicious and he was accused of not trying to win . Shaw 's poor performance was soon linked to some action on Smith 's part and he was accused of paying the jockey to lose , a claim which Smith vehemently denied . In May 1903 , Shaw was suspended by The Jockey Club for presumed " listless " riding on Illyria at a May 6 race at the Jamaica Racetrack . On June 24 , 1903 , Smith was also banned from entering his horses in races overseen by The Jockey Club . He admitted to no wrongdoing , and he suspected the ban was a hold @-@ over from Willie Shaw 's suspension and resulted from The Jockey Club 's increased efforts to remove plungers from their tracks . Smith continued to make bets , notably securing $ 60 @,@ 000 when Africander won the 1903 Suburban Handicap , but had sold his stable to E.E Smatters by the end of the year .
= = Personal life = =
Smith lived in moderation compared to other horsemen of the era , with the only outward display of ostentation being a diamond ring that he would wear to track engagements . Smith also did not smoke and only drank an occasional glass of wine . He socialized with very few women and was considered to be a confirmed bachelor by his family . He was adamant about not bringing women to racetracks , even his own mother , including a reference to their distracting influence on men in his Maxims .
" A man who wishes to be successful cannot divide his attentions between horses and women . A man who accepts the responsibility of escorting a woman to the race track , and of seeing that she is comfortably placed and agreeably entertained , cannot keep his mind on his work before him ... A sensible woman understands this and cannot feel hurt at my words . "
However , Smith did court Daisy Dixon , an aspiring actress and chorus girl from Chicago , in 1896 . The courtship turned sour after he caught her cavorting with his jockey and notorious ladies man Tod Sloan . Dixon later married fellow gambler , Riley Grannan , who eventually died broke in Rawhide , Nevada in 1908 . According to McGill , Smith never had an interest in another woman after Dixon 's betrayal .
= = Methods = =
Smith took notice of every detail in horse racing . He kept detailed notes of which horses were good runners during muddy conditions and always inspected horses at the end of a race to look for subtle signs of lameness or impediments ( i.e. loose girth straps ) that may have negatively impacted a horse 's speed . As he became more famous and seemingly successful , bookmakers would often refuse to place his bets outright for fear of losing money when he won . As a result , Smith conducted most of his betting through " beards " , or men that he would commission to place bets for him . Smith tried to keep the identity of his beards a secret and never revealed their identities , even to his other commissioners . His movements were continuously followed by agents for the bookmakers and by the Pinkerton detectives employed by The Jockey Club .
" They wanted to know everything I did and was going to do . That never made me mad because it was business on their part just as it was business for me to mislead the spies . I rarely have been able to keep the same set of betting commissioners for any length of time . A few bets and my commissioners were pointed out and watched . "
Smith rarely wrote down his bets and relied on his memory to serve him when he won and had to collect his money from the numerous commissioners that placed his bets with the bookmakers .
= = Death and legacy = =
By the fall of 1903 , Smith began curtailing his turf activities for frequent trips to the Adirondacks and Hot Springs to rest . His family assumed that his " nerves " were affected from the stress of his and Shaw 's suspension from racing , but Smith had also developed a persistent cough by the early months of 1904 . He made his last bet , 4 : 1 on High Chancellor , at the Sheepshead Bay racetrack during the summer of 1904 and won $ 2 @,@ 000 .
In October 1904 , Smith traveled to the Winyah Sanitarium in Asheville , North Carolina for treatment of his worsening cough , a result of advanced tuberculosis . George E. Smith died at the sanitarium on February 1 , 1905 . His death was attributed to " shattering of his nerves " , instead of tuberculosis , due to his habit of never showing emotion . Smith was interred in Union Dale Cemetery in Pittsburgh , a short distance from his childhood home in Allegheny . His funeral occurred on February 5 during a snowstorm and was attended by many people . He was entombed in a stone mausoleum that reportedly cost $ 30 @,@ 000 to build and was built to Smith 's specifications seven years before his death . His mother later commissioned a statue in his likeness and placed it on top of the mausoleum . The statue depicts Smith , hatless and wearing a suit , looking toward Pittsburgh while clutching a racing form .
Smith 's net worth , including real estate and stocks and bonds , was $ 3 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 , and as he had no will his estate was divided equally among his mother , brother , nephew ( James McGill ) and niece ( Eleanor Ewing ) . William Smith and James McGill later moved to Indianapolis in 1913 after purchasing the Indianapolis Baseball Club for $ 150 @,@ 000 . George Smith , the 1916 Kentucky Derby winner , was named after Pittsburgh Phil because he had once owned the colt 's dam , Consuelo II . His racing Maxims , gleaned from his only interview with Edward Cole a few years before his death , are still considered valid by modern handicappers .
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= Diamondback ( roller coaster ) =
Diamondback is a steel roller coaster designed by Bolliger & Mabillard at Kings Island in Mason , Ohio , United States . The ride is located in Rivertown just behind International Street and the Eiffel Tower . When built in 2009 , it was the first hyper coaster to feature a splashdown and the first Bolliger & Mabillard roller coaster at Kings Island . Diamondback was previously the biggest investment in Kings Island ’ s history at $ 22 million ( ahead of The Crypt and Son of Beast , each of which cost $ 20 million ) until surpassed in 2014 by Banshee , an investment of $ 24 million . The coaster has a 230 ft ( 70 m ) lift hill with a 215 ft @-@ drop , featuring 10 total drops and a top speed of about 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . It is similar to Behemoth at Canada 's Wonderland in statistics , layout , and seating .
= = History = =
Construction of Diamondback began on October 11 , 2007 , with the removal of a tree . Swan Lake was drained and filled with concrete before opening day in 2008 , this turned out to be location for the splashdown element . Kings Island started teasing visitors during the Fourth of July weekend in 2008 with signs saying , " Ride sally ride " and " Steep incline ahead . " Diamondback was announced on August 6 , 2008 as the largest investment in Kings Island history . The ride was topped off with the 230 feet ( 70 m ) lift hill on October 30 . The last piece of track was installed on January 26 , 2009 . Diamondback started testing about a month later on February 26 . Diamondback officially opened on April 18 , 2009 . The 1,000,000th rider was on July 20 , 2009 . On July 21 , 2014 , Diamondback gave its 10,000,000th rider . The rider , Mike Brogan , was given a Diamondback gift package including T @-@ shirts , hats , keychains , coffee mugs , shotglasses , and a large sign proclaiming his ride .
= = = First rider auction = = =
On February 3 , 2009 , Kings Island announced they would hold an auction for the first riders on Diamondback . The winners of the auction would be given a commemorative first rider ticket , a special gift from the park , and an admission ticket . All proceeds from the auction would go to A Kid Again non @-@ profit organization , formerly known as Adventures for Wish Kids . The first rider auction raised $ 102 @,@ 000 . The first eight trains , or the first 256 seats were auctioned off . The average bid was $ 398 per seat .
= = Ride experience = =
= = = Layout = = =
After the train leaves the station , it begins its ascent up the 230 feet ( 70 m ) chain lift hill . Once reaching the top of the hill , the coaster drops 215 feet ( 66 m ) at 74 ° over the Rivertown midway reaching speeds up to 80 miles per hour ( 130 km / h ) . It then curves to the right up a 193 feet ( 59 m ) hill and down the drop into the ravine , curving again to the left . The ride then ascends a 131 feet ( 40 m ) camelback hill and drops , curving left into the hammerhead turn . After dropping out of the hammerhead , the train travels up a 129 feet ( 39 m ) hill ( which has a trim brake ) . After the fourth hill , the train turns into down into a 287 ° counter @-@ clockwise helix ( on @-@ ride photo camera is here ) and into the mid @-@ course brake run . After the short brake run the train drops down into the ravine , raising into a bunny hop hill , then into another bunny hop and into the final clockwise helix of 323 ° . After the final helix , the train passes over the Rivertown midway a second time and drops into the splashdown finale , slowing the train down and leading it into the final brake run . After braking , the train takes a left U @-@ turn and heads back into the station . One cycle of the ride lasts about 3 minutes .
= = = Splashdown = = =
Diamondback is the first hyper coaster to feature a splashdown . Scoops positioned at the back sides of the last car on each train send water soaring at heights of 50 ft ( 15 m ) as the train passes . The riders don ’ t actually get wet in the splashdown . Splashdowns are used for a visual effect as well to slow the train down . The splashdown is located in the former Swan Boat pond .
= = = Trains = = =
Diamondback operates with three open @-@ air stadium style steel and fiberglass trains . The trains are the same prototype trains seen on Behemoth at Canada 's Wonderland , Intimidator at Carowinds and Shambhala : Expedición al Himalaya at PortAventura . Diamondback was the first roller coaster in the United States to feature the new trains . Each car seats four passengers , with two front seats set near the middle of the car and two rear seats set closer to the sides of the car . The front car of each train features a yellow / orange snake head with long fangs , while the inside of the trains are black , red , and orange . Riders are restrained by a single T @-@ shaped lap bar and a seatbelt . There are three trains total , each train featuring a different fin color : green , red , or brown . Under the sides of the last car on each train are the scoops for the splashdown at the end .
= = = Track = = =
The steel track is 5 @,@ 282 feet ( 1 @,@ 610 m ) in length and the height of the lift is approximately 230 feet ( 70 m ) . The supports on the first lift hill and part of the second hill are yellow while the rest of the supports are tan . All of the track pieces are red . The track was fabricated at the Ohio @-@ based Clermont Steel Fabricators .
= = Awards = =
Won the award for " Best New Attraction in 2009 " from NAPHA
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= Ship 's chronometer from HMS Beagle =
A nautical chronometer made by Thomas Earnshaw ( 1749 – 1828 ) , and once part of the equipment of HMS Beagle , the ship that carried Charles Darwin on his voyage around the world , is held in the British Museum . The chronometer was the subject of one episode of the BBC 's series A History of the World in 100 Objects .
Meticulous naval inventories show that HMS Beagle carried a total of at least 34 recorded chronometers on its three main survey voyages from 1826 to 1843 , and 22 on the second voyage with Darwin on board , when they had a dedicated cabin . Some were Navy property and others were on loan from the manufacturers , as well as six on the second voyage owned by the captain , Robert FitzRoy . Both the two known survivors from the second voyage are owned by the British Museum . The second is on loan to the National Museum of Australia in Canberra .
= = Background = =
Nautical chronometers were of great importance in the 18th and 19th centuries as aids to navigation . Accurate measurement of time was needed for the determination of longitude . Earnshaw was not the first to make such chronometers , but he was one of the first to make them cheaply enough that they started to become essential equipment for a ship at sea . By the time the Beagle set sail it was being reported in The Nautical Magazine that the price of chronometers was dropping rapidly while the same quality was being maintained . Earnshaws ' chronometer had a novel escapement mechanism , the spring detent escapement , and a bimetallic strip for temperature compensation so that it would continue to maintain accuracy in all climates around the world .
= = = Beagle 's chonometers = = =
The Beagle was sent in 1831 on a survey mission which involved circumnavigating the globe , a journey described by the naturalist on board the ship , Charles Darwin , in his book The Voyage of the Beagle and which lasted until 1836 . It was on this journey that Darwin began to form the ideas published much later as On the Origin of Species . The Beagle carried twenty @-@ two chronometers , an unusually large number , but necessary to ensure accuracy of the survey . Three would have been commonplace on ships of the time , as this is the minimum number required to easily identify one that has gone faulty . The Admiralty started a general issue of chronometers to H. M. Ships from 1825 , but between about 1800 and 1840 the availability of chronometers could not keep up with the demand . The Admiralty therefore only issued one chronometer to each ship unless the Captain personally owned one . In those cases the Admiralty would issue a second machine to make the total up to three , reasoning that a ship with two was no better off than with one since in the event of a discrepancy it was not possible to identify the faulty instrument .
The Beagle however , would be gone for several years and was required to take chronometers ashore and in boat expeditions up rivers to determine the coordinates of specific reference points as instructed by the Admiralty . It could not be guaranteed that any one chronometer would continue to function accurately , or even survive the journey at all . Each chronometer is mounted on gimbals to keep it level in all sea conditions and the whole assembly fixed inside a hinged wooden box for protection . For additional protection , they were stored in sawdust in a special cabin in the Captain 's quarters . Only crew who needed to take measurements , or who maintained them , were allowed access , measures which indicate the importance attached to these instruments . The Beagle voyage succeeded , for the first time , in establishing a linked chain of reference points around the globe of known longitude which could be used by subsequent voyages to calibrate their own chronometers .
= = = Maintenance and accuracy = = =
The chronometers were maintained by an instrument maker , one George James Stebbing , whose salary was paid for personally by the captain of the vessel , Robert FitzRoy . FitzRoy considered the post to be essential to the mission but the Admiralty had refused to pay for it . FitzRoy bore the cost himself , as he did for much of the ship 's equipment , but the Admiralty did concede that Stebbing could be fed from the ship 's rations . This concession was not extended to Darwin , who paid £ 500 for his own keep .
Fitzroy was able to measure the overall accuracy of his entire journey by using his chronometers to measure the time of local noon when he returned to his home port . As he sailed west , local noon occurred progressively later , until finally , when he had circumnavigated the globe , the shift in local noon time , as measured by his chronometers should be exactly twenty @-@ four hours . In fact , Fitzroy 's measurements exceeded this by 33 seconds , which is equivalent to just 8 @.@ 25 nautical miles ( 15 @.@ 28 km ) . This was impressive for a journey of tens of thousands of miles over five years , but nevertheless Fitzroy considered the error to be inexplicably large .
= = History = =
Thomas Earnshaw 's Marine Chronometer No.509 was manufactured around 1800 and served on a number of Royal Navy ships . William Edward Parry while exploring Baffin Bay in July 1819 during his first attempt to find the Northwest Passage mentions that Earnshaw 's chronometer had been used in 1818 to determine the longitude of a spot to within 1 ' 30 " of his own measurement . He does not , however , say which ship it was on board . At this early time , all Royal Navy purchased chronometers were issued by the Greenwich Observatory who also checked their rates and sent them out for cleaning between voyages . Initially , Greenwich issued chronometers directly to ships , but later , as chronometers became more common , they were sent from Greenwich to other Royal Navy ports and dockyards for issue locally . The first recorded issue from Greenwich was 3 July 1823 to Captain Frederick Marryat in command of HMS Larne . Larne took part in the First Anglo @-@ Burmese War which lasted from 1824 to 1826 .
The chronometer was returned to Greenwich 6 February 1826 and then sent to its makers for servicing . It did not come back to Greenwich for nearly two years . On 4 March 1828 it was issued to Captain J. Bolder in command of HMS Hecla . At this time Hecla was a famous ship : under the command of George Francis Lyon she had been part of Parry 's second expedition to find the Northwest Passage . Over 6 @,@ 000 members of the public visited the ship at Deptford while she waited to set out on Parry 's third expedition in 1824 . The attempt was abandoned in 1825 after the leading ship , HMS Fury was abandoned due to ice damage . Parry used Hecla again in an 1827 attempt to reach the North Pole . Parry unwillingly gave up Hecla when the admiralty sent her to survey the West African coast under the command of Bolder . In July 1830 the chronometer was returned from Hecla and went for cleaning to Robert Molyneux in London . It was returned to Greenwich in November but not immediately issued to another ship .
= = = Portsmouth and Devonport = = =
In March 1831 the chronometer was delivered to Devonport where the rate was checked and recorded . On 6 December 1831 it was issued to Captain Stokes in command of HMS Beagle . It sailed with Captain Fitzroy in command on Beagle 's famous second voyage and was returned to Greenwich 7 November 1836 . After a period at Arnold and Dent for cleaning it was transported by HMS Lightning to Devonport or Portsmouth for issue to ships there .
It was returned to Greenwich 17 November 1841 and after another service by Arnold and Dent was issued to HMS Formidable on 13 January 1842 . It stayed with Formidable until 20 November 1845 when it was returned to Greenwich . It was then serviced by Charles Frodsham and sent for issue to ships at Portsmouth . It was transported back to Greenwich periodically by Royal Navy ships for service by Frodsham ( HMS Rattlesnake 11 March 1850 , HMS Odin 27 December 1854 ) and finally returned from Portsmouth 7 May 1857 . The final ship to be issued the chronometer was HMS Pembroke who received it 20 April 1858 . Pembroke returned the chronometer to Greenwich 1 February 1867 .
= = = Use on shore = = =
After serving on Pembroke the chronometer stayed with Frodsham for over six months . Greenwich issued it to the Meteorological Committee of the Royal Society on 25 November 1867 . The Meteorological Committee used the chronometer for observations at Falmouth Observatory . It was returned to Greenwich on 3 November 1886 and sent to J Poole for servicing 22 November 1886 . Poole returned the chronometer on 13 December 1886 declaring it to be beyond economic repair . It was given to E. Dent & Co. on 16 July 1888 in part exchange for the chronometer Dent 43107 . It was later acquired by the private collector Courtenay Adrian Ilbert . After his death in 1956 , Ilbert 's collection was put up for auction in 1958 . The auction was cancelled , however , and the collection purchased by the British Museum following a private donation of funds .
= = BBC Programme = =
The chronometer was object 91 in the BBC Radio 4 series A History of the World in 100 Objects , first broadcast 11 October 2010 . The series was made in collaboration with the British Museum and was presented by Neil MacGregor , the Director of the British Museum . The specialist contributors to the chronomoter episode were Nigel Thrift , the vice @-@ chancellor of the University of Warwick , and Steve Jones , geneticist and television presenter . The programme discussed the search for longitude , the role chronometers played in this , Earnshaw 's contributions to chronometer design , the voyage of the Beagle , and the importance of the chronometers she carried .
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= 1940 Soviet ultimatum to Lithuania =
The Soviet Union issued an ultimatum to Lithuania before midnight of June 14 , 1940 . The Soviets , using a formal pretext , demanded to allow an unspecified number of Soviet soldiers to enter the Lithuanian territory and to form a new pro @-@ Soviet government ( later known as the " People 's Government " ) . The ultimatum and subsequent incorporation of Lithuania into the Soviet Union stemmed from the division of Eastern Europe into the German and Russian spheres of influence in the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939 . Lithuania , along with Latvia and Estonia , fell into the Russian sphere . According to the Soviet – Lithuanian Mutual Assistance Treaty of October 1939 , Lithuania agreed to allow some 20 @,@ 000 of Soviets troops to be stationed at several bases within Lithuania in exchange for a portion of the Vilnius Region . Further Soviet actions to establish its dominance in its sphere of influence were delayed by the Winter War with Finland and resumed in spring 1940 when Germany was making rapid advances in western Europe . Despite the threat to the independence , Lithuanian authorities did little to plan for contingencies and were unprepared for the ultimatum .
With Soviet troops already stationed in the country according to the Mutual Assistance Treaty , it was impossible to mount effective military resistance . On June 15 , Lithuania unconditionally accepted the ultimatum and lost its independence . The Soviets sought to show the world that this was not a military occupation and annexation , but a legitimate socialist revolution , initiated by the local population demanding to join the Soviet Union . Therefore , the Soviets followed semi @-@ legal procedures : they took control of the government institutions , installed a new puppet government , and carried out show elections to the People 's Seimas . During its first session , the Seimas proclaimed creation of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic and petitioned to be admitted into the Soviet Union . The petition was officially accepted by the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union on August 3 , 1940 . At the same time almost identical processes took place in Latvia and Estonia . Lithuania would not regain its independence until the proclamation of the Act of the Re @-@ Establishment of the State of Lithuania on March 11 , 1990 .
= = Background = =
The Baltic states of Lithuania , Latvia , and Estonia were part of the Russian Empire during the 19th century , achieving independence in the aftermath of World War I. The rise of Nazi Germany during the 1930s created Russian fears of a German invasion . The Soviet Union signed the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact with Germany in August 1939 , in part as an attempt to delay this possibility . Germany shortly initiated World War II by invading Poland on September 1 . The secret protocols of the pact , which were reinforced by the German – Soviet Boundary and Friendship Treaty of September 28 , divided large portions of northeastern Europe between the two powers , and assigned Lithuania to the Soviet sphere of influence . A Lithuanian delegation was invited to Moscow , where it signed the Soviet – Lithuanian Mutual Assistance Treaty on October 10 , 1939 . According to the treaty , the Soviet Union would cede a portion of the Vilnius Region , including the important city of Vilnius , which it had gained during the invasion of Poland , to Lithuania in exchange for the right to station up to 20 @,@ 000 ( the original bargaining point was 50 @,@ 000 ) Soviet troops in Lithuania on a permanent basis . Official Soviet sources claimed that the presence of the Soviet military was necessary to strengthen defenses of a weak nation against possible attacks by Nazi Germany . In reality , it was the first step toward the eventual occupation of Lithuania and was described by The New York Times as a " virtual sacrifice of independence . "
Despite the pacts , the Soviet Union 's fears continued . In a stance long held by Russian military theorists , control of the Baltic Sea was crucial to the defense of St. Petersburg , Russia 's second @-@ largest city and the Baltic states offered a buffer zone between Russia and Germany . Pursuing this strategy , the Soviet Union initiated the Winter War in Finland after that country rejected a similar Moscow @-@ offered mutual assistance treaty . Stalin was unnerved by German successes in Europe , since they had taken Denmark , Norway , the Netherlands , Belgium , and Luxembourg by spring of 1940 . According to Nikita Khrushchev , after the fall of France in May , Joseph Stalin expressed the concern that Adolf Hitler would ' beat our brains in ' .
The political situation in Lithuania , however , remained stable between October 1939 and March 1940 . The Soviets did not interfere with Lithuania 's domestic affairs and the Russian soldiers were well @-@ behaved in their bases . As late as March 29 , 1940 , Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov delivered a speech before the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union expressing his satisfaction with the execution of the mutual assistance treaties with Lithuania , Latvia , and Estonia . While Lithuanian politicians publicly praised the Soviet Union for its generosity and touted the " traditional Soviet – Lithuanian friendship " , in private they understood this treaty was a serious threat to Lithuanian independence . The popular attitude was reflected in the slogan " Vilnius – mūsų , Lietuva – rusų " ( Vilnius is ours , but Lithuania is Russia 's ) .
The Lithuanian government had been debating its options and discussing the possibility of occupation since November 1939 . At that time , the Lithuanian envoys Stasys Lozoraitis , Petras Klimas , and Bronius Kazys Balutis prepared a memorandum containing contingency plans . They advised strengthening the army , depositing funds abroad , reinforcing the 1934 Baltic Entente alliance with Latvia and Estonia , and investigating the establishment of a government @-@ in @-@ exile . Although various resolutions were forwarded , nothing tangible was accomplished . During winter 1940 the Baltic Entente nations discussed greater cooperation . Mindful of their circumstances , the three governments worded their communications carefully , but the talks would be used as evidence that Lithuania was conspiring with Latvia and Estonia in violation of the mutual assistance treaty .
= = Rising tension = =
= = = Initial accusations = = =
Tensions between the Soviet Union and Lithuania escalated along with Germany 's successes . By mid @-@ March 1940 , the Winter War with Finland was over and the Soviets could concentrate their attention on gaining control of the Baltic states . In April , after Germany occupied Denmark , a Lithuanian envoy in Moscow reported rising hostility from Russian diplomats . During May , while the Battle of France was in full swing , the Soviets intensified their rhetoric and diplomatic pressure . On May 16 , shortly after the German invasion of Luxembourg , Belgium , and the Netherlands , Soviet official newspaper Izvestia published an article warning that it was naive for a small country to attempt neutrality while giants were fighting for survival . Between May 18 and May 25 , Russian soldiers moved some military equipment from Vilnius to Gaižiūnai , a location much closer to the government seat in Kaunas . The action 's proximity to the then @-@ capital carried symbolic weight .
On May 25 , the day before the Dunkirk evacuation , Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov presented a diplomatic note that accused the Lithuanian government of abducting three Soviet soldiers stationed in Lithuania in accordance with the terms of the mutual assistance treaty . The note alleged that two soldiers had been tortured to obtain Russian military secrets but managed to escape , and that the third , Butayev , was murdered . Earlier in May , Butayev had deserted his unit and was searched by the Lithuanian police . When found , he committed suicide . The Lithuanian government replied that the accusations were baseless , but promised a full investigation of the incident and convened a special commission . However , the commission 's requests for detailed information , including interviews , photographs , physical descriptions , or other data that could further the investigation , went unanswered . The official Soviet stance was that Lithuania needed to carry out the investigation on its own and that its requests were an attempt to shift responsibility to the Russians .
= = = Direct negotiations = = =
On May 30 , the accusations were restated , in an official communique , published by TASS , the official Soviet news agency . The same day , Stasys Lozoraitis — the Lithuanian envoy in Rome — was authorized to form a government in exile in case of the Soviet occupation . The Lithuanian police tightened security around Soviet bases and arrested 272 suspicious individuals , but that only drew additional criticism of harassment . Foreign Minister Juozas Urbšys offered to settle the matter in direct negotiations in Moscow . Molotov agreed to talk but only with Prime Minister Antanas Merkys . On June 7 , Merkys arrived in Moscow . The Soviets repeated the accusations of kidnapping . Other charges were leveled , including the allegation that Minister of the Interior Kazys Skučas and Director of State Security Department Augustinas Povilaitis had provoked Russian soldiers . During the second meeting on June 9 , Molotov also accused the Lithuanian government of conspiring with Latvia and Estonia to establish a secret military union ( in reference to the Baltic Entente ) , thereby violating the mutual assistance pact .
On June 10 , the Lithuanian government discussed the new developments . It decided that Merkys should return to Kaunas and Urbšys should deliver a note offering withdrawal from the Baltic Entente , a full investigation of the incident , and dismissal of Skučas and Povilaitis . A personal letter from President Antanas Smetona to Chairman of Presidium of the Supreme Soviet Mikhail Kalinin repeated assurances that Lithuania always honored the mutual assistance pact . The third and final meeting between Merkys , Urbšys , and Molotov on June 11 brought no resolution . The Soviets continued to press charges which the Lithuanians could not meaningfully answer and made no more actionable requests . On June 12 , Merkys returned to Lithuania and informed the government of the situation . It was decided that Skučas should resign and Povilaitis would be immediately dismissed . The Lithuanian Army was ordered to be alert , but no orders were issued regarding mobilization or preparedness . Lithuanian politicians did not fully understand the gravity of the situation and did not think the results would be catastrophic . Urbšys reported that the Soviets strongly disapproved of Merkys and his cabinet ; he suggested that a new government be installed , possibly led by Stasys Raštikis , former Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Lithuanian Army . Such suggestion interfered with Lithuania 's domestic affairs .
= = = Internal crisis = = =
While Merkys and Urbšys negotiated in Moscow , the Lithuanian opposition saw an opportunity to unseat the authoritarian regime of Smetona and his Lithuanian National Union . On June 12 , the Christian Democrats and the Peasant Popular Union met and decided to ask Kazys Bizauskas and Juozas Audėnas to resign from the cabinet , expecting that these resignations would trigger a government crisis . The opposition saw Soviet pressure as a means of ousting Smetona 's regime , restoring democracy , and preserving some form of autonomy . The opposition also hoped to persuade Merkys , who had just returned from Moscow , to resign along with the rest of the cabinet . However , Merkys could not be found — he was apparently resting at his estate near Kaunas . This episode was harshly criticized afterwards as an illustration of several weaknesses in the Lithuanian government : it underestimated the threat posed by the Soviet Union , it was disoriented during the crisis , and its members focused on party interests rather than national priorities . Algirdas Julien Greimas later described the opposition ′ s actions as a " joyful dance next to the corpse of the lost state " .
= = = Military movements = = =
Mobilization of the Red Army had begun before the last round of meetings in Moscow . On June 7 , the Army was ordered to prepare for an attack against Lithuania . As of June 5 , all Soviet forces in the Baltic region were assigned to command of Semyon Timoshenko , People 's Commissar for Defense . The Soviets gathered their forces on Lithuania ′ s eastern border in modern @-@ day Belarus ; they consisted of five divisions and supporting units from the 3rd and the 11th Armies . The armies included 221 @,@ 260 soldiers , operating 1 @,@ 140 airplanes and 1 @,@ 513 tanks . Lithuania already housed 18 @,@ 786 Soviet troops within its territory . At the time the Lithuanian Army comprised 28 @,@ 005 troops and owned 118 planes . The Soviets readied hospitals for the wounded and prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camps . On June 11 , under the command of General Dmitry Pavlov , the Soviets finalized their attack plan and assigned specific tasks to all units . The orders were to cross the border silently , use bayonets as gunshots would be noticed , and to maneuver around defensive forces in order to occupy the territory more quickly . The Soviets expected to take control of the entire territory in three to four days .
On the night of June 14 , while the Lithuanian government was discussing the ultimatum , Soviet soldiers began actions at the border . They fired shots at a border post near Alytus and killed policeman Aleksas Barauskas . At other points the Soviets interrogated Lithuanian border guards and harassed civilians , hoping to provoke a retaliation that would serve as a rationale for a full @-@ scale military attack .
= = Ultimatum and acceptance = =
Just before midnight on June 14 , while the world was focused on the imminent capitulation of Paris , Molotov presented the ultimatum to Urbšys in Moscow . It reiterated the earlier charges of kidnapping Soviet soldiers and conspiracy with Latvia and Estonia . The ultimatum demanded :
That Skučas and Povilaitis be put on trial for ordering the Soviet soldiers to be kidnapped ;
That a government , more capable of adhering to the Mutual Assistance Pact , be formed ;
That an unspecified , but " sufficiently large " number of Soviet troops be allowed to enter Lithuanian territory ;
That an answer be given by 10 : 00 am the next morning .
The Lithuanian government — given less than 12 hours to respond — debated the ultimatum during the night session . It was clear that no matter how the government responded , the Soviet army would invade Lithuania . President Antanas Smetona agreed only with the demand to form a new government argued for military resistance , even if it were symbolic . Merkys and his deputy Kazys Bizauskas urged acceptance . Soviet troops were stationed in Lithuania since October 1939 and acted honorably – the Soviets would surely continue to be reasonable . Bizauskas , a member of the opposition , saw the ultimatum as an opportunity to get rid of the Smetona regime . Historians cited his attitudes to illustrate his incomprehension of the dire situation . Raštikis , as the potential head of a new government , was invited to the meeting . Both former and current Chief Military Commanders Raštikis and Vincas Vitkauskas reported that mounting an effective armed resistance , when Soviet troops were already in the country and the Lithuanian military was not mobilized , was impossible . The government also rejected a diplomatic protest . In Raštikis ' view , such actions were empty and would do no more than anger the Russians and Urbšys , calling from Moscow , urged not to needlessly antagonize the Russians . Merkys and his cabinet resigned to make way for a new government led by Raštikis . The session ended at 7 am with a decision to accept all Russian demands without expressing protest or complaint .
By noon , the Lithuanians received a reply from Moscow stating that Raštikis was not a suitable candidate for Prime Minister . The selection of another candidate would be supervised by Molotov 's deputy Vladimir Dekanozov . Merkys continued to act as Prime Minister . Smetona , who continued to disagree with the majority of his government , decided to leave the country in protest and appointed Merkys as acting President . By late evening on June 15 , Smetona and Minister of Defense Kazys Musteikis reached Kybartai and crossed the border into Germany , where they were granted temporary asylum . The Lithuanian guards did not allow them to pass ; thus , Smetona had to wade across the shallow Liepona rivulet . Smetona ′ s departure worked to the Soviets ′ advantage ; its indignity opened him to ridicule and they were able to exploit the sentiments against him without fearing that he would be seen as a martyr . By fleeing , Smetona escaped the fate of Latvian President Kārlis Ulmanis and Estonian President Konstantin Päts , who were manipulated by the Soviets and later arrested . Under the Lithuanian constitution , Merkys became acting president .
The Red Army was scheduled to enter Lithuanian territory from three separate directions at 3 : 00 pm and had orders to take control of Vilnius , Kaunas , Raseiniai , Panevėžys , and Šiauliai . The Lithuanian Army was ordered not to resist and to extend friendly greetings ; its air force was ordered to remain on the ground . The Soviets came in great numbers clogging Lithuanian roads . They had an obvious intention to show power and intimidate any resistance . Writer Ignas Šeinius claimed that he observed the same squadron of Soviet planes making the same flight over and over again to create an impression of much larger Soviet Air Forces .
On June 16 , nearly identical ultimata were issued to Latvia and Estonia , although they were given only eight hours to respond . With Lithuania already in Soviet hands , armed resistance in Latvia or Estonia was even more futile . All three states were occupied and lost their independence .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Legitimization of the occupation = = =
One of Dekanozov ′ s primary goals was the organization of a puppet government that would legitimize the occupation . On June 16 , the Lithuanian government , exceeding its authority , decided that Smetona 's emigration was in effect a resignation and granted Merkys full presidential powers . On June 17 , Merkys appointed Justas Paleckis the new Prime Minister and confirmed the new government , known as the People 's Government . Merkys and Urbšys then resigned ; both would later be arrested and deported to Russia . Paleckis assumed the presidency and appointed writer Vincas Krėvė @-@ Mickevičius as Prime Minister . The People 's Government included several well @-@ known politicians and public figures to reassure the public that the new government was not a tool of Soviet occupation , but a simple replacement of the authoritarian Smetona regime . Since there had been strong opposition to Smetona 's rule , it was interpreted by some Lithuanians as a destruction of presidential power rather than as a loss of independence .
On July 1 , the People 's Government dissolved the Fourth Seimas of Lithuania and announced a show election for a " People 's Seimas " to be held on July 14 . A new electoral law was adopted on July 5 . The law , in violation of the constitution , specified that only candidate could stand for each seat available in the parliament . It was also worded in such a way to effectively limit the field to the Lithuanian Communist Party and its supporters . The official fraudulent results showed a voter turnout of 95 @.@ 51 % and support of 99 @.@ 19 % to the communist delegates . Officially , however , 39 of the elected delegates were Communists and 40 were independents . During its first session on July 21 , the parliament proclaimed the creation of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic and petitioned the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union to accept this new republic into the Union . A 20 @-@ member Lithuanian delegation presented the case for incorporation in Moscow on August 1 . The petition was accepted on August 3 and Lithuania became the 14th republic of the Soviet Union .
= = = Sovietization of Lithuania = = =
Immediately after the occupation , the new government began implementing political , economic , and social Sovietization policies . On July 1 , all cultural and religious organizations were closed . The Communist Party of Lithuania — with some 1 @,@ 500 members , — and its youth branch were designated the only legitimate political entities . Before the elections to the People 's Seimas , the Soviets arrested about 2 @,@ 000 of the most prominent political activists . These arrests paralyzed the opposition . The repressions continued and intensified . An estimated 12 @,@ 000 individuals were imprisoned as " enemies of the people " during the year following the annexation . Between June 14 and June 18 , 1941 , less than a week before the Nazi invasion , some 17 @,@ 000 Lithuanians were deported to Siberia , where many perished due to inhumane living conditions ( see the June deportation ) .
All banks ( including all accounts holding over 1 @,@ 000 litas ) , real estate holdings larger than 170 m2 ( 1 @,@ 800 sq ft ) , and private enterprises employing over 20 workers or grossing more than 150 @,@ 000 litas were nationalized . This disruption in management and operations created a sharp drop in production . The Lithuanian litas was artificially depreciated by three to four times less than its actual value and withdrawn by March 1941 . The drop in production , combined with massive spending of appreciated rubles by Russian soldiers and officials , caused widespread shortages . All land was nationalized ; the largest farms were reduced to 30 ha ( 0 @.@ 30 km2 ) , and extra land ( some 575 @,@ 000 ha ( 5 @,@ 750 km2 ) ) was distributed to small farmers . To turn small peasants against large landowners , collectivization was not introduced in Lithuania . In preparation for eventual collectivization , farm taxes were increased by 50 – 200 % and additional heavy in @-@ kind conscriptions were enacted . Some farmers were unable to pay the exorbitant new taxes , and about 1 @,@ 100 of the larger ones were put on trial .
= = = Nazi occupation = = =
On June 22 , 1941 , Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union and within a week took control of all Lithuania . At first the Germans were greeted as liberators from the oppressive Soviet regime . The Lithuanians hoped that the Germans would re @-@ establish their independence or at least allow some degree of autonomy ( similar to the Slovak Republic ) . Organized by the Lithuanian Activist Front ( LAF ) , Lithuanians rose in the anti @-@ Soviet and pro @-@ Nazi June Uprising , established the short @-@ lived Provisional Government , and declared independence . However , the Germans did not recognize the Provisional Government and established their own civil administration , the Reichskommissariat Ostland . When the Red Army regained control of Lithuania in summer 1944 – January 1945 , the Lithuanian partisans began an armed struggle against the second Soviet occupation . An estimated 30 @,@ 000 partisans and partisan supporters were killed during the guerrilla warfare between 1944 and 1953 .
= = Impacts and evaluation = =
While unsuccessful , the June Uprising demonstrated that many Lithuanians were determined to be independent . Lithuania would become disillusioned with the Nazi regime and organize resistance , notably the Supreme Committee for the Liberation of Lithuania , but the Soviet Union remained " Public Enemy Number One . " A Lithuanian perception that Jewish Bolshevism was involved in the occupation strengthened antisemitic attitudes and contributed to Lithuanian participation in the Holocaust .
The acceptance of the ultimatum remains a highly controversial topic in Lithuania . Observers criticize the Lithuanian Army , which had been consuming some 20 % of the state budget , for not staging even a symbolic resistance that would have invalidated Soviet claims that the takeover was a " socialist revolution " and a legitimate change of government . Others criticize the government of inaction : there were eight months in which to create contingency plans . Barring armed resistance , diplomatic options remained — the Lithuanian government could have rejected the ultimatum , retreated abroad , and formed a recognized government @-@ in @-@ exile . Historian Alfonsas Eidintas points to a lack of public comprehension of the risk . Negative news about the Soviets was censored and even politicians did not believe the ultimatum would mean a complete loss of independence . Another debate centers on the lack of bloodshed . By accepting the ultimatum , the government may have avoided loss of life at the time , but its submission may also have encouraged later Soviet repressions . The Russian Federation , the successor state of the Soviet Union , continues to dispute whether the events surrounding the ultimatum and the subsequent years that Lithuania spent as a Soviet Socialist Republic constitute an occupation .
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= Star Trek =
Star Trek is an American science fiction entertainment franchise created by Gene Roddenberry and owned by CBS and Paramount Pictures . The television series Star Trek : The Original Series , Star Trek : The Animated Series , Star Trek : The Next Generation , Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , Star Trek : Voyager , Star Trek : Enterprise , Star Trek : Discovery as well as the Star Trek film franchise make up the franchise 's canon .
The first series , now referred to as The Original Series , debuted in 1966 and ran for three seasons on NBC . It followed the galactic adventures of James T. Kirk and the crew of the starship Enterprise , an exploration vessel of a 23rd @-@ century interstellar " United Federation of Planets " . In creating the first Star Trek , Roddenberry was inspired by Westerns such as Wagon Train , the Horatio Hornblower novels and Gulliver 's Travels . In fact , the original series was originally described as Wagon Train to the Stars . These adventures continued in the short @-@ lived Star Trek : The Animated Series and six feature films . Four spin @-@ off television series were eventually produced : Star Trek : The Next Generation followed the crew of a new starship Enterprise set a century after the original series ; Star Trek : Deep Space Nine and Star Trek : Voyager , set contemporaneously with The Next Generation ; and Star Trek : Enterprise , set before the original series , in the early days of human interstellar travel . Four additional The Next Generation feature films were produced . In 2009 , the film franchise underwent a relaunch with a prequel to the original series set in an alternate timeline titled simply Star Trek . This film featured a new cast portraying younger versions of the crew from the original show . A sequel to that film , Star Trek Into Darkness , premiered on May 16 , 2013 . A thirteenth film feature and sequel , Star Trek Beyond , was released in July 2016 , to coincide with the franchise 's 50th anniversary . A new Star Trek TV series , titled Star Trek : Discovery , will premiere in January 2017 on the digital platform CBS All Access .
Star Trek has been a cult phenomenon for decades . Fans of the franchise are called Trekkies or Trekkers . The franchise spans a wide range of spin @-@ offs including games , figurines , novels , toys , and comics . Star Trek had a themed attraction in Las Vegas that opened in 1998 and closed in September 2008 . At least two museum exhibits of props travel the world . The series has its own full @-@ fledged constructed language , Klingon . Several parodies have been made of Star Trek . In addition , viewers have produced several fan productions .
Star Trek is noted for its influence on the world outside of science fiction . It has been cited as an inspiration for several technological inventions , including the cell phone and tablet computers . The franchise is also noted for its progressive civil rights stances . The Original Series included one of television 's first multiracial casts . Star Trek references can be found throughout popular culture from movies such as the submarine thriller Crimson Tide to the animated series South Park .
= = Conception and setting = =
As early as 1964 , Gene Roddenberry drafted a proposal for the science @-@ fiction series that would become Star Trek . Although he publicly marketed it as a Western in outer space — a so @-@ called " Wagon Train to the Stars " ( like the popular Western TV series ) — he privately told friends that he was modeling it on Jonathan Swift 's Gulliver 's Travels , intending each episode to act on two levels : as a suspenseful adventure story and as a morality tale .
Most Star Trek stories depict the adventures of humans and aliens who serve in Starfleet , the space @-@ borne humanitarian and peacekeeping armada of the United Federation of Planets . The protagonists have altruistic values , and must apply these ideals to difficult dilemmas .
Many of the conflicts and political dimensions of Star Trek represent allegories of contemporary cultural realities . Star Trek : The Original Series addressed issues of the 1960s , just as later spin @-@ offs have reflected issues of their respective decades . Issues depicted in the various series include war and peace , the value of personal loyalty , authoritarianism , imperialism , class warfare , economics , racism , religion , human rights , sexism , feminism , and the role of technology . Roddenberry stated : " [ By creating ] a new world with new rules , I could make statements about sex , religion , Vietnam , politics , and intercontinental missiles . Indeed , we did make them on Star Trek : we were sending messages and fortunately they all got by the network . "
Roddenberry intended the show to have a progressive political agenda reflective of the emerging counter @-@ culture of the youth movement , though he was not fully forthcoming to the networks about this . He wanted Star Trek to show humanity what it might develop into , if it would learn from the lessons of the past , most specifically by ending violence . An extreme example is the alien species , the Vulcans , who had a violent past but learned to control their emotions . Roddenberry also gave Star Trek an anti @-@ war message and depicted the United Federation of Planets as an ideal , optimistic version of the United Nations . His efforts were opposed by the network because of concerns over marketability , e.g. , they opposed Roddenberry 's insistence that the Enterprise have a racially diverse crew .
Star Trek has also been accused of evincing racism and imperialism , however , by frequently depicting Starfleet and the Federation trying to impose their values and customs on other planets .
= = Mythology = =
The central trio of Kirk , Spock and McCoy from Star Trek : The Original Series was modeled on classical mythological storytelling .
William Shatner said : “ There is a mythological component [ to pop culture ] , especially with science fiction . It ’ s people looking for answers – and science fiction offers to explain the inexplicable , the same as religion tends to do … If we accept the premise that it has a mythological element , then all the stuff about going out into space and meeting new life – trying to explain it and put a human element to it – it ’ s a hopeful vision . All these things offer hope and imaginative solutions for the future . ”
Richard Lutz wrote : “ The enduring popularity of Star Trek is due to the underlying mythology which binds fans together by virtue of their shared love of stories involving exploration , discovery , adventure and friendship that promote an egalitarian and peace loving society where technology and diversity are valued rather than feared and citizens work together for the greater good . Thus Star Trek offers a hopeful vision of the future and a template for our lives and our society that we can aspire to . ”
= = History and production = =
= = = Beginnings = = =
In early 1964 , Roddenberry presented a brief treatment for a proposed Star Trek TV series to Desilu Productions comparing it to Wagon Train , " a Wagon Train to the stars . " Desilu worked with Roddenberry to develop the treatment into a script , which was then pitched to NBC .
NBC paid to make a pilot , " The Cage " , starring Jeffrey Hunter as Enterprise Captain Christopher Pike . NBC rejected The Cage , but the executives were still impressed with the concept , and made the unusual decision to commission a second pilot : " Where No Man Has Gone Before " .
The first regular episode ( " The Man Trap " ) of Star Trek : The Original Series aired on Thursday , September 8 , 1966 . While the show initially enjoyed high ratings , the average rating of the show at the end of its first season dropped to 52nd ( out of 94 programs ) .
Unhappy with the show 's ratings , NBC threatened to cancel the show during its second season . The show 's fan base , led by Bjo Trimble , conducted an unprecedented letter @-@ writing campaign , petitioning the network to keep the show on the air . NBC renewed the show , but moved it from primetime to the " Friday night death slot " , and substantially reduced its budget . In protest Roddenberry resigned as producer and reduced his direct involvement in Star Trek , which led to Fred Freiberger becoming producer for the show 's third and final season . Despite another letter @-@ writing campaign , NBC cancelled the series after three seasons and 79 episodes .
= = = Rebirth = = =
After the original series was cancelled , Paramount Studios , which had bought the series from Desilu , licensed the broadcast syndication rights to help recoup the production losses . Reruns began in the fall of 1969 and by the late 1970s the series aired in over 150 domestic and 60 international markets . This helped Star Trek develop a cult following greater than its popularity during its original run .
One sign of the series ' growing popularity was the first Star Trek convention which occurred on January 21 – 23 , 1972 in New York City . Although the original estimate of attendees was only a few hundred , several thousand fans turned up . Star Trek fans continue to attend similar conventions worldwide .
The series ' newfound success led to the idea of reviving the franchise . Filmation with Paramount Television produced the first post original series show , Star Trek : The Animated Series . It ran on NBC for 22 half @-@ hour episodes over two seasons on Saturday mornings from 1973 to 1974 . Although short @-@ lived , typical for animated productions in that time slot during that period , the series garnered the franchise 's only " Best Series " Emmy Award as opposed to the franchise 's later technical ones . Paramount Pictures and Roddenberry began developing a new series , Star Trek : Phase II , in May 1975 in response to the franchise 's newfound popularity . Work on the series ended , however , when the proposed Paramount Television Service folded .
Following the success of the science fiction movies Star Wars and Close Encounters of the Third Kind , Paramount adapted the planned pilot episode of Phase II into the feature film , Star Trek : The Motion Picture . The film opened in North America on December 7 , 1979 , with mixed reviews from critics . The film earned $ 139 million worldwide , below expectations but enough for Paramount to create a sequel . The studio forced Roddenberry to relinquish creative control of future sequels .
The success of the critically acclaimed sequel , Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan , reversed the fortunes of the franchise . While the sequel grossed less than the first movie , The Wrath of Khan 's lower production costs made it net more profit . Paramount produced six Star Trek feature films between 1979 and 1991 . In response to the popularity of Star Trek feature films , the franchise returned to television with Star Trek : The Next Generation ( TNG ) in 1987 . Paramount chose to distribute it as a first @-@ run syndication show rather than a network show .
= = = After Roddenberry = = =
Following Star Trek : The Motion Picture , Roddenberry 's role was changed from producer to creative consultant with minimal input to the films while being heavily involved with the creation of Star Trek : The Next Generation . Roddenberry died on October 24 , 1991 , giving executive producer Rick Berman control of the franchise . Star Trek had become known to those within Paramount as " the franchise " , because of its great success and recurring role as a tent pole for the studio when other projects failed . TNG had the highest ratings of any Star Trek series and became the # 1 syndicated show during the last years of its original seven @-@ season run . In response to TNG 's success , Paramount released a spin @-@ off series Deep Space Nine in 1993 . While never as popular as TNG , the series had sufficient ratings for it to last seven seasons .
In January 1995 , a few months after TNG ended , Paramount released a fourth TV series , Voyager . Star Trek saturation reached a peak in the mid @-@ 1990s with DS9 and Voyager airing concurrently and three of the four TNG @-@ based feature films released in 1994 , 1996 , and 1998 . By 1998 , Star Trek was Paramount 's most important property ; the enormous profits of " the franchise " funded much of the rest of the studio 's operations . Voyager became the flagship show of the new United Paramount Network ( UPN ) and thus the first major network Star Trek series since the original .
After Voyager ended , UPN produced Enterprise , a prequel TV series to the original show . Enterprise did not enjoy the high ratings of its predecessors and UPN threatened to cancel it after the series ' third season . Fans launched a campaign reminiscent of the one that saved the third season of the Original Series . Paramount renewed Enterprise for a fourth season , but moved it to the Friday night death slot . Like the Original Series , Enterprise ratings dropped during this time slot , and UPN cancelled Enterprise at the end of its fourth season . Enterprise aired its final episode on May 13 , 2005 . Fan groups , " Save Enterprise " , attempted to save the series and tried to raise $ 30 million to privately finance a fifth season of Enterprise . Though the effort garnered considerable press , the fan drive failed to save the series . The cancellation of Enterprise ended an eighteen @-@ year continuous production run of Star Trek programming on television . The poor box office performance in 2002 of the film Nemesis , cast an uncertain light upon the future of the franchise . Paramount relieved Berman , the franchise producer , of control of Star Trek .
= = = Reboot = = =
Paramount turned down several proposals in the mid @-@ 2000s to restart the franchise . These included pitches from film director Bryan Singer , Babylon 5 creator J. Michael Straczynski , and Trek actors Jonathan Frakes and William Shatner . The studio also turned down an animated web series . Instead , Paramount hired a new creative team to reinvigorate the franchise in 2007 . Writers Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman and Lost producer , J. J. Abrams , had the freedom to reinvent the feel of Trek .
The team created the franchise 's eleventh film , titled simply Star Trek , releasing it in May 2009 . The film featured a new cast portraying the crew of the original show . Star Trek was a prequel of the original series set in an alternate timeline . This gave the film and future sequels to it freedom from the need to conform to the franchise 's canonical timeline . The eleventh Star Trek film 's marketing campaign targeted non @-@ fans , even stating in the film 's advertisements that " this is not your father 's Star Trek " .
