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= AACS encryption key controversy = A controversy surrounding the AACS cryptographic key arose in April 2007 when the Motion Picture Association of America and the Advanced Access Content System Licensing Administrator , LLC ( AACS LA ) began issuing cease and desist letters to websites publishing a 128 @-@ bit ( 16 @-@ byte ) number , represented in hexadecimal as 09 F9 11 02 9D 74 E3 5B D8 41 56 C5 63 56 88 C0 ( commonly referred to as 09 F9 ) , a cryptographic key for HD DVDs and Blu @-@ ray Discs . The letters demanded the immediate removal of the key and any links to it , citing the anti @-@ circumvention provisions of the United States Digital Millennium Copyright Act ( DMCA ) . In response to widespread Internet postings of the key , the AACS LA issued various press statements , praising those websites that complied with their requests as acting in a " responsible manner " , warning that " legal and technical tools " were adapting to the situation . The controversy was further escalated in early May 2007 , when aggregate news site Digg received a DMCA cease and desist notice and then removed numerous articles on the matter and banned users reposting the information . This sparked what some describe as a digital revolt or " cyber @-@ riot " , in which users posted and spread the key on Digg , and throughout the Internet en masse , thereby leading to a Streisand effect . The AACS LA described this situation as an " interesting new twist " . = = Background = = Hexadecimal is a base @-@ 16 numeral system used in the fields of computer programming and mathematics . The key is an ordinary number most widely known by its hexadecimal representation ; in decimal notation , it is 13 @,@ 256 @,@ 278 @,@ 887 @,@ 989 @,@ 457 @,@ 651 @,@ 018 @,@ 865 @,@ 901 @,@ 401 @,@ 704 @,@ 640 . Because the encryption key may be used as part of circumvention technology forbidden by the DMCA , its possession and distribution has been viewed as illegal by the AACS , as well as by some legal professionals . Since it is a 128 @-@ bit numerical value , it was dubbed an illegal number . Opponents to the expansion of the scope of copyright criticize the idea of making a particular number illegal . Commercial HD DVDs and Blu @-@ ray Discs integrate copy protection technology specified by the AACS LA . There are several interlocking encryption mechanisms , such that cracking one part of the system does not necessarily crack other parts . Therefore , the " 09 F9 " key is only one of many parts that are needed to play a disc on an unlicensed player . The AACS system can be used to revoke a key of a specific playback device , after it is known to have been compromised , as it has for WinDVD . The compromised players can still be used to view old discs , but not newer releases without encryption keys for the compromised players . If other players are then cracked , further revocation would lead to legitimate users of compromised players being forced to upgrade or replace their player software or firmware in order to view new discs . Each playback device comes with a binary tree of secret device and processing keys . The processing key in this tree , a requirement to play the AACS encrypted discs , is selected based on the device key and the information on the disc to be played . As such , a processing key such as the " 09 F9 " key is not revoked , but newly produced discs cause the playback devices to select a different valid processing key to decrypt the discs . = = Timeline of AACS cracking = = = = = 2006 = = = On December 26 , 2006 , a person using the alias muslix64 published a utility named BackupHDDVD and its source code on the DVD decryption forum at the website Doom9 . BackupHDDVD can be used to decrypt AACS protected content once one knows the encryption key. muslix64 claimed to have found title and volume keys in main memory while playing HD DVDs using a software player , and that finding them is not difficult . = = = 2007 = = = On January 1 , 2007 , muslix64 published a new version of the program , with volume key support . On January 12 , 2007 , other forum members detailed how to find other title and volume keys , stating they had also found the keys of several movies in RAM while running WinDVD . On or about January 13 , a title key was posted on pastebin.com in the form of a riddle , which was solved by entering terms into the Google search engine . By converting these results to hexadecimal , a correct key could be formed . Later that day , the first cracked HD DVD , Serenity , was uploaded on a private torrent tracker . The AACS LA confirmed on January 26 that the title keys on certain HD DVDs had been published without authorization . Doom9.org forum user arnezami found and published the " 09 F9 " AACS processing key on February 11 : Nothing was hacked , cracked or even reverse engineered btw : I only had to watch the " show " in my own memory . No debugger was used , no binaries changed . This key is not specific to any playback device or DVD title . Doom9.org forum user jx6bpm claimed on March 4 to have revealed CyberLink 's PowerDVD 's key , and that it was the key in use by AnyDVD . The AACS LA announced on April 16 that it had revoked the decryption keys associated with certain software high @-@ definition DVD players , which will not be able to decrypt AACS encrypted disks mastered after April 23 , without an update of the software . On May 17 , one week before any discs with the updated processing key had reached retail , claims were reported of the new keys having been retrieved from a preview disc of The Matrix Trilogy . On May 23 , the key 45 5F E1 04 22 CA 29 C4 93 3F 95 05 2B 79 2A B2 was posted on Edward Felten 's Freedom to Tinker Blog and confirmed a week later by arnezami on Doom9 as the new processing key ( MKB v3 ) . = = = 2008 = = = In August , two new processing keys were posted : F1 90 A1 E8 17 8D 80 64 34 94 39 4F 80 31 D9 C8 , for MKB v4 , and 7A 5F 8A 09 F8 33 F7 22 1B D4 1F A6 4C 9C 79 33 , which appeared to work with MKB v6 , MKB v7 and MKB v8 discs . = = = 2009 = = = In March , two additional processing keys were posted : C8 72 94 CE 84 F9 CC EB 59 84 B5 47 EE C1 8D 66 , for MKB v9 45 2F 6E 40 3C DF 10 71 4E 41 DF AA 25 7D 31 3F , for MKB v10 While individual discs have been decrypted containing media key block version 17 , processing keys for versions past 10 have not yet been released to the public . Many more later keys were discovered , but most were not released publicly , probably because that would make them easier to revoke . = = DMCA notices and Digg = = As early as April 17 , 2007 , AACS LA had issued DMCA violation notices , sent by Charles S. Sims of Proskauer Rose . Following this , dozens of notices were sent to various websites hosted in the United States . On May 1 , 2007 , in response to a DMCA demand letter , technology news site Digg began closing accounts and removing posts containing or alluding to the key . The Digg community reacted by creating a flood of posts containing the key , many using creative ways of semi @-@ directly or indirectly inserting the number , such as in song or images ( either representing the digits pictorially or directly representing bytes from the key as colors ) or on merchandise . At one point , Digg 's " entire homepage was covered with links to the HD @-@ DVD code or anti @-@ Digg references . " Eventually the Digg administrators reversed their position , with founder Kevin Rose stating : But now , after seeing hundreds of stories and reading thousands of comments , you 've made it clear . You 'd rather see Digg go down fighting than bow down to a bigger company . We hear you , and effective immediately we won 't delete stories or comments containing the code and will deal with whatever the consequences might be . = = = Legal opinions = = = Lawyers and other representatives of the entertainment industry , including Michael Ayers , an attorney for Toshiba Corporation , expressed surprise at Digg 's decision , but suggested that a suit aimed at Digg might merely spread the information more widely . If you try to stick up for what you have a legal right to do , and you 're somewhat worse off because of it , that 's an interesting concept . The American Bar Association 's eReport published a discussion of the controversy , in which Eric Goldman at Santa Clara University 's High Tech Law Institute noted that the illegality of putting the code up is questionable ( that Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act may protect the provider when the material itself is not copyrighted ) , although continuing to allow posting of the key may be " risky " , and entertainment lawyer Carole Handler noted that even if the material is illegal , laws such as the DMCA may prove ineffective in a practical sense . = = Impact = = In a response to the events occurring on Digg and the call to " Spread this number " , the key was rapidly posted to thousands of pages , blogs and wikis across the Internet . The reaction was an example of the Streisand effect . Intellectual property lawyer Douglas J. Sorocco noted , " People are getting creative . It shows the futility of trying to stop this . Once the information is out there , cease @-@ and @-@ desist letters are going to infuriate this community more . " Outside the Internet and the mass media , the key has appeared in or on T @-@ shirts , poetry , songs and music videos , illustrations and other graphic artworks , tattoos and body art , and comic strips . On Tuesday afternoon , May 1 , 2007 , a Google search for the key returned 9 @,@ 410 results , while the same search the next morning returned nearly 300 @,@ 000 results . On Friday , the BBC reported that a search on Google shows almost 700 @,@ 000 pages have published the key , despite the fact that on April 17 , the AACS LA sent a DMCA notice to Google , demanding that Google stop returning any results for searches for the key . Widespread news coverage included speculation on the development of user @-@ driven websites , the legal liability of running a user @-@ driven website , the perception of acceptance of DRM , the failure as a business model of " secrecy based businesses ... in every aspect " in the Internet era , and the harm an industry can cause itself with harshly @-@ perceived legal action . In an opposing move , Carter Wood of the National Association of Manufacturers said they had removed the " Digg It " -link from their weblog . Until the Digg community shows as much fervor in attacking intellectual piracy as attacking the companies that are legitimately defending their property , well , we do not want to be promoting the site by using the " Digg It " feature . Media coverage initially avoided quoting the key itself . However , several US @-@ based news sources have run stories containing the key , quoting its use on Digg , though none are known to have received DMCA notices as a result . Later reports have discussed this , quoting the key . Current TV broadcast the key during a Google Current story on the Digg incident on May 3 , 2007 , displaying it in full on screen for several seconds and placing the story on the station website . Wikipedia , on May 1 , 2007 , locked out the page named for the number " to prevent the former secret from being posted again . The page on HD DVD was locked , too , to keep out The Number . " This action was later reversed . = = = AACS LA reaction = = = On May 7 , 2007 , the AACS LA announced on its website that it had " requested the removal solely of illegal circumvention tools , including encryption keys , from a number of web sites " , and that it had " not requested the removal or deletion of any ... discussion or commentary " . The statement continued , " AACS LA is encouraged by the cooperation it has received thus far from the numerous web sites that have chosen to address their legal obligations in a responsible manner . " BBC News had earlier quoted an AACS executive saying that bloggers " crossed the line " , that AACS was looking at " legal and technical tools " to confront those who published the key , and that the events involving Digg were an " interesting new twist " .
= Talk ( song ) = " Talk " is a song by British alternative rock band Coldplay . Built around a motif from Kraftwerk 's 1981 song " Computer Love " , it was written by all members of the band and appeared on their third album , X & Y. In the United States , the song entered at number 86 on the Billboard Hot 100 and elsewhere in the world its success varied . It peaked at number one in the Netherlands ' Dutch Top 40 , becoming the band 's first number one single there . The song received positive reviews , with critics noting the music 's sound and memorable lyrics . Both the song and its " Thin White Duke " remix were nominated for the 2007 Grammy Awards , the latter of which won in the category of Best Remixed Recording , Non @-@ Classical . = = Background = = Coldplay had difficulties with the recording sessions for months , as to the sound of the track . They were skeptical in deciding to add " Talk " to the final track listing of X & Y. During the recording sessions , which had seen the band scrap huge amounts of material , the song was left out when they sent early versions of the album to its record label , Parlophone . The song , however , made it to the track list , after it was properly mixed . When asked about the development of the song by NME.com , vocalist Chris Martin said , " From that version , [ a version that NME.com heard , while visiting the band in the studio ] we went and did a whole other version of it . A whole other song . What happened with the song ' Talk ' is that it was all going great and then someone said ' That should be the first single ' and we all just freaked out and scrapped it all . [ ... ] We ’ ve just mixed it and it sounds great . I think we ’ ve had such pain getting to that place , I ’ m not sure anyone quite knows what to do with it anymore . When we heard it mixed properly , it sounded mega . " The band received permission from the electronic music German band Kraftwerk to use the main riff from its song " Computer Love " ( German : Computerliebe ) , from its 1981 studio album Computer World ( German : Computerwelt ) , for " Talk " , replacing Kraftwerk 's synthesizers with guitars . In a track @-@ by @-@ track interview given by the band on X & Y , bassist Guy Berryman reported that in response to the band 's request , Kraftwerk founding member Ralf Hütter " said something like , ' Yes , you can use it , and thank you very much for asking my permission , unlike that bastard Jay @-@ Z ' . " The band recorded three separate versions of the single ; the one recorded on X & Y was based on an early cut of the song . A newer version of the track – with a different set of lyrics – was leaked onto the internet in early 2005 . The track was originally intended to be a B @-@ side for the song " Speed of Sound " , before becoming the last addition to X & Y 's track listing . = = Composition = = The track includes a hypnotic pace , with Will Champion adding a metronomic beat to the drums . The song features the synthesizer melody from Kraftwerk 's " Computer Love " . It also adds a chiming note to more abrasive riffs during the breakdown near the end of the song . In the fourth line of the second verse , Martin sings with a trace of irony : " Or write a song nobody had sung / Or do something that 's never been done . " In the third line of the third verse , Martin alludes to fear , but changes to joy : " Tell me how do you feel ? / Well I feel like they 're talking in a language I don 't speak / And they 're talking it to me . " In the fifth verse , Martin summarises about an individual who is lost and trying to discover the unknown : " So you don 't know where you 're going / But you want to talk / And you feel like you 're going where you 've been before / You 'll tell anyone who will listen but you feel ignored . " According to Josh Tyrangiel of Time magazine , the meaning to " Talk " is based on how Martin " wants to teach us how to feel better about ourselves , and his lessons have the moral superiority disguised as sensitivity that marked Bono 's mighty mullet period . " Tyrangiel interpreted the lyrics , " Are you lost or incomplete / Do you feel like a puzzle , you can 't find your missing piece / Tell me how you feel " , with Martin begging in the song . = = Release = = Coldplay released " Talk " in the UK and US on 19 December 2005 as the album 's third single . The single was pressed with two B @-@ sides : " Gravity " and " Sleeping Sun " . " Talk " peaked at number 10 in the UK Singles Chart on 31 December 2005 . The song charted at number 86 on the Billboard Hot 100 and reached number five on the Billboard Hot Modern Rock Tracks in 2005 . The song was released early in the Netherlands , thus charting in the Dutch Top 40 . It reached number one the closing week of 2005 . The band performed the song live at the 2005 MTV Europe Music Awards in Lisbon , Portugal , the 2006 Juno Awards in Halifax , Nova Scotia , and the 2006 Grammy Awards in Los Angeles , California . = = Reception = = Critics were positive towards the song . In the PopMatters review of the album , critic Adrian Begrand wrote : " It 's the excellent , and much talked @-@ about ' Talk ' that has the band showing tremendous creativity , delving straight into mid- ' 70s krautrock , and piecing together a gorgeous pop song . " Bud Scoppa of Paste magazine wrote : " ' Talk ' stands out as an anthem in an album full of them . " Dan Tallis of the BBC noted that the track was " fantastic " and " positively gargantuan " . Jonathan Keefe of Slant magazine wrote : " ' Talk ' is given one of the album 's most memorable melodies , but its impact is reduced by the song 's structure , in which the lead guitar echoes Martin 's vocal melody after every line , so that melody becomes tiresome well before the first chorus hits . " Despite " Talk " ' s positive reception , Martin has stated that Berryman dislikes it , and thus they no longer perform the song live . The song was remixed by Jacques Lu Cont , with the title " Talk ( Thin White Duke Mix ) " . The song by Lu Cont won the coveted Best Remixed Recording , Non @-@ Classical award at the 2007 Grammy Awards . " Talk " was also nominated for a Grammy award in the category of Best Rock Performance by a duo or Group with Vocals . The song was also used as the basis of a downloadable hoax track titled " Talk to David " produced as an April Fools ' Day prank by the British newspaper The Guardian . This featured lyrics purporting to give support to Conservative opposition party leader David Cameron . The song was featured heavily in the season two CSI : NY episode " Jamalot " , in which the character Danny Messer plays the song as a ringtone on his cell phone . The band 's American record label , Capitol Records , paid for promotional consideration to place the song in the episode and for the character to talk about Coldplay . = = Music video = = The music video for " Talk " was helmed by director / photographer Anton Corbijn . Filming of the video took place on 5 and 6 November 2005 at Ealing Studios , London , just before the band began their tour , Twisted Logic . The black @-@ and @-@ white clip invokes a B movie science fiction theme , with imagery ranging from a flying saucer to 3D glasses . The main plot line of the music video features the band as astronauts landing on an alien planet , where they re @-@ activate a dormant robot , who eventually eats them and their spaceship as they are attempting to fly away . = = Personnel = = Chris Martin – vocals , electric guitar Jonny Buckland – electric guitar Guy Berryman – bass guitar Will Champion – drums , backing vocals = = = Additional musicians = = = Chris Tumbling , Richard George , Gregory Warren Wilson , Laura Melhuish – violins Susan Dench , Peter Lale – viola Anne Lines – cello = = Track listings = = = = = Netherlands = = = A special three part single was released over three weeks in December featuring live tracks recorded at the Gelredome in 2005 . = = Charts = =
= Romney Literary Society = The Romney Literary Society ( also known as the Literary Society of Romney ) existed from January 30 , 1819 , to February 15 , 1886 , in Romney , West Virginia . Established as the Polemic Society of Romney , it became the first organization of its kind in the present @-@ day state of West Virginia , and one of the first in the United States . The society was founded by nine prominent men of Romney with the objectives of advancing literature and science , purchasing and maintaining a library , and improving educational opportunities . The society debated an extensive range of scientific and social topics , often violating its own rules which banned religious and political subjects . Even though its membership was relatively small , its debates and activities were frequently discussed throughout the Potomac Highlands region , and the organization greatly influenced trends of thought in the Romney community and surrounding areas . The society 's library began in 1819 with the acquisition of two books ; by 1861 , it had grown to contain approximately 3 @,@ 000 volumes on subjects such as literature , science , history , and art . The organization also sought to establish an institution for " the higher education of the youth of the community . " In 1820 , as a result of this initiative , the teaching of the classics was introduced into the curriculum of Romney Academy , thus making the institution the first school of higher education in the Eastern Panhandle . In 1846 , the society constructed a building which housed the Romney Classical Institute and its library , both of which fell under the society 's supervision . The institute was administered by noted Presbyterian Reverend William Henry Foote . Following a dispute with the society , Foote founded a rival school in Romney , known as the Potomac Seminary , in 1850 . The Romney Literary Society and the Romney Classical Institute continued to grow in influence until the onset of the American Civil War in 1861 . The contents of the society 's library were plundered by Union Army forces , and only 400 of the library 's volumes could be recovered following the war 's end in 1865 . Reorganized in 1869 , the society took a leading role in Romney 's civil development during Reconstruction . Between 1869 and 1870 , it completed construction of Literary Hall , where the society held meetings and reassembled its library . The organization used its influence to secure the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind for the town of Romney , and offered the school its former Romney Classical Institute campus . The schools opened on September 29 , 1870 . Interest in the society waned during its final years , and its last recorded meeting was held in 1886 . = = Establishment = = The Romney Literary Society was organized on January 30 , 1819 , by nine prominent men of Romney in the office of Dr. John Temple , a reputable physician in the community . The society was formed with the purpose " of taking into consideration the propriety of financing a Society , having for its object the advancement of Literature and Science , the purchase of a Library by and for the use of its members ; and their further improvement by discussing before the Society such questions as shall be selected under its directors . " With its establishment , the Romney Literary Society became the first organization of its kind in the present @-@ day state of West Virginia , and one of the first in the United States . The nine men at the society 's first meeting were Thomas Blair , David Gibson , James P. Jack , Samuel Kercheval , Jr . , Nathaniel Kuykendall , Charles T. Magill , James M. Stephens , John Temple , and William C. Wodrow . According to historian Hu Maxwell , these men elected Kuykendall as chairman and Magill as secretary of a committee which was charged with the drafting of a constitution for the society . On February 4 , 1819 , the committee delivered its draft of the constitution and the society adopted the document , which provided that the organization should be known as the Polemic Society of Romney . The society 's constitution also specified that the officers should consist of a president , secretary , and treasurer , each of whom was to be selected by a ballot vote . The constitution further stipulated that each member was to pay dues of 50 cents per month , and that the society had the authority to levy further financial contributions from its members as it deemed necessary . The funds collected were to cover the society 's operating costs , and the remaining funds were to be used in purchasing books for the library . Under the constitution , the society 's meetings were to be held weekly . Following each meeting 's business session , a debate or other literary exercises were to be held consisting of topics of general interest of the members . No political or religious discussions were to take place during the debates unless they were of an abstract nature or in general terms . Profane language and " spirituous liquors " were also forbidden from the society 's meetings , with each offense being punishable with a fine of one dollar . The society 's first elected officers were Charles T. Magill as president , William C. Wodrow as secretary , and John Temple as treasurer . = = Early debates = = The society 's next meeting was held on February 13 , 1819 in the old Hampshire County Courthouse , where the first matter for debate was " Resolved : That a representative should be governed by instructions from his constituents . " Following the debate , the decision was rendered in favor of the affirmative . The second meeting , which was held on February 19 of that year at the Romney Academy , debated the question , " Is an education acquired at the public school or [ is ] a private tutor to be preferred ? " and the society favored the public school . At this second meeting , the first money appropriated by the society was paid to the doorkeeper for a sum of 25 cents . Also at this second meeting , the treasurer was instructed to purchase a book for use by the secretary , three candlesticks , one pair of snuffers , and three pounds of candles . On February 26 , the society argued the question , " Is a system of banking advantageous to a community ? " The debate ended under the decision that a system of banking was advantageous . The following meeting on March 6 debated a question far more psychological in nature , which was an abstract question of religion : " Can the human mind , by its own reflection , arrive at the conclusion that the soul is immortal ? " The society decided in the negative . The society also debated and decided in the negative the question , " Is a protective tariff detrimental to the interests of the country ? " One of the society 's more spirited debates occurred in May 1822 over the question , " Is it to the interest of the people of Hampshire to encourage the canalling of the Potomac ? " While no records of the arguments survive , the society decided that the canalling of the Potomac River would be detrimental to the interests of Hampshire County . The debate took place before the construction of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal along the Maryland shore of the Potomac River to the north of Hampshire County . The society 's consensus was that a canal on the Potomac would destroy the business of teamsters who hauled merchandise from the east along the Northwestern Turnpike . For this reason , the society and local population of Romney also objected to the construction of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad . To ensure confidentiality , the society passed a bylaw that enforced a fine of five dollars on any member who published either his own or another member 's speeches delivered before the society . As a result of this bylaw , no speeches were ever published . The society adopted a new constitution in 1824 . = = Growth and influence = = Over the first ten years of the society 's existence , the organization grew in membership and held meetings at least twice a month , and usually four times a month . The society debated an extensive range of subjects including scientific , religious , political , and social topics , often violating the constitution 's rules banning religious and political subjects . The society 's debates were often acrimonious and regularly spilled beyond the confines of the meetings and into the community . Between January 30 , 1819 and January 22 , 1830 , the society 's membership rolls reached 52 members ; although as few as 15 members attended the bimonthly meetings , and no more than 17 members were ever present at a meeting . Even though the Romney Literary Society 's membership was relatively small , its debates and activities were frequently discussed throughout the Potomac Highlands region . For this reason , the society greatly influenced trends of thought in the Romney community and surrounding areas . No records of the society 's proceedings , works , or membership enrollments spanning the period between January 22 , 1830 and 1861 are extant . During this period , the society counted among its members Angus William McDonald , John Baker White , and Robert White . = = Library collection = = In order to fulfill one of its primary purposes of establishing a library for its members , the Romney Literary Society gradually began to acquire volumes for such a use . The society 's library began with the April 23 , 1819 appropriation for the purchase of two books : Plutarch 's Parallel Lives and Emer de Vattel 's The Law of Nations . On July 2 , 1819 , the balance of available funds in the treasurer 's account was two dollars and forty @-@ six cents , but by October 23 , there were sufficient funds to purchase the following volumes : Charles Rollin 's Ancient History , Lewis ' Roman History , and William Robertson 's History of the Reign of Charles the Fifth . No more volumes were purchased until the end of 1820 , when the society acquired the works of Livy , Tacitus , and John Marshall 's Life of Washington . Three months later , the society purchased a bookcase for its growing collection . In April 1821 , the society further expanded its library with the acquisitions of Nathaniel Hooke 's Roman History , from the Building of Rome to the Ruin of the Commonwealth , the works of Herodotus , Travels in Greece , Modern Europe , David Ramsay 's History of the United States , and the works of Benjamin Franklin . In 1821 , the Virginia General Assembly passed an act incorporating the organization as the " Library Society of Romney . " The society found the assembly 's charter unsatisfactory , as it specified several changes to the organization that the society had not asked for , including the change in its name . The members regarded their society as a " literary " society and not a " library " one . The society requested that the assembly amend its charter , and after several delays and debates over the new charter , the Virginia General Assembly passed a new act on February 4 , 1823 , in which the organization was rebranded as " The Literary Society of Romney . " The society maintained this long form name throughout the duration of its existence , although it was locally known as the " Romney Literary Society . " Within the span of ten years , the society 's small library grew to contain approximately 3 @,@ 000 volumes on literature , science , history , and art . These were bound in calfskin and stamped with the seal of the society . The minutes from the society 's bimonthly meetings listed the books purchased and the methods by which they were acquired . According to the Federal Writers ' Project in their Historic Romney 1762 – 1937 ( 1937 ) , the book selections and their acquisition " indicate that these men possessed real literary judgment and business ability . " By resolutions of the society , the use of the library was for the society 's members , and was further extended to " ministers of the gospel of all denominations gratis . " Certain citizens of Romney were also granted access to the library , and enjoyed similar privileges as its members . = = Academic patronage = = From the organization 's foundation , the Romney Literary Society gradually began to recognize that the local subscription school systems provided only elementary and often fragmentary education and no longer satisfied the academic needs of the Romney community . The society periodically engaged in lengthy deliberations on which theories of educational advancement and popular education were preferable . Shortly after its establishment , the society commenced a movement to establish an institution for " the higher education of the youth of the community . " In 1820 , as a result of this initiative , the teaching of the classics was introduced into the curriculum of Romney Academy , thus making the institution the first school of higher education in the Eastern Panhandle . Under the guidance , leadership , and strict discipline of Dr. Henry Johnston , Romney Academy became widely renowned for its courses in " higher classics . " His successor and society member William Henry Foote introduced courses in theology , and the school 's enrollment grew to include students preparing for ministry . As the school became more renowned in the South Branch Potomac River valley , pupils came from further and further away . Thomas and Samuel Mulledy were among the early instructors at the academy , both of whom later served as presidents of Georgetown University in Washington , D.C. By 1831 , Romney Academy had outgrown its facilities in the old stone school building behind the Hampshire County Courthouse . To remedy this , the society instituted a campaign to raise funds for a new school building . On January 6 , 1832 , the Virginia General Assembly authorized the society to raise an endowment of $ 20 @,@ 000 in a lottery for educational purposes . Following a ten @-@ year lapse , the society made arrangements with James Gregory of Jersey City and Daniel McIntyre of Philadelphia to finance a lottery " for raising a sum of money not exceeding twenty thousand dollars , for the purpose of erecting a suitable building for their accommodation , the purchase of library and Philosophical apparatus . " The lottery was to be conducted over a period of ten years , and sums of $ 750 , $ 1 @,@ 000 , and $ 1 @,@ 500 were to be raised in semiannual installments . The society was successful in raising funds , and in 1845 the society solicited bids for the construction of a new building to house both the academy , the society , and the society 's library . The society also used the lottery funds to pay for books for the academy . On February 12 , 1844 , the Virginia General Assembly passed an act authorizing the society to denote the balance of the moneys raised by the lottery to the Romney Academy . The assembly further enacted another legislative act on December 12 , 1846 , authorizing the Romney Literary Society to " establish at or near the town of Romney a Seminary of Learning for the instruction of youth in various branches of science and literature ; and the Society map appropriate to the same such portion of the property which it now has or may acquire , as it may deem expedient . " That same year , a new brick neoclassical building was constructed east of Romney , and the society , its library , and Romney Academy relocated to the new facility . The second story of the new building was utilized by the society , with one hall for meetings and the other hall for the society 's library . According to Maxwell , " few schools in the state of Virginia at that time had access to better libraries . " The new institute building and grounds cost the society about $ 8 @,@ 000 . Following its move to the new building , the academy was reorganized as the Romney Classical Institute and its activities fell under the supervision of the society . The institute was operated under the principalship of Foote from 1846 until 1849 . In 1849 , the society presented a new code and system of bylaws for the government of the Romney Classical Institute , which reserved to the society the power to appoint assistant teachers , fix the amount of salaries , and provide the conditions and manners of payment and reimbursement . Foote differed with the society over these matters , and he ultimately declined to accept the new bylaws and resigned his leadership position in October 1849 ; in 1850 , he established a rival institution known as the Potomac Seminary . Rather than falling under the patronage of the society , Foote 's new institution fell under the control of the Presbyterian church . Following Foote 's departure , the society selected Professor E. J. Meany to head the Romney Classical Institute . Despite the schism , the society also provided financial support from the lottery to the Potomac Seminary . According to a " catalogue of the members and library " published on June 1 , 1849 , there were 20 registered members on the rolls who paid $ 3 each per year to the society 's library fund ; there were also eight library members who were admitted under certain regulations of the society and who paid the same fees . Members who had use of the library were provided keys and were allowed access to the library at any time . The town 's clergymen and the principal of the Romney Classical Institute were the only non @-@ members who were extended privileges to the library . The 1849 " catalogue " listed Alfred P. White as the society 's librarian and E. J. Meany remained the principal of the institute . After 1853 , the society possessed a permanent fund of $ 12 @,@ 000 , which yielded $ 720 per year , one half of which was devoted to the support of the Romney Classical Institute . = = American Civil War and hiatus = = The Romney Literary Society and the Romney Classical Institute flourished and continued to grow in importance and influence until the onset of the American Civil War in 1861 . Following the war 's outbreak , many of the society 's members and the institute 's professors and older students joined the Confederate States Army and marched to war . During the war , the society suffered extensive losses . The Romney Classical Institute building and its library were considered legitimate plunder by Union Army forces . The society 's library was emptied and three @-@ fourths of its volumes were either scattered or destroyed . The most valuable of these volumes were never recovered following the war 's end . Its records of proceedings between 1830 and 1861 , the period during which the society engaged in most of its notable literary and philanthropic works , were also destroyed during the war . Following the war 's end , only 400 out of the library 's nearly 3 @,@ 000 volumes could be recovered , with only 200 of those books remaining on the library 's shelves . Between 10 and 20 of the library 's recovered volumes only contained three to four of their original books . The value of the recovered volumes was degraded , as many were damaged or broken . The society members that returned home to Romney were too war @-@ weary to revive the society when they discovered the ruins of the Romney Classical Institute and its library , which had been an expensive endeavor to accumulate and took almost a half @-@ century of labor to amass . The Romney Classical Institute was not restored and was in effect disestablished on account of the war . = = Revival = = Following the war , the residents of Romney set about repairing public buildings and reestablishing the town 's antebellum institutions , including the Romney Literary Society . The society remained on a hiatus until May 15 , 1869 when a meeting was held by nine members , as only nine original members had responded to the call for reorganization . These nine members tasked with rebuilding the society were James L. Armstrong , David Entler , William Harper , John C. Heiskell , Andrew Wodrow Kercheval , Samuel R. Lupton , James Parsons , Alfred P. White , and Robert White . These men sought to collect what remained of the library 's books and engaged in a campaign to recruit new members , which resulted in the enrollment of 20 younger men over a period of a few years . Many of the men who had been members in 1861 had died during the war , and the recruitment of new members was essential to the revival of the society . Among the new members elected between 1869 and 1886 were John Collins Covell , Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy , Henry Bell Gilkeson , Howard Hille Johnson , and Christian Streit White . The society , with renewed vigor , took a lead role in Romney 's civil development during the Reconstruction Era . Between 1869 and 1870 , the society completed construction of a new two @-@ story brick building on Lot 56 at the corner of West Main and North High Streets known as Literary Hall , where it could hold its meetings and reassemble the remaining volumes from its original library . Literary Hall was built upon the former location of the shuttered Bank of the South Branch of the Potomac . In addition to the 400 volumes that were initially recovered following the war , the society recovered several more volumes from its original library , and set about purchasing new books ; the restored library was reopened with about 700 volumes . = = West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind = = Around the time of the society 's reorganization in 1869 , the state of West Virginia considered the establishment of a school for the deaf and the blind . The society resolved to secure the new state institution for Romney . On April 12 , 1870 , the society passed a resolution by which the members agreed to deed , free of cost , the buildings and grounds of the Romney Classical Institute . On April 20 , 1870 , the society sent Andrew Wodrow Kercheval and Robert White as representatives to the then @-@ state capital Wheeling to present their formal offer of " the grounds and buildings of the Romney Classical Institute ... to the Board of Regents , free of debt , and in good repair " on the condition that the proposed school be located in Romney . Clarksburg and Parkersburg also made offers of potential campuses to the state . The offer was made to the Board of Regents of the West Virginia Institute for the Deaf , Dumb , and Blind , as it was then known , and the society 's proposal was accepted by the regents after a brief period of deliberation . The society 's offer was the only one that included a building upon the grounds . It was discovered by the society that in order to follow through with their proposition , it was necessary to raise more than $ 1 @,@ 000 , which was ostensibly a difficult task during the Reconstruction Era in Romney . On July 11 , 1870 , the Board of Regents passed a resolution necessitating the subscription of between $ 1 @,@ 200 and $ 1 @,@ 300 to facilitate the transaction . One hundred and eighteen individuals and firms responded to the board 's request with a total subscription of $ 1 @,@ 383 @.@ 60 . To make good on its offer , the society also made an appropriation of $ 320 on July 11 for the purpose of repairing and restoring the former Romney Classical Institute and grounds so that they were satisfactory before they were transferred to the regents . Shortly thereafter , the old institute building and 15 acres ( 6 @.@ 1 ha ) of property were formally transferred to the state of West Virginia . On September 29 , 1870 , the institute , which was later known as the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind , opened its doors in the old Romney Classical Institute building with 25 deaf and five blind students . Following its disestablishment in 1916 , the adjacent Potomac Academy ( formerly Potomac Seminary ) grounds were also incorporated into the campus of the Schools for the Deaf and Blind . = = Final years = = During a period of ten years spanning from 1870 to 1880 , much of Romney 's intellectual life centered on Literary Hall . During this time , the society met only occasionally and there were no records of meetings between March 1872 and April 1878 . The post @-@ war period of revival was short @-@ lived , as the death of the older members caused interest in the society to wane . The society 's meetings occurred less often , and the last recorded meeting of the society was held on February 15 , 1886 . During the society 's second existence , Literary Hall was used as a meeting space by the Freemasons and the Order of the Eastern Star , and the organizations continued to inhabit the hall following the society 's disestablishment until its 1974 purchase by attorney Ralph Haines . Also a local historian , Haines restored Literary Hall and used it as his law office and museum . Literary Hall was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on May 29 , 1979 and , as of 2004 , it is occasionally open to the public . The society 's remaining records , dating as early as 1819 , remain on display there . = = Legacy = = In describing the efforts of the Romney Literary Society , historian Hu Maxwell , in his History of Hampshire County , West Virginia From Its Earliest Settlement to the Present ( 1897 ) , stated that " the work accomplished by these few energetic citizens of Romney is astonishing . " Maxwell further asserted , " No other one thing in the history of the town has had such lasting results for good . " The society left many lasting impacts upon the town of Romney during its existence and beyond , which included the foundation of a library ; the academic and financial support and patronage of the Romney Academy , Romney Classical Institute , and the Potomac Seminary ; the civic leadership during the Reconstruction Era ; and the influence and assistance in securing the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind . According to Maxwell , without the efforts of the society , the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind could not have been secured for Romney , and would have likely been located elsewhere in the state .