The film earned considerable critical and financial success , grossing in inflation @-@ adjusted dollars more box office sales than any previous Star Trek film . The plaudits include the franchise 's first Academy Award ( for makeup ) . The film 's major cast members are contracted for two sequels . Paramount 's sequel to the 2009 film , Star Trek Into Darkness , premiered in Sydney , Australia on April 23 , 2013 , but the film did not release in the United States until May 17 , 2013 . While the film was not as successful in the North American box office as its predecessor , internationally , in terms of box office receipts , Into Darkness was the most successful of the franchise . A thirteenth film entitled Star Trek Beyond was released on July 22 , 2016 .
Star Trek will return to subscription @-@ television in January 2017 . The new series , titled Star Trek : Discovery , will be the first series produced specifically for CBS All Access . Episodes will also be availablle on Netflix within 24 hours of their U.S. premieres .
= = Television series = =
Six television series make up the bulk of the Star Trek mythos : The Original Series , The Animated Series , The Next Generation , Deep Space Nine , Voyager , and Enterprise . All the different versions in total amount to 726 Star Trek episodes across the 30 seasons of the TV series .
= = = The Original Series ( 1966 – 69 ) = = =
Star Trek : The Original Series or " TOS " debuted in the United States on NBC on September 8 , 1966 . The show tells the tale of the crew of the starship Enterprise and its five @-@ year mission " to boldly go where no man has gone before . " The original 1966 – 1969 television series featured William Shatner as Captain James T. Kirk , Leonard Nimoy as Spock , DeForest Kelley as Dr. Leonard " Bones " McCoy , James Doohan as Montgomery " Scotty " Scott , Nichelle Nichols as Uhura , George Takei as Hikaru Sulu , and Walter Koenig as Pavel Chekov . During the series ' original run , it earned several nominations for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation and won twice : for the two @-@ parter " The Menagerie " and the Harlan Ellison @-@ written episode " The City on the Edge of Forever " .
NBC canceled the show after three seasons ; the last original episode aired on June 3 , 1969 . The petition near the end of the second season to save the show signed by many Caltech students and its multiple Hugo nominations would , however , indicate that despite low Nielsen ratings , it was highly popular with science fiction fans and engineering students . The series later became popular in reruns and found a cult following .
= = = The Animated Series ( 1973 – 74 ) = = =
Star Trek : The Animated Series , produced by Filmation , ran for two seasons from 1973 to 1974 . Most of the original cast performed the voices of their characters from The Original Series , and many of the writers who worked on The Original Series , D. C. Fontana , David Gerrold , and Paul Schneider , wrote for the series . While the animated format allowed the producers to create more exotic alien landscapes and life forms , animation errors and liberal reuse of shots and musical cues have tarnished the series ' reputation . Although it was originally sanctioned by Paramount , which owned the Star Trek franchise following its acquisition of Desilu in 1967 , Gene Roddenberry often spoke of TAS as non @-@ canon . Star Trek writers have used elements of the animated series in later live @-@ action series and movies , and as of June 2007 , the Animated Series has references in the library section of the official Startrek.com web site officially bringing the series into the franchise 's main canon .
The Animated Series won Star Trek 's first Emmy Award on May 15 , 1975 . Star Trek TAS briefly returned to television in the mid @-@ 1980s on the children 's cable network Nickelodeon . Nickelodeon 's Evan McGuire greatly admired the show and used its various creative components as inspiration for his short series called Piggly Wiggly Hears A Sound which never aired . Nickelodeon parent Viacom would purchase Paramount in 1994 . In the early 1990s , the Sci @-@ Fi Channel also began rerunning TAS . The complete TAS was also released on Laserdisc format during the 1980s . The complete series was first released in the USA on eleven volumes of VHS tapes in 1989 . All 22 episodes were released on DVD in 2006 .
= = = The Next Generation ( 1987 – 1994 ) = = =
Star Trek : The Next Generation , also known as " TNG " , takes place about a century after The Original Series ( 2364 – 2370 ) . It features a new starship , the Enterprise @-@ D , and a new crew led by Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) and Commander William Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) . Some crewmembers represent new alien races , including Deanna Troi , a half @-@ Betazoid counselor played by Marina Sirtis . Michael Dorn plays Worf , the first Klingon officer in Starfleet , alongside Gates McFadden as Dr. Beverly Crusher , LeVar Burton as chief engineer Geordi La Forge , the android Data portrayed by Brent Spiner , and Dr. Crusher 's son Wesley Crusher played by Wil Wheaton . The show premiered on September 28 , 1987 , and ran for seven seasons , ending on May 23 , 1994 . It had the highest ratings of any of the Star Trek series and became the # 1 syndicated show during the last few years of its original run , allowing it to act as a springboard for ideas in other series . Many relationships and races introduced in TNG became the basis of episodes in Deep Space 9 and Voyager . During its run it earned several Emmy awards and nominations – including a nomination for Best Dramatic Series during its final season – two Hugo Awards and a Peabody Award for Outstanding Television Programming for the episode " The Big Goodbye " .
= = = Deep Space Nine ( 1993 – 99 ) = = =
Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , also known as " DS9 " , takes place during the last years and the immediate post @-@ years of The Next Generation ( 2369 – 2375 ) and aired for seven seasons , debuting the week of January 3 , 1993 . Like Star Trek : The Next Generation , it aired in syndication in the United States and Canada . Unlike the other Star Trek series , DS9 takes place primarily on a space station rather than aboard a starship .
The show begins after the brutal Cardassian occupation of the planet Bajor . The liberated Bajoran people ask the United Federation of Planets to help run a Cardassian built space station , Deep Space Nine , near Bajor . After the Federation takes control of the station , the protagonists of the show discover a uniquely stable wormhole that provides immediate access to the distant Gamma Quadrant making Bajor and the station one of the most strategically important locations in the galaxy . The show chronicles the events of the station 's crew , led by Commander ( later Captain ) Benjamin Sisko , played by Avery Brooks , and Major ( later Colonel ) Kira Nerys , played by Nana Visitor . Recurring plot elements include the repercussions of the Cardassian occupation of Bajor , Sisko 's spiritual role for the Bajorans as the Emissary of the Prophets , and in later seasons a war with the Dominion .
Deep Space Nine stands apart from earlier Trek series for its lengthy serialized storytelling , conflict within the crew , and religious themes — all elements that critics and audiences praised but Roddenberry forbade in the original series and The Next Generation . Nevertheless , he was informed before his death of DS9 , making this the last Star Trek series connected to Gene Roddenberry .
= = = Voyager ( 1995 – 2001 ) = = =
Star Trek : Voyager ran for seven seasons , airing from January 16 , 1995 , to May 23 , 2001 , launching a new Paramount @-@ owned television network UPN . It features Kate Mulgrew as Captain Kathryn Janeway , the first female commanding officer in a leading role of a Star Trek series , and Commander Chakotay , played by Robert Beltran .
Voyager takes place at about the same time period as Deep Space Nine and the years following that show 's end ( 2371 – 2378 ) . The premiere episode has the USS Voyager and its crew pursue a Maquis ( Federation rebels ) ship . Both ships become stranded in the Delta Quadrant about 70 @,@ 000 light @-@ years from Earth . Faced with a 75 @-@ year voyage to Earth , the crew must learn to work together to overcome challenges on their long and perilous journey home while also seeking ways to shorten the voyage . Like Deep Space Nine , early seasons of Voyager feature more conflict between its crewmembers than seen in later episodes . Such conflict often arises from friction between " by @-@ the @-@ book " Starfleet crew and rebellious Maquis fugitives forced by circumstance to work together on Voyager . Eventually , though , they settle their differences , after which the overall tone becomes more reminiscent of The Original Series . The starship Voyager , isolated from its home , faces new cultures and dilemmas not possible in shows based in the Alpha Quadrant . Later seasons , however , brought an influx of characters and cultures from prior shows , the Borg , Q , the Ferengi , Romulans , Klingons , Cardassians and cast members of The Next Generation .
= = = Enterprise ( 2001 – 05 ) = = =
Star Trek : Enterprise , originally titled Enterprise , is a prequel to the original Star Trek series . It aired from September 26 , 2001 to May 13 , 2005 . Enterprise takes place in the 2150s , some 90 years after the events of Zefram Cochrane 's first warp flight and about a decade before the founding of the Federation . The show centers on the voyages of Earth 's first warp @-@ five capable starship , the Enterprise , commanded by Captain Jonathan Archer ( played by Scott Bakula ) , and the Vulcan Sub @-@ Commander T 'Pol ( played by Jolene Blalock ) .
During the show 's first two seasons , Enterprise featured self @-@ contained episodes , like The Original Series , The Next Generation and Voyager . The third season consisted of one arc , " Xindi mission " , which had a darker tone and serialized nature similar to that of Deep Space 9 . Season 4 consisted of several two to three episode mini @-@ arcs . The final season showed the origins of elements seen in earlier series , and it rectified and resolved some core continuity problems between the various Star Trek series . Ratings for Enterprise started strong but declined rapidly . Although critics received the fourth season well , both fans and the cast reviled the series finale , partly because of the episode 's focus on the guest appearance of members of The Next Generation cast . The cancellation of Enterprise ended an 18 @-@ year run of back @-@ to @-@ back new Star Trek shows beginning with The Next Generation in 1987 .
= = = Discovery ( 2017 – ) = = =
On November 2 , 2015 , it was announced that a new Star Trek TV series is in development by Bryan Fuller and Alex Kurtzman . The new series will premiere on CBS All Access in January 2017 .
= = Feature films = =
Paramount Pictures has produced thirteen Star Trek feature films , the most recent being released in July 2016 . The first six films continue the adventures of the cast of The Original Series ; the seventh film , Generations was designed as a transition from that cast to The Next Generation television series ; the next three films , 8 – 10 , focused completely on the Next Generation cast . The eleventh and twelfth films take place in an alternate timeline from the rest of the franchise set with a new cast playing the original series characters , and with Leonard Nimoy as an elderly Spock providing a physical link to the original timeline . This alternate timeline has been named by CBS , for the computer came Star Trek Online , the Kelvin Timeline . Star Trek , Into Darkness , and Beyond occur in a separate timeline from the rest of the series .
= = Merchandise = =
Many licensed products are based on the Star Trek franchise . Merchandising is very lucrative for both studio and actors ; by 1986 Nimoy had earned more than $ 500 @,@ 000 from royalties . Products include novels , comic books , video games , and other materials , which are generally considered non @-@ canon .
= = = Books = = =
Since 1967 , hundreds of original novels , short stories , and television and movie adaptations have been published . The first original Star Trek novel was Mission to Horatius by Mack Reynolds , which was published in hardcover by Whitman Books in 1968 .
The first publisher of Star Trek fiction aimed at adult readers was Bantam Books . In 1970 , James Blish wrote the first original Star Trek novel published by Bantam , Spock Must Die ! . Pocket Books is the publisher of Star Trek novels .
Prolific Star Trek novelists include Peter David , Diane Carey , Keith R. A. DeCandido , J. M. Dillard , Diane Duane , Michael Jan Friedman , and Judith and Garfield Reeves @-@ Stevens . Several actors from the television series have also written or co @-@ written books featuring their respective characters : William Shatner , John de Lancie , Andrew J. Robinson , J. G. Hertzler and Armin Shimerman . Voyager producer Jeri Taylor wrote two novels featuring back story for Voyager characters , and screen authors David Gerrold , D. C. Fontana , and Melinda Snodgrass have penned books , as well .
A scholarly book published by Springer Science + Business Media in 2014 discusses the actualization of Star Trek 's holodeck in the future by making extensive use of artificial intelligence and cyborgs .
= = = Comics = = =
Star Trek @-@ based comics have been almost continuously published since 1967 . They have been offered by several companies , including Marvel , DC , Malibu , Wildstorm , and Gold Key . Tokyopop is publishing an anthology of Next Generation @-@ based stories presented in the style of Japanese manga . As of 2006 , IDW Publishing secured publishing rights to Star Trek comics and published a prequel to the 2009 film , Star Trek : Countdown . In 2012 , they published Volume I of Star Trek – The Newspaper Strip featuring the work of Thomas Warkentin .
= = = Games = = =
The Star Trek franchise has numerous games in many formats . Beginning in 1967 with a board game based on the original series and continuing through today with online and DVD games , Star Trek games continue to be popular among fans .
Video games of the series include Star Trek : Legacy and Star Trek : Conquest . An MMORPG based on Star Trek called Star Trek Online was developed by Cryptic Studios and published by Perfect World . It is set in the TNG universe about 30 years after the events of Star Trek : Nemesis . The most recent video game , set in the new timeline debuted in J. J. Abrams 's film , was titled Star Trek .
On June 8 , 2010 , Wiz Kids Games , which is owned by NECA , announced that they are developing a Star Trek collectible miniatures game using the HeroClix game system .
= = = Magazines = = =
Star Trek has led directly or indirectly to the creation of a number of magazines which focus either on science fiction or specifically on Star Trek . Starlog was a magazine which was founded in the 1970s . Initially , its focus was on Star Trek actors , but then it began to expand its scope .
In 2013 , Star Trek Magazine was a significant publication from the U.K. which was sold at newsstands and also via subscription . Other magazines through the years included professional magazines as well as magazines produced by fans , referred to as " fanzines " . Star Trek : The Magazine was a magazine published in the U.S. which ceased publication in 2003 .
= = Cultural impact = =
The Star Trek media franchise is a multibillion @-@ dollar industry , owned by CBS . Gene Roddenberry sold Star Trek to NBC as a classic adventure drama ; he pitched the show as " Wagon Train to the Stars " and as Horatio Hornblower in Space . The opening line , " to boldly go where no man has gone before , " was taken almost verbatim from a U.S. White House booklet on space produced after the Sputnik flight in 1957 . The central trio of Kirk , Spock , and McCoy was modeled on classical mythological storytelling .
Star Trek and its spin @-@ offs have proven highly popular in syndication and are shown on TV stations worldwide . The show 's cultural impact goes far beyond its longevity and profitability . Star Trek conventions have become popular among its fans , who call themselves " trekkies " or " trekkers " . An entire subculture has grown up around the show which was documented in the film Trekkies . Star Trek was the highest @-@ ranked cult show by TV Guide . The franchise has also garnered many comparisons of the Star Wars franchise being rivals in the science fiction genre with many fans and scholars .
The Star Trek franchise inspired some designers of technologies , the Palm PDA and the handheld mobile phone . Michael Jones , Chief technologist of Google Earth , has cited the tricorder 's mapping capability as one inspiration in the development of Keyhole / Google Earth . The Tricorder X Prize , a contest to build a medical tricorder device was announced in 2012 . Ten finalists have been selected in 2014 , and the winner will be selected in January 2016 . Star Trek also brought teleportation to popular attention with its depiction of " matter @-@ energy transport " , with the famously misquoted phrase " Beam me up , Scotty " entering the vernacular . The Star Trek replicator is credited in the scientific literature with inspiring the field of diatom nanotechnology . In 1976 , following a letter @-@ writing campaign , NASA named its prototype space shuttle Enterprise , after the fictional starship . Later , the introductory sequence to Star Trek : Enterprise included footage of this shuttle which , along with images of a naval sailing vessel called the Enterprise , depicted the advancement of human transportation technology .
Beyond Star Trek 's fictional innovations , its contributions to TV history included a multicultural and multiracial cast . While more common in subsequent years , in the 1960s it was controversial to feature an Enterprise crew that included a Japanese helmsman , a Russian navigator , a black female communications officer , and a Vulcan @-@ Human first officer . Captain Kirk 's and Lt. Uhura 's kiss , in the episode " Plato 's Stepchildren " , was also daring , and is often mis @-@ cited as being American television 's first scripted , interracial kiss , even though several other interracial kisses predated this one .
= = = Parodies = = =
Early TV comedy sketch parodies of Star Trek included a famous sketch on Saturday Night Live titled " The Last Voyage of the Starship Enterprise " , with John Belushi as Kirk , Chevy Chase as Spock and Dan Aykroyd as McCoy . In the 1980s , Saturday Night Live did a sketch with William Shatner reprising his Captain Kirk role in The Restaurant Enterprise , preceded by a sketch in which he played himself at a Trek convention angrily telling fans to " Get a Life " , a phrase that has become part of Trek folklore . In Living Color continued the tradition in a sketch where Captain Kirk is played by a fellow Canadian Jim Carrey .
A feature @-@ length film that indirectly parodies Star Trek is Galaxy Quest . This film is based on the premise that aliens monitoring the broadcast of an Earth @-@ based TV series called Galaxy Quest , modeled heavily on Star Trek , believe that what they are seeing is real . Many Star Trek actors have been quoted saying that Galaxy Quest was a brilliant parody .
Star Trek has been blended with Gilbert and Sullivan at least twice . The North Toronto Players presented a Star Trek adaptation of Gilbert & Sullivan titled H.M.S. Starship Pinafore : The Next Generation in 1991 and an adaptation by Jon Mullich of Gilbert & Sullivan 's H.M.S. Pinafore that sets the operetta in the world of Star Trek has played in Los Angeles and was attended by series luminaries Nichelle Nichols , D.C. Fontana and David Gerrold . A similar blend of Gilbert and Sullivan and Star Trek was presented as a benefit concert in San Francisco by the Lamplighters in 2009 . The show was titled Star Drek : The Generation After That . It presented an original story with Gilbert and Sullivan melodies .
Both The Simpsons and Futurama television series and others have had many individual episodes parodying Star Trek or with Trek allusions . An entire series of films and novels from Finland titled Star Wreck also parodies Star Trek .
In August 2010 , the members of the Internal Revenue Service created a Star Trek themed training video for a conference . Revealed to the public in 2013 , the spoof along with parodies of other media franchises was cited as an example of the misuse of taxpayer funds in a congressional investigation .
Star Trek has been parodied in several non @-@ English movies , including the German Traumschiff Surprise - Periode 1 which features a gay version of The Original Series bridge crew and a Turkish film that spoofs that same series ' episode " The Man Trap " in one of the series of films based on the character Turist Ömer .
= = = Notable fan fiction = = =
Although Star Trek has been off the air since 2005 , CBS and Paramount pictures have allowed fan @-@ produced shows to be created . While not officially part of the Star Trek universe , several veteran Star Trek actors , actresses , and writers have contributed their talents to many of these productions . While none of these films have been created for profit , several fan productions have turned to crowdfunding from sites , such as Kickstarter to help with production costs .
Two series set during the TOS time period are Star Trek Continues and the Hugo award nominated Star Trek : Phase II . Another series , Star Trek : Hidden Frontier , takes place on the Briar Patch , a region of space introduced in Star Trek Insurrection . It has had over 50 episodes produced , and has two spin @-@ off series , Star Trek : Odyssey and Star Trek : The Helena Chronicles . Several standalone fan films have been created including Star Trek : Of Gods and Men . Future fan films include Star Trek : Axanar . Audio only fan productions includes Star Trek : The Continuing Mission . Several fan film parodies have also been created .
= = Awards and honors = =
Of the various science fiction awards for drama , only the Hugo Award dates back as far as the original series . In 1968 , all five nominees for a Hugo Award were individual episodes of Star Trek , as were three of the five nominees in 1967 . The only Star Trek series not even to get a Hugo nomination are the animated series and Voyager , though only the original series and Next Generation ever won the award . No Star Trek feature film has ever won a Hugo , though a few were nominated . In 2008 , the fan @-@ made episode of Star Trek : New Voyages entitled " World Enough and Time " was nominated for the Hugo for Best Short Drama .
The two Star Trek series to win multiple Saturn awards during their run were The Next Generation ( twice winning for best television series ) and Voyager ( twice winning for best actress – Kate Mulgrew and Jeri Ryan ) . The original series retroactively won a Saturn Award for best DVD release . Several Star Trek films have won Saturns including categories best actor , actress , director , costume design , and special effects . However , Star Trek has never won a Saturn for best make @-@ up .
As for non science fiction specific awards , the Star Trek series has won 31 Emmy Awards . The eleventh Star Trek film won the 2009 Academy Award for Best Makeup , the franchise 's first Academy Award .
= = Corporate ownership = =
At Star Trek 's creation , Norway Productions , Roddenberry 's production company , shared ownership with Desilu Productions and , after Gulf + Western acquired Desilu in 1967 , with Paramount Pictures , the conglomerate 's film studio . Paramount did not want to own the unsuccessful show ; net profit was to be shared between Norway , Desilu / Paramount , Shatner , and NBC but Star Trek lost money , and the studio did not expect to syndicate it . In 1970 Paramount offered to sell all rights to Star Trek to Roddenberry , but he could not afford the $ 150 @,@ 000 ( $ 914 @,@ 000 in 2007 ) price .
In 1989 , Gulf + Western renamed itself as Paramount Communications , and in 1994 merged with Viacom . In 2005 , Viacom divided into CBS Corporation , whose CBS Television Studios subsidiary retained the Star Trek brand , and Viacom , whose Paramount Pictures subsidiary retained the Star Trek film library and rights to make additional films , along with video distribution rights to the TV series on behalf of CBS .
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= Maximilian , Count of Merveldt =
Maximilian , Count von Merveldt ( 29 June 1764 – 5 July 1815 ) , among the most famous of an illustrious old Westphalian family , entered Austrian military service , rose to the rank of General of Cavalry , served as Francis II , Holy Roman Emperor 's ambassador to Russia , and became special envoy extraordinaire to the Court of St. James 's ( Great Britain ) . He fought with distinction in the wars between the Habsburg and the Ottoman empires , the French Revolutionary Wars , and the Napoleonic Wars .
Maximilian entered the military as a young man , and acquired his first combat experiences the Habsburg wars with the Ottoman Empire . Following his experience in the Balkans , he retreated to the cloister at Bonn , where he spent a year as a novice in the Teutonic Order . At the outbreak of war between Austria and France in 1792 , he returned to military service , and proved an intrepid and enterprising cavalry field officer . His role in the Austrian victory at Neerwinden in 1793 earned him the honor of conveying the news to the Emperor in Vienna .
In the War of the Second Coalition , Maximilian served in Swabia and northern Italy and Switzerland . In subsequent wars between France and Austria , his role on the battlefield often meant the difference between defeat and victory . He was wounded and captured at the Battle of Leipzig and , as a condition of release , he agreed not to bear arms against France again . He was subsequently appointed as an envoy to Britain , where he died in 1815 .
= = Family and early career = =
Maximilian was born on 29 June 1764 in the ecclesiastical territory of Münster , in Westphalia . His was an old Westphalian family , raised to comital status in 1726 . He joined the military service in 1782 , in a dragoon regiment , and was promoted to lieutenant and first lieutenant by 1787 . In the wars between Austria and the Ottoman Empire , ( 1787 – 1791 ) , he was a Rittmeister , or captain of cavalry and wing adjutant to Field Marshal Franz Moritz , Count von Lacy . In 1790 , Merveldt commanded the Volunteers Grün @-@ Loudon and later that year , after his promotion to major , he served on the staff of Field Marshal Ernst Gideon , Baron von Laudon in Moravia .
= = Military career = =
= = = War of the First Coalition = = =
Following the defeat of the insurrection in the Austrian Netherlands , he received permission from Field Marshal Laudon , shortly before the latter 's death , to take a one year novitiate in the Teutonic Order , at Bonn where he remained until April 1792 . The outbreak of the War of the First Coalition against France required his military talents and Mervelt rejoined the Habsburg army at as adjutant to Josias , Prince of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld . He led two infantry battalions in the Austrian victory at Neerwinden ( 18 March 1793 ) , during which his battalions repulsed a strong French column . For his role at the head of his battalions of grenadiers , which his commander considered greater than duty required , in this victory , Merveldt received the honor of carrying the message to the Emperor Francis in Vienna . There , he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Military Order of Maria Theresa on 7 July 1794 . Subsequently , he was appointed as an attaché to the staff of Frederick , Duke of York .
In the 1794 campaign , Merveldt fought at the Battle of Famars and again at the Battle of Villers @-@ en @-@ Cauchies , 15 kilometres ( 9 mi ) south of Landrecies on 22 April , during which he commanded the right wing . After the Battle of Tournai ( 22 May 1794 ) , he was promoted on the field to Oberst ( colonel ) . His failing health prevented him from continued field service and he took sick leave until early 1796 . In 1796 he transferred to the 18th Chevau @-@ légers Regiment Karaczay and fought at the Battle of Kircheib , in the Westerwald , where , despite the French superiority of numbers , the Austrians eked out a victory . At Kircheib , with two squadrons of Chevaux @-@ legers , Merveldt saved the Austrian artillery from French capture , thus contributing to the Austrian victory . The Tagebericht ( daily dispatch ) of the Army of the Rhine referred to his keen sense of duty , and his ability to seize the moment , which , in this case , proved a vital element in the extraordinary success of the small Austrian force against the considerably larger French one . Afterward he was promoted to major general . He was assigned as proprietor of the First Lancer 's Regiment , and given command of a cavalry brigade in Franz von Werneck 's Reserve of the Army of the Lower Rhine .
Merveldt was known to his contemporaries for his strength of will , presence of mind , and his self @-@ control . Those same qualities made him attractive to his military superiors as part of the negotiation party in the cease @-@ fire preliminaries at Leoben in 1797 . He opposed Napoleon 's desire to move a general peace congress closer to Vienna , and later was a co @-@ signator of the Peace of Campo Formio on 17 November 1797 . He brought the document to Rastatt , where the Rastatt Peace Congress convened . He stayed in Rastatt in the capacity of ambassador .
= = = War of the Second Coalition = = =
At the outbreak of the War of the Second Coalition in March 1799 , and the dissolution of Congress on 7 April 1799 , Merveldt returned to his regiment , which by this time had crossed the Lech and Iller rivers , and was advancing into Swabia . During the campaigns of 1800 , he commanded the left wing by Eckartsweiler at the Battle of Alt @-@ Breisach on 25 April , and on 10 May conducted a rear @-@ guard action to protect the Imperial army 's withdrawal . He remained with his brigade on the right bank of the Danube , where he directed a series of bold actions against the French , and then along the Iller and Lech rivers , he organized a series of well @-@ timed thrusts designed to keep the French from pushing the retreating army . After the battle at Offenburg , he was promoted to lieutenant field marshal on 4 September 1800 . At the Austrian defeat in the Battle of Hohenlinden on 3 December , Merveldt commanded a division in the left wing . He signed the 24 @-@ hour cease @-@ fire at Kremsmünster with Jean Victor Moreau on 22 December . During the cease @-@ fire , he retreated to Pressburg .
= = Diplomatic and military career during the Napoleonic Wars = =
= = = Napoleonic Wars = = =
In 1805 he was in Berlin when the hostilities between France and Austria resumed , and he returned to the Danube valley , where he fought a series of rearguard actions . He avoided being caught in the capitulation of Ulm and fell back toward Mikhail Kutuzov 's Russian army . With 6 @,@ 000 soldiers in six line and ten Grenz infantry battalions plus 14 squadrons of cavalry , Merveldt made for Styria , hoping to join the army of Archduke Charles . Napoleon detached Louis Davout 's III Corps in pursuit . Slowed by heavy snow in the mountains , his " poorly @-@ handled corps " was overtaken by the French at Gross @-@ Ramig , also called Mariazell , in the Austrian Steiermark , on 8 November . His exhausted troops were routed by General of Brigade Etienne Heudelet de Bierre 's advanced guard of Davout 's III Corps ; half , about 2 @,@ 000 , were taken prisoner , and they lost four colors and 16 guns .
After the War of the Third Coalition , he acted as ambassador to St. Petersburg for over two years , with the assignment of improving military relations between the armies of the respective countries . He attempted to do this , including trying an offer to mediate between Britain and France , and was appointed Privy Councilor . During this time , he married Maria Theresia Gräfin von Dietrichstein .
In 1808 he was given command of a cavalry division in Lemberg . In early 1809 , Merveldt became a prominent member of the group pushing for war against France , together with such notables as Archduke Ferdinand , Archduke John , Empress Maria Ludovika of Austria @-@ Este , and Count Heinrich von Bellegarde . In the 1809 campaign , Merveldt 's force was stationed in the Bukowina and part of Galicia , and from 1809 to mid @-@ 1813 , he spent three years in Moravia .
On 22 July 1813 he was appointed governor of the fortress of Theresienstadt and shortly after that Commanding General in Moravia and Silesia . He then became commander of II Corps ; the First Division held the village of Nollendorf , in the French defeat at the Battle of Kulm ( now Chlumec ) on 29 – 30 August 1813 .
On 16 October , during the Battle of Leipzig , Merveldt 's forces were arrayed on the right flank of the French center , commanded by Napoleon . On his own right stood Wittgenstein 's Corps , and beyond that , Johann von Klenau 's . His troops were interspersed among several wooded sections and surrounding several small villages : Dölitz , Mark @-@ Kleeburg and Gautsch . Opposite him were the forces of Józef Antoni Poniatowski and Pierre Augereau . He rode out to view the battlefield and to direct the disposition of his force . Near Dölitz , which lay close to the French line , he wandered into a troop of Hungarians , or so he thought , but they were actually a mixed group of Saxons and Poles , whom he mistook for Hungarians , and was captured . Most of the action , on the first day , occurred to the north , where Blücher 's Prussians repelled Michel Ney 's cavalry , but when Napoleon heard that Ney and Marmont had been forced back , he sought a cease @-@ fire from the Allied monarchs . He called for Merveldt , and , after a meeting , Merveldt carried Napoleon 's proposal to the allied monarchs , which they refused .
= = = Final diplomatic missions = = =
As a condition of his release at Leipzig , he agreed not to participate in combat against France . Subsequent to his release , Merveldt was appointed commanding general of Moravia , and lived in Brno , where he received in January 1814 the instructions to proceed to London as an envoy extraordinaire to the Court of St. James 's , replacing Baron Wessembourg . He arrived in London in early March , and met the Prince Regent at Carlton House on 7 March 1814 , where he ceremoniously presented his ambassadorial credentials . He was well @-@ received in Britain , and became a notable personage , invited to many social events ; he told good stories about the wars and the various people he had encountered , which made him popular in social circles . His comings and goings were widely reported in the society columns : For example , on 4 July 1814 , he attended a lecture by the Abbé Secard , and was listed among the distinguished persons present . When he died in 1815 , the British government proposed to bury him at Westminster Abbey . However , his widow took into account his last wishes and had the remains sent to Germany . He was buried in the crypt of the Michaelis chappel in Lembeck Castle where his grave still exists .
In 1903 , in the Lößnig neighborhood of the city of Leipzig a square and a street were named after Maximilian von Merveldt , in honor of his contribution to the Battle of Leipzig . In 1950 , the communist authorities of East Germany renamed Merveldt square to Rembrandt square and Merveldt street to Rembrand street .
= = = = Newspaper sources = = = =
" State Paper . Answer To The Note Of Count Merveld [ sic ] ( The Austrian Ambassador ) " . The Times ( London ) , Friday , 31 Jul 1807 ; pg . 3 ; Issue 7113 ; col D
" The Prince Regent 's Court , " The Morning Chronicle , ( London , England ) , Tuesday , 8 March 1814 ; Issue 13990 .
The Morning Chronicle . ( London , England ) . Wednesday , 5 July 1815 ; Issue 14405 .
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= The American Bible Challenge =
The American Bible Challenge is a Biblical @-@ themed American television game show created by Game Show Network . The series is hosted by Jeff Foxworthy , with Kirk Franklin joining Foxworthy as co @-@ host and announcer in the second season . The series debuted on August 23 , 2012 .
The game involves three teams consisting of three contestants each answering questions to display their knowledge of the Bible . At the end of the main game , the teams utilize only their strongest contestants to answer questions by themselves without any assistance from their teammates . Once the main game is completed , the two highest @-@ scoring teams compete in a final round with the scores being reset to zero . The remaining teams answer as many questions correctly as possible within one minute ; the highest @-@ scoring team from this round wins a $ 20 @,@ 000 prize .
The show became GSN 's highest rated original program in the history of the network . In 2014 , The American Bible Challenge received two nominations at the 41st Daytime Emmy Awards , with the series receiving one for Outstanding Game Show , and Foxworthy receiving the other for Outstanding Game Show Host ; however , both the show and Foxworthy lost to Jeopardy ! and Steve Harvey ( host of Family Feud ) respectively .
= = Gameplay = =
= = = Main game = = =
To begin the game , a category is revealed , and the three teams of three contestants are asked multiple choice questions under that category , with each question having four possible answers . The contestant that buzzes in with the correct answer earns the respective team 100 points ; an incorrect answer loses 100 points , and opens up the question to the other teams . Contestants must wait until after the host reads the entire question ( including the choices ) to buzz in .
Each team then participates in a physical stunt . These stunts involve teams answering questions about Bible characters , with the same set of choices given for each character . For example , in the game " Stick a Fork In It , " the teams must use a spoon to catapult a fork into a glass to select their answer . Where teams compete individually , each team is given 60 seconds ; occasional games where teams compete at the same time are either untimed ( with the first team to complete the game winning ) or played in 90 seconds . In all cases , the team that wins the stunt receives 200 points ; in case of a tie , each of the teams involved in the tie receives the points . The next round , entitled " Kirk 's Righteous Remix " , features Grammy Award @-@ winner Kirk Franklin and the choir singing songs relating to various books of the Bible . Each team is then given one question based on an announced subject worth 300 points ; no penalty is assessed for an incorrect answer .
The teams then set their strongest respective contestants aside for the final round of main gameplay , entitled " The Chosen Three " . These contestants move to an area behind the teams , and cannot participate in this round . The host then asks each team , in turn , a question based on an announced category . Each question in this round is worth 500 points , with no penalty assessed for an incorrect answer . Only the two contestants standing at the podium may confer and answer the question . Two questions are asked to each team in this round . In the " Chosen Three " round , the contestants who were set aside from the previous round stand alone at their podiums , with their teammates standing in the area behind them . The host asks each contestant , in turn , a question with six possible answers , three of which are correct . The contestants then make three selections without conferring with the rest of their respective teams . Each individual correct answer is worth 1 @,@ 000 points , thus , a total of 3 @,@ 000 points are available to each team in this round . The two teams with the highest total scores advance to the final round , while the third @-@ place team is eliminated and leaves with $ 2 @,@ 500 for their charity .
= = = The Final Revelation = = =
Before this game , entitled " The Final Revelation " , scores from the previous rounds are discarded . The host announces the category for the final round , and gives each team a copy of the Bible . The teams then move to a backstage area , and are permitted 10 minutes to study the Bible for information based on that category . In Season 2 , while backstage , the teams also have the option to use the YouVersion App of the Bible on an electronic tablet along with the copy of the Bible .
After the 10 minutes are up , the first team comes on @-@ stage , while the second team is placed in a sound @-@ proof booth . The host then asks the team questions from the announced category . Each question is given , in rotation , to one player , who cannot confer with teammates . Both teams play the same set of questions . Each team has a total of 60 seconds to answer as many questions as possible , and the team that answers more questions correctly wins $ 20 @,@ 000 for their charity ; the runners @-@ up win $ 5 @,@ 000 for their charity . Teams that win this round advance to a semi @-@ final game ; the winners of that episode advance to the season finale , where team that wins this round wins $ 100 @,@ 000 for their charity in addition to all winnings from previous episodes .
= = = Previous rules = = =
Immediately following the first round in season 2 , each team had a chance to earn 25 additional points . Before the show , a question was asked to 100 You @-@ Version App users ( e.g. " Would you rather fast for 40 days or eat manna for 40 years ? " ) . A question with 3 possible choices was then asked about the percentage of people who answered ( e.g. " What percentage said they would rather fast for 40 days than eat manna for 40 years ? " ) . During the break , each team wrote their answer on a tablet computer , and each team that submitted the correct answer earned 25 points . This round was removed from the game in the third season and replaced with another opening round @-@ style game played for ± 100 points a question .
= = Production = =
The series began development with production staff approaching Troy Schmidt , a pastor at First Baptist Church in Windermere , Florida , to work as both a writer and a consultant for the show . One of Schmidt 's initial roles was to be an " on @-@ camera Bible expert " for the series , one of many aspects of the pilot episode that was rejected by test audiences . GSN was then forced to bring in many new staff members during a six @-@ week period and made various changes to the show 's format .
After these changes were made , the test audience became more appreciative of the series , and GSN announced its development to the public at an upfront presentation in New York City on March 21 , 2012 for the network 's upcoming programming . By this time , a pilot episode had already been shot with American stand @-@ up comedian and television personality Jeff Foxworthy providing the hosting duties for the show . When first asked if he was interested in hosting the show , Foxworthy was hesitant ; however , he was " sold " on providing hosting duties when he learned contestants would be playing for charity rather than on their own behalf . Casting for the series was held in various cities from May to June 2012 . On July 7 , 2012 , GSN confirmed the premiere date of the show as August 23 , 2012 , alongside the premiere of Beat the Chefs .
= = = Season 1 = = =
The first season of The American Bible Challenge premiered its first of nine episodes August 23 , 2012 to an audience of 1 @.@ 730 million viewers , breaking all previous viewership records for GSN . On October 18 , 2012 , Team " Judson 's Legacy " , consisting of married couple Drake and Christina Levasheff of Irvine , California as well as their friend Dean Bobar , were crowned champions of the inaugural season 's tournament , winning a total of $ 140 @,@ 000 for their charity in honor of the Levasheff 's son , Judson , who died of late @-@ onset Krabbe disease , a leukodystrophy . The first season garnered over 13 million total viewers on GSN .
= = = Season 2 = = =
A second nine @-@ episode season of the series was officially announced on October 9 , 2012 . It was advertised that auditions would be held nationwide in November and December , and that the season would also feature the addition of Franklin to the series . The second season premiered on GSN March 21 , debuting to 1 @.@ 152 million viewers . On May 23 , 2013 , Team " Wagner Warriors " , consisting of brothers Joshua , Jesse and Daniel Wagner from Owasso and Tulsa , Oklahoma , were crowned champions of the second season , winning a total of $ 140 @,@ 000 for Wagner Ministries International . A portion of their winnings was used for the team 's involvement in the One Nation One Day nationwide Ministry Event in Honduras in July 2013 .
= = = Season 3 = = =
On August 8 , 2013 , GSN officially announced plans to renew The American Bible Challenge for a third season , with both Foxworthy and Franklin returning as hosts . The third season once again consisted of nine episodes , which began airing May 22 , 2014 . On July 17 , 2014 , Team " Bible Belts " , consisting of Jonathan King , Matt Phipps and Brad Harris from Otway , Ohio were crowned as the third season 's champions , winning a total $ 140 @,@ 000 for their charity , " Kicks For Jesus " .
= = Reception = =
Despite breaking many ratings records for GSN , the series received mixed reviews from critics . David Hinckley of the New York Daily News gave the series a positive review , saying , " Anyone who knows even a little about the Bible will be unable to resist playing along and matching answers with the teams on the screen " . In addition , Rebecca Cusey of Patheos argued , " Those that take the Bible as the word of God will enjoy this show " . Conversely , Hank Stuever of The Washington Post was critical of the series . Stuever called the show " just as dull as it sounds " , and argued that " weariness " could be detected in Foxworthy 's hosting .
The American Bible Challenge was also honored with two Emmy Award nominations at the 41st Daytime Emmy Awards in 2014 . The series received a nomination for Outstanding Game Show , while Foxworthy received one for Outstanding Game Show Host . However , both the show and Foxworthy lost to Jeopardy ! and Steve Harvey of Family Feud respectively .
The premiere episode of The American Bible Challenge debuted on August 23 , 2012 , breaking all previous viewership records for GSN . The show brought in over 2 @.@ 3 million total viewers ( 1 @.@ 73 million at 8 : 00pm , 571 @,@ 000 at 11 : 00pm ) for the night , which was by far the largest in the network 's history .
= = Merchandise = =
In an effort to promote the show 's second season , Schmidt released a study book entitled The American Bible Challenge : A Daily Reader , Volume 1 in 2013 . The book features nine weeks worth of study and questions previously seen on the show . Each day introduces a different lesson and passage of Scripture , with five questions being asked at the end of the day 's lesson . In addition to the book , GSN released a mobile game for Facebook , iOS devices , and Android devices in 2012 . In 2014 , a board game based on the series was released by Talicor .
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= The Tribunal , Glastonbury =
The Tribunal in Glastonbury , Somerset , England , was built in the 15th century as a merchant 's house . It has been designated as a Grade I listed building .
The history of the building is not well documented , although the majority of the present stone house was constructed in the 15th century on the site of a 12th @-@ century wooden building . The current front wall was added in the 16th century . It has been used as a merchant 's house and possibly a shop and school . It was thought that it was the venue for court proceedings , hence the title Tribunal , however there is no evidence this ever occurred . One of the ground floor rooms still has the window and ceiling panels from the Elizabethan era . The front room upstairs has an arched braced , wooden , truss roof .
The building is currently in the guardianship of English Heritage and used as a tourist information centre . On the first floor is the museum of the Glastonbury Antiquarian Society which houses artefacts from Glastonbury Lake Village including the " Glastonbury Bowl " . The bottom part of the bowl dates from the Iron Age and the upper part was added in the 1st century AD .
= = History = =
The house owes its name to the fact that it was formerly mistakenly identified with the Abbey ’ s tribunals , where secular justice was administered for Glaston Twelve Hides . The name may have been first used by John Collinson in his History and Antiquities of the County of Somerset in 1791 , however whwen investigated by Richard Warner in 1826 he could not identify where the name had originated . It was also thought to be the site of trials by Judge Jeffreys for the Bloody Assizes after the Monmouth Rebellion .
The current building was constructed in the 15th century on the site of a wooden building dating from the 12th century . In the 16th century a new facade was added to the original building . It is possible that the stonework and window of the front wall were removed from the abbot 's lodgings behind the great kitchen of the Abbey as similar features can be identified in a 1712 engraving , and it is known that the building was ruined and without its front wall by 1723 .
The door is original and above it are a Tudor rose and the arms of Richard Beere who was Abbot of Glastonbury from 1493 to 1524 . It is possible that the building was used as a hospice in the time of Richard Beere as Abbot as a document of 1716 describes " Beere 's Hospital " although it is uncertain whether this is the same building . Clearer documentary evidence shows that it was used as a " commercial school for young gentlemen " in the second half of the 18th century . It is now in the guardianship of English Heritage and managed by Glastonbury Tribunal Ltd .
= = Architecture = =
The building has two rooms and an attached kitchen on the ground floor with a staircase between them leading to the living quarters in the first floor rooms . The front room may originally have been a shop but was not used for trade after the installation of the new front wall in the 16th century . The front room has recesses on either side of the arched fireplace . The rear room on the ground floor was the hall and still has its 16th @-@ century ceiling panels and four @-@ light window . The ceiling has plaster decorations from the Elizabethan era , when the kitchen block was also added .
The wooden stairs leading to the first floor replaced an earlier stone staircase , the remains of which can be seen protruding from the walls . The front room on the first floor had previously been partitioned , but the larger space was created when the new front wall was added to the building . Its roof has arched braced wooden trusses . The rear room still has the remains of a large fireplace , however , the chimney was blocked when the downstairs fireplace was installed .
= = Glastonbury Lake Village Museum = =
The first floor of the Tribunal now houses the Glastonbury Lake Village Museum containing Iron Age possessions and works of art from the Glastonbury Lake Village , a " crannog " or man made island , which were preserved in almost perfect condition in the peat after the village was abandoned . Glastonbury Lake Village was an Iron Age village on the Somerset Levels near Godney , some 3 miles ( 5 km ) north west of Glastonbury. and covers an area of 400 feet ( 122 m ) north to south by 300 feet ( 91 m ) east to west .
The village was built in about 300 BC and occupied into the early Roman period ( around 100AD ) when it was abandoned , possibly due to a rise in the water level . It was built on a morass on an artificial foundation of timber filled with brushwood , bracken , rubble and clay . The village housed around 100 people in five to seven groups of houses , each for an extended family , with sheds and barns , made of hazel and willow covered with reeds , and surrounded either permanently or at certain times by a wooden palisade . At its maximum it may have had 15 houses with a population of up to 200 people .
The exhibits include the metal " Glastonbury Bowl " . It was made from two sections riveted together and repaired several times over its life . The bottom half has been dated as having been constructed in the Iron Age . The upper half was probably added in the 1st century from one sheet of metal , which may have been previously used for another purpose , and the two halves riveted together . Other artefacts that form the village include a clay tuyère from a pair of bellows , whetstones , iron knives and iron currency bars , which could be used as tokens and exchanged for goods . The glazed jar on display is a 1936 copy of one from the village site ; however some of the original storage bowls are included in the displays which were re assembled by Arthur Bulleid , who discovered the site in 1892 . In the old kitchen at the rear of the building is a log boat excavated near the village .
The museum is run by the Glastonbury Antiquarian Society . The building also houses the tourist information centre .
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= Madness ( Muse song ) =
" Madness " is a song by English rock band Muse . It is the second track on the band 's sixth studio album , The 2nd Law , and the second single to be released from the album . The song was released as a digital download on 20 August 2012 . It was written by Muse frontman Matthew Bellamy and produced by the band themselves . The official music video for the song premiered on 5 September 2012 . It spent 19 weeks at the summit of Billboard 's Alternative Songs chart , making it the longest running number @-@ one song on the chart , beating out the previous record of 18 weeks set by Foo Fighters ' " The Pretender " . The song earned a nomination in the Best Rock Song category at the 2013 Grammy Awards , but lost to " Lonely Boy " by the Black Keys . The song was featured in Turner Broadcasting 's promotions for the 2013 March Madness games on TBS and TNT .
= = Background and writing = =
" Madness " is an electronic rock , synthpop , soft rock , and R & B song . According to NME , " Madness " draws influences from Queen 's " I Want to Break Free " , George Michael 's " Faith " and some instrumental elements of his other hit " I Want Your Sex " . During a preview of The 2nd Law on French site Jeuxactu , the song was said to resemble Depeche Mode and described as " calm , languid and sweet " . Matthew Bellamy stated that the song started as a personal reflection after a fight with his girlfriend Kate Hudson , and how , after she had gone to her mother 's house , he began to realise " yeah , she was right , wasn 't she ? " In a separate interview , Bellamy stated the song was the band 's attempt to strip down the sound of the album , and that the song has its roots in 12 bar blues with gospel , soul and R & B influences . He went on to conclude that , " It 's the song I 'm probably most proud of on the album for sure . "
= = Music video = =
The official music video for the song was uploaded to the band 's official YouTube channel on 5 September 2012 . This video saw the second collaboration between the band and director Anthony Mandler , who previously directed the music video for " Neutron Star Collision ( Love Is Forever ) " . It was edited by Jacquelyn London . The director of photography was David Devlin . The video was filmed on the Red Line platform at Los Angeles Union Station . The two main characters are played by models Erin Wasson and Max Silberman .
= = Release and reception = =
The song was released as a digital download on 20 August 2012 , with an accompanying lyric video for the song being uploaded shortly after . NME described the song as " taking the defining noise of ' bass music ' and using it to create slinky , soft rock sex music . " The track review goes on to call it a brilliant single and jokingly states that Muse have tamed the shark ( following their declaration that Muse had jumped the shark with " Survival " ) . Diffuser.fm noted that the single " doesn 't sound like the Muse that established itself as one of the worlds biggest rock bands " but that " the unusual blend of sounds works far better than it probably should " ; giving the track 8 / 10 . Rolling Stone stated that the single sees Muse " swap bombastic bass brutality with wubby subtleties as Matthew Bellamy croons over a surprisingly gentle pop track . " Radio Times described it as " George Michael 's Faith underwater " . In a negative review of the song , Robert Myers of The Village Voice wrote that " the band 's U2 imitation has finally caught up to Achtung Baby and Zooropa " . He further added that Muse " gets the surface details right but lacks the emotional and intellectual foundation to get at their inspiration 's essence . " Rolling Stone named the song the 37th best song of 2012 . Chris Martin of Coldplay described the single as " Muse 's best song yet " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
" Madness " had a positive commercial performance , charting in several countries and peaking within the top ten in Belgium ( Wallonia ) , Iceland , Israel , Italy , Japan , Portugal , and South Korea . In the band 's home country of the United Kingdom , the song peaked at number 25 on the UK Singles Chart . In the United States , the song peaked at number 45 on the Hot 100 and number 3 on the Hot Rock Songs chart . It topped the Alternative Songs chart for 19 weeks , breaking the record for the longest @-@ reigning number @-@ one song on the chart , which was previously held by " The Pretender " by Foo Fighters . " Madness " has been certified gold by the IFPI in Switzerland , platinum by the MC in Canada and FIMI in Italy , and double @-@ platinum by the RIAA in the United States .
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= G.I. Joe : The Rise of Cobra =
G.I. Joe : The Rise of Cobra is a 2009 American military science fiction action film based on the G.I. Joe toy franchise , with particular inspiration from the comic book and cartoon series G.I. Joe : A Real American Hero . The film is directed by Stephen Sommers , produced by Lorenzo di Bonaventura and co @-@ written by Stuart Beattie , based on a 1998 screenplay by John Paul Kay . G.I. Joe features an ensemble cast based on the various characters of the franchise . The story follows two American soldiers , Duke and Ripcord , who join the G.I. Joe Team after being attacked by Military Armaments Research Syndicate ( M.A.R.S. ) troops .
After leaked drafts of the script were criticized by fans , Larry Hama , writer of the comic , was hired as creative consultant , and rewrites were made . Filming took place in Downey , California , and Prague 's Barrandov Studios , and six companies handled the visual effects . The film was released on August 7 , 2009 , worldwide , following an extensive marketing campaign focused on the Mid @-@ American public . The Rise of Cobra opened at the top of the box office and grossed over $ 302 million worldwide by the end of its run . Critical reception was generally mixed . The sequel , G.I. Joe : Retaliation , was released on March 28 , 2013 .