= Start All Over = " Start All Over " is a pop @-@ rock song performed by American recording artist Miley Cyrus . It was released as the second and final single of Cyrus ' debut album Meet Miley Cyrus , the second disc of the dual album Hannah Montana 2 : Meet Miley Cyrus . A live version is available on Hannah Montana & Miley Cyrus : Best of Both Worlds Concert and as a karaoke in Cyrus 's karaoke series . The song was originally written by Fefe Dobson , who passed the song to Cyrus , as she did not desire to include it on Sunday Love . The up @-@ tempo song has prominent pop rock characteristics and is lyrically about having a second chance in a romantic relationship . The song garnered low commercial outcomes for Cyrus in several countries , compared to those of her previous single from Meet Miley Cyrus , " See You Again " . Those countries include Australia , Canada , and the United States . The song reached its highest international peak in the Australian Singles Chart , at number 41 . A video to " Start All Over " premiered on the Disney Channel , which received a MuchMusic Video Award nomination . The music video features Cyrus performing the song in the streets , and also includes her in a carnivallike setting . Cyrus performed the song at several venues ; it was most notably performed in 2007 and 2008 the Best of Both Worlds Tour , as the opening number for her performances as herself . Cyrus again performed " Start All Over " once she embarked on the 2009 Wonder World Tour . The song , along with " Fly on the Wall " and " Who Owns My Heart " are the only singles released by Cyrus that haven 't been certified at least platinum in the United States . = = Background and composition = = The song was written and recorded by Canadian recording artist Fefe Dobson for her unreleased second album Sunday Love . Dobson explained on an August 2009 interview with MTV News , " I wrote a song , she dug it , and she sang it . But I didn 't want it for my record . It just wasn 't right for me , and I just felt like it was better for someone else , and she does a great job on it . I was really impressed . She sounded great . I 'm actually happier she did it than I did it . " Dobson sings background vocals , along with Anne Preven , on Cyrus ' version of the song . Among other personnel are : Paul Bushnell for bass guitar , Scott Cutler and David Levita for electric guitar , Josh Freese for drums and Jeff Turzo for keyboard . The song has an extreme use of pop rock , meanwhile still incorporating teen pop and dance @-@ pop . It is set in common time with a moderately fast tempo of 150 beats per minute . The song is written in a key of G major . Cyrus ' vocals spans one octave , from G3 to B4 . The song has the following chord progression , Dm7 — Am — G5 . In an interview with Access Hollywood on the set of the music video , Cyrus mentioned that the song was involved with romance and " the guy that I 'm supposed to ' start all over ' " . Lael Loewenstein , writing for Variety , stated that " Breakout " and " Start All Over " " touch on the theme of self @-@ reinvention " . = = Chart performance = = " Start All Over " ' s debut appearance on Hot Digital Songs led to charting in the Billboard Hot 100 . For the week ending January 18 , 2008 , " Start All Over " debuted and peaked in the Hot 100 at number 68 . That same week , the song debuted and peaked at number 57 on the discontinued Pop 100 . For the week ending January 26 , the song ascended to number 50 on Hot Digital Songs , but failed to ascend in the Hot 100 and Pop 100 ; that week was its last on the three charts . The song garnered similar commercial outcomes in other nations . For the week ending February 23 , 2008 in the Canadian Hot 100 , the song charted at number 93 , falling from the chart the week after . In the Australian Singles Chart , issue dated July 14 , " Start All Over " debuted at number 50 . In its second week , ending August 11 , 2009 , the song moved up to number 41 , where it peaked , and fell from the top 50 after five weeks . = = Music video = = On an exclusive interview with Access Hollywood , Cyrus spoke in regards to the music video for the song , directed by Marc Webb . She said , " I wanted something crazy that no one else has done and like really random because this song is kinda random . " Shot on November 16 , 2007 in a suburban area of Los Angeles , California , the video included fifty background dancers , such as a middle school teacher . Cyrus said the concept was , " I 'm singing and dancing and like rocking out and I have no idea where these people come from . " People on stilts , scuba divers , even a teacher in the background . The portion of the music video in which she enters the " carnival @-@ like " scene drew influences from the 1950s and Hairspray . Another concept she further explained was the appearance of a man in a " prom @-@ setting . " Cyrus said , " Here it 's gonna be the guy that I 'm supposed to ' start all over ' and we 're at prom , so I 'm just [ ... ] not like in a dress or anything . So , it 's random . It 's like everything is happening all at once . " The ending of the music video , she explained , was when she went back to " where [ she ] belongs " after a day of " torture . " The video commences with Cyrus , in pajamas , turning off a nightlight and falling asleep . When she wakes up , Cyrus finds herself on her bed , in a skate ramp ; she is wearing a white T @-@ shirt , a black vest , red pants and black boots . Meanwhile , skaters are using the ramp , Cyrus stands and performs the song in a confused manner . She then enters a school bus , occupied by businessmen and businesswomen , which she exits through the back emergency door . Throughout the rest of the video Cyrus is seen exploring a " carnival @-@ like " setting , while dancing . Several random figures make appearances , such as astronauts , scuba divers , Middle School teachers , and cowboys . A large , star @-@ patterned falls and reveals a concert stage where Cyrus performs the song along with a band . In the conclusion of the video , Cyrus is woken up by an alarm clock and a printer prints stills from what occurred throughout the music video . The music video to " Start All Over " was first seen on the Disney Channel on December 19 , 2007 . It became digitally available , via iTunes Store , on January 29 , 2008 . In 2008 , the video received a MuchMusic Video nomination for Best International Artist Video , but lost to Rihanna 's video for " Don 't Stop the Music . " = = Live performances = = On December 31 , 2007 , Cyrus performed the song along with " G.N.O. ( Girl 's Night Out ) " and " We Got the Party , " a duet with the Jonas Brothers , on the 2008 episode special of Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve with Ryan Seacrest . " Start All Over " was then most notably performed on Cyrus ' first headlining tour , the Best of Both Worlds Tour . On the tour , the song served as the opening number for the portion of songs that Cyrus performed as herself . The song was proceeded by the interlude from the opening act : first leg by the Jonas Brothers , ( " Year 3000 " ) second leg by Aly & A.J. ( " Rush " ) and third leg by Everlife . During the performances , Cyrus wore a gray metallic jacket , a white T @-@ shirt and black leggings . It begun with Cyrus emerging from the bottom of the stage and then roaming around the stage to perform the song . Cyrus ' performance of " Start All Over " during the tour was received from mixed to average reviews by critics . Maitland McDonagh of TV Guide magazine stated that Cyrus ' return after the Brothers was an up @-@ beat " vague rocker @-@ chick grab . " A promotional music video from these live performances were made to promote the Hannah Montana & Miley Cyrus : Best of Both Worlds Concert film . On June 7 , 2009 at the twentieth annual A Time for Heroes Celebrity Carnival , Cyrus performed the song , coupled with " 7 Things , " " Breakout , " " The Climb , " " The Driveway , " " Fly on the Wall , " " These Four Walls " and " See You Again . " Proceeded by " Breakout , " it is second on the set list of her current and first international concert tour , the Wonder World Tour . In these performances , Cyrus wears black boots , skimpy black shorts and tank top . Throughout most of " Start All Over , " Cyrus maintains on the construction carts that were used on the end of opening number . = = Charts = =
= Hurricane Gil ( 1983 ) = Hurricane Gil was the first of several tropical cyclones to affect Hawaii during the 1983 Pacific hurricane season . Gil originated from a tropical depression that developed near Clipperton Island on July 23 . Steadily intensifying , it attained tropical storm status six hours later and was upgraded to a hurricane on July 26 . After attaining peak intensity on July 27 , Gil encountered cooler sea surface temperatures and began to weaken . Moving west @-@ northwest , the weakening system also accelerated and on July 31 , was downgraded to a tropical depression . However , Gil began to re @-@ intensify on August 1 , becoming a tropical storm again later that day . Initially expected to veer north of Hawaii , it continued west @-@ northwest and began to approach the Hawaiian group on August 3 . While passing through the island group , Gil reached its secondary peak intensity . Subsequently , Gil began to weaken once again as it threatened the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands . After passing through the islands , Gil was downgraded to a tropical depression on August 5 . Several hours later , the storm dissipated . The remnants of the storm moved into the West Pacific late on August 6 and were last noted the next morning while passing south of Midway Island . Due to fears of a repeat of Hurricane Iwa , which devastated the island group the previous year , officials issued many tropical cyclone warnings and watches while seven shelters were opened , though few people actually used these shelters . On Oahu , a power outage was reported , affecting 2 @,@ 400 customers . Jellyfish also stung 50 people . Locally heavy rainfall and rough seas led to minor damage while strong winds lead to extensive damage on the north side of the island . On Maui and Kauai , minor flooding , as well , though damage was minimal . Offshore , one person is presumed to have died in a shipwreck . In a separate shipping incident , three crewmen were slightly injured . The remnants of Gil later affected the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands , where near @-@ gale force winds were measured . Throughout the state , damage was minimal . = = Meteorological history = = The seventh tropical cyclone of the season originated from a tropical depression that developed during the afternoon hours of July 23 about 200 mi ( 320 km ) north of Clipperton Island . Due to light wind shear and warm ocean temperatures , the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center ( EPHC ) upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Gil at 0000 UTC on July 24 . Gil was briefly expected to re @-@ curve and approach Baja California Sur , but this never materialized . Gil subsequently began to intensify ; on 0000 UTC July 25 , the EPHC reported that Gil had intensified into a strong tropical storm , with winds of 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) . Roughly 24 hours later , the storm was upgraded into a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale . Early on July 27 , the storm attained its peak intensity of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) . Despite turning west @-@ northwest , Hurricane Gil maintained hurricane intensity until 1200 UTC July 29 when the storm began to encounter cooler waters . By 0000 UTC July 31 , Gil was downgraded a tropical depression . Despite a well @-@ defined atmospheric circulation , Gil was still a tropical depression when it entered Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's ( CPHC ) warning zone on August 1 . The circulation gradually became better defined moved as the low moved west @-@ northwest over a pool of slightly warmer waters west of 140th meridian west ; later that day , the CPHC reportedly re @-@ upgraded Gil into a tropical storm . Meanwhile , the storm was forecast to pass north of the U.S. State of Hawaii . Gil accelerated while approaching the Hawaiian Island group . On August 2 , Gil was situated roughly 300 mi ( 485 km ) east of the island chain . Gil re @-@ strengthened slightly ; on August 3 , the tropical cyclone reached its secondary peak wind speed of 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) . Late on August 4 , Tropical Storm Gil made its closest approach to Oahu , passing 20 mi ( 30 km ) north of Kahuku Point . While passing through the archipelago , an Hurricane Hunter aircraft recorded winds of 45 to 50 mph ( 70 to 80 km / h ) ; however , the CPHC held the intensity of storm at 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) due to calm surface winds . By this time , the strongest winds of the storm were situated north of the center . After clearing the main Hawaiian island chain , Gil began to approach the Hawaiian Leeward Island group . Continuing west @-@ northwest , Gil passed very close to French Frigate Shoals on August 4 as a marginal tropical storm . Early on August 5 , the system was downgraded into a tropical depression while centered 145 mi ( 235 km ) west of Tern Island . Later that day , Tropical Depression Gil degenerated into a trough about 300 mi ( 485 km ) west @-@ northwest of Tern Island . The remnants of the storm crossed the International Dateline late on August 6 . It then passed 150 mi ( 240 km ) south of Midway Island while still producing deep convection . The remains of Gil were last noted in the West Pacific basin early on August 7 . = = Preparations and impact = = Due to fears of a repeat of Hurricane Iwa , advisories and warnings for the main Hawaiian Islands were issued by meteorologists and Civil Defense Authorities , who had been criticized for the lack of warning prior to Iwa 's near @-@ landfall . Gale warnings were issued for a much of the islands ( except for the Big Island ) , but on August 2 , these warnings were discontinued for all islands except for Kauai . High surf advisories were also issued . Furthermore , seven shelters were opened as a precaution . Due to the threat of high waves , residents were warned to be ready to evacuate from low @-@ lying areas . Tropical Storm Gil was the first tropical cyclone to threaten Hawaii since Hurricane Iwa during did the 1982 Pacific hurricane season , which devastated the region . Due to heavy rains , a couple of people sought shelter in Nanakuli High School on the island . Jellyfish stung 50 tourists along two beaches in Oahu , they were treated by life guards and none required hospitalization ; the jellyfish were thought to have been residing there due to the storm . In addition , one beach on Oahu was closed because of high surf , and swimmers were asked to stay out of the water near Waikiki . Locally gusty winds were recorded on Oahu . On the northern part of the island , 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) winds were reported , resulting in extensive damage in some areas , but slight damage to others . A minor power outage on the island briefly left 2 @,@ 400 customers without electricity . In Maui , the outer rainbands of Hurricane Gil brought heavy precipitation , leading to minor flooding . Although winds were calm , locally heavy showers occurred over Kauai . Rough surf pounded the northeastern facing beaches of that island , as well as the northeastern side of Oahu . A sea level pressure of 1 @,@ 011 mb ( 29 @.@ 9 inHg ) was also recorded . Overall , damage from Gil was minimal and less than expected . Later in the season , the state was affected by Tropical Storm Narda and threatened by Hurricane Raymond . Offshore , several ships were affected by the storm . Most notably , a 19 ft ( 5 m ) catamaran , ironically named Hurricane , went missing after leaving Long Beach on July 20 . Gil likely sunk this ship . The vessel had a crew of two , one of which was presumed to have died during the storm . However , as the ship lacked radio equipment , this death remains unconfirmed . In addition to the above , the 30 @-@ foot ship Adad also got caught into the storm 72 hours after leaving Kauai . Storm surge from all sides nearly sunk the vessel and all three people on board sustained minor injuries , one of which sprained his wrist . After passing the main islands of Hawaii , Gil approached the Leeward Island group . Tropical Storm Gil passed just south of French Frigate Shoals on August 4 as a minimal tropical storm . Winds were light , gusting to 32 mph ( 51 km / h ) . Meanwhile , a peak pressure of 1 @,@ 014 mb ( 29 @.@ 9 inHg ) was reported .
= One Direction = One Direction ( commonly abbreviated as 1D ) are an English @-@ Irish pop boy band based in London , composed of Niall Horan , Liam Payne , Harry Styles , Louis Tomlinson , and previously , Zayn Malik until his departure from the band on 25 March 2015 . The group signed with Simon Cowell 's record label Syco Records after forming and finishing third in the seventh series of the British televised singing competition The X Factor in 2010 . Propelled to international success by social media , One Direction 's four albums , Up All Night ( 2011 ) , Take Me Home ( 2012 ) , Midnight Memories ( 2013 ) and Four ( 2014 ) topped charts in most major markets , and generated hit singles including " What Makes You Beautiful " , " Live While We 're Young " , and " Story of My Life " . Their fifth studio album , Made in the A.M. , was released in November 2015 . Their awards include six Brit Awards , four MTV Video Music Awards , eleven MTV Europe Music Awards , seven American Music Awards ( including Artist of the Year in 2014 and 2015 ) , and 27 Teen Choice Awards , among many others . According to Nick Gatfield , the chairman and chief executive of Sony Music Entertainment UK , One Direction represented a $ 50 million business empire by June 2012 . They were proclaimed 2012 's " Top New Artist " by Billboard . According to the Sunday Times Rich List , by April 2013 , they had an estimated personal combined wealth of £ 25 million ( $ 41.2m ) making them the second @-@ wealthiest musicians in the UK under 30 years of age . In 2014 , Forbes listed them the second @-@ highest earning celebrities under 30 , with the group earning an estimated $ 75 million from June 2013 to June 2014 . In June 2015 , Forbes listed their earnings at $ 130 million for the previous twelve months , and ranked them the fourth highest earning celebrities in the world . After the release of Four , One Direction became the first band in the U.S. Billboard 200 history to have their first four albums debut at number one . Their third album , Midnight Memories , was the biggest @-@ selling album worldwide of 2013 despite being released in late November . The band 's Where We Are Tour in support of Midnight Memories and Four , was the highest @-@ grossing concert tour in 2014 , and the highest @-@ grossing tour ever by a vocal group , generating $ 282 million . In 2014 , Billboard named One Direction Artist of the Year . The band is temporarily on a hiatus that began in January 2016 , which is expected to last around 18 months . = = History = = = = = 2010 – 11 : The X Factor = = = In 2010 , Niall Horan , Zayn Malik , Liam Payne , Harry Styles , and Louis Tomlinson auditioned as solo candidates for the seventh series of the British televised singing competition The X Factor . They failed to progress to the " Boys " category at " judges ' houses " but were put together to form a five @-@ piece boy band at Wembley Arena , in London , England , in July 2010 , during the " bootcamp " stage of the competition , thus qualifying for the " Groups " category . Nicole Scherzinger , a guest judge , and Simon Cowell have both claimed to have come up with the idea of forming the band . In 2013 , Cowell said that it " took him 10 minutes to put them together as a group " . Subsequently , the group got together for two weeks to get to know each other and to practice . Styles came up with the name One Direction . For their qualifying song at " judges ' houses " , and their first song as a group , One Direction sang an acoustic version of " Torn " . Cowell later commented that their performance convinced him that they " were confident , fun , like a gang of friends , and kind of fearless as well . " Within the first four weeks of the live shows , they were his last act in the competition . The group quickly gained popularity in the UK . One Direction finished in third place and immediately after the final , their song " Forever Young " , which would have been released if they had won The X Factor , was leaked onto the internet . Shortly afterwards it was confirmed that One Direction had been signed by Cowell to a reported £ 2 million Syco Records record contract . Recording for their debut album began in January 2011 , as they flew to Los Angeles to work with RedOne , a record producer . A book licensed by One Direction , One Direction : Forever Young ( Our Official X Factor Story ) , was published by HarperCollins in February 2011 , subsequently topping The Sunday Times Best Seller list . The same month , the boy band and other contestants from the series participated in the X Factor Live Tour . During the tour , the group performed for 500 @,@ 000 people throughout the UK . After the tour concluded in April 2011 , the group continued working on their debut album . Recording took place in Stockholm , London and Los Angeles , as One Direction worked with producers Carl Falk , Savan Kotecha , Steve Mac , and Rami Yacoub , among others . = = = 2011 – 12 : Up All Night = = = Released in September 2011 , One Direction 's debut single , " What Makes You Beautiful " , reached number one on the UK Singles Chart , after becoming the most pre @-@ ordered Sony Music Entertainment single in history . Subsequent singles , " Gotta Be You " and " One Thing " , peaked in the UK Singles Chart top ten . In November 2011 , they signed a record deal with Columbia Records in North America . Steve Barnett , the co @-@ chairman of Columbia Records , said it was not a difficult decision to sign One Direction ; " I just thought there was a void , and maybe they could seize and hold it . " " What Makes You Beautiful " was released in the United States in February 2012 , where it debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 28 , becoming the highest debut for a British act since 1998 . It has sold over 4 million copies in the U.S. Upon arrival in the U.S. in February 2012 , One Direction embarked on a radio promotion spree , as well as their first North American concert tour as an opening act for Big Time Rush . They made their first U.S. television appearance on The Today Show , at the Rockefeller Center ; an estimated 15 @,@ 000 fans descended on the plaza . Critically commended for its appeal to the teenage audience , One Direction 's first studio album , Up All Night , was released globally in early 2012 . It became the UK 's fastest @-@ selling debut album of 2011 , and topped the charts in sixteen countries . The album bowed atop the Billboard 200 chart , making One Direction the first British group in US chart history to enter at number one with their debut album . They were inducted into the Guinness World Records as a result . Up All Night also became the first album by a boy band to sell 500 @,@ 000 digital copies in the U.S. and , by August 2012 , had sold over 3 million copies worldwide . In April 2012 , an American band that went by the same name filed a trademark infringement lawsuit . According to the lawsuit , the U.S. band had been using the name since 2009 , recorded two albums and filed an application to register the trademark name in the U.S. in February 2011 . The U.S. band said they were entitled to three times the profits made by the UK band , as well as compensatory damages in excess of US $ 1million . The lawsuit claimed that Syco and Sony Music " chose to ignore the plaintiff 's rights and wilfully infringed them " after they realised in early 2011 that the two bands shared the same name . Syco Records subsequently counter @-@ sued , suggesting the U.S. group was trying to make money from One Direction 's success and that the boy band was the first to use the name in U.S. interstate commerce . The BBC reported in September 2012 that the UK group won the legal dispute over the right to keep using their band name ; the U.S. band changed its name to Uncharted Shores . The change of name was announced in a joint statement that also noted both groups were happy with the outcome . In December 2011 , One Direction embarked on their first headlining UK concert tour , the Up All Night Tour . In early 2012 , they announced Australasian and North American legs of the concert tour , with dates from April to July 2012 . The tour , comprising 62 shows , was met with positivity both critically and commercially . A recording of a concert from the tour , Up All Night : The Live Tour , was released in May 2012 . In addition to the DVD topping the charts in twenty @-@ five countries , its global sales had exceeded 1 million copies by August 2012 . One Direction 's first book to be licensed in America , Dare to Dream : Life as One Direction , published in the United States in May 2012 , topped The New York Times Best Seller list . In June 2012 , Nick Gatfield , the chairman and chief executive officer of Sony Music Entertainment UK , stated how he expects One Direction to represent a $ 100 million business empire over 2013 . Gatfield was quoted as saying , " What you might not know about One Direction is that they already represent a $ 50 million business and that 's a figure we expect to double next year " . In August 2012 , the group 's record sales exceeded 8 million singles , 3 million albums , and 1 million DVDs , and they performed " What Makes You Beautiful " at the 2012 Summer Olympics closing ceremony in London , which represented the handover to Rio de Janeiro as the host of the 2016 Summer Olympics . One Direction were the biggest winners of the 2012 MTV Video Music Awards winning their three nominations on 6 September 2012 , including Best New Artist . = = = 2012 – 13 : Take Me Home = = = One Direction 's second studio album , Take Me Home , was released in November 2012 . Take Me Home was written in groups and has an average of just under five songwriters per track . Savan Kotecha , Rami Yacoub , and Carl Falk , who composed One Direction 's hits " What Makes You Beautiful " and " One Thing " , spent six months in Stockholm developing songs for the album , and were able to shape melodies around their tones . One Direction began recording the album in May 2012 , in Stockholm at Kinglet Studios . The album cover artwork features the group surrounding a traditional British K2 red telephone box , a familiar sight on the streets of the UK . Take Me Home garnered mixed reviews from music critics . There was praise for its quality of production , while it was criticised for its generic , rushed nature . The album 's lead single , " Live While We 're Young " , released in September 2012 , reached the top ten in almost every country it charted in and recorded the highest one @-@ week opening sales figure for a song by a non @-@ U.S. artist in the U.S. The album and its second single , " Little Things " , both debuted at number one in the UK simultaneously ; something that One Direction became the youngest act in British chart history to achieve . Take Me Home sold 540 @,@ 000 copies in its first week in the US , debuted atop the Billboard 200 , and topped the charts in more than thirty @-@ four other countries . Additionally , Up All Night and Take Me Home were the number three and number four best @-@ selling albums of 2012 globally , each album selling over 5 million units worldwide . One Direction performed " Little Things " at the 2012 Royal Variety Performance in the presence of Queen Elizabeth II , and headlined a sold @-@ out show at New York City 's Madison Square Garden on 3 December 2012 . In February 2013 , One Direction released a cover version of " One Way or Another " and " Teenage Kicks " , " One Way or Another ( Teenage Kicks ) " , as the 2013 Comic Relief single . As part of their involvement with the UK charity , One Direction travelled to Ghana to volunteer at a children 's hospital , visit a school and make donations . The Official Charts Company revealed that One Direction had sold 2 @,@ 425 @,@ 000 records in the UK by February 2013 . One Direction embarked on their second concert tour in February 2013 , the Take Me Home Tour . The concert tour consists of over 100 shows in Europe , North America and Australasia . Ticket sales reached 300 @,@ 000 within a day of release in the UK and Ireland , which included a six @-@ date sell @-@ out at London 's The O2 Arena . In the Australian and New Zealand markets , tickets grossed US $ 15 @.@ 7 million , with all 190 @,@ 000 tickets being sold for the eighteen shows to be held . The tour received critical acclaim from music critics who praised the band 's live vocals and their performance abilities and was a commercial success , selling 1 @,@ 635 @,@ 000 tickets from 134 shows . = = = 2013 – 14 : Midnight Memories and This Is Us = = = One Direction : This Is Us , a 3D documentary and concert film about the group directed by Morgan Spurlock and produced by Spurlock , Ben Winston , Adam Milano and Simon Cowell , was released by TriStar Pictures on 30 August 2013 . The film features the song " Best Song Ever " , released on 22 July 2013 . " Best Song Ever " was the lead single of the group 's third studio album Midnight Memories . The film was a box office success , topping the UK and US box offices and grossing over $ 60 million worldwide , and became the fourth highest grossing concert movie . " Best Song Ever " broke the 24 @-@ Hour Vevo Record with 10 @.@ 9 million views on YouTube ( this was the second time the band held the record with " Live While We 're Young " attaining 8 @.@ 2 million views on 20 September 2012 ) . On 16 May 2013 , the band announced their first stadium tour , the Where We Are Tour , which began in April 2014 . On 30 May 2013 , the band announced a partnership with Office Depot on a limited @-@ edition capsule collection of back to school supplies . They also confirmed that a portion of the proceeds from the alliance would go toward an anti @-@ bullying educational program intended to promote kinder behaviour in schools . On 23 November 2013 , in support of Midnight Memories , the band participated in " 1D Day " , a day dedicated to One Direction fans . The day constituted of a landmark 7 @.@ 5 hour socially interactive YouTube live @-@ stream featuring live band performances , celebrity guests including , Simon Cowell , Cindy Crawford , Piers Morgan , Jerry Springer and many more . The event was unique not only because of its long runtime but the unprecedented use of social media whereby fans got to participate in the show interact directly with the band via Google + Hangout . Midnight Memories was released globally on 25 November 2013 . It debuted at number one in the UK and in the US , making them the first group to debut at number one on the Billboard 200 with its first three albums , and the second to reach the top after The Monkees in 1967 . The album was described by the band as edgier and as having a " slightly rockier tone " than their previous efforts . " Story of My Life " was revealed as the second single of the album with each member posting a photo from their childhood . To promote the album , the band performed on both the American and British versions of The X Factor . In December 2013 , One Direction broke yet another UK sales record with the DVD and Blu @-@ ray release of their 3 @-@ D concert film This is Us . Nearly 270 @,@ 000 copies of the film were sold in the UK within three days of its release , beating the record previously set by Michael Jackson 's This Is It in 2010 by 10 @,@ 000 copies . The group was named Top Global artists of 2013 by the IFPI because of strong digital downloads , physical albums , on @-@ demand streams , and music videos . = = = 2014 – 15 : Four and Malik 's departure = = = On 21 July , One Direction announced One Direction : Where We Are - The Concert Film , a film which documents 28 June and concert of 29 June 2014s that took place in San Siro Stadium during their Where We Are Tour . After the announcement , the band announced the film will also have a limited 10 – 11 October 2014 international cinema release before its home media release in November 2014 . The group also released an autobiography book titled Who We Are on 25 September 2014 . On 8 September , One Direction announced their fourth studio album to be titled Four , set to be released on 17 November 2014 . As part of the announcement , one of the songs from the album , " Fireproof " was released for free download for 24 hours on their official website . " Steal My Girl " , the album 's lead single , was released on 29 September , and the music video was released on 24 October . The second single from the album , " Night Changes " , was released on 14 November , three days before the album 's release . Four was released on 17 November , topping the Billboard 200 and the UK Album Chart . On 22 November , Paul Higgins , the group 's tour manager who has been with them since its formation , parted ways with the band . The band confirmed at the BBC Music Awards that following the success of Four , they had hopes to continue to go " somewhere else " on their fifth album . In support of Midnight Memories and Four , the band 's Where We Are Tour was the highest grossing concert tour in 2014 , and the highest @-@ grossing tour ever by a vocal group , generating $ 282 million . On 25 March 2015 , the band released a statement announcing Malik 's departure . They say that they were angry at first because of Zayn Malik 's departure . The group made their first official public appearance as a four piece on The Late Late Show with James Corden on 14 May , where they confirmed that they would continue working without a new fifth member . = = = 2015 – 16 : Made in the A.M. and hiatus = = = On 31 July 2015 , the group released " Drag Me Down " without promotional material or announcement . The single is the first single from their fifth studio album , Made in the A.M. , and the first material released by the group after Malik 's departure . Following the release , it was revealed that the group would going on hiatus in 2016 to take a break . On 22 September , the title for the fifth studio album , Made in the A.M. , was officially announced along with promotional single " Infinity " being released . The group began to reveal the track listing on their Snapchat stories to which it was later confirmed on iTunes . The album was released on 13 November . At the 2015 American Music Awards on 22 November , One Direction won the award for Artist of the Year for the second year in succession . Louis Tomlinson later confirmed that the break would be around 18 months . On 13 December , One Direction performed on The X Factor final . Their last televised performance as a group , before their hiatus , was on Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve on 31 December 2015 . On 13 January 2016 , Us Weekly published a report claiming that the group 's hiatus would become a permanent split , with a " source " citing that each of the four remaining group members did not renew their contracts following the completion of the On the Road Again Tour in October 2015 . Representatives for the group denied said @-@ report in a statement to Billboard , stating , " nothing has changed regarding hiatus plans for the group , and all will be revealed in due time from the band members ' own mouths . " In February , it was confirmed that Harry Styles had left the group 's management and may begin a solo career path . In June , it was confirmed that Styles had signed a solo recording contract , with several reports claiming the deal to be worth $ 80 million for three albums . In July , Payne announced that he has signed a solo recording contract with Capitol Records . = = Musical style = = One Direction 's debut studio album , Up All Night ( 2011 ) , is predominantly a pop music record , containing elements of teen pop , dance @-@ pop , pop rock , with electropop and rock influences . Digital Spy 's Robert Copsey described the album as a " collection of PG pop rock with killer choruses " , while The New York Times considered it " full of easy rock @-@ inflected pop , blithe and sometimes clever . " Jason Lipshutz of Billboard acknowledged that the album demonstrates an originality in sound that was " necessary for the revitalization of the boy band movement " . The songs " One Thing " and " What Makes You Beautiful " were particularly noted for the genres of power pop and pop rock , for their " powerhouse " guitar riffs and " forceful " choruses . Their second studio album , Take Me Home ( 2012 ) , is characterised by rock @-@ inherited pop , prominent electric guitar riffs , bright synthesisers , a homogeneous sound and message , and the pitch @-@ correcting software Auto @-@ Tune . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian interpreted its signature sound as a " peppy , synth @-@ bolstered take on early @-@ 80s new @-@ wave pop , heavy on clipped rhythms and chugging guitars , " which , he said , is at least an improvement on the substitute contemporary R & B " that was once the grim lot of the boyband . " Jon Caramanica , writing in The New York Times , considered the album " far more mechanical " than their debut album , although noted that it is sonically and lyrically similar . The album 's lyricism speaks of falling in love , unrequited love , the insistence that flaws are what make a person unique , commitment , jealousy and longing for past significant others . Erica Futterman for Rolling Stone favoured their live acoustic performances as both showing , " Horan 's ability to play guitar , as well as One Direction 's admirable live vocals . There was no need to worry about a backing track or a bum note , a pleasant realization at a pop show . " Herald Sun 's Cameron Adams opined that One Direction have " strong pop voices " . Melody Lau of the National Post wrote , " It 's easy to get lost in inherent appeal of their perfectly coiffed dos and almost @-@ too @-@ put @-@ together preppy style but somewhere in the midst of all the love @-@ struck squeals of teenage girls are guys who can actually sing and , to a certain extent , entertain . " Jane Stevenson of the portal site Canoe concurred : " What I didn 't really prepare myself for was that they all can actually sing in concert . " Chris Richards , writing in The Washington Post , dissented from the approval : " As the five traded couplets , it was tough to imagine a future Justin Timberlake , Ricky Martin or Bobby Brown emerging from the pack . No one voice stood out . " Mike Wass of Idolator felt One Direction 's " surprisingly accomplished effort " of Kings of Leon 's " Use Somebody " proved that One Direction are " more than capable " of evolving their sound . Their third album Midnight Memories ( 2013 ) is a pop rock record , a slight departure from the band 's original teen pop sound . Liam Payne called Midnight Memories a " slightly rockier and edgier " album than their previous material . The album is heavily influenced by 80 's rock and folk music and briefly integrates elements of dubstep , notably in " Little White Lies " . The album 's lyrical themes primarily revolve around love , heartbreak and sexual intercourse . Many critics praised its lyrical depth and musical composition , as well as the group 's level of involvement in the production process . Their fourth album Four ( 2014 ) was released on 17 November 2014 . Payne once again claimed that the album would be " edgier " and that the group had written most of the songs for it ; Horan came up with the name of the album , commemorating the fact that it is One Direction 's fourth record to date and that it has been four years since the band 's formation . Signifying a further maturation of their pop sound , the album 's first single , Steal My Girl , was dubbed by Billboard as " no What Makes You Beautiful , but its Coldplay @-@ like piano pop could be a good direction " , and that the band was " not entirely ready to let go of its bubble @-@ gum days " . Rolling Stone described the record as " saturated with retro vibes " ; its songs " split the difference between big , splashy Eighties pop rock and more elegant Seventies flavours - a very pesky whipper @-@ snapper move that 's not so far from what Haim 's hit Days Are Gone did last year . " = = Charity work = = In 2011 , the band performed on the BBC 's Children in Need 2011 charity telethon , helping raise over 26 million pounds . In 2012 they extended their involvement with Children in Need as they opened the telecast with a performance of their single " Live While We 're Young " . The group said it was " incredible " to be involved in the charity event as it was something that they had " always watched as children " . In February 2013 , One Direction released " One Way or Another ( Teenage Kicks ) " ( a medley of " One Way or Another " and " Teenage Kicks " ) as the 2013 single for the UK 's other major charity telethon Comic Relief . For ITV 's Santa charity Christmas campaign , they filmed a set of pleas to their fans and the general public , asking them to donate £ 2 . The band have made numerous other appearances for charitable causes , including the 2011 Pride of Britain Awards where they presented 13 @-@ year @-@ old quadruple amputee Danielle Bailey the Child of Courage award at her school assembly , and the 2014 Royal Variety Performance where they played in front of Prince William and Catherine at the London Palladium . In September 2012 , Niall Horan organised an event to raise money for Irish Autism Action and another charity , called Temporary Emergency Accommodation Mullingar , based in his hometown . Due to overwhelming demand to participate in the fundraising , the ticket website for the event broke down . Horan 's brother Greg commented on the website crash , saying that " there were 500 tickets and they were all snapped up pretty quick " . In 2013 , band members Liam Payne and Harry Styles partnered with Trekstock , a leading cancer charity in order to help raise money for cancer research . As ambassadors of the charity , the duo collaborated to offer the chance for one fan and a friend to win an evening out with them in return for a donation to the charity as part of an exclusive " # HangwithLiam & Harry " global campaign . They had originally set a goal of raising $ 500 @,@ 000 and ended up raising $ 784 @,@ 984 . Trekstock later added that this amount would allow them to " complete funding of their Hodgkin 's lymphoma trial , in the hope of offering a much brighter future to thousands of children and young people affected by this form of disease . " One Direction were named the most charitable in 2013 behind Taylor Swift by social change organization DoSomething.org. In 2014 , One Direction donated £ 600 @,@ 000 for the Stand up to Cancer campaign by giving portions of their ticket sales revenues from their Where We Are Tour . On 15 November 2014 , One Direction joined the charity group Band Aid 30 along with other British and Irish pop acts , recording the latest version of the track " Do They Know It 's Christmas ? " at Sarm West Studios in Notting Hill , London , to raise money for the 2014 Ebola crisis in Western Africa . = = Image = = Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph , in an article on One Direction 's success in North America , notes that Americans had left a gap in the market and it took the prominence of Justin Bieber to demonstrate that there still was a market for " clean cut , wholesome , whiter @-@ than @-@ white , middle class parent friendly pop : cute boys advocating puppy love . And what could be better than one cute boy , if not five ? " One Direction have been described as sparking a resurgence in the interest in boy bands , and as forming part of a new " British Invasion " in the United States . Bill Werde , a representative of Billboard magazine , commented , " There 's a lot of possibility here , there 's a lot of upside , that level of talent with those kinds of looks , it 's really a perfect storm for a massive , massive successful phenomenon . " Sonny Takhar , the chief executive officer of Syco Records , attributes the breakthrough to the power of social media . " Sometimes you feel the song 's the star , but it 's not like that here – it 's the act , " he said . " It 's a real moment . Social media has become the new radio , it 's never broken an act globally like this before . " Will Bloomfield , the group 's manager , added , " These guys live online , and so do their fans . " Their management employs a social media team and the members all tweet themselves , " which helps create the illusion that they couldn 't be any closer to their fans , " according to Caspar Llewellyn Smith , writing for The Guardian . One Direction 's Twitter account had amassed 10 million followers by February 2013 , with the account gaining followers at an average of 21 @,@ 000 per day . In an approach pioneered by The Beatles each member is known for his feature ; Horan is " the cute one " , Malik is " the quiet and mysterious one " , Payne is " the sensible one " , Styles is " the charming one " and Tomlinson is " the funny one " . Horan commented on One Direction as a boy band , " People think that a boy band is air @-@ grabs and [ being ] dressed in all one colour . We 're boys in a band . We 're trying to do something different from what people would think is the typical kind of boy band . We 're trying to do different kinds of music and we 're just trying to be ourselves , not squeaky clean . " Leah Collins , writing for the National Post , remarked that One Direction had succeeded on the latter front , " For the most part , that just means the group presents themselves as typical , goofy and uncensored teenage boys – posting jokey YouTube videos , for instance , or boozing at awards shows . " Writing for The Observer , Kitty Empire opined , " One Direction fulfil a great many boy band prerequisites ( looks , soppy lyrics , tune @-@ grasp , fame @-@ lust ) but their lack of routines points to the subtle digressions afoot here " . = = Members = = Current Niall Horan ( 2010 – present ) Liam Payne ( 2010 – present ) Harry Styles ( 2010 – present ) Louis Tomlinson ( 2010 – present ) Former Zayn Malik ( 2010 – 15 ) = = = Timeline = = = = = Discography = = Up All Night ( 2011 ) Take Me Home ( 2012 ) Midnight Memories ( 2013 ) Four ( 2014 ) Made in the A.M. ( 2015 ) = = Filmography = = The X Factor series 7 ( finalists ) Up All Night : The Live Tour One Direction : This Is Us One Direction : Where We Are - The Concert Film = = Concert tours = = = = Awards and nominations = = One Direction has received five BRIT Awards — winning their first with " What Makes You Beautiful " for Best British Single at the 2012 BRIT Awards , three NME awards , two Kids ' Choice Awards , and four MTV Video Music Awards , among other awards . One Direction won 27 awards from 29 they have been nominated for at the Teen Choice Awards . One Direction also won two American Music Awards out of their two nominations for Favorite Pop / Rock Album and Favorite Pop / Rock Band / Duo / Group , respectively . = = Publications = = One Direction : Forever Young , HarperCollins ( 17 February 2011 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 00 @-@ 743230 @-@ 1 One Direction : The Official Annual 2012 , HarperCollins ( 1 September 2011 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 00 @-@ 743625 @-@ 5 Dare to Dream : Life as One Direction , HarperCollins ( 15 September 2011 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 00 @-@ 744439 @-@ 7 One Direction : Where We Are : Our Band , Our Story : 100 % Official , HarperCollins ( 19 November 2013 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 00 @-@ 748900 @-@ 8
= Minnesota State Highway 7 = Minnesota State Highway 7 , or Trunk Highway 7 , ( MN 7 , TH 7 ) is a state highway in Minnesota , which runs from its intersection with MN 28 near Beardsley and continues east to its terminus with MN 100 and County Road 25 ( CR 25 ) in St. Louis Park . The highway runs east – west for approximately 194 @.@ 2 miles ( 312 @.@ 5 km ) through mostly rural farmland in the central part of the state . On its western end , it is part of the Minnesota River Scenic Byway where it runs northwest – southeast along the Minnesota River and associated lakes near the border with the adjoining state of South Dakota . For roughly 24 miles ( 39 km ) of its route , it runs concurrently with U.S. Highway 59 ( US 59 ) between Appleton and Montevideo . In Montevideo , the highway turns to the east cutting across the state . It passes through several small towns before entering the Twin Cities metropolitan area . In the metro area , MN 7 follows an expressway through several suburbs before terminating in St. Louis Park . Two different segments have been listed on the National Highway System , system of roads considered important to the country . The highway was first designated along a series of roads between Appleton and Minneapolis around 1933 . At first these roads were a mixture of gravel and bitumen surfaces , the latter a forerunner of today 's asphalt . Within the first year or so , the western end was extended to terminate MN 7 in the Ortonville area . In 1958 , the highway was extended to its modern western terminus at Beardsley by replacing another trunk highway . The section that is now an expressway in the Twin Cities was expanded by the 1950s , and the whole highway was paved in a hard @-@ surface by the end of that decade . The highway was truncated in the Twin Cities to its current eastern terminus in the 1980s . The scenic byways designations were applied at the state and federal levels in 1995 and 2002 , respectively . = = Route description = = Legally , MN 7 is defined as several different constitutional and legislative routes in state law . The highway follows roadways defined as parts of constitutional routes 12 and 40 in Minnesota Statutes § 161 @.@ 114 . The remainder of the highway follows all , or part , of legislative routes 119 , 147 , 148 , 304 , and 319 in the Minnesota Statutes § 161 @.@ 115 . The highway is not marked with these routes number along the actual highway . The route of MN 7 between Ortonville and Montevideo along with the segment between I @-@ 494 and MN 100 in the Twin Cities have been listed on the National Highway System , a system of roads important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility . Like other trunk highways in the state , MN 7 is maintained by the Minnesota Department of Transportation ( Mn / DOT ) . According to the department , up 12 @,@ 000 vehicles a day used the highway outside of the Twin Cities , and up to 55 @,@ 000 vehicles traveled the highway daily in the metro area in 2010 . = = = Beardsley to Montevideo = = = The highway starts at an intersection with MN 28 on the eastern edge of Beardsley and heads south . From here , MN 7 passes through farm fields before turning southeasterly along the shore of Big Stone Lake . The lake is the source of the Minnesota River and forms the Minnesota – South Dakota state line in Big Stone County . The highway in this area is also a part of the Minnesota River Valley Scenic Byway , a National Scenic Byway and a Minnesota State Scenic Byway . The road turns eastward along a bend in the lake near the community of Foster before running further inland around Big Stone Lake State Park . Past the park , MN 7 curves to the south along the shore and continues to Ortonville . The highway follows 2nd Street through town along the lake shore and through residential neighborhoods . South of the end of the lake , MN 7 merges with US 12 , and the two highways run concurrently for about a couple blocks . South of town , MN 7 merges onto US 75 and the combined highway runs along the Minnesota River . The roadway also runs parallel to a line of the BNSF Railway used by the Twin Cities and Western Railroad in the area . East of the Big Stone National Wildlife Refuge and the town of Odessa , US 75 and the scenic byway turn south to cross the river , separating from MN 7 which continues along the northern banks of the river . Near the town of Correll , MN 7 follows the northern shore of Marsh Lake to Appleton . The highway turns due east along Logan Avenue to enter town . MN 7 follows both US 59 and MN 119 in a triple concurrency on along Munsterman Street through town . At the intersection with Minnesota Street near the Swift County Fairgrounds , US 59 / MN 7 turns southeasterly separating from MN 119 . The highway then continues southeasterly running inland from Lac qui Parle through farm country to the town of Milan . There it crosses to the south side of the railroad before intersecting MN 40 and exiting town . In Watson , the scenic byway route rejoins MN 7 and follows it south to Montevideo . On the southern edge of the city , MN 7 turns northward , separating from US 59 and joining MN 29 . = = = Montevideo to Hutchinson = = = Continuing northward in Montevideo , the highway turns back to the east between J. Harley Smith and Lagoon parks . MN 29 separates at the intersection between Washington Avenue and 8th Street , and MN 7 continues eastward on Washington through residential areas . The avenue passes the hospital before leaving town . The street name attached to the highway in rural Chippewa County is 50th Street as MN 7 runs due east through farm country . The highway crosses another line of the BNSF Railway and MN 23 in Clara City before meandering southwesterly to follow 60th Street near Bunde . East of this unincorporated community , the highway crosses into Kandiyohi County . The highway follows 195th Avenue through the southern part of the county , passing through the communities of Prinsburg and Lake Lillian . In between , it passes south of Blomkest where it intersects US 71 . The next county along the course of MN 7 is Meeker County . Running due east through farmlands in the southern area of that county , the highway intersects MN 4 in Cosmos and passes through Cedar Mills . Just east of Cedar Mills , MN 7 crosses into McLeod County and merges with MN 22 . The combined highway turns southeasterly toward Hutchinson . On the west side of town , the roadway crosses Campbell Lake and follows an arm of the lake through the downtown area . The highway passes several parks before coming to an intersection with MN 15 and exiting the business district for residential neighborhoods . MN 22 separates from MN 7 east of Hutchinson , and the latter highway continues eastward . = = = Hutchinson to St. Louis Park = = = In rural eastern McLeod County , MN 7 jogs to the north around Silver Lake in the city of the same name . Northeast of Lester Prairie , the highway crosses into Carver County . This area is also rural farm country as the roadway bypasses New Germany and Mayer to the north . Near the latter community , MN 7 intersects MN 25 which provides a connection to both Mayer and the city of Watertown . North of Waconia , the roadway begins to meander southeasterly through an area dotted with several lakes and crosses into the western edge of the Twin Cities metropolitan area . After briefly passing through Hennepin County in the communities of St. Bonifacius and Minnetrista , MN 7 crosses back into Carver County . In the city of Victoria the highway rounds the southern end of Lake Minnetonka . As MN 7 begins to turn back northeasterly , it crosses into western Hennepin County at Shorewood . The highway widens out to a four @-@ lane divided highway near the intersection with MN 41 . This divided highway has a partial interchange with Mill Street in Excelsior near the St. Albans Bay of Lake Minnetonka . This area transitions into a full suburban residential area by the time the highway crosses into Minnetonka . The highway passes north of the campus for Minnetonka High School near the intersection with County Road 101 ( CR 101 ) . Access to MN 7 through the area is restricted to major intersections only for the most part , making the highway an expressway rather than a true freeway . While still in Minnetonka , MN 7 passes through a cloverleaf interchange with Interstate 494 ( I @-@ 494 ) which is one half of the Twin Cities ' beltway . Immediately adjacent to the cloverleaf is another interchange for CR 60 ( Baker Road ) . The expressway continues northeasterly through the suburb of Hopkins before crossing into St. Louis Park . The western edge of St. Louis Park is marked by the interchange with US 169 . The area immediately adjacent to MN 7 in this suburb is filled with commercial properties on either side of access roads . East of Louisiana Avenue , the highway is parallel to a line of the Twin Cities and Western Railroad . There is another interchange for Wooddale Avenue before MN 7 meets , and terminates at , the interchange for MN 100 near the Peavey – Haglin Experimental Concrete Grain Elevator , the country 's first concrete grain elevator . The expressway continues east for approximately another mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) as CR 25 . = = History = = First authorized in 1933 – 34 , MN 7 ran between Appleton and the Twin Cities . At the time , the highway was under construction between Ortonville and Appleton . From its junction with MN 119 , MN 7 was a gravel road southeasterly to Montevideo before turn east on a bituminous surface to Clara City . From there east to the Waconia area , the highway was gravel , and the remainder was bituminous . No sections at the time were paved in asphalt . The segment from Appleton northwesterly to Odessa was completed by the early part of 1935 connecting the highway to US 75 . By 1952 , the highway had been expanded to four lanes between Excelsior and the Twin Cities . In 1958 , the highway was extended northwesterly along US 75 from Odessa to Ortonville and continuing on to Beardsley . The highway between Beardsley and Ortonville had been MN 103 since the 1930s . The route was completely paved by 1959 , the last section to be paved with at least bitumen was along the former MN 103 northwest of Ortonville . MN 7 used to extend into downtown Minneapolis until 1965 , where it terminated at its intersection with Washington Avenue ( old US 52 ) . From 1965 to either 1987 or 1988 , the eastern terminus was located at the intersection of Lake Street and France Avenue in Minneapolis ; the part , about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) long , between the interchange with MN 100 and the intersection of Lake Street and France Avenue is now called County Road 25 . In 1995 , the section between MN 28 and the southern US 75 junction was named a Minnesota State Scenic Byway ; it was also made a National Scenic Byway on June 13 , 2002 . = = Major intersections = =
= Free ( OSI album ) = Free is the second album by American progressive rock band OSI , released by InsideOut Music on April 21 , 2006 . Guitarist Jim Matheos and keyboardist and vocalist Kevin Moore decided to work on a follow @-@ up to Office of Strategic Influence after the two found they both had holes in their schedules . Drummer Mike Portnoy returned as a session musician rather than a full band member . Joey Vera replaced Sean Malone on bass guitar . Free was met with generally positive critical reception . Critics noted that the album was different from its predecessor , focusing more on Moore 's keyboards than Matheos ' guitars . Portnoy 's drumming received praise ; Moore 's vocals received mixed reactions . A remix EP entitled re : free was released on October 24 , 2006 , featuring remixes of three tracks from Free . = = Background = = After the first OSI album , Office of Strategic Influence , was released in 2003 , Jim Matheos and Kevin Moore returned to their respective projects . Matheos released the album FWX and toured with Fates Warning . Moore moved from Costa Rica to Istanbul , Turkey . In 2004 , he released the third Chroma Key album , Graveyard Mountain Home , and wrote the soundtrack ( released as Ghost Book ) to the Turkish horror film Okul . Matheos and Moore both had holes in their schedules , so decided to work on a second OSI album . The writing and recording process were largely the same as that for the first OSI album . Matheos would send Moore guitar , keyboard and programming parts ; Moore would then " chop them up and stuff " . Matheos considers the writing process for OSI as more collaborative than writing for his other band , Fates Warning : " With Fates I write songs and we don ’ t really change a whole lot from my final version to the version that goes on the record , " he said . " With Kevin it 's much more collaborative in that I come up with a song idea and it can change completely from my original idea to the final product on the record . " Matheos originally intended the first OSI album as a " project " which would never produce a second album . For Free , Matheos and Moore wanted to use a different musician lineup to focus OSI on primarily being Matheos and Moore . They did not want to give the impression that the guests on the first album were part of the band . Matheos stated that the music on Free was " focused less on the progressive elements or the metal elements that were on the first record . We thought we could do something just a little more groove oriented . " Matheos and Moore had both worked with bassist Joey Vera in the past and considered him " perfect " for the album . Moore was pleased with Vera 's bass parts : Vera sent them to Moore in a state such that they required very little editing or enhancement for the final mix of the album . Dream Theater drummer Mike Portnoy was listed as a full member of OSI on the first album , but found working on the first album to be a difficult experience . Moore noted that Portnoy " wasn 't used to having other people have strong ideas about what the drum parts should be " . For Free , Portnoy contributed drum tracks as a session musician , agreeing to " take [ Matheos and Moore 's ] ideas and do the best he could with playing " , according to Moore . Portnoy 's drum parts were recorded at Carriage House Studios in Stamford , Connecticut from November 18 to November 20 , 2005 . = = Composition = = Moore stated that he and Matheos had an idea of what style of music to write for Free as they " both have similar feelings about what worked on the first album " . He considered the album as " more focused " than its predecessor . He noted that Free continued " the mood of some of the songs of the first album and the melodies and mixing up some of the heavy stuff with the programming . As opposed to the instrumental , straight ahead , progressive stuff we did " . He attributed the band 's sound to the " very different " ideas he and Matheos ' had . Moore described the lyrics on the album as " just whatever is going on in my head ... I try to development from a stream of consciousness to something that makes sense " . He said the lyrics primarily spoke of relationships , " our way of trying to keep them , the resulting problems and that kind of thing " . Moore cited Roger Waters and Peter Gabriel as influences on his vocal style , " Those guys don ’ t have the best voices either , but they pull it off then I figured I could do it too , " he said . He noted that musically his progressive influences " will always be there " because they influenced all his music , but could not name any other influences as " [ he listens ] to so much stuff it just gets lost " . Moore doubletracked his vocals , but apart from occasional use of delay did not use any effects on his vocals . He used an Elektron Monomachine and a Minimoog Voyager with computer software to produce the keyboard sounds on the album . Matheos detuned his guitars to C # and sometimes B instead of using a seven @-@ string guitar because he prefers the sound of a detuned guitar : " To me , they sound totally different if you have those nice loose , floppy strings , " he said . " It 's a real bitch to keep them in tune , stopping every couple measures , retuning and punching back in . Especially for [ a ] song that 's in B , or even C # is a problem sometimes , especially if you 're doing a lot of fast moving around or high up on the neck . It 's a pain in the ass , but I really like that sound . I don 't think I would ever go to a 7 @-@ string . " The bonus track OSIdea 9 features audio clips of former chess world champion Robert ' Bobby ' Fischer 's rambling interview with a radio station after his arrest in Japan , in which he asserts that the U.S. government will torture and murder him once extradited back to the country . = = Release and promotion = = Free was released by InsideOut Music on April 24 , 2006 . Matheos and Moore were keen to tour the US and Europe in the fall of 2006 . In a 2009 interview , Moore reflected that " we tried to get together [ to tour ] , but it just didn ’ t happen " . The special edition of the album contained six extra songs : two were songs that didn 't make it to the final album , but Matheos noted " were interesting nonetheless " ; two tracks were songs Moore had written for Radio For Peace International . Another track was a demo of " When You 're Ready " , a track from Office of Strategic Influence . An EP entitled re : free was released on October 24 , 2006 . InsideOut Music released a CD version of the EP and Burning Shed released a vinyl version . The EP features the tracks " Go " ( remixed by Console ) , " Kicking " and " Home Was Good " ( both remixed by Moore ) and a multimedia track of " Free " . = = Reception = = Critical reception for Free was generally positive . Blogcritics praised the album as " a masterful evolution of the sound of two fabulous musicians " , describing it as " a magnificent symbiosis of metal and experimental electronica . " Jake Rosenberg of Transcending the Mundane stated that on Office of Strategic Influence , " it sounded like they were experimenting with different approaches , but never really established the OSI sound " . He lauded Free for " [ sounding ] like the work of a mature and confident band " . Adrien Begrand of PopMatters regarded Free as " a challenge to fans of both Fates Warning and Dream Theater , and one that will surprise those who think this is just another slice of flashy prog metal bombast . " Reviewers commented on the differences between Free and Office of Strategic Influence . Rosenberg described Free as " heavier , darker , more experimental and a lot more consistent " than the first album . Stewart Mason of Allmusic described the album as " downright commercial in a way that none of the duo 's previous projects have been " . He regarded the album as less like the " standard @-@ issue epic metal " of the first album and more like " Evanescence 's gothy metal @-@ pop crossed with late @-@ era Radiohead 's fondness for electronic interference " . He considered the songwriting as " catchy enough that it 's not unthinkable that unadventurous rock radio programmers could take a shine to the title track or ' Go ' " , although noted that " Fates Warning and Dream Theater fans might be less impressed " . Rosenberg considers Free as musically " a more progressive version of Nine Inch Nails . Instead of creating their darkness with angst and depression , OSI creates their darkness with sheer indifference . " Begrand compared the album to Head Control System , " in that it tends to stray from the typical metal template in an attempt at something a little more electronic influenced " . Although not considering Free to be as " enthralling " as Head Control System , he noted that the album " still has its moments " . Critics noted that there was a greater focus on Moore 's keyboards than Matheos ' guitar riffs . Blogcritics said that " Free focuses a lot on the keyboards and programming of Kevin Moore " , although Matheos ' " heavy guitar riffs , while not as frequent on this disc , have an even harder edge . They have an energy , and urgency , and serious metal crunch to them that will make any rocker sit up and pay attention . " Chad Bower of About.com noted that Free " isn 't one of those metal albums that hypes you up and makes you want to break stuff . It 's one where you have to sit back , throw on the headphones , and appreciate the complexity and musicianship . " Olav Björnsen of Prog4you.com stated that " layers upon layers of electronic sounds , that fill out the soundscapes of the songs , create nuances and subtle moods as well as walls of sound and tension . " He said that Matheos used acoustic and electric guitars " to fill out the soundscapes even more , and is at the most effective when playing the acoustic guitar , giving life and warmth to songs that would have been a bit cold sounding without that input . " Bower described Moore 's " laid back and relaxed " vocals as " [ fitting ] in perfectly with the atmospheric style music " . Blogcritics praised Moore 's vocals as being " in such stark contrast to the music that it serves to heighten the tension of the songs " . Björnsen considered Moore 's vocals as " an important asset " to the album : " He isn 't a good vocalist when it comes to singing voice or range , but utilizes his talk @-@ like singing effectively , binding together eleven quite different sounding songs . " Rosenberg considered Moore 's vocals and lyrics as " the thing that stands out the most " , comparing him to Roger Waters . Mason dismissed Moore 's vocals , describing them as " unfortunately reminiscent of any number of faceless alternative rock singers " . Begrand criticized Moore 's " monotonous droning " as " tiresome " . Mike Portnoy 's drumming received praise . " Mike Portnoy continues to amaze with his adaptability , playing perfectly with just about whatever style of music , " Blogcritics noted . Björnsen commended Portnoy 's performance , noting that " He delivers driving rhythms when appropriate , and has a more laid back approach when necessary " . Batmaz praised Portnoy for " displaying admirable restraint " : " Free is perhaps his most minimalistic side , because of the thick atmosphere on the album , but at any rate , his performance his spectacular " . Blogcritics praised Vera 's bass parts as " [ adding ] extra strength and depth to the rhythm section . " Batmaz regarded " All Gone Now " as " arguably the best song " , describing it as being " built upon a strong foundation of atmosphere and dynamics . Constantly shifting between mad riffage and daunting synth passages , this song features some of the finest melodies Kevin Moore has written since Awake . His synth melodies simply soar to high levels while Matheos ' playing contrasts the eerie mood of the piece . " Björnsen dismissed " Our Town " as " filler " . = = Track listing = = All lyrics written by Kevin Moore , all music composed by Jim Matheos and Kevin Moore , except where noted . Special edition bonus disc Re : free track listing = = Personnel = = Jim Matheos - guitars , keyboards and programming Kevin Moore - vocals , keyboards and programming Mike Portnoy - acoustic drums Joey Vera - bass on tracks 1 , 2 , 4 , 6 , and 7 Bige Akdeniz - guitar and vocals on " Old War "
= Wizard ( horse ) = Wizard ( 1806 – 30 June 1813 ) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse . He won seven of his ten races , with all his wins coming at Newmarket . In 1809 he won the 2000 Guineas Stakes , before finishing second in the Derby Stakes . The following year he won a match race against his Derby conqueror Pope . Throughout his racing career he was owned by Christopher Wilson and trained by Tom Perren . Wizard only stood as a stallion for two years before dying in an accident in 1813 . His son Young Wizard won the Riddlesworth Stakes and was the runner @-@ up in the Derby in 1817 . = = Background = = Wizard was a chestnut colt foaled in 1806 and bred by Mr. Goodison . He was sired by Sorcerer , a successful racehorse and three @-@ time Champion sire in Britain . Amongst Sorcerer 's other progeny were 2000 Guineas and Derby winner Smolensko , St. Leger winner Soothsayer and the Oaks winners Morel , Maid of Orleans and Sorcery . Wizard 's dam was a daughter of Precipitate . Wizard was the second of her ten foals . He was trained by Tom Perren . = = Racing career = = = = = 1809 : Three @-@ year @-@ old season = = = Wizard did not race as a two @-@ year @-@ old and he made his debut on 3 April 1809 in a sweepstakes of 100 guineas each at the Newmarket Craven meeting . Ridden by William Clift , he started the race as the 6 / 5 favourite and won it easily from Chryseis . Cock Robin finished third , with three others behind him . Two weeks later he started 4 / 5 favourite for the 2000 Guineas Stakes over the Rowley Mile at Newmarket . This was the first running of the 2000 Guineas . Also near the front of the betting were Japan at 10 / 3 , Robin at 6 / 1 and Fair Star at 7 / 1 . Eight runners started the race , which Wizard won from Robin . Fair Star finished third and Japan fourth . Wizard then went to Epsom Downs for the Derby Stakes , where he was again ridden by Clift , as he had been in his previous two races . He started as the odds @-@ on favourite , priced at about 8 / 11 . Fair Star was the second favourite , with Salivator third in the betting . Salivator took the lead and held it until the field turned into the finishing straight , where Wizard overtook him . Wizard was in front until a few yards from the finish , where he was passed by Pope , a 20 / 1 outsider . Pope won the race by a neck from Wizard with Salivator in third and Fair Star in fourth . In his last race of the season Wizard finished fourth in the St. Leger Stakes at Doncaster . The race was won by Ashton , who had started as favourite . The St. Leger was the first time Wizard had not been ridden by William Clift , with Francis Buckle riding him . = = = 1810 : Four @-@ year @-@ old season = = = Wizard did not reappear as a four @-@ year @-@ old until October , when he defeated Derby winner Pope over one and a quarter miles at Newmarket . Pope had started the race as the 1 / 2 favourite . The following day , Wizard walked over for one @-@ third of a subscription of 25 guineas each . These were his only two appearances in 1810 . = = = 1811 : Five @-@ year @-@ old season = = = Wizard 's first race as a five @-@ year @-@ old was a sweepstakes of 100 guineas each on 20 April at Newmarket . He faced three opponents and won the race from odds @-@ on favourite Spaniard . He was then intended to face 1810 Derby winner Whalebone at Newmarket in early May , but Whalebone 's owner , the 4th Duke of Grafton , paid a forfeit and the race never took place . He beat Middlethorpe at Newmarket after Middlethorpe unseated his rider in the early stages of the race . The match against Middlethorpe won him 500 guineas . The following day he beat Anthonio over five and a half furlongs . He faced Middlethorpe again in September when he fell lame and Middlethorpe beat him . This was his final race and he was retired to stud . Throughout his racing career Wizard earned 3850 guineas . = = Race record = = = = Stud career = = Wizard was a stallion at Elmsal Lodge near Ferrybridge , Yorkshire . In 1812 his stud fee was ten guineas plus half a guinea for the groom . He also stood at Emsal , for the same fee , in 1813 . He only stood as a stallion for these two seasons and died on 30 June 1813 at Elmsal Lodge two days after running into a post . He broke three ribs and an iron bar attached to the post became so lodged in his backbone that it took two men to remove it . Wizard sired three winners of eleven races . His winning progeny were : Wizard filly ( 1813 ) – won a maiden race at Penrith in three two @-@ mile heats in 1816 . She ran in the Richmond Cup , but was unplaced . Warlock ( 1814 ) – won two races at Chesterfield and two races at Pontefract in 1817 . He also won a race of four three @-@ mile heats at Durham in 1818 . Young Wizard ( 1814 ) – owned by the 3rd Baron Foley and later the 2nd Marquess of Exeter . As a three @-@ year @-@ old in 1817 he won the Riddlesworth Stakes at Newmarket and a Produce Sweepstakes at Doncaster . A match between Young Wizard and Pickaxe at Newmarket finished in a dead heat . He also finished second to Azor in the Derby . In 1818 he beat Sir Thomas in a match race and won a race at Ascot Heath in 1819 . Wizard 's descendants include 1963 Irish 2000 Guineas and 1964 Queen Elizabeth II Stakes winner Linacre and 1940 Gran Premio di Milano winner Sirte . Through 1948 Prix Edmond Blanc winner Menetrier he is an ancestor of multiple time Canadian Champion sire and Hall of Fame inductee Vice Regent and his brother Viceregal and their many descendants ( which include Deputy Minister , Victory Gallop and Trempolino ) , as well as Canadian Horse of the Year Canebora and 1979 Prix du Jockey Club winner Top Ville . All these were descended through another unnamed daughter foaled in 1813 , as was Hyacinthus , who won the 1940 Middle Park Stakes . This unnamed daughter of Wizard was never trained to race as she was crippled . Through his 1814 daughter Wizardess his descendants include 1928 Grand Prix de Paris winner Cri de Guerre and his descendants ( including 1972 Bay Shore Stakes winner Explodent and 1983 Phoenix Stakes winner King Persian ) . = = Pedigree = = Note : b .
= Bay , bl . = Black , br .
= Brown , ch . = Chestnut * Wizard was inbred 4x4x4 to Matchem . This means that the stallion appears three times in the fourth generation of his pedigree . He was also inbred 4x4 to the Snap mare .
= Russian battleship Andrei Pervozvanny = Andrei Pervozvanny ( Russian : Андрей Первозванный — St Andrew the First @-@ Called ) was an Andrei Pervozvanny @-@ class predreadnought battleship built for the Imperial Russian Navy during the mid @-@ 1900s . The ship 's construction was seriously extended by design changes as a result of the Russo @-@ Japanese War and labor unrest after the 1905 Revolution , and she took nearly six years to build . Andrei Pervozvanny was not very active during World War I and her bored sailors joined the general mutiny of the Baltic Fleet in early 1917 . She was used by the Bolsheviks to bombard the rebellious garrison of Fort Krasnaya Gorka during the Russian Civil War in 1919 and was torpedoed by British Coastal Motor Boats shortly afterwards , as part of the allied intervention in the Russian Civil War . The ship was never fully repaired and was scrapped in 1923 . = = Description = = Andrei Pervozvanny was 454 feet ( 138 @.@ 4 m ) long at the waterline and 460 feet ( 140 @.@ 2 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 80 feet ( 24 @.@ 4 m ) and a draft of 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) . She displaced 18 @,@ 580 long tons ( 18 @,@ 880 t ) at deep load . Her hull was subdivided by 17 transverse watertight bulkheads and the engine rooms were divided by a centerline longitudinal bulkhead . She had a double bottom and a metacentric height of 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) . The ship 's crew consisted of 31 officers and 924 crewmen . Andrei Pervozvanny had two 4 @-@ cylinder vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines with a total designed output of 17 @,@ 600 indicated horsepower ( 13 @,@ 100 kW ) . Twenty @-@ five Belleville boilers provided steam to the engines at a working pressure of 285 pounds per square inch ( 1 @,@ 970 kPa ; 20 @.@ 0 kgf / cm2 ) . On sea trials , the engines produced 17 @,@ 635 ihp ( 13 @,@ 150 kW ) and a top speed of 18 @.@ 5 knots ( 34 @.@ 3 km / h ; 21 @.@ 3 mph ) . She carried a normal load of 800 long tons ( 810 t ) of coal that provided a range of 1 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 400 km ; 1 @,@ 500 mi ) at a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) and a maximum load of 1 @,@ 500 long tons ( 1 @,@ 500 t ) that gave 2 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 400 km ; 2 @,@ 800 mi ) at the same speed . The main armament consisted of two pairs of 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) Model 1895 40 @-@ caliber guns mounted in twin @-@ gun turrets fore and aft . These guns had a maximum elevation of 35 ° and could depress to -5 ° . Eighty rounds per gun were carried and they could fire one round per minute . Eight of the fourteen 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) Model 1905 45 @-@ caliber guns were mounted in four twin @-@ gun turret at the corners of the superstructure while six were mounted in casemates in the superstructure . For defense against torpedo boats , Andrei Pervozvanny carried twelve 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns mounted in casemates above the 8 @-@ inch guns in the superstructure . Two underwater 450 @-@ millimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes were mounted , one on each side , and they were provided with six spare torpedoes . Based on the Russian experience at the Battle of Tsushima , the sides of the ship 's hull were completely protected by Krupp cemented armor . The main waterline belt had a maximum thickness of 8 @.@ 5 inches ( 216 mm ) and the upper belt was 5 inches ( 127 mm ) at its thickest . The sides of the main gun turrets were 8 inches ( 203 mm ) thick and the armor of the casemates ranged from 3 @.@ 1 to 5 inches ( 79 to 127 mm ) in thickness . The greatest thickness of deck armor was 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) . = = Service history = = Andrei Pervozvanny was built by the Admiralty Shipyard in Saint Petersburg . Construction began on 15 March 1904 and was officially laid down on 11 May . Her construction was slowed by labor trouble in the shipyard from the 1905 Revolution . She was launched on 30 October 1906 and began her sea trials in September 1910 . They were completed in October 1910 , but the ship entered service on 10 March 1911 . Andrei Pervozvanny joined the Baltic Fleet on completion and she made a port visit to Copenhagen in September 1912 . The following September she visited Portland , Cherbourg , and Stavanger together with her sister ship , Imperator Pavel I. She ran aground on Odensholm Island , off the Estonian coast , on 1 July 1914 . The ship was still under repair when World War I began the following month . Her lattice masts were cut down and light topmasts were added while under repair . Andrei Pervozvanny was mostly inactive during the war as the Russian naval strategy in the Baltic was defensive and they did not intend to seek out the German fleet . Torpedo nets were fitted in early 1915 and the ship 's torpedoes were removed in January 1916 . In late 1916 , four 76 @-@ millimeter ( 3 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns were added . The ship 's crew joined the general mutiny of the Baltic Fleet in Helsinki on 16 March 1917 , after they received word of the February Revolution in Saint Petersburg , and several of the ship 's officers were murdered by the crew . The Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk required the Soviets to evacuate their naval base at Helsinki in March 1918 or have their ships interned by newly independent Finland even though the Gulf of Finland was still frozen over . Andrei Pervozvanny and her sister ship the renamed Respublika , led the second group of ships on 5 April and reached Kronstadt five days later in what became known as the " Ice Voyage " . After the October Revolution in 1918 , the ship remained on active duty as part of the Red Navy during the Russian Civil War . Between 13 and 15 June 1919 , Andrei Pervozvanny and the dreadnought Petropavlovsk bombarded Fort Krasnaya Gorka whose garrison had mutinied against the Bolsheviks . The ship fired 170 12 @-@ inch and 408 8 @-@ inch shells and the garrison surrendered on 17 June when Leon Trotsky promised them their lives , only to order them machine @-@ gunned . Andrei Pervozvanny was attacked by the Royal Navy during its Campaign in the Baltic 1918 – 19 , when she was torpedoed by either C.M.B. 31 or C.M.B. 88 during the night of 17 / 18 August 1919 as the ship lay at anchor in Kronstadt . She was hit on the port bow and settled 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) down by the bow . The British claimed three torpedo hits , but two of the torpedoes actually struck the harbor wall behind the battleship . The Victoria Cross , Britain 's highest military decoration , was awarded to Commander Claude Congreve Dobson and Lieutenant Gordon Charles Steele for their successful attack . The ship was raised and docked , but never fully repaired . While under repair , she was nearly hit by a small bomb during a British air raid on 3 September . Scrapping of Andrei Pervozvanny began 15 December 1923 , although she was not formally stricken until 21 November 1925 .
= Boreray sheep = The Boreray is a breed of sheep originating on the St Kilda archipelago off the west coast of Scotland and surviving as a feral animal on one of the islands , Boreray . The breed , also known as the Boreray Blackface or Hebridean Blackface , was once raised for meat and wool , but is now used mainly for conservation grazing . The Boreray is one of the Northern European short @-@ tailed sheep group of breeds . It is the rarest breed of sheep in the United Kingdom . It is the only breed classed as " Category 2 : Endangered " by the Rare Breeds Survival Trust , because fewer than 300 @-@ 500 are known to exist . = = History = = Until the late eighteenth century , the domesticated sheep throughout the Scottish Highlands and Islands belonged to a type called the Scottish Dunface or Old Scottish Shortwool , which was probably similar to the sheep kept in the whole of northern and western Europe up to the Iron Age . A local variety of Dunface was kept on the two main St Kilda islands of Boreray and Hirta by the crofters of the islands , who lived on Hirta , the largest island of the St Kilda archipelago . In the mid @-@ eighteenth century the crofters ' sheep were described as being " of the smallest kind " , with short , coarse wool , and all having horns – usually one pair , but often two pairs . At that time there were about 1 @,@ 000 of these sheep on Hirta and about 400 on Boreray . In the late nineteenth century the crofters ' sheep were cross @-@ bred with Scottish Blackface sheep , which by then had replaced the Dunface throughout mainland Scotland . The other breeds descended from the Dunface include the North Ronaldsay and the Shetland . Before the evacuation of the St Kildian inhabitants , these sheep were farmed . However , when the St Kilda archipelago 's human inhabitants were evacuated in 1930 , the sheep of Hirta were also removed and in 1932 they were replaced by Soays , which still live there as well as on Soay itself . Meanwhile , the remaining sheep on Boreray were left to become feral ; these became the only survivors of the crofters ' sheep , and one of the few surviving descendants of the Dunface . This means that they are the original , unmodified sheep that used to be farmed on the island . In the 1970s half a dozen of them were exported to form the basis of a breeding population on the mainland , but the majority of Borerays still remain on the island . = = Characteristics = = The Boreray should not be confused with the Soay sheep , also from the St Kilda archipelago , nor with the Hebridean sheep , which was formerly called the " St Kilda " , although it is probably not in fact derived from the St Kilda sheep . Soay sheep are smaller than Boreray sheep , their ewes weighing between 20 and 23 kg . Their fleece is normally black , opposed to the white or tan of the Boreray . The Boreray is also known by the names Boreray Blackface and Hebridean Blackface . Despite being partially derived from a long @-@ tailed breed ( the Scottish Blackface ) , Borerays display characteristics which group them with other northern European short @-@ tailed sheep . They are amongst the smallest sheep in the British Isles , with mature ewes weighing 28 kg ( 62 lb ) and standing 55 cm ( 22 in ) at the withers . They have naturally short tails , which do not require docking . They also moult their fleece naturally , rather than having to be shorn annually , though older individuals do not moult as easily and may require additional shearing . Fleeces are grey or creamy white on the body , though darker individuals occur whose colouring is similar to the Soay sheep . Rough in quality , the wool is mostly used in the creation of tweeds or carpet yarns . A tweed is a rough surfaced coarse cloth , typically made in Scotland . Its colour is a mix of flecked colours . The face and legs are wool @-@ free and black and white , with the proportions varying between individuals . Both sexes of the Boreray display horns . The horns on the ewes tend to be less thick than those on the males and while they curve they do not spiral beyond 360 degrees . Mature rams can grow especially large , spiral horns which may be used for crafts such as making shepherd 's crooks . The horns on the rams have been described as " striking and majestic " by one farmer of the breed . = = = Population = = = In 1999 the population was estimated to be at less than 84 , with 74 ewes . In 2002 , there were between 92 and 100 animals , with 92 ewes and the male population estimated to be less than 7 . In 2012 , 204 ewes were registered in herdbooks . According to the Rare Breeds Survival Trust , there are fewer than 300 @-@ 500 sheep in the UK , so they are classed as " Category 2 : Endangered " . They are the only breed in this category , and therefore the rarest breed of sheep in the United Kingdom . = = = Use in Farming = = = The breed was primarily raised for meat and wool , but due to its rarity it is now raised for conservation purposes , if raised at all , as most of the population is thought to be feral . Due to the native conditions of where it evolved , the Boreray is very well suited to conservation grazing , which is grazing that uses livestock to improve biodiversity and achieve nature conservation in a given area . However , the Rare Breeds Survival Trust believe that this could be further capitalised on if the breed is developed further . = = = In Literature = = = In his book The complete countryman , Alan Titchmarsh says that ' a good many people keep rare breeds , such as the Soay and Boreray ... for pets ' . This can indicate that the breeds are gaining mainstream acceptance .
= William C. Clayton = William C. Clayton ( January 24 , 1831 – March 11 , 1915 ) was an American educator , lawyer , politician , and businessperson in the U.S. state of West Virginia . Clayton served in the West Virginia Senate representing the Eleventh Senatorial District of West Virginia from 1875 until 1879 . He was twice principal of the Romney Classical Institute in Romney in 1853 and 1866 . Clayton was born in 1831 in Hampshire County , Virginia ( present @-@ day West Virginia ) . He received his early education at home from his father , Dr. Townsend Clayton , and attended Romney Academy and the Romney Classical Institute . Clayton continued his post @-@ secondary education at the University of Virginia between 1846 and 1848 . Following his graduation , he served as principal of Washington Academy in Amelia County , the Charlestown Academy in Charles Town , and the Romney Classical Institute in 1853 and 1866 . He began practicing law in Romney in 1859 , and relocated to Keyser in 1873 where he established a law practice . He was elected to the West Virginia Senate in 1874 and served alongside R. B. Sherrard and David Pugh , representing the Eleventh Senatorial District . He unsuccessfully ran for election in the Twelfth Senatorial District for a judicial seat in 1883 . In 1890 , he served as the vice president of the West Virginia Bar Association from West Virginia 's 2nd congressional district . By 1907 , he was president of the Mineral County Bar Association , and in 1909 he served on the bar association 's Committee on Legal Education . In 1892 Clayton was under consideration as a Democratic candidate for a long term on the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia , but was not elected as the party 's candidate at the state convention . Clayton was an incorporator , shareholder , and director of several West Virginia businesses . In 1882 , he was named by the Virginia General Assembly as a trustee of the Virginia and West Virginia Railroad Company . In 1889 he was an incorporator of the Alexander Boom and Lumber Company , and in 1890 he was both an incorporator and a director of the Patterson 's Creek and Potomac Railroad Company . In addition , Clayton was a director of the People 's Bank of Keyser . He practiced law until the year prior to his death , and died in 1915 at his residence in Keyser after an illness . Following his death , The Pittsburgh Post described Clayton as the " nestor " of the Mineral County bar . = = Early life and academic career = = William C. Clayton was born on January 24 , 1831 , in Hampshire County , Virginia ( present @-@ day West Virginia ) . He was the son of Dr. Townsend Clayton , a physician in Hampshire County , and his wife , Susan O 'Hara Heiskell Clayton . Clayton received his early education from his father at home . He then received a collegiate preparatory education at both Romney Academy and Romney Classical Institute under the academic tutelage of William Henry Foote . He continued his studies at the University of Virginia in the 1846 , 1847 , and 1848 academic sessions . Following his graduation from the University of Virginia , Clayton served as the principal of Washington Academy in Amelia County for several years , and subsequently served as the principal of the Charlestown Academy in Charles Town . According to an advertisement for a female teacher in the The Baltimore Sun on November 9 , 1853 , Clayton was serving as the principal of the Romney Classical Institute in 1853 . Clayton stated in the advertisement that the institute was seeking an experienced female teacher to lead the school 's Female Department . The candidate was to be qualified to teach French , English , and music . Just after the American Civil War , in 1866 , he again served as the principal of the Romney Classical Institute for several academic sessions . = = Law and political careers = = In 1859 , Clayton commenced the practice of law in Romney . He continued the practice of law during his tenure as the principal of the Romney Classical Institute . He relocated to Keyser in 1873 and established a law practice there . On September 11 , 1874 , he was nominated as the West Virginia Democratic Party candidate for the West Virginia Senate seat at the party 's Eleventh Senatorial District Convention in Petersburg . In November 1874 Clayton won his election to the senate seat and represented the district alongside R. B. Sherrard of Hardy County . Clayton first served in the West Virginia Legislature 's 12th Legislative Session , which convened in Charleston on January 13 , 1875 , and adjourned on December 23 , 1875 . He served in the 13th Legislative Session of 1876 , and in the 14th legislative session of 1877 when he served as senator from the Eleventh Senatorial District alongside David Pugh of Hampshire County . Clayton served in the state senate until 1879 . In the Judicial Election of November 6 , 1883 , in the Twelfth Senatorial District , Clayton ran for election against J. D. Armstrong and lost with 1 @,@ 969 votes to Armstrong 's 6 @,@ 203 . In 1887 Clayton was admitted to practice law in the courts of Randolph County . By 1890 , Clayton was still engaged in the practice of law with a lucrative practice in Keyser . He was a member of the West Virginia Bar Association , and in 1890 he served as a vice president of the organization from West Virginia 's 2nd congressional district . In June 1890 , Clayton attended the association 's meeting on Blennerhassett Island , near Parkersburg , where he served on a committee that drafted the bar association 's resolution on the legal rights of married women . On July 1 of that year , Clayton was also selected to serve on the association 's Committee of Legal Biography , on which he served as its chairperson . In 1907 he was president of the Mineral County Bar Association . By 1909 , he served on the West Virginia Bar Association 's Committee on Legal Education . He attended the association 's annual meeting in Webster Springs , July 7 – 8 , 1909 . In March 1891 , Clayton and C. Wood Daily of Keyser argued on behalf of the West Virginia Central and Pittsburgh Railway Company in a mandamus case at the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia brought by a director of the company , W. Irvine Cross . Alex Shaw of Baltimore claimed his right to cumulate his stock ownership in the company , and elected Cross as a director of the company . On March 24 , the court ruled that the company was governed by the cumulative method , and therefore , Cross was entitled to his director seat . In April 1892 , Clayton was under consideration as a Democratic candidate for a long term on the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia . At the West Virginia Democratic Party State Convention in August 1892 , held in Parkersburg , Marmaduke H. Dent was elected as the party 's candidate for election to the long term , beating out Clayton , Joseph Moreland , and Robert W. Monroe . = = Business pursuits = = Clayton was an incorporator , shareholder , and director of several West Virginia businesses . On February 21 , 1882 , the Virginia General Assembly passed an act of incorporation of the Virginia and West Virginia Railroad Company and named Clayton as one of the " body corporate and politic " of the company . The railroad was to have been constructed from the West Virginia – Virginia state line in either Frederick or Shenandoah counties in Virginia to Alexandria or another point on the Potomac River near Alexandria . In July 1889 , Clayton was an incorporator with $ 100 in shares of the Alexander Boom and Lumber Company , which constructed , operated , and maintained log booms across the Buckhannon River near the confluence of the river 's Left Fork and Right Fork tributaries in Upshur County . Clayton was an incorporator and a director of the Patterson 's Creek and Potomac Railroad Company , which was chartered on March 15 , 1900 with a capital stock of $ 20 @,@ 000 . The railroad was to be constructed from Patterson Creek on the North Branch Potomac River , to a point along the North Branch Potomac River between Short Gap and Pinto , thus acting as a 5 @.@ 42 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 72 km ) cut @-@ off around the congested Cumberland Rail Yard in Cumberland . The railroad was to reduce the distance along the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Main Line by 10 @.@ 5 miles ( 16 @.@ 9 km ) . The Patterson 's Creek and Potomac Railroad Company was charged with the railroad 's construction and was to operate the venture from an office in Keyser . On April 5 , 1900 , the company was formally organized at a meeting held at a Baltimore and Ohio Railroad office in Keyser where Clayton was elected as a director . It was decided at the meeting that construction was to begin on both ends of the railroad , which was to include the construction of one tunnel measuring 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) in length . By January 1901 , no track had been laid , and the tunnel had not begun construction , which had been estimated to take a year to complete . The railroad was completed in 1903 , and by 1905 , it was assessed at a value of $ 67 @,@ 850 @.@ 00 and known as the " Pinto Cut @-@ Off . " By 1912 , the Patterson 's Creek and Potomac Railroad Company had become a subsidiary of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and on September 25 of that year , it was finally merged with its parent company along with its other West Virginia subsidiaries . In March 1909 , Clayton was reelected as a director of the People 's Bank of Keyser . = = Later life and death = = He continued to be active into his later years . In 1912 he participated in an automotive procession to Moorefield with other prominent local attorneys to attend the funeral of Moorefield lawyer Benjamin Dailey . Clayton continued to practice law until the year before his death in 1915 . Clayton died on March 11 , 1915 , at his residence in Keyser at the age of 84 , following an illness . Clayton was survived by his sister Clara Clayton , and his nephew Charles T. Clayton of Washington , D.C. , who was a private secretary to David John Lewis , U.S. House Representative from Maryland . In his obituary in The Pittsburgh Post , Clayton was described as the " nestor " of the Mineral County bar . He was interred at Indian Mound Cemetery in Romney near his wife , Isabella . He shares an obelisk gravestone with his brother Charles T. Clayton and sister @-@ in @-@ law Laura D. Clayton . = = Personal life and marriage = = Clayton married Isabella Paxton Schultze ( March 9 , 1835 – September 27 , 1891 ) . Schultze was born in Edinburgh , Scotland , on March 9 , 1835 , and was the daughter of Dr. Robert Schultze and his wife Elizabeth " Bessie " Armstrong Schultze . Her sister was Elizabeth " Bessie " Jane Schultze , the first wife of Christian Streit White , Hampshire County Clerk of Court and , later , President of the West Virginia Fish Commission . Her father , Dr. Robert Schultze , was a professor of foreign languages at the University of Edinburgh . Dr. Schultze also served in the British Diplomatic Service . Clayton and his wife had one child , Bessie Clayton , who was born on October 3 , 1873 , and died on August 21 , 1874 . On September 27 , 1891 , at 19 : 00 , Clayton 's wife died at their residence in Keyser as a result of contracting typhoid fever . She was buried at Indian Mound Cemetery in Romney . = = = Religion = = = Clayton was of Presbyterian faith and was an active member and a ruling elder of the Winchester Presbytery . In May 1895 , Clayton served on a special committee that conducted in an investigation over the expulsion of members of the Presbytery 's church in Gerrardstown .