= = Plot = =
In the near future , weapons master James McCullen ( Christopher Eccleston ) has created a nanotech @-@ based weapon - nanomites designed to devour metal and other materials , capable of destroying anything from tanks to cities . The nanobots can only be stopped by activating the kill switch . His company M.A.R.S. sells four warheads to NATO , and NATO troops led by American soldiers Duke ( Channing Tatum ) and Ripcord ( Marlon Wayans ) are asked to deliver the warheads . Their convoy is ambushed by the Baroness ( Sienna Miller ) , whom Duke recognizes to be his ex @-@ fiancee Ana Lewis . Duke and Ripcord are rescued by Scarlett ( Rachel Nichols ) , Snake Eyes ( Ray Park ) , Breaker ( Saïd Taghmaoui ) , and Heavy Duty ( Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje ) . They take the warheads to The Pit , G.I. Joe 's command center in Egypt , and upon arriving , rendezvous with the head of the G.I. Joe Team , General Hawk ( Dennis Quaid ) . Hawk takes command of the warheads and excuses Duke and Ripcord , only to be convinced to let them join his group , after Duke reveals that he knows the Baroness .
McCullen is revealed to be using the same nanotechnology to build an army of soldiers with the aid of the Doctor ( Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt ) , planning on using the warheads to cause worldwide panic and bring about a new world order . Using a tracking device , McCullen locates the G.I. Joe base and sends Storm Shadow ( Byung @-@ Hun Lee ) and the Baroness to retrieve the warheads , with assistance from Zartan ( Arnold Vosloo ) .
After a fight , Storm Shadow and the Baroness retrieve the warheads and take them to Baron DeCobray , the Baroness 's husband , for him to weaponize . Making their way to Paris , the Joes pursue the Baroness and Storm Shadow , but are unsuccessful in stopping them from launching one of the missiles . The missile hits the Eiffel Tower and releases the nanomites in it , destroying the tower and some of the surrounding area before Duke manages to hit the kill switch , but in so doing , he is captured and taken to McCullen 's base under the Arctic .
The Joes locate the secret base and fly there , as McCullen loads three missiles with nanowarheads , which are aimed for Beijing , Moscow , and Washington , DC , the world 's three most important cities . He intends to do this to strike fear into the hearts of every man , woman , and child on the planet , after which they will turn to the person with the most power in the world , the President of the United States . After Snake Eyes takes out one missile , Ripcord destroys the remaining two using a stolen M.A.R.S. prototype Night Raven jet , while Scarlett , Breaker , and Snake Eyes infiltrate the base . Snake Eyes duels and prevails over Storm Shadow . Duke learns that the Doctor is Rex Lewis , Ana 's brother , believed to have been killed by a mistimed airstrike during a mission led by Duke ( also the origin of the alienation between Duke and Ana ) . Rex had encountered Doctor Mindbender ( Kevin J. O 'Connor ) in the bunker and was seduced by the nanomite technology , taking too long to retrieve the data and getting caught in the bombing , which disfigured him . After freeing Duke , the Baroness is subdued , as the Doctor reveals he has implanted her with nanomites , which has put her under his control for the past four years . Attempting to kill Duke , McCullen ends up being burned , so the Doctor and he flee to an escape vessel . Duke and the Baroness pursue him while the Joes fall back ; when the Doctor activates the base 's self @-@ destruct sequence , which involves ' blowing the ice cap ' to create blocks of ice which then nearly crush the Joes .
The Doctor assumes the identity of the Commander , having healed McCullen 's burned face with nanomites , encasing it in silver and naming him " Destro " , which places McCullen under the Commander 's control . They are captured by G.I. Joe soon after . On the supercarrier USS Flagg , the Baroness is placed in protective custody until they can remove the nanomites from her body . Meanwhile , Zartan , having had his physical appearance altered by nanomites , infiltrates the White House during the missile crisis and assumes the identity of the President of the United States of America ( Jonathan Pryce ) , thus completing a part of McCullen 's plan to rule the world .
= = Cast = =
= = = G.I. Joe = = =
Channing Tatum as Conrad S. Hauser / Duke
The lead soldier . Lorenzo di Bonaventura was originally interested in casting Mark Wahlberg , and when the script was rewritten into a G.I. Joe origin story , the studio offered the role to Tatum . Tatum had played a soldier in Stop @-@ Loss , an anti @-@ war film , and originally wanted no part in G.I. Joe , which he felt glorified war . The actor later detailed that he wound up in the film due to a contractual obligation with Paramount , given Tatum signed a three picture deal following Coach Carter . Tatum was a fan of the G.I. Joe franchise growing up , and expressed interest in playing Snake Eyes despite Paramount wanting him for Duke .
Marlon Wayans as Wallace A. Weems / Ripcord
A pilot with a romantic interest in Scarlett . A fan of the franchise , Wayans was cast on the strength of his performance in Requiem for a Dream . Bonaventura said that the film showed Wayans could be serious as well as funny .
Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje as Hershel Dalton / Heavy Duty
An ordnance expert and field commander of the team . Common was offered the role of Heavy Duty 's cousin Roadblock , although Bonaventura previously indicated Heavy Duty was being used in that character 's stead . Stuart Beattie ultimately chose to have Heavy Duty instead of Roadblock .
Dennis Quaid as General Clayton M. Abernathy / Hawk
The Joes ' commanding officer . Quaid described Hawk as " a cross between Chuck Yeager and Sgt. Rock and maybe a naïve Hugh Hefner " . Quaid 's son convinced him to take on the part , and the filmmakers enjoyed working with him so much , Stuart Beattie wrote " 10 to 15 more scenes " for the character . He filmed all his scenes within the first two months of production .
Rachel Nichols as Shana M. O 'Hara / Scarlett
Scarlett graduated from college at age 12 and became the team 's intelligence expert . Having left school so early , she does not understand men 's attraction to her . Nichols was the first choice for the role . Nichols had dyed her blonde hair red – Scarlett 's hair color – for her role in Star Trek , which she filmed before G.I. Joe . She burned herself filming an action sequence with Sienna Miller .
Ray Park as Snake Eyes
A mysterious ninja commando who took a vow of silence , a departure from the character 's traditional difficulty in speaking due to grievous vocal wounds , a close member of the Arashikage ninja clan , and Storm Shadow 's rival . Park specifically practiced wushu for the role , as well as studying the character 's comic book poses . Park was already familiar with the character , but knew very little of the surrounding saga of G.I. Joe versus Cobra , so he read the comics to further understand the character . He was nervous about wearing the mask , which covered his entire head quite tightly , so he requested to practice wearing it at home . He found the full costume , including the visor , very heavy to wear and akin to a rubber band ; he had to put effort into moving in it .
Leo Howard as young Snake Eyes
Saïd Taghmaoui as Abel Shaz / Breaker
The team 's communications specialist and hacker . He is seen chewing gum during the Battle of Paris in an homage to the original character .
Karolína Kurková as Courtney A. Krieger / Cover Girl
Hawk 's aide @-@ de @-@ camp . Kurková described going from her modeling career to making such a film as " an amazing experience " , but said she was upset about not taking part in any action sequences .
Brendan Fraser ( uncredited ) as Sgt. Geoffrey Stone IV / Stone
Fraser was reportedly going to play Gung @-@ Ho , but was instead later revealed to be playing Sergeant Stone . According to the director 's commentary on the DVD , Fraser begged director Stephen Sommers to be in the movie , making it his fourth collaboration with Sommers after the The Mummy franchise .
= = = Cobra = = =
Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt as Rexford G. " Rex " Lewis / The Doctor / Cobra Commander
The Baroness ' brother , a former soldier who was thought to have been killed during a mission led by Duke – instead , he became the disfigured head scientist of Military Armament Research Syndicate ( MARS ) . USA Today reported that Gordon @-@ Levitt would play multiple roles . Gordon @-@ Levitt wore prosthetic makeup under a mask that was redesigned from the comics because the crew found it too reminiscent of the Ku Klux Klan . Upon seeing concept art of the character , Gordon @-@ Levitt signed on because ; " I was like , ' I get to be that ? You 're going to make that [ makeup ] in real life and stick it on me ? Cool . Let me do it . ' That 's a once @-@ in @-@ lifetime opportunity . " Gordon @-@ Levitt is a friend of Tatum and they co @-@ starred in Stop @-@ Loss and Havoc . His casting provided extra incentive for Tatum to join the film . Gordon @-@ Levitt described his vocal performance as being " half reminiscent " of Chris Latta 's voice for the 1980s cartoon , but also half his own ideas , because he felt rendering it fully would sound ridiculous .
Christopher Eccleston as Laird James McCullen XXIV / Destro
A weapons designer and the founder of MARS who is the main villain in the early part of the film . Irish actor David Murray was originally cast as Destro , but was forced to drop out due to visa issues . Murray was later cast as an ancestor of James McCullen in a flashback scene .
Sienna Miller as Anastasia DeCobray / Ana Lewis / The Baroness
The sister of Cobra Commander and a spy . Years earlier , The Baroness was going to marry Duke , but he left her at the altar , due to his guilt over her brother 's apparent death . Miller auditioned for the part because it did not involve " having a breakdown or addicted to heroin or dying at the end , something that was just maybe really great fun and that people went to see and actually just had a great time seeing . " Miller prepared with four months of weight training , boxing sessions and learned to fire live ammunition , gaining five pounds of muscle . She sprained her wrist after slipping on a rubber bullet while filming a fight scene with Rachel Nichols .
Lee Byung @-@ hun as Thomas Arashikage / Storm Shadow
Snake Eyes ' rival ; both were close members of the Arashikage ninja clan . Lee was unfamiliar with G.I. Joe because the franchise is unknown in South Korea , but Sommers and Bonaventura told him that it was not necessary to watch the cartoons to prepare for the role . Lee was attracted to Storm Shadow 's " dual personality , " which he stated has " huge pride and honor . "
Brandon Soo Hoo as young Storm Shadow
Arnold Vosloo as Zartan
A disguise expert who serves Destro .
Kevin J. O 'Connor as Doctor Mindbender
A scientist in McCullen 's employ who developed the nanomite technology . After playing Igor in Van Helsing , this is O 'Connor 's fourth collaboration with Stephen Sommers .
= = = Other characters = = =
Jonathan Pryce as The President of the United States of America .
Gerald Okamura as The Hard Master : Snake Eyes and Storm Shadow 's ninja master .
Grégory Fitoussi as Daniel DeCobray / The Baron : husband of the Baroness .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In 1994 , Larry Kasanoff and his production company , Threshold Entertainment , held the rights to do a live @-@ action G.I. Joe film with Warner Bros. as the distributor , but instead chose to concentrate their efforts on their Mortal Kombat films . As late as 1999 , there had been rumors that a film from Threshold Entertainment was still a possibility , but that project never panned out . In 2003 , Lorenzo di Bonaventura was interested in making a film about advanced military technology ; Hasbro 's Brian Goldner called him and suggested to base the film on the G.I. Joe toy line . Goldner and Bonaventura worked together before , creating toy lines for films Bonaventura produced as CEO of Warner Bros. Goldner and Bonaventura spent three months working out a story , and chose Michael B. Gordon as screenwriter , because they liked his script for 300 . Bonaventura wanted to depict the origin story of certain characters , and introduced the new character of Rex , to allow an exploration of Duke . Rex 's name came from Hasbro . Beforehand , Don Murphy was interested in filming the property , but when the Iraq War broke out , he considered the subject matter inappropriate , and chose to develop Transformers ( another Hasbro toy line ) instead . Bonaventura felt , " What [ the Joes ] stand for , and what Duke stands for specifically in the movie , is something that I 'd like to think a worldwide audience might connect with . "
By February 2005 , Paul Lovett and David Elliot , who wrote Bonaventura 's Four Brothers , were rewriting Gordon 's draft . In their script , the Rex character is corrupted and mutated into the Cobra Commander , whom Destro needs to lead an army of supersoldiers . Skip Woods was rewriting the script by March 2007 , and he added the Alex Mann character from the British Action Man toy line . Bonaventura explained , " Unfortunately , our president has put us in a position internationally where it would be very difficult to release a movie called G.I. Joe . To add one character to the mix is sort of a fun thing to do . " The script was leaked online by El Mayimbe of Latino Review , who revealed Woods had dropped the Cobra Organization in favor of the Naja / Ryan , a crooked CIA agent . In this draft , Scarlett is married to Action Man but still has feelings for Duke , and is killed by the Baroness . Snake Eyes speaks , but his vocal cords are slashed during the story , rendering him mute . Mayimbe suggested Stuart Beattie rewrite the script . Fan response to the film following the script review was negative . Bonaventura promised with subsequent rewrites , " I 'm hoping we 're going to get it right this time . " He admitted he had problems with Cobra , concurring with an interviewer " they were probably the stupidest evil organization out there [ as depicted in the cartoon ] " . Hasbro promised they would write Cobra back into the script .
In August 2007 , Paramount Pictures hired Stephen Sommers to direct the film after his presentation to CEO Brad Grey and production prexy Brad Weston was well received . Sommers had been inspired to explore the G.I. Joe universe after visiting Hasbro 's headquarters in Rhode Island . The project had found the momentum based on the success of Transformers , which Bonaventura produced with Murphy . Sommers partly signed on to direct because the concept reminded him of James Bond , and he described an underwater battle in the story as a tribute to Thunderball . Stuart Beattie was hired to write a new script for Sommers 's film , and G.I. Joe comic and filecard writer Larry Hama was hired as creative consultant . Hama helped them change story elements that fans would have disliked and made it closer to the comics , ultimately deciding fans would enjoy the script . He persuaded them to drop a comic scene at the film 's end , where Snake Eyes speaks . To speed up production before the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike , John Lee Hancock , Brian Koppelman and David Levien also assisted in writing various scenes . Goldner said their inspiration was generally Hama 's comics and not the cartoon . Sommers said had it not been for the rich backstory in the franchise , the film would have fallen behind schedule because of the strike .
After Variety had reported that G.I. Joe became a Brussels @-@ based outfit that stands for Global Integrated Joint Operating Entity , there were reports of outrages over Paramount 's alleged attempt to change the origin of G.I. Joe Team . Hasbro responded in its G.I. Joe site claiming it was not changing what the G.I. Joe brand is about , and the name " G.I. Joe " will always be synonymous with bravery and heroism . Instead , it would be a modern telling of the " G.I. Joe vs. Cobra " storyline , based out of the " Pit " as they were throughout the 1980s comic book series .
= = = Filming and design = = =
Filming began on February 11 , 2008 , in Los Angeles , California . The Downey soundstage was chosen as Paramount needed a large stage to get production underway as soon as possible . The first two levels of the Pit were built there , to complement the rest of the building which would be done with special effects . Downey also housed Destro 's MARS base in the Arctic , his legitimate weapons factory in an ex @-@ Soviet state , as well as various submarines interiors , including a SHARC ( Submersible High @-@ speed Attack and Reconnaissance Craft ) manned by two G.I. Joes .
Filming in the Czech Republic 's Barrandov Studios began in May . The crew took over sections of the Old Town in Prague . While filming in the city on April 26 , people were injured when a bus and several cars collided with a four @-@ wheel @-@ drive vehicle that appeared to have braking problems . The emergency services confirmed those taken to hospital had minor injuries . Filming wrapped after a month in Prague . Additional second unit filming took place in Paris itself , Egypt , Tokyo , the Arctic and underwater .
Sommers felt " almost 100 percent " of the technology in the film would be available within 10 to 20 years , citing the various books and magazines about developing weapons that he loved reading . For example , Sommers said he believed invisibility was impossible , but the virtual invisibility provided by camouflage camera that projects what is behind a soldier on their front allowed him to include it . The production designers modelled the interior of Destro 's private submarine on a Handley Page Jetstream . Sommers said the bulky immobile " accelerator suits " ( which Beattie said had enabled them to write " a car chase where one guy 's not even in a car " ) had been tough on the actors and were likely to have their roles reduced in potential sequels . Critics have compared the suits to that of NFL SuperPro , a comic book character jointly licensed by the NFL and Marvel Comics , and resembling an armored football player .
Bonaventura predicted the United States armed forces ' aid of the film would be limited since much of the hardware is fictional . The filmmakers were denied use of MRAP vehicles at the start of filming as the Defense Department had just prioritised their deployment on combat operations , however they were later permitted to film the vehicles at the National Training Center at Fort Irwin Military Reservation . Some commentators reviewing previews and promotional art from the film have noted superficial resemblances between it and the action film parody Team America : World Police .
= = = Effects = = =
Six visual effects companies worked in The Rise of Cobra , the most prominent being Digital Domain , which handled the Paris action sequences and the opening convoy sequence . For the Eiffel Tower destruction , a special code for depicting how the crumbling metal works was written . To create the digital Eiffel Tower , the technicians had access to the original building plans , and built a digital model so complex that it could not fit in a single file . The nanomites used two proprietary software for their depiction , one by Digital Domain , and another by Prime Focus VFX , which also created tools to generate 3D cloud and sky environments for the aerial scenes . Many scenarios were almost fully developed by computer @-@ generated imagery , such as the landing platform of the Pit , the Cobra ice caverns , and the final underwater battle . As for the sound effects themselves , only one is considered popular and isn 't instantly recognisable . When the pulse cannon fires upon the main submarine during the polar assault , the sound of a program de @-@ resolution from the 1982 cult movie classic TRON can be heard .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
G.I. Joe : The Rise of Cobra – Score from the Motion Picture was composed by Alan Silvestri , who reunited with director Stephen Sommers to record his score with a 90 @-@ piece ensemble of the Hollywood Studio Symphony at the scoring stages at Sony and Fox . A soundtrack album of the score was released by Varèse Sarabande Records on August 4 , 2009 .
The score came under scrutiny from various soundtrack forums soon after being released . Spectral analysis of the content of the CD revealed certain frequency cutoff patterns around 16 kHz , which are typical for lossy codecs . By analyzing the block size of these cutoffs , individuals at Hydrogenaudio were able to identify the lossy codec that was used before mastering the CD as MP3 with a sample rate of 48 kHz . According to the aforementioned forums , Varèse 's German subsidiary Colosseum Schallplatten acknowledged this as a mastering error , while Varèse Sarabande itself denied this . It is so far unclear if a remastered version with full frequency content will be released .
= = Release = =
The film was first screened in the US on July 31 , 2009 at Andrews Air Force Base in Maryland . The premiere was at Hollywood 's Grauman 's Chinese Theater on August 7 , 2009 , and in the following day , G.I. Joe started playing at 4 @,@ 007 theaters in the US , along with 35 overseas markets .
= = = Marketing = = =
The film 's actors were scanned for Hasbro 's toy line , which began in July 2009 with the release of 3 3 / 4 @-@ inch tall action figures . The Rise of Cobra toy line also includes 12 @-@ inch figures , and vehicles , including the first play set based on the Pit in the franchise 's history . Electronic Arts developed a video game sequel to the film , also titled G.I. Joe : The Rise of Cobra .
IDW Publishing released a four @-@ issue prequel written by Chuck Dixon . Each issue focuses on Duke , Destro , The Baroness and Snake Eyes respectively . It began publication in March 2009 . The weekly film adaptation was written by Denton J. Tipton and drawn by Casey Maloney . The film 's universe continued in a limited series about Snake Eyes later in 2009 : Ray Park enjoyed playing the character and approached writer Kevin VanHook and artist S. L. Gallant with the idea of a comic further exploring his incarnation of the character .
As part of the movie launch campaign , over 300 12 @-@ inch , parachute @-@ equipped , G.I. Joe action figures were dropped from a 42 @-@ story Kansas City hotel roof and soar over 500 feet to the ground at 16th Annual International G.I. Joe Convention . For viral marketing , black helicopters with " G.I. Joe " written on them flew over American beaches . Tie @-@ ins were made with Symantec , 7 @-@ Eleven , and Burger King .
Paramount 's vice chairman Rob Moore claimed the movie was prioritized for mid @-@ Americans , and thus marketing was more focused on cities such as Kansas City and Columbus . In Europe , the marketing was focused on action sequences set in Paris , Egypt and Tokyo , and emphasizes that G.I. Joe is an international team of elite operatives and not " about beefy guys on steroids who all met each other in the Vietnam War . "
= = = = G.I. Joe : The Invasion of Cobra Island = = = =
In 2009 , R.M. Productions Ltd. was contracted by Paramount Pictures Corp. to produce a viral marketing campaign for G.I. Joe : The Rise of Cobra . This resulted in the creation of G.I. Joe : The Invasion of Cobra Island , a two @-@ part animated web video , which eventually went viral . The plot has G.I. Joe called in to stop Cobra when they develop a secret bio @-@ weapon on their hidden island base . It was done in the style of Team America : World Police and Thunderbirds , using a mix of vintage Hasbro G.I. Joe vehicles of the 1980s , and the newly produced 25th @-@ anniversary G.I. Joe figures . The characters were animated using custom puppetry techniques , while their faces and other special effects were done using 3D animation software packages .
= = = Box office = = =
During the opening weekend ( August 7 – 9 ) , G.I. Joe : The Rise of Cobra opened at # 1 of the North American box office with an estimated $ 54 @.@ 7 million . It earned an additional $ 44 million internationally during the same weekend . In the following week , the film opened in 14 more territories and continued atop the international box office with $ 26 million . This made it the third Hasbro film to reach number one at the box office after Transformers , and Transformers : Revenge of the Fallen .
The film grossed $ 150 @,@ 201 @,@ 498 from the United States and $ 152 @,@ 267 @,@ 519 from other territories , for a worldwide gross of $ 302 @,@ 543 @,@ 074 @.@ against a production budget of $ 175 million . As of July 13 , 2011 , this marks it as the 15th highest grossing film of 2009 , and the fourth highest film of 2009 to gross $ 300 million worldwide , behind Star Trek ( $ 385 million ) , Terminator Salvation ( $ 371 million ) , and Fast & Furious ( $ 363 million ) .
= = = Home media = = =
G.I. Joe : The Rise of Cobra was released on November 3 , 2009 on Blu @-@ ray Disc and DVD , in regular and two @-@ disc editions . Both editions include an audio commentary by Stephen Sommers and Bob Ducsay , and two making @-@ of featurettes , with the second disk of the special edition holding a digital copy of the film . The film opened at # 1 at the DVD sales chart , making $ 40 @.@ 9 million off 2 @,@ 538 @,@ 000 DVD units in the first week of release . The film sold over 3 @.@ 8 million discs , 500 @,@ 000 of them on Blu @-@ ray , during its first week .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Paramount decided to not screen the film for print critics before its release and wanted to focus on internet critics . The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 35 % approval rating with an average rating of 4 @.@ 6 / 10 based on 159 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , " While fans of the Hasbro toy franchise may revel in a bit of nostalgia , G.I. Joe : The Rise of Cobra is largely a cartoonish , over @-@ the @-@ top action fest propelled by silly writing , inconsistent visual effects , and merely passable performances . " Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film has received an average score of 32 out of 100 , based on 25 reviews .
One of the many complaints made by fans was that the film failed to relate to the G.I. Joe franchise . G4tv.com stated that , " [ the studio ] actually went out of their way to butcher the G.I. Joe mythos in favor of derivative storyline devices . " They cited the Baroness , who was changed from an East European noble in the comics to Duke 's brainwashed ex @-@ girlfriend in the film .
Dan Jolin of Empire magazine commented that it was " Bond without the style and Team America without the bellylaughs " . The Daily Telegraph reviewer said , " The taint of cruddiness extends everywhere in this joyless stinker . " James Berardinelli said the characters were " as plastic as the toys that inspired them " and considered Tatum " wooden " and that his character was " more animated in sequences when he is rendered by special effects than when being portrayed by Tatum " . Roger Ebert described that " there is never any clear sense in the action of where anything is in relation to anything else " . Chuck Wilson of The Village Voice criticized the dialogue and described the underwater battle as " absurdly overproduced , momentarily diverting , and then instantly forgettable " . Manohla Dargis of The New York Times considered the plot " at once elemental and incomprehensible " , and Peter Travers of Rolling Stone thought that , despite the high budget , the special effects " look shockingly crappy ; the Eiffel Tower appears to be destroyed by some green slime left over from the Ghostbusters films " . Reviewers also criticized the film for the scientific impossibility of sinking ocean ice .
Matthew Leyland from Total Film called it " a throwaway blast of solid , stupid fun " and gave it three out of five stars , particularly praising Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt 's performance as the treacherous Cobra Commander . Sister publication SFX called the film " dumb and dopey , with plenty of bumpy bits " and that " GI Joe has a genuine cliffhanger charm , especially when the last act becomes a whole string of pulp plot twists . The ending screams ' To Be Continued ' ; we could do worse . " , finally awarding the score of three stars out of five . Christopher Monfette of IGN also gave the film a positive review , saying " This is an adult 's interpretation of a childhood phenomenon , and if you 're willing to give it a shot , one suspects that you 'll find yourself entertained enough to give your best , " Yo , Joe ! " He gave the film three and a half out of five stars . Betsy Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times criticized the excessive flashbacks , but praised the action scenes and design , and considered that Marlon Wayans " steals the show " . Dan Kois of The Washington Post thought it was " as polished and entertaining as war @-@ mongering toy commercials get " . Tatum won the Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie Actor : Action Adventure for his performance as Duke and the film also received three other Teen Choice Award nominations : Choice Movie : Action Adventure , Choice Movie Actress : Action Adventure for Sienna Miller , and Choice Movie : Villain for Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt . However , the film was also nominated for six Razzie Awards including Worst Picture , Worst Director , Worst Screenplay , Worst Supporting Actor for Marlon Wayans and Worst Prequel , Remake , Rip @-@ off or Sequel , with Sienna Miller " winning " the Razzie for Worst Supporting Actress at the 30th Golden Raspberry Awards .
= = = In other media = = =
Inspired by the movie , The Ballad of G.I. Joe was released in 2009 on the website Funny or Die . Written by Daniel Strange and Kevin Umbricht , and featuring celebrities such as Olivia Wilde , Zack Galifianakis , Alexis Bledel , Henry Rollins and Vinnie Jones , the video short parodies several characters from G.I. Joe : A Real American Hero by showing what they do in their spare time .
= = Sequel = =
A sequel , G.I. Joe : Retaliation , was released on March 28 , 2013 , directed by Jon Chu . In the film , the Joes are framed as traitors by Zartan , who is still impersonating the President of the United States , and Cobra Commander now has all the world leaders under Cobra 's control , with their advanced warheads aimed at innocent populaces around the world . Outnumbered and out gunned , the Joes form a plan with the original G.I. Joe General Joseph Colton to overthrow the Cobra Commander and his allies Zartan , Storm Shadow , and Firefly .
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= Vardar Offensive =
The Vardar Offensive ( Bulgarian : Офанзива при Вардар ) was a World War I military operation , fought between 15 and 29 September 1918 . The operation took place during the final stage of the Balkans Campaign . On September 15 , a combined force of Serbian , French and Greek troops attacked the Bulgarian @-@ held trenches in Dobro Pole ( " Good Field " ) , at the time part of the Kingdom of Serbia ( present day Republic of Macedonia ) . The assault and the preceding artillery preparation had devastating effects on Bulgarian morale , eventually leading to mass desertions .
On September 18 , a second Entente formation assaulted the Bulgarian positions in the vicinity of Lake Doiran . Effectively employing machine gun and artillery fire the Bulgarians managed to stall the Allied advance on the Doiran sector . However the collapse of the front at Dobro Pole forced the Bulgarians to withdraw from Doiran . The Allies pursued the German 11th Army and the Bulgarian 1st Army , while pushing deeper into Vardar Macedonia . By 29 September , the Allies had captured the former HQ of Uskub , thus endangering the remnants of the 11th Army .
The parallel development of the anti @-@ monarchist Radomir Rebellion , forced Bulgaria to sign the Armistice of Salonica and withdraw from the war . The treaty included the full capitulation of the 11th Army , bringing the final tally of German and Bulgarian prisoners to 77 @,@ 000 and granting the Allies 500 artillery pieces . The Bulgarian downfall turned the strategic and operational balance of the war against the Central Powers . The Macedonian Front was brought to an end at noon on 30 September , when the ceasefire came into effect .
= = Prelude = =
The 28 June 1914 , assassination of Austro @-@ Hungarian heir presumptive Archduke Franz Ferdinand precipitated Austria @-@ Hungary 's declaration of war against Serbia . The conflict quickly attracted the involvement of all major European countries , pitting the Central Powers against the Entente coalition and starting World War I.
Serbia was defeated during the autumn 1915 phase of the Serbian Campaign , prompting France and Britain to transfer troops from the Gallipoli Campaign to Greek Macedonia . The Macedonian Front was thus established in an effort to support the remnants of the Serbian army to conquer Vardar Macedonia .
On 17 August 1916 , in the Struma Offensive Bulgaria invaded Greece , easily conquering all Greek territory east of the Struma , since the Greek Army was ordered not to resist by the pro @-@ German King Constantine . The surrender of territory recently won with difficulty in the Second Balkan War of 1913 was the last straw for many supporters of Liberal Party politician Eleftherios Venizelos . With Allied assistance , they launched a coup which secured Thessaloniki and most of Greek Macedonia , causing the National Schism . In June 1917 , the Venizelists gained full control of the country , immediately declaring war on the Central Powers and joining the Allied Army of the Orient operating on the Balkan Front . The Greek entry into the war along with the 24 division reinforcements that the Army had received in the spring of the same year had created a strategic advantage for the Entente .
On 30 May 1918 , the Allies launched an offensive on the heavily fortified Skra salient , commencing the battle of Skra @-@ di @-@ Legen . Utilizing the cover of heavy artillery a Franco @-@ Hellenic force made a rapid push into the enemy trenches , conquering Skra and the surrounding system of fortifications . Greek casualties amounted to 434 – 440 killed in action , 154 – 164 missing in action and 1 @,@ 974 – 2 @,@ 220 wounded , France lost approximately 150 men killed or injured . A total of 1 @,@ 782 soldiers of the Central Powers became prisoners of war , including a small number of German engineers and artillery specialists that served in Bulgarian units ; considerable amounts of military equipment also fell into Entente hands . The plan for a Bulgarian counterattack against Skra remained unfulfilled as the Bulgarian soldiers refused to take part in the operation . Both the Greek and the French press used the opportunity to extol the efforts of the Greek army , favorably influencing the Greek mobilization .
The fall of Skra prompted Bulgarian prime minister Vasil Radoslavov to resign on 21 June 1918 . Aleksandar Malinov who assumed office immediately afterwards pursued secret negotiations with Britain , offering Bulgaria 's exit from the war with the condition that Bulgaria fully retains eastern Macedonia . However , British prime minister David Lloyd George rejected the proposal , assuring the Greek ambassador in London Ioannis Gennadius , that Britain would not act against Greek interests .
In late July 1918 , Bulgarian commander @-@ in @-@ chief Nikola Zhekov sent German Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg a message regarding a rumored Entente offensive , and detailed Bulgaria 's inability to adequately defend the Vardar portion of the front . Zhekov requested that Germany immediately reinforce the Balkan Front , hinting that Austria @-@ Hungary would also be required to strengthen its positions in Albania . On 17 August , Hindenburg pledged to provide Bulgaria with support once the situation on other front permits it . Hindenburg 's reluctance to support Bulgaria was also manifested by the early September redeployment of the last German Jäger battalion stationed in Macedonia back into Germany .
The Bulgarians , using information from escaped prisoners of war , determined that Entente forces would engage in hostile actions west of lake Ohrid , in Monastir , Dobro Pole or Human . On 27 August , the 2nd and 3rd Bulgarian Divisions stationed at Dobro Pole were ordered to make emergency preparations , as new evidence indicated a frontal assault on Dobro Pole along with a secondary attack on Human . By 7 September , Dobro Pole was reinforced by one machine gun company , six battalions and ten heavy howitzers , the head of Army Group Scholtz General Friedrich von Scholtz then stated that the defensive measures made the defense of the front feasible . Scholtz had failed to take into account the departure of Bulgarian chief of staff Nikola Zhekov and his subsequent replacement by Georgi Todorov . Widespread insubordination and desertions also plagued the Bulgarian troops who refused to participate in fortification works ; poor rations and fatigue contributed to the low morale .
A day prior to the Entente offensive , General Louis Franchet d 'Espèrey laid out the final plan for the operation . The first phase consisted of a combined Franco @-@ Serbian attack on the positions of the 2nd and 3rd Bulgarian Divisions , which was expected to create a breach of the front line in the area of Dobro Pole , while also posing a danger to the Bulgarian supply lines on river Vardar . Τhe 1 @,@ 875 metres ( 6 @,@ 152 ft ) Dobro Pole ( " Good Field " ) peak dominated the region , providing excellent observation points for the defenders . Dobro Pole was surrounded by a well @-@ developed system of trenches which , in combination with the rough terrain , made the area impassable for wheeled transport . Dobro Pole was , however , lower and less steep than the mountains on other parts of the front that averaged 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) .
A second Anglo @-@ Franco @-@ Hellenic force would then attack the Bulgarian 1st Army between the Vardar river and Lake Doiran , preventing it from forming new defensive positions in the area . The initial advance would allow the Armée d 'Orient to progress in support of other units first to Prilep , Disma and Borran . In the meantime , an Anglo @-@ Hellenic force would strike Mount Belasica , occupying the Rupel Pass . The Doiran sector had previously been subject to two major Entente offensives known as the First Battle of Doiran ( August 1916 ) and Second Battle of Doiran ( April – May 1917 ) . Both engagements ended in decisive Bulgarian victories , forcing the Allies to limit their operations to small raids and harassing fire . Between 1916 and July 1918 , Bulgarian defenses around Doiran underwent a period of considerable reorganization under the personal supervision of General Vladimir Vazov . The sector was divided into two 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) defensive areas , protected by the Mountain Division and the 9th Infantry Division respectively . Bulgaria established combat security outposts at a distance of 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) from the enemy trenches , while also reinforcing the defenses of the dominant Dub and Kala Tepe mountains . Similarly to Dobro Pole the defenses consisted of a series of mutually supporting trenches , with built in observation posts , machine gun positions and artillery pieces .
D 'Espèrey expected to march the Allied Army of the Orient through the towns of Demir Hisar , Rupel , Petrici , Blagusa , Gradec , Štip and Belessa finally seizing Skopje . Units stationed at Katsania and Tetovo would prevent a Bulgarian flanking maneuver , while the main body of the force would widen the breach both in Štip and Prilep . In case of a collapse of the front between Dobro Pole and Tzena , the Bulgarian 1st Army and the German 11th Army . Armies would either be annihilated or , in less favorable circumstances , perform an organised retreat to a new defensive line on river Crna . The prevention of such a retreat was to be achieved by a rapid , penetrating attack on Gradsko , Dren Planina and Visoka .
= = Offensive = =
= = = Battle of Dobro Pole = = =
At 8 a.m. on 14 September 1918 , Entente forces commenced a 566 @-@ gun artillery barrage on enemy positions . Their aircraft also bombed enemy positions and strafed a 250 @-@ truck column moving towards Kozjak . On the same day , Scholtz sent Hindenburg a telegraph stating that
... all indications point out that an enemy offensive will target the 11th Army on both sides of Vardar as well as Dobro Pole ....
The Bulgarian high command did not attempt to perform a spoiling attack as they lacked the necessary vehicles and pack animals . The barrage did not cause a significant number of casualties but severely affected the Bulgarian esprit de corps . On the night between 14 and 15 September , Franco @-@ Serbian patrols reported that the artillery barrage had dealt sufficient damage to the barbed wire entanglements separating the trenches .
At 5 : 30 a.m. on 15 September , the French 122nd and 17th ( Colonial ) Divisions struck Sokol , Dobro Pole , Kravitski Kamene and Kravitsa while the Serbian Shumadia Division assaulted Kamene and Veternik . The Greek Archipelago Division , 3rd Division and 4th Division under Panagiotis Gargalidis acted as a link between the Serbian and French troops without entering combat . The offensive immediately caused a wave of mass desertion among the Bulgarian units ; the remaining infantrymen and artillery squadrons were not able to hold their ground . During the course of the battle , the 122nd Division broke into two columns and suffered heavy casualties . The left column managed to reach a position located 50 metres ( 160 ft ) from Sokol at 6 : 30 a.m. and take the peak at the end of the day . At 16 : 00 p.m. , the right column captured Dobro Pole after rushing a 200 metres ( 660 ft ) segment of steep terrain . The 17th Division seized Kravitsa at 7 : 00 a.m. , suppressing the last signs of resistance .
Two Franco @-@ Greek Regiments attempted to storm Zborsko but were pushed back in the ensuing counterattack , as powerful pockets of resistance between the Sousnitsa and Bigrut streams facilitated its defense . Greek units then focused on Sousnitsa the fall of which created an opening in the Bulgarian rear and put the surrounding units to flight . Using dispersed bluffs as cover , soldiers of the Shumadia Division took over Veternik , Kamene and the western part of a nearby mountain range with considerable difficulty . Elements of the same unit successfully flanked Kravitski Kamene while the 17th Division was engaging in a frontal assault . At 16 : 00 p.m. , the Serbian 1st Army 's thrust on Sokol failed to produce intended results . An attack later that night did secure the peak . The two French divisions were then ordered to remain in position while the Serbian Timok and Yugoslav Divisions moved forward . By the end of the day , Bulgaria lost approximately 40 – 50 percent of the 12 @,@ 000 soldiers involved in the battle , including 3 @,@ 000 prisoners of war , 2 @,@ 689 dead and 50 out of the initial 158 artillery pieces . Entente casualties amounted to 1 @,@ 700 Frenchmen and 200 Serbians killed in action .
On the morning of 16 September , the Serbians overran the Kozjak mountain range and the Golo Bilo peak . They were joined by the 35th Greek Regiment which crossed the Poroi river and later marching on Topolets . At 11 : 00 a.m. , Franco @-@ Hellenic units stormed Zborsko for a second time and were met by heavy artillery and machine gun fire . The attack was rebuffed with the loss of 158 Greeks and roughly the same number of French lives and attempts to take the area were suspended . Živojin Mišić 's 1st Army and the Armée d 'Orient performed a night attack on the Gradešnica fortified zone , suppressing the defenders . The 1st Division Group moved into a position on the Poroi river north of Brahovo in conjunction with the Timok Division . By the night of 16 September , the gap in what formerly constituted the front @-@ line had extended to 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) in width and 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) in depth . The Allied command ordered its air department to continue attacking all bridges on the river Vardar .
At 4 @.@ 00 a.m. on 17 September , Hellenic components of the 1st Division Group raided mount Preslap , a key position housing Bulgarian artillery . The Greeks rapidly descended from Golo Bilo and then began climbing the cliffs of Preslap with their bare hands . The Preslap garrison proceeded to abandon their positions and retreat eastwards . Having lost their artillery cover forces at Zborsko followed their comrades in retreat . The Timok Division conquered Topolets and advanced towards Studena Voda and Preslap while the Morava and Yugoslav Divisions overran Koutskov Kamene . At the same time , the Drina and Danube Divisions seized Gradešnica along with the Poltsista and Besistsa peaks , then halted at Melinitsa .
On 18 September , the 11th French Colonial Division and the 6th Greek Regiment occupied the villages of Zovik , Staravina and Cebren , approaching towards the Cebren Monastery bridge on Crna . An Entente air raid destroyed another bridge north of Razim Bey . Bulgarian forces failed at putting a stop to the Allied offensive , abandoning their wounded and large quantities of military equipment . By the end of the day , Allied troops had advanced 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) into enemy territory while also seizing locales of strategic importance that would later enable them to continue pushing deeper into Vardar Macedonia .
= = = Battle of Doiran = = =
On 16 September , the Allies commenced a 232 gun and 24 howitzer artillery barrage on the Bulgarian positions between Vardar and Doiran . Bulgaria responded in kind , with the artillery duel continuing during the following two days . On the night of 17 – 18 September , Bulgarian positions were targeted by nine salvos of gas shells , however the attack failed to produce any considerable effect due to the preceding arrival of new gas masks and the adequate training of the defenders .
At 5 @.@ 00 a.m. on 18 September , the British XII Corps executed a pincer maneuver on the 9th Bulgarian Division , while the Greek Serres Division and the 83rd British Brigade assaulted the Bulgarian trenches to the west , taking numerous prisoners . On the north – east direction the Crete Division and the 28th British Division advanced between the lake and Belasica , after clearing out the Bulgarian outpost line . The 26th British Division seized a number of Bulgarian security outposts but was quickly repulsed by heavy artillery fire and counter @-@ attacks that recaptured the lost ground . It was not until 7 : 20 a.m. , when the Serres Division managed to make limited gains on the flanks having suffered numerous casualties and lost momentum . In the meantime the 22nd British Division overtook two central trenchlines . Supported by concentrated artillery and machine gun fire the 3rd Bulgarian Brigade pushed the Allies back , by the end of the day the sum of the Entente forces were back at their starting point , the British 67th Brigade having lost 65 percent of its soldiers .
The offensive was resumed at 4 @.@ 00 a.m. on 19 September after a night of heavy shelling . The operation involved the British 77th and 65th Brigades , the 2nd French Zouaves Regiment , along with the Serres and 14th Greek Divisions . Following five hours of intense fighting the Allies managed to overrun the town of Dojran , mount Kala Tepe and Teton Hill , with the Pip Ridge and mount Dub remaining in Bulgarian hands . In the aftermath of the engagement the Allied command found itself to be unable to make any further offensive operations on the Doiran sector as it no longer possessed an adequate reserve of manpower . Bulgaria lost a total of 518 dead , 998 wounded , and 1 @,@ 210 captured . Greek casualties amounted to 503 killed , 2 @,@ 286 injured and 615 missing , with the British suffering 3 @,@ 871 dead and wounded .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
On 20 September , the 17th and 122nd French Colonial Divisions along with the 1st Serbian Army crossed river Crna . News of a breakthrough at Dobro Pole prompted the defenders of Doiran to abandon their positions and rush to the defense of their homeland , in order to prevent a future occupation by the Entente . On 21 September , the Allies became aware of the Bulgarian withdrawal after observing a series of fires and munition dump explosions on the Bulgarian positions , a pursuit by the British XII Corps was launched immediately . The Serbian advanced guard approached Krivolak , thus creating a wedge between the 1st Bulgarian and 11th German Armies in an effort to force the latter to retire towards Albania . The 2nd Bulgarian Army headed towards the Kosturino Pass avoiding direct engagement with the Allies .
At 17 : 30 p.m. on 22 September , the Italian 35th Division under General Ernesto Mombelli joined the offensive , seizing Hill 1050 stronghold from the 302nd German Division and taking 150 prisoners . Fighting took place in Kanatlarci and along the Monastir – Prilep road , in Cepik , Kalabak and Topolčani as the Allies continued to advance towards Prilep . At 14 : 00 p.m. on 23 September , General Louis Franchet d 'Espèrey announced that the initial plan of the operation was to be modified . The Italians were ordered to strike Kičevo with the aim of preventing the enemy forces stationed at Monastir from reaching the railroad hub in Uskub , the 11th Colonial French Division was instead tasked with securing Prilep . Half an hour later the French entered Prilep , to the east Franco – Serbian columns marched on Štip , Veles , Brod and through the Peristeri mountain range .
On 24 September , Bulgarian infantry supported by artillery halted the advance of the Italian cavalry between Kruševo and the Buchin bridge . At 17 : 00 p.m. , an Italo – Serbian assault resulted in the fall of Stepanci . On 25 September , the Sicilia Brigade captured Kruševo and the surrounding peaks after being reinforced by the 11th Colonial French Division . The Quadruple Alliance High Command set Uskub as the rallying point for its forces in Vardar Macedonia , intending to later strengthen them with units from Germany and Austria . The 30th and 156th French Divisions occupied Prevaletz and Drvenik respectively . On 25 September , a band of Bulgarian deserters who had previously fled from Dobro Pole arrived at Kyustendil , looting the city and putting the Bulgarian High Command to flight . The mass of retreating Bulgarian mutineers then converged on the railway center of Radomir in Bulgaria , just 30 miles ( 48 km ) from the capital city of Sofia . On the evening of 26 September , Italian cavalry wrestled Goloznica from a Saxon infantry unit , later entering Drenovo where it received information of a Bulgarian withdrawal from Veles . On 27 September , the leaders of the Bulgarian Agrarian National Union took control of these troops and proclaimed the establishment of the Bulgarian Republic . About 4 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 rebellious troops threatened Sofia the following day , in what came to be known the Radomir Rebellion .
The Serbian Second Army having previously taken Štip , entered Veles , Kochana and Grlena . Uskub was protected by a garrison of six and a half battalions , four armored trains and four artillery batteries split between a mountain range south of the city and a position north of lake Kaplan . Between 27 – 28 September , the 1st and 4th French Colonial Regiments made their way through Drachevo and Pagaruza , successfully bypassing any sentries located in the 20 @-@ kilometre ( 12 mi ) gap between the two Bulgarian formations that protected Uskub . At 4 : 00 a.m. on 29 September , French General Jouinot @-@ Gambetta laid out the plan for the final stage of the offensive , the attack on Uskub . The assault was launched an hour later , French spahi utilized thick fog to advance on mount Vodna , however they were forced to regroup after facing heavy resistance . A pincer movement by the 1st Colonial Regiment created a bridgehead at river Vardar , while the 4th Colonial Regiment seized Lisici village . At 9 : 00 a.m. , the spahis overtook Vodna , later shifting their attention towards the Kalkandelen road . The 1st Colonial Regiment joined the spahis , opening machine gun fire on the retreating 61st German Corps and causing numerous casualties . At 11 : 00 a.m. , the French entered Uskub , detaining 220 Bulgarian and 139 German soldiers , while also seizing 5 guns and large amounts of ordnance .
= = Aftermath = =
Under those chaotic circumstances a Bulgarian delegation arrived in Thessaloniki to ask for an armistice . On 29 September , the Bulgarians were granted the Armistice of Salonica by General d 'Esperey . The Bulgarian downfall turned the strategic and operational balance of the war against the Central Powers . The Macedonian Front was brought to an end at noon on 30 September , when the ceasefire came into effect . The treaty included the full capitulation of the 11th German Army , bringing the final tally of German and Bulgarian prisoners to 77 @,@ 000 and granting the Allies 500 artillery pieces . The Radomir Rebellion was put down , by Bulgarian forces , as of the 2 October , while Tsar Ferdinand I of Bulgaria abdicated and went into exile the following day .
The British Army headed east towards the European side of the Ottoman Empire , while the French and Serbian forces continued north . The British Army neared Constantinople and , without a force capable to stopping the advance , the Ottoman government asked for an armistice ( the Armistice of Mudros ) on 26 October . In Serbia , " Desperate Frankie " ( as the British nicknamed d 'Esperey ) continued to advance and the Serbo @-@ French Army re @-@ captured the country , overrunning several weak German divisions that tried to block its push near Niš . On 3 November , Austria @-@ Hungary was forced to sign an armistice on the Italian Front ending the war there . On 10 November , d 'Esperey 's army crossed the Danube river and was poised to enter the Hungarian heartland . At the request of the French general , Count Mihály Károlyi , leading the Hungarian government , came to Belgrade and signed another armistice .
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= Monarchy of the United Kingdom =
The monarchy of the United Kingdom , commonly referred to as the British monarchy , is the constitutional monarchy of the United Kingdom and its overseas territories . The monarch 's title is " King " ( male ) or " Queen " ( female ) . The current monarch and head of state , Queen Elizabeth II , ascended the throne on the death of her father , King George VI , on 6 February 1952 .
The monarch and his or her immediate family undertake various official , ceremonial , diplomatic and representational duties . As the monarchy is constitutional , the monarch is limited to non @-@ partisan functions such as bestowing honours and appointing the Prime Minister . The monarch is , by tradition , commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the British Armed Forces . Though the ultimate formal executive authority over the government of the United Kingdom is still by and through the monarch 's royal prerogative , these powers may only be used according to laws enacted in Parliament and , in practice , within the constraints of convention and precedent .
The British monarchy traces its origins from the petty kingdoms of early medieval Scotland and Anglo @-@ Saxon England , which consolidated into the kingdoms of England and Scotland by the 10th century AD . In 1066 , the last crowned Anglo @-@ Saxon monarch , Harold II , was defeated and killed during the Norman conquest of England and the English monarchy passed to the Normans ' victorious leader , William the Conqueror , and his descendants .
In the 13th century , Wales , as a principality , became a client state of the English kingdom , while Magna Carta began a process of reducing the English monarch 's political powers .
From 1603 , when the Scottish monarch King James VI inherited the English throne as James I , both the English and Scottish kingdoms were ruled by a single sovereign . From 1649 to 1660 , the tradition of monarchy was broken by the republican Commonwealth of England , which followed the Wars of the Three Kingdoms . The Act of Settlement 1701 , which is still in force , excluded Roman Catholics , or those who marry Catholics , from succession to the English throne . In 1707 , the kingdoms of England and Scotland were merged to create the Kingdom of Great Britain , and in 1801 , the Kingdom of Ireland joined to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . The British monarch became nominal head of the vast British Empire , which covered a quarter of the world 's surface at its greatest extent in 1921 .
In the 1920s , five @-@ sixths of Ireland seceded from the Union as the Irish Free State , and the Balfour Declaration recognised the evolution of the dominions of the empire into separate , self @-@ governing countries within a Commonwealth of Nations . After the Second World War , the vast majority of British colonies and territories became independent , effectively bringing the empire to an end . George VI and his successor , Elizabeth II , adopted the title Head of the Commonwealth as a symbol of the free association of its independent member states .
The United Kingdom and fifteen other Commonwealth monarchies that share the same person as their monarch are called Commonwealth realms . The terms British monarchy and British monarch are frequently still employed in reference to the shared individual and institution ; however , each country is sovereign and independent of the others , and the monarch has a different , specific , and official national title and style for each realm .
= = Constitutional role = =
In the uncodified Constitution of the United Kingdom , the Monarch ( otherwise referred to as the Sovereign or " His / Her Majesty " , abbreviated H.M. ) is the Head of State . Oaths of allegiance are made to the Queen and her lawful successors . God Save the Queen ( or God Save the King ) is the British national anthem , and the monarch appears on postage stamps , coins and banknotes .