= Flag of Ecuador = The flag of Ecuador , which consists of horizontal bands of yellow ( double width ) , blue and red , was first adopted by law on 1835 and later on 26 September 1860 . The design of the current flag was finalized in 1900 with the addition of the coat of arms in the center of the flag . Before using the yellow , blue and red tricolor , Ecuador used white and blue flags that contained stars for each province of the country . The design of the flag is very similar to those of Colombia and Venezuela , which are also former constituent territories of Gran Colombia . All three are based on a proposal by Venezuelan General Francisco de Miranda , which was adopted by Venezuela in 1811 and later Gran Colombia with some modifications . There is a variant of the flag that does not contain the coat of arms that is used by the merchant marine . This flag matches Colombia 's in every aspect , but Colombia uses a different design when her merchant marine ships are at sail . = = Design = = The Ecuadorian National Secretariat of Communication ( Secretaría Nacional de Comunicación ) issued regulations describing the applications and proportions of the national flag , coat of arms , and other national symbols in November 2009 . The national flag has a length of 2 @.@ 20 meters and a width of 1 @.@ 47 m , a ratio of 2 to 3 . The field is split into three horizontal colored bands , a yellow band of one @-@ half the flag 's width , a blue band of one @-@ quarter the width , and a red band of one @-@ quarter the width . All three bands extend the full length of the flag . The flag is charged with the Ecuadorian coat of arms scaled to one @-@ half the width of the flag and centered in the field . The coat of arms itself is constructed in a rectangle with proportions 12 : 10 . The national standard has the same design as the national flag , but is square , with length 0 @.@ 9 m and width 0 @.@ 9 m . When used by military units and organizations , lettering can encircle the coat of arms with a diameter of 55 centimeters . The lettering must be 4 cm in height , 3 cm in width , gold @-@ colored Roman font , embroidered with gold thread . The only other regulated size is a table flag ( banderola ) where the flag is 200 mm wide and 300 mm long . When manufacturing the national flag , sellers to the public must include the name of their company , along with the year of manufacture , by placing a 20 × 10 mm tag on the reverse side of the flag on the sleeve . = = = Coat of arms = = = In the background of the oval shield is the mountain Chimborazo , while the river originating from its base represents the Guayas . Chimborazo is also the highest mountain in Ecuador and is part of the Andes Range . The steamboat on the river is named Guayas as well . The ship was built in Guayaquil and was the first seaworthy steamship built in both Ecuador and in all of South America . It was first put into service on 9 October 1841 . The ship has the features of a Caduceus representing trade and economy . This kind of mast has two wings surrounding a pole with two snakes encircling it . On top a golden sun surrounded by the Zodiac astrological signs for Aries , Taurus , Gemini and Cancer representing the months March to July to symbolize the duration of the March Revolution of 1845 that ousted General Juan José Flores . The condor on top of the shield stretches his wings to symbolize power , greatness and strength of Ecuador . The condor also represents the idea that it will always be ready to attack any enemy . The shield is flanked by four national flags . The laurel on the left represents the victories of the republic . The palm leaf on the right side is a symbol of the martyrs of the fight for independence and liberty . The Fasces below the shield represents the republican dignity . The final design of the coat of arms was completed in 1900 . In the 1989 specifications issued to the Ecuadorian Military , the coat of arms has only eight colors that are used on the flag . The eight colors are yellow , blue , red ( all from the national flag ) , sky blue , green , grey , silver and gold . There is also a nine piece instruction on how to draw the coat of arms , followed by a full color drawing and a black and white drawing of the arms . No size specifications have been laid out for the coat of arms except for when it is used on the national flag . = = = Symbolism = = = Miranda ascribed the colours he chose for his flag to Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 's theory of primary colours . In a letter written to Count Semyon Romanovich Vorontsov in 1792 , Miranda described a late @-@ night conversation which he had with Goethe at a party in Weimar , Germany during the winter of 1785 . Fascinated with Miranda 's account of his exploits in the American Revolutionary War and his travels throughout the Americas and Europe , Goethe told him that , " Your destiny is to create in your land a place where primary colours are not distorted . ” He proceeded to clarify what he meant : The first time the yellow , blue and red flag was flown by Miranda was in 1806 on the ship Leander when trying to face the Spanish forces off of the coast of Jacmel , Haiti . The colors of the modern Ecuadorian flag evolved from those of the flag of the nation of Gran Colombia , which encompassed the territories of modern @-@ day Ecuador , Colombia and Venezuela . The colors have the following meanings : Yellow : The crops and the fertile soil . Blue : The ocean and the clear skies Red : The blood spilled by the heroes who died in the name of their countrymen 's Fatherland and Freedom . = = History = = After the territory of Ecuador was conquered by Sebastián de Benalcázar , the emblems of the Spanish Empire flew over the newly founded city of Quito . The first calls for independence from the Spanish crown came on 10 August 1809 ; a plain red flag was flown by the rebels . The independence movement was defeated in November 1812 at the hands of Spanish officer Juan Sámano . On 9 October 1820 , a new flag , a blue and white bicolour , with five horizontal alternating stripes , and three white stars in the middle stripe , was raised for the first time . The three stars represent Guayaquil , Portoviejo and Machala . This flag was later adopted by the Guayas Province . Gabriel García Moreno , upon assuming power two days after the Battle of Guayaquil in September 1860 , the yellow , blue and red triband was returned to use ; its reinstatement on September 26 is commemorated during Ecuador 's national flag day . Previously , a vertical white , blue and white flag was used . In the middle of the blue stripe , there were white stars placed to signify the number of provinces in Ecuador . The highest star total was seven before this flag was abandoned . In 1900 , the flag was made the definitive national standard , and was charged with the coat of arms for official national government use while the plain flag was reserved for the merchant marine . = = Pledge and hymn = = Students and military cadets in Ecuador are required to recite a pledge to the flag , known as the " Juramento a la Bandera " or " Pledge to the Flag . " This pledge is usually stated during national holiday or important school functions , such as graduations . There is also a patriotic song called the " Himno a la Bandera " ( " Hymn to the Flag " ) that is after the " Juramento a la Bandera " or before flag retirement ceremonies . = = Variants = = According to Registro Oficial No. 1272 , a decree signed into law on 5 December 1900 , there are two official designs of the national flag . Article Two established the national banner as the tricolor with the yellow stripe doubling the size of the blue and red stripes . Article Three establishes the national flag charged with the coat of arms and is directed to be used by the military , government offices and diplomatic agents outside of Ecuador . While this law establishes the flag with the coat of arms as the state flag , it did not forbid the civilian population from using the flag . The only restriction is stated in Article Six where the merchant marine is restricted to using the flag without the coat of arms . Because of this , this has been construed to be the civil flag as it was practiced in other South American countries , such as Peru , Bolivia and Argentina . Unlike Ecuador , several of these South American countries forbade the civilian population from using the national flag with the coat of arms or , in the case of Argentina until 1985 , the national flag charged with the Sun of May in the middle . Peru and Bolivia still restricts the usage of the state flag to just the government bodies and institutions and reserves the plain flags for national celebrations or as directed by law . However , in practice the flag with the coat of arms is often used in place of the plain flag , especially when it is important to distinguish the latter from the flag of Colombia . In the case when Colombian merchant marine ships are at sea , the Colombian national flag is charged with a red and blue oval with a white star in the center . For city governments , Article 4 in the 1900 decree forbids them from using the national flag with the coat of arms . A special flag was created for the city governments to use ; it is a plain national flag charged with white stars that are placed in a circle pattern . The number of white stars will correspond to the number of provinces in Ecuador . However , this flag is identical to Venezuela 's flag from 1905 until 1930 , and similar to Venezuela 's current flag ( the stars are now in a semi circle pattern ) . = = Derivatives = = Palestina Canton uses the national flag on their flag . Placed in the canton , the Ecuador flag is shown with three even stripes , while the rest of the flag is colored olive green . The use of the Ecuador flag was described by the Palestina government as " unity with the motherland " and olive green represents progress . Loja Province adopted a flag in 1963 that copied the design of the national flag . This was done by the creator of the flag to show his " honor and admiration " to the homeland . Another province , Napo , chose their flag that copied the design of the national flag without the coat of arms . The only modification that was performed was to put a white strip between the blue and yellow . = = Resemblance to other flags = = The flags of Ecuador , Colombia , and Venezuela , can all trace their roots to the flag of the nation of Gran Colombia ( 1819 – 1830 ) , the short @-@ lived republic that encompassed the territories of all three . The Gran Colombian flag in turn was inspired by the flag of the First Republic of Venezuela , the first independent government of that nation . The flag of the Venezuelan Republic was modeled on the one created earlier by General Francisco de Miranda during his attempts to gain Venezuelan independence and which first flew over the port of La Vela in Santa Ana de Coro , Venezuela , in 1806 . As of 2006 , the Ecuadoran flag still shares some similarity with the flags of Colombia and Venezuela . All three flags use the yellow , blue and red tricolor , but that is where the similarities end . In a decree passed in Colombia in 1934 , the ratio of the stripes were set at 2 : 1 : 1 and the flag ratio was set at 2 : 3 , similar to the present Ecuador flag . However , the coat of arms is only changed in the middle of the flag when it is used by government officials or by military forces . For Venezuela , the basic design was to have all three strips even vertically , unlike those of Colombia and Ecuador . Since 1863 , Venezuela decided to change their flag with white stars instead of a coat of arms . A coat of arms was not added to the national flag 1954 , then changed again in 2006 to add another star and alter the coat of arms . The position of the coat of arms on the Venezuelan flag also differs from Ecuador and Colombia by placing the arms at the very top hoist ( left ) side of the flag instead of in the center . = = Provincial flags = = = = = Legislation = = =
= Symphonic Odysseys = Symphonic Odysseys : Tribute to Nobuo Uematsu was a symphonic tribute concert held in Cologne , Germany on July 9 , 2011 at the Cologne Philharmonic Hall . The concert exclusively paid homage to the work of Japanese composer Nobuo Uematsu and featured music selected from his works as a video game music composer . Among the games featured were Lost Odyssey , Blue Dragon , Last Story , King 's Knight , Chrono Trigger , Final Fantasy Legend , and selected works from the Final Fantasy series . The concert was produced and directed by Thomas Böcker , with arrangements provided by Finnish composer and musician Jonne Valtonen , along with Roger Wanamo , Masashi Hamauzu , and Jani Laaksonen . The concert was performed by the WDR Rundfunkorchester Köln and the WDR Radio Choir Cologne under conduction from Arnie Roth , with guest performers Benyamin Nuss and Juraj Cizmarovic joining the orchestra . A video recording of Symphonic Odysseys was streamed live online . The concert was initially scheduled for a single performance , but after selling out within twelve hours a second concert was added prior in the same day in Cologne . This too sold out , resulting in a total attendance of over 4000 . A recording of the concert was published as a two @-@ disc album on December 28 , 2011 by Dog Ear Records , Uematsu 's own record label . The albums , along with the concerts themselves , received varied reviews , with some critics giving enthusiastic praise , especially in regards to the quality of the performance , the choice of source material , and the quality of the arrangements , while other critics greatly disliked several of the arrangements . = = Concert = = = = = Production = = = Thomas Böcker and then WDR Symphony Orchestra Cologne director Winfried Fechner began collaborating on orchestrated video game concerts in 2007 , after Fechner had attended the Fifth Symphonic Game Music Concert held in Leipzig . As their ideas and plans materialized , three projects were set in motion to determine the interest of a younger audience in classical music performance and the aptitude of the WDR orchestra in focusing on a new source of compositions . The first project was PROMS : That 's Sound , That 's Rhythm , held in early 2008 , featuring a mixture of classical works and video game music , ranging from works by Ralph Vaughan Williams and Morton Gould as well as arrangements of music from video games such as Shenmue and Castlevania previously featured in the Symphonic Game Music Concerts . The second project , held in August 2008 , was a composer @-@ specific concert titled Symphonic Shades – Hülsbeck in Concert , focusing entirely on the works of German video game composer Chris Hülsbeck , while the third project was a concert of music from the video games by Square Enix titled Symphonic Fantasies : Music from Square Enix , held in September 2009 . A third " Symphonic " concert , Symphonic Legends – Music from Nintendo , was then held in September 2010 , and afterwards Böcker decided to have one final production to close out the " Symphonic " series . The fourth concert was first announced by Winfried Fechner in March 2010 as Symphonic Odysseys - Uematsu in Concert , with the subtitle later changed to " Tribute to Nobuo Uematsu " . The sole composer featured in the concert is Nobuo Uematsu , a Japanese video game composer best known for his work at Square Enix , who is considered one of the most famous and respected composers in the video game community . He has composed the music for dozens of video games , including the majority of the Final Fantasy series , and his compositions had been a significant component of the Symphonic Fantasies concert . Böcker has said that he considers Uematsu to be " the most famous composer of video game music and in general one of the most influential " , and that Uematsu 's 20020220 - Music from Final Fantasy concert in 2002 was a big influence on his own concerts . The decision to focus the event on Uematsu was made in part due to Uematsu 's own desire to one day hear a concert based on his compositions as a whole ; he was also very interested in hearing more experimental arrangements of his pieces than have been done in the past after watching the Symphonic Fantasies concert . A website was set up for news and updates on the concert , including video messages from Nobuo Uematsu himself . Tickets for the concert went on sale on December 1 , 2010 , and were sold out within 12 hours , prompting the addition of a second performance to be held earlier in the afternoon of the same day . This too sold out , resulting in a total attendance of over 4000 . Jonne Valtonen and Roger Wanamo , the arrangers for the Symphonic Fantasies and Symphonic Legends concerts , returned as the lead arrangers for the concert . Additional arrangements were made by Jani Laaksonen and Masashi Hamauzu , and Mikko Laine served as the lyricist for the choral components of the concert . Uematsu was not involved in any aspect of the production , even song selection , as he wanted to be surprised by the result . The style of arrangements followed in the tradition of the shows preceding Symphonic Odysseys , featuring a number of rich , sophisticated suites structured for melodic storytelling . A focus was put on presenting a balanced mix of fan favorites as well as lesser known material that was not commonly performed in orchestra concerts based on video game music . Böcker styled the concert to be a mix of Shades and Fantasies , in that there was a mix of shorter pieces with longer suites . The titles chosen to be featured in the concert were the Final Fantasy series , King 's Knight , Chrono Trigger , the SaGa series , The Last Story , Blue Dragon , and Lost Odyssey . Additionally , Uematsu composed an original fanfare to open the concert , which was arranged by Jonne Valtonen . = = = Show = = = The concerts were held on July 9 , 2011 , at 3 : 00 and 8 : 00 pm , at the Cologne Philharmonic Hall in Cologne , Germany . Symphonic Odysseys was performed by the WDR Rundfunkorchester Köln and the WDR Radio Choir Cologne , conducted by Arnie Roth . Nobuo Uematsu was in attendance , and Ralph Erdenberger served as the presenter . The concert was also broadcast live online . The concert was divided into two acts separated by an intermission , with the first act focusing on Uematsu 's earlier works and the second act made up of material composed in the later parts of his career . The event was initiated by the original opening fanfare composed by Uematsu followed by a nearly nineteen @-@ minute @-@ long piano concerto of Final Fantasy music from the first six titles in the series , presented in 3 movements : " Grave - Allegro " , " Adagio Cantabile " , and " Allegro Molto " . The piano was played by Benyamin Nuss . The placement of the piece was a throwback to Nuss 's performance at Symphonic Fantasies , where he also performed a piano concerto at the beginning of the concert . The concerto was the one that Wanamo was most excited about arranging for the concert . It was followed by arrangements of individual pieces from King 's Knight , Chrono Trigger , the SaGa series , and Final Fantasy X. After a brief intermission , the second act was started by arrangements of pieces from The Last Story , Final Fantasy XIV and Blue Dragon . The Blue Dragon piece featured a violin performance by Juraj Cizmarovic , who also performed at the Symphonic Legends concert . They were followed by a suite of music from Lost Odyssey to round out the second half of the concert , which lasted twenty minutes . The concert was extended by two encore performances featuring Benyamin Nuss on piano ; the first was an arrangement from Final Fantasy X , and the second a suite of battle music from Final Fantasy VII . = = = Set List = = = = = Album = = The concert in Cologne was recorded and released as an album titled Symphonic Odysseys by Dog Ear Records , Nobuo Uematsu 's recording label . It was announced to be in production on October 26 , 2011 , and released on December 28 , 2011 . The artwork for the album features a cross between a sword and a violin on a white background , in the vein of the Symphonic Fantasies album , which had a cross between a violin and a game controller . The cover art was produced by German design house Schech , who earlier provided the artwork for the European release of Symphonic Fantasies . Accompanying the CD is a booklet which contains photos of the concert and discusses the arrangers and compositions included in each song . The album contains everything played at the concert , with the Final Fantasy suite split into three tracks , and the album is split at the intermission into two CDs . Its fourteen tracks have a duration of 1 : 34 : 56 . While Dog Ear Records published the album in Japan , the album was released in Europe through the online music retailer MAZ @-@ Sound . = = Reception = = The Symphonic Odysseys concert received varied reviews , with praise given the performance and choice of source material , and both praise and criticism given to the quality of the arrangements . Audun Sorlie of Original Sound Version stated that it was " the greatest live music event I have ever attended , " and said that the standing ovation at the end was " the longest [ ... ] I 've been part of " . Original Sound Version named the concert as the best of the year for 2011 in their year @-@ end awards . In his review of the album for the site , Jayson Napolitano said that the arrangements for the concert were " top notch " , and brought attention to works by the composers which were typically overlooked . Joe Hammond of Square Enix Music Online said that it was " an outstanding concert — possibly the most successful in Europe to date " and added that it was " a tour de force of flawless performances and impeccable orchestrations and arrangements " . He felt that several of the pieces surpassed the arrangements played in the Distant Worlds and Symphonic Fantasies concerts , and made special note of the third movement in the Final Fantasy concerto and the Lost Odyssey suite . Polish site GameMusic.net 's Mariusz Borkowski , in his review of the album , made particular note of Benyamin Nuss 's piano performance during the Final Fantasy concerto and Juraj Čižmarovič 's violin performance in the Lost Odyssey suite . He stated that the concert " sets new standards as to how a professional game music event should be organised . " In contrast to the enthusiastic praises of other critics , Kyle Miller of RPGFan felt that many of the pieces were " disorganized and ineptly arranged " , and that the arrangements had a lack of enthusiasm . He reserved praise only for the fanfare and the Lost Odyssey suite . Benjamin Schmädig of the German site 4Players.de , while not having as extreme a reaction as Miller , felt that some of the arrangements lacked the passion in the arrangements as others , noting " On Windy Meadows " , " Main Theme and Save the World " , and " Spreading Your Wings " as serviceable pieces that did not rise above the source material , and felt that the Lost Odyssey suite was lacking a finale and neglected the choir . Unlike Miller , however , he felt that the other pieces were outstanding , especially the Final Fantasy concerto and " Silent Light " . He also praised the concert 's use of Uematsu 's less @-@ often arranged pieces , but dismissed the efforts of the concert 's moderator as childish . The album release received similar reviews to the original concert . Napolitano , in addition to reiterating some of Sorlie 's praises from the original concert about the quality of the arrangements , praised the production values of the album , noting the " crisp , clean sound " as similar to the listening experience of being at the concert and superior to that of the live stream of the concert and that the applause between pieces had been edited out . Hammond called it a " phenomenal album release " , stating that it would appeal to both classical music fans and video game music fans . Neither Miller nor Borkowski made note of the differences between the concert and the album , and Schmädig did not review the album .
= Addax = For the GP2 Series racing team , see Addax Team . The addax ( Addax nasomaculatus ) , also known as the white antelope and the screwhorn antelope , is an antelope of the genus Addax , that lives in the Sahara desert . It was first described by Henri de Blainville in 1816 . As suggested by its alternative name , this pale antelope has long , twisted horns - typically 55 to 80 cm ( 22 to 31 in ) in females and 70 to 85 cm ( 28 to 33 in ) in males . Males stand from 105 to 115 cm ( 41 to 45 in ) at the shoulder , with females at 95 to 110 cm ( 37 to 43 in ) . They are sexually dimorphic , as the females are smaller than males . The colour of the coat depends on the season - in the winter , it is greyish @-@ brown with white hindquarters and legs , and long , brown hair on the head , neck , and shoulders ; in the summer , the coat turns almost completely white or sandy blonde . The addax mainly eats grasses and leaves of any available shrubs , leguminous herbs and bushes . These animals are well @-@ adapted to exist in their desert habitat , as they can live without water for long periods of time . Addax form herds of five to 20 members , consisting of both males and females . They are led by the oldest female . Due to its slow movements , the antelope is an easy target for its predators : lions , humans , African hunting dogs , cheetahs and leopards . Breeding season is at its peak during winter and early spring . The natural habitat of the addax are arid regions , semideserts and sandy and stony deserts . The addax is a critically endangered species of antelope , as classified by the IUCN . Although extremely rare in its native habitat due to unregulated hunting , it is quite common in captivity . The addax was once abundant in North Africa , native to Chad , Mauritania and Niger . It is extinct in Algeria , Egypt , Libya , Sudan and Western Sahara . It has been reintroduced in Morocco and Tunisia . = = Taxonomy and naming = = The scientific name of the addax is Addax nasomaculatus . This antelope was first described by French zoologist and anatomist Henri Blainville in 1816 . It is placed in the monotypic genus Addax and family Bovidae . Henri Blainville observed syntypes in Bullock 's Pantherion and the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons . English naturalist Richard Lydekker stated their type locality to be probably Senegambia , though he did not have anything to support the claim . Finally , from a discussion in 1898 , it became more probable that British hunters or collectors obtained the addax from the part of Sahara in Tunisia . The generic name Addax is thought to be obtained from an Arabic word meaning a wild animal with crooked horns . It is also thought to have originated from a Latin word . The name was first used in 1693 . The species name nasomaculatus comes from the Latin words nasus ( or the prefix naso ) meaning nose , and macula , spot or spotted , and the suffix – atus refers to the spots and facial markings of the antelope . Bedouins use another name for the addax , the Arabic bakr ( or bagr ) al wahsh , which literally means the cow of the wild . The name can be used to refer to other ungulates , as well . The other common names of addax are " white antelope " and " screwhorn antelope " . = = Genetics = = The addax has 29 pairs of chromosomes . All chromosomes are acrocentric except for the first pair of autosomes , which are submetacentric . The X chromosome is the largest of the acrocentric chromosomes , and the Y chromosome is medium @-@ sized . The short and long arms of the pair of submetacentric autosomes correspond respectively to the 27th and 1st chromosomes in cattle and goats . In a study , the banding patterns of chromosomes in addax were found to be similar to those in four other species of the subfamily Hippotraginae . = = History and fossil record = = In ancient times , the addax occurred from Northern Africa through Arabia and the Levant . Pictures in a tomb , dating back to the 2500 BCE show at least the partial domestication of the addax by the ancient Egyptians . These pictures show addax and some other antelopes tied with ropes to stakes . The number of addax captured by a person were considered an indicator of his high social and economic position in the society . But today excess poaching has resulted in the extinction of this species in Egypt since the 1960s . Addax fossils have been found in four sites of Egypt - a 7000 BCE fossil from the Great Sand Sea , a 5000 – 6000 BCE fossil from Djara , a 4000 – 7000 BCE fossil from Abu Ballas Stufenmland and a 5000 BCE fossil from Gilf Kebir . Apart from these , fossils have also been excavated from Mittleres Wadi Howar ( 6300 BCE fossil ) , and Pleistocene fossils from Grotte Neandertaliens , Jebel Irhoud and Parc d 'Hydra . = = Physical description = = The addax is a spiral @-@ horned antelope . Male addax stand from 105 to 115 cm ( 41 to 45 in ) at the shoulder , with females at 95 to 110 cm ( 37 to 43 in ) . They are sexually dimorphic , as the females are smaller than males . The head and body length in both sexes is 120 to 130 cm ( 47 to 51 in ) , with a 25 to 35 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 to 13 @.@ 8 in ) long tail . The weight of males varies from 100 to 125 kg ( 220 to 276 lb ) , and that of females from 60 to 90 kg ( 130 to 200 lb ) . The coloring of the addax 's coat varies with the season . In the winter , it is greyish @-@ brown with white hindquarters and legs , and long , brown hair on the head , neck , and shoulders . In the summer , the coat turns almost completely white or sandy blonde . Their head is marked with brown or black patches that form an ' X ' over their noses . They have scraggly beards and prominent red nostrils . Long , black hairs stick out between their curved and spiralling horns , ending in a short mane on the neck . The horns , which are found on both males and females , have two to three twists and are typically 55 to 80 cm ( 22 to 31 in ) in females and 70 to 85 cm ( 28 to 33 in ) in males , although the maximum recorded length is 109 @.@ 2 cm ( 43 @.@ 0 in ) . The lower and mid portions of the horns are marked with a series of 30 to 35 ring @-@ shaped ridges . The tail is short and slender , ending in a puff of black hair . The hooves are broad with flat soles and strong dewclaws to help them walk on soft sand . All four feet possess scent glands . The life span of the addax is up to 19 years in the wild , which can be extended to 25 years under captivity . The addax closely resembles the scimitar oryx , but can be distinguished by its horns and facial markings . While the addax is spiral @-@ horned , the scimitar oryx has straight , 127 cm ( 50 in ) long horns . The addax has a brown hair tuft extending from the base of its horns to between its eyes . A white patch , continuing from the brown hair , extends till the middle of the cheek . On the other hand , the scimitar oryx has a white forehead with only a notable brown marking a brown lateral stripe across its eyes . It differs from other antelopes by having large , square teeth like cattle , and lacking the typical facial glands . = = = Parasites = = = The addax are most prone to parasites in moist climatic conditions . Addax have always been infected with nematodes in the Trichostrongyloidea and Strongyloidea families . In an exotic ranch in Texas , an addax was found host to the nematodes Haemonchus contortus and Longistrongylus curvispiculum in its abomasum , out of which the former was more dominant . = = Behavior and ecology = = These animals are mainly nocturnal , particularly in summers . In the day , they dig into the sand in shady locations and rest in these depressions , which also protect them from sandstorms . Addax herds contain both males and females , and have from five to 20 members . They will generally stay in one place and only wander widely in search of food . The addax have a strong social structure , probably based on age , and herds are led by the oldest female . Herds are more likely to be found along the northern edge of the tropical rain system during the summer and move north as winter falls . They are able to track rainfall and will head for these areas where vegetation is more plentiful . Males are territorial , and guard females , while the females establish their own dominance hierarchies . Due to its slow movements , the addax is an easy target for predators such as lions , humans , African hunting dogs , cheetahs and leopards . Caracals , hyenas and servals attack calves . The addax are normally not aggressive , though individuals may charge if they are disturbed . = = = Adaptations = = = The addax are amply suited to live in the deep desert under extreme conditions . They can survive without free water almost indefinitely , because they get moisture from their food and dew that condenses on plants . Scientists believe the addax has a special lining in its stomach that stores water in pouches to use in times of dehydration . They also produce highly concentrated urine to conserve water . Pale colour of the coat reflects radiant heat , and the length and density of the coat helps in thermoregulation . In the day the addax huddle together in shaded areas , and in cool nights rest in sand hollows . These practices help in dissipation of body heat and saving water by cooling the body through evaporation . In a study , eight addax antelopes on a diet of grass hay ( Chloris gayana ) were studied to determine the retention time of food from the digestive tract . It was found that food retention time was long , taken as an adaptation to a diet including a high proportion of slow fermenting grasses ; while the long fluid retention time could be interpreted to be due to water @-@ saving mechanisms with low water turnover and a roomy rumen . = = = Diet = = = The addax live in desert terrain where they eat grasses and leaves of what shrubs , leguminous herbs and bushes are available . Their staple foods are the Aristida , Artemisia , Citrullus and Acacia grasses ; perennials which turn green and sprout at the slightest bit of humidity or rain . The addax eat only certain parts of the plant and tend to crop the Aristida grasses neatly to the same height . By contrast , when feeding on Panicum grass , the drier outer leaves are left alone while they eat the tender , inner shoots and seeds . These seeds are important part of the addax diet , being their main source of protein . = = = Reproduction = = = Females are sexually mature at two to three years of age and males at about two years . Breeding occurs throughout the year , but it peaks during winter and early spring . In the northern Sahara , breeding peaks at the end of winter and beginning of spring ; in the southern Sahara , breeding peaks from September to October and from January to mid @-@ April . Each estrus bout lasts for one or two days . In a study , the blood serum of female addax was analyzed through immunoassay to know about their luteal phase . Estrous cycle duration was of about 33 days . During pregnancy , ultrasonography showed the uterine horns as coiled . The maximum diameters of the ovarian follicle and the corpus luteum were 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) and 27 mm ( 1 @.@ 1 in ) . Each female underwent an anovulatory period lasting 39 to 131 days , during which there was no ovulation . Anovulation was rare in winter , which suggested the effect of seasons on the estrous cycle . Gestation period lasts 257 – 270 days ( about 9 months ) . Females may lie or stand during the delivery , during which one calf is born . A postpartum estrus occurs after two or three days . The calf weighs 5 kg ( 11 lb ) at birth and is weaned at 23 – 29 weeks old . = = Habitat and distribution = = The addax inhabits arid regions , semideserts and sandy and stony deserts . They even occur in extremely arid areas , with less than 100 mm annual rainfall . They also inhabit deserts with tussock grasses ( Stipagrostis species ) and succulent thorn scrub ( Cornulaca ) . Formerly , the addax was widespread in the Sahelo @-@ Saharan region of Africa , west of the Nile Valley and all countries sharing the Sahara Desert ; but today the only known self @-@ sustaining population is present in the Termit Massif Reserve ( Niger ) . However , there are reports of sightings from the eastern Air Mountains ( Niger ) and Equey ( Chad ) . Rare nomads may be seen in north Niger , southern Algeria and Libya ; and the antelope is rumoured to be present along the Mali / Mauritania border , though there are no confirmed sightings . The addax was once abundant in North Africa , native to Chad , Mauritania and Niger . It is extinct in Algeria , Egypt , Libya , Sudan and western Sahara . It has been reintroduced in Morocco and Tunisia . = = Threats and conservation = = Decrease in the population of the addax has begun notably since the mid @-@ 1800s . More recently , addax were found from Algeria to Sudan , but due mainly to overhunting , they have become much more restricted and rare . Addax are easy to hunt due to their slow movements . Roadkill , firearms for easy hunting and nomadic settlements near waterholes ( their dry @-@ season feeding places ) have also decreased numbers . Moreover , their meat and leather are highly prized . Other threats include chronic droughts in the deserts , habitat destruction due to more human settlements and agriculture . Less than 500 individuals are thought to exist in the wild today , most of the animals being found between the Termit area of Niger , the Bodélé region of western Chad , and the Aoukar in Mauritania . Today there are over 600 addax in Europe , Yotvata Hai @-@ Bar Nature Reserve ( Israel ) , Sabratha ( Libya ) , Giza Zoo ( Egypt ) , North America , Japan and Australia under captive breeding programmes . There are 1000 more in private collections and ranches in United States and the Middle East . Addax is legally protected in Morocco , Tunisia , and Algeria ; hunting of all gazelles is forbidden in Libya and Egypt . Although enormous reserves , such as the Hoggar Mountains and Tasilli in Algeria , the Ténéré in Niger , the Ouadi Rimé @-@ Ouadi Achim Faunal Reserve in Chad , and the newly established Wadi Howar National Park in Sudan , cover areas where addax previously occurred , some do not keep addax at present because they lack the resources . The addax has been reintroduced in Bou Hedma National Park ( Tunisia ) and Souss @-@ Massa National Park ( Morocco ) . Reintroductions in the wild are ongoing in Jebil National Park ( Tunisia ) and Grand Erg Oriental ( Sahara ) , and another is planned in Morocco .
= Bernard Williams = Bernard Arthur Owen Williams , FBA ( 21 September 1929 – 10 June 2003 ) was an English moral philosopher . His publications include Problems of the Self ( 1973 ) , Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy ( 1985 ) , Shame and Necessity ( 1993 ) , and Truth and Truthfulness ( 2002 ) . He was knighted in 1999 . As Knightbridge Professor of Philosophy at the University of Cambridge and Deutsch Professor of Philosophy at the University of California , Berkeley , Williams became known for his efforts to reorient the study of moral philosophy to psychology , history , and in particular to the Greeks . Described by Colin McGinn as an " analytical philosopher with the soul of a general humanist , " he was sceptical about attempts to create a foundation for moral philosophy . Martha Nussbaum wrote that he demanded of philosophy that it " come to terms with , and contain , the difficulty and complexity of human life . " Williams was a strong supporter of women in academia ; according to Nussbaum , he was " as close to being a feminist as a powerful man of his generation could be . " He was also famously sharp in conversation . Gilbert Ryle , one of Williams 's mentors at Oxford , said that he " understands what you 're going to say better than you understand it yourself , and sees all the possible objections to it , and all the possible answers to all the possible objections , before you 've got to the end of your own sentence . " = = Life = = = = = Early life and education = = = Williams was born in Westcliff @-@ on @-@ Sea , a suburb of Southend , Essex , to Hilda Amy Williams , née Day , a personal assistant , and Owen Pasley Denny Williams , chief maintenance surveyor for the Ministry of Works . He was educated at Chigwell School , an independent school , where he first discovered philosophy . Reading D. H. Lawrence led him to ethics and the problems of the self . In his first book , Morality : An Introduction to Ethics ( 1972 ) , he quoted with approval Lawrence 's advice to " [ f ] ind your deepest impulse , and follow that . " Awarded a scholarship to Oxford , Williams read Greats ( Classics and philosophy ) at Balliol . Among his influences at Oxford were Elizabeth Anscombe , Eric Dodds , Eduard Fraenkel , David Pears and Gilbert Ryle . He graduated in 1951 with a congratulatory first and a prize fellowship at All Souls . After Oxford , Williams spent his two @-@ year national service flying Spitfires in Canada for the Royal Air Force . While on leave in New York , he became close to Shirley Brittain Catlin ( born 1930 ) , daughter of the novelist Vera Brittain and the political scientist George Catlin . They had already been friends at Oxford . Catlin had moved to New York to study economics at Columbia University on a Fulbright scholarship . Williams returned to England to take up his fellowship at All Souls and in 1954 became a fellow at New College , Oxford , a position he held until 1959 . He and Catlin continued seeing each other . She began working for the Daily Mirror and sought election as a Labour MP . Williams , also a member of the Labour Party , helped her with the 1954 by @-@ election in Harwich in which she was an unsuccessful candidate . = = = First marriage , London = = = Williams and Catlin were married in London in July 1955 at St James 's , Spanish Place , near Marylebone High Street , followed by a honeymoon in Lesbos , Greece . The couple moved into a very basic ground @-@ floor apartment in London , on Clarendon Road , Notting Hill . Given how hard it was to find decent housing , they decided instead to share with Helge Rubinstein and her husband , the literary agent Hilary Rubinstein , who at the time was working for his uncle , Victor Gollancz . In 1955 the four of them bought a four @-@ storey , seven @-@ bedroom house in Phillimore Place , Kensington , for ₤ 6 @,@ 800 , a home they lived in together for 14 years . Williams described it as one of the happiest periods of his life . In 1958 Williams spent a term teaching at the University of Ghana in Legon . When he returned to England in 1959 , he was appointed lecturer in philosophy at University College London . In 1961 , after four miscarriages in four years , Shirley Williams gave birth to their daughter , Rebecca . Williams was a visiting professor at Princeton University in 1963 , and was appointed Professor of Philosophy at Bedford College , London , in 1964 . His wife was elected to parliament that year as the Labour member for Hitchin in Hertfordshire . The Sunday Times described the couple two years later as " the New Left at its most able , most generous , and sometimes most eccentric . " Andy Beckett wrote that they " entertained refugees from eastern Europe and politicians from Africa , and drank sherry in noteworthy quantities . " Shirley Williams became a junior minister and , in 1971 , Shadow Home Secretary . Several newspapers saw her as a future prime minister . She went on to co @-@ found a new centrist party in 1981 , the Social Democratic Party ; Williams left the Labour Party to join the SDP , although he later returned to Labour . = = = Cambridge , second marriage = = = In 1967 , at the age of 38 , Williams became the Knightbridge Professor of Philosophy at the University of Cambridge and a fellow of King 's College . According to Jane O 'Grady , Williams was central to the decision by King 's in 1972 to admit women , one of three all @-@ male undergraduate colleges to do so that year . Martha Nussbaum wrote that he was " as close to being a feminist as a powerful man of his generation could be . " In both his first and second marriages , he supported his wives in their careers and helped with the children more than was common for men at the time . In the 1970s , when Nussbaum 's thesis supervisor , G. E. L. Owen , was harassing female students , and she decided nevertheless to support him , Williams told her , during a walk along the backs at Cambridge : " [ Y ] ou know , there is a price you are paying for this support and encouragement . Your dignity is being held hostage . You really don 't have to put up with this . " Shirley Williams 's political career ( the House of Commons regularly sat until 10 pm ) meant that the couple spent a lot of time apart . They bought a house in Furneux Pelham , Hertfordshire , near the border with north Cambridgeshire , while she lived in Phillimore Place during the week to be close to the Houses of Parliament . Sunday was often the only day they were together . The differences in their personal values – he was an atheist , she a Catholic – placed a further strain on their relationship . It reached breaking point in 1970 when Williams formed a relationship with Patricia Law Skinner , a commissioning editor for Cambridge University Press and wife of the historian Quentin Skinner . She had approached Williams to write the opposing view of utilitarianism for Utilitarianism : For and Against with J. J. C. Smart ( 1973 ) , and they had fallen in love . Williams and Skinner began living together in 1971 . He obtained a divorce in 1974 ( at Shirley William 's request , the marriage was later annulled ) . Patricia Williams married him that year , and the couple went on to have two sons , Jacob in 1975 and Jonathan in 1980 . Shirley Williams married the political scientist Richard Neustadt in 1987 . = = = Berkeley , Oxford = = = In 1979 Williams was elected Provost of King 's , a position he held until 1987 . He spent a semester in 1986 at the University of California , Berkeley as Mills Visiting Professor and in 1988 left England to become Monroe Deutsch Professor of Philosophy there , announcing to the media that he was leaving as part of the " brain drain " of British academics to America . He was also Sather Professor of Classical Literature at Berkeley in 1989 ; Shame and Necessity ( 1995 ) grew out of his six Sather lectures . Williams returned to England in 1990 as White 's Professor of Moral Philosophy at Oxford and fellow of Corpus Christi . His sons had been " at sea " in California , he said , not knowing what was expected of them , and he had been unable to help . He regretted having made his departure from England so public ; he had been persuaded to do so to highlight Britain 's relatively low academic salaries . When he retired in 1996 , he took up a fellowship again at All Souls . = = = Royal commissions , committees = = = Williams served on several royal commissions and government committees : the Public Schools Commission ( 1965 – 1970 ) , drug abuse ( 1971 ) , gambling ( 1976 – 1978 ) , the Committee on Obscenity and Film Censorship ( 1979 ) , and the Commission on Social Justice ( 1993 – 1994 ) . " I did all the major vices , " he said . While on the gambling commission , one of his recommendations , ignored at the time , was for a national lottery . ( John Major 's government introduced one in 1994 . ) Mary Warnock described Williams 's report on pornography in 1979 , as chair of the Committee on Obscenity and Film Censorship , as " agreeable , actually compulsive to read . " It relied on a " harm condition " that " no conduct should be suppressed by law unless it can be shown to harm someone , " and concluded that so long as children were protected from pornography , adults should be free to read and watch it as they see fit . The report rejected the view that pornography tends to cause sexual offences . Two cases in particular were highlighted , the Moors Murders and the Cambridge Rapist , where the influence of pornography had been discussed during the trials . The report argued that both cases appeared to be " more consistent with pre @-@ existing traits being reflected both in a choice of reading matter and in the acts committed against others . " = = = Opera = = = Williams enjoyed opera from an early age , particularly Mozart and Wagner . Patricia Williams writes that he attended performances of the Carl Rosa Company and Sadler 's Wells as a teenager . In an essay on Wagner , he described having been reduced to a " virtually uncontrollable state " during a performance by Jon Vickers as Tristan at Covent Garden . He served on the board of the English National Opera from 1968 to 1986 , and wrote an entry , " The Nature of Opera , " for The New Grove Dictionary of Opera . A collection of his essays , On Opera , was published posthumously in 2006 , edited by Patricia Williams . = = = Honours and death = = = Williams became a fellow of the British Academy in 1971 and an honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1983 . The following year he was made a syndic of the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge and later the chair . In 1993 he was elected to a fellowship of the Royal Society of Arts , and in 1999 he was knighted . Several universities awarded him honorary doctorates , including Yale and Harvard . Williams died of heart failure on 10 June 2003 while on holiday in Rome ; he had been diagnosed in 1999 with multiple myeloma , a form of cancer . He was survived by his wife , their two sons , and his daughter from his first marriage . He was cremated in Rome . = = Writing = = = = = Approach to ethics = = = A. W. Moore writes that Williams ' work lies within the analytic tradition , although less typical of it " in its breadth , in its erudition , and above all in its profound humanity " : Although he was never a vigorous apologist for that tradition , he always maintained the standards of clarity and rigour which it prizes , and his work is a model of all that is best in the tradition . It is brilliant , deep , and imaginative . It is also extraordinarily tight . There cannot be many critics of his work who have not thought of some objection to what he says , only to find , on looking for a relevant quotation to turn into a target , that Williams carefully presents his views in a way that precisely anticipates the objection . Williams did not produce any ethical theory or system ; several commentators noted , unfairly in the view of his supporters , that he was largely a critic . Moore writes that Williams was unaffected by this criticism : " He simply refused to allow philosophical system @-@ building to eclipse the subtlety and variety of human ethical experience . " He equated ethical theories with " a tidiness , a systematicity , and an economy of ideas , " writes Moore , that were not up to describing human lives and motives . Williams tried not to lose touch " with the real concerns that animate our ordinary ethical experience , " unlike much of the " arid , ahistorical , second @-@ order " debates about ethics in philosophy departments . In his first book , Morality : An Introduction to Ethics ( 1972 ) , Williams wrote that whereas " most moral philosophy at most times has been empty and boring ... [ c ] ontemporary moral philosophy has found an original way of being boring , which is by not discussing moral issues at all . " He argued that the study of ethics should be vital , compelling and difficult , and he sought an approach that was accountable to psychology and history . Williams was not an ethical realist ; unlike scientific knowledge , which can approach an " absolute conception of reality , " an ethical judgment rests on a point of view . He argued that the " thick " ethical concepts , such as kindness and cruelty , express a " union of fact and value . " The idea that our values are not " in the world " was liberating : " [ A ] radical form of freedom may be found in the fact that we cannot be forced by the world to accept one set of values rather than another . " = = = Critique of Kant = = = Williams 's work throughout the 1970s and 1980s , in Morality : An Introduction to Ethics ( 1972 ) , Problems of the Self ( 1973 ) , Utilitarianism : For and Against with J. J. C. Smart ( 1973 ) , Moral Luck ( 1981 ) and Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy ( 1985 ) , outlined his attacks on the twin pillars of ethics : utilitarianism and the moral philosophy of the 18th @-@ century German philosopher Immanuel Kant . Nussbaum wrote that his work " denounced the trivial and evasive way in which moral philosophy was being practised in England under the aegis of those two dominant theories . " Both theories simplified the moral life , she wrote , neglecting emotions and personal attachments and how sheer luck shapes our choices . ( Williams said in 1996 : " Roughly , if it isn 't about obligation or consequences , it doesn 't count . " ) Kant 's Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten ( 1785 ) expounded a moral system based on the categorical imperative , one formulation of which is : " Act only according to that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law . " Rational agents must act on " principles of pure rational agency , " writes Moore ; that is , principles that regulate all rational agents . But Williams distingished between thinking and acting . To think rationally is to think in a way compatible with belief in the truth , and " what is takes for one to believe the truth is the same as what it takes for anyone else to believe the truth , " writes Moore . But one can act rationally by satisfying one 's own desires ( internal reasons for action ) , and what it takes to do that may not be what it takes for anyone else to satisfy theirs . Kant 's approach to treating thinking and acting alike is wrong , according to Williams . Williams argued that Kant had given the " purest , deepest and most thorough representation of morality , " but that the " honourable instincts of Kantianism to defend the individuality of individuals against the agglomerative indifference of Utilitarianism " may not be effective against the Kantian " abstract character of persons as moral agents . " We should not be expected to act as though we are not who we are in the circumstances in which we find ourselves . = = = Critique of utilitarianism = = = Williams set out the case against utilitarianism – a consequentialist position the simplest version of which is that actions are right only insofar as they promote the greatest happiness of the greatest number – in Utilitarianism : For and Against ( 1973 ) with J. J. C. Smart . One of the book 's thought experiments involves Jim , a botanist doing research in a South American country led by a brutal dictator . Jim finds himself in a small town facing 20 captured Indian rebels . The captain who has arrested them says that if Jim will kill one , the others will be released in honour of Jim 's status as a guest , but if he does not , they will all be killed . Simple act utilitarianism would favour Jim killing one of the men . Williams argued that there is a crucial distinction between a person being killed by Jim , and being killed by the captain because of an act or omission of Jim 's . The captain , if he chooses to kill , is not simply the medium of an effect Jim is having on the world . He is the moral actor , the person with the intentions and projects . The utilitarian loses that distinction , turning us into empty vessels by means of which consequences occur . Williams argued that moral decisions must preserve our psychological identity and integrity . We should reject any system that reduces moral decisions to a few algorithms . = = = Reasons for action = = = Williams argued that there are only internal reasons for action : " A has a reason to φ iff A has some desire the satisfaction of which will be served by his φ @-@ ing . " An external reason would be " A has reason to φ , " even if nothing in A 's " subjective motivational set " would be furthered by her φ @-@ ing . Williams argued that it is meaningless to say that there are external reasons ; reason alone does not move people to action . Sophie Grace Chappell argues that , without external reasons for action , it becomes impossible to maintain that the same set of moral reasons applies to all agents equally . In cases where someone has no internal reason to do what others see as the right thing , they cannot be blamed for failing to do it , because internal reasons are the only reasons , and blame , Williams wrote , " involves treating the person who is blamed like someone who had a reason to do the right thing but did not do it . " = = = Truth = = = In his final completed book , Truth and Truthfulness : An Essay in Genealogy ( 2002 ) , Williams identifies the two basic values of truth as accuracy and sincerity , and tries to address the gulf between the demand for truth and the doubt that any such thing exists . Jane O 'Grady wrote in a Guardian obituary of Williams that the book is an examination of those who " sneer at any purported truth as ludicrously naive because it is , inevitably , distorted by power , class bias and ideology . " The debt to Nietzsche is clear , most obviously in the adoption of a genealogical method as a tool of explanation and critique . Although part of Williams 's intention was to attack those he felt denied the value of truth , the book cautions that , to understand it simply in that sense , would be to miss part of its purpose ; rather , as Kenneth Baker wrote , it is " Williams ' reflection on the moral cost of the intellectual vogue for dispensing with the concept of truth . " = = Legacy = = Williams did not propose any systematic philosophical theory ; indeed , he was suspicious of any such attempt . He became known for his dialectical powers , although he was suspicious of them too . Alan Code wrote that Williams had never been " impressed by the display of mere dialectical cleverness , least of all in moral philosophy " : On the contrary , one of the most notable features of his philosophical outlook was an unwavering insistence on a series of points that may seem obvious but which are nevertheless all @-@ too @-@ frequently neglected : that moral or ethical thought is part of human life ; that in writing about it , philosophers are writing about something of genuine importance ; that it is not easy to say anything worth saying about the subject ; that what moral philosophers write is answerable to the realities of human history , psychology , and social affairs ; and that mere cleverness is indeed not the relevant measure of value . " In 1996 Martin Hollis said that Williams had " a good claim to be the leading British philosopher of his day , " but that , although he had a " lovely eye for the central questions , " he had none of the answers . Alan Thomas identified Williams 's contribution to ethics as an overarching scepticism about attempts to create a foundation for moral philosophy , explicitly articulated in Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy ( 1985 ) and Shame and Necessity ( 1993 ) , in which he argued that moral theories can never reflect the complexities of life , particularly given the radical pluralism of modern societies . Learning to be yourself , to be authentic and to act with integrity , rather than conforming to any external moral system , is arguably the fundamental motif of Williams 's work , according to Sophie Grace Chappell . " If there 's one theme in all my work it 's about authenticity and self @-@ expression , " Williams said in 2002 . " It 's the idea that some things are in some real sense really you , or express what you and others aren 't ... The whole thing has been about spelling out the notion of inner necessity . " He moved moral philosophy away from the Kantian question , " What is my duty ? " , and back to the issue that mattered to the Greeks : " How should we live ? " = = Publications = = Selected papers