The Monarch takes little direct part in Government . The decisions to exercise sovereign powers are delegated from the Monarch , either by statute or by convention , to Ministers or officers of the Crown , or other public bodies , exclusive of the Monarch personally . Thus the acts of state done in the name of the Crown , such as Crown Appointments , even if personally performed by the Monarch , such as the Queen 's Speech and the State Opening of Parliament , depend upon decisions made elsewhere :
Legislative power is exercised by the Queen @-@ in @-@ Parliament , by and with the advice and consent of Parliament , the House of Lords and the House of Commons .
Executive power is exercised by Her Majesty 's Government , which comprises Ministers , primarily the Prime Minister and the Cabinet , which is technically a committee of the Privy Council . They have the direction of the Armed Forces of the Crown , the Civil Service and other Crown Servants such as the Diplomatic and Secret Services ( the Queen receives certain foreign intelligence reports before the Prime Minister does ) .
Judicial power is vested in the Judiciary , who by constitution and statute have judicial independence of the Government .
The Church of England , of which the Monarch is the head , has its own legislative , judicial and executive structures .
Powers independent of government are legally granted to other public bodies by statute or Statutory Instrument such as an Order in Council , Royal Commission or otherwise .
The Sovereign 's role as a constitutional monarch is largely limited to non @-@ partisan functions , such as granting honours . This role has been recognised since the 19th century . The constitutional writer Walter Bagehot identified the monarchy in 1867 as the " dignified part " rather than the " efficient part " of government .
= = = Appointment of the Prime Minister = = =
Whenever necessary , the Monarch is responsible for appointing a new Prime Minister ( who by convention appoints and may dismiss every other Minister of the Crown , and thereby constitutes and controls the government ) . In accordance with unwritten constitutional conventions , the Sovereign must appoint an individual who commands the support of the House of Commons , usually the leader of the party or coalition that has a majority in that House . The Prime Minister takes office by attending the Monarch in private audience , and after " kissing hands " that appointment is immediately effective without any other formality or instrument .
In a hung parliament where no party or coalition holds a majority , the monarch has an increased degree of latitude in choosing the individual likely to command the most support , though it would usually be the leader of the largest party . Since 1945 , there have only been two hung parliaments . The first followed the February 1974 general election when Harold Wilson was appointed Prime Minister after Edward Heath resigned following his failure to form a coalition . Although Wilson 's Labour Party did not have a majority , they were the largest party . The second followed the May 2010 general election , in which the Conservatives ( the largest party ) and Liberal Democrats ( the third largest party ) agreed to form the first coalition government since World War II .
= = = Dissolution of Parliament = = =
In 1950 the King 's Private Secretary writing pseudonymously to The Times newspaper asserted a constitutional convention : according to the Lascelles Principles , if a minority government asked to dissolve Parliament to call an early election to strengthen its position , the monarch could refuse , and would do so under three conditions . When Prime Minister Wilson requested a dissolution late in 1974 , the Queen granted his request as Heath had already failed to form a coalition . The resulting general election gave Wilson a small majority . The monarch could in theory unilaterally dismiss a Prime Minister , but a Prime Minister 's term now comes to an end only by electoral defeat , death , or resignation . The last monarch to remove a Prime Minister was William IV , who dismissed Lord Melbourne in 1834 . The Fixed @-@ term Parliaments Act 2011 removed the monarch 's authority to dissolve Parliament ; the Act specifically retained the monarch 's power of prorogation however , which is a regular feature of the parliamentary calendar .
= = = Royal Prerogative = = =
Some of the government 's executive authority is theoretically and nominally vested in the Sovereign and is known as the royal prerogative . The monarch acts within the constraints of convention and precedent , exercising prerogative only on the advice of ministers responsible to Parliament , often through the Prime Minister or Privy Council . In practice , prerogative powers are exercised only on the Prime Minister 's advice – the Prime Minister , and not the Sovereign , has control . The monarch holds a weekly audience with the Prime Minister . No records of these audiences are taken and the proceedings remain fully confidential . The monarch may express his or her views , but , as a constitutional ruler , must ultimately accept the decisions of the Prime Minister and the Cabinet ( providing they command the support of the House ) . In Bagehot 's words : " the Sovereign has , under a constitutional monarchy ... three rights – the right to be consulted , the right to encourage , the right to warn . "
Although the Royal Prerogative is extensive and parliamentary approval is not formally required for its exercise , it is limited . Many Crown prerogatives have fallen out of use or have been permanently transferred to Parliament . For example , the monarch cannot impose and collect new taxes ; such an action requires the authorisation of an Act of Parliament . According to a parliamentary report , " The Crown cannot invent new prerogative powers " , and Parliament can override any prerogative power by passing legislation .
The Royal Prerogative includes the powers to appoint and dismiss ministers , regulate the civil service , issue passports , declare war , make peace , direct the actions of the military , and negotiate and ratify treaties , alliances , and international agreements . However , a treaty cannot alter the domestic laws of the United Kingdom ; an Act of Parliament is necessary in such cases . The monarch is commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Armed Forces ( the Royal Navy , the British Army , and the Royal Air Force ) , accredits British High Commissioners and ambassadors , and receives diplomats from foreign states .
It is the prerogative of the monarch to summon and prorogue Parliament . Each parliamentary session begins with the monarch 's summons . The new parliamentary session is marked by the State Opening of Parliament , during which the Sovereign reads the Speech from the throne in the Chamber of the House of Lords , outlining the Government 's legislative agenda . Prorogation usually occurs about one year after a session begins , and formally concludes the session . Dissolution ends a parliamentary term , and is followed by a general election for all seats in the House of Commons . A general election is normally held five years after the previous one under the Fixed @-@ term Parliaments Act 2011 , but can be held sooner if the Prime Minister loses a motion of confidence , or if two @-@ thirds of the members of the House of Commons vote to hold an early election .
Before a bill passed by the legislative Houses can become law , the royal assent ( the monarch 's approval ) is required . In theory , assent can either be granted ( making the bill law ) or withheld ( vetoing the bill ) , but since 1707 assent has always been granted .
The monarch has a similar relationship with the devolved governments of Scotland , Wales , and Northern Ireland . The Sovereign appoints the First Minister of Scotland on the nomination of the Scottish Parliament , and the First Minister of Wales on the nomination of the National Assembly for Wales . In Scottish matters , the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Scottish Government . However , as devolution is more limited in Wales , in Welsh matters the Sovereign acts on the advice of the Prime Minister and Cabinet of the United Kingdom . The Sovereign can veto any law passed by the Northern Ireland Assembly , if it is deemed unconstitutional by the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland .
The Sovereign is deemed the " fount of justice " ; although the Sovereign does not personally rule in judicial cases , judicial functions are performed in his or her name . For instance , prosecutions are brought on the monarch 's behalf , and courts derive their authority from the Crown . The common law holds that the Sovereign " can do no wrong " ; the monarch cannot be prosecuted for criminal offences . The Crown Proceedings Act 1947 allows civil lawsuits against the Crown in its public capacity ( that is , lawsuits against the government ) , but not lawsuits against the monarch personally . The Sovereign exercises the " prerogative of mercy " , which is used to pardon convicted offenders or reduce sentences .
The monarch is the " fount of honour " , the source of all honours and dignities in the United Kingdom . The Crown creates all peerages , appoints members of the orders of chivalry , grants knighthoods and awards other honours . Although peerages and most other honours are granted on the advice of the Prime Minister , some honours are within the personal gift of the Sovereign , and are not granted on ministerial advice . The monarch alone appoints members of the Order of the Garter , the Order of the Thistle , the Royal Victorian Order and the Order of Merit .
= = History = =
= = = English monarchy = = =
Following Viking raids and settlement in the ninth century , the Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom of Wessex emerged as the dominant English kingdom . Alfred the Great secured Wessex , achieved dominance over western Mercia , and assumed the title " King of the English " . His grandson Æthelstan was the first king to rule over a unitary kingdom roughly corresponding to the present borders of England , though its constituent parts retained strong regional identities . The 11th century saw England become more stable , despite a number of wars with the Danes , which resulted in a Danish monarchy for one generation . William , Duke of Normandy 's conquest of England in 1066 was crucial in terms of both political and social change . The new monarch continued the centralisation of power begun in the Anglo @-@ Saxon period , while the Feudal System continued to develop .
William I was succeeded by two of his sons : William II , then Henry I. Henry made a controversial decision to name his daughter Matilda ( his only surviving child ) as his heir . Following Henry 's death in 1135 , one of William I 's grandsons , Stephen , laid claim to the throne and took power with the support of most of the barons . Matilda challenged his reign ; as a result , England descended into a period of disorder known as the Anarchy . Stephen maintained a precarious hold on power , but agreed to a compromise under which Matilda 's son Henry would succeed him . Henry accordingly became the first Angevin king of England and the first monarch of the Plantagenet dynasty as Henry II in 1154 .
The reigns of most of the Angevin monarchs were marred by civil strife and conflicts between the monarch and the nobility . Henry II faced rebellions from his own sons , the future monarchs Richard I and John . Nevertheless , Henry managed to expand his kingdom , forming what is retrospectively known as the Angevin Empire . Upon Henry 's death , his elder son Richard succeeded to the throne ; he was absent from England for most of his reign , as he left to fight in the Crusades . He was killed besieging a castle , and John succeeded him .
John 's reign was marked by conflict with the barons , particularly over the limits of royal power . In 1215 , the barons coerced the king into issuing Magna Carta ( Latin for " Great Charter " ) to guarantee the rights and liberties of the nobility . Soon afterwards , further disagreements plunged England into a civil war known as the First Barons ' War . The war came to an abrupt end after John died in 1216 , leaving the Crown to his nine @-@ year @-@ old son Henry III . Later in Henry 's reign , Simon de Montfort led the barons in another rebellion , beginning the Second Barons ' War . The war ended in a clear royalist victory and in the death of many rebels , but not before the king had agreed to summon a parliament in 1265 .
The next monarch , Edward I ( " Edward Longshanks " ) , was far more successful in maintaining royal power and responsible for the conquest of Wales . He attempted to establish English domination of Scotland . However , gains in Scotland were reversed during the reign of his successor , Edward II , who also faced conflict with the nobility . In 1311 , Edward II was forced to relinquish many of his powers to a committee of baronial " ordainers " ; however , military victories helped him regain control in 1322 . Nevertheless , in 1327 , Edward was deposed and then murdered by his wife Isabella . His 14 @-@ year @-@ old son became Edward III . Edward III claimed the French Crown , setting off the Hundred Years ' War between England and France .
His campaigns conquered much French territory , but by 1374 , all the gains had been lost . Edward 's reign was also marked by the further development of Parliament , which came to be divided into two Houses . In 1377 , Edward III died , leaving the Crown to his 10 @-@ year @-@ old grandson Richard II . Like many of his predecessors , Richard II conflicted with the nobles by attempting to concentrate power in his own hands . In 1399 , while he was campaigning in Ireland , his cousin Henry Bolingbroke seized power . Richard was deposed , imprisoned , and eventually murdered , probably by starvation , and Henry became king as Henry IV .
Henry IV was the grandson of Edward III and the son of John of Gaunt , Duke of Lancaster ; hence , his dynasty was known as the House of Lancaster . For most of his reign , Henry IV was forced to fight off plots and rebellions ; his success was partly due to the military skill of his son , the future Henry V. Henry V 's own reign , which began in 1413 , was largely free from domestic strife , leaving the king free to pursue the Hundred Years ' War in France . Although he was victorious , his sudden death in 1422 left his infant son Henry VI on the throne and gave the French an opportunity to overthrow English rule .
The unpopularity of Henry VI 's counsellors and his belligerent consort , Margaret of Anjou , as well as his own ineffectual leadership , led to the weakening of the House of Lancaster . The Lancastrians faced a challenge from the House of York , so called because its head , a descendant of Edward III , was Richard , Duke of York . Although the Duke of York died in battle in 1460 , his eldest son , Edward IV , led the Yorkists to victory in 1461 . The Wars of the Roses , nevertheless , continued intermittently during his reign and those of his son Edward V and brother Richard III . Edward V disappeared , presumably murdered by Richard . Ultimately , the conflict culminated in success for the Lancastrian branch led by Henry Tudor , in 1485 , when Richard III was killed in the Battle of Bosworth Field .
Now King Henry VII , he neutralised the remaining Yorkist forces , partly by marrying Elizabeth of York , a Yorkist heir . Through skill and ability , Henry re @-@ established absolute supremacy in the realm , and the conflicts with the nobility that had plagued previous monarchs came to an end . The reign of the second Tudor king , Henry VIII , was one of great political change . Religious upheaval and disputes with the Pope led the monarch to break from the Roman Catholic Church and to establish the Church of England ( the Anglican Church ) .
Wales – which had been conquered centuries earlier , but had remained a separate dominion – was annexed to England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 . Henry VIII 's son and successor , the young Edward VI , continued with further religious reforms , but his early death in 1553 precipitated a succession crisis . He was wary of allowing his Catholic elder half @-@ sister Mary to succeed , and therefore drew up a will designating Lady Jane Grey as his heiress . Jane 's reign , however , lasted only nine days ; with tremendous popular support , Mary deposed her and declared herself the lawful sovereign . Mary I married Philip of Spain , who was declared king and co @-@ ruler , pursued disastrous wars in France , and attempted to return England to Roman Catholicism , burning Protestants at the stake as heretics in the process . Upon her death in 1558 , the pair were succeeded by her Protestant half @-@ sister Elizabeth I. England returned to Protestantism and continued its growth into a major world power by building its navy and exploring the New World .
= = = Scottish monarchy = = =
In Scotland , as in England , monarchies emerged after the withdrawal of the Roman empire from Britain in the early fifth century . The three groups that lived in Scotland at this time were the Picts in the north east , the Britons in the south , including the Kingdom of Strathclyde , and the Gaels or Scotti ( who would later give their name to Scotland ) , of the Irish petty kingdom of Dál Riata in the west . Kenneth MacAlpin is traditionally viewed as the first king of a united Scotland ( known as Scotia to writers in Latin , or Alba to the Scots ) . The expansion of Scottish dominions continued over the next two centuries , as other territories such as Strathclyde were absorbed .
Early Scottish monarchs did not inherit the Crown directly ; instead the custom of tanistry was followed , where the monarchy alternated between different branches of the House of Alpin . As a result , however , the rival dynastic lines clashed , often violently . From 942 to 1005 , seven consecutive monarchs were either murdered or killed in battle . In 1005 , Malcolm II ascended the throne having killed many rivals . He continued to ruthlessly eliminate opposition , and when he died in 1034 he was succeeded by his grandson , Duncan I , instead of a cousin , as had been usual . In 1040 , Duncan suffered defeat in battle at the hands of Macbeth , who was killed himself in 1057 by Duncan 's son Malcolm . The following year , after killing Macbeth 's stepson Lulach , Malcolm ascended the throne as Malcolm III .
With a further series of battles and deposings , five of Malcolm 's sons as well as one of his brothers successively became king . Eventually , the Crown came to his youngest son , David . David was succeeded by his grandsons Malcolm IV , and then by William the Lion , the longest @-@ reigning King of Scots before the Union of the Crowns . William participated in a rebellion against King Henry II of England but when the rebellion failed , William was captured by the English . In exchange for his release , William was forced to acknowledge Henry as his feudal overlord . The English King Richard I agreed to terminate the arrangement in 1189 , in return for a large sum of money needed for the Crusades . William died in 1214 , and was succeeded by his son Alexander II . Alexander II , as well as his successor Alexander III , attempted to take over the Western Isles , which were still under the overlordship of Norway . During the reign of Alexander III , Norway launched an unsuccessful invasion of Scotland ; the ensuing Treaty of Perth recognised Scottish control of the Western Isles and other disputed areas .
Alexander III 's unexpected death in a riding accident in 1286 precipitated a major succession crisis . Scottish leaders appealed to King Edward I of England for help in determining who was the rightful heir . Edward chose Alexander 's three @-@ year @-@ old Norwegian granddaughter , Margaret . On her way to Scotland in 1290 , however , Margaret died at sea , and Edward was again asked to adjudicate between 13 rival claimants to the throne . A court was set up and after two years of deliberation , it pronounced John Balliol to be king . However , Edward proceeded to treat Balliol as a vassal , and tried to exert influence over Scotland . In 1295 , when Balliol renounced his allegiance to England , Edward I invaded . During the first ten years of the ensuing Wars of Scottish Independence , Scotland had no monarch , until Robert the Bruce declared himself king in 1306 .
Robert 's efforts to control Scotland culminated in success , and Scottish independence was acknowledged in 1328 . However , only one year later , Robert died and was succeeded by his five @-@ year @-@ old son , David II . On the pretext of restoring John Balliol 's rightful heir , Edward Balliol , the English again invaded in 1332 . During the next four years , Balliol was crowned , deposed , restored , deposed , restored , and deposed until he eventually settled in England , and David remained king for the next 35 years .
David II died childless in 1371 and was succeeded by his nephew Robert II of the House of Stuart . The reigns of both Robert II and his successor , Robert III , were marked by a general decline in royal power . When Robert III died in 1406 , regents had to rule the country ; the monarch , Robert III 's son James I , had been taken captive by the English . Having paid a large ransom , James returned to Scotland in 1424 ; to restore his authority , he used ruthless measures , including the execution of several of his enemies . He was assassinated by a group of nobles . James II continued his father 's policies by subduing influential noblemen but he was killed in an accident at the age of thirty , and a council of regents again assumed power . James III was defeated in a battle against rebellious Scottish earls in 1488 , leading to another boy @-@ king : James IV .
In 1513 James IV launched an invasion of England , attempting to take advantage of the absence of the English King Henry VIII . His forces met with disaster at Flodden Field ; the King , many senior noblemen , and hundreds of soldiers were killed . As his son and successor , James V , was an infant , the government was again taken over by regents . James V led another disastrous war with the English in 1542 , and his death in the same year left the Crown in the hands of his six @-@ day @-@ old daughter , Mary . Once again , a regency was established .
Mary , a Roman Catholic , reigned during a period of great religious upheaval in Scotland . As a result of the efforts of reformers such as John Knox , a Protestant ascendancy was established . Mary caused alarm by marrying her Catholic cousin , Lord Darnley , in 1565 . After Lord Darnley 's assassination in 1567 , Mary contracted an even more unpopular marriage with the Earl of Bothwell , who was widely suspected of Darnley 's murder . The nobility rebelled against the Queen , forcing her to abdicate . She fled to England , and the Crown went to her infant son James VI , who was brought up as a Protestant . Mary was imprisoned and later executed by the English Queen Elizabeth I.
= = = Personal union and republican phase = = =
Elizabeth 's death in 1603 ended Tudor rule in England . Since she had no children , she was succeeded by the Scottish monarch James VI , who was the great @-@ grandson of Henry VIII 's older sister and hence Elizabeth 's first cousin twice removed . James VI ruled in England as James I after what was known as the " Union of the Crowns " . Although England and Scotland were in personal union under one monarch – James I became the first monarch to style himself " King of Great Britain and Ireland " in 1604 – they remained separate kingdoms . James I 's successor , Charles I , experienced frequent conflicts with the English Parliament related to the issue of royal and parliamentary powers , especially the power to impose taxes . He provoked opposition by ruling without Parliament from 1629 to 1640 , unilaterally levying taxes and adopting controversial religious policies ( many of which were offensive to the Scottish Presbyterians and the English Puritans ) . His attempt to enforce Anglicanism led to organised rebellion in Scotland ( the " Bishops ' Wars " ) and ignited the Wars of the Three Kingdoms . In 1642 , the conflict between the King and English Parliament reached its climax and the English Civil War began .
The Civil War culminated in the execution of the king in 1649 , the overthrow of the English monarchy , and the establishment of the Commonwealth of England . Charles I 's son , Charles II , was proclaimed King of Great Britain in Scotland , but he was forced to flee abroad after he invaded England and was defeated at the Battle of Worcester . In 1653 , Oliver Cromwell , the most prominent military and political leader in the nation , seized power and declared himself Lord Protector ( effectively becoming a military dictator , but refusing the title of king ) . Cromwell ruled until his death in 1658 , when he was succeeded by his son Richard . The new Lord Protector had little interest in governing ; he soon resigned . The lack of clear leadership led to civil and military unrest , and for a popular desire to restore the monarchy . In 1660 , the monarchy was restored and Charles II returned to Britain .
Charles II 's reign was marked by the development of the first modern political parties in England . Charles had no legitimate children , and was due to be succeeded by his Roman Catholic brother , James , Duke of York . A parliamentary effort to exclude James from the line of succession arose ; the " Petitioners " , who supported exclusion , became the Whig Party , whereas the " Abhorrers " , who opposed exclusion , became the Tory Party . The Exclusion Bill failed ; on several occasions , Charles II dissolved Parliament because he feared that the bill might pass . After the dissolution of the Parliament of 1681 , Charles ruled without a Parliament until his death in 1685 . When James succeeded Charles , he pursued a policy of offering religious tolerance to Roman Catholics , thereby drawing the ire of many of his Protestant subjects . Many opposed James 's decisions to maintain a large standing army , to appoint Roman Catholics to high political and military offices , and to imprison Church of England clerics who challenged his policies . As a result , a group of Protestants known as the Immortal Seven invited James II 's daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange to depose the king . William obliged , arriving in England on 5 November 1688 to great public support . Faced with the defection of many of his Protestant officials , James fled the realm and William and Mary ( rather than James II 's Catholic son ) were declared joint Sovereigns of England , Scotland and Ireland .
James 's overthrow , known as the Glorious Revolution , was one of the most important events in the long evolution of parliamentary power . The Bill of Rights 1689 affirmed parliamentary supremacy , and declared that the English people held certain rights , including the freedom from taxes imposed without parliamentary consent . The Bill of Rights required future monarchs to be Protestants , and provided that , after any children of William and Mary , Mary 's sister Anne would inherit the Crown . Mary died childless in 1694 , leaving William as the sole monarch . By 1700 , a political crisis arose , as all of Anne 's children had died , leaving her as the only individual left in the line of succession . Parliament was afraid that the former James II or his supporters , known as Jacobites , might attempt to reclaim the throne . Parliament passed the Act of Settlement 1701 , which excluded James and his Catholic relations from the succession and made William 's nearest Protestant relations , the family of Sophia , Electress of Hanover , next in line to the throne after his sister @-@ in @-@ law Anne . Soon after the passage of the Act , William III died , leaving the Crown to Anne .
= = = After the 1707 Acts of Union = = =
After Anne 's accession , the problem of the succession re @-@ emerged . The Scottish Parliament , infuriated that the English Parliament did not consult them on the choice of Sophia 's family as the next heirs , passed the Act of Security 1704 , threatening to end the personal union between England and Scotland . The Parliament of England retaliated with the Alien Act 1705 , threatening to devastate the Scottish economy by restricting trade . The Scottish and English parliaments negotiated the Acts of Union 1707 , under which England and Scotland were united into a single Kingdom of Great Britain , with succession under the rules prescribed by the Act of Settlement .
In 1714 , Queen Anne was succeeded by her second cousin , and Sophia 's son , George I , Elector of Hanover , who consolidated his position by defeating Jacobite rebellions in 1715 and 1719 . The new monarch was less active in government than many of his British predecessors , but retained control over his German kingdoms , with which Britain was now in personal union . Power shifted towards George 's ministers , especially to Sir Robert Walpole , who is often considered the first British prime minister , although the title was not then in use . The next monarch , George II , witnessed the final end of the Jacobite threat in 1746 , when the Catholic Stuarts were completely defeated . During the long reign of his grandson , George III , Britain 's American colonies were lost , the former colonies having formed the United States of America , but British influence elsewhere in the world continued to grow , and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was created by the Acts of Union 1800 .
From 1811 to 1820 , George III suffered a severe bout of what is now believed to be porphyria , an illness rendering him incapable of ruling . His son , the future George IV , ruled in his stead as Prince Regent . During the Regency and his own reign , the power of the monarchy declined , and by the time of his successor , William IV , the monarch was no longer able to effectively interfere with parliamentary power . In 1834 , William dismissed the Whig Prime Minister , William Lamb , 2nd Viscount Melbourne , and appointed a Tory , Sir Robert Peel . In the ensuing elections , however , Peel lost . The king had no choice but to recall Lord Melbourne . During William IV 's reign , the Reform Act 1832 , which reformed parliamentary representation , was passed . Together with others passed later in the century , the Act led to an expansion of the electoral franchise and the rise of the House of Commons as the most important branch of Parliament .
The final transition to a constitutional monarchy was made during the long reign of William IV 's successor , Victoria . As a woman , Victoria could not rule Hanover , which only permitted succession in the male line , so the personal union of the United Kingdom and Hanover came to an end . The Victorian era was marked by great cultural change , technological progress , and the establishment of the United Kingdom as one of the world 's foremost powers . In recognition of British rule over India , Victoria was declared Empress of India in 1876 . However , her reign was also marked by increased support for the republican movement , due in part to Victoria 's permanent mourning and lengthy period of seclusion following the death of her husband in 1861 .
Victoria 's son , Edward VII , became the first monarch of the House of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha in 1901 . In 1917 , the next monarch , George V , changed " Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha " to " Windsor " in response to the anti @-@ German sympathies aroused by the First World War . George V 's reign was marked by the separation of Ireland into Northern Ireland , which remained a part of the United Kingdom , and the Irish Free State , an independent nation , in 1922 .
= = = Shared monarchy = = =
During the twentieth century , the Commonwealth of Nations evolved from the British Empire . Prior to 1926 , the British Crown reigned over the British Empire collectively ; the Dominions and Crown colonies were subordinate to the United Kingdom . The Balfour Declaration of 1926 gave complete self @-@ government to the Dominions , effectively creating a system whereby a single monarch operated independently in each separate Dominion . The concept was solidified by the Statute of Westminster 1931 , which has been likened to " a treaty among the Commonwealth countries " .
The monarchy thus ceased to be an exclusively British institution , although it is often still referred to as " British " for legal and historical reasons and for convenience . The monarch became separately monarch of the United Kingdom , monarch of Canada , monarch of Australia , and so forth . The independent states within the Commonwealth would share the same monarch in a relationship likened to a personal union .
George V 's death in 1936 was followed by the accession of Edward VIII , who caused a public scandal by announcing his desire to marry the divorced American Wallis Simpson , even though the Church of England opposed the remarriage of divorcées . Accordingly , Edward announced his intention to abdicate ; the Parliaments of the United Kingdom and of other Commonwealth countries granted his request . Edward VIII and any children by his new wife were excluded from the line of succession , and the Crown went to his brother , George VI . George served as a rallying figure for the British people during World War II , making morale @-@ boosting visits to the troops as well as to munitions factories and to areas bombed by Nazi Germany . In June 1948 George VI relinquished the title Emperor of India , although remaining head of state of the Dominion of India .
At first , every member of the Commonwealth retained the same monarch as the United Kingdom , but when the Dominion of India became a republic in 1950 , it would no longer share in a common monarchy . Instead , the British monarch was acknowledged as " Head of the Commonwealth " in all Commonwealth member states , whether they were realms or republics . The position is purely ceremonial , and is not inherited by the British monarch as of right but is vested in an individual chosen by the Commonwealth heads of government . Member states of the Commonwealth that share the same person as monarch are known as Commonwealth realms .
= = = Monarchy in Ireland = = =
In 1155 the only English pope , Pope Adrian IV , authorised King Henry II of England to take possession of Ireland as a feudal territory nominally under papal overlordship . The pope wanted the English monarch to annex Ireland and bring the Irish church into line with Rome , despite this process already underway in Ireland by 1155 . An all @-@ island kingship of Ireland had being created in 854 by Máel Sechnaill mac Máele Ruanaid . His last successor was Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair , who had become King of Ireland in early 1166 , and exiled Diarmait Mac Murchada , King of Leinster . Diarmait asked Henry II for help , gaining a group of Anglo @-@ Norman aristocrats and adventurers , led by Richard de Clare , 2nd Earl of Pembroke , to help him regain his throne . Diarmait and his Anglo @-@ Norman allies succeeded and he became King of Leinster again . De Clare married Diarmait 's daughter , and when Diarmait died in 1171 , de Clare became King of Leinster . Henry was afraid that de Clare would make Ireland a rival Norman kingdom , so he took advantage of the papal bull and invaded , forcing de Clare and the other Anglo @-@ Norman aristocrats in Ireland and the major Irish kings and lords to recognise him as their overlord . English lords came close to colonising the entire island , but a Gaelic resurgence from the 1260s resulted in the island divided between Gaelic @-@ Irish and Anglo @-@ Irish lords by 1400 . Many of the latter became completely Gaelicised , and did not recognise England 's kings except perhaps nominally . Some , such as Manus O 'Donnell and Conn O 'Neill , 1st Earl of Tyrone , were kings themselves .
By 1541 , King Henry VIII of England had broken with the Church of Rome and declared himself Supreme Head of the Church of England . The pope 's grant of Ireland to the English monarch became invalid , so Henry summoned a meeting of the Irish Parliament to change his title from Lord of Ireland to King of Ireland . However much of the island was beyond English control , resulting in the extended Tudor conquest of Ireland that only made the Kingdom of Ireland a reality in 1603 , at the conclusion of the Nine Years ' War ( Ireland ) . Nevertheless , Ireland retained its own parliament , becoming an independent state in 1642 @-@ 1649 ( Confederate Ireland ) , and again in 1688 @-@ 91 . Only warfare such as the Williamite War in Ireland and subsequent occupation enabled the English crown from 1692 , and successive British states from 1707 , to retain the country .
In 1800 , as a result of the Irish Rebellion of 1798 , the Act of Union merged the kingdom of Great Britain and the kingdom of Ireland into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . The whole island of Ireland continued to be a part of the United Kingdom until 1922 , when what is now the Republic of Ireland won independence as the Irish Free State , a separate Dominion within the Commonwealth . The Irish Free State was renamed Éire ( or " Ireland " ) in 1937 , and in 1949 declared itself a republic , left the Commonwealth and severed all ties with the monarchy . Northern Ireland remained within the Union . In 1927 , the United Kingdom changed its name to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland , while the monarch 's style for the next twenty years became " of Great Britain , Ireland and the British Dominions beyond the Seas , King , Defender of the Faith , Emperor of India " .
= = = Modern status = = =
In the 1990s , Republicanism in the United Kingdom grew , partly on account of negative publicity associated with the Royal Family ( for instance , immediately following the death of Diana , Princess of Wales ) . However , recent polls show that around 70 – 80 % of the British public support the continuation of the monarchy .
= = Religious role = =
The sovereign is the Supreme Governor of the established Church of England . Archbishops and bishops are appointed by the monarch , on the advice of the Prime Minister , who chooses the appointee from a list of nominees prepared by a Church Commission . The Crown 's role in the Church of England is titular ; the most senior clergyman , the Archbishop of Canterbury , is the spiritual leader of the Church and of the worldwide Anglican Communion . The monarch takes an oath to preserve Church of Scotland and he or she holds the power to appoint the Lord High Commissioner to the Church 's General Assembly , but otherwise plays no part in its governance , and enjoys no powers over it . The Sovereign plays no formal role in the disestablished Church in Wales or Church of Ireland .
= = Succession = =
The relationship between the Commonwealth realms is such that any change to the laws governing succession to the shared throne requires the unanimous consent of all the realms . Succession is governed by statutes such as the Bill of Rights 1689 , the Act of Settlement 1701 and the Acts of Union 1707 . The rules of succession may only be changed by an Act of Parliament ; it is not possible for an individual to renounce his or her right of succession . The Act of Settlement restricts the succession to the legitimate Protestant descendants of Sophia of Hanover ( 1630 – 1714 ) , a granddaughter of James I.
Upon the death of the Sovereign , his or her heir immediately and automatically succeeds ( hence the phrase " The king is dead , long live the king ! " ) , and the accession of the sovereign is publicly proclaimed by an Accession Council that meets at St James 's Palace . The monarch is crowned in Westminster Abbey , normally by the Archbishop of Canterbury . A coronation is not necessary for a sovereign to reign ; indeed , the ceremony usually takes place many months after accession to allow sufficient time for its preparation and for a period of mourning .
After an individual ascends the throne , he or she reigns until death . The only voluntary abdication , that of Edward VIII , had to be authorised by a special Act of Parliament , His Majesty 's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 . The last monarch involuntarily removed from power was James VII and II , who fled into exile in 1688 during the Glorious Revolution .
= = = Restrictions by gender and religion = = =
Succession was largely governed by male @-@ preference cognatic primogeniture , under which sons inherit before daughters , and elder children inherit before younger ones of the same gender . The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , David Cameron , announced at the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2011 that all 16 Commonwealth realms , including the United Kingdom , had agreed to abolish the gender @-@ preference rule for anyone born after the date of the meeting , 28 October 2011 . They also agreed that future monarchs would no longer be prohibited from marrying a Roman Catholic – a law which dated from the Act of Settlement 1701 . However , since the monarch is also the Supreme Governor of the Church of England , the law which prohibits a Roman Catholic from acceding to the throne remains . The necessary UK legislation making the changes received the royal assent on 25 April 2013 and was brought into force in March 2015 after the equivalent legislation was approved in all the other Commonwealth realms .
Only individuals who are Protestants may inherit the Crown . Roman Catholics are prohibited from succeeding . An individual thus disabled from inheriting the Crown is deemed " naturally dead " for succession purposes , and the disqualification does not extend to the individual 's legitimate descendants .
= = = Regency = = =
The Regency Acts allow for regencies in the event of a monarch who is a minor or who is physically or mentally incapacitated . When a regency is necessary , the next qualified individual in the line of succession automatically becomes regent , unless they themselves are a minor or incapacitated . Special provisions were made for Queen Elizabeth II by the Regency Act 1953 , which stated that the Duke of Edinburgh ( the Queen 's husband ) could act as regent in these circumstances .
During a temporary physical infirmity or an absence from the kingdom , the sovereign may temporarily delegate some of his or her functions to Counsellors of State , the monarch 's spouse and the first four adults in the line of succession . The present Counsellors of State are : The Duke of Edinburgh , The Prince of Wales , The Duke of Cambridge , Prince Harry and The Duke of York .
= = Finances = =
Until 1760 the monarch met all official expenses from hereditary revenues , which included the profits of the Crown Estate ( the royal property portfolio ) . King George III agreed to surrender the hereditary revenues of the Crown in return for the Civil List , and this arrangement persisted until 2012 . An annual Property Services Grant @-@ in @-@ aid paid for the upkeep of the royal residences , and an annual Royal Travel Grant @-@ in @-@ Aid paid for travel . The Civil List covered most expenses , including those for staffing , state visits , public engagements , and official entertainment . Its size was fixed by Parliament every 10 years ; any money saved was carried forward to the next 10 @-@ year period . From 2012 until 2020 , the Civil List and Grants @-@ in @-@ Aid are to be replaced with a single Sovereign Grant , which will be set at 15 % of the revenues generated by the Crown Estate .
The Crown Estate is one of the largest property owners in the United Kingdom , with holdings of £ 7 @.@ 3 billion in 2011 . It is held in trust , and cannot be sold or owned by the Sovereign in a private capacity . In modern times , the profits surrendered from the Crown Estate to the Treasury have exceeded the Civil List and Grants @-@ in @-@ Aid . For example , the Crown Estate produced £ 200 million in the financial year 2007 – 8 , whereas reported parliamentary funding for the monarch was £ 40 million during the same period .
Like the Crown Estate , the land and assets of the Duchy of Lancaster , a property portfolio valued at £ 383 million in 2011 , are held in trust . The revenues of the Duchy form part of the Privy Purse , and are used for expenses not borne by the parliamentary grants . The Duchy of Cornwall is a similar estate held in trust to meet the expenses of the monarch 's eldest son . The Royal Collection , which includes artworks and the Crown Jewels , is not owned by the Sovereign personally and is held in trust , as are the occupied palaces in the United Kingdom such as Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle .
The sovereign is subject to indirect taxes such as value @-@ added tax , and since 1993 the Queen has paid income tax and capital gains tax on personal income . Parliamentary grants to the Sovereign are not treated as income as they are solely for official expenditure . Republicans estimate that the real cost of the monarchy , including security and potential income not claimed by the state , such as profits from the duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall and rent of Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle , is £ 334 million a year .
Estimates of the Queen 's wealth vary , depending on whether assets owned by her personally or held in trust for the nation are included . Forbes magazine estimated her wealth at US $ 450 million in 2010 , but no official figure is available . In 1993 , the Lord Chamberlain said estimates of £ 100 million were " grossly overstated " . Jock Colville , who was her former private secretary and a director of her bank , Coutts , estimated her wealth in 1971 at £ 2 million ( the equivalent of about £ 25 million today ) .
= = Residences = =
The Sovereign 's official residence in London is Buckingham Palace . It is the site of most state banquets , investitures , royal christenings and other ceremonies . Another official residence is Windsor Castle , the largest occupied castle in the world , which is used principally at weekends , Easter and during Royal Ascot , an annual race meeting that is part of the social calendar . The Sovereign 's official residence in Scotland is the Palace of Holyroodhouse in Edinburgh . The monarch stays at Holyrood for at least one week each year , and when visiting Scotland on state occasions .
Historically , the Palace of Westminster and the Tower of London were the main residences of the English Sovereign until Henry VIII acquired the Palace of Whitehall . Whitehall was destroyed by fire in 1698 , leading to a shift to St James 's Palace . Although replaced as the monarch 's primary London residence by Buckingham Palace in 1837 , St James 's is still the senior palace and remains the ceremonial Royal residence . For example , foreign ambassadors are accredited to the Court of St James 's , and the Palace is the site of the meeting of the Accession Council . It is also used by other members of the Royal Family .
Other residences include Clarence House and Kensington Palace . The palaces belong to the Crown ; they are held in trust for future rulers , and cannot be sold by the monarch . Sandringham House in Norfolk and Balmoral Castle in Aberdeenshire are privately owned by the Queen .
= = Style = =
The present Sovereign 's full style and title is " Elizabeth the Second , by the Grace of God , of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen , Head of the Commonwealth , Defender of the Faith " . The title " Head of the Commonwealth " is held by the Queen personally , and is not vested in the British Crown . Pope Leo X first granted the title " Defender of the Faith " to King Henry VIII in 1521 , rewarding him for his support of the Papacy during the early years of the Protestant Reformation , particularly for his book the Defence of the Seven Sacraments . After Henry broke from the Roman Church , Pope Paul III revoked the grant , but Parliament passed a law authorising its continued use .
The Sovereign is known as " His Majesty " or " Her Majesty " . The form " Britannic Majesty " appears in international treaties and on passports to differentiate the British monarch from foreign rulers . The monarch chooses his or her regnal name , not necessarily his or her first name – King George VI , King Edward VII and Queen Victoria did not use their first names .
If only one monarch has used a particular name , no ordinal is used ; for example , Queen Victoria is not known as " Victoria I " , and ordinals are not used for English monarchs who reigned before the Norman conquest of England . The question of whether numbering for British monarchs is based on previous English or Scottish monarchs was raised in 1953 when Scottish nationalists challenged the Queen 's use of " Elizabeth II " , on the grounds that there had never been an " Elizabeth I " in Scotland . In MacCormick v Lord Advocate , the Scottish Court of Session ruled against the plaintiffs , finding that the Queen 's title was a matter of her own choice and prerogative . The Home Secretary told the House of Commons that monarchs since the Acts of Union had consistently used the higher of the English and Scottish ordinals , which in the applicable four cases has been the English ordinal . The Prime Minister confirmed this practice , but noted that " neither The Queen nor her advisers could seek to bind their successors " . Future monarchs will apply this policy .
Traditionally , the signature of the monarch includes their regnal name but not ordinal , followed by the letter R , which stands for rex or regina ( Latin for king and queen , respectively ) . The present monarch 's signature is " Elizabeth R " . From 1877 until 1948 reigning monarchs added the letter I to their signatures , for imperator or imperatrix ( emperor or empress in Latin ) , from their status as Emperor or Empress of India . For example , Queen Victoria signed as " Victoria RI " from 1877 .
= = Arms = =
The Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom are " Quarterly , I and IV Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or [ for England ] ; II Or a lion rampant within a double tressure flory @-@ counter @-@ flory Gules [ for Scotland ] ; III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent [ for Ireland ] " . The supporters are the Lion and the Unicorn ; the motto is " Dieu et mon droit " ( French : " God and my Right " ) . Surrounding the shield is a representation of a Garter bearing the motto of the Chivalric order of the same name ; " Honi soit qui mal y pense " . ( Old French : " Shame be to him who thinks evil of it " ) . In Scotland , the monarch uses an alternative form of the arms in which quarters I and IV represent Scotland , II England , and III Ireland . The mottoes are " In Defens " ( an abbreviated form of the Scots " In My Defens God Me Defend " ) and the motto of the Order of the Thistle ; " Nemo me impune lacessit " . ( Latin : " No @-@ one provokes me with impunity " ) ; the supporters are the unicorn and lion , who support both the escutcheon and lances , from which fly the flags of Scotland and England .
The monarch 's official flag in the United Kingdom is the Royal Standard , which depicts the Royal Arms . It is flown only from buildings , vessels and vehicles in which the Sovereign is present . The Royal Standard is never flown at half @-@ mast because there is always a sovereign : when one dies , his or her successor becomes the sovereign instantly .
When the monarch is not in residence , the Union Flag is flown at Buckingham Palace , Windsor Castle and Sandringham House , whereas in Scotland the Royal Standard of Scotland is flown at Holyrood Palace and Balmoral Castle .
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= 1995 American League West tie @-@ breaker game =
The 1995 American League West tie @-@ breaker game was a one @-@ game extension to Major League Baseball 's ( MLB ) 1995 regular season , played between the California Angels and Seattle Mariners to determine the winner of the American League 's ( AL ) West Division . The game was played on October 2 , 1995 , at the Kingdome in Seattle , Washington . The game was necessary after both teams finished the strike @-@ shortened 144 @-@ game season with identical win – loss records of 78 – 66 . Seattle won the game by a score of 9 – 1 , securing its first postseason berth in franchise history .
The game matched two highly unlikely teams : the Angels had not been to the postseason since 1986 , and had not finished above third place in the AL West since . On the other hand , the Mariners had never been to the postseason , and before 1995 only had two seasons with a winning percentage above .500 . With less than two months left in the 1995 regular season , the Angels held a comfortable lead in the AL West standings , 11 games ahead of the second @-@ place Texas Rangers and 13 games ahead of the third @-@ place Mariners . However , the Mariners mounted a late @-@ season comeback , coupled with a late @-@ season collapse by the Angels , to force the tie @-@ breaker .
After winning the tie @-@ breaker , the Mariners advanced to play the New York Yankees in the AL Division Series . They won the series in five games on an 11th @-@ inning double by Edgar Martínez in Game 5 . After advancing to the AL League Championship Series , they lost to the Cleveland Indians in six games . The Angels , meanwhile , did not earn a trip to the postseason until 2002 .
= = Line score and summary = =
As per normal MLB practice at the time , the home team for this game was determined by a series of coin tosses held on September 18 to determine home teams for all potential one @-@ game tiebreakers . All statistics compiled during the game were added to each player 's and / or team 's regular season statistics . The game was nationally televised on ESPN with Jon Miller and Joe Morgan making the call .
The first six innings of the game were largely a pitchers ' duel between Seattle staff ace Randy Johnson and California 's Mark Langston , the Mariners ' former staff ace who was traded to Montreal for Johnson in 1989 . Seattle put runners in scoring position in the first and fifth innings , but only scored one run in the fifth when Dan Wilson scored on a single by Vince Coleman . Johnson was perfect — that is , he allowed no runners to reach base — until the 6th inning when Rex Hudler singled but was stranded at second base .
In the seventh inning , Langston allowed a single to Mike Blowers , then allowed Tino Martinez on base via fielder 's choice , then hit Joey Cora to load the bases with two outs . Luis Sojo followed with a double to right field that glanced off of first baseman J. T. Snow 's glove and rolled under the Angels ' bullpen bench , scoring Blowers , Martinez , and Cora . Sojo himself scored on the play as a result of Langston 's throwing error , and Langston was replaced by relief pitcher Bob Patterson .
Now trailing by five runs , the Angels threatened again in the 8th inning with runners on second and third , but Hudler grounded out to end the threat . In the bottom of the 8th , the Mariners again had the bases loaded when Tino Martinez singled to score Edgar Martínez , followed by a Dan Wilson double that scored Jay Buhner and Blowers , and finally a sacrifice fly double play hit by Cora that scored Tino Martinez but got Wilson thrown out at third . Tony Phillips led off the 9th for the Angels with a home run to avoid a shutout , but Johnson retired the next three Angels hitters to record his sixth complete game and 18th win of the season .
= = Background = =
= = = Before 1995 = = =
Both teams entered the tiebreaker with long histories of frustration and disappointment . California had won the AL West division title on 3 occasions ( 1979 , 1982 , and 1986 ) , but failed to advance to the World Series each time . In particular , the Angels blew a 2 – 0 series lead in the best @-@ of @-@ five 1982 ALCS to the Milwaukee Brewers , and were one strike away from defeating the Boston Red Sox in Game 5 of the 1986 ALCS but ended up losing that game and the next two to lose the best @-@ of @-@ seven series that they had led 3 – 1 . They had not returned to the postseason since the 1986 loss .
Seattle , on the other hand , had only had two winning seasons since the franchise began play in 1977 ( 1991 and 1993 ) , and had never been to the postseason . The team had gone through three ownership changes in its first 15 years , its most recent coming in 1992 when a consortium led by Hiroshi Yamauchi , which owns the Mariners to the present day , bought the team from Jeff Smulyan , who had threatened to relocate the team as a consequence of its losing ways .
= = = 1995 season = = =
As a consequence of the 1994 – 95 Major League Baseball strike , the 1995 season started on April 25 , and was shortened to 144 games instead of the normal 162 . California took an early lead in the AL West standings and traded first place with Texas through May and June . They took the lead on July 2 , and held on to that lead throughout the rest of July and all of August . Seattle , meanwhile , spent most of June through August in third or fourth place . They would bottom out on August 2 , 13 games out of first place .
The Angels ' fortunes began to change when they were swept by Boston from August 21 – 23 , then after winning one game over Baltimore , went into a 9 @-@ game losing streak beginning August 25 . Seattle had an August record of 16 – 13 ( .552 ) , while California had an August record of 13 – 17 ( .433 ) . Seattle took second place on September 2 , with Texas in a losing streak it would never recover from .
Then in September , California went into a second 9 @-@ game skid from September 13 – 23 , allowing Seattle to take first place on September 22 in the middle of their own 7 @-@ game winning streak . California sank to 3 games out of first place with 5 games left in the season , but won those last 5 games — including a 4 @-@ game sweep of the Oakland Athletics — while Seattle lost 3 of their last 5 games , forcing the tiebreaker .
= = Impact = =
The Angels ' defeat in the tiebreaker marked a continuation of the team 's struggles at the time . It was the closest the Angels would come to reaching the postseason during their playoff drought that lasted from 1986 to 2002 , when they won the AL Wild Card and ultimately the World Series .
The game was a stepping stone in what is widely regarded in Seattle as the most memorable season in Mariners franchise history . Having secured their first ever postseason berth , the Mariners went on to play the New York Yankees in the first American League Division Series played under the present @-@ day format . They would defeat the Yankees in Game 5 of the ALDS , on the heels of Edgar Martínez ' game @-@ winning double , but ultimately were defeated by the Cleveland Indians in the American League Championship Series .
The game marked the beginning of the most successful era in Seattle franchise history , as they would go on to win AL West division championships again in 1997 and 2001 , and an AL Wild Card berth in 2000 . However , they failed to reach the World Series each time and remain one of two MLB franchises to never reach the Fall Classic , along with the Washington Nationals .
Off the field , the Mariners ' AL West championship as well as its memorable run in the postseason served as a catalyst for public funding for a new ballpark . Less than two weeks before the tiebreaker , the residents of King County , Washington ( whose county seat is Seattle ) voted against a sales tax increase to fund a new stadium , but shortly after their ALDS victory , the Washington State Legislature reconvened and approved a separate funding package for a new stadium . The new stadium , now called Safeco Field , opened in July 1999 .
The two franchises ' fortunes were reversed beginning in 2002 and continuing to the present day , as the Angels rose to the most successful era in their history by winning the aforementioned World Series and five division titles while the Mariners returned to the bottom of the division standings for most of those years ( the only exceptions being in 2002 and 2009 , when they finished a close third and 2003 and 2007 , when they finished second ) .
This game is also notable in that the storming of the field by Mariners fans following the recording of the last out represents the most recent major field invasion by team fans reacting to a victory .
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= Æthelstan A =
" Æthelstan A " ( / ˈæθəlstænˈeɪ / ) is the name given by historians to an unknown scribe who drafted charters ( or diplomas ) , by which the king made grants of land , for King Æthelstan of England between 928 and 935 . They are an important source for historians as they provide far more information than other charters of the period , showing the date and place of the grant , and having an unusually long list of witnesses , including Welsh kings and occasionally kings of Scotland and Strathclyde .
The " Æthelstan A " charters commence shortly after King Æthelstan conquered Northumbria in 927 , making him the first king to rule the whole of England . The diplomas give the king titles such as " King of the English " and " King of the Whole of Britain " , and this is seen by historians as part of a rhetoric which reflected his master 's claim for a new status , higher than previous West Saxon kings .
The diplomas are written in elaborate Latin known as the hermeneutic style , which became dominant in Anglo @-@ Latin literature from the mid @-@ tenth century and a hallmark of the English Benedictine Reform . Scholars vary widely in their views of his style , which has been described as " pretentious " and " almost impenetrable " , but also as " poetic " and " as enduringly fascinating as it is complex " .
" Æthelstan A " ceased to draft charters after 935 , and his successors returned to a simpler style , suggesting that he was working on his own rather than being a member of a royal scriptorium .