= Vietnam Airlines = Vietnam Airlines ( Vietnamese : Hãng Hàng không Quốc gia Việt Nam ) is the flag carrier of Vietnam . Founded in 1956 under the name Vietnam Civil Aviation , the airline was established as a state @-@ owned enterprise in April 1989 . Vietnam Airlines is headquartered in Long Bien District , Hanoi , with hubs at Noi Bai International Airport and Tan Son Nhat International Airport . The airline flies to 52 destinations in 17 countries , excluding codeshared services . From its inception until the early 1990s , Vietnam Airlines was a minor carrier within the aviation industry as it was hampered by a variety of factors including the socio @-@ economic and political situation of the country . With the government 's normalization of relations with the United States , the airline was able to expand , improve its products and services , and modernize its ageing fleet . In 1996 , the Vietnamese government brought together 20 service companies to form Vietnam Airlines Corporation , with the airline itself as the centrepiece . In 2010 , the corporation was restructured into a limited liability company and renamed Vietnam Airlines Company Limited . A seven @-@ seat management board , members of which are appointed by the Vietnamese Prime Minister , oversees the company . As passenger transport constitutes its core activity , Vietnam Airlines plays a crucial role in the economic development of the country . It owns 100 % of Vietnam Air Service Company – a regional airline in southern Vietnam , 70 % of the low @-@ cost carrier Jetstar Pacific Airlines , and 49 % of the Cambodian national airline Cambodia Angkor Air . In addition , the corporation earns revenue from airline catering and the maintenance and overhauling of aircraft through a number of its subsidiaries , including Vietnam Airlines Engineering Company and Vietnam Airlines Caterers . The company has also diversified its investments in the aircraft @-@ leasing and airport ground @-@ servicing industries , and is looking to manufacture aircraft components . It controls and operates a cargo division , Vietnam Airlines Cargo . Vietnam Airlines became a member of SkyTeam in June 2010 , making it the first Southeast Asian carrier to have joined that alliance . It is expected to be restructured and partially privatized by 2015 to help it streamline its services and better compete with other airlines . This would facilitate its long @-@ term development plan that involves the improvement of its products and services , and the expansion of its fleet and flight network , as the airline aspires to become the second @-@ largest full @-@ service carrier in Southeast Asia by 2020 . = = History = = = = = Beginnings = = = Vietnam Airlines has its origins in January 1956 ( 1956 @-@ 01 ) , when it was established by the North Vietnamese government under the name " Vietnam Civil Aviation " following the nationalization of Gia Lam Airport . It was instituted after the government signed the Decree No. 666 / TTg . The airline was created as part of the air force for civilian purposes with support from both the Soviet Union and China ; initially , its fleet consisted of two Lisunov Li @-@ 2s that were later replaced by two Ilyushin Il @-@ 14 and three Aero Ae @-@ 45s . This was due to an embargo that prohibited the airline from leasing and / or buying American technology or components . The airline 's development and expansion was seriously hampered by the Vietnam War ( 1954 – 1975 ) . Following the war , its first international destination was Beijing , followed by Vientiane in 1976 . During that year , the airline was known as General Department of Civil Aviation in Vietnam , and began full operations ; it carried around 21 @,@ 000 passengers , one @-@ third of whom were on international flights , and 3 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 6 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 lb ) of cargo . In 1978 , another important destination of Vietnam Airlines was added , with flights offered to Bangkok . The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the expansion of the network to Hong Kong , Kuala Lumpur , Manila and Singapore . In 1990 , the company initiated discussions regarding the incorporation of Western @-@ built aircraft into the fleet . Later that year , however , the carrier had to cancel the acquisition of two Airbus A310s due to their use of US @-@ manufactured engines . By July 1991 ( 1991 @-@ 07 ) , the airline struck a wet @-@ lease agreement with Dutch lessor TransAvia . The aircraft involved was a Boeing 737 @-@ 300 , that arrived in Vietnam Airlines ' livery . However , the aircraft was returned after the U.S. State Department pressured the Dutch lessor to remove the aircraft from Vietnam . Subsequently , Vietnam Airlines organized a similar but more complicated deal with TEA Basle , who spent the rest of 1991 negotiating a deal with US authorities . Eventually , a solution stating that " [ the Boeing 737 ] must be positioned outside Vietnam , with no logo or lettering of Vietnam Airlines . On these conditions , it could operate on behalf of Vietnam Airlines " was reached . In December 1991 ( 1991 @-@ 12 ) , Cathay Pacific and Vietnam Airlines agreed on a 50 – 50 joint venture to operate between Hong Kong and Vietnam , as the airline 's Tupolev Tu @-@ 134 fleet did not meet Kai Tak Airport 's noise restrictions . In October 1992 ( 1992 @-@ 10 ) , the Boeing 737 was supplemented with an Airbus A310 . However , a dispute with Bulgarian Jes Air over who should pay for the repairs after the aircraft sustained an engine failure led to its replacement with another A310 from GATX , also operated by Jes Air . A similar dispute with United Technologies encouraged the airline to switch from Airbus to Boeing . Hence , a Boeing 767 @-@ 200ER , leased from Ansett Worldwide Aviation Services ( AWAS ) , arrived in January 1993 , and a Royal Brunei Airlines Boeing 767 @-@ 300ER , arrived the following year . In October 1993 , the first Airbus A320 @-@ 200 was incorporated over a two @-@ year wet @-@ lease contract with Air France . Vietnam Airlines by now had started discussions with Air France about a partnership , and the French carrier agreed to lease its Airbuses to Vietnam Airlines , and also to provide customer support and pilot / crew training . By that time the route network had further expanded internationally , seeing the incorporation of destinations such as Paris , Tokyo , Seoul , Taipei , Sydney , and Melbourne . In 1993 , the airline carried 1 @.@ 06 million passengers , 418 @,@ 000 of whom were on international flights . = = = New enterprise : 1993 – 2006 = = = The airline became the flag carrier of Vietnam in 1993 , after having completed a restructuring programme that was started four years earlier . In that year , the airline split from the Civil Aviation Administration of Vietnam ( CAAV ) and became a state enterprise . The move was similar to the reorganization of the Civil Aviation Administration of China into several regional airlines in 1987 . Despite the fact that the airline gained some independence from the CAAV , it was still known as Civil Aviation Administration of Vietnam within the 1993 – 1996 period . In February 1994 ( 1994 @-@ 02 ) , US President Bill Clinton lifted the trade embargo to allow Vietnam Airlines the ability to acquire Western @-@ built aircraft . Consequently , Vietnam Airlines announced in April of the same year that it would be phasing out its inefficient Soviet planes . By April 1995 ( 1995 @-@ 04 ) , the fleet consisted of nine Airbus A320s ( all of them leased from Air France ) , 11 Antonov An @-@ 24s , four ATR72s , two Boeing 707 @-@ 300s , three Ilyushin Il @-@ 18s , nine Tupolev Tu @-@ 134s and three Yakovlev Yak @-@ 40s ; at this time the route network comprised 14 domestic destinations ( including Ban Me Thuot , Da Nang , Dien Bien Phu , Hue , Nha Trang , Phucoq and Pleiku ) and 16 international destinations ( including Bangkok , Hong Kong , Kuala Lumpur and Singapore ) . On 27 May 1995 ( 1995 @-@ 05 @-@ 27 ) , the airline , along with a number of other aviation @-@ related businesses , were incorporated to establish Vietnam Airlines Corporation . Two Fokker 70s were purchased in mid @-@ 1995 for US $ 50 million ; they were aimed at partly replacing the Tu @-@ 134 fleet on domestic routes as well as at serving as VIP transport . In December 1995 ( 1995 @-@ 12 ) , discussions with GECAS for the lease of three additional , second @-@ hand Boeing 767 @-@ 300ERs were under way ; these ex @-@ Continental Airlines aircraft would act as a replacement for wet @-@ leased Boeing 767 aircraft ( three -300ERs and one -200ER leased from AWAS and Royal Brunei ) in the fleet . In September 1996 ( 1996 @-@ 09 ) , Vietnam Airlines started offering business class services and in 1999 , the airline launched its frequent @-@ flyer program , Golden Lotus Plus ; During 1996 , Vietnam Airlines looked for aircraft which would substitute the A320s wet @-@ leased from Air France when the deal was over . Apart from acquiring further A320s , the airline considered Boeing 737s and McDonnell Douglas MD @-@ 90s . In February 1996 ( 1996 @-@ 02 ) , GECAS delivered the first of three Boeing 767 @-@ 300ER to the carrier , on dry @-@ lease for five years . In October the same year , two Boeing 767 @-@ 300ERs and a Boeing 767 @-@ 200 , on lease from AWAS and Royal Brunei Airlines , respectively , were returned to the lessors , but in early 1997 another Boeing 767 @-@ 300ER was phased in on a one @-@ year lease from AWAS . With its freedom to operate Western @-@ built aircraft , Vietnam Airlines considered the acquisition of long @-@ haul aircraft to better service Vietnamese living overseas . The Airbus A340 , Boeing 747 and the McDonnell Douglas MD @-@ 11 were topics of discussion . Meanwhile , two Fokker 70s were acquired in May and July to replace the twelve Tupolev Tu @-@ 134s . On 3 September 1997 , the crash of a Tupolev Tu @-@ 134B , on approach to Phnom Penh 's Pochentong Airport in bad weather , resulted in more than 60 fatalities . A new livery was introduced in early 1998 , initially unveiled on a Boeing 767 . In December 2001 ( 2001 @-@ 12 ) , Vietnam Airlines signed a historic agreement with Boeing for the acquisition of its first ever US @-@ built aircraft , signalling the start of trade under the Bilateral Trade Agreement between the two countries . The deal involved four Boeing 777 @-@ 200ERs . The transaction was valued at US $ 680 million ; the first aircraft was initially scheduled for delivery in 2003 . These four aircraft , along with six others of the same type that are leased from International Lease Finance Corporation ( ILFC ) , are the flagships of the airline , and serve on medium and long @-@ haul routes , respectively . During that year , the airline carried 3 @.@ 4 million passengers , 1 @.@ 9 million of whom were on domestic flights ; flights to Beijing resumed and services to Kunming were launched . During 2002 , Vietnam Airlines considered a lease offer from Airbus for two Airbus A340 @-@ 300s . On 4 September 2003 , a landmark ceremony celebrated the airline 's receipt of its first Boeing 777 @-@ 200ER purchased outright from Boeing . On 28 October , the airline decided to move its operations in Moscow from Sheremetyevo International Airport to Domodedovo International Airport . In June 2005 ( 2005 @-@ 06 ) , Vietnam Airlines ordered four Boeing 787 @-@ 8s . Twelve additional 787 @-@ 8s were ordered in late 2007 , some of them to be directly acquired from the company , and the rest to be purchased by the carrier 's subsidiary Vietnam Aircraft Leasing Company ( VALC ) . These new aircraft were to allow Vietnam Airlines to expand its network and replace some leased aircraft . Regarding the delays from Boeing , CEO Pham Ngoc Minh remarked in September 2009 ( 2009 @-@ 09 ) , " We are not happy about the constant delays . It affects our business plan . We expected to get our planes in 2009 , then 2010 , and now nobody can confirm to us which is the exact delivery date . I can be patient but it gives us a lot of headaches . " In 2010 the airline switched its Boeing 787 order from the – 8 to the – 9 model , stating that 787 @-@ 8s did not meet all the requirements Boeing initially promised ; it is expected the airline will receive its first aircraft of the type in 2015 . On 20 June 2005 , the airline launched direct services to Frankfurt after having discontinued services to Berlin . It came after the 2004 – 2005 period when travel between the two countries soared 70 % . The following year , Vietnam Airlines was admitted into IATA . As part of the move , Vietnam Airlines had to meet the association 's IOSA safety standards . = = = Expansion : 2007 – current = = = According to a number of newspaper reports in 2007 , the Vietnamese government planned to partly privatize Vietnam Airlines . In the plan , the government considered selling 20 – 30 % of the airline 's stake to outsiders , with the government holding the balance . This was a small part of a bigger proposal by the government to privatize its state @-@ owned companies , due to be completed by 2010 . Vietnam authorized the plan the following year ; however , the plan was not carried out as the airline missed its deadline scheduled by the government , which was arranged for 2010 , due to the Global Financial Crisis . On 1 October 2007 , the airline and VALC signed an memorandum of understanding for the purchase of ten Airbus A350 XWBs , and 20 additional Airbus A321s . The Airbus A350s will supplement the Boeing 787s already ordered by the airline . This single order will result in Vietnam Airlines becoming one of the largest Airbus operators in Asia . The two companies also ordered five extra ATR 72 @-@ 500s in December 2007 ( 2007 @-@ 12 ) . Vietnam was chosen as the host of Miss World 's 60th contest in 2008 . As the country 's national airline , Vietnam Airlines was selected as the sponsoring airline for the beauty pageant . Therefore , it was tasked the job of managing all the transport matters for the contest , to be carried out during September and October , just before the beginning of the competition . However , it was later decided to carry out the event in Sanya , China , following speculations of Vietnam withdrawing . In August 2008 ( 2008 @-@ 08 ) , Vietnam Airlines added Nagoya , the airline 's fourth point served in Japan besides Fukuoka , Osaka and Tokyo , to the route network . In 2009 , Vietnam Airlines and the Government of Cambodia established a joint @-@ venture , having 49 % and 51 % stockholding , respectively , with the goal of boosting tourism in Cambodia . The joint @-@ venture was a new Cambodian national airline named Cambodia Angkor Air , which started flying in July the same year , using ATR @-@ 72 equipment ; an Airbus A321 joined the fleet in September . Also in 2009 , the carrier signed a deal for another 16 Airbus A321s plus two Airbus A350s , during the Paris Air Show . In addition , Vietnam Airlines launched a new bilingual website in October to simplify bookings and adopted a new passenger service system designed by IT provider Sabre Airline Solutions . On 26 August 2010 , the airline teamed up with Boeing during the unveiling of its interior modernization programme to increase passenger comfort . From late September to early October , Vietnam Airlines discounted up to 85 % of its 90 @,@ 000 fares to celebrate Thang Long @-@ Hanoi 's 1000th anniversary . In November 2010 , the airline awarded Honeywell a US $ 100 million contract to retrofit the Airbus A321s ' aircraft flight systems , which is calculated to save Vietnam Airlines US $ 10 @,@ 000 per aircraft per year . In February 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 02 ) , Vietnam Airlines boosted its stake in the low @-@ cost carrier Jetstar Pacific Airlines to 70 % , with Qantas holding the balance . The Vietnamese flag carrier was the major shareholder in Vietnam 's second largest airline , but its stake had been transferred to the Ministry of Finance , and subsequently to the Vietnamese State Capital Investment Corporation ( SCIC ) . The carrier 's takeover of SCIC 's stake in Jetstar Pacific will capitalise the low @-@ cost carrier with US $ 27 million , an amount that will be directed towards fleet renewal . In late April 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 04 ) , the aircraft lessor ALC announced the placement of an order for eight Boeing 787 @-@ 9s , which will be leased to Vietnam Airlines ; deliveries are expected to start in 2017 . In late May 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 05 ) , the carrier signed an agreement with Vietnam 's Exim Bank for a loan worth US $ 100 million , which the carrier will use to finance the acquisition of four Airbus A321s ; a further US $ 100 million was loaned in April 2013 to finance the purchase of eight Boeing 787s . In a deal valued at US $ 1 @.@ 7 billion , Vietnam Airlines signed a contract with General Electric in October 2013 ( 2013 @-@ 10 ) for 40 engines to power the Boeing 787 aircraft the airline has on order . In July 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 07 ) , a new route to Tokyo @-@ Haneda from Hanoi was introduced . Vietnam Airlines received its first Airbus A350 @-@ 900 in late June 2015 ( 2015 @-@ 06 ) , becoming the second operator of the type worldwide after Qatar Airways . In August 2015 ( 2015 @-@ 08 ) , the airline 's first Boeing 787 @-@ 9 entered the fleet . = = Future = = As it is expected to be operating 170 aircraft in 2020 , Vietnam Airlines is aiming to become the second @-@ largest full @-@ service carrier in Southeast Asia . The airline is interested in launching services to the United States , where more than 1 @.@ 2 million Vietnamese reside . Such plans were confirmed in December 2003 , but have since been postponed because Vietnam is not yet part of Federal Aviation Administration 's International Aviation Safety Assessment Program . Vietnam Airlines also considered " opening new routes such as Ho Chi Minh City / Hanoi , Vietnam – London ; Ho Chi Minh City / Hanoi – Shanghai / Beijing , China ; Ho Chi Minh City – Mumbai ; Ho Chi Minh City – Brisbane ; and Ho Chi Minh City – Doha " , according to CEO Pham Ngoc Minh in 2008 . While the airline had launched flights to London @-@ Gatwick , Beijing and Shanghai , there are currently no flights to Mumbai , Doha , and Brisbane . The airline also plans to re @-@ open flights to Berlin , and commence flights to Adelaide , Perth , Amsterdam , Milan , Prague , Mandalay , Dalian , Nanjing , Hangzhou and African cities ; by 2020 , Vietnam Airlines is expected to serve 53 international destinations , up from 27 in 2011 . By 2020 , Vietnam Airlines plans to increase its annual revenue to US $ 7 billion – up from $ 1 @.@ 86 billion in 2010 – by carrying 620 @,@ 000 tonnes of cargo and 35 million passengers , using a fleet of 163 aircraft ( later revised to 41 million passengers using 170 aircraft ) . It aims to capture a 45 % market share of Vietnam 's aviation market . During its first 15 years of operation , from 1996 to 2010 , Vietnam Airlines carried a total of 82 million passengers on 678 @,@ 550 flights . In addition , Vietnam Airlines plans to transfer most of its international operations from its current hub , Tan Son Nhat International Airport , to the proposed Long Thanh International Airport . With a cost of approximately US $ 6 billion , the airport will , according to Vietnamese authorities , help Vietnam Airlines boost its operations internationally as it seeks to bypass Thailand as the dominant gateway to the Greater Mekong region . London operations were transferred from Gatwick to Heathrow in 2015 ; the airline plans to operate its new Boeing 787 @-@ 9 aircraft to this destination , starting from July 2015 ( 2015 @-@ 07 ) . In January 2011 ( 2011 @-@ 01 ) , plans were announced by the airline to re @-@ initiate an initial public offering ( IPO ) by the end of 2012 ; an earlier attempt was stalled by the 2007 – 2010 financial crisis . Scheduled for mid @-@ 2014 after several delays , the IPO and subsequent share @-@ offerings will supply the funds to expand Vietnam Airlines ' fleet and network . With the company valued at US $ 1 @.@ 5 billion , the government plans to initially keep 75 % of the shares . The IPO plan was submitted to the Vietnamese Ministry of Transport in June 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 06 ) . Scheduled to commence on 14 November 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 11 @-@ 14 ) , the IPO has already received two submissions from foreign companies , yet their names have not been disclosed . The corporation will be restructured by 2015 to bring it in line with other state @-@ owned enterprises and to shift its focus away from non @-@ core businesses . Following restructuring , the airline group will consist of Vietnam Airlines itself , as well as three carriers ; in total , the corporation will comprise 26 independently audited companies . = = Corporate affairs and identity = = Vietnam Airlines Company Limited is a limited liability company wholly owned by the government of Vietnam , having been restructured from Vietnam Airlines Corporation in June 2010 . Its role is to provide economic gains to the country , as its tasks , in addition to scheduled passenger and cargo transport , include " responsibility towards labor , contribution to the state budget , and providing chartered flights " , according to former CEO Dao Manh Nhung . The airline is headed and overseen by a seven @-@ seat management team , members of which are selected by the Prime Minister of Vietnam . As of July 2015 , Pham Viet Thanh was the chairman of the company , whereas Pham Ngoc Minh was the President and CEO , as of March 2014 . As of March 2014 , the airline branch of the corporation had 10 @,@ 929 employees . The airline is headquartered in the Long Bien District of Hanoi ; previously it was headquartered at Gia Lam Airport in Gia Lam , Hanoi . = = = Training = = = In 2009 , the airline , Airbus and ESMA Aviation Academy created Bay Viet Flight Training Company to train pilots in the country , with the expectation that up to 100 trainees would graduate annually . In October 2010 , the company planned to train 60 pilots in Vietnam during 2011 – 2012 . In 2010 , Vietnam Airlines needed 636 pilots , 60 % of whom were Vietnamese . It planned to raise that figure it to 75 % by 2015 , meaning there will be at least 100 new recruits each year from 2010 until 2015 . Vietnam Airlines also contracts CAE Global Academy Phoenix in Arizona , United States , to train its cadets . = = = Financial performance = = = Vietnam Airlines has enjoyed an average of 37 % increase in passengers flown per year until 1997 , when the Asian Financial Crisis and other contributing causes led to a loss in profits for the airline . Nevertheless , the airline remained profitable throughout the crisis . In 1996 , the airline carried 2 @.@ 5 million passengers , up 18 % from 1995 . The airline carried more than 4 million passengers in 2002 , which is an 18 % increase over the previous year . Its cargo traffic also climbed 20 % during the same period , resulting in a 2002 profit of US $ 35 @.@ 77 million . Despite the severe acute respiratory syndrome ( SARS ) outbreak , the airline posted a US $ 26 @.@ 2 million profit for 2003 . In 2006 , it carried 6 @.@ 8 million passengers ( 3 @.@ 7 million international ) and earned revenue of nearly US $ 1 @.@ 37 billion ( first 11 months ) . Vietnam Airlines carried more than 9 million passengers , of which 4 million were international travellers in 2007 , the year which saw the airline earning a gross profit of US $ 23 million from a revenue of US $ 1 @.@ 23 billion . It also transported 115 @,@ 100 tonnes of cargo . In 2009 , the airline 's revenue was US $ 1 @.@ 3 billion , compared to US $ 1 @.@ 56 billion it earned the previous year . During this period , Vietnam Airlines carried 9 @.@ 3 million passengers . According to Anna.aero , Vietnam Airlines ' passenger capacity for 2010 rose 30 % over the same period of the previous year . This also coincided with the increase in capacity at Vietnamese airports , at 21 % . In 2012 , the company 's total revenue totalled US $ 2 @.@ 4 billion , with profits totalling US $ 3 @.@ 3 million . The following year , the carrier posted a US $ 25 million gross profit . Vietnam Airlines held about 40 % of the market share of international passengers flying to and from Vietnam in February 2012 . At the time , Vietnam Airlines controlled 77 % share of the domestic aviation market , with 14 % covered by Jetstar Pacific . As of December 2012 , Vietnam Airlines controlled just below 70 % of the domestic market share . = = = Subsidiaries and affiliates = = = Vietnam Airlines has at least 20 subsidiaries and affiliates . By the end of its restructuring in 2015 , the company will have offloaded its stakes in more than 10 enterprises . = = = Aircraft maintenance and production = = = Vietnam Airlines is increasingly becoming involved in the maintenance , overhauling , and production of aircraft . Maintenance works are carried out by Vietnam Airlines Engineering Company ( VAECO ) , that was established on 1 January 2009 . VAECO was organized mainly upon the amalgamation of the A75 and A76 aircraft maintenance bases . VAECO carries out maintenance and technical services for Vietnam Airlines as well as for other airlines . The establishment of this company opens a new era to the aircraft maintenance field in Vietnam . As of 2013 , VAECO was capable of performing a wide range of maintenance on many different aircraft types ; this includes C @-@ checks for the Boeing 777 , Airbus A330 , Airbus A320 and Airbus A321 ; and D @-@ checks , the most thorough of all maintenance procedures , which are carried out on the ATR 72 and Fokker 70 . In addition to its self maintenance facilities , Vietnam Airlines also has maintenance contracts with other airlines and maintenance organisations . There are currently no production facilities in Vietnam for aircraft and spare parts . However , Boeing has managed to obtain 35 % of the distribution market in Vietnam , and GE Aviation , in turn , supplies jet engines for the Boeing aircraft . For the future , conversely , Vietnam Airlines is planning to build a maintenance factory in conjunction with Rolls Royce and other companies . It has also signed an memorandum of understanding with EADS , a pan @-@ European aerospace and defence corporation , that would let the corporation assemble and manufacture plane components in the future . = = Destinations = = Vietnam Airlines has a network within East Asia , Southeast Asia , Europe and Oceania . With about 300 daily flights , the airline flies to 21 destinations domestically , and to 28 internationally . In addition , it has codeshare agreements with a number of airlines for other routes , some of which span to North America . = = = Tết flights = = = Vietnam Airlines have traditionally increased flights among Vietnamese cities to cater for the heavy demands brought by the annual Tết celebration . This busy period , which could fall anywhere from late January to mid @-@ February , is Vietnam 's most important celebration ; hundreds of extra flights are scheduled by domestic airlines during this period to allow Vietnamese to return to their families , often in the rural ares , to celebrate the occasion . In 2010 , the airline increased its seat capacity from 45 % to 120 % on certain domestic routes . In 2011 , it increased additional flights on ten routes , adding more than 100 @,@ 000 seats . About 63 @,@ 000 of these seats were between the country 's capital and Ho Chi Minh City . This represented a remarkable 41 % increase against normal days . In 2013 , the carrier added an extra 174 @,@ 000 seats during the celebratory period , of which 82 @,@ 000 seats were on the trunk route between its primary hubs . = = = Alliances = = = Vietnam Airlines joined SkyTeam on 10 June 2010 ( 2010 @-@ 06 @-@ 10 ) . = = = Codeshare agreements = = = As of September 2015 , Vietnam Airlines had codeshare agreements with the following airlines : = = Fleet = = = = = Current = = = As of December 2015 , Vietnam Airlines had a fleet of 99 aircraft . Several of these aircraft are leased to Cambodia Angkor Air and VASCO . If these aircraft are not considered a part of Vietnam Airlines 's fleet , the Vietnamese carrier operated a fleet of about 77 aircraft with an average age of 5 @.@ 1 years as of June 2013 . The carrier plans to expand its fleet to 110 aircraft by 2015 . In addition to its passenger service , the airline also operates an air freight division of Vietnam Airlines Cargo , providing cargo service to destinations in Asia , Europe , North America and Oceania , using its own passenger aircraft as well as partners ' planes . Vietnam Airlines fleet = = = Fleet gallery = = = Hover over each photo to view label detail = = = Previously operated = = = Since its conception in 1956 , the airline has operated a wide range of aircraft , including Soviet , American , and European equipment . After having retired all its Soviet @-@ made equipment , the airline currently uses Boeing , ATR , and Airbus aircraft . Vietnam Airlines had operated the following equipment all through its history : = = Services = = = = = Entertainment = = = On selected flights , Vietnam Airlines offers audio video on demand ( AVOD ) in @-@ flight entertainment via personal televisions . Entertainment options consist of films , games , TV programmes and music . Vietnam Airlines offers two in @-@ flight magazines , Heritage and Heritage Fashion , in addition to other reading material . = = = Cabins = = = Business Business class is the highest of three cabin classes offered by the airline . As is the case with business class cabins in most airlines , the amenities offered in this class are substantially different from economy class , and more services and products are available . On Boeing 777s , business class seats have a 160 cm ( 62 in ) of leg room , and are able to recline with a pitch of 157 ° , depending on aircraft . Laid out in a 2 – 3 – 2 configuration , each seat is equipped with lumbar support and a 10 @.@ 4 in ( 26 cm ) personal touch screen , capable of delivering AVOD . Hot meals are offered on flights lasting longer than two hours . Deluxe Economy Deluxe Economy class , Vietnam Airlines ' equivalent of premium economy , has a wider seat width and legroom compared to Economy with 36 – 38 in ( 91 – 97 cm ) of seat pitch and 7 inches of recline , and is laid out 3 – 3 – 3 . This class is offered only on selected Boeing 777 flights . On flights over 90 minutes , snacks are served ; on two @-@ hour plus flights , as in business class , hot meals are served . Economy Economy class is available on all flights operated by Vietnam Airlines . Seats in this cabin feature seats ranging from 51 cm ( 20 in ) ( Airbus A330 ) to 53 cm ( 20 @.@ 9 in ) ( Boeing 777 ) in width . Seat pitch on this cabin class is 31 – 32 in ( 79 – 81 cm ) , while seat recline ranges from 6 to 13 ° ( 5 @-@ 6 inches ) . Like Deluxe Economy , snacks are served on flights over 90 minutes , with hot meals available on flights that are two hours or more . = = Accidents and incidents = = According to Aviation Safety Network , Vietnam Airlines experienced six accidents / incidents since 1951 , with two of them leading to fatalities . Both deadly accidents occurred on final approach , and both involved Soviet @-@ built aircraft . The deadliest one took place on 3 September 1997 , when a Tupolev Tu @-@ 134B @-@ 3 crashed after hitting trees on approach to Phnom Penh International Airport ; the death toll rose to 65 . The other fatal accident occurred on 14 November 1992 , when a Yakovlev Yak @-@ 40 crashed on approach to Nha Trang Airport , killing 30 of 31 occupants aboard . The airline has also experienced a hijacking episode in 1992 , without any recorded fatality .
= Manila Hotel = The Manila Hotel is a 570 @-@ room , historic five @-@ star hotel located along Manila Bay in Manila , Philippines . The hotel is the oldest premiere hotel in the Philippines built in 1909 to rival Malacañang Palace , the official residence of the President of the Philippines and was opened on the commemoration of American Independence on July 4 , 1912 . The hotel complex was built on a reclaimed area of 35 @,@ 000 square metres ( 380 @,@ 000 sq ft ) at the northwestern end of Rizal Park along Bonifacio Drive in Ermita . Its penthouse served as the residence of General Douglas MacArthur during his tenure as the Military Advisor of the Philippine Commonwealth from 1935 to 1941 . The hotel contains the offices of several foreign news organizations , including The New York Times . It has hosted numerous world historical persons and celebrities including authors Ernest Hemingway and James A. Michener ; actors Douglas Fairbanks , Jr. and John Wayne ; publisher Henry Luce ; entertainers Sammy Davis , Jr . , Michael Jackson and The Beatles ; U.S. President John F. Kennedy , Prime Minister Sir Anthony Eden , and other world leaders . The hotel tower , built as part of the hotel 's renovation and expansion from 1975 to 1977 , is the tallest hotel tower in the Manila Bay area . = = History = = When the United States took over the Philippine Islands from the Spanish in 1898 after the Spanish – American War , President William McKinley began Americanizing the former Spanish colony . In 1900 he appointed William Howard Taft to head the Philippine Commission to evaluate the needs of the new territory . Taft , who later became the Philippines ' first civilian Governor @-@ General , decided that Manila , the capital , should be a planned town . He hired as his architect and city planner Daniel Hudson Burnham , who had built Union Station and the Postal Square Building in Washington . In Manila , Burnham had in mind a long wide , tree @-@ lined boulevard along the bay , beginning at a park area dominated by a magnificent hotel . To execute Burnham 's plans , Taft hired William E. Parsons , a New York architect , who envisioned an impressive , comfortable hotel along the lines of a California mission but grander . The original design was an H @-@ shaped plan that focused on well @-@ ventilated rooms on two wings , providing grand vistas of the harbor , the Luneta , and Intramuros . The top floor was , in fact , a large viewing deck that was used for various functions , including watching the American navy steam into the harbor . = = = First renovation = = = During the start of the Philippine Commonwealth in 1935 , President Manuel Quezon hired Paris @-@ trained Filipino architect Andres Luna de San Pedro , son of painter Juan Luna , to take charge of the renovations of the Manila Hotel . It was done under the supervision of the renowned engineering firm Pedro Siochi and Company . The hotel was the residence of General Douglas MacArthur when he became the Military Advisor of the Commonwealth . Luna converted the hotel 's top floor into an elegant penthouse and expanded the west wing northward – creating the air @-@ conditioned annex - and designed some key public rooms like the Fiesta Pavilion , then the biggest function room of the hotel . The hotel was the site of festivities during the inauguration of the Philippine Commonwealth government in November , 1935 . = = = World War II = = = During World War II , the hotel was occupied by Japanese troops , and the Japanese flag was flown above the walls for the entirety of the war . During the Battle for the Liberation of Manila , the hotel was set on fire by the Japanese . The shell of the building survived the blaze and the structure was later reconstructed . = = = Under Martial law = = = During the dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos , in accordance with Presidential Decree no . 645 , the old Manila Hotel Company was liquidated and the government took over its ownership . The Government Service Insurance System ( GSIS ) was given the mandate to form a new subsidiary corporation that would restore , renovate , and expand the Manila Hotel . In the following two decades , Mr. Marcos 's wife , Imelda , could frequently be seen at the hotel restaurants . During her visits , a red carpet and garlands were put out and the air was sprayed with deodorant . Under Imelda 's patronage , the hotel reaped international recognition and awards . It was the place to go and be seen during the martial law years . = = = 1975 renovation = = = The hotel was remodeled in 1975 and expanded to 570 rooms with the addition of the high @-@ rise hotel building behind the original five @-@ story structure . The renovations were headed by National Artists for Architecture Leandro Locsin and Ildefonso Santos with Patricia Keller , partner in the international interior design firm of Dale Keller & Associates . Guest amenities were updated including executive services , language translation , a business library and color television and closed circuit movies . The hotel 's spartan interiors in simplified Mission style gave way to more lavish furnishings . Inauguration and formal reopening ceremonies of the Manila Hotel was held on October 6 , 1977 . = = = Transfer of ownership = = = Around 1995 , the Government Service Insurance System ( GSIS ) called a bidding to sell the property . The tender went to a Malaysian firm , the Renong Berhad and ITT @-@ Sheraton combine over Emilio Yap , a Chinese Filipino billionaire tycoon and owner of the Manila Bulletin , the country 's largest newspaper by circulation . Yap went to the Supreme Court of the Philippines and won by matching Rehong 's bid and citing the Constitution 's Filipino First policy in the ownership of a ' national patrimony ' . Fifty one percent of the ownership was awarded to Yap 's Manila Prince Hotel Corporation ( MPHC ) , while new owners joined on April 25 , 1997 as 49 percent shareholder . Yap signed a check for ₱ 673 @.@ 2 million and the MPHC took over the property on May 7 , 1997 . One of the first things Yap did was to pull down the three brass chandeliers in the lobby , upon recommendation of a feng shui expert , and replace them with five . = = = Centennial = = = In 2008 , the Manila Hotel underwent a series of renovations in time for its centennial celebration in 2012 . All of the hotel 's rooms were refurbished and renovated and equipped with modern facilities and amenities . The rooms windows were enlarged . The hotel also opened a Health Club next to the Manila Hotel Health Spa . On January 17 , 2008 the Manila Hotel Tent City , located west of the original structure was opened . The performance / conference hall could accommodate 2 @,@ 500 guests for wedding receptions , anniversaries , conventions , and exhibitions . Its high ceilings allow even the most complex of venue set @-@ ups and design . The Tent became the center stage when the hotel celebrated its 100th anniversary with a Centennial Ball on July 4 , 2012 with President Benigno Aquino III as the guest @-@ of @-@ honor . = = Political events = = Through the years , Manila Hotel have been the scene of historic events in the country . The Philippine Constitutional Convention of 1970 was held at the Fiesta Pavilion of the hotel on November 10 . The convention attended by 320 delegates was called to change the Philippine Constitution that has been in existence since the start of the Philippine Commonwealth in 1935 . The political party of Ferdinand Marcos held its convention at the Manila Hotel before the February 1986 presidential election and Corazon C. Aquino delivered a speech at the hotel that was a turning point in her presidential campaign . Marcos 's rule ended in February 1986 after the 1986 EDSA Revolution . On July 6 , 1986 , a group of military officers loyal to deposed President Marcos took over the Manila Hotel and declared Arturo Tolentino , who was Marcos 's vice presidential running mate , as president . However , the coup did not last long , they surrendered two days later . The hotel received international attention in 1999 when Imelda Marcos , the former First Lady , celebrated her 70th birthday in this hotel . More than 1 @,@ 000 of Manila 's elite turned up in the event . = = Features = = = = = Lobby = = = Measuring 125 feet ( 38 m ) long by 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) wide , the lobby is lined with white Doric columns . The floor is Philippine marble ; the chandeliers are made of brass , crystal and seashells ; the furniture is carved out of Philippine mahogany , which is used throughout the hotel . = = = Suites = = = The three @-@ bedroom MacArthur suite was the residence of Gen. MacArthur while living in the country . The suite is located at the 5th floor of the original structure . The Penthouse , the most expensive suite with its private swimming pool on the 18th floor , has a view of Manila Bay , Rizal Park and the 16th @-@ century Spanish walled city of Intramuros opposite the hotel . Like the Presidential Suite , the penthouse is decorated with rare paintings , Asian antiques and Filipino crafts . The MacArthur , Presidential and Penthouse Suites provide 24 @-@ hour butler service . = = = Facilities and services = = = The hotel 's guest facilities and other services include limousine and luxury car rental , a helipad on the roof deck , airport transfer and transport assistance , medical clinic , a Business Center with Internet access , 24 @-@ hour full menu room service and concierge , laundry service , a delicatessen , a hair salon and souvenir shops . = = = Recreation = = = The Manila Hotel Spa is located by the bay offering massages and other therapies . Guests could use the outdoor pool and the Health Club . = = = Restaurants = = = The hotel has three restaurants , three bars and a delicatessen offering a range of cuisines , from Chinese to European . These are Cafe Ilang @-@ Ilang , Champagne Room , Mabuhay Palace , Tap Room Bar , Lobby Lounge and Pool Bar .
= Belize at the 2008 Summer Olympics = Belize competed in the 2008 Summer Olympics , held in Beijing , People 's Republic of China from 8 to 24 August 2008 . Its participation in Beijing marked its eighth Olympic appearance under the name " Belize " and its tenth overall , as its first two appearances ( 1968 in Mexico City and 1972 in Munich ) were under the name " British Honduras " . The Belizean delegation in 2008 included four athletes : three participated in track and field events ( Jonathan Williams , Tricia Flores , and Jayson Jones ) and one in taekwondo ( Alfonso Martínez ) . Belize did not medal in Beijing , and had not medaled before Beijing , but Jonathan Williams became the first Belizean athlete to advance past the first round of any Olympic event . = = Background = = Belize first participated in the Olympic games at the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City and has appeared in every Summer Olympics since with the exception of the 1980 Summer Olympics in the Soviet Union , represented by a total of 46 competitors . Belize was a British colony during the 1968 Mexico City Games and the 1972 Munich Games and participated under the name " British Honduras " . Between 1968 and 2008 Belize had no medalists . Jonathan Williams , Belize 's flag bearer in Beijing , was the first Belizean Olympian to advance past a preliminary round . = = Athletics = = = = = Men 's competition = = = German @-@ born runner Jayson Jones , who played football for Florida State University , represented Belize at both the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney and at the 2008 Olympics in Beijing . He qualified for the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens despite an injury , but chose not to attend and thus his appearance at Beijing marked his third qualification but second appearance at the Olympic games . At the Olympics Jones participated in the 200 meters dash . He was placed in Heat 6 during the first round of the event on 17 August ; competitors in his heat included American Wallace Spearmon , Norwegian Jaysuma Saidy Ndure , and Guinean Nabie Foday Fofonah . Jones ran the event in 21 @.@ 54 seconds , ranking sixth out of the eight athletes in the heat , scoring 0 @.@ 14 seconds faster than Fofanah , and 0 @.@ 34 seconds behind Latvia 's Ronalds Arājs ( 5th place ) . Overall , Jones ranked 53rd place out of 66 athletes . He did not progress to the next round on 18 August . Former UCLA student Jonathan Williams took advantage of his parents ' Belizean citizenship to qualify on behalf of Belize 's Olympic team . Taking part in the men 's 400 meters hurdles dash , his participation in Beijing marked his first Olympic appearance . Williams completed his event in 49 @.@ 61 seconds , placing fourth in a heat of seven , having been placed in Heat 1 in the first round on 15 August . Williams ran 0 @.@ 02 seconds faster than fifth @-@ place finalist Kenji Narisako of Japan and 0 @.@ 16 seconds slower than third @-@ place finalist Mahau Suguimati of Brazil . Overall , Williams ranked 16th out of 26 athletes in the first round . He progressed to semifinals . In doing so , Williams became the first Belizean athlete to advance in an Olympic event . Williams participated in Heat 2 of the semifinal round on 16 August , facing athletes that included American Kerron Clement and Jamaican Danny Mcfarlane . Williams ranked sixth in a heat of eight athletes , ahead of Suguimati by 0 @.@ 52 seconds but behind South African Alwyn Myburgh by 0 @.@ 48 seconds . He ranked 13th place out of 16 athletes and did not advance to finals . = = = Women 's competition = = = Former University of Belize athlete Tricia Flores participated on behalf of Belize at the Beijing Olympics as a long jumper . She was the only female to compete as a member of that year 's Belizean delegation . Flores ' participation at the Beijing Olympics marked her first appearance at any Olympic Games . Flores participated in the first qualifying heat on 18 August , where she competed against 21 athletes that included Brazil 's Maurren Higa Magi , the United States ' Grace Upshaw , and Sweden 's Carolina Klüft . Flores ranked 19th in the heat , finishing last ahead of Slovakia 's Jana Veldakova and Ukraine 's Liudmyla Blonska , whose scores were not ranked . Overall , 42 athletes competed in women 's long jump qualifiers and 38 completed the event . Flores ranked 38th and did not advance to semifinals , having jumped 5 @.@ 25 meters . Key Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only Q = Qualified for the next round q = Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target NR = National record N / A = Round not applicable for the event Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round Men Women = = Taekwondo = = Taiwan @-@ based athlete Alfonso Martinez was the sole representative of Belize in taekwondo , and in any sport other than a track and field event , at the Beijing Olympics . Martinez took part in the men 's under 58 kilogram category , otherwise known as flyweight . At the Olympics Martinez was placed in the first round 's seventh match , which took place on 20 August . His opponent was Juan Antonio Ramos , a taekwondo martial artist from Spain . In the course of the match Ramos scored two points on Martinez , while Martinez scored only one on Ramos . Thus Ramos defeated Martinez and advanced to the next round , while Martinez did not . Ramos ultimately placed fifth in the final round .