= = Background = =
After the death of Bede in 735 , Latin prose in England declined . It reached its lowest level in the ninth century , when few books and charters were produced , and they were of poor quality . King Æthelstan 's grandfather , Alfred the Great ( 871 – 899 ) embarked on an extensive programme to improve learning , and by the 890s the standard of Latin in charters was improving . Few charters survive from the reigns of Alfred and his son , Edward the Elder ( 899 – 924 ) , and none from 909 to 925 . Up to then charters had generally been plain legal documents , and King Æthelstan 's early diplomas were similar .
Until about 900 diplomas appear to have been drawn up in varying traditions and circumstances , but in later Anglo @-@ Saxon times ( c . 900 – 1066 ) charters can be more clearly defined . According to Simon Keynes :
In this period , a diploma can be characterised as a formal and symbolic record , in Latin , of an occasion when the king , acting in a royal assembly , and with the consent of the ecclesiastical and secular orders , created an estate of " bookland " at a specified place , and conveyed it on the privileged terms defined by the " book " , or diploma , to a named beneficiary . This act of establishing a particular estate as bookland , so that it could be held henceforth on these privileged terms , could be performed only by the king , in a royal assembly ; but the diploma itself served hereafter as the title @-@ deed for the land in question . It established that the land was to be held , with its appurtenances , free from the imposition of worldly burdens , with the exception of military service , bridge @-@ work and fortress @-@ work , and with the power to give it to anyone of its owner 's choosing .
= = Identity of " Æthelstan A " = =
In the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries there was a debate among historians as to whether late Anglo @-@ Saxon charters were produced by a royal chancery or by monasteries on behalf of beneficiaries . In the 1910s , W. H. Stevenson argued that charters in different areas of England were drawn up by the same hand , which would be unlikely if they were drawn up locally , supporting the case that the writers were royal clerks . The German scholar Richard Drögereit followed this up in 1935 by examining original charters between 931 and 963 , and identified three scribes from their handwriting , who he called " Æthelstan A " , " Æthelstan C " and " Edmund C " . Other charters which only existed in copies he allocated to these and other scribes on the basis of their style . In 2002 Keynes listed twenty " Æthelstan A " charters , of which two are original and the rest copies .
The boundary clauses of the " Æthelstan A " charters were written in correct Old English , so it is unlikely that he was of foreign origin . The witness lists of the " Æthelstan A " charters consistently place Bishop Ælfwine of Lichfield in Mercia in a higher position than his rank warranted . King Æthelstan was probably brought up in Mercia , and in Sarah Foot 's view he was probably intimate with Ælfwine before King Edward 's death ; as Ælfwine disappeared from the witness lists at the same time as the " Æthelstan A " charters ended , she suggests that he may have been " Æthelstan A " . However , Keynes thinks it more likely " Æthelstan A " was a king 's priest from Mercia , who acquired his learning in a Mercian religious house and respected Ælfwine as a fellow Mercian ; that " Æthelstan A " entered Æthelstan 's service before he became king and was in permanent attendance on him . David Woodman also considers a Mercian origin likely , pointing out that some Mercian ninth @-@ century charters have borrowings from Aldhelm , an important source of " Æthelstan A " ' s style . Woodman also puts forward the alternative idea that " Æthelstan A " had a connection with Glastonbury Abbey in Wessex , which appears to have been a centre of learning at this time , and certainly housed many of the texts which informed " Æthelstan A " ' s idiosyncratic Latin style .
= = Significance of the charters = =
The first charter produced by " Æthelstan A " in 928 described the king as rex Anglorum , " king of the English " , the first time that title had been used . By 931 he had become " king of the English , elevated by the right hand of the Almighty to the throne of the whole kingdom of Britain " . Some charters were witnessed by Welsh kings , and occasionally by the kings of Scotland and Strathclyde , signifying acceptance of Æthelstan 's lordship . In Keynes 's view , it cannot be a coincidence that the charters commenced immediately after the conquest of Northumbria , and " Æthelstan A " ' s primary aim was to display the " grandeur of Æthelstan 's kingship " . Foot argues that the king 's inner circle quickly seized on the potential of the conquest for " ideological aggrandizement of the king 's public standing " . To Keynes , the diplomas " are symbolic of a monarchy invigorated by success , developing the pretensions commensurate with its actual achievements and clothing itself in the trappings of a new political order . " He sees the fifty years from 925 to 975 as " the golden age of the Anglo @-@ Saxon royal diploma " .
Before 928 charters had been produced in various ways , sometimes by royal priests , sometimes by other priests on behalf of the beneficiaries . " Æthelstan A " was solely responsible for the production of charters between 928 and 934 . King Æthelstan thus took unprecedented control over an important part of his functions . In 935 " Æthelstan A " shared the work with other scribes , and he then apparently retired . His charters have exceptionally long witness lists , with 101 names for a grant by the king to his thegn Wulfgar at Lifton in Devon in 931 , and 92 for a grant to Ælfgar at Winchester in 934 . The witness lists of King Æthelstan 's father and grandfather were much shorter , with the longest in Alfred the Great 's reign having only 19 names . In John Maddicott 's view the long lists in Æthelstan 's reign reflect a change of direction to larger assemblies . The king established a novel system , with his scribe travelling with him from meeting to meeting , and a uniform format of charters . The dating clause showed the regnal year , the indiction , the epact , and the age of the moon . In Keynes 's view : " Nothing quite like them had been seen before ; and they must have seemed magnificent , even intimidating , in their formality and their grandeur . " A unique feature is that three charters in favour of a religious community require it to sing a specified number of psalms for the king , indicating a particular interest in psalmody by the king or scribe .
Frankish annalists usually recorded a king 's location at Easter and Christmas , but this was not a practice of English chroniclers , and the only period in the tenth and eleventh centuries for which historians can construct a partial itinerary of the king 's movements is provided by the location of assemblies recorded in " Æthelstan A " ' s charters of 928 to 935 . Other charters rarely named the place of assembly , apart from a group in the 940s and early 950s known as the " alliterative " charters .
In 935 a new simplified format was introduced by other scribes , apparently while " Æthelstan A " was still active , and became the standard until the late 950s . This coincided with the disappearance of Wulfstan I , Archbishop of York from the witness lists , and greater prominence of the Bishops of London and Bishop of Winchester , and the new format may have reflected a change of outlook at court . As charters were no longer written in his distinctive style when he ceased producing them , it is likely he was working on his own rather than heading a royal scriptorium .
= = Style of the charters = =
The standard of Latin prose improved in the tenth century , especially after about 960 , when the leaders of the Benedictine reform movement adopted the elaborate and ornate style of Latin now called by historians the hermeneutic style . However , use of this style , influenced especially by Aldhelm 's De virginitate , dates back to King Æthelstan 's reign . " Æthelstan A " borrowed heavily from Aldhelm , although he would not copy whole sentences , only a word or a few words , incorporating them in a structure reminiscent of Aldhelm 's works . In Woodman 's view , " Æthelstan A " varied the language in each charter out of a delight in experimentation and to demonstrate his literary ability .
The florid style of seventh century Irish texts known as Hiberno @-@ Latin was influential on the Continent due to the work of Irish missionaries in Europe . Some works were known to English writers such as Aldhelm in the same century , but it is likely that " Æthelstan A " learnt of them from continental scholars such as Israel the Grammarian , who brought texts influenced by Hiberno @-@ Latin to King Æthelstan 's court .
Woodman states that : " whilst it is true that the main impetus for the literary revival of Latin prose occurred from the mid @-@ tenth century , the beginnings of this style of Latin can actually be found rather earlier and in the most unlikely of places . In fact it is diplomas of the 920s and 930s that are the first to display this distinctive Latin in its most exuberant form . " According to Scott Thompson Smith " Æthelstan A " ' s diplomas " are generally characterised by a rich pleonastic style with aggressively literary proems and anathemas , ostentatious language and imagery throughout , decorative rhetorical figures , elaborate dating clauses , and extensive witness lists . These are clearly documents with stylistic ambitions . " Few listeners would have understood them when they were read out at royal assemblies . In Charter S 425 of 934 , the second of the two originals to survive , " Æthelstan A " wrote ( in Smith 's translation ) :
The wanton fortune of the deceiving world , not lovely with the milky @-@ white radiance of unfading lilies but odious with the galling bitterness of woeful corruption , raging with venomous jaws tears with its teeth the sons of fetid flesh in the vale of tears ; although with its smiles it may be alluring to the unfortunate , it brazenly leads down to the lowest depths of Acherontic Cocytus unless the offspring of the High @-@ Thunderer should intervene . And so because that ruinous [ fortune ] mortally fades away in its failing , one must especially hasten to pleasant fields of ineffable joy where the angelic music of hymnal jubilation and the mellifluous scent of blooming roses are sensed as sweet beyond measure by good and blessed noses and heard by ears as the delights of musical instrument without end .
In S 416 of 931 , the first original to survive , after the boundary clause in Old English , he reverted to Latin for the anathema against anyone who set aside the charter :
If , however , God forbid , anyone swollen with diabolic spirit should be tempted to diminish or annul this brief document of my arrangement and confirmation , let him know that on the final and great day of judgment , when the archangel 's shrill trumpet rings out , when graves burst open by themselves and give up the bodies now revived , when every element trembles , with the traitor Judas , who is called " son of perdition " by the Sower 's merciful Offspring , he is to perish in eternal confusion within the hungry flames of unspeakable torments .
Some scholars are not impressed . Michael Lapidge describes " Æthelstan A " ' s style as " pretentious " , and according to Mechtild Gretsch the diplomas
are composed in almost impenetrable Latin . Their proems consist of long convoluted sentences , parading an ostentatious display of Greek and glossary @-@ based vocabulary and containing numerous unmistakable verbal reminiscences of Aldhelm 's writings . Nothing similar had previously been attempted in Anglo @-@ Saxon diplomatic and although , later in the tenth century , other charters affecting the hermeneutic style were composed , the ferocious lexical and syntactical difficulties of these Æthelstan charters were never to be surpassed .
On the other hand , Drögereit describes " Æthelstan A " ' s style as having a " poetic quality " , and Woodman describes him as an " author of no little genius , a man who not only overhauled the legal form of the diploma but also had the ability to write Latin that is as enduringly fascinating as it is complex . " In Woodman 's view : " Never before had the royal diploma 's rhetorical properties been exploited to such a degree and it seems no coincidence that these documents appeared following King Æthelstan 's momentous political conquest of the north in 927 . "
= = List of charters = =
Keynes listed the " Æthelstan A " charters in Table XXVII of his Atlas of Attestations . The charters are in the script called " Square minuscule ( ' Phase II ' ) " , with a Latin text and the boundary clause in the vernacular .
= = = Charters = = =
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= B 'Day Anthology Video Album =
B 'Day Anthology Video Album is the first video album by American recording artist Beyoncé . It features thirteen music videos for songs from her second studio album , B 'Day ( 2006 ) and its deluxe re @-@ release ( 2007 ) . It was released by Columbia Records exclusively through Wal @-@ Mart stores on April 3 , 2007 alongside the deluxe album , but was later serviced to other retailers . Beyoncé shot nine videos for the album , and four pre @-@ filmed videos were also included . B 'Day Anthology Video Album has been certified double @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Outside of North America , the album featured as a bonus disc to the B 'Day Deluxe Edition . The " Still in Love ( Kissing You ) " video was the subject of a copyright infringement lawsuit , therefore only initial pressings of the album contain its video .
= = Background = =
Beyoncé said that she filmed B 'Day Anthology Video Album because she " always wanted to do a video album " so that her fans would not have to log on to YouTube to watch her music videos , but could instead play them via DVD . Beyoncé knew what the videos ' choreography would be before the filming began . She also planned her hairstyles , outfits and make @-@ up . Beyoncé wanted each video to look different , and therefore she used different film techniques , fashion and styling . B 'Day Anthology Video Album contains thirteen music videos and behind the scenes footage . The videos for " Déjà Vu " , " Ring the Alarm " , " Irreplaceable " and " Listen " had been shot prior to the album 's filming . The other nine videos were filmed in a two @-@ week period . B 'Day Anthology Video Album contains music videos for all of the songs from the standard issue of B 'Day except for " Resentment " . It also includes videos for " Beautiful Liar " , " Flaws and All " and " Still in Love ( Kissing You ) " , which featured only on the deluxe edition . According to Vibe , the thirteen videos on B 'Day Anthology Video Album gave Beyoncé the record of the most music videos released in a twelve @-@ month period .
= = Release and reception = =
B 'Day Anthology Video Album was released by Columbia Records exclusively through Wal @-@ Mart on April 3 , 2007 , the same day that the B 'Day Deluxe Edition was released . The video album was made available to other retailers on June 19 , 2007 . Outside of North America , the video album was featured as the second disc on the deluxe edition of B 'Day albeit without the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage . Irreemplazable , an EP featuring Spanish @-@ language recordings , was included as the bonus disc in the United States . Prior to its release , copies of the videos were ripped from an advance album and leaked onto the internet in MP4 form . Beyoncé promoted the album by appearing on television shows Today and The Early Show , while television channel VH1 Soul aired several of its videos . B 'Day Anthology Video Album debuted at number twenty @-@ four on the US Top Music Videos chart of April 28 , 2007 , and has been certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting the shipment of 200 @,@ 000 copies . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine criticized the music videos for the songs on B 'Day Anthology Video Album , writing that " none of them are anything special , though most will please narrow @-@ minded fans " .
= = = Copyright infringement lawsuit = = =
Beyoncé covered Des 'ree 's song " Kissing You " for the deluxe edition of B 'Day and retitled it " Still in Love ( Kissing You ) " . She filmed a video of the song for B 'Day Anthology Video Album ; however one of the conditions set out by Des 'ree 's publishers , the Royalty Network , was that Beyoncé did not release the song in video form . The Royalty Network filed a copyright infringement lawsuit against the involved parties seeking US $ 150 @,@ 000 in damages . Infringing copies of B 'Day Anthology Video Album were recalled in April 2007 , and in October 2007 the lawsuit was dismissed with prejudice . Later copies of the album did not contain " Still in Love ( Kissing You ) " .
= = Track listing = =
Note
The length of each of these music videos includes a five @-@ second bumble bee introduction , except for " Green Light " , which is listed as a continuation of " Kitty Kat " and therefore has no introduction . The credits and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes features also do not have introductions .
= = Personnel = =
Source :
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= Kathleen O 'Kelly @-@ Kennedy =
Kathleen O 'Kelly @-@ Kennedy ( born 21 June 1986 ) is a 4 @.@ 0 point Australian wheelchair basketball player who plays forward @-@ centre . She was part of the bronze medal @-@ winning Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team at the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing .
Active in fund raising from an early age , O 'Kelly @-@ Kennedy took a group of children with missing limbs to the 2000 Paralympic Games in Sydney , where she saw the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , known as the Gliders , in action for the first time , and was inspired to take up wheelchair basketball . She entered the University of Illinois on a half @-@ scholarship in 2005 , and won three US National Championships with its Women 's team .
By 2006 , she was part of the Gliders team that finished fourth at the World Wheelchair Basketball Championship in Amsterdam in 2006 . She played professionally in Italy in 2010 @-@ 11 with Sassari and with Elecom Roma in 2011 @-@ 12 . Although not selected for the Gliders team that played at the 2012 Summer Paralympic Games in London , she won a Bronze Medal with Elecom Roma in the Men 's European Championships that year and returned to the Gliders line up for the Osaka Cup in 2013 and for the 2013 Asian Qualifiers in Thailand for the World Championships to be held in Canada on 19 @-@ 29 June 2014 .
= = Personal = =
O 'Kelly @-@ Kennedy was born on 21 June 1986 . At birth one of her legs was shorter than the other , and her right foot was amputated when she was eighteen months old . She attended Melbourne Rudolf Steiner School and Luther College in the outer @-@ eastern Melbourne suburb of Croydon . She has regularly represented the Royal Children 's Hospital on television and in newspapers for the Good Friday Appeal . In 2000 , she was involved in fund raising to take a group of children with missing limbs to the 2000 Paralympic Games in Sydney , where they became a cheer squad . In Sydney , she saw the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team , known as the Gliders , in action for the first time .
She later founded a charitable organisation , Set No Limits and in 2013 helped establish the Red Dust Heelers Healing thru Wheeling program which has a focus on connecting Indigenous young people with disability to sport , education , employment and lifestyle opportunities . She has modelled for Vertically Blessed , a clothing company , and has gone by a number of nicknames , including Kat , Kitty , Blondie and Felix .
= = Wheelchair basketball = =
O 'Kelly @-@ Kennedy is a 4 point player who plays Centre / Forward . She had played junior ' stand up ' basketball but after the Sydney games she was persuaded to try wheelchair basketball by family friend and Wheelchair Basketball Legend , Kevin Coombs and Paralympic athletic champions Don Elgin and Tim Matthews , who became her mentors . She joined the Victorian Women 's Wheelchair Basketball Team ( development ) in 2001 , and represented the state at the National Junior Basketball Championships in Ballarat , Victoria , in 2002 . This was also the year she became a member of the Victorian Women 's Wheelchair Basketball Team . In 2003 , O 'Kelly @-@ Kennedy became part of the Australian Development Team , and participated in her first overseas tournament , in New Zealand . She was part of the Victorian team at the National Junior Championships , Adelaide , and travelled to Toronto , Canada , for the Spitfire Tournament . She represented Australia for the first time at the Tri @-@ Nation Tournament in the United States in 2003 .
After O 'Kelly @-@ Kennedy graduated from high school in 2004 , she received an offer of a half @-@ scholarship to University of Illinois , where she was coached by Mike Frogley . She was also awarded a scholarship from the Victorian Institute of Sport in 2006 and 2007 . She went on to win three US National Championships with the University of Illinois team , in 2006 , 2007 and 2008 . In one game she scored a career high of 42 points .
In 2006 , O 'Kelly @-@ Kennedy was part of the national team at the Roosevelt Tournament in Warm Springs , Georgia , and was then at the World Wheelchair Basketball Championship in Amsterdam in 2006 , where Australia finished fourth . She was part of the Gliders ' line up at the Osaka Cup in 2007 , where the Gliders finished second , at the Asia Pacific Beijing Qualifications Tournament in Sydney in 2007 , where the Gliders finished first , and at the Friendly Games held alongside that tournament , in which the Gliders finished second . She was also part the Gliders line up at the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , where the Gliders defeated Japan in the bronze medal game , 53 – 47 .
O 'Kelly @-@ Kennedy was recruited by Italian Men 's Professional League reigning champions , Lottomatica Elecom Roma , for the 2011 – 12 season , winning the Bronze Medal at the 2011 @-@ 12 European Championships in Turkey .
O 'Kelly @-@ Kennedy played for the Stacks Goudcamp Bears in the Women 's National League in 2012 , scoring a competition @-@ rare triple double in the Preliminary Final . In 2013 she played again with the Bears , with the team earning consecutive runner @-@ up medals . In February 2013 she also returned to the National team for the 2013 Osaka Cup , where the Gliders successfully defended the title they had won in 2008 , 2009 , 2010 and 2012 , and for the Asian Qualifiers in Bangkok in November 2013 .
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= Warfare in early modern Scotland =
Warfare in early modern Scotland includes all forms of military activity in Scotland or by Scottish forces , between the adoption of new ideas of the Renaissance in the early sixteenth century and the military defeat of the Jacobite movement in the mid @-@ eighteenth century . In the late Middle Ages , Scottish armies were assembled on the basis of common service , feudal obligations and money contracts of bonds of manrent . In 1513 these systems produced a large and formidable force , but in the mid @-@ sixteenth century there were difficulties in recruitment . Individuals were expected to provide their own equipment , including axes and pole arms . Highland troops often brought bows and two @-@ handed swords . Heavy armour was abandoned after the Flodden campaign . Highland lords tended to continue to use lighter chainmail and ordinary highlanders dressed in the plaid . The crown took an increasing role in the supply of equipment . The pike replaced the spear and the Scots began to covert from the bow to gunpowder firearms . Feudal heavy cavalry were replaced with light horse , often drawn from the Borders . James IV established a gun foundry in 1511 and gunpowder weaponry fundamentally altered the nature of castle architecture . In the 1540s and 1550s , Scotland was given a defended border of earthwork forts and additions to existing castles .
There were attempts to create royal naval forces in the fifteenth century . James IV founded a harbour at Newhaven and a dockyard at the Pools of Airth . He acquired a total of 38 ships including the Great Michael , at that time the largest in Europe . Scottish ships had some success against privateers , accompanied the king on his expeditions to the islands , and intervened in Scandinavia and the Baltic , but were sold after the Flodden campaign . Scottish naval efforts subsequently relied on privateering captains and hired merchantmen . Despite truces with England there were periodic outbreaks of a guerre de course . James V built a new harbour at Burntisland in 1542 . The chief use of naval power in his reign were a series of expeditions to the Isles and France . The Union of Crowns in 1603 ended conflict with England , but England 's foreign policy opened up Scottish shipping to attack . In 1626 a squadron of three ships were bought and equipped for protection and there were marque fleets of privateers . In 1627 , the Royal Scots Navy and privateers participated in the major expedition to Biscay . The Scots also returned to West Indies and in 1629 took part in the capture of Quebec .
In the early seventeenth century large numbers of Scots took service in foreign armies involved in the Thirty Years ' War . As armed conflict between the Covenanter regime in Scotland and Charles I in the Bishops ' Wars became likely , many mercenaries returned home , including experienced leaders like Alexander and David Leslie and these veterans played an important role in training recruits . Covenanter armies intervened in the Civil Wars in England and Ireland . Scottish infantry were generally armed with a combination of pike and shot , but individuals may have had weapons including bows and polearms . Most cavalry were probably equipped with pistols and swords , but may have included lancers . Royalist armies , like those led by James Graham , Marquis of Montrose ( 1643 – 44 ) and in Glencairn 's rising ( 1653 – 54 ) , were mainly composed of conventionally armed infantry with pike and shot . Montrose 's forces were short of heavy artillery suitable for siege warfare and had only a small force of cavalry . During the Bishops ' Wars , Scottish privateers took English prizes . After the Covenanters allied with the English Parliament they established two patrol squadrons for the Atlantic and North Sea coasts , known collectively as the " Scotch Guard " . The Scottish navy was unable to withstand the English fleet that accompanied the army led by Cromwell that conquered Scotland in 1649 – 51 and Scottish ships and crews were split up among the Commonwealth fleet . During the English occupation , more fortresses in the style of the trace italienne were built .
At the Restoration , infantry regiments and a few troops of horse were established and there were attempts to found a national militia on the English model . The standing army was mainly employed in the suppression of Covenanter rebellions and the guerrilla war undertaken by the Cameronians in the East . Pikemen became less important and after the introduction of the socket bayonet disappeared altogether , while matchlock muskets were replaced by the more reliable flintlock . On the eve of the Glorious Revolution the standing army in Scotland was about 3 @,@ 250 men . The Scots were drawn into King William II 's continental wars . Scottish seamen received protection against arbitrary impressment , but a fixed quota of conscripts for the Royal Navy was levied from the sea @-@ coast burghs . There were now Royal Navy patrols in Scottish waters even in peacetime . Scottish privateers played a major part in the Second Anglo @-@ Dutch War . In the 1690s a fleet of five ships was established for the Darien Scheme , and a professional navy of three warships to protect local shipping . After the Act of Union in 1707 , these vessels were transferred to the Royal Navy . At the Union , the standing army was seven units of infantry , two of horse and one troop of Horse Guards , besides varying levels of fortress artillery . As part of the British Army , Scottish regiments took part in a series of wars on the European continent . The first official Highland regiment to be raised for the British army was the Black Watch in 1740 , but the growth of Highland regiments was delayed by the 1745 Jacobite Rebellion . The bulk of Jacobite armies were made up of Highlanders , serving in clan regiments . The Jacobites often started campaigns poorly armed , but arms became more conventional as the rebellions progressed .
= = Sixteenth century = =
= = = Royal armies = = =
In the later Middle Ages , Scottish armies were still largely assembled on the basis of common service and feudal obligations , with the addition of troops maintained by money contracts of bonds or bands of manrent . Common service theoretically called all men between the ages of 16 and 60 for a maximum of 40 days in one year . Such troops were expected to serve at their own expense and to bring their own supplies , a factor that severely limited the ability of Scottish armies to take part in sustained campaigning . Feudalism had been introduced to Scotland in the twelfth century , meaning that knights held castles and estates in exchange for service , providing troops on a 40 @-@ day basis , particularly heavily armed noble cavalry . Bonds of manrent were similar to English indentures of the same period , used to retain more professional troops , particular men @-@ at @-@ arms and archers . Scotland relied on these systems longer than was the case in England . In practice , forms of service tended to blur and overlap , and major Scottish lords continued to bring contingents from their kindred . In 1513 for the Flodden campaign these systems were successful in producing a large and formidable force , but in the religious and politically divided mid @-@ sixteenth century there is evidence that the authorities were experiencing increasing difficulty in recruitment .
A series of musters or wapenshaws , between two and four times a year , checked that potential soldiers maintained suitable equipment . Individuals were expected to equip themselves for war according to their estates . Instructions given to sheriffs in 1513 indicated that gentlemen were expected to muster in plate armour , while common soldiers were to come in jacks and sallets . After the disaster at Flodden there seems to have been a deliberate abandonment of plate armour by the nobility , perhaps because of the difficulties it created in handling a pike , and by 1547 many noblemen were virtually indistinguishable from the majority of troops . Highland lords continued to use lighter chainmail and ordinary highlanders dressed in the plaid , leaving their lower legs naked . In place of a jack , they often had a patchwork linen garment , covered with wax or pitch .
Weapons included various forms of axes and pole arms , including spears , the Lochaber axe , Leith axe and Jedburgh stave . Highland troops often brought bows , two @-@ handed swords ( claidheamh mór ) and axes . The crown took an increasing role in the supply of equipment . There were attempts to replace polearms with longer pikes of 15 @.@ 5 feet ( 5 m ) to 18 @.@ 5 feet ( 6 m ) in the later fifteenth century , in emulation of successes over mounted troops in the Netherlands and Switzerland , but this does not appear to have been successful until the eve of the Flodden campaign in early sixteenth century . By the mid @-@ sixteenth century the pike had emerged as the most important infantry weapon in Scottish armies . Modelling themselves on Swiss and German infantry , Scottish tactics tended to focus on rapidly engaging the enemy , particularly necessary to counter the advantage enjoyed by the English in missile power .
Like most European nations the Scots in this period began to covert from the bow to gunpowder firearms . Handguns were present in Scottish armies in small numbers from the fifteenth century and there are increasingly frequent references to handguns and arquebus in records . An account of the Scottish vanguard at Haddon Rig in 1542 suggests that half the troops were missile men and half of those were arquebusiers . Equal proportions of missile to melee troops seems to have been an aim of Scottish commanders for most of the century , although it was not always possible in the field . The main source of firearms were the French , who seem to have extensively rearmed the Scottish after the English invasions of the Rough Wooing .
The English enjoyed a marked superiority over the Scots in cavalry , particularly with the resurgence of heavy cavalry with their use of demi @-@ lancers . The feudal heavy cavalry had begun to disappear from Scottish armies after Bannockburn in 1314 . It was limited by the shortage of suitable horses . James V imported great horses and mares from Denmark in an attempt to improve the quality of Scottish breading stock . In the mid @-@ sixteenth century the Scots still lacked sufficient heavy cavalry . In their place they fielded relatively large numbers of light horse , often drawn from the Borders and usually wearing jacks of leather or mail , mounted on small horses and using light lances . As firearms became available they began to field relatively large numbers of mounted arquebusiers .
= = = Artillery and siege warfare = = =
James IV brought in experts from France , Germany and the Netherlands and established a gun foundry in 1511 . Edinburgh Castle had a house of artillery where visitors could see cannon cast for what became a formidable train , allowing him to send cannon to France and Ireland and to quickly subdue Norham Castle in the Flodden campaign . However , his 18 heavy artillery pieces had to be drawn by 400 oxen and slowed the advancing Scots army , proving ineffective against the longer @-@ range and smaller @-@ calibre English guns at the Battle of Flodden Field .
Gunpowder weaponry fundamentally altered the nature of castle architecture from the mid @-@ fifteenth century , with existing castles being adapted to allow the use of gunpowder weapons by the incorporation of " keyhole " gun ports , platforms to mount guns and walls being modified to resist bombardment . Ravenscraig , Kirkcaldy , begun about 1460 , is probably the first castle in the British Isles to be built as an artillery fort , incorporating " D @-@ shape " bastions that would better resist cannon fire and on which artillery could be mounted . In the period of French intervention in the 1540s and 1550s , at the end of the Rough Wooing , Scotland was given a defended border of a series of earthwork forts and additions to existing castles . These included the erection of single bastions at Edinburgh , Stirling and Dunbar ; the creation of the Scots ' Dike on the western end of the border ; trace italienne fortresses at Leith , Inchkeith and Langholm ; work was also begun at Jedburgh and plans made for works at Kelso . The most aggressive move was a fortified artillery park at Eyemouth , only 6 miles ( 10 km ) from the English border stronghold of Berwick .
= = = Royal navy = = =
There were various attempts to create royal naval forces in the fifteenth century . James IV put the enterprise on a new footing , founding a harbour at Newhaven in May 1504 , and two years later ordering the construction of a dockyard at the Pools of Airth . The upper reaches of the Forth were protected by new fortifications on Inchgarvie . The king acquired a total of 38 ships for the Royal Scottish Navy , including the Margaret , and the carrack Michael or Great Michael . The latter , built at great expense at Newhaven and launched in 1511 , was 240 feet ( 73 m ) in length , weighed 1 @,@ 000 tons , had 24 cannon , and was , at that time , the largest ship in Europe . Scottish ships had some success against privateers , accompanied the king in his expeditions in the islands and intervened in conflicts in Scandinavia and the Baltic . In the Flodden campaign the fleet consisted of 16 large and 10 smaller craft . After a raid on Carrickfergus in Ireland , it joined up with the French and had little impact on the war . After the disaster at Flodden the Great Michael , and perhaps other ships , were sold to the French . The king 's ships disappeared from royal records after 1516 and Scottish naval efforts would rely on privateering captains and hired merchantmen during the minority of James V. In the Italian War of 1521 – 26 , in which England and Scotland became involved on opposing sides , the Scots had six men @-@ of @-@ war active attacking English and Imperial shipping and they blockaded the Humber in 1523 . Although prizes were taken by Robert Barton and other captains , the naval campaign was sporadic and indecisive .
James V entered his majority in 1524 . He did not share his father 's interest in building a navy , relying on French gifts such as the Salamander , or captured ships like the English Mary Willoughby . Scotland 's shipbuilding remained largely at the level of boat building and ship repairs and fell behind the Low Countries which led the way into semi @-@ industrialised ship building . Despite truces between England and Scotland there were periodic outbreaks of commerce raiding in the 1530s with at least four of a known six men @-@ at @-@ war were royal naval vessels on the Scottish side . James V built a new harbour at Burntisland in 1542 , called ' Our Lady Port ' or ' New Haven , ' described in 1544 as having three blockhouses with guns and a pier for great ships to lie in a dock . The chief use of naval power in his reign were a series of expeditions to the Isles and France . In 1536 the king circumnavigated the Isles , embarking at Pittenween in Fife and landing Whithorn in Galloway . Later in the year he sailed from Kirkcaldy with six ships including the 600 ton Mary Willoughby , and arrived at Dieppe to begin his courtship of his first wife Madeleine of Valois . After his marriage he sailed from Le Havre in the Mary Willoughby to Leith with four great Scottish ships and ten French . After the death of Queen Madeleine , John Barton , in the Salamander returned to France in 1538 to pick up the new prospective queen , Mary of Guise , with the Moriset and Mary Willoughby . In 1538 James V embarked on the newly equipped Salamander at Leith and accompanied by the Mary Willoughby , the Great Unicorn , the Little Unicorn , the Lion and twelve other ships sailed to Kirkwall on Orkney . Then he went to Lewis on the West , perhaps using the newly compiled charts from his first voyage known as Alexander Lindsay 's Rutter .
Scottish privateers and pirates preyed on shipping in the North Sea and off the Atlantic coast of France . Scotland 's Admiralty court judged whether a captured ship was a lawful prize and dealt with the recovery of goods . As the court was entitled to a tenth of the value of a prize , it was a profitable business for the admiral . The privateers Andrew and Robert Barton were still using their letters of reprisal of 1506 against the Portuguese in 1561 . The Bartons operated down the east coast of Britain from Leven and the Firth of Forth , while others used the French Channel ports such as Rouen and Dieppe or the Atlantic port of Brest as bases . During the Rough Wooing in 1542 , the Mary Willoughby , the Lion , and the Salamander under the command of John Barton , son of Robert Barton , attacked merchants and fishermen off Whitby . They later blockaded a London merchant ship called the Antony of Bruges in a creek on the coast of Brittany . In 1544 Edinburgh was attacked by an English marine force and burnt . The Salamander and the Scottish @-@ built Unicorn were captured at Leith . The Scots still had two royal naval vessels and numerous smaller private vessels , but would have to rely on privateers until the re @-@ establishment of a royal fleet in the 1620s . When , as a result of the series of international treaties , the emperor Charles V declared war upon Scotland in 1544 , the Scots were able to engage in a highly profitable campaign of privateering that lasted six years and the gains of which probably outweighed the losses in trade with the Low Countries . They also operated in the West Indies from the 1540s , joining the French in the capture of Burburuta in 1567 . English and Scottish naval warfare and privateering broke out sporadically in the 1550s . In 1559 , English captain William Winter was sent north with 34 ships and dispersed and captured the Scottish and French fleets , leading to the eventual evacuation of the French from Scotland , and a successful coup of the Protestant Lords of the Congregation . Scottish and English interests were re @-@ aligned and the naval conflict subsided .
= = Early seventeenth century = =
= = = Royal and marque fleets = = =
After the Union of Crowns in 1603 conflict between Scotland and England ended , but Scotland found itself involved in England 's foreign policy , opening up Scottish shipping to attack . In the 1620s , Scotland found herself fighting a naval war as England 's ally , first against Spain and then also against France , while simultaneously embroiled in undeclared North Sea commitments in the Danish intervention in the Thirty Years ' War . In 1626 a squadron of three ships were bought and equipped at a cost of least £ 5 @,@ 200 sterling , to guard against privateers operating out of Spanish @-@ controlled Dunkirk and other ships were armed in preparation for potential action . The acting High Admiral John Gordon of Lochinvar organised at least three marque fleets of privateers . It was probably one of Lochinvar 's marque fleets that was sent to support the English Royal Navy defending Irish waters in 1626 . In 1627 , the Royal Scots Navy , and accompanying contingents of burgh privateers , participated in the major expedition to Biscay . The Scots also returned to the West Indies , with Lochinvar taking French prizes and founding the colony of Charles Island . In 1629 two squadrons of privateers led by Lochinvar and William Lord Alexander , sailed for Canada , taking part in the campaign that resulted in the capture of Quebec from the French , which was handed back after the subsequent peace .
= = = Covenanter armies = = =
In the early seventeenth century relatively large numbers of Scots took service in foreign armies involved in the Thirty Years ' War , with 20 – 30 @,@ 000 in Swedish service , a Scots brigade in the Netherlands , and 5 – 6 @,@ 000 raised for Danish service in the period 1626 – 27 , 11 @,@ 000 for France and large numbers in the armies of eastern Europe , including German states , Poland and Russia . As armed confrontation between Scotland and the Charles I looked increasingly likely from 1637 , the Standing Committee of the Tables began to function as a war council . It appointed two lairds in every parish to draw up lists of men suitable for military service , arms and the names of Scots serving abroad so that they could be recalled . Three commissioners were appointed in each shire , two residing in Edinburgh and another remaining in the locality , where presbyteries appointed commissioners to communicate instructions to the parishes . Hundreds of Scots mercenaries returned home from foreign service , including experienced leaders like Alexander and David Leslie . These veterans played an important role in training the parish recruits . Nobles were able to raise regiments , which usually bore their name as colonel , and they could appoint company commanders , but the lieutenant colonel and sergeant major of the regiment , and the lieutenant and sergeant of each company , were to be professional soldiers . The returning soldiers also brought expertise in fortification and trace italliene fortifications were added at Leith , Burntisland and Greenock . They would play a major role in the siege of Edinburgh in 1650 .
The appointment of Leslie as field marshal avoided a contest between inexperienced nobles for leadership and his reputation made the service by Scottish mercenaries in Covenanter armies more likely . He became an ex offico member of the Tables , enabling him to influence policy and take part in issuing dispatches . Although producing a relatively large and efficiently organised army , it was hastily assembled , and short of money and supplies . The Covenanting regime had to make assessments on parishes and relied on loans from Edinburgh merchants , making a long campaign difficult to sustain . In the view of historian James Scott Wheeler , the first Covenanter army was " marginally trained , irregularly armed , poorly paid and badly supplied " , but it proved sufficient to the task .
Between the two Bishops ' Wars the Covenanters maintained one regiment of infantry and many of their officers who had drilled the local militias on half pay . The militas were now armed with firearms purchased in the Netherlands . The Tables were replaced with a committee of estates , with wide @-@ ranging powers , and kept to same system of commissioners . One in four able bodied men were able to muster when mobilisation began for renewed confrontation in 1640 . The army was paid for by more loans and a new national tax known as the " tenth " or " tenth penny " . These systems would form the basis of the Covenanter armies that operated in Ireland , intervened in the First Civil War ( 1642 – 46 ) in England on the side of Parliament and subsequently , and less successfully , on the side of the king in the Second ( 1648 – 49 ) and Third Civil Wars ( 1649 – 51 ) .
Scottish infantry were generally armed , as was almost universal in Western Europe , with a combination of pike and shot . Pikes were theoretically 16 feet ( 5 m ) long , but were often shortened by a foot or two to make them more manageable , this had disastrous consensuses at the Battle of Benburb ( 1646 ) , where the Confederate Irish defeated the Scots because they possessed longer pikes . Musketeers were mainly armed with matchlock muskets , with some firelocks ( probably mainly reserved for troops defending the baggage and ammunition ) and there were a handful of troops that brought more accurate rifled guns . Continental experience tended to increasingly emphasise firepower over melee and this was reflected in the greater proportions of shot to pike , usually in proportions of three to two . Scottish armies may also have had individuals with weapons including bows , Lochaber axes , and halberds. as recruits who lacked pike and shot were told to report with these . Most cavalry were probably equipped with pistols and swords , although there is some evidence that they included lancers .
Royalist armies , like those led by James Graham , Marquis of Montrose ( 1643 – 44 ) and in Glencairn 's rising ( 1653 – 54 ) were mainly composed of conventionally armed infantry with pike and shot . Montrose 's army also included a contingent of Irish Confederate troops and Scottish recruits from Highland clans hostile to the Clan Campbell , under the under leadership of Alasdair Mac Colla . Glencairn 's rising gained some support from Lowland Scottish lords and at its height had 3 @,@ 500 infantry and 1 @,@ 500 cavalry . The forces under Montrose 's command reached about the same numbers of infantry , but were short of heavy artillery suitable for siege warfare and had only a small force of cavalry , about 300 , supplied from the estate of the Earls of Huntly .
= = = Covenanter navies = = =
During the Bishops ' Wars the king attempted to blockade Scotland , disrupting trade and the transport of returning troops from the continent . The king planned amphibious assaults from England on the east coast and from Ireland to the west , but they failed to materialise . Scottish privateers took English prizes and the Covenanters planned to fit out Dutch ships with Scottish and Dutch crews to join the naval war effort . After the Covenanters allied with the English Parliament they established two patrol squadrons for the Atlantic and North Sea coasts , known collectively as the " Scotch Guard " . These patrols guarded against Royalist attempts to move men , money and munitions and raids on Scottish shipping , particularly from ships based in Wexford and Dunkirk . They consisted mainly of small English warships , controlled by the Commissioners of the Navy based in London , but it always relied heavily on Scottish officers and revenues , and after 1646 , the West Coast squadron became much more a Scottish force . The Scottish navy was unable to withstand the English fleet that accompanied the army led by Cromwell that conquered Scotland in 1649 – 51 . The Scottish ships and crews were divided among the Commonwealth fleet .
= = = Fortifications = = =
During the English occupation of Scotland under the Commonwealth , fortresses in the style of the trace italienne were built . These were polygonal in plan with triangular bastions , as at Ayr , Inverness and Leith . Twenty smaller forts were built as far away as Orkney and Stornoway . Control of the Highlands was secured by strongpoints at Inverlocky and Inverness . These were built at a massive cost in money and manpower . The citadel at Inverness , begun in 1652 and using stone shipped from as far away as Aberdeen , had cost £ 50 @,@ 0000 when it was still unfinished by 1655 . Inverlochy had a garrison of 1 @,@ 000 and from 1654 became the centre for a new administrative region of Lochaber , made up of three of the most remote and lawless shires .
= = Later seventeenth century = =
= = = Restoration army = = =
At the Restoration the Privy Council established a force of an unknown number of infantry regiments and a few troops of horse . The Commonwealth fortresses were abandoned , but garrisons were placed in Edinburgh , Stirling , Dumbarton and Blackness castles . There were attempts to found a national militia on the English model . The standing army was mainly employed in the suppression of Covenanter rebellions and the guerilla war undertaken by the Cameronians in the East . Units included a regiment of foot guards , later known as the Scots Guards and Le Regiment of Douglas , formed and serving in France since 1633 , it returned , eventually became the Royal Regiment of Foot . Pikemen became less important in the late seventeenth century and after the introduction of the socket bayonet , a process complete by 1702 , disappeared altogether , while matchlock muskets were replaced by the more reliable flintlock . Three troops of Scots Dragoons were raised in 1678 and another three were added to make The Royal Regiment of Scots Dragoons in 1681 . On the eve of the Glorious Revolution the standing army in Scotland was about 3 @,@ 000 men in various regiments and another 268 veterans in the major garrison towns , at an annual cost of about £ 80 @,@ 000 . After the Glorious Revolution the Scots were drawn into King William II 's continental wars , beginning with the Nine Years ' War in Flanders ( 1689 – 97 ) .
= = = Restoration navy = = =
Although Scottish seamen received protection against arbitrary impressment onto English men @-@ of @-@ war under Charles II , a fixed quota of conscripts for the Royal Navy was levied from the sea @-@ coast burghs during the second half of the seventeenth century . Royal Navy patrols were now found in Scottish waters even in peacetime , such as the small ship @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line HMS Kingfisher , which bombarded Carrick Castle during the Earl of Argyll 's rebellion in 1685 . Scotland went to war against the Dutch and their allies in the Second ( 1665 – 67 ) and Third Anglo @-@ Dutch Wars ( 1672 – 74 ) as an independent kingdom . Scottish captains , at least 80 and perhaps 120 , took letters of marque , and privateers played a major part in the naval conflict of the wars .
By 1697 the English Royal Navy had 323 warships , while Scotland was still dependent on merchantman and privateers . In the 1690s , two separate schemes for larger naval forces were put in motion . As usual , the larger part was played by the merchant community rather than the government . The first was the Darien Scheme to found a Scottish colony in Spanish controlled America . It was undertaken by the Company of Scotland , who created a fleet of five ships , including the Caledonia and the St. Andrew , built or chartered in Holland and Hamburg . It sailed to Isthmus of Darien in 1698 , but the venture failed and only one ship returned to Scotland . In the same period it was decided to establish a professional navy for the protection of commerce in home waters during the Nine Years ' War , with three purpose @-@ built warships bought from English shipbuilders in 1696 . These were the Royal William , a 32 @-@ gun fifth rate , and two smaller ships , the Royal Mary and the Dumbarton Castle , each of 24 guns and generally described as frigates . After the Act of Union in 1707 , the Scottish Navy merged with that of England and the three vessels of the small Royal Scottish Navy were transferred to the Royal Navy .
= = Early eighteenth century = =
= = = Royal army = = =
By the time of the act of Union , the Kingdom of Scotland had a standing army of seven units of infantry , two of horse and one troop of Horse Guards , besides varying levels of fortress artillery in the garrison castles of Edinburgh , Dumbarton , and Stirling . Their role was of such importance that the Scots Parliament forced Queen Anne to give royal assent to the controversial 1704 Act of Security by threatening to withdraw Scottish forces back out of the Confederate armies . The new British Army created by the Act of Union in 1707 incorporated existing Scottish regiments , such as the Scots Guards , The Royal Scots 1st of Foot , King 's Own Scottish Borderers 25th of Foot , The Cameronians 26th of Foot , Scots Greys and the Royal Scots Fusiliers 21st of Foot . The new armed forces were controlled by the War Office and Admiralty from London . During this period , Scottish soldiers and sailors were instrumental in supporting the expansion of the British Empire and became involved in international conflicts , including the War of the Spanish Succession ( 1702 – 13 ) , the Quadruple Alliance ( 1718 – 20 ) , wars with Spain ( 1727 – 29 ) and ( 1738 – 48 ) and the War of the Austrian Succession ( 1740 – 48 ) . The first official Highland regiment to be raised for the British army was the Black Watch , the 43rd ( later 42nd ) regiment , in 1740 . It marked the beginning of a major role for Highlanders within the British military structure , but the growth of Highland regiments was delayed by the 1745 Jacobite Rebellion and would not begin in earnest until the late 1750s .
= = = Jacobite armies = = =
The bulk of Jacobite armies were made up of Highlanders , serving in clan regiments . They were 70 per cent of the forces in the 1715 rebellion and over 90 per cent of those in 1745 . Most were forced to join by their clan chiefs , landlords or feudal superiors and desertion was a major problem during campaigns . The Jacobites suffered from a lack of trained officers . A typical clan regiment was made up of a small minority of gentlemen ( tacksmen ) who would bear the clan name . The clan gentlemen formed the front ranks of the unit and were more heavily armed than their impoverished tenants who made up the bulk of the regiment . Because they served in the front ranks , the gentlemen suffered higher proportional casualties than the common clansman . The Jacobites often started campaigns poorly armed . In the rising of 1745 , at the Battle of Prestonpans , some only had swords , Lochaber axes , pitchforks and scythes , but arms tended to become more conventional as the campaigns progressed . Only officers and gentlemen were equipped with a broadsword , targe and pistol . After the Battle of Culloden in 1746 , the Hanoverian commander the Duke of Cumberland reported that there were 2 @,@ 320 firelocks recovered from the battlefield , but only 190 broadswords .
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= 1949 Pacific hurricane season =
The 1949 Pacific hurricane season was the first hurricane season in the Eastern Pacific hurricane database . Six tropical cyclones were known to have existed during the season , of which the first formed on June 11 and the final dissipated on September 30 . Another tropical cyclone had formed within the basin in 1949 , but was included in the Atlantic hurricane database , had it been classified operationally in the Eastern Pacific basin , would have tallied the overall season to seven tropical cyclones . In addition , there were two tropical cyclones that attained hurricane status , but none of them reached major hurricane intensity ( Category 3 or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale ) . Tropical Storm Three threatened the Baja California Peninsula , while an unnumbered hurricane crossed into the Atlantic , later becoming the 1949 Texas hurricane .
= = Season summary = =
Tropical cyclones were recorded in the Eastern Pacific best track database for the first time in 1949 . Although official records began in the Eastern Pacific during this year , the season saw the first officially recorded Atlantic @-@ Pacific crossover tropical cyclone . This season was also beginning of a cool phase for the Pacific Decadal Oscillation .
Only six tropical cyclones were observed in the Eastern Pacific during this season , which is well below the 1949 – 2006 average of 13 per year . Of the six tropical cyclones , two only attained hurricane status . In addition , none of the tropical cyclones became a major hurricane , which is Category 3 or greater on Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . Although it is an oddity for no major hurricanes to occur during a season since the satellite era began , nearly all hurricane seasons during this time period lacked a major hurricane . However , it is likely that other tropical cyclones in the Eastern Pacific basin in 1949 went operationally unnoticed , due to lack of modern technology such as satellite imagery . In addition to the six tropical cyclones , another tropical cyclone developed in the Eastern Pacific basin , but was included in the Atlantic basin hurricane database , rather than the Eastern Pacific . Most of the seven tropical cyclones did not differentiate in intensity during the duration , with the exception of Hurricane Six . The first two tropical cyclones of the season formed in quick succession in during mid @-@ June , however , the months of July and August went dormant in terms of tropical cyclogenesis . The last five tropical cyclones , including the additional storm , also developed in a quick sequence , all of which forming from in a span of 17 days . By October 1 , all tropical cyclonic activity had completely ceased .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One = = =
The first tropical storm of the season formed 75 mi ( 120 km ) south @-@ southwest of Puerto Vallarta on June 11 . Tropical Storm One headed out to sea without intensifying further than 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . Heading west @-@ northwestward , the storm dissipated on July 12 , centered roughly halfway between Socorro Island and Cabo San Lucas .
= = = Tropical Storm Two = = =
Tropical Storm Two was first observed 440 mi ( 705 km ) southwest of Zihuatanejo on June 16 . While remaining far west of the Mexican coast , Two peaked as a 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) tropical storm . No change in intensity occurred , and the tropical storm dissipated southwest of Baja California at 1200 UTC June 23 .
= = = Tropical Storm Three = = =
After no tropical cyclone activity in July and August , the third tropical storm formed offshore of southwestern Mexico on September 3 . Like the previous two tropical cyclone , this storm had a peak of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , and did not intensify further . Tropical Storm Three headed northwestward , and began paralleling the coast of Baja California . On September 8 , Tropical Storm Three turned abruptly south @-@ southwestward , and dissipated by the next day . The outer rainbands of this system were expected to bring squally weather over the Baja California Peninsula ; instead , this storm turned away without causing any impact .
= = = Hurricane Four = = =
The first hurricane of the season developed on September 9 while located 160 mi ( 260 km ) east @-@ southeast of Socorro Island , and tied Hurricane Six as the strongest tropical cyclone of the season . The hurricane slowly turned northward , and made landfall in Baja California Sur with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) on September 11 . Hurricane Six dissipated over Baja California about 10 hours later . Since Four was expected to bring high waves and rough seas to Southern California , all marine operates and other interests in the region were alerted .
= = = Tropical Storm Five = = =
The fifth tropical storm was observed offshore of Mexico , on September 17 . Tropical Storm Five had no change in intensity past a 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) tropical storm , similar to Tropical Storms One , Two , and Three . While paralleling the coast of Mexico , Tropical Storm Five passed only 75 mi ( 120 km ) southwest of Manzanillo . The tropical storm curved northwestward on September 18 , and headed out to sea . The system dissipated 135 mi ( 215 km ) west @-@ southwest of Islas Marías on September 19 .
= = = Unnumbered tropical depression = = =
In addition to the six tropical cyclones in the basin , another system September 27 , although it was not included with the records in the East Pacific , the storm had been listed as Hurricane Ten in the Atlantic basin . Forming south of El Salvador , the tropical depression traveled slowly north . Failing to intensify past a beyond depression status , the system made landfall near the border of Guatemala and El Salvador on September 28 . Moving inland , the storm did not weaken as it crossed through Guatemala and Mexico . The system quickly strengthened once over the Bay of Campeche , becoming a tropical storm . After entering the bay , the storm intensified into a hurricane , and eventually made landfall in Texas as a Category 2 hurricane . This hurricane was the first officially recorded Atlantic @-@ Pacific crossover tropical cyclone . Overall , monetary losses totaled $ 10 million ( 1949 USD ) and two deaths were attributed to the storm .
= = = Hurricane Six = = =
A tropical depression was first observed 300 mi ( 485 km ) southeast of Socorro Island on September 29 . The depression rapidly intensified , and was a Category 1 hurricane only twelve hours after being first observed . Peaking as an 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) Category 1 hurricane , Hurricane Six tied Hurricane Four as the strongest tropical cyclone of the season . After reaching its peak intensity , Hurricane Six rapidly weakened , and passed 70 mi ( 125 km ) southeast of Socorro Island with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Further weakening occurred , and the storm had dissipated on September 30 .
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= Arnold Fothergill =
Arnold James Fothergill ( 26 August 1854 – 1 August 1932 ) was an English professional cricketer who played first @-@ class cricket for Somerset and the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) in a career which spanned from 1870 until 1892 . A left @-@ arm fast @-@ medium pace bowler , he appeared for England in two Test matches in 1889 .
Fothergill began his career as a club professional in the north east of England . He joined Somerset as one of their first professionals in 1880 , but was forced to miss most of 1881 while he qualified for the county . He was the most productive bowler for the county in their first two years of first @-@ class cricket , but the emergence of E. W. Bastard , and later Ted Tyler and Sammy Woods , limited his opportunities with the club . He joined the ground staff at Lord 's Cricket Ground in 1882 , and played for the MCC until 1892 , also appearing at Lord 's for representative sides .
In the English winter of 1888 – 89 , he was chosen to tour South Africa with the MCC , and played in two matches which were later designated as Test matches , though Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack described them as been " arguably not even first @-@ class . " He took 119 first @-@ class wickets during his career , of which eight came in his two Tests .
= = Early life and career = =
Arnold James Fothergill was born on 26 August 1854 in Newcastle upon Tyne , Northumberland . He began his cricket career with Northumberland Cricket Club , a private club which was a precursor to the county team . He appeared as a professional for the side from 1870 until 1879 , during which time he was also employed by Benwell High Cross Cricket Club in 1870 and 1871 , and Manchester Cricket Club in 1879 , before moving to Somerset in 1880 .
= = Somerset professional = =
= = = Second @-@ class cricket = = =
Somerset County Cricket Club was founded in 1875 , and although they initially struggled financially , Fothergill and Alfred Brooks were employed as the club 's first professionals in 1880 . Fothergill played his first recorded match for the county in July of that year , facing a team of sixteen men from Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , taking thirteen wickets in the match . Throughout 1880 , he was regularly Somerset 's leading wicket @-@ taker in their matches ; he collected five wickets in an innings against the Marylebone Cricket Club twice , Hertfordshire , and Leicestershire . In 1881 , Fothergill was included in the Somerset team to face Kent in Bath . The Kent captain , Richard Thornton objected to Fothergill 's presence , correctly pointing out that he was not qualified to play for Somerset . As a result , Fothergill was removed from the side , and did not appear for the side in county cricket again that season , while he served his qualification . He did appear once for the county , against the MCC , taking four wickets in the first innings , and scoring 47 runs as an opening batsman .
= = = First @-@ class cricket = = =
In 1882 , Fothergill joined the ground staff at Lord 's Cricket Ground , and made his first @-@ class debut for the MCC against Derbyshire in May . Bowling unchanged in the first innings , he claimed five wickets for 31 runs , and then scored the highest score of his first @-@ class career , 74 runs , in a large victory for his side . The following month , he featured for Somerset in what is generally considered to be their first match of the first @-@ class cricket , against Lancashire . Somerset were heavily beaten in the match , during which Fothergill took three wickets and scored three runs . That summer , he was selected to appear for the professional " Players " against the amateur " Gentlemen " in the prestigious annual fixture at Lord 's , in which he had little impact as the Gentlemen won by eight wickets . In all , Fothergill played fourteen first @-@ class matches in 1882 , claiming 44 wickets at an average of 22 @.@ 02 , and taking five wickets in an innings twice . He was Somerset 's leading wicket @-@ taker during the season , taking twice as many wickets as the next most effective bowler , Charles Winter .
Fothergill 's first match in 1883 was in a representative match , playing for the South against the North . The South , for whom Fothergill was the only player to score double figures in each innings , lost the match . He then played exclusively with the MCC until the end of July , when Somerset 's fixtures began . Having collected five wickets in an innings for the MCC against Oxford University , Fothergill repeated the feat twice that season for Somerset , taking five for 23 against Gloucestershire , and then achieving his best first @-@ class bowling figures of six for 43 against Hampshire . In the latter match , he also took four wickets in the second innings , giving him ten wickets in the match , the only occasion he achieved the feat in first @-@ class cricket . He played one further match towards the end of the 1883 season , against that year 's " Champion County " , Nottinghamshire . The MCC won the game by 121 runs ; in the first innings , Fothergill was not required to bowl as Nottinghamshire were bowled out for 23 , with six players scoring ducks , and he took five for 30 in the second innings . Fothergill was once more Somerset 's leading wicket @-@ taker during 1883 , taking 27 of his 37 first @-@ class wickets for the county that year . His bowling average of 14 @.@ 72 was his best during an English season .
During the following season , Fothergill only appeared once for Somerset , in match against Kent early in the season . He took four for 87 in the match , which was his final first @-@ class appearance for the county . Fothergill was again selected to play for the South against the North , but bowled just three overs in the match , without taking a wicket . The remainder of his notable appearances that season were made for the MCC , though few were considered first @-@ class . He performed well in matches against Wiltshire and Leicestershire , taking eleven wickets in each match , including seven for 62 in the second innings against Leicestershire , but neither match had first @-@ class status . In 1885 , he enjoyed his best match for the South , taking four wickets in each innings as the North were defeated by nine wickets . The majority of his cricket from 1884 until 1886 was made for the MCC , although he did appear four times in 1886 for Somerset , which had been stripped of its first @-@ class status . In contrast , in 1887 and 1888 , he played almost exclusively for the county , appearing just three times for the MCC . Somerset , who had relied on the bowling of Fothergill in the early 1880s , were spearheaded by E. W. Bastard , Ted Tyler and Sammy Woods in the late 1880s , and Fothergill was rarely needed to bowl many overs . Despite this , he was presented with a bat during 1888 , a reward usually given to batsmen who had scored a century .
= = Test cricketer = =
During the English winter of 1888 – 89 , the MCC sent a touring team to South Africa . Organised by Major Gardner Warton , the original itinerary only featured " odds " matches , in which an 11 @-@ player MCC team faced opposition sides including 15 , 18 or 22 players , depending on their perceived strength . In his book , A History of Cricket , Harry Altham describes that the quality of the touring party " was about that of a weak county . " Fothergill was selected as part of the side , despite not having played a first @-@ class match since May 1887 . The majority of the wickets during the tour were taken by Lancashire 's spinner , Johnny Briggs , who took almost 300 , but Fothergill was heavily used as a bowler , and claimed 119 wickets at an average of 6 @.@ 89 . Altham suggests that the ease of the touring side 's victories justifies the selection of a comparatively weak side . As the tour continued , there were calls for an even @-@ strength contest , with the English side facing an 11 @-@ player South African side . Two such matches were arranged , but were considered no different from the other matches during the tour , being advertised as Major Warton 's XI v South Africa XI . The matches were later granted Test match status , although Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack commented that , " it was never intended , or considered necessary , to take out a representative English team for a first trip to the Cape . "
In the first Test , Fothergill opened the bowling with Briggs , and bowled economically , conceding 15 runs from his 24 four @-@ ball overs . He only took one wicket in the innings , and was noted more for his batting later in the day . Having bowled South Africa out for 84 , England rallied from 103 for nine due to a 45 @-@ run partnership for the tenth wicket between Fothergill and Basil Grieve . Batting at number eleven , Fothergill scored 32 runs , second only to opening batsman Bobby Abel . In South Africa 's second innings , Fothergill was used as first @-@ change bowler , and took four wickets for 19 , his best figures in the two Test matches . South Africa scored 129 runs before being bowled out , and England scored the 67 runs required for victory with a day of the match remaining .
England dominated the second Test , largely due to the bowling of Briggs . Batting first , England scored 292 runs , of which Abel contributed 120 . Fothergill claimed the first South African wicket , Albert Rose @-@ Innes at the end of the first day , but only claimed two more in the match , as Briggs took fifteen wickets on the second day to help England to an innings and 202 @-@ run victory .
Fothergill 's two Test appearances were the only ones of his career , and were also his final first @-@ class matches . In all , he took 119 first @-@ class wickets at an average of 18 @.@ 18 . His highest score was the 74 runs he scored on his debut .
= = Later life and career = =
After returning from South Africa , Fothergill played occasionally for the MCC , and three further times for Somerset , but with little merit . He made his final appearance for Somerset in 1889 , against Staffordshire ; he took 157 wickets for the county in total , of which 57 came in first @-@ class matches . His last match for the MCC was three years later , against Llandudno Cricket Club . In his obituary , Wisden suggest that he returned to Tyneside at the end of his professional cricket career . He died in Sunderland on 1 August 1932 .
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= Death and state funeral of Raúl Alfonsín =
Raúl Alfonsín was the president of Argentina from 1983 to 1989 . He died on March 31 , 2009 , aged 82 . He had lung cancer and died at his home ; a massive candlelight vigil took place in the vicinity of it . Vice president Julio Cobos , the acting president at the time , arranged three days of national mourning and a state funeral at the Palace of the Argentine National Congress . Alfonsín was seen by 40 @,@ 000 people and the senior politicians of the country ; people from other countries also voiced their respect for him . A military escort took his coffin to the La Recoleta Cemetery , and left him at the pantheon for the veterans of the Revolution of the Park .
= = Health and death = =
Alfonsín had lung cancer for almost a year before his death , which led to pneumonia . His medic Alejandro Sandler explained that his health had worsened at several points , which were followed by brief recoveries . In his last days he was visited by vice president Julio Cobos and monsignor Justo Laguna , who gave him the Anointing of the Sick . He received home care , as Sandler preferred him to stay with his family . The president Cristina Fernández de Kirchner was out of the country and phoned several times ; Ricardo Alfonsín called her at 17 : 00 and informed her of his father 's health . He died on March 31 , 2009 , at 20 : 30 ; Sandler announced it at 21 : 03 . Alfonsín was sleeping at the moment , next to his family . Cobos was the first politician to arrive at his home .
= = Funeral = =
When the first news of the death of Alfonsín were released , the vicinity of his house at the Santa Fe avenue was filled by hundreds of people , who started a Candlelight vigil . The multitude included friends , neighbors and political supporters . The politicians Felipe Solá and Ricardo Gil Lavedra attended the meeting as well . The balconies of nearby houses were filled with flowers and banners .
The president Cristina Fernández de Kirchner was out of the country at the moment , and although she arranged an early return , she could not return to the country in time for the funeral . As a result , the vice president Julio Cobos arranged the state funeral of Alfonsín , alongside Eduardo Fellner ( president of the Chamber of deputies ) and José Pampuro ( acting president of the Senate ) . His widow , former First Lady of Argentina María Lorenza Barreneche , was unable to attend her husband 's public state funeral due to her own declining health .
As a former Argentine president , his body was displayed at the Blue Hall of the Palace of the Argentine National Congress . He also set three days of national mourning , from March 31 to April 2 . Daniel Scioli , governor of the Buenos Aires Province ( birthplace of Alfonsín ) , also announced a provincial mourning . Almost a thousand people attended , and at some moments they sung the Argentine National Anthem .
The people were allowed to enter to the Congress on April 1 , 10 : 00 . Initially , it was intended to keep the Congress open until 20 : 00 , but the number of people attending it forced to delay it for the morning of April 2 . The event was attended by the former presidents Carlos Menem , Fernando de la Rúa , Eduardo Duhalde and Néstor Kirchner , all the members of the Supreme Court of Argentina , mayor Mauricio Macri , governor Daniel Scioli , the president of Uruguay Tabaré Vázquez and several other politicians . The Congress was visited by almost 40 @,@ 000 people . It was the largest state funeral in Argentina since the death of Juan Perón in 1974 .
There was a ceremony afterwards with speeches from politicians from Alfonsín 's tenure and from the Kirchner administration . The ceremony was aired in cadena nacional . It was followed by a mass given by José María Arancedo , archbishop of Santa Fe . Finally , a procession in the Callao Avenue with a military escort took the corpse to the La Recoleta Cemetery . People threw flowers to the coffin , fly Argentine and radical flags , and sung the national anthem . He was left in the pantheon for the veterans of the Revolution of the Park , until he got a special one for himself .
Twenty @-@ two Argentine bishops at the Holy See held a mass for Alfonsín as well . It was at the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran , and was attended by the Argentine ambassador Juan Pablo Cafiero , the Italian monsignor Giuseppe Laterza and the Argentine monsignor Guillermo Karcher . The bishops met Pope Benedict XVI the following day .
= = Reactions = =
The living former presidents of Argentina sent their condolences for Alfonsín . Carlos Menem said that his death was a great loss for democracy . He also wrote an editorial for the La Nación newspaper , titled " Un viejo adversario saluda a un amigo " ( Spanish : An old adversary salutes a friend ) , mirroring the famous quotation of the radical leader Ricardo Balbín during the funeral of Perón . Fernando de la Rúa said that " he fought all his life for politics and democracy . He raised up the values of democracy . Respect and affection were always present in him " . Eduardo Duhalde described him as a family friend , and said Argentina lost a great man . Néstor Kirchner praised the trial of the Juntas . He also received condolences of José Sarney , Patricio Aylwin and Julio María Sanguinetti , contemporary presidents of Brazil , Chile and Uruguay . The governments of Brazil , Chile , Colombia , France , Mexico , Paraguay , Peru , Spain , United States and Uruguay also sent messages of condolences .
Ricardo López Murphy , minister of economy of president Fernando de la Rúa , said that Alfonsín was " the man who fought for our democracy and the strengthening of institutions , during a time of conflicts and polarizations that our society was merged into " . Cristian Ritondo , legislator of the Republican Proposal , said that " Alfonsín was the main actor of the return of democracy to Argentina . He was a sinonym of work , responsibility and patriotism " . Gerardo Morales said that " when we were young in 1983 and sang ' we are life , we are peace ' , it was more than a slogan , it was a synthesis of our hopes : do not suffer more persecutions , live in democracy , in freedom and peace . We were part of the collective project led by Alfonsín " . Elisa Carrió pointed that she had political disputes with him , but respected him nonetheless . Julio César Strassera , judge of the trial of the juntas , hoped that Alfonsín would be remembered as a great democrat . Daniel Scioli , governor of the Buenos Aires province , praised that he died with a complete peace of mind . Mauricio Macri , mayor of Buenos Aires , considered that he must have died in peace , after fulfilling his goals .
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= Baseball Hall of Fame balloting , 2010 =
Elections to the Baseball Hall of Fame for 2010 proceeded according to rules enacted in 2001 and revised in 2007 . As always the Baseball Writers ' Association of America ( BBWAA ) voted by mail to select from a ballot of recent players ; one player was elected . In keeping with the 2007 reform , one Veterans Committee convened to consider a ballot of managers and umpires , another to consider a ballot of executives ; one manager and one umpire were elected .
A Veterans Committee election to select from older players had been held in the 2009 cycle . The next election for players whose careers began in 1943 or later was scheduled for the 2011 class of inductees while the next for pre @-@ 1943 players was scheduled for the 2014 class .
However , a reform of the Veterans Committee ( s ) was announced in July 2010 . Henceforth long @-@ retired players and all non @-@ playing personnel will be considered on a single ballot , with the ballot restricted by the " Era " in which candidates made their greatest contributions . The next Veterans Committee elections , held in December 2010 as part of the 2011 induction cycle , considered only figures from what the Hall calls the " Expansion Era " — 1973 and later . Candidates from the " Golden Era " ( 1947 – 1972 ) were considered in the balloting for 2012 , and candidates from the " Pre @-@ Integration Era " ( 1871 – 1946 ) will be considered in the balloting for 2013 . Subsequently the same three committee meetings will occur in rotation .
Andre Dawson , Doug Harvey , and Whitey Herzog were selected as members of the Baseball Hall of Fame .
= = BBWAA election = =
The BBWAA was again authorized to elect players active in 1990 or later , but not after 2004 ; the ballot included candidates from the 2009 ballot who received at least 5 % of the vote but were not elected , along with selected players , chosen by a screening committee , whose last appearance was in 2004 . All 10 @-@ year members of the BBWAA were eligible to vote .
Results of the 2010 election by the BBWAA were announced on January 6 . The ballot consisted of 26 players , including 11 candidates returning from the 2009 ballot ( a record low , displacing the previous year 's record of 13 ) .
539 ballots were cast ( including five ballots which supported no candidates ) , with 405 votes required for election . A total of 3 @,@ 057 individual votes were cast , an average of 5 @.@ 67 per ballot . Those candidates who received less than 5 % of the vote will not appear on future BBWAA ballots , but may eventually be considered by the Veterans Committee .
Candidates who were eligible for the first time are indicated here with a † . The candidate who received at least 75 % of the vote and was elected is indicated in bold italics ; candidates who have since been selected in subsequent elections are indicated in italics . The candidates who received less than 5 % of the vote , thus becoming ineligible for future BBWAA consideration , are indicated with a * .
The newly @-@ eligible candidates included 11 All @-@ Stars , who were selected a combined total of 51 times – a notable decrease from 2009 , when 22 All @-@ Stars became eligible . Among the first @-@ ballot candidates were 12 @-@ time All @-@ Stars Roberto Alomar and Barry Larkin , 7 @-@ time All @-@ Star Edgar Martínez , and 5 @-@ time All @-@ Stars Andrés Galarraga and Fred McGriff . With respect to major end @-@ of @-@ season awards , the new field contained one Cy Young Award winner ( Pat Hentgen ) , one MVP ( Larkin ) and one Rookie of the Year ( Eric Karros ) . Alomar won ten Gold Gloves at second base ( the most for any second baseman ) . Robin Ventura received six at third base . Larkin holds the record for most Silver Slugger Awards by a shortstop ( nine ) . Edgar Martínez is tied for the record for most Outstanding Designated Hitter Awards ( with David Ortiz ) at five ( the award has since been renamed the Edgar Martínez Award ) .
Players who were eligible for the first time who were not included on the ballot were : Paul Abbott , Andy Ashby , Danny Bautista , Darren Bragg , Brian Boehringer , Dave Burba , Greg Colbrunn , Mike Fetters , Brook Fordyce , Karim García , Tom Goodwin , Ricky Gutiérrez , Jimmy Haynes , Sterling Hitchcock , Curt Leskanic , Josías Manzanillo , Brent Mayne , Mark McLemore , Scott Service , Chris Stynes , Scott Sullivan , Todd Van Poppel , John Vander Wal , Fernando Viña , and Turk Wendell .
For the first time in the history of BBWAA voting , two players fell shy of election by fewer than 10 votes . Blyleven , on the ballot for the 13th time , fell 5 votes shy ; he gained 62 votes from his 2009 total . Alomar fell 8 votes short in his first appearance on the ballot , and received the highest percentage ever for a first @-@ time candidate who was not elected at that time . Both would be elected in 2011 .
= = Veterans Committee elections = =
The Veterans Committee election process was revised in July 2007 . With the 2007 rules changes , the composite ballot was split into two separate ballots — one for managers and umpires and the other for executives . Also , the voting membership of the Committee , which previously included all living members of the Hall , was reduced to include just a handful of those members , plus additional executives and sportswriters . Voting for both the managers / umpires and executives ballots , which now takes place prior to inductions in even @-@ numbered years , began with the 2008 class of inductees , when two managers and three executives were elected . To be eligible , managers and umpires must be retired for at least five years , or for at least six months if they are age 65 or older , while executives must be either retired or at least age 65 .
A Historical Overview Committee of sportswriters appointed by the BBWAA 's Board of Directors met to develop a ballot of 10 managers and umpires . The managers / umpires list was then submitted to a panel composed of Hall of Fame members , executives and veteran media members for a final vote . A separate ballot of 10 executives was developed by a panel including executives , players and writers , which was the same committee which finally voted in that area . The final ballots were released in November 2009 . Each panel member was allowed to vote for up to four individuals on each ballot , and each candidate who received 75 % of the vote from either panel was elected ; therefore , a maximum of five inductions were possible from each ballot . Voting was conducted at baseball 's winter meetings in Indianapolis on December 6 , 2009 , with the results announced the next day ; as was the case with the 2008 class of inductees , the Committee met to discuss the candidates , although the previous three elections had been conducted by mail .
= = = Managers / umpires ballot = = =
The ballot for managers and umpires included eight managers ( designated M ) and two umpires ( designated U ) , with 12 votes required for election . Candidates who received at least 75 % of the vote were elected . Those that were inducted are indicated in bold italics .
In contrast with the 2008 election , voters made less of an effort to vote for as many candidates as they were allowed . While at least 58 of the permitted 64 individual votes were cast in 2008 , the number of known individual votes cast in this election was 48 of the possible 64 . ( Vote totals for the five trailing candidates were announced as " less than 3 " , or 0 to 2 . ) Seven of the candidates had been on the preceding ballot in 2008 , with Grimm , Kelly , and O 'Neill appearing for the first time and umpire Cy Rigler dropping off the ballot . Four candidates were living when the final results were announced — Harvey ( age 79 ) , Herzog ( 78 ) , Johnson ( 66 ) , and Kelly ( 59 ) .
The election committee , which was announced on the same day as the ballot , included :
Hall of Famers : Jim Bunning , Tommy Lasorda , Eddie Murray , Phil Niekro , Tony Pérez , Robin Roberts , Ryne Sandberg , Ozzie Smith , Billy Williams , Dick Williams
Executives : Jim Frey , Roland Hemond , Bob Watson
Media : Tim Kurkjian , Jack O 'Connell , Tom Verducci
Of the 16 members of the election committee , 11 voted for the class of 2008 . The five new voters were all Hall of Famers — Murray , Roberts , Sandberg , Smith , and 2008 inductee Dick Williams . Because of the changes announced for future elections , this was the last meeting of this particular committee .
Of the ten candidates for election , Doug Harvey and Whitey Herzog received the 75 % needed to garner induction .
= = = Executives ballot = = =
On the executives ballot , 9 votes were required for election ; no candidates were elected .
As with the other committee , voters in this election made less of an effort to vote for as many candidates as allowed than in the 2008 election . The number of individual votes cast went down to a greater degree than in the managers / umpires balloting — only 28 of the possible 48 individual votes were known to have been cast in this election , compared to 44 in the 2008 voting . ( Vote totals for the six trailing candidates were announced as " less than 3 " , or 0 to 2 . )
Of the 10 candidates , six ( Fetzer , Howsam , Kauffman , McHale , Miller , and Paul ) were holdovers from the 2008 ballot . Autry , Breadon , and Ruppert appeared on the ballot for the first time ; White , who was on the 2007 composite ballot but was not on the 2008 ballot , returned for 2010 . Buzzie Bavasi , who died in the intervening period , was on the 2008 ballot but not the 2010 ballot . Two candidates were living when the results were announced — Miller , age 92 , and White , age 75 .
The election committee , which was announced on the same day as the ballot , included :
Hall of Famers : Robin Roberts , Tom Seaver
Executives :
Retired : John Harrington
Active : Jerry Bell , Bill DeWitt , Bill Giles , David Glass , Andy MacPhail , John Schuerholz
Media : Rick Hummel , Hal McCoy , Phil Pepe
Of the 12 members of the election committee , eight voted for the class of 2008 . The new voters were Hall of Famers Roberts and Seaver , executive Schuerholz , and sportswriter Pepe . As with the managers / umpires voting committee , this was the final meeting for the executives voting committee because of the voting changes announced in July 2010 .
= = J. G. Taylor Spink Award = =
The J. G. Taylor Spink Award has been presented by the BBWAA at the annual summer induction ceremonies since 1962 . It recognizes a sportswriter " for meritorious contributions to baseball writing " . The recipients are not members of the Hall of the Fame , but instead are featured in a permanent exhibit at the National Baseball Museum .
Three final candidates , selected by a three @-@ member BBWAA committee , were named on July 14 , 2009 at Busch Stadium in St. Louis in conjunction with All @-@ Star Game activities : Bill Madden , national baseball columnist for the New York Daily News , Bob Elliott of the Toronto Sun and Joe Giuliotti , retired from the Boston Herald . All 10 @-@ year members of the BBWAA were eligible to cast ballots in voting conducted by mail in November .
On December 8 at baseball 's winter meetings , Madden was announced as the recipient . Madden , who started his career in 1969 with United Press International before joining the Daily News in 1978 , received 226 votes out of the 452 ballots cast , with Elliott receiving 149 votes and Giuliotti receiving 76 ; one blank ballot was submitted .
= = Ford C. Frick Award = =
The Ford C. Frick Award has been presented at the induction ceremonies annually since 1978 to a broadcaster . Recipients are not considered to be members of the Hall , but are permanently recognized in an exhibit at the museum . After the 2007 changes to the Veterans Committee , the winner ( if living ) is no longer an automatic member of that body . To be eligible , an active or retired broadcaster must have a minimum of 10 years of continuous major league broadcast service with a ball club , a network , or a combination of the two .
Ten finalists were announced in January 2010 . In accordance with guidelines established in 2003 , seven were chosen by a committee composed of the living recipients , along with additional broadcasting historians and columnists . Three additional candidates were selected from a list of candidates through results of voting by fans conducted in December 2009 on the Hall 's Facebook page . The recipient was announced in February following a vote by the same committee which selected the first group of finalists . They based the selection on the following criteria : longevity ; continuity with a club ; honors , including national assignments such as the World Series and All @-@ Star Games ; and popularity with fans .
Jon Miller , radio announcer for the San Francisco Giants , television play @-@ by @-@ play announcer for ESPN Sunday Night Baseball and regular @-@ season and postseason announcer on ESPN Radio , was announced as the 2010 Ford C. Frick Award winner on February 2 , 2010 . Beginning his career in 1974 with the Oakland Athletics , he is best known for his radio work with the Baltimore Orioles from 1983 through 1996 , and the Giants from 1997 to the present . Before joining ESPN in 1990 , he worked with NBC from 1986 through 1989 . He also worked with The Baseball Network .
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= History of Harvard Extension School =
The history of the Harvard Extension School dates back to its founding in 1910 by Abbott Lawrence Lowell . From the beginning , the Harvard Extension School was designed to serve the educational interests and needs of the greater Boston community , but has since extended its academic resources to the public , locally , nationally , and internationally .
Growing out of the Lowell Institute , it first became the Commission on University Extension in cooperation with other Boston @-@ area universities , and then eventually became a Harvard @-@ only institution . Early students were able to earn an Associate in Arts degree , which was the equivalent of a bachelor 's degree but which did have a residency requirement . That was later renamed an Adjunct in Arts before finally settling on a bachelor 's degree . The first graduate degree was awarded in 1980 .
The Harvard Extension School has been a leader in distance education , offering courses on the radio and television , and even ob board Navy ships . Online education began in the mid @-@ 1980s , and in 2012 the school partnered with EdX to expand its reach . After 100 years , an estimated 500 @,@ 000 students have taken courses at the Extension School .
= = Lowell Institute = =
John Lowell , Jr . , a wealthy Boston businessman , became gravely ill during a camel trip across the Egyptian desert and wrote his will on the banks of the Nile River in Cairo . He died on March 4 , 1836 , shortly after arriving in Bombay , India , and his will was executed back in Boston . In it , he set aside half his fortune to be used for " the maintenance and support of Public Lectures to be delivered in said Boston upon philosophy , natural history , and the arts and sciences ... for the promotion of the moral and intellectual and physical instruction or education of the citizens of the said city of Boston . Lowell also directed that lectures be given " on the natural religion showing its conformity to that of our Savior , " " on the historical and internal evidences in favor of Christianity , " and " avoiding all disputed points of faith and ceremony " by directing the lecturers " to the moral doctrines of the Gospel . "
The lectures were supposed to be free for those of limited means , and for those who could afford to attend more " abstruse " or " erudite " lectures , the maximum charge was to be no more than the value of two bushels of wheat . In an equally egalitarian measure , the lectures were specifically open to women as well as to men . Some of the " most notable intellectual figures of America and Europe " lectured as part of the program .
When the Lowell Institute , the foundation formed to sponsor the lectures , opened in 1839 the initial value of the fund was $ 250 @,@ 000 , or $ 5 @,@ 309 @,@ 180 in 2012 dollars . Annual interest on corpus of $ 18 @,@ 000 , or $ 382 @,@ 260 @.@ 96 in 2012 dollars . By 1897 the fund had more than $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in it , with an annual income of more than $ 50 @,@ 000 . The Institute was to be headed by a single trustee , and one preferably a male descendant of Lowell 's grandfather . The first trustee , John Amory Lowell , administered the trust for more than forty years . According to the terms of the will , each year 10 % of the earnings must be turned into non @-@ expendable capital .
= = Early years = =
= = = Establishment of the University Extension = = =
The lack of an endowment was one reason why Harvard President Charles William Eliot declined to begin a continuing education program in 1902 . " I would strongly disapprove of starting the proposed institute without an endowment , " Eliot said . " It should not be dependent on other institutions . " At a meeting of the Boston City Club in 1909 , A. Lawrence Lowell said that John Lowell , Jr. had wanted found a " popular university " and that in order to fulfill that vision it had to be connected to an already existing educational institution .
When A. Lawrence Lowell succeeded his father as trustee of the Lowell Institute in 1900 , he was already a trustee at both Harvard and MIT . He reorganized the lectures first as the School for Industrial Foremen at MIT , and then later renamed it the Lowell Institute School " under the auspices of MIT . " The first year of the School had courses in " the higher branches " of mathematics , and the second year was devoted to theory and practice . Between 30 and 50 men graduated from the program each year .
In 1907 the Lowell Institute School began offering courses at Harvard , and the a course on literature had to turn people away because the largest hall Harvard had could only seat 300 persons . Most classes , taught by " the best Harvard professors , " had roughly 20 students , and at " the end of the course the same examination is taken " that Harvard College students would take .
Two years later , in 1909 , A. Lawrence Lowell was elected president of Harvard . As president , A. Lawrence Lowell wanted to serve the " many people in our community , who have not been to college , but who have the desire and the aptitude to profit by so much of a college education as , amid the work of earning their living , they are able to obtain . "
James Hardy Ropes , the Extension 's first dean , said that " our aim will be to give the young people of Boston who have heretofore been prevented from securing a college education the same instruction they would receive were they undergraduates at Harvard . " He added that " many persons who wish that they had a college education will be able to get gradually an effective substitute for it--in some respects more effective than the ordinary college education because of the greater eagerness and maturity of such students . " Students under 20 were not permitted , unless they had been graduated from high school , but adults were not required to have a high school diploma .
In the spring of 1910 , a few months before the first students would enroll , A. Lawrence Lowell wrote to the Boston School Department asking which courses the University Extension could offer that the School Department would accept as qualifications for a teaching position at Boston Latin or one of the other high schools in the city . In September of that year the School Committee voted to accept the Extension 's Associate of Arts degree as sufficient to teach in a high school . It was noted that elementary school teachers could take the courses in the evenings and qualify for a better paying high school teaching position . The same was true for other young workers as well , Ropes said .
When the University Extension was announced it garnered major media coverage in Boston. the Boston Globe declared the Extension program to be " one of the hopeful signs of the times--this democratization of education , " congratulating the Extension for " the fine opportunities offered to those who hunger and thirst after knowledge . "
= = = Early courses and professors = = =
Classes , which were " identical with the regular classes offered by Harvard professors , " began at the end of September 1910 . It offered , according to the Boston Globe , " an opportunity for an education ... such has never been obtainable hitherto . "
Unlike a similar program at Columbia University , the University Extension courses were taught by " the most experienced teachers that can be secured . " In 1938 there were 28 professors for Commission faculties , including 11 full professors . Early faculty included Charles Townsend Copeland , Theodore Spenser , B.J. Whiting , William Yandell Elliot , Payton S. Wild Jr . , William Langer , Oscar Handlin , Kenneth B. Murdoch , Perry Miller , William Enerst Hocking , Raphael Demos , John Kenneth Galbraith , Frank M. Carpenter . In 1953 there were still 28 professors , and each was paid an extra stipend to teach the classes in addition to their regular course load .
Early courses included classes on English literature , principles of economics , psychology , and applied and experimental electricity , with laboratory experiments . It total there were 19 courses offered during the evenings , late afternoons , and Saturdays . A. Lawrence Lowell believed that it was more important to have high quality courses than to offer a larger number of courses , and that there should be a good deal of variety from year to year . In early years business courses were also offered in conjunction with the Chamber of Commerce , but these were not designed to be part of a degree program .
They were " all of the same grade as college courses , involving much the same work , tested by examinations , " and would demand " the same amount of work required of a regular college student . " A. Lawrence Lowell said that " there is no use in a university 's trying to run a kindergarten for the public . The teachers are not fitted for such work . Their object should be to give the public the advantage of those riches which exist within their own walls . "
The Boston Globe opined that the early program of courses was " a comprehensive course of study ... which should attract the young men and women of metropolitan Boston who deprived though various circumstances of the opportunity to go to college . " The first year of courses saw 863 students enroll , with 395 of them earning certificates . A. Lawrence Lowell , as both president of Harvard and trustee of the Lowell Institute , saw the University Extension as " a trust for the community , for the public , and we are nothing but a successive series of servants to the public . "
Ropes ' goal was " to supply a thorough university training to those who have previously been denied one and supply it at a very low figure " while " provid [ ing ] technical or culture instruction for persons who are unable to spend four years in college . " Courses in 1920 cost $ 5 for a one @-@ hour course , $ 10 for a two @-@ hour course , and $ 15 for a three @-@ hour course . The prices were designed to be low enough that " it would not be considered an impediment to anyone who really wanted such instruction " and all courses were offered after working hours . Beginning in 1919 , students were required to be present for 75 % of classes to earn credit .
Despite falling revenue due to the Great Depression , A. Lawrence Lowell insisted in 1931 that the will of John Lowell , Jr prevented courses from costing more than two bushels of wheat . As a result , a half year course cost could no more than $ 5 , and a full course no more than $ 10 . Some courses cost as little as $ 2 @.@ 50 . However , increases in salaries required additional funding . To avoid an increase in tuition and the cut in Lowell Institute funding that would follow , an exam fee of $ 5 was added for those who wished to earn a certificate . These prices remained in effect at least into the 1950s .
When the National University Extension Association was created in 1915 , Harvard was a charter member . Several years later , when Arthur F. Whittem took over as dean of University Extension , it comprised the Summer School of Arts and Sciences and of Education , the Commission on Extension Courses , and the Special Students office . Several years after retiring , President Lowell wrote that the Extension courses " have given a service to the public ... which seems to me of the utmost importance . "
= = = Commission on University Extension = = =
The popularity of the courses convinced A. Lawrence Lowell that they should be taken in a more systematic approach . He thus organized a Commission on University Extension with representatives from Harvard , Boston University , Boston College , MIT , Simmons College , Tufts University , Wellesley College , and the School of the Museum of Fine Arts . Members of the Commission were required to be the president of the university , or an executive there . The Commission also received financial support from the Boston Chamber of Commerce , and it was at a meeting of the Education Committee of the Chamber that the Commission 's creation was announced . Courses taken at the Boston Normal School also once counted for credit .
While the Commission was formed in 1910 , it " had already lost some of its vitality by the time Dean Ropes retired as chairman in 1922 , and when A. Lawrence Lowell stepped down as president of Harvard in 1933 the Commission had " lost most of its viability as a consortium , " though it still existed in name . From that time forward " it functioned mainly as an umbrella for a program that was run by University Extension at Harvard . "
In 1975 the Commission finally stopped functioning , and the University Extension began as a self @-@ sufficient program . The Lowell Institute continued to give a contribution , though instead of paying for operating costs it was used to fund scholarships for local high school students and faculty to take courses .
= = Growth of the Extension = =
From the beginning of the Commission , Harvard , Tufts and Wellesley all awarded an Associate in Arts degree , which was designed to be equivalent to a bachelor 's degree but did not require an entrance exam or residency at any of the various colleges . It was designed to be " an appropriate reward really within the reach of persons unable " to attend a traditional college program . In 1912 , two years after the Extension program began , nine students were pursuing a degree through it . Two students , John Coulson and Ellen M. Greany , earned the degree in the first year it was offered , 1913 . According to Ropes , there is then " in operation in Boston a kind of extension college , giving courses which lead to an adequately guarded degree , and administered by the joint action of the neighboring colleges . "
During the 1920s professors from Boston and Harvard Universities left the confines of their campuses and traveled to teach courses offsite . While they were primarily aimed at teachers , courses were offered wherever 40 or more students expressed an interest . Professors traveled on a weekly basis to places around New England and as far away as Yonkers , New York .
In 1933 the Connecticut legislature considered and passed a bill allowing junior colleges to award associate degrees for two years study . In the 23 years that the University Extension had been in existence , 120 people had already earned an associate degree from Harvard for four years worth of work . A. Lawrence Lowell , upon hearing this news , was " uncharacteristically impassioned " and asked Dean Whitten , " What is the proper word for a person from whom his good name has been filched ? For thou art that man . Read the enclosed and you will see that the name of Associate in Arts has been degraded , probably beyond recovery , by wicked , thievish , and otherwise disreputable institutions . "
So as to differentiate itself from the lesser degrees being offered elsewhere , President Lowell decided to " invent a new degree which may retain its dignity until somebody by imitation steals it . " On May 8 , 1933 a new degree of Adjunct in Arts was created , and women were allowed to receive it at Harvard , not just at Radcliff College .
The Depression had an impact on both enrollment figures of the University Extension and the finances of the Lowell Institute , which necessitated cuts in the number of courses offered . During the post @-@ War era , however , the number of courses offered and enrollments were on the rise , including 12 consecutive years between 1951 and 1963 .
In 1936 , a survey found that 56 % of students that year had never attended college before . A similar study in 1952 found that more than half had a profession , notably teaching , more than half had at least two years of college , and 75 % enrolled out of general interest . In 1938 another survey found that 64 % of all Extension graduates went on to do graduate work , a figure much higher than the number of graduates from the College . A total of 60 graduate degrees were awarded to alumni , as were six Ph.D 's .
In 1958 , courses cost about $ 200 each , and in 1963 , students could earn a Harvard degree for roughly $ 1 @,@ 000 . This was , according to Dean Reginald H. Phelps , " a bargain that simply can not be matched anywhere in the field of education . " Adding to the value , study spaces , conferences rooms , library facilities , and a dining hall were set up in Lehman Hall for students in 1964 . In addition , there was a television lounge were students could watch the WGBH programs .
= = = Television and radio = = =
Harvard Extension was a pioneer in distance education . Beginning on December 5 , 1949 , courses were offered on the Lowell Institute 's new radio station . New Englanders could go to college six nights a week at 7 : 30 in their living rooms simply by tuning into courses on psychology , world history , and economics . The first course on radio was by Peter A. Bertocci of Boston University . For 30 years he taught Extension courses , with never fewer than 100 students . He often over 300 students per course and once had over 400 . Over the years Bertocci had at least 7 @,@ 000 Extension students , " surely a record in the annals of Extension at Harvard . "
The radio courses proved to be so successful that when the television station WGBH went on the air in October 1951 they began broadcasting an Extension class every weekday at 3 : 30 and 7 : 30 . The first course , offered by Robert G. Albion , was on European Imperialism on Monday and Thursday evenings . In the late 1960s , three of the televised courses were offered in the Deer Island Prison . Students who watched the courses on television could attend six " conferences " and take a mid @-@ term and a final exam at Harvard in order to gain credit for the class . The television classes continued at least through the 1970s .
= = = United States Navy = = =
In 1960 the United States Navy approached Harvard about adapting the television courses that had been broadcast on WGBH for use on Polaris submarines . A two @-@ year program , known as the Polaris University Extension Program , was developed with WGBH producing five to six courses a year in engineering , math , physics , foreign languages , and electives . Lab courses and in class instruction were provided to the submariners when the subs were in port . Those who finished the course received a certificate of completion .
Eventually the program spread to surface ships as well , being rechristened as the Program for Afloat College Education ( PACE ) , and it " proved to be an effective and practical means of education for hundreds of Navy men . " By 1963 – 64 there were 17 courses , with plans to have 32 within a few years , and 90 sailors enrolled . Just a year later , in 1964 – 65 , there was 440 sailors taking courses , and in 66 @-@ 67 there were 803 sailors enrolled .
By the time it ended in 1972 – 73 , there were 5 @,@ 903 registrations by Navy men in 40 classes . The Navy had anticipated huge enrollments , but the Vietnam War made it difficult for men to find the time to study . Additionally , the courses offered were weighted towards the sciences while classes in the humanities proved much more popular .
Occasionally , instruction was provided while the ships were at sea . During the 1967 " spring crisis in the Middle East , " the Navy paid for five instructors to go to the Mediterranean to teach on the deck of the USS Little Rock ( CL @-@ 92 ) . In February 1968 , five instructors were flown by the Navy to Antarctica to teach at McMurdo Base .
= = Late 20th century = =
By the 50th anniversary of the University Extension in 1960 , more than 1 @,@ 400 courses had been offered and there had been more than 85 @,@ 000 enrollments . While the vast majority of classes were held on the Harvard campus , a few in the late 1960s were offered at MIT and BU , as well as at the Old South Meeting House . At this time non @-@ credit courses cost between $ 15 and $ 25 , and courses for credit cost between $ 20 and $ 35 .
In the 1970s the University realized it had a problem retaining employees , so it began the Tuition Assistance Plan ( TAP ) . In the first year 238 employees took advantage . By 1982 it was 834 students , with 37 degree candidates . The program effectively solved the retention problem . In 1978 a survey found that the majority of students had a family income of less than $ 15 @,@ 000 , which was less than the national average of $ 16 @,@ 000 .
On the occasion of the 50th anniversary of his 1930 graduation from Harvard College , Phelps said of all his administrative duties at Harvard he " found Extension the most rewarding . Partly , this was , no doubt , because I could run a rising program with practically no interference ; partly it was the feeling that a second chance in education for people passed by in the normal run of school and college is one of the finest aspects of American education ; and partly it was the chance to establish and maintain friendly relations thorough our programs with black people in Boston , who would otherwise have not have had any contact with Harvard . "
Graduates in 1982 went on to Harvard Law , Harvard Business School , Harvard Graduate School of Education , the Kennedy School of Government , and top others . In 1983 – 84 the library moved to Sever Hall and saw a doubling of usage to nearly 30 @,@ 000 student visits with 13 @,@ 000 reserve books being circulated . Since the mid @-@ 1990s , academic and career services have been provided " that most traditional students receive , ensuring the education is commensurate . " The Division of Continuing Education was created in 1985 , the same year that the Extension School was officially established as a formal school .
In 1992 the Indian Computer Academy opened in Bangalore , India , a joint venture between the Extension School and an Indian businessman with offices in Bombay ( India ) , and Dedham , Massachusetts . The program at the Academy was designed to consist of one year of full @-@ time study leading to Certificate in Applied Sciences . From the beginning , the principals in India were treating it like a for @-@ profit venture , and financially it was a failure . Harvard pulled out in 1994 , but not before approximately 150 students were educated in the two years of operation .
Roy J. Glauber , a future Nobel Prize winner , began teaching the core curriculum physics course to Extension students in 1985 . The course was designed for advanced high school students and their teachers . Over 150 students and teachers from 42 schools in the Greater Boston area took part the first year , and thousands more took part in the years to come .
= = Early 21st century = =
A proposal before the Faculty of Arts and Science in 2009 and 2010 to rename the school and the degrees offered was not accepted . A committee , led by Professor of Computer Science Harry R. Lewis , proposed renaming the school the " Harvard School of Continuing and Professional Studies , " and to drop the words " in Extension Studies " from degrees , so that the School would offer Bachelor of Arts and Master of Arts degrees . Some faculty objected , saying that those degrees were already offered by the College and the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences .
After 100 years , an estimated 500 @,@ 000 students have taken courses at the Extension School .
= = Degree development = =
There were 452 degree recipients in the 58 years between 1910 and 1968 , and 481 in the 39 between 1969 and 2008 . Including certificates , there have been 12 @,@ 464 graduates in Extension 's history . In 2013 there were 163 undergraduate degree earners , the largest class to date , bringing the total to 5 @,@ 415 graduates . As of 2009 , the five most popular graduate programs are in government , biology , psychology , history , and English , accounting for 75 % of graduates .
By 1953 , undergraduate degree holders went on to earn 16 Master of Arts degrees , 11 Masters of Education , one Bachelor of Sacred Theology , and five Doctors of Philosophy . Since the founding , there have been 250 students who earned an undergraduate degree at the Extension School and then an advanced degree at Harvard , including 30 doctorates . Approximately 10 % of ALM graduates have gone on to doctorates , including 16 at Harvard . There have been 328 AA and AB degrees awarded to employees since TAP was started in 1978 , 105 ALMs , and 166 certificates .
Given the success students had as early as 1953 in continuing their education after earning a degree from the Extension School , Phelps said , " it would seem , therefore , that the Extension courses and the degree for which they count are each year fulfilling the educational purpose for which they were originally established . "
While there has never been an entrance exam and fees were kept as low as possible to allow as many as possible to enroll , only .18 % have ever earned a degree . Including certificate earners , 2 @.@ 5 % have graduated . Today more degrees are awarded each year than were awarded in the first 50 years combined .
= = = Undergraduate = = =
From 1913 to 1933 , students had to take 17 courses in order to earn an Associate 's ( equivalent of a Bachelor 's ) degree . The University Extension had been awarding Adjunct in Arts degrees since 1933 , but in 1960 a new Bachelor of Arts in Extension Studies was created to replace it . To earn one required meeting same standards as were required for a Bachelor of Arts degree from Harvard College , but it was designed for specifically for adult learners . In 1971 an associate degree was established , and the following year bachelor 's degrees were awarded with honors .
In 1963 the first bachelor 's degrees were first awarded to 14 people students , the largest class yet , and the total number of graduates rose to 299 . This number would grow to 1 @,@ 000 in 1976 , and in 1982 the graduating class rose to more than 100 students for the first time .
Throughout the 1950s and 1960s the University Extension was strictly a liberal arts program with no intention of offering professional programs . In 1971 , however , it was recognized that " our charter is too narrow , our staff too small " for what the world needed in that day and age , and a committee was appointed by President Derek Bok to review the " structure and purpose of Extension . "
To meet the needs of the community , the University Extension was stretched from a traditional liberal arts program to " a community vocational arm of the University " with programs specifically designed for residents of Cambridge and Roxbury , as well as an Urban Studies program and a teacher training program . Upon his retirement in 1975 Phelps remarked that " with community needs in mind , Extension has moved a long way from the traditional path , " but that " we need to reach far more of the poor than we do . "
= = = Graduate = = =
In 1980 the first master 's degree ( ALM ) was awarded . The next year restrictions were lifted on the degree , and 741 students enrolled in the program . Demands of the labor market meant new initiatives in professional studies had to grow along with the traditional liberal arts programs . A graduate Certificate of Advanced Study was established in 1977 for a full year of study in humanities , social sciences , or natural sciences . Due to the success of the ALM , however , this certificate was phased out after 1985 .
The certificate 's success prompted the creation of a Certificate of Special Studies in Administration and Management in 1980 for students with a bachelor 's degree but no prior training in business or management . In 2007 it became an ALM in Management , which soon became the most popular program at the Extension School .
To meet the growing need for biotech industry staff in the Boston area , a Certificate of Advanced Studies in Applied Sciences was established in 1982 . In 1986 a Certificate of Public Health was launched , and first award to a Greek pharmacist in 1987 . This was followed in 1989 by a Certificate in Museum Studies . In time museum studies would become a master 's degree concentration and the certificate was discontinued . The Certificate in Publishing and Communications was created in 1995 , and the ALM in Information Technology was established in 1996 .
In 2001 – 02 a pilot program was created to address the shortage of qualified math teachers in the Boston Public Schools . One in five middle and high school math teachers , for a total of 86 Boston teachers , took 117 classes . This led to the creation of an ALM in Mathematics for Teaching 2004 . A Certificate in Technologies of Education was created in 2000 – 01 which grew to become an ALM in Educational Technologies in 2005 – 06 . Also beginning in 2004 , ALMs could be earned in biotechnology or environmental management . The following year the ALM in Journalism , the first journalism degree offered at Harvard , was established .
= = = Pre @-@ medical program = = =
A pre @-@ med program was established at the Extension School in 1980 . Two years later , in 1982 , five students applied to medical school , and 3 were accepted at the University of Massachusetts , Tufts University , and New York University . Of the 19 students who applied to medical schools in 1985 , 15 were admitted , including two women to Harvard Medical School .