= John Smith 's Brewery = John Smith 's Brewery in Tadcaster , North Yorkshire , England , produces beers including John Smith 's , the biggest selling bitter in the United Kingdom since the mid @-@ 1990s . The majority of John Smith 's sales are of the nitrogenated Extra Smooth product , although a cask conditioned variant is available nationally . A stronger variant called Magnet is also available in the North East of England . John Smith 's Cask and Magnet are produced under licence by Cameron 's in Hartlepool . John Smith acquired the Backhouse & Hartley brewery in 1852 . Following a series of acquisitions in the post @-@ World War II period , the company became one of the largest regional brewers in the country , operating over 1 @,@ 800 licensed premises . The company was taken over by Courage in 1970 who extended distribution of the brewery 's products into the South of England . Courage was acquired by Scottish & Newcastle in 1995 , and the operations were purchased by Heineken in 2008 . John Smith 's Extra Smooth and Original are produced at the Tadcaster brewery , as well as a range of Heineken products including Kronenbourg 1664 and Newcastle Brown Ale . With a 3 @.@ 8 million hectolitre capacity , the brewery is one of the largest in the country . John Smith 's became well known for a series of highly successful " No Nonsense " -themed television advertising campaigns , featuring the dour Yorkshireman character " Arkwright " during the 1970s and 1980s ( shown only in the South of England ) , followed by the comedians Jack Dee during the 1990s and Peter Kay since 2002 . In addition , it is a major sponsor of horse racing in the UK : it was the principal sponsor of the Grand National between 2005 and 2013 and continues to sponsor the Northumberland Plate as well as other events . = = History = = = = = Early years = = = Stephen Hartley began brewing in Tadcaster in 1758 . In 1845 Jane Hartley mortgaged the brewery to David Backhouse and John Hartley . In 1847 , Samuel Smith of Leeds arranged for his son John to enter the business . Jane Hartley died in 1852 , and John Smith acquired the business , enlisting his brother William to help him . The timing was to prove fortuitous ; pale ales were displacing porter as the beer of choice , and Tadcaster 's hard water proved to be well @-@ suited for brewing the new style . The prosperity of the 1850s and 1860s , together with the arrival of the railways , realised greater opportunities for brewers , and by 1861 John Smith employed eight men in his brewing and malting enterprise . The operations became sizeable during the last quarter of the nineteenth century . Smith died in 1879 , leaving an estate valued at under £ 45 @,@ 000 ( around £ 4 @.@ 1 million in 2016 adjusted for inflation ) , and his assets were jointly inherited by his two brothers , William and Samuel Smith ( a tanner ) . William purchased Samuel 's share of his brother 's personal estate , and built a modern brewery in 1883 – 4 at the cost of £ 130 @,@ 000 ( £ 9 @.@ 7 million in 2013 ) . By this time the company had a staff of over 100 . William Smith died in 1886 , and the firm was inherited in partnership by his two nephews , Henry Herbert ( 1863 – 1911 ) and Frank Riley , henceforth known as Riley @-@ Smith under the terms of his will . The firm expanded throughout the 1880s by creating an agency network , establishing sixteen offices in nearby settlements , and offering free trade discounts on their beer of 20 percent or higher . By 1889 , the brewery was producing 150 @,@ 000 barrels annually . In 1889 , the company 's first scientifically @-@ trained head brewer was appointed , Percy Clinch , son of Charles Clinch of the Eagle Brewery in Witney . In 1892 , the partnership became a limited company called John Smith 's Tadcaster Brewery Company Limited , with Henry Herbert Riley @-@ Smith as chairman . In 1899 the company acquired Simpson & Co of Market Weighton , with 51 public houses , and converted the brewery into a maltings . By the turn of the century the brewery was considered to be one of the best @-@ run in Britain , " a byword for first @-@ class management " . In 1907 , John Marples of Sheffield , the wines and spirits distributor , was acquired . In 1907 , the company began to bottle its own beer , in Tadcaster . In 1912 , the company owned over 250 horses , 41 of which saw service during the First World War . Artificially carbonated beer was first bottled in 1923 . Paired horse drays were phased out by 1929 . During and for some time after the World Wars , the Government raised the duty on beer , and forced brewers to lower their beer strength . During this period , substitutes for malted barley had to be used for brewing , including flaked barley , oats and rye . The last of the company 's dray horses was retired in 1947 . Horses had delivered beer to all the areas surrounding the brewery , as far afield as Pateley Bridge . From 1948 the company exported beer to Belgium where it was bottled and distributed by Tilkens brewery . In 1950 there was a general strike in Belgium , and John Smith 's hired two Handley Page Halifax heavy bomber aircraft to carry 7 ton loads twice @-@ daily of their beers into the country in order to ensure supply . In 1953 the firm became a public company , with fixed assets of around £ 5 million , 1 @,@ 000 licensed premises and around 1 @,@ 100 employees . In 1958 , Whitworth , Son & Nephew of Wath @-@ upon @-@ Dearne was acquired with 165 licensed houses , and the brewery was immediately closed down . In 1959 the company began to bottle imported Alken lager at Tadcaster , in response to growing customer demand . In 1961 the company also began to bottle Carlsberg lager . By 1960 the company had an estate of 909 public houses . In 1961 , John Smith 's acquired the Barnsley Brewery Company , adding 250 licensed properties to their growing estate . In 1962 the company acquired Warwicks & Richardsons of Newark @-@ on @-@ Trent . Whilst some product rationalisation took place , popular lines such as Warwicks ' Milk Maid Stout were retained . John Smith 's closed down all the breweries it acquired , apart from Barnsley , where it invested in the brewery , and added production of John Smith beers to the site , as well as increasing the distribution of Barnsley Bitter . As a result of acquisitions , by 1967 John Smith 's was the third largest regional brewer in the country after Courage and Scottish & Newcastle , with fixed assets of £ 30 million . Acquisitions diluted the Riley @-@ Smith family stake in the company to around 10 percent . = = = 1970 @-@ present : Courage takeover and the growth of John Smith 's Bitter = = = In October 1970 , Courage purchased John Smith 's in a friendly takeover which valued the company at £ 40 million ( £ 557 @,@ 992 @,@ 520 in 2016 adjusted for inflation ) . By this time John Smith 's owned around 1 @,@ 800 licensed premises throughout the north of England , and as far south as Lincolnshire , Nottinghamshire and parts of Cambridgeshire and Shropshire . The merged company held assets worth £ 137 million . By combining Courage 's strength in the South of England , and John Smith 's in the North , a national brewing company was created . John Smith 's bottled Magnet Pale Ale was selected for nationwide distribution across the group , and the takeover facilitated the wider distribution of Courage brands such as Tavern Keg . The Tadcaster brewery was substantially redeveloped and expanded throughout 1974 . Courage closed down the Barnsley brewery in 1976 with the loss of 200 jobs , and the 200 Barnsley public houses were supplied from Tadcaster . Courage argued that modernization of the Barnsley site would have required " massive " investment . It was reported in The Times that landlords were generally indifferent to the change , as the taste profiles of John Smith 's bitter and Barnsley bitter were similar . After successful test marketing from 1974 , John Smith 's Bitter was distributed in the South of England from 1979 onwards , accompanied by an extensive marketing budget . As research by Courage indicated that Southern drinkers considered Yorkshire bitter to be superior , the beer was sold there under the name John Smith 's Yorkshire Bitter . Sales of the beer doubled in 1981 owing to the increase in free trade outlets in the South stocking the beer . By 1982 it was the highest selling Courage brand and the highest selling canned bitter in the United Kingdom . In 1982 , the John Smith 's brands included Yorkshire Bitter , Magnet Pale Ale , Export Pale , Sweet Stout , Double Brown and Magnet Old . In December 1983 , John Smith 's Cask ( 3 @.@ 8 % ABV ) was re @-@ introduced , seven years after it had been phased out . By June 1985 , John Smith 's produced 1 @.@ 7 million hectolitres of beer annually . In November that year , a new brewhouse was opened , at the cost of £ 5 million . Production of Foster 's lager began in 1987 . In 1993 , John Smith 's Extra Smooth was launched in cans . It was introduced in kegs in February 1995 , and distributed to 10 @,@ 000 pubs and venues . It is a nitrogenated version of the pasteurised beer , which was renamed to John Smith 's Original in order to differentiate the two products . In 2005 , Scottish & Newcastle claimed that John Smith 's was available in 40 @,@ 000 outlets across the United Kingdom . In 2007 , Scottish & Newcastle moved production of John Smith 's Cask from Tadcaster to Burtonwood near Warrington , and production of John Smith 's Magnet to Camerons Brewery of Hartlepool . In 2008 three limited edition beers were released to celebrate the 250th anniversary of the brewery . In 2010 Heineken discontinued production of cask conditioned John Smith 's Magnet , although it remains available in kegs . By 2011 , production of John Smith 's Cask had moved to Cameron 's . As of 2012 , John Smith 's is the sixth highest selling beer brand in the United Kingdom and the highest selling bitter in the world . From February 2013 , John Smith 's Extra Smooth and Original were reduced from 3 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 6 % ABV . According to Heineken , the decision was taken in order to bring the product in line with the strength of its major competitors such as Tetley , Boddingtons and Worthington . = = Beers = = John Smith 's Extra Smooth ( 3 @.@ 6 % ABV ) . The highest selling variant , available in kegs and cans . It is nitrogenated and pasteurised . John Smith 's Original ( 3 @.@ 6 % ABV ) . The same as Extra Smooth , but carbonated , rather than nitrogenated . John Smith 's Cask ( 3 @.@ 8 % ABV ) . Available nationwide , but most often found around the brewery 's Yorkshire heartland . John Smith 's Magnet ( 4 % ABV ) . A keg product , most frequently found around the North East and Yorkshire . = = Brewery = = The brewery brews 3 @.@ 8 million hectolitres annually ( 1 @.@ 8 million of which is John Smith 's beer ) , and employed around 300 people in 2008 . It has two keg lines , two bottle lines and one canning line . It currently brews and packages the ale brands John Smith 's Original , John Smith 's Extra Smooth and Newcastle Brown Ale , and the lager brands Foster 's , Kronenbourg 1664 , Amstel and Tiger . Slate Yorkshire Square brewing vessels were used at the brewery from 1913 until 1975 . Stainless steel Yorkshire Squares were in use by at least 1953 , but were removed in the 1980s , and the brewery now uses conical tanks . By 1953 , the brewery site occupied 20 acres . Wooden casks were still in use in the 1960s . The cask beer line was removed in 1976 , but restored in 1984 . In 1984 the original brewhouse was converted into a brewery museum . In November 1985 a new £ 5 million brewhouse opened . Production of Foster 's Lager began in 1987 . By 1989 the brewery had a production capacity of 1 @.@ 2 million barrels per annum . Scottish & Newcastle used the John Smith 's Brewery to brew many of its ale brands . In 2004 , a new £ 24 million bottling facility was opened in 2004 , described as the most modern bottling facility in Europe . = = Advertising = = The Magnet trademark was first registered in September 1908 in Brussels , and symbolised strength . The company 's association with television advertising began in 1971 with the " Yorkshiremen love it " campaign . This was followed by the " Big John " campaign , which ran in the North of England from 1981 , and centred around a re @-@ writing of the Big Bad John country music staple . Courage was able to demonstrate to an independent panel that the £ 300 @,@ 000 campaign had resulted in a £ 5 million sales increase in the North . From 1979 to 1986 Gordon Rollings played the dour Yorkshireman Arkwright in a campaign that was only used in the South . The campaign won a large number of advertising industry awards , and was featured on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson . After Rolling 's died in 1986 the campaign was continued with Arkwright 's successor , Barraclough , until 1991 . Despite its success , the campaign was not without detractors , with Deyan Sudjic describing it in The Times as a " spurious ... tripe @-@ and @-@ whippets campaign " . = = = No Nonsense campaigns = = = From 1992 until 1997 , comedian Jack Dee starred in the " No Nonsense " campaign , created by DDB . The Dee campaign was widely credited with helping John Smith 's rise from sixteenth to fourth highest selling beer in the UK as sales increased by 65 percent , and the brand overtook Tetley 's as the highest selling ale brand in the world by 1995 . The Dee campaign won fifty advertising awards , and turned the rising comedian into a household name . Dee resigned in 1997 , and he was replaced in 1998 with a cardboard cut @-@ out known as the " No Nonsense Man " , from the GGT advertising agency . Despite appearing in over 20 @,@ 000 pubs , clubs and shops , No Nonsense Man was found to have less of an impact than the Dee advertisements . Peter Kay represented the brand from 2002 @-@ 5 and again in 2010 @-@ 11 . The Kay campaign was described as an " advertising phenomenon " , and introduced the phrase " Ave it ! " into the public consciousness . Between 2002 and 2004 the Kay advertisements won over fifty advertising and marketing awards , making it the sixth most awarded advertising campaign in the world . Despite the success of the Kay campaign , the perceived " laddishness " of the advertisements were criticised by rival brewer Interbrew as hindering sales of beer among women . = = = Sponsorship = = = John Smith 's is a major sponsor of horse racing in the United Kingdom . It has sponsored the Northumberland Plate since 2003 , and more than 90 " No Nonsense " race days are held throughout the year at 28 jump and flat racecourses across the UK . The brand has sponsored the John Smith 's Cup ( originally the Magnet Cup until 1998 ) at York since 1960 , which is the longest running sponsorship in flat racing in the world . John Smith 's previously sponsored the Grand National between 2005 and 2013 . In August 2012 Heineken announced a five @-@ year sponsorship of the Kirklees Stadium in Huddersfield , home to Huddersfield Town football club and Huddersfield Giants rugby league club . It will be known as the John Smith 's Stadium until 2017 .
= 1977 Atlantic hurricane season = The 1977 Atlantic hurricane season had the fewest tropical storms since the 1965 season . The season officially began on June 1 , and lasted until November 30 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . The first tropical depression of the season developed on June 13 , 12 days after the start of the season , in the western Caribbean Sea . After a succession of three other tropical depressions , the first tropical storm of the season , Hurricane Anita , finally became a named storm on August 29 – the latest date since the satellite era began in the 1960s . Anita struck Mexico as a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale , bringing strong winds and heavy rainfall . At least 25 @,@ 000 people were left homeless and 11 fatalities were reported . In addition to Anita , another notable tropical cyclone of this season was Hurricane Babe . The storm caused coastal flooding in southeastern Louisiana , resulting in $ 10 million ( 1977 USD ) in damage . After moving inland , it spawned 14 tornadoes throughout Alabama , Louisiana , Mississippi , and South Carolina . In addition to Anita and Babe , five other tropical cyclones – hurricanes Clara , Dorothy , and Evelyn , as well as Tropical Storm Frieda and Tropical Depression Nine – left only minor impacts on land . Overall , the tropical cyclones of the season collectively caused 11 fatalities and at least $ 13 million in damage , excluding the remnants of Tropical Depression Nine , which led to 53 deaths and $ 203 million in losses due to flooding in the Southeastern United States , New Jersey , and New York . = = Season summary = = The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 , 1977 . Activity began several days later with the formation of a tropical depression on June 13 . Although 16 tropical depressions formed , it was a below average season because only 6 of them strengthened into tropical storms . In terms of named storms , this was the least active season since 1965 . Five of these attained hurricane status . In addition , one tropical cyclone eventually attained major hurricane status , which is Category 3 or higher on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . The inactivity was attributed to a El Niño that began developing in August . Three hurricanes and one tropical storm made landfall during the season , causing 11 deaths and $ 13 million in damage . The last storm of the season , Tropical Depression Thirteen , dissipated on November 7 , over three weeks before the official end of the season on November 30 . Tropical cyclogenesis in the 1977 Atlantic hurricane season began with the development of a tropical depression on June 13 . Activity briefly halted , until two other tropical depression developed in the second half of July . A fourth tropical depression formed in early August . Later that month , Hurricane Anita developed on August 29 . As September is the climatological peak of hurricane season , it was the most active month . Five tropical cyclones developed , including two tropical depressions , and hurricanes Babe , Clara , and Dorothy . There were also five tropical cyclone in October – three tropical depressions , Hurricane Evelyn , and Tropical Storm Frieda . The final tropical cyclone of the season , Tropical Depression Nine , developed between the Greater Antilles and Bermuda on November 3 and dissipated by November 7 . The season 's activity was reflected with a cumulative accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 25 , which was the lowest ACE value since 1946 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength . Subtropical storms are not included , therefore , the subtropical stage of Babe is omitted from the total ACE value . = = Storms = = = = = Hurricane Anita = = = A tropical wave spawned a tropical depression at 1200 UTC on August 29 , while located about 230 miles ( 370 km ) south @-@ southwest of New Orleans , Louisiana . The depression moved west @-@ southwestward and strengthened into Tropical Storm Anita early on August 30 . Later that day , the storm had intensified into a hurricane . Although intensification briefly slowed , rapid deepening occurred from September 1 to the following day , when Anita peaked as a Category 5 hurricane with winds of 175 mph ( 280 km / h ) . The storm weakened slightly to a Category 4 hurricane before making landfall near Soto la Marina , Tamaulipas . It rapidly weakened inland , decreasing to tropical depression intensity early on September 3 . However , Anita remained intact across Mexico and reached the eastern Pacific Ocean as a depression . Prior to becoming a tropical cyclone , the precursor to Anita dropped light rainfall in Florida . Gusty winds and storm surge effected Louisiana . At Grand Isle , storm tides 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) above normal resulted in hundreds of families being asked to evacuate . Numerous coastal highways in Texas , including portions of State Highway 87 , were closed due to above normal tides . Precipitation reached 4 @.@ 97 inches ( 126 mm ) in Rio Grande City . In Mexico , the hurricane caused strong winds and moderate rainfall . The winds caused extensive damage to villages in northeastern Mexico , with about 25 @,@ 000 people left homeless . The roofs of most buildings were destroyed near the location of Anita 's landfall . The highest amount of precipitation observed during the storm was 15 @.@ 2 inches ( 390 mm ) at Soto la Marina , Tamaulipas . Flooding and mudslides killed eleven people in the state . Overall damage is unknown . = = = Hurricane Babe = = = The interaction of a tropical wave and a cold upper low pressure area developed into a subtropical depression in the eastern Gulf of Mexico on September 3 . It strengthened while gradually acquiring tropical characteristics and was reclassified as Tropical Storm Babe late on September 4 . The storm curved north @-@ northeastward and by early on the following day , it was upgraded to a hurricane . Around that time , Babe peaked with maximum sustained winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Early on September 5 , Babe made landfall near Cocodrie , Louisiana at the same intensity . Later that day , it weakened to a tropical storm and then a tropical depression on September 6 . However , Babe continued to move northeastward and then east @-@ northeastward across the Southeastern United States until dissipating early on September 9 . Babe produced light to moderate rainfall across much of the Southern United States . In Louisiana , precipitation peaked at 10 @.@ 99 inches ( 279 mm ) near Lafayette . Flooding damage was primarily to crops , mainly sugar cane . Six tornadoes were spawned in Louisiana , including one near Hammond that severely damage a country store and knocked six wood @-@ frame homes off their foundations . Damage from this tornado alone reached $ 2 @.@ 5 million . In other states , Babe brought flash flooding along its path due to rainfall exceeding 7 inches ( 180 mm ) in Mississippi , northwestern Georgia , and western North Carolina . Overall , Babe caused about $ 13 million in damage , but no deaths . = = = Hurricane Clara = = = A convective cloud mass with a spiral band of gale @-@ force winds , associated with the development of Hurricane Babe , moved across the Southeastern United States in early September . The system developed a circulation by late on September 4 , while tracking across southeastern Georgia . After a slight drop in barometric pressure and an increase in wind speeds , a tropical depression formed inland near Charleston , South Carolina at 1200 UTC on September 5 . The depression initially drifted east @-@ northeastward and soon moved offshore . After passing south of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina on September 6 , it began to organize while accelerating just north of due east . At 0000 UTC on September 8 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Clara . The storm quickly strengthened , becoming a hurricane only 12 hours later . Strong wind shear caused Clara to weaken back to a tropical storm on September 9 . Thereafter , the storm executed a cyclonic loop near Bermuda . By late on September 10 , Clara accelerated northeastward and became extratropical at 1200 UTC on September 11 . In its early stages , the storm dropped light rainfall in the Southeastern United States , peaking at 3 @.@ 53 inches ( 90 mm ) in Beaufort , South Carolina . Additionally , Clara produced 0 @.@ 55 inches ( 14 mm ) of precipitation in Bermuda . The remnants reached Canada and produced winds of 62 mph ( 100 km / h ) in Antigonish , Nova Scotia , which knocked over campers , uprooted trees , damaged barns , and caused power outages in the area . = = = Hurricane Dorothy = = = A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on September 15 . The system tracked westward at 17 to 23 mph ( 27 to 37 km / h ) and convection began organizing five days later . On September 21 , the wave crossed the Windward Islands , bringing wind gusts of 69 mph ( 111 km / h ) to Guadeloupe and Martinique and rainfall of 5 to 8 inches ( 130 to 200 mm ) on several islands . Although it was a strong tropical wave , the system weakened significantly while crossing Hispaniola on September 23 . Tracking steadily northward , it developed into a tropical depression northeast of the Bahamas on September 26 . A reconnaissance aircraft indicated that the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Dorothy at 1200 UTC on September 27 . Shortly after becoming a tropical storm , Dorothy passed just south of Bermuda , though no damage was reported on the island . The storm quickly strengthened while tracking northeastward and strengthened into a hurricane at 1200 UTC on September 28 . By early on September 29 , Dorothy attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 980 mbar ( 29 inHg ) . Later that day , Dorothy transitioned into an extratropical storm while located south of Cape Race , Newfoundland . On September 30 , the extratropical remnants of Dorothy were absorbed by a frontal low pressure system located in the northern Atlantic Ocean . = = = Hurricane Evelyn = = = A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on October 3 . The system tracked westward at an abnormally low altitude of 6 ° N. However , because the Azores high pressure was abnormally weak , the system quickly curved northwestward . After a significant increase in convection , a tropical depression developed at 1800 UTC on October 13 , while located 400 miles ( 640 km ) south of Bermuda . A ship later reported gale force winds , prompting an upgrade of the depression to Tropical Storm Evelyn on October 14 . Early on the following day , a reconnaissance flight recorded winds of 83 mph ( 134 km / h ) , indicating that Evelyn became a hurricane . Later on October 15 , accelerated to the north @-@ northeast and made landfall on Cape Breton Island , Nova Scotia with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) at 1200 UTC . Shortly after entering the Gulf of Saint Lawrence , Evelyn merged with a cold front at 1800 UTC on October 15 , near the tip of southeastern Newfoundland . Impact on Bermuda was limited to light winds and a small amount of rainfall – 2 @.@ 60 inches ( 66 mm ) . On Sable Island , Evelyn produced tropical storm force winds , reaching 52 mph ( 84 km / h ) . In both Nova Scotia and Newfoundland , the storm dropped light rainfall , rarely exceeding 1 inch ( 25 mm ) . However , in Newfoundland , some areas experienced tropical storm force winds , mainly between Stephenville and St. John 's . However , this may have been in combination with the cold front that Evelyn merged with . In addition , a ship near the southwestern tip of Newfoundland reported sustained winds of 78 mph ( 126 km / h ) . = = = Tropical Storm Frieda = = = A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on October 4 . The wave tracked uneventfully westward for about 10 days . On October 12 , the remnants of a cold front reached the northwestern Caribbean Sea . The wave began interacting with it and another cold front that entered the region by October 16 . Later that day , a reconnaissance aircraft reported a surface circulation near Swan Island , Honduras . Thus , a tropical depression developed at 1800 UTC on October 16 . The depression moved slowly westward and strengthened into Tropical Storm Frieda on October 17 , while passing south of Swan Island . Frieda continued to intensify until peaking with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 005 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) early on October 18 . Later that day , Frieda weakened and fell to tropical depression intensity . At 0000 UTC on October 19 , the storm made landfall near Belize City , Belize as a weak tropical depression . Frieda promptly dissipated . Belize City reported only minimal rainfall and light winds . Around that time , the storm passed south of Swan Island , where it produced 4 @.@ 46 inches ( 113 mm ) in a 30 ‑ hour period . On Grand Cayman , 5 @.@ 42 inches ( 138 mm ) of precipitation fell in 36 hours . = = = Tropical Depression Nine = = = A tropical depression formed between the Greater Antilles and Bermuda on November 3 . Initially , the depression moved northeastward , though on November 4 , a building high pressure area forced it to track north of due west . Eventually , an upper @-@ level low situated over the Southern United States caused the depression to re @-@ curve north @-@ northwestward . Late on November 7 , the depression made landfall near Cape Lookout , North Carolina . By early on the following day , the depression degenerated into a low pressure area while located over eastern Virginia . The remnants continued northeastward across the Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England , before being absorbed by an extratropical cyclone while offshore of Maine on November 11 . Moisture from Tropical Depression Nine and a low pressure area that tracked across the Southeastern United States resulted in heavy rainfall over western North Carolina and western Virginia , with up to 11 @.@ 63 inches ( 295 mm ) at Idlewild in the former . In North Carolina , flooding destroyed 384 homes , 382 miles ( 615 km ) of highways , and 12 dams . Flooding was considered the worst in Yancey County , where nearly every bridge was washed out . Sixteen counties in the western portions of the state were declared disaster areas . The depression also produced 5 to 9 inches ( 130 to 230 mm ) of rainfall in northern Georgia . Eighteen bridges were destroyed and twenty @-@ seven others were damaged . In Virginia , 100 homes were destroyed by flooding , with about the same amount suffering major damage . Similar impact was reported in Tennessee . Strong winds and storm tides in New Jersey caused extensive damage . Overall , the flooding event caused 53 deaths , 39 in Georgia , 13 in North Carolina , and 1 in Tennessee . Damage totaled $ 203 million , $ 100 million of which was incurred in New Jersey alone . = = = Other storms = = = In addition to the six named storm and Tropical Depression Nine , a total of nine other tropical depressions developed during the season . Later in June , a tropical depression formed in the west @-@ central Gulf of Mexico on June 13 . It headed north @-@ northwestward and made landfall in Texas by the following day . The system rapidly dissipated after moving inland . The third tropical depression of the season developed in the central Gulf of Mexico on July 17 . After tracking northward , the depression struck near Mobile , Alabama on July 18 . By the following day , it dissipated in central Mississippi . In late July , another depression developed in the central Gulf of Mexico on July 25 . No further strengthening occurred and by the following day , it dissipated north of the Yucatán Peninsula . A tropical depression developed near the west coast of Africa on August 1 . The system tracked westward for three days without intensifying and dissipated on August 4 . The next tropical depression formed well west @-@ southwest of Cape Verde on September 17 . After remaining disorganized , it dissipated to the east @-@ southeast of the Lesser Antilles about three days later . Tropical Depression Four developed in the Bay of Campeche on September 22 . However , the depression remained weak and made landfall near Tampico , Tamaulipas at around 1000 UTC on September 23 . Later that day , it dissipated while barely inland . By October 1 , another tropical depression formed east of the Lesser Antilles . It headed west @-@ northwestward and dissipated on October 3 , before reaching the Windward Islands . Tropical Depression Six developed in the central Atlantic Ocean on October 2 . It briefly headed east @-@ southeastward , before curving northwestward on October 4 . The system dissipated later that day . Another tropical depression developed in the Gulf of Mexico east of the Texas and Mexico border on October 24 . It tracked northeastward without intensification and made landfall in southeast Louisiana on October 25 , while still a tropical depression . The system quickly weakened and dissipated over southern Mississippi later that day . = = Storm names = = The following names were used for named storms that formed in the North Atlantic in 1977 . Storms were named Anita , Babe , Clara and Evelyn for the first time in 1977 . The name Anita was later retired . Because new lists containing male names began in 1979 season , none of these have appeared on a list since , except for Grace , Hanna and Ida ; although Hanna has appeared with a slight misspelling than the one shown below . Unused names are marked in gray .
= Shannon Leto = Shannon Leto ( / lɛtoʊ / ; born March 9 , 1970 ) is an American musician and songwriter best known as the drummer of rock band Thirty Seconds to Mars . He co @-@ founded the group in 1998 in Los Angeles , California , with his younger brother Jared . Their debut album , 30 Seconds to Mars ( 2002 ) , was released to positive reviews but only to limited success . The band achieved worldwide fame with the release of their second album A Beautiful Lie ( 2005 ) . Their following releases , This Is War ( 2009 ) and Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams ( 2013 ) , received further critical and commercial success . As of September 2014 , the band has sold over 15 million albums worldwide . Leto has worked on several side projects during his career , including a collaboration with Antoine Becks , a recording with the short @-@ lived supergroup The Wondergirls , and performing on occasional dates with Street Drum Corps . His creative contribution to music has received praise from musicians and critics . He is noted for his dynamic drumming style and his energetic live performances . = = Early life = = Shannon Leto was born in Bossier City , Louisiana , to Constance Leto ( née Metrejon ) . His mother has Cajun ancestry . " Leto " is a stepfather 's surname . His parents divorced when he was a child , and he and his younger brother Jared lived with their mother and their maternal grandparents William Lee Metrejon and Ruby Russell . His father remarried and committed suicide when Shannon was ten . Leto moved frequently with his family from his native Louisiana to different cities around the country . He has two younger half @-@ brothers from his father 's second marriage . Constance joined the hippie movement and encouraged her sons to get involved in the arts . Leto became interested in percussions from the moment he and his brother started playing music together at early age , and his models were artists of many different mediums . " I come from a pretty artistic family , " he explained , " There were canvases and paint everywhere , instruments , and all sorts of stuff . It just kind of made sense . I started playing on pots and pans at a very early age , so I just kind of flowed into it . It was just a natural progression . " He received his first drum kit when he was ten years old and began teaching himself , developing his own style . Leto has described his adolescence as a troubled time , in which he used drugs and dropped out of school . He said , " I was in a mess , I felt I didn 't belong anywhere " , calling himself as an " outsider " who hated conformity and rules , and " took any opportunity to break them . " Ultimately , Jared helped him recover from drugs . = = Music career = = Leto formed the rock band Thirty Seconds to Mars in 1998 in Los Angeles , California with his brother Jared . Their debut album had been in the works for a couple of years and was recorded in rural Wyoming during 2001 and early 2002 . Their work led to a number of record labels being interested in signing Thirty Seconds to Mars , which eventually signed to Immortal Records . The band worked with producers Bob Ezrin and Brian Virtue on their debut album 30 Seconds to Mars , which was released on August 27 , 2002 in the United States through Immortal and Virgin . It reached number 107 on the US Billboard 200 and number one on the US Top Heatseekers . Upon its release , 30 Seconds to Mars was met with mostly positive reviews ; music critic Megan O 'Toole felt that the band has " managed to carve out a unique niche for themselves in the rock realm . " The album was a slow @-@ burning success , and eventually sold two million copies worldwide as of March 2011 . It took two years to record their next release A Beautiful Lie , with the band traveling to four different continents to accommodate Jared Leto 's acting career . A Beautiful Lie was released on August 30 , 2005 in the United States . It has since been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , and has reached platinum and gold status in several countries , with a sales total of over four million . The band heavily toured in support of the album and played at several major festivals , including Roskilde , Pinkpop , Rock am Ring , and Download . In August 2008 , during the recording process of the band 's third studio album , Thirty Seconds to Mars attempted to sign with a new label , prompting EMI ( the parent label of Virgin ) , to file a $ 30 million breach of contract lawsuit . After nearly a year of legal battles , the band announced on April 28 , 2009 , that the suit had been settled following a defence based on the De Havilland Law . Thirty Seconds to Mars then signed a new contract with EMI and released their third album This Is War in December 2009 to critical acclaim . This Is War reached the top ten of several national album charts and earned numerous music awards . The band began their Into the Wild Tour in February 2010 and was among the hardest @-@ working touring artists of the year . In December 2011 , they entered the Guinness World Records for most live shows during a single album cycle , with 300 shows . In September 2012 , Leto released a remixed version of " Night of the Hunter " , a track featured on This Is War . The musician explained that he wanted to " reinvent " the song , to " shed a different light on it by bringing a dance element to it . " Thirty Seconds to Mars released their fourth album , Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams , in May 2013 through Universal . It received generally positive reviews and reached the top ten in more than fifteen countries , including the United Kingdom and the United States . The band promoted the album by embarking on their Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams Tour and the Carnivores Tour , co @-@ headlining with Linkin Park . In April 2014 , Thirty Seconds to Mars announced that they have parted from Virgin Records after tumultuous years with the label . = = Artistry = = Leto is known for his energetic live performances and his ability to blend traditional and experimental drum techniques . During the production of Thirty Seconds to Mars first studio album , he played almost exclusively electronic drums and drew influence from bands such as Pink Floyd , The Cure , Led Zeppelin , and The Who , which he considers " mostly big conceptional bands ; bands that had depth ; bands that were dynamic . " Bob Ezrin , producer of the album , felt that Leto is " one of the most inventive drummers I 've worked with . He isn 't satisfied with simply adding a beat ; his drum parts are an integral part of the orchestration of the record . He 's also a great live drummer who is lots of fun to watch , with a presence and energy level that are mesmerizing . " Leto switched to a mostly acoustic set @-@ up on the band 's next release A Beautiful Lie . His equipment consists of a hybrid kit that combines both acoustic and electric elements . His drum technician Joseph Ciccone , better known as Kentucky , stated that Leto 's " sound is his technique . He 's an animal behind that kit , so I love giving him tons of things to beat up . " During the production of This Is War , Leto widened his style with an abundance of electronic sounds and synth textures created by himself . He wrote the instrumental track " L490 " and played every instrument on it , including all guitars and a singing bowl . He experimented with different instruments and drew influences from a varied range of styles in Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams . Steve Lillywhite , who co @-@ produced two band 's albums , felt that Leto treats drumming " unlike most drummers do in rock bands . His cross rhythms explode in a guttural way ... very musical , extremely unique . " Leto was largely an autodidact on drums ; " I 've always wanted to find my way of doing things , " he explained , " Discovering what I can contribute with my own voice . There were so many styles that I was into at a young age . I didn 't want to get locked into just one thing . " During his youth , Leto had been a devoted fan of progressive rock and blues music , listening to artists such as Fleetwood Mac , Janis Joplin , Jimi Hendrix , Pink Floyd , Led Zeppelin , and Boz Scaggs . He is inspired by electronic music , including Depeche Mode and The Cure . His major influences also include jazz band Steely Dan , as well as heavy metal groups Mountain , Iron Maiden and Kiss . According to Leto , these artists were commercially viable but also respected for their statements and contributions . He explained that he " never focused on the drummers , " saying that he felt more connected to music than a particular drummer . When Thirty Seconds to Mars first started , the Leto brothers experimented to try and create a specific sound , whose process was described as " very organic " . They were attempting to produce a " feeling " rather than a sound , in order to recreate the sense of community that marked their childhood . Leto also stated that the band 's concerts are a direct reflection of that period of his early life . Journalist Kelly King , a long @-@ time contributor with Drumhead magazine , opined that Leto is " energy and grace behind the drums , stoking the fire that drives his band . " He commented that the musician is both confident and aggressive on his kit , and felt that " his drive to push himself to the limit , to create and explore his own artistic capabilities is paramount . " Ryan Jones , writing for Alternative Addiction , described Leto as one of rock 's most dynamic drummers of present day . He received the Indie Drummer Award at the 2012 Drummies Awards . He was also nominated for Alternative Drummer in 2009 and 2011 . = = Other work = = In 1994 , Leto found a minor role on the television series My So @-@ Called Life , in which his brother starred . He later appeared in the films Prefontaine ( 1997 ) , Sol Goode ( 2001 ) , and Highway ( 2002 ) . Leto recorded the songs " Drop That Baby " and " Let 's Go All the Way " with the short @-@ lived supergroup The Wondergirls in 1999 , which members included Scott Weiland , Mark McGrath , and Ian Astbury , among others . Since 2007 , Leto has performed on occasional dates with American percussion band Street Drum Corps . In June 2008 , he joined Habitat for Humanity to work with Thirty Seconds to Mars on a home being repaired and renovated through the Greater Los Angeles Area 's " A Brush With Kindness " programme . Leto began producing American electronic band CB7 after meeting musician Antoine Becks in 2009 . CB7 later supported Thirty Seconds to Mars on the North American leg of their Into the Wild Tour in 2011 . The same year , Leto created a side project with Becks and toured worldwide with him until the summer of 2012 , when the duo split . In 2014 , Leto launched Black Fuel Trading Company , a lifestyle brand primarily focusing on responsibly sourced , direct @-@ trade coffee . = = Discography = = Thirty Seconds to Mars studio albums 30 Seconds to Mars ( 2002 ) A Beautiful Lie ( 2005 ) This Is War ( 2009 ) Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams ( 2013 )
= Cal Neva Lodge & Casino = Cal Neva Resort & Casino , previously known as the Calneva Resort , is a resort and casino straddling the border between Nevada and California on the shores of Lake Tahoe . The original building was constructed in 1926 , and became famous when the national media picked up a story about actress Clara Bow cancelling checks she owed to the Cal Neva worth $ 13 @,@ 000 in 1930 . After a fire , the building burnt down in 1937 and was rebuilt over the course of 30 days . In 1960 , entertainer Frank Sinatra purchased the Resort alongside Dean Martin and Chicago mobster Sam Giancana . Under Sinatra , the Celebrity Room was added alongside a helipad and it opened year round . His ownership gradually increased over the following two years until he owned 50 percent outright . But Giancana 's attendance at the property first provoked a rift between Sinatra and share holder Hank Sanicola , and later resulted in Sinatra 's gambling license being suspended by the Nevada Gaming Control Board . He initially leased the property to Jack L. Warner and later in 1968 to a group of investors . It passed through the hands of a series of investment groups until 1976 when it was bought by Kirk Kerkorian . The property is owned by Criswell @-@ Radovan , LLC , which closed the resort on September 5 , 2013 , for renovations and anticipates reopening it in 2016 . = = History = = = = = Early period = = = The Calneva Lodge was built in 1926 by real estate developer Robert P. Sherman . In 1929 , Canadian Army Colonel H. H. Betts went missing from his room at the Calneva ; his body was found over a year later some five miles away from the hotel . The lodge was first made nationally famous later that year when actress Clara Bow cancelled checks owed to the casino worth $ 13 @,@ 000 ; she claimed that she had believed that the chips she was using while playing blackjack were worth 50 cents when they were actually valued at $ 100 . A group of investors bought the Calneva in 1935 , and recruited William " Bones " Remmer to act as its president and the pit manager of the casino . That year a 13 @-@ year @-@ old Judy Garland performed at Cal Neva for the first time . The original building burnt down in 1937 causing $ 200 @,@ 000 worth of damage ; the incident which was thought to have been arson but no charges were ever brought . The reconstruction effort took 30 days , with 500 men working on the project . State legislation was changed shortly afterwards to allow gambling , and following the purchase by developer Norman Blitz it became one of Nevada 's earliest legalized casinos and rumors abounded that there was an intention by the owners of the lodge to put a gambling boat on the lake . Towards the end of the Second World War , the lodge was purchased from Remmer by Sanford Adler and a group of associates for $ 700 @,@ 000 ; Adler renamed the property to " Cal Neva " in order to match Adler 's Cal Neva hotel in Reno , Nevada . However , this formatting of the name had been in common use since before the fire . In 1946 , Xavier Cugat was paid a reported $ 22 @,@ 000 for a two @-@ week stint at Cal Neva Lodge — this was reportedly the first nationally famous band to perform there . Ownership was transferred once again on March 21 , 1955 , when a group led by Bert " Wingy " Grober purchased the lodge for $ 1 million . During this period , the hotel was frequented by members of the Kennedy family including John F. and his brother Robert . Author Scott Lankford claims that John F. used the lodge to carry on an " endless series of extramarital affairs with wealthy divorcees and Tahoe 's notoriously ubiquitous prostitutes " . The lodge served as accommodation during the 1960 Winter Olympics , held at nearby Squaw Valley Ski Resort . It has remained popular with skiers over the decades since . = = = Ownership by Frank Sinatra = = = Frank Sinatra first visited Cal Neva in 1951 ; his trip made the national press as he overdosed on sleeping pills and this was reported to the local sheriff . He continued to attend the lodge and Grober would talk up his appearances to other guests such as when on one occasion , Sinatra played a jam session with big band leader Harry James and actress and singer Betty Grable . Sinatra publicly bought the resort in 1960 through his company , Park Lake Enterprises . Initially , he owned 25 percent of the property with Hank Sanicola and Paul " Skinny " D 'Amato who each held 13 percent . Other smaller shareholders included Dean Martin . Chicago mobster Sam Giancana was said to be a silent partner in the business ; D 'Amato acted as Giancana 's man . Sinatra gradually expanded his ownership of the casino ; by 1962 he owned more than 50 percent share , with Sanicola holding 33 percent and Sanford Waterman owning the remaining shares . The shareholders decided to open the property year @-@ round ; it had only previously opened for the summer season . Sinatra built the Celebrity Room theater and installed a helicopter pad on the roof . He re @-@ utilized prohibition @-@ era smuggling tunnels beneath the property to allow mob members to move around the property without being seen by the public . The FBI already had the lodge under investigation at the time due to the connection to Joseph P. Kennedy , Sr. , who was staying there at the time that Sinatra 's deal was finalized . There were concerns that Kennedy was involved in the arrangement of a casino for use by the American mafia . The FBI suspected that the expansion was made using funds borrowed from Jimmy Hoffa . Following a request by Robert Kennedy , who had concerns over the press coverage of his and his brother 's relationships with Marilyn Monroe , Sinatra made accommodation available for her for a weekend prior to her death on August 4 , 1962 . During this period she was not allowed to leave and only Giancana was allowed to visit her . Even her former husband , Joe DiMaggio , was turned away . She attempted suicide through an overdose , but contacted the reception desk and was rushed to hospital where she had her stomach pumped . The cabin , known as Monroe 's , and another , known as Sinatra 's , are still part of the guest accommodation . Also in that year , a federal investigation took place into a prostitution ring being run from the foyer of the Cal Neva . The Sinatra period saw extravagant parties and visits by celebrities such as Lucille Ball and Richard Crenna . However , his mood swings would sometimes determine how he responded to patrons . Journalist Herb Caen reported that he could be dismissive and insulting to those who annoyed him . Giancana was banned from the state of Nevada , but Sinatra continued to allow him to stay at the lodge which resulted in Sanicola seeking to remove himself as a shareholder . Although Sinatra sought to explain that Giancana was only visiting his girlfriend , Phyllis McGuire , the disagreement resulted in the end of Sinatra and Sanicola 's friendship . After Giancana was spotted on the premises , Sinatra had his gambling license removed by the Nevada Gaming Control Board . Following this , Sinatra decided he wanted to get out of entertainment property ownership as he was being heavily criticized in the national press and pursued by law enforcement over illegal activities at the casino . The Cal Neva Lodge was leased to Jack L. Warner in a deal which also saw a majority stake in Reprise Records sold to Warner Bros. Records and Sinatra gaining a one @-@ third ownership in the new company . = = = Later period = = = After leasing it to Warner for four years , Sinatra sought to sell the property to Howard Hughes in 1967 as part of the renewal of his contract at the Sands Hotel and Casino . Following a fallout between Hughes and Sinatra , the entertainer instead signed a contract with Caesars Palace . This included a requirement for Sinatra 's stake in Cal Neva to be purchased by his new employer for $ 2 million , but instead the lodge passed into the hands of the same owners as Reno 's Club Cal @-@ Neva in 1968 for $ 1 @.@ 4 million . The new owners oversaw the construction of a ten @-@ storey expansion to the property . This added a further 200 rooms to the lodge , for which permission was given although the Nevada State Park Advisory Committee opposed the move . They sought to re @-@ open the Cal Neva on July 1 , 1969 , but instead it partly opened in May of that year with the new expansion opening the following month . The Ohio Real Estate Investment Trust purchased the lodge in 1970 for $ 6 million , with the aim to lease it to the U.S. Capital Corporation , who in turn sought to sublease it to Tahoe Crystal Bay Inc . The stockholders of the Ohio Real Estate Investment Trust filed a lawsuit against the company in 1973 , which resulted in the Cal Neva being placed into federal receivership . After opening year round since Sinatra purchased the lodge , it closed for the winter season in 1974 due to a drop in visitors blamed on the 1973 oil crisis . The Cal Neva was sold in 1975 alongside the Crystal Bay Club to BKJ Corporation , who consisted of Everett Brunzell , Charles Ketchum and Norman Jenson . The two clubs were purchased for a total of $ 9 million . But their licensing application for Cal Neva was turned down by the Nevada Gaming Commission due to a their lack of ongoing finances . The First National Bank of Nevada foreclosed on the property in early 1976 before selling it to Kirk Kerkorian , a significant shareholder in Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer . He owned the Cal Neva through his Tracinda Investment Corporation , a different entity than the one through which he owns his MGM shares . As part of the re @-@ launch of the lodge , he convinced Dean Martin to return for a performance , for which Cary Grant was also in attendance . Jon Perroton was arrested in 1985 for fraud after convincing Hibernia National Bank to loan him $ 23 million towards the purchase price of Cal Neva . He had claimed that he had the backing of Sheraton Hotels and Resorts . He was subsequently sentenced to 20 years in custody . That same year , the lodge was purchased by Chuck Bleuth . Under the new owner , it was renovated and the exterior of the main building restored to how it looked in the 1960s . On September 10 – 12 , 1993 , the lodge hosted the second annual Daow Aga Pow wow ( a local Native American meeting ) on Lake Tahoe . In 1998 the hotel was named " Nevada 's Best Getaway " and cited as one of America 's 50 Flagship Hotels . In 2005 , Bleuth sold the lodge onto Ezri Namvar . However the casino was in severe decline ; by 2009 the revenue was around half of that which it received in 1992 . Canyon Capital Advisors foreclosed on a $ 25 million loan , and an auction open across two states failed to result in any bidders . The area had seen several other casinos nearby close around the same time . = = Architecture and location = = The Cal Neva Lodge and Casino overlooks Lake Tahoe with the property split across the California / Nevada border near Crystal Bay . The main dining room has a white line indicating the state border running down the middle of the room , and continues outside through a swimming pool . The interior is decorated in the lodge @-@ style . The entrance had been replaced several times over the years , although the exterior of the buildings have remained almost the same since the reconstruction . Prior to the expansion under Sinatra , the lodge had 55 rooms and 11 lodges , but this was increased to 220 lake @-@ facing rooms following the expansion in 1969 . As of 1998 it had 182 rooms and suites and eight conference rooms , catering for up to 400 people . = = = Celebrity and Indian rooms = = = Constructed following the purchase by Sinatra and his associates , the Celebrity room and theater hosted both the singer and his Rat Pack friends as well as other singers of the day . It is located near to the casino area on the Nevada side of the border , and has sat up to 700 people . The Indian room featured Native American memorabilia and wood @-@ beamed ceilings , and is sited in the California side of the hotel . It acted as both a museum to the nearby Washoe people , as well as operating as a ballroom . The Indian room underwent renovation in the late 1980s , when it was described by Skiing magazine as being " a spacious area with a large fireplace " . = = = Current renovations = = = Criswell @-@ Radovan , LLC , a Napa , California @-@ based development company which acquired the property in spring 2013 , closed it as a whole on September 5 , 2013 for a complete renovation . The development project was originally estimated to take at least a year and was to include an overhaul of the 10 @-@ story Cal Neva , including interior guest rooms , the Circle Bar , the casino , Frank Sinatra 's Celebrity Room theater and a complete exterior upgrade . The casino upgrade sought to restore the Cal Neva 's original 6 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot gaming floor , complete with a full slot machine display and the return of table games . Criswell @-@ Radovan was aiming to reopen the property in conjunction with what would have been Sinatra 's 99th birthday on December 12 , 2014 . However , reopening was first delayed to January 2015 , then summer 2015 , and then pushed into 2016 . They delays were attributed to a combination of factors : the need for construction to proceed carefully and the difficulties in obtaining financing . The company obtained a $ 29 million loan in November 2014 that allowed construction to begin . An additional $ 20 million equity line of credit is also financing the project .
= 2010 – 11 Princeton Tigers men 's basketball team = The 2010 – 11 Princeton Tigers men 's basketball team represented Princeton University in intercollegiate college basketball during the 2010 – 11 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season . The head coach was Sydney Johnson , who was in his fourth season . The team 's tri @-@ captains were senior Kareem Maddox , senior Dan Mavraides , and junior Patrick Saunders . The team played its home games in the Jadwin Gymnasium on the University campus in Princeton , New Jersey . The team competes in the Ivy League athletic conference . The team was coming off of a 22 – 9 2009 – 10 season in which it achieved the most wins by a Tigers men 's basketball team since the 1998 – 99 team and its first back @-@ to @-@ back finishes of at least second place in the Ivy since 2001 – 02 season . The team was also following on the heels of its first postseason appearance since the 2003 – 04 team went to the 2004 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , and its first postseason victory since the 1998 – 99 team won two games in the 1999 National Invitation Tournament . The team was led by returning second team All @-@ Ivy League selections junior Douglas Davis and senior Dan Mavraides . This was the first team to have two returning first or second All @-@ Ivy players since the 2003 – 04 team returned Will Venable and Judson Wallace . The team was attempting to defend its scoring defense statistical championship , which it won for the twentieth time since 1976 in 2010 . Following the season , seniors Mavraides ( 2nd team ) and Maddox ( 1st team , unanimous ) earned All @-@ Ivy recognition . They were joined by sophomore Ian Hummer ( 2nd team ) . Maddox earned conference Defensive Player of the Year . After the annual 14 @-@ game round robin home and away schedule , Harvard and Princeton tied as co @-@ champion , resulting in a one @-@ game playoff to determine the league 's automatic bid to the 2011 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . The Tigers prevailed . Princeton then lost its round of 64 NCAA contest against Kentucky . The season marked the team 's 26th Ivy League championship and 24th invitation to the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship . = = Preview = = Princeton entered the season having not won a championship since the 2003 – 04 Princeton Tigers men 's basketball team achieved the feat and went to the 2004 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . The six @-@ season championshipless spell tied a school record and put the team on the verge of establishing a new one should the season not be successful . The team entered the season with its top five scorers from the prior season returning . The team 's schedule included the 2010 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament champion Duke as well as Tournament participant Siena who were the 2010 Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference champions ( both regular season and tournament ) . Most preseason publications predicted Princeton would finish in first place and Harvard would finish in second place , although the Sporting News projected that Cornell would finish in first followed by Princeton and Harvard . Breaking a three @-@ year streak by Cornell , the Ivy League media poll selected Princeton as the top team with twelve first place votes , Harvard second with four first place votes and Cornell third with one first place vote . It was the first Princeton team to be the preseason top @-@ ranked media selection since the 2004 – 05 Princeton team . = = Playing style = = Head coach Johnson employs the Princeton offense . However , in 2010 , Johnson tweaked it to be a slightly more uptempo version of the motion offense , which resulted in the highest scoring Princeton team in decades . The offense was still considered slow compared to most schools . = = Schedule = = The team lost to its only two ranked opponents ( # 1 Duke and # 21 University of Central Florida ) , but defeated Siena in overtime . The team also defeated power conference opponents Tulsa of Conference USA , Saint Joseph 's of the Atlantic 10 Conference and Rutgers of the Big East Conference . Princeton recorded its 11th and the Ivy League 's 30th perfect conference record at the halfway point of the 14 @-@ game conference schedule . The team posted a perfect 12 – 0 home record . It was the team 's sixth perfect home season in 42 full seasons at Jadwin gymnasium . In 2009 , the team adopted 11 @-@ year @-@ old Christian Michael " Crunch " Regulski , a pediatric brain tumor patient , as part of the Friends of Jaclyn program . In early February , Crunch , who had previously sat on the team 's bench , lost his cancer struggle . During the season , Princeton swept defending Ivy League champion Cornell . Mavraides scored 25 including 5 three @-@ point shots , but Princeton lost to Harvard at Lavietes Pavilion on March 5 and giving them a split of the season series . Princeton fell a half game behind Harvard who clinched at least a share of the 2010 – 11 Ivy League men 's basketball season Championship with a 12 – 2 conference record . Princeton fell to 11 – 2 with one conference game remaining to force a one @-@ game playoff for the conferences automatic bid to the 2011 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . Following the game , Sydney Johnson made his team sit on the bench and watch the Harvard fans celebrate . On March 8 , Princeton defeated Penn to force a one @-@ game playoff at the Payne Whitney Gymnasium at Yale University in New Haven , Connecticut . Maddox scored 21 of his 23 points from off the bench in the second half to key the victory . The one @-@ game playoff is the eighth in Ivy League history and the eighth for Princeton , who has won at least a share of twenty @-@ six league titles . The share of the championship ended a six @-@ season championshipless run , which tied a record for the longest in school history . In the one @-@ game playoff , Harvard took 58 – 57 lead with 2 : 33 remaining and then the teams traded one @-@ point leads 5 times . Princeton won by a 63 – 62 margin thanks to a last second shot by Davis to earn its 24th NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament bid . Although Princeton did not appear in the 2010 – 11 NCAA Division I men 's basketball rankings all season , in the final regular season poll on March 13 , Princeton received 3 points in the Coaches ' Poll . Princeton was awarded the number thirteen seed and a first round match against the Kentucky Wildcats . Kentucky had eliminated Ivy League representative Cornell the prior season . Kentucky emerged victorious by a 59 – 57 margin on a last second layup . = = Honors = = = = = In season = = = Ian Hummer was a National Association of Basketball Coaches First Team All @-@ District selection , and Kareem Maddox was a Second Team selection . Each week the Ivy League selects a player of the week and a rookie of the week . = = = Postseason honors = = = The league selected its postseason awards on March 9.Defensive Player of the Year : Kareem Maddox , Princeton ( Sr. , F , Oak Park , CA ) All @-@ Ivy League ( ALL CAPS : Unanimous ) First Team All @-@ Ivy : KAREEM MADDOX , Princeton ( Sr. , F , Oak Park , CA ) Second Team All @-@ Ivy : Ian Hummer , Princeton ( So . , F , Vienna , VA ) ; Dan Mavraides , Princeton ( Sr. , G , San Mateo , CA )
= Essjay controversy = The Essjay controversy was an incident concerning a prominent Wikipedia participant and salaried Wikia employee , known by the username Essjay , who later identified himself as Ryan Jordan . Jordan held trusted volunteer positions within Wikipedia known as " administrator " , " bureaucrat " , and " arbitrator " . On July 24 , 2006 , Wikipedia critic Daniel Brandt started a thread titled " Who is Essjay ? " ( later retitled " Who is Essjay ? , Probably he 's Ryan Jordan " after Jordan 's self @-@ disclosure ) on the forum site Wikipedia Review . The ensuing discussion brought to light contradictions in claims Essjay made about his academic qualifications and professional experiences on his Wikipedia user page . Jordan claimed that he held doctoral degrees in theology and canon law and worked as a tenured professor at a private university . Five days later , The New Yorker published an interview with Essjay which repeated some of the claims . Wikipedia Review found definitive proof that Jordan made false claims about his qualifications and experience , including that he was a " tenured professor " , a claim that was used to describe Essjay in the interview for The New Yorker . In January 2007 , Daniel Brandt contacted the author of the article in The New Yorker about the discrepancies in Jordan 's biography and the exploitation of his supposed qualifications as leverage in internal disputes over Wikipedia content . The controversy that ensued focused on his falsification of a persona and qualifications , the impact of this deception on perceptions of Wikipedia ( and its policies and credibility ) , and the quality of decisions made in his promotion , support , and employment . Reactions to the disclosure were diverse , encompassing commentary and articles in the electronic , print , and broadcast media ; the Wikipedia community researched Essjay 's article edits to check for errors and debated proposals to improve the project 's handling of personal identification . In his editorial activities Jordan spent less time editing the content of articles and more time addressing vandalism and resolving editorial disputes . Wikipedia co @-@ founder Jimmy Wales initially supported Essjay 's use of a persona , saying , " I regard it as a pseudonym and I don 't really have a problem with it . " Later , Wales withdrew his support and asked for Essjay 's resignation from his positions with Wikipedia and Wikia . Wales stated that he withdrew his support when he learned " that Essjay used his false credentials in content disputes " on Wikipedia . = = Timeline = = February 8 , 2005 : Essjay account registered . 2005 – 2006 : Essjay states on his Wikipedia user page that he teaches graduate theology , with doctorates in Theology and Canon Law . July 26 , 2006 : " Who is Essjay ? " thread started on watchdog site Wikipedia Review , the ensuing discussion brings to light the contradictions . July 31 , 2006 : The New Yorker publishes an article on Wikipedia , written by Stacy Schiff , which features an interview with Essjay . January 2007 : Essjay is hired by Wikia . January 7 , 2007 : Essjay posts autobiographical details on his user page at Wikia , giving his supposed real name ( Ryan Jordan ) , age , and previous employment history from age 19 , and his positions within various Wikimedia Foundation projects . These details differ sharply from previous assertions on Essjay 's Wikipedia user page about his academic and professional credentials . January 11 , 2007 : A member of the messageboard Wikipedia Review posts a message linking to the Wikia user page ; the ensuing discussion brings to light the contradictions and prompts Daniel Brandt to contact the New Yorker . Late January 2007 : As a result of the discussions on Wikipedia Review , Daniel Brandt contacts the author of the article in The New Yorker about the discrepancies in Jordan 's biography . February 2 , 2007 : Another Wikipedia editor challenges Essjay on his talk page about the discrepancy and he responds with an explanation . February 23 , 2007 : Jimmy Wales announces the appointment of Essjay to Wikipedia 's Arbitration Committee ( ArbCom ) . Wales later asserts that the appointment was " at the request of and unanimous support of " ArbCom . February 26 , 2007 : The New Yorker publishes the correction for its July 31 issue , which appears in its The Mail section of its print version . It is picked up by online sources within the next day . March 3 , 2007 : Wales asks Jordan to resign his " positions of trust . " Jordan promptly retires from Wikipedia altogether and later resigns from his position at Wikia . March 5 , 2007 : Story covered by The New York Times . March 6 , 2007 : Jordan 's hometown newspaper publishes an article casting doubts about his January 2007 claims on his Wikia userpage that he had worked for the United States Trustee Program and had been a Kentucky paralegal . March 7 , 2007 : Story covered in an Associated Press article . March 8 , 2007 : Story appears in a two @-@ minute segment on World News with Charles Gibson . March 12 , 2007 : The New Yorker publishes a formal apology by Wales in its March 19 The Mail section . = = The New Yorker interview = = Stacy Schiff , a Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning journalist writing for The New Yorker , interviewed Essjay as a source for an article about Wikipedia ( " Know It All " ; July 31 , 2006 ) after he was recommended to her by a member of the Wikimedia Foundation . According to The New Yorker , Essjay " was willing to describe his work as a Wikipedia administrator but would not identify himself other than by confirming the biographical details that appeared on his user page . " During the interview , Jordan told The New Yorker and had previously stated on his Wikipedia user page that he held doctoral degrees in theology and canon law and worked as a tenured professor at a private university . It was later discovered that he was 24 years old , and had dropped out of community college with no qualifications . The New Yorker published a correction in February 2007 , which brought the issue to broader public attention . The article said that Essjay spent some 14 hours or more a day on Wikipedia but was careful to keep his online life a secret from his colleagues and friends . It portrayed Essjay as often taking his laptop to class so he could be available to other Wikipedians while giving a quiz . He asserted that he required anonymity to avoid cyberstalking . Jordan , as Essjay , claimed he sent an email to a college professor using his invented persona 's credentials , vouching for Wikipedia 's accuracy . In the message he wrote in part , " I am an administrator of the online encyclopedia project Wikipedia . I am also a tenured professor of theology ; feel free to have a look at my Wikipedia user page ( linked below ) to gain an idea of my background and credentials . " = = = Identity revealed = = = When Essjay was hired by Wikia in January 2007 , he changed his Wikia profile and " came clean on who he really was , " identifying himself as Ryan Jordan . Other Wikipedia editors questioned Essjay on his Wikipedia talk page about the apparent discrepancy between his new Wikia profile and his previously claimed credentials . Essjay posted a detailed explanation in response to the first inquiry , stating that : There are a number of trolls , stalkers , and psychopaths who wander around Wikipedia and the other Wikimedia projects looking for people to harass , stalk , and otherwise ruin the lives of ( several have been arrested over their activities here ) ... You will eventually say something that will lead back to you , and the stalkers will find it ... I decided to be myself , to never hide my personality , to always be who I am , but to utilize disinformation with regard to what I consider unimportant details : age , location , occupation , etc ... He later commented on his Wikipedia user page about having fooled Schiff by " ... doing a good job playing the part . " Wikipedia critic Daniel Brandt then wrote a letter reporting the identity discrepancy to Stacy Schiff and The New Yorker . In late February 2007 , the magazine updated its article with a correction indicating that " Essjay now says that his real name is Ryan Jordan , that he is twenty @-@ four and holds no advanced degrees , and that he has never taught . " On March 3 , 2007 , Andrew Lih , Assistant Professor and Director of Technology Journalism and of the Media Studies Centre at the University of Hong Kong , said on his blog that a portion of Essjay 's comments on the incident entered " the dangerous domain of defamation and libel " against Stacy Schiff . Lih stated that on Essjay 's Wikipedia talk page , Essjay had written , " Further , she [ Schiff ] made several offers to compensate me for my time , and my response was that if she truly felt the need to do so , she should donate to the Foundation instead . " Lih noted : This is an accusation of the highest degree to make about a journalist . Paying a source for a story is an absolute no @-@ no in the normal practice of print journalism . And it struck me immediately how incredible it was he would accuse Stacy Schiff , a Pulitzer Prize winning author writing for The New Yorker , of this crime . We either have a serious breach of ethics with Ms. Schiff or another dubious statement claim from Essjay . Lih wrote that he contacted Schiff for comment about whether she had offered to pay Essjay for his time and quoted her return email . In it , Schiff stated that Essjay 's assertion was " complete nonsense " . = = Reaction = = = = = Wikipedia community = = = Speaking personally about Jordan , Wales said , " Mr. Ryan [ sic ] was a friend , and still is a friend . He is a young man , and he has offered me a heartfelt personal apology , which I have accepted . I hope the world will let him go in peace to build an honorable life and reputation . " Essjay had responded at the time with a statement on his Wikipedia page , in part reading : ... I * am * sorry if anyone in the Wikipedia community has been hurt by my decision to use disinformation to protect myself . I 'm not sorry that I protected myself ; I believed , and continue to believe , that I was right to protect myself , in light of the problems encountered on the Internet in these trying times . I have spoken to all of my close friends here about this , and have heard resoundingly that they understand my position , and they support me . Jimbo and many others in Wikipedia 's hierarchy have made their support known as well ... Reaction from within the Wikipedia community to the Essjay / Jordan identity discrepancy was sharp , voluminous , and mixed . While most editors denounced at least some of his actions , responses ranged from offering complete support to accusing Jordan of fraud . As the controversy unfolded , the Wikipedia community began a review of Essjay 's previous edits and some felt he had relied upon his fictional professorship to influence editorial consideration of edits he made . " People have gone through his edits and found places where he was basically cashing in on his fake credentials to bolster his arguments , " said Michael Snow , a Wikipedia administrator and founder of the Wikipedia community newspaper , the Signpost . " Those will get looked at again . " For instance , Essjay had recommended sources such as Catholicism for Dummies , a book granted the nihil obstat and imprimatur by the Roman Catholic Church . Essjay defended his use of the book by telling fellow Wikipedia editors in a disagreement over the editing of the article Imprimatur : " This is a text I often require for my students , and I would hang my own Ph.D. on it 's [ sic ] credibility . " In another case ( a discussion of the liturgical use of the psalms ) , he cited personal experience from " the Abbey of Gethsemani , where I was a monk . " Jimmy Wales proposed a credential verification system on Wikipedia following the Essjay controversy , but the proposal was rejected . Wales was " reported to be considering vetting all persons who adjudicate on factual disputes . " " I don 't think this incident exposes any inherent weakness in Wikipedia , but it does expose a weakness that we will be working to address , " Wales added . He insisted that Wikipedia editors still would be able to remain anonymous if they wished . " We always prefer to give a positive incentive rather than absolute prohibition , so that people can contribute without a lot of hassle , " Wales commented . However , he also warned that " It 's always inappropriate to try to win an argument by flashing your credentials , and even more so if those credentials are inaccurate . " However , Florence Devouard , chair of the Wikimedia Foundation , was not supportive of his credential proposal , saying , " I think what matters is the quality of the content , which we can improve by enforcing policies such as ' cite your source , ' not the quality of credentials showed by an editor . " A formal proposal that users claiming to have academic qualifications would have to provide evidence before citing them in content disputes was eventually rejected by the Wikipedia community , like all previous such proposals . As a follow @-@ up to his initial comments to The New Yorker , Wales wrote this apology to the magazine , which appeared in its March 19 , 2007 issue : I am writing to apologize to The New Yorker and Stacy Schiff , and to give some follow @-@ up concerning Ryan Jordan ( Editors ' Note , March 5 ) . When I last spoke to The New Yorker about the fact that a prominent Wikipedia community member had lied about his credentials , I misjudged the issue . It was not O.K. for Mr. Jordan , or Essjay , to lie to a reporter , even to protect his identity . Wales expressed his regret that Essjay had " made a series of very bad judgments . " He also commented that he hoped Wikipedia would improve as a result of the controversy . = = = Wikipedia critics = = = Andrew Orlowski , a frequent Wikipedia critic and writer for The Register — a British technology news and opinion website — criticized Jimmy Wales for hiring Essjay at the venture @-@ capital @-@ funded Wikia and for appointing him to the Wikipedia Arbitration Committee after Essjay had apparently admitted his previously claimed academic and professional credentials were false . Orlowski added that Essjay 's actions betrayed a dangerous community mindset within Wikipedia . Others to comment negatively included ZDNet writer Mitch Ratcliffe , who asked " why lying about one 's background qualifies a person to work for a company like Wikia , which proposes to help communities to record accurate information " and asked for additional details " such as when he fired Jordan and the reasons for the firing , as well as when he endorsed Jordan in public statements . " Larry Sanger , co @-@ founder of Wikipedia who left the project in 2002 , called Essjay 's response " a defiant non @-@ apology " and elsewhere characterized Essjay 's actions as " identity fraud . " Other comments : BusinessWeek commented on proposals for credential verification : " Sadly , not everyone who posts to Wikipedia is concerned with the Ten Commandments . Some are concerned with revenge . Some with self @-@ aggrandizement . Some just have nothing better to do . We live in an age of fake IDs , fake money , fake e @-@ mails , fake URLs , fake IP addresses , and fake votes ... " However , the article argued that Wikipedia could not become a " net police " of reliability on the Internet . Steve Maich ( journalist , Maclean 's ) stated that the controversy could damage Wikipedia 's future as a media business operation , observing that Wikipedia 's model was supposedly built upon trust and credibility . Cassandra Jardine , a Daily Telegraph contributor , opined that Essjay was " hooked on ' Wiki crack ' — devotees ' jargon for the thrill of seeing your efforts debated . " She further observed that " Essjay has provided a reminder that any given entry could have been written by someone as ignorant as ourselves . On the other hand , no one has taken issue with his edits , only his assumed persona , so perhaps the real lesson of this democratic medium is that college drop @-@ outs might be as authoritative as professors . " Andrew Keen ( author , Cult of the Amateur ) described the controversy as an example of ignoring expert guidance in favor of the " dictatorship of idiots . " Alex Beam ( columnist , Boston Globe ) criticized the Essjay affair as being part of what he characterizes as the problems of " crowdsourcing " and the " wisdom of crowds , " stating also that the crowd accepts authority unquestioningly : " Who would you rather have write your encyclopedia entries ? Bertrand Russell , T.H. Huxley , and Benedetto Croce , who wrote for the Britannica ? Or ... EssJay ? " = = = Academics = = = Following the media coverage of the Essjay controversy , a number of academics noted the damage to the credibility of Wikipedia . On March 2 , 2007 , a report in The Chronicle of Higher Education commented " the incident is clearly damaging to Wikipedia 's credibility — especially with professors who will now note that one of the site 's most visible academics has turned out to be a fraud . " Ross Brann , a professor of Judeo @-@ Islamic studies at Cornell University in Ithaca , stated that Wikipedia lacks a process of scholarly review , saying , " They could make up your life if they wanted to . " Brann also said that Wikipedia " has no place in the University , " and he believed the Essjay incident would do nothing to change the unfavorable opinion that academics generally hold about the online encyclopedia . Students at Cornell indicated that they may continue to use Wikipedia as a quick source of information , though they would not cite it in scholarly work . Nicola Pratt , a lecturer in international relations at the University of East Anglia in England stated , " The ethos of Wikipedia is that anyone can contribute , regardless of status ... What 's relevant is their knowledge as judged by other readers , not whether they are professors or not — and the fact the student [ Essjay ] was exposed shows it works . " In 2009 , a lengthy article was published by the National Council of Teachers of English discussing the challenges of determining textual origins in college compositions , using a detailed history of the Essjay incident to set the context .
= Battle of the Kalka River = The Battle of the Kalka River ( Russian : Битва на реке Калке , Ukrainian : Битва на річці Калка ) was fought between the Mongol Empire — whose armies were led by Jebe and Subutai the Valiant — and a coalition of several Rus ' principalities , including Kiev and Galich , and the Cumans . They were under the joint command of Mstislav the Bold and Mstislav III of Kiev . The battle was fought on May 31 , 1223 on the banks of the Kalka River in present @-@ day Donetsk Oblast , Ukraine , and ended in a Mongol victory . Following the Mongol invasion of Central Asia and the subsequent collapse of the Khwarezmian Empire , a Mongol force under the command of generals Jebe and Subutai advanced into Iraq @-@ i Ajam . Jebe requested permission from the Mongolian emperor , Genghis Khan , to continue his conquests for a few years before returning to the main army via the Caucasus . While waiting for Genghis Khan 's reply , the duo set out on a raid in which they attacked Georgia and killed its king . Genghis Khan granted the duo permission to undertake their expedition , and after making their way through the Caucasus , they defeated a coalition of Caucasian tribes before defeating the Cumans . The Cuman Khan fled to the court of his son @-@ in @-@ law , Prince Mstislav the Bold of Galich , whom he convinced to help fight the Mongols . Mstislav the Bold formed an alliance of the Rus ' princes including Mstislav III of Kiev . The combined Rus ' army defeated the Mongol rearguard at first . The Rus ' pursued the Mongols — who were in a feigned retreat — for several days , which spread out their armies . The Mongols stopped and assumed battle formation on the banks of the Kalka River . Mstislav the Bold and his Cuman allies attacked the Mongols without waiting for the rest of the Rus ' army and were defeated . In the ensuing confusion , several other Rus ' princes were defeated , and Mstislav of Kiev was forced to retreat to a fortified camp . After holding for three days , he surrendered in return for a promise of safe conduct for himself and his men . Once they surrendered , however , the Mongols slaughtered them and executed Mstislav of Kiev . Mstislav the Bold escaped , and the Mongols went back to Asia , where they joined Genghis Khan . = = Background = = In 1219 , in retaliation for the murders of his ambassadors , the Mongol Khan , Genghis Khan , invaded the Khwarezmian Empire . In a campaign that lasted three years , Genghis Khan and his generals destroyed the Khwarezmian armies and caused the empire to disintegrate . The Khwarezmian Sultan Ala ad @-@ Din Muhammad succumbed to disease on an island in the Caspian Sea , leaving his son , Jalal ad @-@ Din Mingburnu landless . When Jebe ( one of the Mongol generals pursuing Muhammad ) heard of Ala ad @-@ Din Muhammad 's death , he asked Genghis Khan for a year or two to continue his conquests before returning to Mongolia via the Caucasus . While awaiting Genghis ' reply , Jebe and Subutai ( another general pursuing Muhammad ) led their army of 20 @,@ 000 men , with each general commanding a tumen . They left behind a trail of destruction as they moved through Persian Iraq ( Iraq @-@ i Ajam ) and Azerbaijan , sacking the cities of Rey , Zanjan and Qazvin . The city of Hamadan surrendered without a struggle . Meanwhile , Özbeg , the Atabeg of Azerbaijan , saved his capital , Tabriz , and prevented his country 's destruction by offering to the Mongols a large amount of money , clothing and horses , which were the Mongols ' best weapons . From Tabriz , the Mongols advanced north and made their winter base in the Mugan Steppes . There , the army was strengthened by the arrival of Kurdish and Turcoman freebooters , who offered their services to the Mongols . = = = Caucasus raid = = = At the same time , Jebe 's and Subutai 's attention had turned elsewhere . In January and February 1221 , they made a reconnaissance into the Kingdom of Georgia , entering through the Kura River . The goal of the Mongols was not to conquer the country but to plunder it , and the Kurds and Turcoman freebooters were sent off in the vanguard . However , the King of Georgia , George IV Lasha , advanced with 10 @,@ 000 men and drove the Mongols back near Tbilisi . The Mongols withdrew , but continued to launch counter @-@ attacks on the Georgian army . The Mongols then launched a full @-@ scale attack and defeated the Georgian army , which Richard Gabriel states was made up of 70 @,@ 000 men . In March 1221 , the Mongols returned to Azerbaijan and besieged Maragheh , using prisoners as the vanguard to take the brunt of each assault on the city . By the end of the month , they had captured the city and put most of the population to death . Jebe and Subutai planned to advance south and capture Baghdad , the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate , and hold it for ransom while the Caliph was in Iraq @-@ i Ajam with a small army . Instead , the Mongols turned once again to Hamadan . This time , however , the city 's leaders failed to surrender , and its defenders inflicted many casualties upon the Mongol forces before their capture and plunder of the city . In late 1221 , the Mongols advanced north into Georgia once again , entering through the Kura River . A Georgian army was waiting near Tbilisi , and when Subutai advanced , he feigned retreat . At this point , the Georgian cavalry followed Subutai 's army into an ambush set by Jebe . The Georgian army suffered a heavy defeat , and King George was mortally wounded . The Mongols proceeded to plunder southern Georgia . = = Prelude = = Genghis Khan eventually granted Jebe permission and with Subutai as his second @-@ in @-@ command , the Mongols advanced to the city of Derbent , which refused to surrender . Jebe promised to spare the city in return for the services of 10 guides to take them through the Caucasus . To warn the guides against playing any tricks , the Mongols executed one of them . The crossing of the Caucasus was costly for the Mongols , who had to abandon their siege engines and lost hundreds of men to the cold . After making it through the Caucasus , the Mongols were met by an alliance consisting of the Lezgians , the Alans and the Cherkesses , tribes who were living north of the Caucasus who had mustered an army of around 50 @,@ 000 men . They were joined by the Cumans , a Turkic people who owned an expansive khanate stretching from Lake Balkhash to the Black Sea . The Cumans also convinced the Volga Bulgars and Khazars to join . The Cuman Khan , Koten , placed his army under the command of his brother , Yuri , and his son , Daniel . The first battle between the league and the Mongols was indecisive , but the Mongols managed to persuade the Cuman to abandon the alliance by reminding them of the Turkic @-@ Mongol friendship and promising them a share of the booty gained from the Caucasian tribes . With this arrangement settled , the Mongols attacked the alliance 's army and routed it . The Mongols then proceeded to attack the Cumans , who had split into two separate groups as they were returning home , destroying both armies and executing all the prisoners before sacking Astrakhan . The Mongols began pursuing the Cumans as they fled in a north @-@ westerly direction . The Venetians sent a delegation to the Mongols , and they concluded an alliance in which it was agreed that the Mongols would destroy any other European trading post they came across . As the Mongols pursued the Cumans , Jebe sent a detachment to Crimea , where the Republic of Genoa had trading stations . The Mongols captured and plundered the Genoese city of Soldaia . Meanwhile , Koten fled to the court of his son @-@ in @-@ law , Prince Mstislav the Bold of Galich . He warned Mstislav : " Today the Mongols have taken our land and tomorrow they will take yours " . However , the Cumans were ignored for almost a year as the Rus had suffered from Cumans raids for decades . But when news reached Kiev that the Mongols were marching along the Dniester River , the Rus responded . Mstislav gathered an alliance of the Kievan Rus ' princes including Mstislav III of Kiev and Prince Yuri II of Vladimir @-@ Suzdal , who promised support . The Rus princes then began mustering their armies and going towards the rendezvous point . = = Battle = = = = = Initial moves = = = The number of men present at the battle is disputed . A major factor in this is the fact that no primary sources give the number of men present at the battle , which leaves modern historians to estimate the number of men . Historian Leo de Hartog gives the size of the Rus ' army as 30 @,@ 000 , while Richard Gabriel and Hector Hugh Munro claim that the size of the Rus ' army was 80 @,@ 000 @.@ de Hartog also estimates the size of the Mongol army as 20 @,@ 000 , while Gabriel estimates that it was around 23 @,@ 000 men . However , historian John Fennell , an expert on Kievan Rus and early Russian history , and one well @-@ versed in the primary sources , calls many of these figures into doubt , saying the numbers given in the Russian sources ( there are no Mongol or Polovtsian sources , at least none that have survived , and other sources from other cultures , if they exist , are rather dubious ) are formulaic or exaggerated and the chronicles contradict themselves . The move by the Rus ' army was detected by the Mongols , who were on the east side of the Dnieper River waiting for reinforcements from Jochi , Genghis Khan 's eldest son , who was campaigning around the Aral Sea . Jochi , however , had become ill , which meant no reinforcements would be coming . At the same time , the Rus ' attempted to trap the Mongols . The princes of Galich and Volhynia transported their armies south down the river , while the princes of Kiev and Chernigov advanced north up the river , and the army of Kursk advanced from the front . At the same time , the Cumans attempted to attack the Mongol army 's rear . When Jebe learned of this , he sent 10 envoys to the Prince of Kiev . The envoys stated that the Mongols had no feud with the Rus and were only attacking the Cumans ; they added that the Mongols were marching east , away from the Rus ' cities . Mstislav of Kiev had the envoys executed , and the Mongols responded by sending another set of ambassadors , who declared war . When Jebe and Subutai heard of the Rus ' movements , they began moving east , away from the Rus , which was the only direction in which they could move . However , they left a rearguard of 1 @,@ 000 under the command of an officer , Hamabek , to report of the Rus movements . Soon , Mstislav the Bold reached the river opposite the rearguard , and it became apparent that no prince had been appointed commander @-@ in @-@ chief . Thus , all the princes could act as they pleased . Eventually , Mstislav crossed the river under heavy arrow fire . When the Rus landed , however , their numbers were too great , and the Mongols were killed to the last man . = = = Rus ' attack = = = After drawing out the Rus armies for nine days in a feigned retreat , the Mongol army turned to face their pursuers along the Kalka River ( the river 's location is currently unknown , but it is thought to be the Kalchik River which flows into the Sea of Azov ) . The Russian primary sources give only a very general account of the battle itself and the pursuit of the princes back across the steppe . The chronicles name which princes took part and which died , but not much more in terms of the size of armies or casualties . As to the actual battle itself , the chronicles report that the Polovtsy broke and ran without having fought and that their flight through the Russian ranks led to mass confusion and resulted in their slaughter by the Mongols . = = = Rus ' defeat = = = The armies of Volhynia and Kursk made a gap in their line so that the fleeing Cumans could retreat . However , the Mongol heavy cavalry charged through the newly formed gap . The army of Chernigov , which was not aware that the battle had started , was advancing when they collided head @-@ on with the retreating Cumans . The Mongol cavalry took advantage of the confusion in the Chernigov line and attacked , causing the line to collapse . This , in turn , led to the death of Prince Mstislav of Chernigov . At the same time , the Mongol wings closed around the shattered Rus ' army , cutting off its retreat . The surrounded Rus ' were hit by volley after volley , accompanied by occasional cavalry charges . As the Mongols were carrying this annihilation out , some of the army – led by Mstislav the Bold – managed to cut their way through the Mongol ring and escape . Mstislav of Kiev arrived to see what remained of the Rus ' army fleeing . With his contingent of 10 @,@ 000 men , he retreated to his stockaded camp , on a hill by the Dnieper . The pursuing Mongol army caught up with Mstislav of Kiev 's forces and started to besiege the camp . = = = The intervention of Brodnici = = = Mstislav of Kiev and the Kievan army managed to hold out for three days , but were eventually forced to surrender to Ploscânea . But Ploscânea deceived the Slavs and gave them to Tatars ; Ploscânea initially was allied with Slavs and Cumans and was the leader of Brodnici , people from a territory of today Moldova and Romania . Once in control of the camp , the Mongols slaughtered the Kievan army including Mstislav of Kiev and several other nobles prisoners . = = Aftermath = = The battle was a very costly defeat for the Rus ' princes , with Richard Gabriel claiming that they lost 50 @,@ 000 men , while the Mongol losses were minimal . Out of the Rus ' primary sources , The Primary Chronicle gives a number of 10 @,@ 000 killed while the much later ( and much less reliable ) Nikonian Chronicle cites 60 @,@ 000 killed . The Novgorodian First Chronicle ( the most reliable ) , contemporary to the battle , gives no figures at all . Out of the Rus ' princes , the wounded Daniel of Volhynia and Mstislav the Bold managed to escape the battle . This battle was a significant defeat , given that many of the Rus principalities lost much of their armies , with the notable exception of Vladimir @-@ Suzdal . Historian Robert Marshall describes the raid as follows : " The rest of Subutai 's campaign has entered the annals of military history as one of the greatest adventures of cavalry warfare . " The Mongols executed Mstislav of Kiev and the Kievan nobles with the traditional Mongol caveat reserved for royalty and nobility : without shedding blood . Mstislav and his nobles were buried and suffocated under the Mongol general 's victory platform at the victory feast . Meanwhile , Mstislav the Bold managed to reach the western side of the Dnieper with what remained of his army . To stop the Mongols from crossing to the western side of the Dnieper , Mstislav destroyed all the boats he could find . What the Rus ' feared would happen did not as the Mongols pursued the Prince of Galich and plundered a few towns in the south before turning around . The Mongol army crossed the Volga River near modern @-@ day Volgograd and passed through Volga Bulgaria , where they were defeated in an ambush by the Bulgars . The Mongol army encountered the Bulgars in another battle in which they routed the Bulgars . The Mongols followed this up by attacking the Kanglis Cumans , who had supported their fellow Cumans in the Caucasus a year before . They fought against the Cuman army near the Ural Mountains , defeating and killing the Khan before making them pay tribute . Following this victory , the Mongols turned east and met Genghis Khan and the rest of the Mongol army in the steppes to the east of the Syr Darya River . Genghis Khan showed great appreciation for his general 's achievements and heaped praise on Jebe and Subutai . Jebe , however , did not survive the campaign long ; he died soon afterwards . The importance of the expedition was immense . The expedition was history 's longest cavalry raid , with the Mongols riding 5 @,@ 500 miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ) in three years . Subutai also stationed numerous spies in Russia , who provided frequent reports on what was happening in Europe and Russia . In 1237 Subutai together with Batu led another attack , and with 120 @,@ 000 men conquered the Kievan Rus ' . = = = Printed sources = = = Boldur , Alexandru ( 1992 ) . " Istoria Basarabiei " Editura Victor Frunză , București . Cross , Samuel Hazzard , and Olgerd P. Sherbowitz @-@ Wetzor , trans . ( 1953 ) . Russian Primary Chronicle . Lavrentian Text Cambridge , MA : Medieval Academy of America . Fennell , John ( 1983 ) . The Crisis of Medieval Russia 1200 – 1304 . London and New York : Longman . ISBN 0 @-@ 582 @-@ 48150 @-@ 3 Gabriel , Richard ( 2004 ) . Subotai The Valiant : Genghis Khan 's Greatest General . Praeger Publishers . ISBN 0 @-@ 275 @-@ 97582 @-@ 7 de Hartog , Leo ( 1989 ) . Genghis Khan : Conqueror of the World . I.B.Tauris. ISBN 1 @-@ 85043 @-@ 139 @-@ 6 Jackson , Peter ( 2005 ) . The Mongols and the West , 1221 – 1410 . Pearson Education Limited . ISBN 0 @-@ 582 @-@ 36896 @-@ 0 Marshall , Robert ( 1993 ) . Storm from the East : From Genghis Khan to Khubilai Khan . University of California Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 08300 @-@ 8 Martin , Janet ( 1995 ) . Medieval Russia : 980 – 1584 . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 36276 @-@ 8 Michell , Robert , and Neville Forbes , eds. and trans . ( 1914 ) . The Chronicle of Novgorod ( 1914 ) . London : Camden Society . Hugh Munro , Hector ( 1900 ) . The Rise of the Russian Empire . G. Richards . Wallace , Robert ( 1967 ) . Rise of Russia . Time @-@ Life Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 900658 @-@ 37 @-@ 1 = = = Online sources = = = The Chronicle of Novgorod online : http : / / faculty.washington.edu / dwaugh / rus / texts / MF1914.pdf Rossabi , Morris ( October 2004 ) . " All the Khan 's horses " ( PDF ) . Columbia University . Retrieved 2008 @-@ 04 @-@ 04 .