All 27 graduates who applied to medical school in 1989 were accepted , including three to Harvard Medical School and nine to the University of Massachusetts . Five years later , 90 % of students were accepted to medical school , including 5 to Harvard . Only one in three were accepted nationwide . The Health Careers Program has sponsored nearly 1 @,@ 000 students for admission to medical school since it was started in 1979 – 80 , and more than 845 were accepted . This 85 % success rate far exceeds the national acceptance rate of 35 % .
= = Online education = =
The Extension School developed its online Teleteaching Project in the 1980s . In 1984 , a calculus course was offered via voice @-@ data modem , kicking off its online education effort . In 1988 a joint venture was developed with Beijing Normal University on a five @-@ week course on artificial intelligence . It was taught in Harvard Square at nights , and the Chinese students simultaneously took the class in what was the morning for them .
After the Extension School became a self @-@ sufficient program and the Commission disbanded , the Lowell Institute funding was no longer used for direct operating costs and was instead turned into a scholarship fund for local high school students and teachers . In 1997 – 98 , nearly 100 students , most of them high school students in far flung places such as Alaska or Hawaii , were taking one of six different calculus courses online . Their schools did not offer the course , and the Lowell Scholarships allowed them to take it at a greatly reduced rate . Beginning in 1997 , courses were also being videotaped and then put online within 36 hours for distance students to view .
By 2000 online courses had evolved from an experiment to " an established academic program , " and in 2001 there were 25 online courses with 2 @,@ 200 student enrollments . In 2003 , the program had expanded to 36 online courses , including six from Harvard College , and in by 2004 there were 43 , including a Harvard College course on US @-@ Europe relations taken simultaneously by Extension students , Harvard graduate and undergraduate students , and students at Institut d 'Etudes Politiques de Paris .
In 2005 courses became available as podcasts downloadable on iTunes , and in 2006 – 07 there were 100 courses available online . Going online allowed professors to target their classes to specific audiences , such as Latino school teachers or museum professionals in certain regions , and by 2008 more than 25 % of the online courses were Harvard College classes .
A $ 1 million grant was awarded in 2005 to build a 6 @,@ 000 sq ft " of immerse , collaborative learning environments in five classrooms plus a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art control room . " They went online in 2007 and allowed " greatly enhanced opportunities for pedagogical experimentation . " This experimentation and research would be continued with the creation of HArvardX in 2012 .
In 2007 @-@ 8 there were more than 7 @,@ 700 course registrations in online classes , including 4 @,@ 000 from students who never came to campus for class . 108 classes were offered , including 29 Harvard College classes taught by senior Harvard faculty . In 2013 it was ranked the second @-@ best university for online education .
= = Deans = =
James Hardy Ropes , Chairman of Commission on Extension Courses , Dean of University Extension , 1910 – 1922
Arthur F. Whittem , Chairman of Commission on Extension Courses , Director of University Extension , 1922 – 1946
George W. Adams , Chairman of Commission on Extension Courses , Director of University Extension , 1946 – 1949
Reginald H. Phelps , Chairman of Commission on Extension Courses , Director of University Extension , 1949 – 1975
Michael Shinagel , Director of Continuing Education and University Extension , 1975 – 1977 , and Dean of Continuing Education and University Extension , 1977 – 2013
Huntington D. Lambert , Dean of Continuing Education and University Extension , 2013 – present
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= Personal ( album ) =
Personal is the debut studio album by the American vocal group Men of Vizion . It was released on June 18 , 1996 via Michael Jackson 's record label , MJJ Music , after a demo tape was played to him by producer Teddy Riley . The album has been described as a " sumptuous blend " of vocal R & B and " 90s production techniques " , that alternates between smooth ballads and new jack swing .
Personal received mixed reviews from music critics , with some critics noting similarities between the group and Boyz II Men . Some critics felt as if the material was unmemorable versions of Boyz II Men songs , while others felt that Personal was highly different from the music at the time . The album only managed to chart in the United States , where it peaked at 14 on the Billboard Heatseekers Albums , 29 on the Billboard R & B Albums and 186 on the Billboard Top 200 . Two singles were released to promote the album : " House Keeper " and " Do Thangz " . The former was a commercial success , peaking at number 13 on the U.S. Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles & Tracks and at 67 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 .
= = Development and composition = =
Composed of George Spencer III , Corley Randolph , Desmond T. Greggs , Brian L. Dermus and lead singer Prathan " Spanky " Williams , Men of Vizion were formed in the early 1990s in Brooklyn , New York . Their vocal R & B harmonies impressed American entertainer Michael Jackson , who signed the group to his record label , MJJ Music , after a demo tape was played to him by producer Teddy Riley in 1993 . Greggs told Billboard magazine that the band is " here to prove that intimate songwriting in R & B is coming back " . He concluded by stating that the band was writing songs " that everyone will understand " .
Personal is a " sumptuous blend " of vocal R & B and " 90s production techniques " , that alternates between smooth ballads and new jack swing . The album incorporates all of the band 's beliefs and emotions , from love , romance and sensitivity . " House Keeper " is a story of reversal of the traditional roles that men and women play in relationships . The rest of the album " rolls along similarly " , with the songs " Forgive Me " , " Joyride " and " Do Thangz " , a mid @-@ tempo song on which the group pay homage to the females in their lives . A cover of The Jackson 5 's 1977 hit single " Show You the Way to Go " is included on the album . The cover was originally recorded and released on the soundtrack of the 1995 film Money Train .
= = Release and promotion = =
Originally set for release on May 14 , 1996 , Personal was released by MJJ Music , 550 Music and Epic Records on June 18 . The album debuted at 186 on the Billboard Top 200 for the chart issued on July 6 . It exited the chart the following week , to re @-@ enter at the same position for the chart issued on July 20 . The album spent a total of four weeks in the chart , before its exit on the week of August 10 . Personal debuted at its peak position of 29 on the U.S. Billboard R & B Albums on the chart issued on July 6 . Spending a total of ten weeks on the R & B Albums chart , the album received its final position of 87 on the chart issued on September 7 . Personal debuted at 14 on U.S. Billboard Heatseekers Album chart on the chart issued on July 6 . It dropped to 16 in the following week , before moving back to the 14th position on July 20 , where it stayed for a second week . The album exited the Heatseekers Album chart on the week of September 7 , spending a total of nine weeks on it .
" House Keeper " was released as the lead single from the album on April 9 , 1996 . To promote the single , tying in with the song 's lyric play on reversed gender roles , the group performed track dates at " ladies only " functions . The trek was sponsored by major @-@ market radio stations . The song peaked at number 13 on the U.S. Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles & Tracks and at 67 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 . An accompanying music video for " House Keeper " was directed by Jesse Vaughan . " Do Thangz " was released as the second , and final , single from the album on October 8 , 1996 . It peaked at number 53 on the U.S. Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles & Tracks . An accompanying music video for the song was directed by Lionel C. Martin .
= = Critical response = =
Darryl Scipio of Vibe stated unlike " today 's masculine R & B " that is " laden with jokers who sing of little but freekin ' girls — and then of keeping it on the down @-@ low " , Personal doesn 't use " wordy descriptions of sex to get you in the mood to dance " . Scipio stated that all 12 songs on the album feature " tight , bouncy production " and that all the members of the group sing confidently ; " there are no weak vocals here " . He cited " House Keeper " and " Personal " as having the most soul , " but the rest stand solidly " . He concluded his review of the album by stating that : " These visionaries are definitely a sound for sore ears " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic compared the group and the musical style of Personal to that of Boyz II Men . Erlewine stated that where Boyz II Men have first @-@ rate professional songwriters and producers , Men of Vizion merely have " competent hacks " , which means that " no matter how hard the group tries , they can 't make any of these songs memorable " . Jai Henry of The Daily Cougar commented that although at times they sound " a little too much " like Blackstreet , Men of Vizion " definitely have their own sound " .
Jean A. Williams of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times remarked that while the group demonstrates " good , strong and genuine vocal ability " on the album , what they need is " something to set them apart from the proliferation of male harmony groups of the R & B / soul persuasion " . Williams complimented the group 's cover of " Show You the Way to Go " as a " nice effort " but called " House Keeper " derivative . Ray Marcano of the Dayton Daily News wrote that the album 's ballads - especially " That 's Alright " and " When You Need Someone " - have " terrific melodies and wonderful hooks that will easily keep listeners ' attention " . Marcano was , however , critical of the group 's indistinct harmonies and said their vocals need to be " a bit sharper " . Jerome Cannon of the Chattanooga Times Free Press complimented Men of Vizion 's harmonies on " It 's Alright " and said that what caught his attention about the album was that the group were " not caught up in what every other new male group is trying to do , and that is to imitate Boyz II Men " .
= = Track listing = =
" That 's Alright " ( Prathan Williams ) – 5 : 35
" Instant Love " ( Teddy Riley , Prathan Williams , Chauncey Hannibal , Rodney Jerkins ) – 5 : 41
" House Keeper " ( Teddy Riley , Sherri Blair , George Spencer III ) – 4 : 33
" When You Need Someone " ( Prathan Williams ) – 6 : 47
" Forgive Me " ( Prathan Williams ) – 5 : 44
" Personal " ( Bob Kirschner , Y. Babatunde , Prathan Williams , Sydney Joseph , Jr . ) – 6 : 33
" Joyride " featuring Tasha Scott ( Alexander Richbourg ) – 4 : 30
" You Told Me You Loved Me " ( Prathan Williams , Bob Kirschner , Y. Babatunde ) – 5 : 47
" Do Thangz " ( Teddy Riley , Sherri Blair , Chris Smith , Menton Smith ) – 5 : 02
" Show You the Way to Go " ( Kenny Gamble , Leon Huff ) – 5 : 28
" It 's Only Just a Dream " ( Teddy Riley , Sherri Blair , Prathan Williams , George Spencer III , Corley Randolph ) – 4 : 44
" Night and Day " ( Teddy Riley , Corley Randolph , Desmond Greggs , Leon Sylvers IV ) – 4 : 34
= = Charts = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for Personal adapted from AllMusic .
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= Cyathus =
Cyathus is a genus of fungi in the Nidulariaceae , a family collectively known as the bird 's nest fungi . They are given this name since they resemble tiny bird 's nests filled with " eggs " , structures large enough to have been mistaken in the past for seeds . However , these are now known to be reproductive structures containing spores . The " eggs " , or peridioles , are firmly attached to the inner surface of this fruit body by an elastic cord of mycelia known as a funiculus . The 45 species are widely distributed throughout the world and some are found in most countries , although a few exist in only one or two locales . Cyathus stercoreus is considered endangered in a number of European countries . Species of Cyathus are also known as splash cups , which refers to the fact that falling raindrops can knock the peridioles out of the open @-@ cup fruit body . The internal and external surfaces of this cup may be ridged longitudinally ( referred to as plicate or striate ) ; this is one example of a taxonomic characteristic that has traditionally served to distinguish between species .
Generally considered inedible , Cyathus species are saprobic , since they obtain nutrients from decomposing organic matter . They usually grow on decaying wood or woody debris , on cow and horse dung , or directly on humus @-@ rich soil . The life cycle of this genus allows it to reproduce both sexually , with meiosis , and asexually via spores . Several Cyathus species produce bioactive compounds , some with medicinal properties , and several lignin @-@ degrading enzymes from the genus may be useful in bioremediation and agriculture . Phylogenetic analysis is providing new insights into the evolutionary relationships between the various species in Cyathus , and has cast doubt on the validity of the older classification systems that are based on traditional taxonomic characteristics
= = History = =
Bird 's nest fungi were first mentioned by Flemish botanist Carolus Clusius in Rariorum plantarum historia ( 1601 ) . Over the next couple of centuries , these fungi were the subject of some controversy regarding whether the peridioles were seeds , and the mechanism by which they were dispersed in nature . For example , the French botanist Jean @-@ Jacques Paulet , in his work Traité des champignons ( 1790 – 3 ) , proposed the erroneous notion that peridioles were ejected from the fruit bodies by some sort of spring mechanism . The genus was established in 1768 by the Swiss scientist Albrecht von Haller ; the generic name Cyathus is Latin , but originally derived from the Ancient Greek word κύαθος , meaning " cup " . The structure and biology of the genus Cyathus was better known by the mid @-@ 19th century , starting with the appearance in 1842 of a paper by Carl Johann Friedrich Schmitz , and two years later , a monograph by the brothers Louis René and Charles Tulasne . The work of the Tulasnes was thorough and accurate , and was highly regarded by later researchers . Subsequently , monographs were written in 1902 by Violet S. White ( on American species ) , Curtis Gates Lloyd in 1906 , Gordon Herriot Cunningham in 1924 ( on New Zealand species ) , and Harold J. Brodie in 1975 .
= = Description = =
Species in the genus Cyathus have fruit bodies ( peridia ) that are vase- , trumpet- or urn @-@ shaped with dimensions of 4 – 8 mm wide by 7 – 18 mm tall . Fruit bodies are brown to gray @-@ brown in color , and covered with small hair @-@ like structures on the outer surface . Some species , like C. striatus and C. setosus , have conspicuous bristles called setae on the rim of the cup . The fruit body is often expanded at the base into a solid rounded mass of hyphae called an emplacement , which typically becomes tangled and entwined with small fragments of the underlying growing surface , improving its stability and helping it from being knocked over by rain .
Immature fruit bodies have a whitish membrane , an epiphragm , that covers the peridium opening when young , but eventually dehisces , breaking open during maturation . Viewed with a microscope , the peridium of Cyathus species is made of three distinct layers — the endo- , meso- , and ectoperidium , referring to the inner , middle , and outer layers respectively . While the surface of the ectoperidium in Cyathus is usually hairy , the endoperidial surface is smooth , and depending on the species , may have longitudinal grooves ( striations ) .
Because the basic fruit body structure in all genera of the Nidulariaceae family is essentially similar , Cyathus may be readily confused with species of Nidula or Crucibulum , especially older , weathered specimens of Cyathus that may have the hairy ectoperidium worn off . It distinguished from Nidula by the presence of a funiculus , a cord of hyphae attaching the peridiole to the endoperidium . Cyathus differs from genus Crucibulum by having a distinct three @-@ layered wall and a more intricate funiculus .
= = = Peridiole structure = = =
Derived from the Greek word peridion , meaning " small leather pouch " , the peridiole is the " egg " of the bird 's nest . It is a mass of basidiospores and glebal tissue enclosed by a hard and waxy outer shell . The shape may be described as lenticular — like a biconvex lens — and depending on the species , may range in color from whitish to grayish to black . The interior chamber of the peridiole contains a hymenium that is made of basidia , sterile ( non @-@ reproductive ) structures , and spores . In young , freshly opened fruit bodies , the peridioles lie in a clear gelatinous substance which soon dries .
Peridioles are attached to the fruit body by a funiculus , a complex structure of hyphae that may be differentiated into three regions : the basal piece , which attaches it to the inner wall of the peridium , the middle piece , and an upper sheath , called the purse , connected to the lower surface of the peridiole . In the purse and middle piece is a coiled thread of interwoven hyphae called the funicular cord , attached at one end to the peridiole and at the other end to an entangled mass of hyphae called the hapteron . In some species the peridioles may be covered by a tunica , a thin white membrane ( particularly evident in C. striatus and C. crassimurus ) . Spores typically have an elliptical or roughly spherical shape , and are thick @-@ walled , hyaline or light yellow @-@ brown in color , with dimensions of 5 – 15 by 5 – 8 µm .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Fruit bodies typically grow in clusters , and are found on dead or decaying wood , or on woody fragments in cow or horse dung . Dung @-@ loving ( coprophilous ) species include C. stercoreus , C. costatus , C. fimicola , and C. pygmaeus . Some species have been collected on woody material like dead herbaceous stems , the empty shells or husks of nuts , or on fibrous material like coconut , jute , or hemp fiber woven into matting , sacks or cloth . In nature , fruit bodies are usually found in moist , partly shaded sites , such as the edges of woods on trails , or around lighted openings in forests . They are less frequently found growing in dense vegetation and deep mosses , as these environments would interfere with the dispersal of peridioles by falling drops of water . The appearance of fruit bodies is largely dependent upon features of the immediate growing environment ; specifically , optimum conditions of temperature , moisture , and nutrient availability are more important factors for fruit rather than the broad geographical area in which the fungi are located , or the season . Examples of the ability of Cyathus to thrive in somewhat inhospitable environments are provided by C. striatus and C. stercoreus , which can survive the drought and cold of winter in temperate North America , and the species C. helenae , which has been found growing on dead alpine plants at an altitude of 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) .
In general , species of Cyathus have a worldwide distribution , but are only rarely found in the arctic and subarctic . One of the best known species , C. striatus has a circumpolar distribution and is commonly found throughout temperate locations , while the morphologically similar C. poeppigii is widely spread in tropical areas , rarely in the subtropics , and never in temperate regions . The majority of species are native to warm climates . For example , although 20 different species have been reported from the United States and Canada , only 8 are commonly encountered ; on the other hand , 25 species may be regularly found in the West Indies , and the Hawaiian Islands alone have 11 species . Some species seem to be endemic to certain regions , such as C. novae @-@ zeelandiae found in New Zealand , or C. crassimurus , found only in Hawaii ; however , this apparent endemism may just be a result of a lack of collections , rather than a difference in the habitat that constitutes a barrier to spread . Although widespread in the tropics and most of the temperate world , C. stercoreus is only rarely found in Europe ; this has resulted in its appearance on a number of Red Lists . For example , it is considered endangered in Bulgaria , Denmark , and Montenegro , and " near threatened " in Great Britain . The discovery of a Cyathus species in Dominican amber ( C. dominicanus ) suggests that the basic form of the bird 's nest fungi had already evolved by the Cretaceous era and that the group had diversified by the mid @-@ Cenozoic .
= = Life cycle = =
The life cycle of the genus Cyathus , which contains both haploid and diploid stages , is typical of taxa in the basidiomycetes that can reproduce both asexually ( via vegetative spores ) , or sexually ( with meiosis ) . Like other wood @-@ decay fungi , this life cycle may be considered as two functionally different phases : the vegetative stage for the spread of mycelia , and the reproductive stage for the establishment of spore @-@ producing structures , the fruit bodies .
The vegetative stage encompasses those phases of the life cycle involved with the germination , spread , and survival of the mycelium . Spores germinate under suitable conditions of moisture and temperature , and grow into branching filaments called hyphae , pushing out like roots into the rotting wood . These hyphae are homokaryotic , containing a single nucleus in each compartment ; they increase in length by adding cell @-@ wall material to a growing tip . As these tips expand and spread to produce new growing points , a network called the mycelium develops . Mycelial growth occurs by mitosis and the synthesis of hyphal biomass . When two homokaryotic hyphae of different mating compatibility groups fuse with one another , they form a dikaryotic mycelia in a process called plasmogamy . Prerequisites for mycelial survival and colonization a substrate ( like rotting wood ) include suitable humidity and nutrient availability . The majority of Cyathus species are saprobic , so mycelial growth in rotting wood is made possible by the secretion of enzymes that break down complex polysaccharides ( such as cellulose and lignin ) into simple sugars that can be used as nutrients .
After a period of time and under the appropriate environmental conditions , the dikaryotic mycelia may enter the reproductive stage of the life cycle . Fruit body formation is influenced by external factors such as season ( which affects temperature and air humidity ) , nutrients and light . As fruit bodies develop they produce peridioles containing the basidia upon which new basidiospores are made . Young basidia contain a pair of haploid sexually compatible nuclei which fuse , and the resulting diploid fusion nucleus undergoes meiosis to produce basidiospores , each containing a single haploid nucleus . The dikaryotic mycelia from which the fruit bodies are produced is long lasting , and will continue to produce successive generations of fruit bodies as long as the environmental conditions are favorable .
The development of Cyathus fruit bodies has been studied in laboratory culture ; Cyathus stercoreus has been used most often for these studies due to the ease with which it may be grown experimentally . In 1958 , E. Garnett first demonstrated that the development and form of the fruit bodies is at least partially dependent on the intensity of light it receives during development . For example , exposure of the heterokaryotic mycelium to light is required for fruit to occur , and furthermore , this light needs to be at a wavelength of less than 530 nm . Continuous light is not required for fruit body development ; after the mycelium has reached a certain stage of maturity , only a brief exposure to light is necessary , and fruit bodies will form if even subsequently kept in the dark . Lu suggested in 1965 that certain growing conditions — such as a shortage in available nutrients — shifts the fungus ' metabolism to produce a hypothetical " photoreceptive precursor " that enables the growth of the fruit bodies to be stimulated and affected by light . The fungi is also positively phototrophic , that is , it will orient its fruit bodies in the direction of the light source . The time required to develop fruit bodies depends on a number of factors , such as the temperature , or the availability and type of nutrients , but in general " most species that do fruit in laboratory culture do so best at about 25 ° C , in from 18 to 40 days . "
= = Spore dispersal = =
Like other bird 's nest fungi in the Nidulariaceae , species of Cyathus have their spores dispersed when water falls into the fruit body . The fruit body is shaped so that the kinetic energy of a fallen raindrop is redirected upward and slightly outward by the angle of the cup wall , which is consistently 70 – 75 ° with the horizontal . The action ejects the peridioles out of the so @-@ called " splash cup " , where it may break and spread the spores within , or be eaten and dispersed by animals after passing through the digestive tract . This method of spore dispersal in the Nidulariaceae was tested experimentally by George Willard Martin in 1924 , and later elaborated by Arthur Henry Reginald Buller , who used Cyathus striatus as the model species to experimentally investigate the phenomenon . Buller 's major conclusions about spore dispersal were later summarized by his graduate student Harold J. Brodie , with whom he conducted several of these splash cup experiments :
Raindrops cause the peridioles of the Nidulariaceae to be thrown about four feet by splash action . In the genus Cyathus , as a peridiole is jerked out of its cup , the funiculus is torn and this makes possible the expansion of a mass of adhesive hyphae ( the hapteron ) which clings to any object in the line of flight . The momentum of the peridiole causes a long cord to be pulled out of a sheath attached to the peridiole . The peridiole is checked in flight and the jerk causes the funicular cord to become wound around stems or entangled among plant hairs . Thus the peridiole becomes attached to vegetation and may be eaten subsequently by herbivorous animals .
Although it has not been shown experimentally if the spores can survive the passage through an animal 's digestive tract , the regular presence of Cyathus on cow or horse manure strongly suggest that this is true . Alternatively , the hard outer casing of peridioles ejected from splash cups may simply disintegrate over time , eventually releasing the spores within .
= = Bioactive compounds = =
A number of species of Cyathus produce metabolites with biological activity , and novel chemical structures that are specific to this genus . For example , cyathins are diterpenoid compounds produced by C. helenae , C. africanus and C. earlei . Several of the cyathins ( especially cyathins B3 and C3 ) , including striatin compounds from C. striatus , show strong antibiotic activity . Cyathane diterpenoids also stimulate nerve growth factor synthesis , and have the potential to be developed into therapeutic agents for neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer 's disease . Compounds named cyathuscavins , isolated from the mycelial liquid culture of C. stercoreus , have significant antioxidant activity , as do the compounds known as cyathusals , also from C. stercoreus . Various sesquiterpene compounds have also been identified in C. bulleri , including cybrodol ( derived from humulene ) , nidulol , and bullerone .
Various Cyathus species have antifungal activity against human pathogens such as Aspergillus fumigatus , Candida albicans and Cryptococcus neoformans . Extracts of C. striatus have inhibitory effects on NF @-@ κB , a transcription factor responsible for regulating the expression of several genes involved in the immune system , inflammation , and cell death .
= = Human uses = =
= = = Edibility = = =
Species in the Nidulariaceae family , including Cyathus , are considered inedible , as they are " not sufficiently large , fleshy , or odorous to be of interest to humans as food " . However , there have not been reports of poisonous alkaloids or other substances considered toxic to humans . Brodie goes on to note that two Cyathus species have been used by native peoples as an aphrodisiac , or to stimulate fertility : C. limbatus in Colombia , and C. microsporus in Guadeloupe . Whether these species have any actual effect on human physiology is unknown .
= = = Biodegradation = = =
Lignin is a complex polymeric chemical compound that is a major constituent of wood . Resistant to biological decomposition , its presence in paper makes it weaker and more liable to discolor when exposed to light . The species C. bulleri contains three lignin @-@ degrading enzymes : lignin peroxidase , manganese peroxidase , and laccase . These enzymes have potential applications not only in the pulp and paper industry , but also to increase the digestibility and protein content of forage for cattle . Because laccases can break down phenolic compounds they may be used to detoxify some environmental pollutants , such as dyes used in the textile industry . C. bulleri laccase has also been genetically engineered to be produced by Escherichia coli , making it the first fungal laccase to be produced in a bacterial host . C. pallidus can biodegrade the explosive compound RDX ( hexahydro @-@ 1 @,@ 3 @,@ 5 @-@ trinitro @-@ 1 @,@ 3 @,@ 5 @-@ triazine ) , suggesting it might be used to decontaminate munitions @-@ contaminated soils .
= = = Agriculture = = =
Cyathus olla has been investigated for its ability to accelerate the decomposition of stubble left in the field after harvest , effectively reducing pathogen populations and accelerating nutrient cycling through mineralization of essential plant nutrients .
= = Infrageneric classification = =
The genus Cyathus was first subdivided into two infrageneric groups ( i.e. , grouping species below the rank of genus ) by the Tulasne brothers ; the " eucyathus " group had fruit bodies with inner surfaces folded into pleats ( plications ) , while the " olla " group lacked plications . Later ( 1906 ) , Lloyd published a different concept of infrageneric grouping in Cyathus , describing five groups , two in the eucyathus group and five in the olla group .
In the 1970s , Brodie , in his monograph on bird 's nest fungi , separated the genus Cyathus into seven related groups based on a number of taxonomic characteristics , including the presence or absence of plications , the structure of the peridioles , the color of the fruit bodies , and the nature of the hairs on the outer peridium : Olla group : Species with a tomentum having fine flattened @-@ down hairs , and no plications .
C. olla , C. africanus , C. badius , C. canna , C. colensoi , C. confusus , C. earlei , C. hookeri , C. microsporus , C. minimus , C. pygmaeus
Pallidus group : Species with conspicuous , long , downward @-@ pointing hairs , and a smooth ( non @-@ plicate ) inner peridium .
C. pallidus , C. julietae
Triplex group : Species with mostly dark @-@ colored peridia , and a silvery white inner surface .
C. triplex , C. setosus , C. sinensis
Gracilis group : Species with tomentum hairs clumped into tufts or mounds .
C. gracilis , C. intermedius , C. crassimurus , C. elmeri
Stercoreus group : Species with non @-@ plicate peridia , shaggy or wooly outer peridium walls , and dark to black peridioles .
C. stercoreus , C. pictus , C. fimicola
Poeppigii group : Species with plicate internal peridial walls , hairy to shaggy outer walls , dark to black peridioles , and large , roughly spherical or ellipsoidal spores .
C. poeppigii , C. crispus , C. limbatus , C. gayanus , C. costatus , C. cheliensis , C. olivaceo @-@ brunneus
Striatus group : Species with plicate internal peridia , hairy to shaggy outer peridia , and mostly elliptical spores .
C. striatus , C. annulatus , C. berkeleyanus , C. bulleri , C. chevalieri , C. ellipsoideus , C. helenae , C. montagnei , C. nigro @-@ albus , C. novae @-@ zeelandiae , C. pullus , C. rudis
= = = Phylogenetic analysis = = =
The 2007 publication of phylogenetic analyses of DNA sequence data of numerous Cyathus species has cast doubt on the validity of the morphology @-@ based infrageneric classifications described by Brodie . This research suggests that Cyathus species can be grouped into three genetically related clades :
ollum group : C. africanus ( type ) , C. africanus f. latisporus , C. conlensoi , C. griseocarpus , C. guandishanensis , C. hookeri , C. jiayuguanensis , C. olla , C. olla f. anglicus , and C. olla f. brodiensis .
striatum group : C. annulatus , C. crassimurus , C. helenae , C. poeppigii , C. renwei , C. setosus , C. stercoreus , and C. triplex .
pallidum group : C. berkeleyanus , C. olla f. lanatus , C. gansuensis , and C. pallidus .
This analysis shows that rather than fruit body structure , spore size is generally a more reliable character for segregating species groups in Cyathus . For example , species in the ollum clade all have spore lengths less than 15 µm , while all members of the pallidum group have lengths greater than 15 µm ; the striatum group , however , cannot be distinguished from the pallidum group by spore size alone . Two characteristics are most suited for distinguishing members of the ollum group from the pallidum group : the thickness of the hair layer on the peridium surface , and the outline of the fruit bodies . The tomentum of Pallidum species is thick , like felt , and typically aggregates into clumps of shaggy or woolly hair . Their crucible @-@ shaped fruit bodies do not have a clearly differentiated stipe . The exoperidium of Ollum species , in comparison , has a thin tomentum of fine hairs ; fruit bodies are funnel @-@ shaped and have either a constricted base or a distinct stipe .
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= Bovidae =
Bovidae is the biological family of cloven @-@ hoofed , ruminant mammals that includes bison , African buffalo , water buffalo , antelopes , gazelles , sheep , goats , muskoxen , and domestic cattle . A member of this family is called a bovid . Consisting of 143 extant species and 300 known extinct species , the family Bovidae consists of eight major subfamilies apart from the disputed Peleinae and Pantholopinae . The family evolved 20 million years ago , in the early Miocene .
The bovids show great variation in size and pelage colouration . Excepting some domesticated forms , all male bovids have two or more horns , and in many species females possess horns , too . The size and shape of the horns vary greatly , but the basic structure is always one or more pairs of simple bony protrusions without branches , often having a spiral , twisted or fluted form , each covered in a permanent sheath of keratin . Most bovids bear 30 to 32 teeth .
Most bovids are diurnal . Social activity and feeding usually peak during dawn and dusk . Bovids typically rest before dawn , during midday , and after dark . They have various methods of social organisation and social behaviour , which are classified into solitary and gregarious behaviour . Bovids use different forms of vocal , olfactory , and tangible communication . Most species alternately feed and ruminate throughout the day . While small bovids forage in dense and closed habitat , larger species feed on high @-@ fiber vegetation in open grasslands . Most bovids are polygynous . Mature bovids mate at least once a year and smaller species may even mate twice . In some species , neonate bovids remain hidden for a week to two months , regularly nursed by their mothers ; in other species , neonates are followers , accompanying their dams , rather than tending to remain hidden .
The greatest diversities of bovids occur in Africa . The maximum concentration of species is in the savannas of eastern Africa . Other bovid species also occur in Europe , Asia , and North America . Bovidae includes three of the five domesticated mammals whose use has spread outside their original ranges , namely cattle , sheep , and goats . Dairy products such as milk , butter , and cheese are manufactured largely from domestic cattle . Bovids also provide leather , meat , and wool .
= = Etymology = =
The name " Bovidae " was given by the British zoologist John Edward Gray in 1821 . The word " Bovidae " is the combination of the prefix bov- ( originating from Latin bos , " ox " , through Late Latin bovinus ) and the suffix -idae .
= = Taxonomy = =
The family Bovidae is placed in the order Artiodactyla ( which includes the even @-@ toed ungulates ) . It includes 143 extant species , accounting for nearly 55 % of the ungulates , and 300 known extinct species .
Molecular studies have supported monophyly in the family Bovidae ( a monophyletic group of organisms comprises an ancestral species and their descendants ) . The number of subfamilies in Bovidae is disputed , with suggestions of as many as ten and as few as two subfamilies . However , molecular , morphological and fossil evidence indicates the existence of eight distinct subfamilies : Aepycerotinae ( consisting of just the impala ) , Alcelaphinae ( bontebok , hartebeest , wildebeest and relatives ) , Antilopinae ( several antelopes , gazelles , and relatives ) , Bovinae ( cattle , buffaloes , bison and other antelopes ) , Caprinae ( goats , sheep , ibex , serows and relatives ) , Cephalophinae ( duikers ) , Hippotraginae ( addax , oryx and relatives ) and Reduncinae ( reedbuck and kob antelopes ) . In addition , three extinct subfamilies are known : Hypsodontinae ( mid @-@ Miocene ) , Oiocerinae ( Turolian ) and the subfamily Tethytraginae , which contains Tethytragus ( mid @-@ Miocene ) .
In 1992 , Alan W. Gentry of the Natural History Museum , London divided the eight major subfamilies of Bovidae into two major clades on the basis of their evolutionary history : the Boodontia , which comprised only the Bovinae , and the Aegodontia , which consisted of the rest of the subfamilies . Boodonts have somewhat primitive teeth , resembling those of oxen , whereas aegodonts have more advanced teeth like those of goats .
A controversy exists about the recognition of Peleinae and Patholopinae , comprising the genera Pelea and Pantholops respectively , as subfamilies . In 2000 , American biologist George Schaller and palaeontologist Elisabeth Vrba suggested the inclusion of Pelea in Reduncinae , though the grey rhebok , the sole species of Pelea , is highly different from kobs and reduncines in morphology . Pantholops , earlier classified in the Antilopinae , was later placed in its own subfamily , Pantholopinae . However , molecular and morphological analysis supports the inclusion of Pantholops in Caprinae .
Below is a cladogram based on Gatesy et al . ( 1997 ) and Gentry et al . ( 1997 )
= = Evolution = =
= = = Early Miocene and before = = =
In the early Miocene , bovids began diverging from the cervids ( deer ) and giraffids . The earliest bovids , whose presence in Africa and Eurasia in the latter part of early Miocene ( 20 Mya ) has been ascertained , were small animals , somewhat similar to modern gazelles , and probably lived in woodland environments . Eotragus , the earliest known bovid , weighed 18 kg ( 40 lb ) and was nearly the same in size as the Thompson 's gazelle . Early in their evolutionary history , the bovids split into two main clades : Boodontia ( of Eurasian origin ) and Aegodontia ( of African origin ) . This early split between Boodontia and Aegodontia has been attributed to the continental divide between these land masses . When these continents were later rejoined , this barrier was removed , and either group expanded into the territory of the other . The tribes Bovini and Tragelaphini diverged in the early Miocene . Bovids are known to have reached the Americas in the Pleistocene by crossing the Bering land bridge .
The present genera of Alcelaphinae appeared in the Pliocene . The extinct Alcelaphine genus Paramularius , that was the same in size as the hartebeest , is believed to have come into being in the Pliocene , but became extinct in the middle Pleistocene . Several genera of Hippotraginae are known since the Pliocene and Pleistocene . This subfamily appears to have diverged from the Alcelaphinae in the latter part of early Miocene . The Bovinae are believed to have diverged from the rest of the Bovidae in the late Oligocene . The Boselaphini became extinct in Africa in the early Pliocene ; their latest fossils were excavated in Langebaanweg ( South Africa ) and Lothagam ( Kenya ) .
= = = Middle Miocene = = =
The middle Miocene marked the spread of the bovids into China and the Indian subcontinent . According to Vrba , the radiation of the subfamily Alcelaphinae began in the latter part of middle Miocene . The Caprinae tribes probably diverged in the early middle Miocene . The Caprini emerged in the middle Miocene , and seem to have been replaced by other bovids and cervids in Eurasia . The earliest fossils of the antilopines are from the middle Miocene , though studies show the existence of the subfamily from the early Miocene . Speciation occurred in the tribe Antilopini during the middle or upper Miocene , mainly in Eurasia . Tribe Neotragini seems to have appeared in Africa by the end of Miocene , and had become widespread by the Pliocene .
= = = Late Miocene = = =
By the late Miocene , around 10 Mya , the bovids rapidly diversified , leading to the creation of 70 new genera . This late Miocene radiation was partly because many bovids became adapted to more open , grassland habitats . The Aepycerotinae first appeared in the late Miocene , and no significant difference in the sizes of the primitive and modern impala has been noted . Fossils of obivines , a tribe of Caprinae , in Africa date back to the late Miocene . The earliest Hippotragine fossils date back to the late Miocene , and were excavated from sites such as Lothagam and Awash Valley . The first African fossils of Reduncinae date back to 6 @-@ 7 Mya . Reduncinae and Peleinae probably diverged in the mid @-@ Miocene .
= = Characteristics = =
All bovids have the similar basic form - a snout with a blunt end , one or more pairs of horns ( generally present on males ) immediately after the oval or pointed ears , a distinct neck and limbs , and a tail varying in length and bushiness among the species . Most bovids exhibit sexual dimorphism , with males usually larger as well as heavier than females . Sexual dimorphism is more prominent in medium- to large @-@ sized bovids . All bovids have four toes on each foot – they walk on the central two ( the hooves ) , while the outer two ( the dewclaws ) are much smaller and rarely touch the ground .
The bovids show great variation in size : the gaur can weigh as much as 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) and stands 2 – 3 m ( 6 @.@ 6 – 9 @.@ 8 ft ) high at the shoulder . The water buffalo can be even heavier , and weigh 1 @,@ 200 kg ( 2 @,@ 600 lb ) , though it is shorter than the gaur , being at most 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) tall . The royal antelope , in sharp contrast , is only 25 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) tall and weighs at most 3 kg ( 6 @.@ 6 lb ) . The klipspringer , another small antelope , stands 45 – 60 cm ( 18 – 24 in ) at the shoulder and weighs just 10 – 20 kg ( 22 – 44 lb ) .
Differences occur in pelage colouration , ranging from a pale white ( as in the Arabian oryx ) to black ( as in the black wildebeest ) . However , only the intermediate shades , such as brown and reddish brown ( as in the reedbuck ) , are commonly observed . In several species , females and juveniles exhibit a light @-@ coloured coat , while those of males darken with age . As in the wildebeest , the coat may be marked with prominent or faint stripes . In some species such as the addax , the coat colour can vary by the season . Scent glands and sebaceous glands are often present .
Some species , such as the gemsbok , sable antelope , and Grant 's gazelle , are camouflaged with strongly disruptive facial markings that conceal the highly recognisable eye . Many species , such as gazelles , may be made to look flat , and hence to blend into the background , by countershading . The outlines of many bovids are broken up with bold disruptive colouration , the strongly contrasting patterns helping to delay recognition by predators . However , all the Hippotraginae ( including the gemsbok ) have pale bodies and faces with conspicuous markings . The zoologist Tim Caro describes this as difficult to explain , but given that the species are diurnal , he suggests that the markings may function in communication . Strongly contrasting leg colouration is common only in the Bovidae , where for example Bos , Ovis , bontebok and gemsbok have white stockings . Again , communication is the likely function .
Excepting some domesticated forms , all male bovids have horns , and in many species , females , too , possess horns . The size and shape of the horns vary greatly , but the basic structure is a pair of simple bony protrusions without branches , often having a spiral , twisted , or fluted form , each covered in a permanent sheath of keratin . Although horns occur in a single pair on almost all bovid species , there are exceptions such as the four @-@ horned antelope and the Jacob sheep . The unique horn structure is the only unambiguous morphological feature of bovids that distinguishes them from other pecorans . A high correlation exists between horn morphology and fighting behaviour of the individual . For instance , long horns are intended for wrestling and fencing , whereas curved horns are used in ramming . Males with horns directed inwards are monogamous and solitary , while those with horns directed outwards tend to be polygynous . These results were independent of body size .
Male horn development has been linked to sexual selection , Horns are small spikes in the monogamous duikers and other small antelopes , whereas in the polygynous , they are large and elaborately formed ( for example in a spiral structure , as in the giant eland ) . Thus , to some extent , horns depict the degree of competition among males in a species . However , the presence of horns in females is likely due to natural selection . The horns of females are usually smaller than those of males , and are sometimes of a different shape . The horns of female bovids are believed to have evolved for defence against predators or to express territoriality , as nonterritorial females , which are able to use crypsis for predator defence , often do not have horns . Females possess horns only in half of the bovid genera , and females in these genera are heavier than those in the rest . Females use horns mainly for stabbing .
= = = Anatomy = = =
In bovids , the third and fourth metapodials are combined into the cannon bone . The ulna and fibula are reduced , and fused with the radius and tibia , respectively . Long scapulae are present , whereas the clavicles are absent . Being ruminants , the stomach is composed of four chambers : the rumen ( 80 % ) , the omasum , the reticulum , and the abomasum . The ciliates and bacteria of the rumen ferment the complex cellulose into simpler fatty acids , which are then absorbed through the rumen wall . Bovids have a long small intestine ; the length of the small intestine in cattle is 29 – 49 m ( 95 – 161 ft ) . Body temperature fluctuates through the day ; for instance , in goats the temperature can change slightly from nearly 37 ° C ( 99 ° F ) in the early morning to 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) in the afternoon . Temperature is regulated through sweating in cattle , whereas goats use panting for the same . The right lung , consisting of four to five lobes , is around 1 @.@ 5 times larger than the left , which has three lobes .
= = = Dentition = = =
Most bovids bear 30 to 32 teeth . While the upper incisors are absent , the upper canines are either reduced or absent . Instead of the upper incisors , bovids have a thick and tough layer of tissue , called the dental pad , that provides a surface to grip grasses and foliage . They are hypsodont and selenodont , since the molars and premolars are low @-@ crowned and crescent @-@ shaped cusps . The lower incisors and canines project forward . The incisors are followed by a long toothless gap , known as the diastema . The general dental formula for bovids is 0 @.@ 0 @.@ 2 @-@ 3 @.@ 33 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 3 . Most members of the family are herbivorous , but most duikers are omnivorous . Like other ruminants , bovids have four @-@ chambered stomachs , which allow them to digest plant material , such as grass , that cannot be used by many other animals . Ruminants ( and some others like kangaroos , rabbits , and termites ) are able to use micro @-@ organisms living in their guts to break down cellulose by fermentation .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
The bovids have various methods of social organisation and social behaviour , which are classified into solitary and gregarious behaviour . Further , these types may each be divided into territorial and nonterritorial behaviour . Small bovids such as the klipspringer , oribi , and steenbok are generally solitary and territorial . They hold small territories into which other members of the species are not allowed to enter . These antelopes form monogamous pairs . Many species such as the dik @-@ dik use pheromone secretions from the preorbital glands and sometimes dung , as well , to mark their territories . The offspring disperse at the time of adolescence , and males need must acquire territories prior to mating . The bushbuck is the only bovid that is both solitary and not territorial . This antelope hardly displays aggression , and tends to isolate itself or form loose herds , though in a favourable habitat , several bushbuck may be found quite close to one another .
Excluding the cephalophines ( duikers ) , tragelaphines ( spiral @-@ horned antelopes ) and the neotragines , most African bovids are gregarious and territorial . Males are forced to disperse on attaining sexual maturity , and must form their own territories , while females are not required to do so . Males that do not hold territories form bachelor herds . Competition takes place among males to acquire dominance , and fights tend to be more rigorous in limited rutting seasons . With the exception of migratory males , males generally hold the same territory throughout their lives . In the waterbuck , some male individuals , known as " satellite males " , may be allowed into the territories of other males and have to wait till the owner grows old so they may acquire his territory . Lek mating , where males gather together and competitively display to potential mates , is known to exist among topis , kobs , and lechwes . The tragelaphines , cattle , sheep , and goats are gregarious and not territorial . In these species , males must gain absolute dominance over all other males , and fights are not confined to territories . Males , therefore , spend years in body growth .
= = = Activity = = =
Most bovids are diurnal , although a few such as the buffalo , bushbuck , reedbuck , and grysbok are exceptions . Social activity and feeding usually peak during dawn and dusk . The bovids usually rest before dawn , during midday , and after dark . Grooming is usually by licking with the tongue . Rarely do antelopes roll in mud or dust . Wildebeest and buffalo usually wallow in mud , whereas the hartebeest and topi rub their heads and horns in mud and then smear it over their bodies . Bovids use different forms of vocal , olfactory , and tangible communication . These involve varied postures of neck , head , horns , hair , legs , and ears to convey sexual excitement , emotional state , or alarm . One such expression is the flehmen response . Bovids usually stand motionless , with the head high and an intent stare , when they sense danger . Some like the impala , kudu , and eland can even leap to heights of a few feet . Bovids may roar or grunt to caution others and warn off predators , which include lion , tiger , brown bear , crocodile , dhole , Komodo dragon , spotted hyena , and cougar . Bovids such as gazelles stot or pronk in response to predators , making high leaps on stiff legs , indicating honestly both that the predator has been seen , and that the stotting individual is strong and not worth chasing .
In the mating season , rutting males bellow to make their presence known to females . Muskoxen roar during male @-@ male fights , and male saigas force air through their noses , producing a roar to deter rival males and attract females . Mothers also use vocal communication to locate their calves if they get separated . During fights over dominance , males tend to display themselves in an erect posture with a level muzzle .
Fighting techniques differ amongst the bovid families and also depend on their build . While the hartebeest fight on knees , others usually fight on all fours . Gazelles of various sizes use different methods of combat . Gazelles usually box , and in serious fights may clash and fence , consisting of hard blows from short range . Ibex , goat and sheep males stand upright and clash into each other downwards . Wildebeest use powerful head butting in aggressive clashes . If horns become entangled , the opponents move in a circular manner to unlock them . Muskoxen will ram into each other at high speeds . As a rule , only two bovids of equal build and level of defence engage in a fight , which is intended to determine the superior of the two . Individuals that are evidently inferior to others would rather flee than fight ; for example , immature males do not fight with the mature bulls . Generally , bovids direct their attacks on the opponent 's head rather than its body . The S @-@ shaped horns , such as those on the impala , have various sections that help in ramming , holding , and stabbing . Serious fights leading to injury are rare .
= = = Diet = = =
Most bovids alternately feed and ruminate throughout the day . While those that feed on concentrates feed and digest in short intervals , the roughage feeders take longer intervals . Only small species such as the duiker browse for a few hours during day or night . Feeding habits are related to body size ; while small bovids forage in dense and closed habitat , larger species feed upon high @-@ fiber vegetation in open grasslands . Subfamilies exhibit different feeding strategies . While Bovinae species graze extensively on fresh grass and diffused forage , Cephalophinae species ( with the exception of Sylvicapra ) primarily consume fruits . Reduncinae and Hippotraginae species depend on unstable food sources , but the latter are specially adapted to arid areas . Members of Caprinae , being flexible feeders , forage even in areas with low productivity . Tribes Alcelaphini , Hippotragini , and Reduncini have high proportions of monocots in their diets . On the contrary , Tragelaphini and Neotragini ( with the exception of Ourebia ) feed extensively on dicots . No conspicuous relationship exists between body size and consumption of monocots .
= = = Sexuality and reproduction = = =
Most bovids are polygynous . In a few species , individuals are monogamous , resulting in minimal male @-@ male aggression and reduced selection for large body size in males . Thus , sexual dimorphism is almost absent . Females may be slightly larger than males , possibly due to competition among females for the acquisition of territories . This is the case in duikers and other small bovids . The time taken for the attainment of sexual maturity by either sex varies broadly among bovids . Sexual maturity may even precede or follow mating . For instance the impala males , though sexually mature by a year , can mate only after four years of age . On the contrary barbary sheep females may give birth to offspring even before they have gained sexual maturity . The delay in male sexual maturation is more visible in sexually dimorphic species , particularly the reduncines , probably due to competition among males . For instance , the blue wildebeest females become capable of reproduction within a year or two of birth , while the males become mature only when four years old .
All bovids mate at least once a year , and smaller species may even mate twice . Mating seasons occur typically during the rainy months for most bovids . As such , breeding might peak twice in the equatorial regions . The sheep and goats exhibit remarkable seasonality of reproduction , in the determination of which the annual cycle of daily photoperiod plays a pivotal role . Other factors that have a significant influence on this cycle include the temperature of the surroundinga , nutritional status , social interactions , the date of parturition and the lactation period . A study of this phenomenon concluded that goats and sheep are short @-@ day breeders . Mating in most sheep breeds begins in summer or early autumn . Mating in sheep is also affected by melatonin , that advances the onset of the breeding season ; and thyroxine , that terminates the breeding season . Estrus lasts for at most a day in bovids , with the exception of bovines and tragelaphines . Except the hartebeest and the topi , all bovids can detect estrus in females by testing the urine using the vomeronasal organ . Once the male is assured that the female is in estrus , he begins courtship displays ; these displays vary greatly from the elaborate marches among gregarious species to the fervent licking of female genitalia among solitary species . Females , initially not receptive , ultimately mates with the male which has achieved dominance over others . Receptiveness is expressed by permission for mounting by the male and setting aside the tail by the female . Copulation generally takes a few seconds .
Gestational period varies among bovids - while duiker gestation ranges from 120 to 150 days , gestation in African buffalo ranges from 300 to 330 days . Usually , a single offspring is born ( twins are less frequent ) , and it is able to stand and run by itself within an hour of birth . In monogamous species , males assist in defending their young , but that is not the case in polygynous species . Most newborn calves remain hidden for a week to two months , regularly nursed by their mothers . In some bovid species the neonates start following about their mothers immediately or within a few days , as in the impala . Different bovids have different strategies for defence of juveniles . For instance , while wildebeest mothers solely defend their young , buffaloes exhibit collective defence . Weaning might occur as early as two months ( as in royal antelope ) or as late as a year ( as in muskox ) .
= = = Lifespan = = =
Most wild bovids live for 10 to 15 years . Larger species tend to live longer ; for instance , American bison can live up to 25 years and gaur up to 30 years . The mean lifespan of domesticated individuals is nearly ten years . For example , domesticated goats have an average lifespan of 12 years . Most wild bovids live between 10 and 15 years , with larger species tending to live longer . Usually males , mainly in polygynous species , have shorter lifespans than females . This can be attributed to several reasons : early dispersal of young males , aggressive male @-@ male fights , vulnerability to predation ( particularly when males are less agile , as in kudu ) , and malnutrition ( being large in size , the male body has high nutritional requirements which may not be satisfied ) . Richard Despard Estes suggested that females mimic male secondary sexual characteristics like horns to protect their male offspring from dominant males . This feature seems to have been strongly selected to prevent male mortality and imbalanced sex ratios due to attacks by aggressive males and forced dispersal of young males during adolescence .
= = Distribution = =
Most of the diverse bovid species occur in Africa . The maximum concentration is in the savannas of eastern Africa . Depending on their feeding habits , several species have radiated over large stretches of land , and hence several variations in dental and limb morphology are observed . Duikers inhabit the equatorial rainforests , sitatunga , and lechwe occur near swamps , eland inhabit grasslands , springbok and oryx occur in deserts , bongo and anoa live in dense forests , and mountain goats and takin live at high altitudes . A few bovid species also occur in Europe , Asia , and North America . Only two tribes of Bovidae - Antilopini and Hippotragini - are found outside the African continent . Sheep and goats are found primarily in Eurasia , though the Barbary sheep and the ibex form part of the African fauna . The muskox is confined to the arctic tundra . Several bovid species have been domesticated by human beings . The domestication of goats and sheep began 10 thousand years ago , while cattle were domesticated about 7 @.@ 5 thousand years ago .
= = Interaction with humans = =
= = = Domesticated animals = = =
The domestication of bovids has contributed in shifting the dependence of human beings from hunting and gathering to agriculture . The Bovidae include three of the five domesticated mammals whose use has spread outside their original ranges , namely cattle , sheep , and goats ; all are from Eurasia , and are now found across the world . The other two species are the horse and pig . Other large bovids that have been domesticated but which remain within the ranges of their wild ancestors are the domestic buffalo ( from the Indian water buffalo ) , yak , zebu ( from the gaur or Indian aurochs ) and Bali cattle ( from the banteng ) .
The earliest evidence of cattle domestication is from 8000 BC , suggesting that the process began in Cyprus and the Euphrates basin .
= = = Animal products = = =
Dairy products such as milk , butter , ghee , yoghurt , buttermilk and cheese are manufactured largely from domestic cattle , though the milk of sheep , goat , yak , and buffalo is also used in some parts of the world and for gourmet products . For example , buffalo milk is used to make mozzarella in Italy and gulab jamun dessert in India , while sheep milk is used to make blue Roquefort cheese in France . Beef is an excellent source of zinc , selenium , phosphorus , iron , and B vitamins . Bison meat is lower in fat and cholesterol than beef , but has a higher protein content .
Bovid leather is tough and durable , with the additional advantage that it can be made into leathers of varying thicknesses - from soft clothing leather to hard shoe leather . While goat and cattle leather have a wide variety of use , sheepskin is suited only for clothing purposes . Wool from Merino hoggets is the finest and most valuable . Merino wool is 3 – 5 in ( 7 @.@ 6 – 12 @.@ 7 cm ) long and very soft . Coarse wools , being durable and resistant to pilling , are used for making tough garments and carpets .
Bone meal is an important fertilizer rich in calcium , phosphorus , and nitrogen , effective in removing soil acidity . Bovid horns have been used as drinking vessels since antiquity .
= = = In human culture = = =
Bovidae have featured in stories since at least the time of Aesop 's fables from Ancient Greece around 600 BC . Fables by Aesop include The Crow and the Sheep , The Frog and the Ox , and The Wolf and the Lamb . The mythological creature Chimera , depicted as a lion , with the head of a goat arising from its back , and a tail that might end with a snake 's head , was one of the offspring of Typhon and Echidna and a sibling of such monsters as Cerberus and the Lernaean Hydra . The sheep , synonymous with the goat in Chinese mythology , is the eighth animal of the Chinese zodiac , and a symbol of filial piety .
= = Classification = =
FAMILY BOVIDAE
= = = Subfamily Aepycerotinae = = =
Tribe Aepycerotini
Genus Aepyceros
Impala , A. melampus
= = = Subfamily Alcelaphinae = = =
Tribe Alcelaphini
Subtribe Alcelaphina
Genus Alcelaphus
Hartebeest , A. buselaphus
Genus Beatragus
Hirola , B. hunteri
Genus Connochaetes
Black wildebeest , C. gnou
Blue wildebeest , C. taurinus
Genus Damalops †
Genus Damalacra †
Genus Megalotragus †
Genus Numidocapra †
Genus Oreonager †
Genus Rabaticeras †
Subtribe Damaliscina
Genus Damaliscus
Topi , D. korrigum
Bontebok , D. pygargus
Bangweulu tsessebe , D. superstes
Common tsessebe , D. lunatus
Genus Paramularius †
Genus Awashia †
= = = Subfamily Antilopinae = = =
Tribe Antilopini
Genus Ammodorcas
Dibatag A. clarkei
Genus Antidorcas
Springbok A. marsupialis
Genus Antilope
Blackbuck A. cervicapra
Genus Eudorcas
Mongalla gazelle E. albonotata
Red gazelle E. rufina †
Red @-@ fronted gazelle E. rufrifrons
Thomson 's gazelle E. thomsoni
Heuglin 's gazelle E. tilonura
Genus Gazella
G. psolea †
Arabian gazelle G. arabica †
Chinkara or Indian gazelle G. benettii
Queen of Sheba 's gazelle G. bilkis †
Dorcas gazelle G. dorcas
Mountain gazelle G. gazella
Saudi gazelle G. saudiya †
Speke 's gazelle G. spekei
Cuvier 's gazelle G. cuvieri
Rhim gazelle or slender @-@ horned gazelle G. leptoceros
Goitered gazelle G. subgutturosa
Genus Litocranius
Gerenuk L. walleri
Genus Nanger
Dama gazelle N. dama
Grant 's gazelle N. granti
Soemmerring 's gazelle N. soemmerringii
Genus Procapra
Zeren P. gutturosa
Goa P. picticaudata
Przewalski 's gazelle P. przewalskii
Tribe Saigini
Genus Saiga
Saiga S. tatarica
Tribe Neotragini
Genus Dorcatragus
Beira D. megalotis
Genus Madoqua
Günther 's dik @-@ dik M. guntheri
Kirk 's dik @-@ dik M. kirkii
Silver dik @-@ dik M. piacentinii
Salt 's dik @-@ dik M. saltiana
Genus Neotragus
Bates 's pygmy antelope N. batesi
Suni N. moschatus
Royal antelope N. pygmaeus
Genus Oreotragus
Klipspringer O. oreotragus
Genus Ourebia
Oribi O. ourebi
Genus Raphicerus
Steenbok R. campestris
Cape grysbok R. melanotis
Sharpe 's grysbok R. sharpei
= = = Subfamily Bovinae = = =
Tribe Boselaphini
Genus Tetracerus
Four @-@ horned antelope , T. quadricornis
Genus Boselaphus
Nilgai or blue bull , B. tragocamelus
Tribe Bovini
Genus Bubalus
Water buffalo , B. bubalis
Wild Asian water buffalo , B. arnee
Lowland anoa , B. depressicornis
Mountain anoa , B. quarlesi
Tamaraw , B. mindorensis
Cebu tamaraw , B. cebuensis †
Genus Bos
Aurochs , B. primigenius †
Banteng , B. javanicus
Gaur , B. gaurus
Gayal , B. frontalis
Yak , B. grunniens
B. palaesondaicus †
Domestic cattle , B. taurus
Domestic zebu , B. indicus
Kouprey , B. sauveli
Genus Pseudoryx
Saola , P. nghetinhensis
Genus Syncerus
African buffalo , S. caffer
Genus Bison
American bison , B. bison
Wisent , B. bonasus
Steppe wisent , B. priscus †
Ancient bison , B. antiquus †
Long @-@ horned bison , B. latifrons †
Genus Pelorovis †
Giant buffalo , P. antiquus †
Tribe Strepsicerotini
Genus Tragelaphus
Bongo , T. eurycerus
Greater kudu , T. strepsiceros
Kéwel , T. scriptus
Bushbuck , T. sylvaticus
Lesser kudu , T. imberbis
Mountain nyala , T. buxtoni
Nyala , T. angasii
Sitatunga , T. spekeii
Genus Taurotragus
Common eland , T. oryx
Giant eland , T. derbianus
= = = Subfamily Caprinae = = =
Tribe Ovibovini
Genus Budorcas
Takin , B. taxicolor
Genus Ovibos
Muskox , O. moschatus
Tribe Caprini
Genus Ammotragus
Barbary sheep , A. lervia
Genus Arabitragus
Arabian tahr , A. jayakari
Genus Capra
West Caucasian tur , C. caucasica
Markhor , C. falconeri
Wild goat , C. aegagrus
Domestic goat , C. aegagrus hircus
Alpine ibex , C. ibex
Nubian ibex , C. nubiana
Spanish ibex , C. pyrenaica
Siberian ibex , C. sibirica
Walia ibex , C. walie
Genus Hemitragus
Himalayan tahr , H. jemlahicus
Genus Ovis
Argali , O. ammon
Domestic sheep , O. aries
American bighorn sheep , O. canadensis
Dall or thinhorn sheep , O. dalli
European mouflon , O. musimon
Snow sheep , O. nivicola
Urial , O. orientalis
Genus Nilgiritragus
Nilgiri tahr , N. hylocrius
Genus Pseudois
Bharal ( Himalayan blue sheep ) , P. nayaur
Dwarf blue sheep , P. schaeferi
Tribe Naemorhedini
Genus Capricornis
Japanese serow , C. crispus
Sumatran serow , C. sumatraensis
Taiwan serow , C. swinhoei
Chinese serow , C. milneedwardsii
Red serow , C. rubidus
Himalayan serow C. thar
Genus Nemorhaedus
Red goral , N. baileyi
Chinese goral , N. griseus
Grey goral , N. goral
Long @-@ tailed goral , N , caudatus
Genus Oreamnos
Mountain goat , O. americanus
Genus Rupicapra
Pyrenean chamois , R. pyrenaica
Chamois , R. rupicapra
= = = Subfamily Cephalophinae = = =
Genus Cephalophus
Abbott 's duiker , C. spadix
Ader 's duiker , C. adersi
Bay duiker , C. dorsalis
Black duiker , C. niger
Black @-@ fronted duiker , C. nigrifrons
Brooke 's duiker , C. brookei
Harvey 's duiker , C. harveyi
Jentink 's duiker , C. jentinki
Ogilby 's duiker , C. ogilbyi
Peters 's duiker , C. callipygus
Red @-@ flanked duiker , C. rufilatus
Red forest duiker , C. natalensis
Ruwenzori duiker , C. rubidis
Weyns 's duiker , C. weynsi
White @-@ bellied duiker , C. leucogaster
White @-@ legged duiker C. crusalbum
Yellow @-@ backed duiker , C. silvicultor
Zebra duiker , C. zebra
Genus Philantomba
Blue duiker , P. monticola
Maxwell 's duiker , P. maxwellii
Walter 's duiker , P. walteri
Genus Sylvicapra
Common duiker , S. grimmia
= = = Subfamily Hippotraginae = = =
Genus Hippotragus
Roan antelope , H. equinus
Sable antelope , H. niger
Bluebuck , H. leucophaeus †
Genus Oryx
East African oryx , O. beisa
Scimitar oryx , O. dammah
Gemsbok , O. gazella
Arabian oryx , O. leucoryx
Genus Addax
Addax , A. nasomaculatus
= = = Subfamily Pantholopinae = = =
Genus Pantholops ( also classified under Caprinae )
Tibetan antelope , P. hodgsonii
= = = Subfamily Peleinae = = =
Genus Pelea ( also classified under Reduncinae )
Grey rhebok , P. capreolus
= = = Subfamily Reduncinae = = =
Genus Kobus
Upemba lechwe , K. anselli
Waterbuck , K. ellipsiprymnus
Kob , K. kob
Lechwe , K. leche
Nile lechwe , K. megaceros
Puku , K. vardonii
Genus Redunca
Southern reedbuck , R. arundinum
Mountain reedbuck , R. fulvorufula
Bohor reedbuck , R. redunca
|
= Clem Hill =
Clement " Clem " Hill ( 18 March 1877 – 5 September 1945 ) was an Australian cricketer who played 49 Test matches as a specialist batsman between 1896 and 1912 . He captained the Australian team in ten Tests , winning five and losing five . A prolific run scorer , Hill scored 3 @,@ 412 runs in Test cricket — a world record at the time of his retirement — at an average of 39 @.@ 21 per innings , including seven centuries . In 1902 , Hill was the first batsman to make 1 @,@ 000 Test runs in a calendar year , a feat that would not be repeated for 45 years . His innings of 365 scored against New South Wales for South Australia in 1900 – 01 was a Sheffield Shield record for 27 years . The South Australian Cricket Association named a grandstand at the Adelaide Oval in his honour in 2003 and he was inducted into the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame in 2005 .
A short and stocky left @-@ handed batsman , Hill had a crouched , somewhat awkward stance . He gripped the bat low on the handle , playing with a strong bottom hand . His batting style was nonetheless attractive and effective and he was especially strong on the leg side and when cutting . Able to score quickly when required , he was also recognised for his patience and strong defence . Hill normally batted at No. 3 and , along with his contemporary Victor Trumper , he was a mainstay of the Australian batting line @-@ up in the early years of the 20th century . Hill had a strong throwing arm and was an excellent outfielder . He was a popular team @-@ mate and captain , respected for his directness , honesty and cheerfulness .
He played his first first @-@ class cricket match for South Australia while still a schoolboy , aged 16 . By the time he was 19 , he had been included in the Australian team touring England in 1896 , where he made his Test match début . At the Melbourne Cricket Ground two years later , Hill scored 188 ; his maiden Test century and still the highest score in Ashes Tests by a player under 21 . He was named one of Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1899 , despite missing half the English season due to illness . In the 1901 – 02 season , Hill was dismissed in consecutive innings for 99 , 98 and 97 . In total he was dismissed between 90 and 99 five times in Test cricket . In 1903 – 04 , Hill was at the centre of a riot at the Sydney Cricket Ground after he was adjudged run out in a Test match against England . With Roger Hartigan he still holds the Australian Test record partnership for the eighth wicket — 243 , made against England at the Gabba in Brisbane in 1907 – 08 .
Hill had a strained relationship with Australian cricket authorities . He turned down an invitation to tour England in 1909 due to his unhappiness with the contract terms offered . Despite this , he was appointed Test captain in 1910 – 11 for the series against South Africa . His Test cricket career ended in controversy after he was involved in a brawl with cricket administrator and fellow Test selector Peter McAlister in 1912 . He was one of the " Big Six " , a group of leading Australian cricketers who boycotted the 1912 Triangular Tournament in England when the players were stripped of the right to appoint the tour manager . The boycott effectively ended his Test career . After retiring from cricket , Hill worked in the horse racing industry as a stipendiary steward and later as a handicapper for races including the Caulfield Cup . Hill died in 1945 aged 68 when thrown from a tram in Melbourne in a traffic accident .
= = Early life = =
Hill was born in 1877 in Adelaide , South Australia , to Henry John Hill ( known as John ) and his wife Rebecca , née Saunders , and grandson of Henry Hill MHA . Clem was one of eight sons and eight daughters in a family that was heavily involved in cricket . His father scored a century ( 102 not out ) for North Adelaide against the touring Kent County Cricket Club , reportedly the first century scored at the Adelaide Oval . Six other brothers played for South Australia and in 1912 – 13 there were several instances of three Hill brothers in the same representative team .
Clem 's father was prominent in the Methodist Church and sent Clem to be educated at Prince Alfred College , the local Methodist school . " Inter @-@ collegiate " matches , the annual fixtures against rivals St Peter 's College , were fiercely contested . Hill played his first inter @-@ collegiate match at the age of 13 , keeping wicket and batting at number ten . His hands suffered from keeping wicket to the fast bowling of future Test team @-@ mate Ernie Jones , leading to a decision to concentrate on batting . At 16 , he scored 360 in the inter @-@ collegiate match , a schoolboy record , bettering the mark made earlier by Joe Darling . Despite this , a school sportsmaster threatened to leave him out of the School XI ( cricket team ) if he continued to play the risky hook shot .
Hill made his first @-@ class cricket début in March 1893 while still a schoolboy , just nine days past his 16th birthday . Included in the South Australian team to play Western Australia at the Adelaide Oval , he failed to score a run ; he was dismissed for a duck in the first innings and was 0 not out in the second as South Australia won by 10 wickets . In the 1894 – 95 season , at 17 years of age , he played the touring English team led by A.E. Stoddart , scoring 20 in his only innings in the match .
Later the same season , Hill became a regular member of the South Australian team , making his Sheffield Shield debut against Victoria . Batting at number nine , he scored only 21 but the manner in which he made them saw the Australian Test wicket @-@ keeper Jack Blackham declare the discovery of another great batsman . The English team returned to the Adelaide Oval and this time Hill scored his maiden first @-@ class century , 150 not out , against quality bowlers including Tom Richardson and Bobby Peel . So good was the quality of Hill 's batting that when he reached his century a cab driver spectator , sitting on his cab , " cheered end clapped so much [ he ] fell through the roof of the vehicle " .
In his first season of regular first @-@ class cricket , Hill scored 335 runs in nine innings at an average of 47 @.@ 85 .
Hill was also a talented Australian rules footballer and played for the South Adelaide Football Club during the 1890s and early 1900s .
= = Test cricket = =
= = = Selection and early career = = =
Hill topped the averages for South Australia in the 1895 – 96 season , scoring 371 runs in seven innings . An Australian team to tour England in 1896 was selected towards the end of the season and Hill was not included . A disappointed Hill responded by scoring 206 against New South Wales , who were captained by an Australian selector , Tom Garrett . Experienced cricket watchers were impressed with Hill 's ability at such a young age to control the strike , scoring 154 from his side 's last 197 runs . Following this performance , public demand saw the selectors draft the 19 @-@ year @-@ old Hill into the touring squad .
Hill was one of four batsmen touring England for the first time ; Joe Darling , Frank Iredale and Harry Donnan were the others . All four scored more than 1 @,@ 000 runs for the tour with Hill scoring 1 @,@ 196 runs at an average of 27 @.@ 81 . According to Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack , Hill " was a brilliant success " and his batting on good wickets during the tour was " first rate " . Hill made his Test début in the First Test at Lord 's . Australia collapsed in the first innings to be all out for 53 with Hill bowled by George Lohmann for one . England made 292 runs in reply but the second innings saw an Australian fightback . The captain , Harry Trott ( 143 ) , was partnered by Syd Gregory ( 103 ) to help Australia to a score of 347 , setting England 109 runs to win . Hill failed again scoring only five , bowled this time by Jack Hearne . Rain made England 's task a little more difficult but they were able to make the runs for the loss of only four wickets . Hill played in the remaining two Tests , but managed to score only 30 runs in the series . Australia lost the series and the Ashes by two Tests to one .
The next Ashes series was held in 1897 – 98 with Stoddart again assembling an English team to tour Australia . The team included players such as K.S. Ranjitsinhji and George Hirst . The touring team 's first match on arrival was against South Australia and Hill batted well , scoring exactly 200 . The First Test was played in Sydney and a minor controversy ensued when officials abandoned the first day 's play due to earlier heavy rain without consulting the two captains . The delay did not seem to affect the English who batted first and scored 551 , including centuries by Ranjitsinhji and Archie MacLaren . The Australians were forced to follow @-@ on after making 237 . Batting again , Hill scored 96 but England managed to win the match by nine wickets . The Second Test was played in Melbourne and Australia fought back , winning by an innings and 55 runs with Hill scoring 58 . Another innings victory in the Third Test in Adelaide saw Australia leading the series two Tests to one .
The teams returned to Melbourne for the Fourth Test . England started the match brilliantly , reducing Australia to 6 / 58 on a pitch that assisted the bowlers . Hill , aged just 20 , was watching at the non @-@ striker 's end as the wickets fell . Hugh Trumble came to join him and together they began to rescue the Australian innings . When Hill reached his maiden Test century , he had scored all but 42 of his side 's runs . Hill played balls pitched outside leg stump particularly well and drove beautifully throughout the innings . At the tea interval , Hill , feeling refreshed , mentioned to Trumble that he thought he would " have a go at them now " . The experienced Trumble cautioned Hill , replying " You young devil , you have to stop there . Go along as you have been doing . " Hill and Trumble made 165 runs batting together , still a record for a seventh wicket partnership in Ashes Tests . Hill was 182 not out at the end of the day 's play , the highest first @-@ day innings against England in Australia , and leaving the ground was greeted by a barrage of photographers . After a rest day , Hill added only six more runs before being dismissed at last by Hearne . His innings remains the highest in Ashes Tests by a player under 21 . Batting for 294 minutes he gave only the one chance at dismissal . The journalist and former Test player Tom Horan wrote " Hill 's innings will be talked of when the smallest boy who saw it will be white with the snows of time . " Australia won the Test by 8 wickets to recover the Ashes . That summer , Hill scored 1 @,@ 196 runs in 19 innings including five centuries , the first Australian to score 1 @,@ 000 runs in a home season .
= = = Consolidation = = =
During the Australian team 's tour of England in 1899 , Hill required surgery to remove a growth in his nose . The after @-@ effects of the operation were more serious than expected ; Hill lost an alarming amount of weight and strength and missed around half of the tour . Before this , Hill was recognised by Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack as the best of the Australian batsmen that English summer . He scored 301 runs in three Tests at an average of 60 @.@ 20 , and was named as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year . His best performance of the series was in the Second Test at Lord 's . Hill scored 135 , sharing a partnership of 82 with Victor Trumper , who was playing only his second Test match . Trumper went on to score 135 not out . Hill , who was dropped by Ranjitsinhji fielding at slip when he had made 119 , batted for 4 hours and hit 17 boundaries . Australia won the Test , the only one to have a definite result , by 10 wickets and retained the Ashes .
In 1900 – 01 , Hill made a then record Sheffield Shield score for South Australia against New South Wales at the Adelaide Oval . He batted for 8 hours and 35 minutes for 365 , including 35 boundaries . The record stood for 27 years until beaten by Bill Ponsford . Hill averaged more than 100 runs for the season . England returned to contest the Ashes in 1901 – 02 , under the captaincy of Archie MacLaren . The English team was weakened by the unavailability of players such as Ranjitsinhji , Hirst , C.B. Fry and Wilfred Rhodes . The surprise selection was Sydney Barnes , who had played most of his cricket in the Lancashire League . Repeating the result of the series three years earlier , Australia lost the First Test but won the next four comfortably to retain the Ashes . Hill was the leading run scorer in the series , with 521 runs including 99 , 98 and 97 in successive innings . He is still the only person to achieve this most unusual feat .
Hill was the victim of bad luck during this sequence of scores between 90 and 99 . At Melbourne during the New Years Test he scored 99 ; the first time a batsman was dismissed one run short of a century in Test cricket . In the first innings in the next Test in Adelaide , having scored 98 , Hill was caught by Johnny Tyldesley who was standing on the bicycle track surrounding the oval . Tyldesley attempted to call Hill back but Hill declined , saying the captains had agreed that the fence was the boundary , not the track . Under modern laws , he would have been not out and the shot would count as six runs , allowing him his century . In the second innings , Hill 's poor luck continued . He chopped down on a ball when 97 and then , to his horror , saw the ball rolling back towards his stumps . He attempted to hit the ball away from the stumps but accidentally knocked the leg bail and was out , bowled . The English writer , Simon Wilde , has described this sequence as an " unparalleled spell of nonagenarians ' neurosis " .
Hill visited England for a third time in 1902 with the Australian team who won their fourth successive Test series . In the process the Australians " beat the records of all their predecessors in the country " by losing only two of 39 matches during the tour . For the second time , Hill scored more than 1 @,@ 000 runs in an English summer ; 1 @,@ 534 at an average of 31 @.@ 95 including four centuries . Rain affected the first two Test matches at Edgbaston and Lord 's and both teams moved to Sheffield without a win .
The Third Test , the only Test match played at Bramall Lane , saw Hill play one of his finest innings on a poorly prepared pitch that made batting difficult . Australia batted first and could only score 194 , Barnes taking 6 wickets for 49 runs . In return Monty Noble and Jack Saunders bowled England out for 145 and Australia led by 49 runs on the first innings . When Reggie Duff was dismissed in the second innings , Hill joined Trumper at the wicket . The pair scored 60 runs in half an hour before Trumper was out , caught by the wicket @-@ keeper . He was followed quickly by the captain , Darling , out for a duck . Syd Gregory was the next batsman and with Hill added 107 runs in only 67 minutes . In semi @-@ darkness and facing fast and accurate bowling on a poor pitch , Hill pushed on to reach his century after 115 minutes of batting . He had given two difficult chances , one at slip when 74 and in the outfield at 77 before he was caught by MacLaren from the bowling of Jackson for 119 . Australia won the Test by 143 runs . The final two Tests were thrillers . Australia won the Fourth Test at Old Trafford by a mere three runs with Trumble taking ten wickets for the match . England won the Fifth and final Test at The Oval by one wicket . Chasing 263 , England were 5 / 48 when Gilbert Jessop began an extraordinary display of hitting , scoring a century in only 75 minutes to help England to victory . Of Hill 's form during the tour , Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack said " Clement Hill played many fine innings , his best performance being in the Test match at Sheffield , but , even allowing for the soft wickets , I do not think he was so great a batsman as in 1899 . "
On the return trip to Australia , the touring team stopped in South Africa to play three Tests , the first Tests between the two nations . Hill was the most successful Australian batsman in the series , scoring 327 runs at an average of 81 @.@ 75 . In the First Test he made 145 when Australia was in trouble after following @-@ on , an innings described in Wisden as " marred by very few mistakes " . In the Third Test , Hill batted through much of the Australian first innings to make 91 not out . Australia won the Test by ten wickets and the series two Tests to nil .
= = = Establishment = = =
For the first time under the auspices of the Marylebone Cricket Club , an English team travelled to Australia for the 1903 – 04 season to contest the Ashes . Contrary to expectations before the tour , the English won the series and the Ashes three Tests to two . Hill trailed Trumper and Noble in the series averages , making 276 runs at 27 @.@ 60 without ever getting to 100 in an innings . In the First Test , Hill was at the centre of what Wisden described as a " very regrettable and indeed disgraceful [ crowd ] demonstration " . Batting with Trumper , Hill had run well past the stumps at the bowler 's end for a fourth run . The English return gave the Australian pair an opportunity for an overthrow . Hill had to run the entire length of the pitch . Albert Relf at mid @-@ on gathered and threw to the wicket @-@ keeper , Dick Lilley who removed the bails and appealed for the run out . Umpire Bob Crockett gave Hill out . Hill could not believe the decision as the ball had passed behind him when he slid his bat to make his ground . The crowd were also convinced that Hill was not out and began to hoot , chanting " Crock ! , Crock ! , Crock ! " Bottles were thrown onto the surrounding cycle track and the English captain Plum Warner threatened to take his team from the ground . At the end of the day , Crockett required a police escort when leaving the ground . Hill 's best performance of the series was at his home town , Adelaide , in the Third Test . Hill scored 88 before being dismissed by Ted Arnold , caught by the wicket @-@ keeper . Australia won the Test by 216 runs .
Hill toured England for the last time with the 1905 Australian team . The Test series was dominated by what was seen as uninspired cricket with England retaining the Ashes two Tests to nil . The Australian batting suffered from a lack of steadiness and Hill was one of the Australians criticised by Wisden that season ; " [ Hill ] would certainly have met with more consistent success if he had retained his old self @-@ control . He was somewhat indiscriminate in hitting at the off @-@ ball , and many a time his impatience cost him his wicket . " However Wisden praised his fielding , saying " Trumper , Hill , and Hopkins did any amount of fine work in the deep field " .
The Australians recovered the Ashes from the 1907 – 08 English team , winning the series four Tests to one . England were hit by the loss of their captain , Arthur Jones who contracted an illness that threatened to develop into pneumonia , causing him to miss the first three Tests . Hill , batting with team @-@ mate Roger Hartigan playing his first Test match , set a record in the Third Test in Adelaide . Suffering from influenza and unable to field in the English first innings , Hill joined Hartigan at the fall of the seventh wicket . During his innings , Hill vomited beside the pitch and had to quickly leave the field several times . The pair managed to bat on and take the match into a fourth day . Hartigan , whose leave from work had expired , was relieved to receive a telegram from his employer : " Stay as long as you are making runs . " When Hartigan was dismissed for 116 , the pair had together made 243 for the eighth wicket — still an Australian Test record . With Sammy Carter , Hill continued before finally dismissed by Jack Crawford for 160 , after 5 hours and 19 minutes of batting . At the end of his innings Hill was close to collapse but his efforts assisted his team defeat the English by 245 runs .
= = = Captain = = =
Australia were due to tour England to contest the Ashes in 1909 . Hill , along with other senior players , was fighting against a proposal to move the management of international tours away from the players to the new Australian Board of Control for International Cricket Matches . Hill by now was a team selector and strongly opposed the selection in the team of 40 @-@ year @-@ old Peter McAlister , who Hill claimed " was past his best " and " not suited to English conditions " . McAlister was also a member of the selection panel and was able to secure a majority for his selection . Hill accused his fellow selectors of conspiracy and said he had " decided to wash his hands of the affair " and that " he did not consider that the best men had been chosen " . Hill 's relationship with McAlister would remain fractious . Hill was also a delegate on the Board of Control , representing the South Australian Cricket Association ( SACA ) . At the Board meeting in February 1909 to set the terms to be offered to the players selected for the tour , the SACA delegates were outvoted on every point . Hill declined to accept the terms offered . Since his marriage in 1905 , Hill had spent considerable time away from his wife with his commitments during two Test series against England and this may have also influenced his decision not to tour .
When Hill returned to the Test team it was as captain for a series against the visiting South Africa national cricket team in 1910 – 11 . The South Africans , led by Aubrey Faulkner , had a novel bowling attack consisting of several googly bowlers , such as Bert Vogler , Reggie Schwarz and Faulkner himself and the chinaman bowler Charlie " Buck " Llewellyn . The South Africans started the tour well , defeating a South Australian team unable to handle the unusual bowling approach . Hill , after consulting with other players , settled on a strategy of hitting the bowlers off their length with aggressive batting . Hill showed the way in the First Test at Sydney , scoring his first 100 runs in 98 minutes . In a partnership with Warren Bardsley , the pair scored 224 runs in only two hours . After just 3 hours and 20 minutes at the crease , he was dismissed for 191 ; his highest Test score . Australia won the Test by an innings and 114 runs . Australia won the Second Test in Melbourne after bowling the South Africans out for 80 in their second innings , but the South Africans fought back to win the Third Test in Adelaide by 38 runs . Australia won the Fourth Test by 508 runs after being sent in to bat by South Africa , who hoped to trap them on a rain @-@ affected wicket . The Australians managed to end the first day 's play at 8 / 317 to avoid the trap and win the Test . In the second innings , Hill hit another century ( 100 ) in only 100 minutes , with Wisden noting that he " play [ ed ] especially well " . Australia won the final Test and the series four Tests to one .
= = = Brawl and boycott = = =
Hill 's Test career ended in controversy amid another dispute with the Board of Control . He was once again appointed captain of the Australian team against an English side captained by Johnny Douglas in 1911 – 12 . The English team included bowlers of the calibre of Barnes and Frank Foster and , after losing the first Test in Sydney , won all four remaining Tests to secure the Ashes . Hill had a lean season with the bat , managing 274 runs at an average of 27 @.@ 40 . The England bowlers were clearly superior to the Australian batsmen ; Trumper was the only Australian to score a century during the Tests . While this series took place , the Board of Control made plans to usurp the commonly accepted right of the players to appoint the team manager when touring England . In response , a group of senior players , including Hill , threatened to withdraw from the next tour , to take place in 1912 , unless their choice , Frank Laver , was appointed .
Matters came to a head when Hill sent a telegram to fellow selector , Peter McAlister , urging the inclusion of the New South Wales all @-@ rounder Charlie Macartney in the team for the Fourth Test in Melbourne . The reply from McAlister — a member of the Board of Control who still bore some animosity towards Hill from past comments — to Hill 's request was " ... Still opposed to Macartney 's inclusion . If Iredale ( another selector ) agrees with you as to Macartney 's inclusion , I favour yourself standing down not Minnett . " Hill saw the offer to remove himself from the team as sore provocation and his team @-@ mates scorned the suggestion . Australia lost the Third Test by seven wickets . Macartney wrote later , " Persistent ill @-@ feeling seriously affected the morale of the side . " At a meeting held after the Test , the Board of Control rejected the players ' petition and declared that the manager would be appointed by the Board alone . At a " special meeting " two weeks later , the Board appointed George Crouch from Queensland to the position of tour manager .
The following day , 3 February 1912 , the selection committee met in Sydney to decide the team for the Fourth Test . It was the first time Hill and McAlister had met since the exchange of telegrams . The pair exchanged insults with McAlister sharply criticising Hill 's captaincy . Hill retorted , " In England , Armstrong wouldn 't play under you . Did you ever win any except second rate games ? "
McAlister replied , " I am a better captain than Trumper , Armstrong and yourself put together . You are the worst captain I have ever seen . " Hill then warned McAlister to stop insulting him but McAlister repeated the remark . Losing control , Hill struck McAlister a blow across the face . The two then grappled for around ten minutes . Blood was drawn , staining their clothes and splashing on the other men present , Iredale and secretary Sydney Smith . At one stage , fearing that one or both combatants would fall through the window and onto the street , Smith grabbed hold of Hill 's coat @-@ tails . The fight ended with a bloody McAlister lying on the floor and Hill , unmarked , standing over him . Hill told Smith he could no longer work with McAlister . Smith then asked Hill to put his resignation in writing and the Board accepted it that evening .
The crowds at the Melbourne and Sydney Tests gave Hill three cheers when he arrived at the wicket . When Hill reached the batting crease in his last Test at Sydney , the umpire Bob Crockett said " there were tears in his eyes " . An in camera investigation into the fracas took place ; the Board 's only comment on the meeting was to report that it had been " satisfactorily settled " . Hill was then offered an invitation to take part in the 1912 Triangular Tournament in England . Hill declined the invitation , along with Warwick Armstrong , Trumper , Carter , Noble and Vernon Ransford , who collectively became known as the " Big Six " . He never played Test cricket again .
= = = Retirement and legacy = = =
At the age of 43 , Hill returned to first @-@ class cricket for one match to assist in its re @-@ establishment in Australia after the Great War . In support of the benefits of some former colleagues , he played in a further two first @-@ class matches with his best score of 66 coming in a game against Victoria . His last match was for an Australian XI against New South Wales played to support Bill Howell 's benefit .
In all Tests , Hill scored 3 @,@ 412 runs at an average just under 40 runs per innings and including seven centuries . When he retired he had scored more runs in Test cricket than any other player ; a record he held for 12 years until surpassed by Jack Hobbs . In 1902 Hill was the first to score 1 @,@ 000 Test runs in a calendar year ; the next to do so was Denis Compton 45 years later in 1947 . Prolific in Australian state cricket as well , he headed the South Australian first @-@ class averages on ten occasions between 1895 – 96 and 1910 – 11 . In successive innings in 1909 – 10 he scored 175 against Victoria in Adelaide , 205 against New South Wales and 185 against Victoria in Melbourne . He was the only Australian to score more than 17 @,@ 000 runs in the period before pitches were protected from rain . In club cricket he averaged more than 100 runs for the season on three occasions .
In 2003 , the South Australian Cricket Association named the new southern grandstand at the Adelaide Oval the " Clem Hill Stand " in recognition of his contribution to South Australian cricket . Hill was inducted into the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame in 2005 .
= = Outside cricket = =
Hill served an engineering apprenticeship at the government workshops in Islington . On retirement from cricket , however , Hill began a career in horse racing administration . He was employed as a stipendiary steward with the South Australian Jockey Club and the Adelaide Racing Club and in 1937 he was appointed handicapper for the Victoria Amateur Turf Club ( VATC ) in Melbourne . At the VATC he was responsible for setting the weights for the Caulfield Cup , one of Australia 's richest and most prestigious horse races . He served in this role for six years before poor health saw him take a less demanding role at the Geelong Racing Club .
Hill married Florence " Florrie " Hart , granddaughter of William Hart M.L.C. in Tasmania in 1905 . The couple settled in Adelaide and raised two daughters , Lesley and Brenda . When he took up his role with the VATC , Hill and his family moved to Toorak , an eastern suburb of Melbourne . In 1945 , Hill was thrown from a tram in a traffic accident on busy Collins Street in inner Melbourne . He was taken to Royal Melbourne Hospital and died there soon after aged 68 . His body was returned for burial at North Road Cemetery in the Adelaide suburb of Nailsworth .
= = Style and personality = =
Short and stocky , Hill was a gifted batsman who could score quickly when required . Wisden described Hill as a " specially brilliant batsman on hard pitches " . He had an awkward crouched stance , gripping the bat low on the handle . This limited his forward reach and power and reduced his effectiveness when driving but he compensated for this with quick footwork . Hill 's strong bottom hand and his keen eye allowed him to play the cut shot cleanly and with confidence and to hit powerfully on the leg side . He preferred batting against fast bowling rather than slow and medium pace bowlers and he was a fearless exponent of the hook shot . Hill had a tendency to get out in the " nervous nineties " , being dismissed six times between 90 and 99 in Test matches . This included a sequence in the 1901 – 02 series against England of 99 , 98 and 97 in successive innings .
While able to drive hard to the off or straight , usually with the ball kept down , Clem Hill scored chiefly on the leg side by skilful strokes perfectly timed and placed , the way in which he turned straight balls clear of fieldsmen being exceptional . Brilliant square and late cutting made Hill delightful to watch and in defence his style claimed admiration while his patience was unlimited
An excellent fielder in the deep , Hill had a powerful throwing arm . During a match at Leeds during the 1902 tour of England , he threw a ball from near the boundary , knocking down the stumps at one end and rebounding to hit the stumps the other end . During the same tour at Old Trafford , Hill made a catch that Wisden claimed " will never be forgotten by [ those present ] " . A Dick Lilley hit to square leg looked likely to clear the boundary . Hill himself said he raced 25 yards ( 23 m ) for it with a view simply to save a boundary . In the event , he ran round ' close to the boundary ' from his position at long on , aided by the wind seemingly holding up the ball to take the catch low down in front of the pavilion in his outstretched hands ; one that Wisden said " few fieldsmen would have thought worth attempting " .
Hill was a man of high ideals and was popular with his fellow players . Pelham Warner commented on his pleasant nature and Robert Trumble , an author and son of Hugh Trumble , recalled him as honest , direct and without guile . An anecdote told about Hill had him hitting a low shot into shadows where Warren Bardsley was fielding . He completed one run and then asked the umpire if the ball had been caught . The shadow made it impossible for the umpire to see , so Hill then asked Bardsley , " Did you catch it ? " When Bardsley replied in the affirmative , Hill immediately walked to the pavilion . When England won four Tests in a row in 1911 – 12 , Hill managed to retain the confidence of his players . Frank Iredale wrote that Hill was a cheery skipper whose men were happy under his leadership . Despite breaking many records , Hill showed little awareness of them . When watching Jack Hobbs break his record for the most runs in Test cricket at Headingley in 1926 , it was Hobbs ' wife sitting nearby who had to remind Hill that the record was previously his .
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= Homework ( Daft Punk album ) =
Homework is the debut studio album by the French electronic music duo Daft Punk , released on 7 January 1997 by Virgin Records and Soma Quality Recordings . The album revived house music and departed from the Eurodance formula . The duo produced the tracks without plans to release an album . After working on projects that were intended to be separate singles over five months , they considered the material good enough for an album .
Homework 's success brought worldwide attention to French house music . Homework charted in 14 different countries , peaking at number 3 on the French Albums Chart , number 150 on the United States Billboard 200 and at number 8 on the UK Albums Chart . By February 2001 , the album had sold more than two million copies worldwide and received several gold and platinum certifications . Overall , Homework received positive critical response . The album features singles that had significant impact in French house and global dance music scenes , including the U.S. Billboard Hot Dance / Club Play number @-@ one singles " Da Funk " and " Around the World " , the latter of which reached number 61 on the Billboard Hot 100 .
= = Background and recording = =
In 1993 , Thomas Bangalter and Guy @-@ Manuel de Homem @-@ Christo presented a demo of their electronic music to DJ Stuart Macmillan at a rave at EuroDisney . The contents of the cassette were released on the single " The New Wave " on 11 April 1994 , by Soma Quality Recordings , a Scottish techno and house label co @-@ founded in 1991 by MacMillan 's band Slam . Daft Punk returned to the studio in May 1995 to record " Da Funk " , which was released later that year alongside " Rollin ' & Scratchin ' " under the Soma label .
The increasing popularity of Daft Punk 's singles led to a bidding war among record labels , resulting in the duo 's signing to Virgin Records in 1996 . Their departure was noted by Richard Brown of Soma , who affirmed that " we were obviously sad to lose them to Virgin but they had the chance to go big , which they wanted , and it 's not very often that a band has that chance after two singles . We 're happy for them . " Virgin re @-@ released " Da Funk " with the B @-@ side " Musique " in 1996 , a year before releasing Homework . Bangalter later stated that the B @-@ side " was never intended to be on the album , and in fact , ' Da Funk ' as a single has sold more units than Homework , so more people own it anyways [ sic ] than they would if it had been on the album . It is basically used to make the single a double @-@ feature . " The album was mixed and recorded in Daft Punk 's studio , Daft House in Paris . It was mastered by Nilesh Patel at the London studio The Exchange .
Bangalter stated that " to be free , we had to be in control . To be in control , we had to finance what we were doing ourselves . The main idea was to be free . " Daft Punk discussed their method with Spike Jonze , director of the " Da Funk " music video . He noted that " they were doing everything based on how they wanted to do it . As opposed to , ' oh we got signed to this record company , we gotta use their plan . ' They wanted to make sure they never had to do anything that would make them feel bummed on making music . " Although Virgin Records holds exclusive distribution rights over Daft Punk 's material , the duo still owns their master recordings through their Daft Trax label .
= = Composition = =
Daft Punk produced the tracks included in Homework without a plan to release an album . Bangalter stated , " It was supposed to be just a load of singles . But we did so many tracks over a period of five months that we realized that we had a good album . " The duo set the order of the tracks to cover the four sides of a two @-@ disc vinyl LP . De Homem @-@ Christo remarked , " There was no intended theme because all the tracks were recorded before we arranged the sequence of the album . The idea was to make the songs better by arranging them the way we did ; to make it more even as an album . " The name Homework , Bangalter explained , relates to " the fact that we made the record at home , very cheaply , very quickly , and spontaneously , trying to do cool stuff . "
" Daftendirekt " is an excerpt of a live performance recorded in Ghent , Belgium ; it served as the introduction to Daft Punk 's live shows and was used to begin the album . The performance took place at the first I Love Techno , an event co @-@ produced by Fuse and On the Rox on 10 November 1995 . Janet Jackson sampled " Daftendirekt " on her song " So Much Betta " , which was included in her tenth studio album , Discipline , in 2008 . Homework 's following track , " WDPK 83 @.@ 7 FM " , is a tribute to FM radio in the US . The next song , " Revolution 909 " is a reflection on the French government 's stance on dance music .
" Revolution 909 " is followed by " Da Funk " , which carries elements of funk and acid music . According to Andrew Asch of the Boca Raton News , the song 's composition " relies on a bouncy funk guitar to communicate its message of dumb fun . " Bangalter expressed that " Da Funk " ' s theme involved the introduction of a simple , unusual element that becomes acceptable and moving over time . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine complimented the song as " unrelenting " , and Bob Gajarsky of Westnet called it " a beautiful meeting of Chic ( circa " Good Times " , sans vocals ) and the 90s form of electronica . " The song appeared on the soundtrack for the 1997 film The Saint and was placed at number 18 on Pitchfork Media 's " Top 200 Tracks of the 1990s " list . " Phœnix " combines elements of gospel music and house music . The duo considered " Fresh " to be breezy and light with a comical structure . Ian Mathers of Stylus Magazine criticized the song , stating that it " doesn 't feel like the beach just because of the lapping waves heard in the background . "
The single " Around the World " carries influences of Gershon Kingsley 's hit " Popcorn " . Its music video was directed by the Academy Award @-@ winning French filmmaker Michel Gondry , who compared the track 's bassline to that of " Good Times " by Chic . Chris Power of BBC Music named it " one of the decade 's catchiest singles " . He stated that it was " a perfect example of Daft Punk 's sound at its most accessible : a post @-@ disco boogie bassline , a minimalist sprinkling of synthetic keyboard melody and a single , naggingly insistent hook . " Ian Mathers of Stylus Magazine commented that " there is no way you 'd want to have a Homework without ' Around The World ' . " The track " Teachers " is a tribute to several of Daft Punk 's house music influences , including future collaborators Romanthony , DJ Sneak and Todd Edwards . The song " Oh Yeah " features DJ Deelat and DJ Crabbe . " Indo Silver Club " features a sample of " Hot Shot " by Karen Young . Prior to its inclusion on Homework , " Indo Silver Club " was released as a single on the Soma Quality Recordings label in two parts . The single lacked an artist credit in the packaging and was thought to have been created by the nonexistent producers Indo Silver Club . The final track , " Funk Ad " , is a reversed clip of " Da Funk " .
= = Singles = =
Homework features singles that had significant impact in the French house and global dance music scenes . The first single from the album , " Alive " , was included as a B @-@ side on the single " The New Wave " , which was released in April 1994 . The album 's second single was " Da Funk " ; it was initially released in 1995 by Soma and was re @-@ released by Virgin Records in 1996 . It became the duo 's first number @-@ one single on the Billboard Hot Dance / Club Play chart . The song reached number seven on British and French charts . The third single , " Around the World " , was a critical and commercial success , becoming the second number @-@ one single on the Billboard Hot Dance / Club Play chart , as well as reaching number 11 in Australia , number five in the United Kingdom and number 61 on the Billboard Hot 100 . In October 2011 , NME placed " Around the World " at number 21 on its list of " 150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years " . The album 's fourth single was " Burnin ' " ; it was released in September 1997 and peaked at number 30 in the UK . The final single from Homework was " Revolution 909 " . It was released in February 1998 and reached number 47 in the UK and number 12 on the Billboard Hot Dance / Club Play chart .
In 1999 , the duo released a video collection featuring music videos of tracks and singles from the album under the name of D.A.F.T. : A Story About Dogs , Androids , Firemen and Tomatoes . Although its title derives from the appearances of dogs ( " Da Funk " and " Fresh " ) , androids ( " Around the World " ) , firemen ( " Burnin ' " ) , and tomatoes ( " Revolution 909 " ) in the videos , a cohesive plot does not connect its episodes .
= = Commercial performance = =
Daft Punk wanted the majority of pressings to be on vinyl , so only 50 @,@ 000 albums were initially printed in CD format . After its release , overwhelming sales of Homework caused distributors to accelerate production to satisfy demand . The album was distributed in 35 countries worldwide , peaking at number 150 on the Billboard 200 . Homework first charted on the Australian Albums Chart on 27 April 1997 ; it remained there for eight weeks and peaked at number 37 . In France , the album reached number three and stayed on the chart for 82 weeks . In 1999 , it reached Gold status in France for selling more than 100 @,@ 000 copies . On 11 July 2001 , the album was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America , indicating sales of 500 @,@ 000 copies in the US . By October 1997 , the album had sold 220 @,@ 000 copies worldwide , although Billboard reported that , according to Virgin Records , two million copies had been sold by February 2001 . By September 2007 , 605 @,@ 000 copies had been sold in the United States .
= = Critical reception = =
Homework 's success brought worldwide attention to French progressive house music , and drew attention to French house music . According to The Village Voice , the album revived house music and departed from the Euro dance formula . In the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die , critic Alex Rayner stated that Homework tied the established club styles to the " burgeoning eclecticism " of big beat . He contended that it served as a proof that " there was more to dance music than pills and keyboard presets . " Clash described Homework as an entry point of accessibility for a " burgeoning movement on the cusp of splitting the mainstream seam . " In 2009 , Brian Linder of IGN described Homework as the duo 's third @-@ best album . He catalogued as a " groundbreaking achievement " the way they used their unique skills to craft the house , techno , acid and punk music styles into the record . Hua Hsu of eMusic agreed , applauding Homework for how it captured a " feeling of discovery and exploration " as a result of " years of careful study of the finest house , techno , electro and hip @-@ hop records . " David Browne , writing in Entertainment Weekly , stated that the duo knew how to use " their playful , hip @-@ hopping ambient techno " to craft the album . He named Homework the " ideal disco for androids " . Sean Cooper of AllMusic called the album " an almost certain classic " and " essential " .
Chris Power of BBC Music compared Homework 's " less @-@ is @-@ more " approach to compression 's use as " a sonic tribute " to the FM radio stations that " fed Daft Punk 's youthful obsessions . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine wrote that " while a few tracks are more daft than deft , " more recent groundbreakers like The Avalanches could never exist without " Da Funk " . Ian Mathers of Stylus Magazine noted that " there 's a core of unimpeachably classic work on Homework , hidden among the merely good , and when you 've got such a classic debut hidden in the outlines of the epic slouch of their debut , it 's hard not to get frustrated . " Rolling Stone awarded the album three stars out of five , commenting that " the duo 's essential , career @-@ defining insight is that the problem with disco the first time around was not that it was stupid but that it was not stupid enough . " Rolling Stone ranked Homework at the top on their list of " The 30 Greatest EDM Albums of All Time " while affirming that Daft Punk 's debut " is pure synapse @-@ tweaking brilliance . " According to Scott Woods of The Village Voice , " Daft Punk [ tore ] the lid off the [ creative ] sewer " with the release of Homework . Ryan Schreiber of Pitchfork Media awarded it 7 @.@ 6 out of 10 . He stated that " Homework provides sixteen whole tracks of modern @-@ day boom box bass n ' drum and unlike your science project , it doesn 't require a lot of intricate calculations to figure out how it works . " In his view , " It sounds like an Atari 2600 on a killing spree . " By contrast , Robert Christgau of The Village Voice cited " Da Funk " as a " choice cut " , indicating " a good song on an album that isn 't worth your time or money " . Darren Gawle from Drop @-@ D Magazine also gave a negative review , stating that " Homework is the work of a couple of DJs who sound amateurish at best . "
= = Track listing = =
All music composed by Thomas Bangalter and Guy @-@ Manuel de Homem @-@ Christo .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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