= Drakengard ( series ) = Drakengard , known as Drag @-@ On Dragoon in Japan , is a series of action role @-@ playing video games . The eponymous first game in the series was released in 2003 on the PlayStation 2 , and has since been followed by a sequel , a prequel and a spin @-@ off . It was conceived by Takamasa Shiba and Takuya Iwasaki as a gameplay hybrid between Ace Combat and Dynasty Warriors 2 . The story was created by Shiba , Iwasaki , Taro Yoko and Sawako Natori , who were influenced by European folklore and popular anime series and movies of the day . Shiba , Yoko and Sawako have had involvement in every entry of the series since its debut . The setting of the main series is a Northern European @-@ style dark fantasy world where humans and creatures from myth and legends live side by side , while the spin @-@ off game is set in an alternate reality leading from one of the first game 's possible endings . The stories generally focus on the fortunes and personalities of a small group of protagonists either directly or indirectly connected to and affected by the events of the story . Dark or mature plot and character themes and multiple endings have become a staple of the series . Their popularity in Japan has resulted in multiple adaptions and additional media in the form of novelizations and manga . The series is considered highly popular in Japan , having sold well and gained a cult following , though it appears to be a niche series in Western territories . The main games have become noted for their dark storylines and mixture of ground @-@ based and aerial combat , while Nier stood out because of its mixture of gameplay styles . The series has received mixed to positive reception in both Japan and the West : the majority of praise has been given to its story and characters , while the gameplay has come in for criticisms for being repetitive or poorly designed . = = Common elements = = = = = Setting = = = The Drakengard games take place in a dark fantasy version of Medieval Europe called Midgard . Humans appear to be the predominant species , although races such as dragons , fairies and elves are shown to exist . The setting , mythos and landscape borrow extensively from the lore of Northern Europe . The world is overseen by a group of unnamed gods who have yet to make a personal appearance . The gods are served by beings known as the Watchers , entities created to destroy humanity because they are considered a failure . The Watchers are kept from entering the world with the seals , which act to keep the world in balance : should the seals be destroyed , the Watchers would enter the world and destroy humanity . At the core of the seals is the Goddess of the Seal , a mortal virgin female chosen and branded with the final seal : if all the seals are destroyed , all that stands between the Watchers and the world is the death of the Goddess herself . A core element of the Drakengard universe is the ability for humans and beasts to form a Pact , a magical bond which links their souls and grants the human partner great power at the cost of some physical ability or personal trait ( their voice , singing abilities , etc . ) . Pacts are normally entered into by beasts so they can feed off negative emotions , but sometimes they will enter a pact for other reasons . A recurring element across the series is the representation of magic using the Celestial Alphabet , with a common letter arrangement representing the human gene . The universe of the Drakengard series is split between multiple timelines . Events in those timelines are separate , but they can overlap . The core timeline is formed from Drakengard and its sequel . Drakengard 3 acts as the first game 's prequel , but most of its events take place in separate timelines leading to different outcomes . In Drakengard 3 , a malevolent flower uses servants called the Intoners , women gifted with the power to use magic through song , as instruments of humanity 's destruction . In Drakengard , which succeeds the a fifth version of Drakengard 3 's events detailed in a supplementary novel , the Watchers use a group known as the Cult of Watchers to spark a religious war and destroy the seals . In Drakengard 2 , the Watchers continue to use the former head of the cult to destroy the new seals , while the dragons prepare to usurp the gods and rule over the world . Nier is set in an alternate reality created by events stemming from Drakengard 's fifth ending : in this reality , the world was decimated by a plague created by the magical beings who came through the portal , bringing humanity to the brink of extinction . Nier : Automata takes place after the fourth ending of Nier , featuring appearances and mentions of characters from both Nier and the Drakengard games . = = = Gameplay = = = The Drakengard games feature a mix of action @-@ based hack @-@ and @-@ slash combat during ground @-@ based battles and aerial combat mixed in with RPG leveling mechanics . In the original , the player guides the characters around ground @-@ based battles to combat small groups of enemy units . In aerial combat , the player takes control of the protagonist 's dragon partner . In these situations , the dragon can either lock onto a target and unleash a barrage of small fireballs , or the player can manually aim and fire large bursts of flame , which do more damage but do not home in on a target . Basic gameplay changed little for Drakengard 2 , but there are some differences and additions , such as weapon types being tied to the character they are associated with , with changing them also swapping the character . The dragon gameplay remained virtually unchanged , apart from the ability , during air @-@ ground missions , for the dragon to swoop down on a group of enemies in a special attack depicted in a short cutscene . In Nier and Drakengard 3 , the player controls the main protagonist with two other characters acting as AI @-@ controlled supports . Drakengard 3 was designed to be a faster experience than the previous games , with the protagonist being given a special hyper @-@ mode and the ability to freely switch between weapons without pausing the action . Aerial gameplay was also changed , with the dragon now capable of ground combat . Nier , while featuring similar hack @-@ and @-@ slash combat , also includes other gameplay types such as a top @-@ down view for puzzle areas , 2D style areas for buildings or similar structures . Side @-@ quests were also added , which often involved fetch quests , fishing and farming . = = = Themes and influences = = = One of the running narrative themes for the main series is Immorality , which also became the key character theme and was expressed through their personalities and actions . The second game also focused on themes of war and death . The theme for the world of Drakengard 3 , as described by composer Keiichi Okabe , is " the sense of contrast " . Multiple anime series have influenced the series ' characters over the years , including Neon Genesis Evangelion , Sister Princess and Puella Magi Madoka Magica . The series writer , Sawako Natori , drew inspiration for her writing from shōnen manga . The original game world was designed around Celtic and Norse myths , together with Japanese @-@ style revisionism . The team for the original game were influenced by Asian epic movies and western action @-@ adventure films such as the 1999 remake of The Mummy and Dragonheart . While developing Nier , the team drew inspiration from the God of War series , while the narrative structure was inspired by the September 11 attacks and the War on Terror . The central theme of Nier : Automata is struggling out of a bad situation , defined by the game 's staff using the Japanese word " agaku " . = = Games = = = = = Related media = = = The games received multiple adaptations and additional story content in the form of novelizations , manga and supplementary material . The first game received two novelizations : Drag @-@ On Dragoon : Side Story on November 28 , 2003 , and Drag @-@ On Dragoon : Magnitude " Negative " on January 23 , 2004 . The first book was written by Emi Nagashima , writing under her penname of Jun Eishima , and the second by Takashi Aizawa . The novelization of Drakengard 2 , written again by Nagashima , was released on September 30 , 2005 . Nagashima wrote character stories and manga for Drakengard 3 leading up to that game 's release . The manga were Drag @-@ On Dragoon : Utahime Five , a prequel following the game 's main antagonists , and Drag @-@ On Dragoon : Shi ni Itaru Aka , which acts as a sequel although for the branch A as it along with branch 's B , C , and D lead to alternative timelines . A book detailing the narrative connection between Drakengard 3 and Drakengard , titled Drag @-@ On Dragoon 3 Story Side , which serves as the fifth branch similar to the events of B and D , narrated by Brother One was released on 28 August 2014 . Drag @-@ On Dragoon 3 Complete Guide + Setting , a complete guide to the game with extra features explaining the game chronology and a novella set after the events of Shi ni Itaru Aka , was published by ASCII Media Works in 2014 . Nier was expanded after release with a CD drama which told of events immediately after the events of Drakengard 's fifth ending , and a supplementary book titled Grimoire Nier containing extra stories and concept art alongside a fifth ending for the game . Square Enix also paired up with WildStorm to create a digital comic which detailed the backstories of the game 's characters and world . = = Development = = = = = History = = = The idea for Drakengard originated in 1999 between Takamasa Shiba and Takuya Iwasaki . The gameplay was conceived as a blend of elements from Ace Combat and Dynasty Warriors 2 . The team developing the game went under the moniker " Project Dragonsphere " . The team was joined by director Taro Yoko , who was the main drive behind the game 's dark atmosphere . It was Shiba 's first project as a producer . As Yoko was told there would not be a sequel , multiple endings were created . When it was localized and released in the west , references to things such as sexual taboos were censored . In addition , the title was changed , as Drag @-@ On Dragoon was considered wrong for a western audience . Drakengard was considered enough of a success that a sequel was commissioned . Multiple staff members returned for the creation of the second game , although Yoko was mostly tied up with other projects and was replaced as director by Akira Yasui . Yoko still had a role in development , and he and Yasui had creative clashes during development . Yasui ended up making Drakengard 2 the thematic opposite of the previous game , employing a lighter tone and broader color palate . Nier originated when Yoko and Shiba teamed up to create a third Drakengard game . As the project continued , it became more detached from the main continuity and eventually developed into a spin @-@ off . Despite what it became , Yoko has stated that he considers Nier to be the true Drakengard 3 . After the release of Nier , Cavia closed down and was absorbed by AQ Interactive , then Taro Yoko left the company to pursue a wider range of projects . A stalled attempt to begin production of further games in the series at AQ Interactive was blamed by Shiba on a prevalent trend at the time for light @-@ weight games for the general gaming community . Later , Yoko and Shiba came together again to create a proper second sequel to Drakengard , with the intention of creating a hard core RPG for the fanbase . Unlike the previous games in the series , Drakengard 3 was developed by Access Games , a developer whose noted games included Deadly Premonition , and brought in team members used to creating action games . During the run @-@ up to Drakengard 3 's release , both Yoko and Shiba expressed their willingness to continue the series on the PlayStation 4 if the latest game was enough of a success . Speaking in 2014 after the game 's release , Yoko stated that the series was on hold due to lack of funds . A new Nier game was revealed to be in development at Square Enix and PlatinumGames . = = = Writing and character design = = = The stories of the original game 's characters were written by Yoko , Shiba and Iwasaki , while the main game script was written by Sawako Natori , who would go on to co @-@ write the main scenarios for future Drakengard games . Yoko designed the darker elements to both contrast and actively compete with the likes of Dragon Quest and Final Fantasy . Yoko conceived the " insane " characters around the premise that people who killed hundreds of people in pursuit of their goals and took satisfaction from it were naturally insane . During the production of Nier , his focus changed to writing a story where everyone believed they were in the right whatever their actions . Through the series , Yoko has also been attempting to answer the question of why people are driven to kill . Although some of the dark narrative themes were kept for Drakengard 2 , many of the other narrative elements were made more mainstream . Drakengard 3 was intended to return to a dark aesthetic , but also to include moments of humor and tie in with Nier . The character designer for nearly all entries in the series is Kimihiko Fujisaka . Initially a minor staff member at Cavia , the team were impressed by his skill as an amateur artist and he was recommended for the post of character designer for the game . The designs for both the characters and the world were influenced by armor and clothing of Medieval Europe . He returned in the same capacity for Drakengard 2 , and later for Nier . Disliking some of his initial designs for Drakengard , he took the opportunity to remodel them more to his liking for the arcade game Lord of Vermilion . For Nier 's international release , the protagonist was redesigned from a teenager to an adult character . This was because the publishers felt an older character would appeal more to western players . In Drakengard 3 , Fujisaka designed the protagonist Zero around the dark themes of the game , although some unusual elements were nearly cut . The other female characters were inspired by Puella Magi Madoka Magica , while the male characters , considered a low priority , were designed around male archetypes and approved quickly . For Nier : Automata , the designs were handled by Akihiko Yoshida , an artist noted for his work on the Final Fantasy series . While he was initially expected to refuse , he agreed as several staff at his company CyDesignation were fans of Nier . For his designs , Yoko requested he focus on smooth outlines and black coloring . = = = Music = = = The first game 's soundtrack was created by Nobuyoshi Sano and Takayuki Aihara . The two created the score using samples from well @-@ known classical composers . The second game 's soundtrack was composed by Ryoki Matsumoto and Aoi Yoshiki , who had never before been involved with video game soundtracks . The game 's Japanese theme song , Hitori , was sung by Mika Nakashima . The music for Nier was composed by Keiichi Okabe , who composed the soundtrack as something different from the main series , and to directly reflect the sombre tone of the game 's setting and story . Singer Emi Evans ( Emiko Rebecca Evans ) wrote and sung the vocal tracks , and performed many tracks in different languages , including an invented one for one of the tracks . Okabe returned to compose the soundtrack for Drakengard 3 : in an interview , he stated that , in composing the music , he tried to emulate the work of the earlier composer without imitating them . He also commented that the result was very unlike the traditional Square Enix game . The game features two theme songs : " Black Song " , performed by Eir Aoi , and " This Silence is Mine " , the game 's theme song proper , written and sung by Chihiro Onitsuka . Okabe is again providing the music for Nier Automata , with singer Emi Evans also returning . = = Reception = = The Drakengard series has received mixed to positive reviews over the years . So far , the original Drakengard has received the most positive response . Nier has the highest aggregate score overall so far for the PS3 version of the game and slightly lower scores for the Xbox 360 version . Drakengard 2 and Drakengard 3 have received lower scores . Each title in the series has received favorable review scores from Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu . The common point of praise for the series through most of its life has been the story . While individual aspects have come in for criticism , the dark atmospheres , unconventional characters and general scenarios have been cited as one of each game 's strengths . Despite some mixed feelings from reviewers either for the story as a whole or certain aspects of it , the characters and plot of Drakengard 3 have also been praised . The major exception is Drakengard 2 : the story 's lighter tone and more traditional narrative were noted and sometimes criticized for being overly simplistic or too similar to other games in the genre . The Drakengard characters have remained popular in Japan , with Dengeki holding a popularity contest for those characters to celebrate the series ' tenth anniversary and the announcement of Drakengard 3 . Among the most popular characters were the first game 's main protagonists , Caim and Angelus ( the former having earned the nickname Prince ( 王子 , ouji ) among fans ) . The characters of Drakengard 3 have also proved to be highly popular . The gameplay has so far come in for major criticism , with the original title 's aerial and ground @-@ based gameplay being seen as repetitive and dull , although some reviewers found it entertaining . Drakengard 2 also came in for such criticism , although minor improvements were cited . In contrast , the gameplay of Drakengard 3 was generally praised or seen as an improvement upon the previous two entries , though the dragon @-@ riding segments came in for criticisms for difficult controls . Opinions were divided on Nier 's unconventional mix of gameplay styles from multiple game genres , with some praising the variety and others seeing it as poorly executed . The series as a whole has gained a cult following in Japan . Each game has sold relatively well in its home market . The original game was a commercial success , selling over 120 @,@ 000 units in the first week of release and eventually selling over 240 @,@ 000 copies in Japan . Drakengard 2 's first @-@ week sales were similarly impressive , selling 100 @,@ 000 units . It sold over 203 @,@ 000 copies by the end of 2005 . Drakengard 3 sold just over 15 @,@ 000 units in its first week , and over 150 @,@ 000 units by May 2014 . The two versions of Nier — Gestalt and Replicant — sold roughly 12 @,@ 500 and 60 @,@ 000 copies in their first week respectively . Replicant eventually sold over 121 @,@ 000 in Japan by the end of May 2010 . The series has sold over 770 @,@ 000 units in Japan as of May 2014 . Sales figures for western regions are unavailable . The first two games in the main series have both been included in Square Enix 's Ultimate Hits series , re @-@ releases of popular titles developed or published by them .
= Wong Fu Productions = Wong Fu Productions is an Asian American filmmaking group composed of Wesley Chan ( born April 27 , 1984 ) , Ted Fu ( born October 26 , 1981 ) , and Philip Wang ( born October 28 , 1984 ) . The trio met at the University of California , San Diego in 2004 and produced a number of music videos and short films released on their website and later YouTube before establishing a professional media company , Sketchbook Media , after their graduation . Their works have been featured at a number of national and international film festivals , including the Los Angeles Asian Pacific Film Festival , San Diego Asian Film Festival and the Cannes Film Festival . As of August 31 , 2015 , Wong Fu Productions ' YouTube channel has over 2 @.@ 5 million subscribers and over 384 million video views . = = History = = According to Philip Wang , Wong Fu Productions was unofficially established in 2001 during his high school junior year at Northgate High School ( Walnut Creek , California ) . Wang mainly utilised his family 's digital camcorder to film school projects in collaboration with classmates . The name Wong Fu is a nickname that Philip was given when he was in the seventh grade . In his first year as an undeclared freshman at the University of California , San Diego ( UCSD ) , Wang and his friends released a music video of Justin Timberlake 's song " Señorita " . It was the first music video produced by Wang and , although he did not actively promote it , the video was quickly circulated among other fellow college students . The video was circulated in its original computer file format because it was released prior to the advent of the video sharing website YouTube . In 2004 , Wang met classmates Wesley Chan ( graduated from Mills High School in 2002 ) and Ted Fu through a school production , and the trio began working on small scale projects in their spare time and for class assignments . They did not originally consider filmmaking as a career when they entered university ; Chan explored an interest in animation , Fu had been a student in electrical engineering and Wang considered a career in economics . After graduation in 2006 , the three moved to the Los Angeles area and continued their venture under the professional name Sketchbook Media . After approximately five years , Wong Fu Productions garnered 1 million subscribers in 2011 . On June 8 , 2013 , Wong Fu Productions celebrated their 10 year anniversary and produced a 13 minute short on June 29 featuring Christine Chen , the surrounding cast of Wong Fu , and many familiar faces , including Ryan Higa , Dominic Sandoval ( D @-@ Trix ) , Kevin Wu ( KevJumba ) , Freddie Wong , Brandon Laatsch , Joe Penna ( MysteryGuitarMan ) and the Fung Brothers . = = Notable productions = = Wong Fu Productions was initially known for its independent music videos of contemporary hit songs such as Maroon 5 's " Sunday Morning " and Jason Mraz 's " I 'm Yours " . Wong Fu released its first major short film called Yellow Fever on January 25 , 2006 . The film , which satirized the topic of interracial dating between Asian Americans and White Americans , brought Wong Fu into recognition among many college students in the United States . A Moment with You , the group 's first feature @-@ length film , premiered on June 3 , 2006 , at their alma mater . It was also screened at the San Diego Asian Film Festival on October 18 , 2006 . The film revolves around two neighbors who share similar romantic situations , in which one person in each relationship cannot let go of his or her past . " A Moment with You " was promoted through a screening tour at high schools and universities around the United States and Canada . In a review for the Massachusetts Institute of Technology 's student newspaper The Tech , Tina Ro wrote , " Despite its large Asian fan base , Wongfu 's [ sic ] movie has a cast of equal numbers of Asians and Caucasians . Furthermore , all the characters were shaped by their own characteristics rather than by their race , a refreshing concept for a movie . " According to The Daily Texan 's Katherine Fan , A Moment with You featured a " more mature , introspective mood than their previous work . " Following the success of A Moment with You , Wong Fu was approached to create a second film called Sleep Shift . However , the project was abandoned after producers disagreed with casting an Asian male in the film 's lead role . Since the end of its first tour , Wong Fu has created music videos for rising artists and continued producing short films . The group 's merchandise line , which included original T @-@ shirt designs , was launched in conjunction with the 2007 film Just a Nice Guy . The short film The Spare was featured at the 2008 San Francisco International Asian American Film Festival , and two additional short films — At Musing 's End and A Peace of Home — were shown at the 2009 Cannes Film Festival Short Films Corner . In September 2009 , Wong Fu released the short film Poser ! , a mockumentary on the history of the peace sign . As of November 2009 , Wong Fu Productions has created more than 130 short films and music videos . Because the group does not require a fee to view its films , it gains a salary from being a YouTube partner , draws profits from merchandise sales , public speaking on university campuses , and music video production for rising Asian American artists . In May 2010 , Wong Fu Productions and Ryan Higa opened talks about creating a major film . The movie was filmed in a one @-@ week period during the summer , and was released to the public on November 23 , while being released on YouTube a day later as Agents of Secret Stuff. starring Ryan Higa and Arden Cho . On September 7 , 2011 , Wong Fu Productions announced that they have been hired by multiplatinum Taiwanese pop singer Wang Leehom to direct his upcoming music video " Still In Love With You " . = = = International Secret Agents = = = In the addition to the group 's filmmaking career , Wong Fu Productions has organized a series of multidisciplinary concerts in California . The concert series , International Secret Agents ( ISA ) , featured musical disciplines from urban dance to deejaying with Asian American guest artists such as Far East Movement . Additional guest performances included America 's Best Dance Crew champions Quest Crew and Poreotics , Ryan Higa ( aka Nigahiga ) , Kevin Wu ( aka KevJumba ) , Jay Park , and singers – songwriters David Choi and Kina Grannis . According to Chinese American rapper Jin , " ISA is about self @-@ branding and viral marketing — using YouTube , MySpace , Facebook , and the Internet to promote yourself as an artist . " He asserted , " We as artists are aware of this and make ourselves available [ on these mediums ] . " Far East Movement member Virman Coquia said , " We want to give back to the community to show that Asians can have an influence today in the U.S. " Additionally , Coquia believed that ISA presented the opportunity to present Asian American talent as cool and mainstream . The first ISA concert was held in September 2008 at the San Gabriel Mission Playhouse in Los Angeles . A second concert was held in March 2009 at the Palace of Fine Arts in San Francisco , and both events were attended by a sold @-@ out crowd . The concert returned to Los Angeles in September 2009 and was sponsored by department store J. C. Penney . In 2010 , ISA was held in New York City for the first time . Wong Fu has also expressed interest in holding future ISA concerts in Washington , D.C. They also had another ISA concert in Los Angeles on September 5 . Playing up the name " International Secret Agents , " The LA leg of the 2010 ISA Concert was filled with surprises as secret guests like Nick Cannon showed up to join the performers on stage . On March 30 , 2013 , ISA held and filmed their first game show at YouTube Space Los Angeles . The event had several famous YouTubers including Anthony Lee , Brandon Laatsch , Clara C , David Choi , Freddie Wong , Jen Chae Buescher ( FrmHeadToToe ) , Mike Song , Ted Fu , Wesley Chan as players , Kevin Wu as the gamemaster named Yoshi , and Amy Okuda and Philip Wang as the hosts . = = = Everything Before Us = = = Everything Before Us is the first feature film of Wong Fu Productions . Released 23 April 2015 over Vimeo , the film was directed by Phillip Wang and Wesley Chan . The film tells the story of two couples in the near future where the Department of Emotional Integrity ( D.E.I. ) issues ' relationship scores ' , somewhat like a credit score , that affect couples ' everyday choices . With a nearly all @-@ Asian cast , some of its stars include Aaron Yoo , Brittany Ishibashi , Brandon Soo Hoo , Victoria Park , Randall Park , and Ki Hong Lee . Funding for the film was crowd @-@ sourced from Wong Fu 's fans via Indiegogo , and the film 's premiere release was held at the Los Angeles Asian Pacific Film Festival . = = Impact = = Short films released by Wong Fu Productions have received , cumulatively , millions of views , and the group has several thousand fans . According to Wang , the group 's website received 5 @,@ 000 daily hits in 2009 . He expected the audience size to grow " as online video becomes part of everyday life for the up @-@ and @-@ coming generation of movie @-@ watchers " but believed that movie theaters will not become obsolete . University of Southern California digital media expert David Wertheimer also believed that " Wong Fu 's use of new media to tell their community stories and build a business is the wave of the future . " The group 's success has allowed for growth in the popularity of Asian American comedians who promote themselves primarily through YouTube , such as Kevin Wu ( KevJumba ) , Ryan Higa ( Nigahiga ) , Christine Gambito ( HappySlip ) , and David Choi . Although grateful for the group 's success and popularity , Wang said , " Some people who go to film school , they 'll make something great but it 's only seen by like , two hundred people [ ... ] It 's kind of not fair . " In a feature by CNN , newscaster Ted Rowlands reported that Wong Fu 's primary audience were " young Asian Americans who often can 't find accurate depictions of themselves in mainstream media " . Through its films , Wong Fu Productions hoped to break the different stereotypes of Asian Americans . Despite this goal , Wong Fu 's films were inspired by the members ' life experiences rather than racial experiences . The group also does not promote political messages through their works but , rather , raises " many APA issues that we feel would fit our brand and image . " They are often considered role models for Asian Americans aspiring to enter the entertainment industry . In response to this , group member Ted Fu said , " We actually didn 't set out to be the ' heroes ' of Asian Americans . It just happened by accident . But now that we 're given this huge responsibility , almost , I feel like it 's our duty to take it seriously . " Wong Fu presented " one of the most antipicated workshops " on sustaining an independent production company at the 2008 Intercollegiate Taiwanese American Students Association Midwest Conference . They were also the keynote speakers at the Intercollegiate Taiwanese American Students Association 2010 West Coast Conference , which was hosted at their alma mater , UC San Diego . In February 2012 , Wang and Chan flew from Los Angeles to Malaysia for the first leg of their Southeast Asia Tour , meeting and greeting over 1000 fans . They were also aired LIVE on HITZ fm , Malaysia 's leading English @-@ language station . In July 2012 , Chan gave the commencement speech at UC San Diego to the graduating class . In June 2016 , Philip Wang gave the commencement speech at UCSD to its graduating class .
= Wing Coaster = A Wing Coaster is a type of steel roller coaster manufactured by Bolliger & Mabillard where pairs of riders sit on either side of a roller coaster track in which nothing is above or below the riders . Development of the Wing Coaster began between 2007 and 2008 leading to the opening of Raptor at Gardaland , the world 's first Wing Coaster , on 1 April 2011 . There are currently eight Wing Coasters operating worldwide . = = History = = According to Walter Bolliger , development of the Wing Coaster began between 2007 and 2008 . In 2010 , Bolliger & Mabillard announced a prototype Wing Coaster design that would be built at Merlin Entertainments ' Gardaland . It became known as Raptor , which opened on 1 April 2011 . A year later , Merlin Entertainments opened a second Wing Coaster on 15 March 2012 , called The Swarm at Thorpe Park . In the United States , the first Wing Coaster to be announced was X @-@ Flight , which opened at Six Flags Great America on 16 May 2012 . Dollywood 's Wild Eagle actually opened earlier on 24 March 2012 , making it the first Wing Coaster in North America . On 13 August 2012 , Cedar Point announced plans to build a new Wing Coaster called GateKeeper , which set new records for a Wing Coaster including longest track length , fastest speed and drop height . The first Wing Coaster in Asia , Parrot Coaster , opened at Ocean Kingdom on 25 January 2014 . Thorpe Park announced that the last two rows of The Swarm would be turned backwards – a first for a Wing Coaster – for the 2013 season . On 24 July 2014 , Holiday World & Splashin ' Safari announced Thunderbird , the first launched Wing Coaster . = = Design = = The design of a Wing Coaster differs from many traditional steel roller coaster . Unlike many roller coasters , the trains for a Wing Coaster are not located above or below the track but rather on the sides . With the trains in this configuration , there is nothing above or below the riders giving the feeling that they are flying freely . Also , because there is nothing on top of the track and only steel beams holding each ends of the train together , all current Wing Coasters have an object ( that relates to the theme ) that covers the steel beams and adds to the experience . The restraints on the trains are also different . Instead of simply having the traditional over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraint bar as used on many inverted roller coasters , the Wing Coaster uses similar restraints as Bolliger & Mabillard 's Flying Coaster which includes a " cover " and a restraint that sits on the rider 's waist holding them in place with bars on the side for the rider to hold on to . The differences are not only within the train but also the layout of the station . This is because the layout of the station for a Wing Coaster requires the queue to split in two halves . This allows riders to board the train where the seats sit level with the track . = = Installations = = Bolliger & Mabillard has built eight Wing Coasters as of November 2015 . The roller coasters are listed in order of opening dates . = = Similar rides = = Prior to the development of the Wing Coaster , in 2007 , Intamin debuted a version of their Accelerator Coaster with modified trains similar to those used on 4th Dimension roller coasters and Wing Coasters . Known as a Wing Rider Coaster , Furius Baco at PortAventura was the first and currently only ride of its type . It launches riders from 0 to 135 kilometres per hour ( 84 mph ) in 3 @.@ 5 seconds with trains that seat six rows of four people ( two on either side of the track ) . In addition to the Wing Rider Coaster , Intamin has also introduced a model named Wing Coaster . The first installation was Skyrush at Hersheypark in 2012 . The trains feature 2 seats are still positioned over the track and have a floor , while 2 hang over the side which are the " wings " . The Wing Coaster is also similar to John F. Mares ' 4th Dimension roller coaster concept from the 1990s . However , unlike 4th Dimension roller coasters , cars on a Wing Coaster train do not spin — they are locked in place . Examples of 4th Dimension roller coasters include X2 at Six Flags Magic Mountain and Eejanaika at Fuji @-@ Q Highland .
= All Mixed Up ( Cougar Town ) = " All Mixed Up " is the first episode of the second season of the American television sitcom Cougar Town . It originally aired on September 22 , 2010 in the United States on ABC . In this episode , Jules ( Courteney Cox ) sees a therapist named Glenn ( Jennifer Aniston ) in order to relieve the stresses of her issues . Meanwhile , Bobby ( Brian Van Holt ) is troubled with the reality of Grayson 's ( Josh Hopkins ) relationship with Jules , and Travis ( Dan Byrd ) prepares for college . " All Mixed Up " was directed by co @-@ creator Bill Lawrence and written by Lawrence and fellow co @-@ creator Kevin Biegel . Aniston made a guest appearance in " All Mixed Up " , after a year of heavy speculation . Lawrence felt that her appearance marked a transition in viewership opinions on the show , and opined that the series had precluded from its original concept . The episode was well received by television commentators , who praised the storyline and Aniston 's performance . Upon initial airing , it attained 8 @.@ 35 million viewers and a 3 @.@ 3 / 9 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . " All Mixed Up " became the third highest @-@ rated episode of the series , and went on to become the highest @-@ rated installment of the season . = = Plot = = To help with the stresses of her various issues – understanding her new relationship with Grayson , dealing with Travis leaving for college , and trying to fit Bobby into her life – Jules ( Courteney Cox ) has started to see a new therapist , Glenn ( Jennifer Aniston ) . Jules is able to relate well to Glenn , particularly because Glenn seems to have a mother @-@ son bond with her son , Gabriel , as close as Jules has with Travis . Ellie ( Christa Miller ) is skeptical about Glenn 's qualifications , and jealous that Jules now prefers to talk about her problems with Glenn instead of her . Grayson ( Josh Hopkins ) decides that he wants to spend a day away from Jules for some space , sending Jules spiralling . She starts tracking down Glenn outside of therapy sessions to talk . Eventually , Jules discovers that Gabriel is not Glenn 's son , but rather a pet dog ; after the resulting argument , Glenn tells Jules to find another therapist . Jules then reverts to relying on Ellie for advice . Andy ( Ian Gomez ) discovers that a photograph of Jules on an advertising bench has been defaced , so he , Bobby ( Brian Van Holt ) and Grayson stake out the bench to catch the culprit . Grayson quickly realises that Bobby defaced the bench ; Bobby confides in Grayson that he 's not entirely comfortably yet with Grayson 's and Jules ' relationship , but insists that their friendship is still close . Laurie ( Busy Phillips ) bets Travis ( Dan Byrd ) twenty dollars that she can stay awake longer than him . Laurie cheats , taking naps at every possible opportunity , accepting that she will lose the bet , but enjoying the opportunity to mess with Travis . When the bet is over , they acknowledge how much they will miss each other when Travis leaves for college . = = Production = = Actress Jennifer Aniston made a guest appearance on " All Mixed Up " . Speculations of her appearance initially surfaced a year prior to the confirmation , and upon hearing of it , Cougar Town co @-@ creator Bill Lawrence initially supported such allegations . Lawrence stated that he announced that Aniston would appear on the television series , but had not contacted her or her representatives . Eventually , Lawrence averted away from his claims and stated that " nothing 's happened yet " . He continued in his interview with E ! Online : " I 'd kill to get Jennifer on the show , and if I had any inclination it was happening , I would be telling everybody ' cause I don 't really give a sh @-@ t . I would love it to happen and the second it did I would tell everybody in the world , but nothing 's happened . " Lawrence confirmed her appearance in July 2010 and revealed that Aniston attained the role of Bonnie , the psychiatrist for Jules . " Kind of a get @-@ too @-@ involved @-@ in @-@ her @-@ life @-@ type of therapist , " he retorted . " Those guys are so close in real life they kind of do that for each other anyway . Bonnie has the life Jules wishes she has . " Aniston had previously worked with Courteney Cox in the American sitcom Friends , and again on the serial drama Dirt . Aniston became the second cast member from Friends to appear on the television series , succeeding Lisa Kudrow , who previously appeared in the season one episode " Rhino Skin " , also playing the role of a medical professional ( specifically , a dermatologist ) . Cox wanted the show to establish itself before opting for an appearance by Aniston . Lawrence stated that it took a considerable length of time to lay on the foundation of Cougar Town ; " And once we did and once it was clicking , I think that not only did Courteney feel comfortable talking to Jen about doing it , but comfortable in how funny she thinks the show is and that Jen would like it and fit into this world really well . " He added : " It starts and ends with Courteney and Jennifer being really great friends and excited to work together again — especially doing comedy together . Every day that those two talk they have more ideas about [ the role ] . It 's definitely something they ’ re both involved in creatively . " Bill Lawrence expressed that he hoped that Aniston 's guest appearance would mark a turning point in viewership opinions , and felt that the show had distanced itself from its original concept . " I want as many people as I can get to see what the show kind of became last year , " Lawrence articulated . " It went from a typical TV show trying to find itself to something that I ’ m really proud of and like and think is really funny . " = = Reception = = " All Mixed Up " was originally broadcast on September 22 , 2010 in the United States on ABC . Upon airing , the episode garnered 8 @.@ 35 million viewers , despite airing simultaneously with episodes of Hell 's Kitchen on Fox , Criminal Minds on CBS , Law & Order : Special Victims Unit on NBC , and Hellcats on The CW . It attained a 3 @.@ 3 / 9 rating amongst people the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . " All Mixed Up " achieved the series ' highest total viewership in a year , and earned the highest rating in the 18 – 34 demographic of the night in its respective timeslot , garnering a 3 @.@ 0 / 9 rating . The episode became the third @-@ highest rated episode of Cougar Town , as well as the highest @-@ rated episode of its second season . " All Mixed Up " was well received by television critics . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club issued the episode a B + grade , and felt that the episode was superior to those of the show 's first season . He asserted : " Cougar Town hasn 't taken as big of a step up from season one to season two as it did from the first part of season one to the last part of season one . But the step from ' average ' to ' good ' was the easy part . Season two is the season where viewers are going to find out if the show has what it takes to make the small steps needed to get from ' good ' to ' great ' . There 's every indication that it 's on the way there in the premiere because it 's finally started to wrestle with some of the knottier questions at its center . " HitFix writer Alan Sepinwall opined that the show averted from its original premise ; " It 's become one of my favorite comedies , and whether you care about Aniston or not , tonight is a good time to sample it if you dismissed it last year because of the title , the original premise or some of those early episodes . " Commentators cited Jennifer Aniston 's appearance as the highlight of the episode . Entertainment Weekly 's Annie Barrett lauded the interactions between Aniston and Cox ; " Their interactions were along the lines of what I imagine it would have been like if Rachel 's character had suddenly decided she had become a wizard . " Kevin Fallon of The Atlantic echoed synonymous thoughts , and felt that Aniston 's performance reminded the audience of her star power . Fallon wrote : " Aniston 's performance was delightfully weird and offbeat — and comedically sharp , a welcome change from the generic and bland film roles she 's played in the years since Friends ended . Last night 's performance spotlighted her gifts as a character actress — and served as a frustrating reminder of what we 've been missing since she has [ all but ] abandoned that niche of acting . " Sepinwall expressed that Aniston " acquits herself just fine in the small role of Jules ' eccentric new therapist . She 's likable and daffy but never over @-@ the @-@ top . " Hollywood Life journalist Laura Schreffler was not as enthusiastic as the general consensus , avouching that Aniston 's guest appearance was overhyped and a " glorified cameo " . Schreffler added that Cox overshadowed her , asserting that she " is still way more hilarious " .
= The Phantom of the Opera ( 2004 film ) = The Phantom of the Opera is a 2004 British film adaptation of Andrew Lloyd Webber 's 1986 musical of the same name , which in turn is based on the French novel Le Fantôme de l 'Opéra by Gaston Leroux . It was produced and co @-@ written by Lloyd Webber and directed by Joel Schumacher . It stars Gerard Butler in the title role , Emmy Rossum as Christine Daaé , Patrick Wilson as Raoul , Miranda Richardson as Madame Giry , and Minnie Driver as Carlotta Giudicelli . The film was announced in 1989 but production did not start until 2002 due to Lloyd Webber 's divorce and Schumacher 's busy career . It was shot entirely at Pinewood Studios , with scenery created with miniatures and computer graphics . Rossum , Wilson , and Driver had singing experience , but Butler had none and so had music lessons . The Phantom of the Opera grossed approximately $ 154 million worldwide , despite receiving mixed to negative reviews , which praised the visuals and acting but criticized the writing and directing . = = Plot = = In the year 1919 , the Opéra Populaire holds a public auction to clear the theatre 's vaults . The Vicomte de Chagny purchases a papier @-@ mâché music box in the shape of a monkey and eyes it sadly as Madame Giry , an aged woman dressed in black , watches him . The auctioneer then presents a shattered chandelier as the next item up for bid , explaining that it once played a key role in " the strange affair of the Phantom of the Opéra . " As it flickers to life and slowly ascends to its original place in the rafters , the audience is transported back in time to the year 1870 . Back to this time , while the company rehearses for a performance of the grand opera Hannibal , manager Monsieur Lefèvre announces that he has decided to retire and that the Opéra has been purchased by Richard Firmin and Gilles André , two men who have no experience with the arts whatsoever . When resident soprano Carlotta Giudicelli begins to sing for the managers , a backdrop collapses and causes everyone to blame the " Opéra Ghost " , a mysterious figure who is rumored to live in the catacombs beneath the theater . Carlotta refuses to sing and storms offstage , leaving Firmin and André no choice but to cancel the performance . At the last minute , ballet mistress Madame Giry suggests that dancer Christine Daaé take Carlotta 's place as she has been " well taught . " The managers reluctantly agree and , to their surprise , Christine wins them over . Later that night , after Christine 's triumphant stage debut , she explains to Madame Giry 's daughter Meg that she is being coached by a mysterious tutor who she refers to as the " Angel of Music " ; a tutor who her late father said would teach her to sing . Christine returns to her dressing room to find Raoul , the Opéra 's new patron and her former childhood sweetheart , waiting for her . The two reminisce about their youth as Christine tells Raoul her secret , only for him to laugh at her " fantasy " and invite her to dinner despite her protests . Unbeknownst to everyone , except Madame Giry , the Phantom of the Opéra locks Christine in her dressing room and reveals himself to her before taking her to his subterranean lair . The Phantom reveals to her that he loves her and wants her to love him back . He shows Christine a bust of herself , wearing a wedding dress and veil , causing her to faint , and the Phantom places her in a bed . The next morning she awakes to find the Phantom writing music . She approaches him and removes his mask out of curiosity . He bursts into a fit of rage , covering his face with his hand . He at first says she must stay forever because she saw his deformities , revealing that he " dreams of beauty " . Pitying him Christine hands him back his mask and the two have a moment of understanding . He then decides to return her to the opera house . That morning , the two managers lament Christine 's disappearance , as well as series of notes they received from the Opera Ghost trying to blackmail them for his payment and ordering them on how to run the opera house . When Carlotta returns , she is furious to find a note sent to her saying if she sang as the countess in Il Muto that night instead of Christine , then disaster " beyond [ their ] imagination " would occur . Firmin and André ignore the ghost 's warnings and give Carlotta the lead role . That night , the Phantom interrupts the performance and criticizes their failure to follow his orders . Carlotta continues to sing , but her voice croaks and the lead role is given to Christine . While the ballet is being performed , the Phantom encounters the chief stagehand Joseph Buquet and strangles him before hanging him from above , creating chaos . Christine flees to the roof with Raoul . She reveals to him that she has seen the Phantom 's face and fears him , but also pities him because of his sadness . Raoul tells Christine he loves her and will protect her forevermore . Christine returns his love , kissing him passionately and they both leave the roof . The Phantom , who witnessed the scene , becomes heartbroken . He then hears them both singing together . Growing furious at Raoul , he vows revenge on them both . Three months later , a masquerade party ensues in the opera house . At the party , Christine wears her new engagement ring from Raoul . The event is interrupted once again by the Phantom , who is dressed as Red Death . The Phantom brings his own composition , Don Juan Triumphant , and orders the managers to stage the opera . Raoul exits the room and Christine approaches the Phantom . At the sight of the engagement ring , the Phantom rips it from Christine and disappears into a trap on the floor . Raoul tries to follow him but is stopped by Madame Giry , who privately tells him the story of the Phantom 's past . When she was a little girl , she went to a freak circus where they featured a deformed child in a cage . The child was beaten while everyone watched and laughed . The ringmaster then removed a burlap sack covering the child 's face , revealing his deformity . Only the young Madame Giry pitied him . She was the last to leave and saw the child strangle the ringmaster with a rope . Chased by the police , Madame Giry helped him escape and found shelter for him beneath the opera house , where she has hidden him from the world ever since . Christine takes a carriage to visit her father 's grave , but the Phantom secretly takes over the reins . Raoul follows when he realizes she 's gone . Christine arrives and laments over her father 's death . The Phantom tries to win her back by pretending to be her father 's angel , but Raoul arrives and stops him . A sword fight ensues in the cemetery , where Raoul eventually disarms the Phantom and is about to kill him , but Christine pleads for him not to . His rage seemingly augmented , the Phantom watches angrily as Christine and Raoul ride away . Christine admits she is afraid of the Phantom and tells Raoul he will never stop trying to recapture her . Raoul realizes that they can use the Phantom 's opera to capture him , as he will surely attend . Don Juan Triumphant is performed , and the Phantom makes his entrance ( having secretly replaced the lead ) with Christine . Raoul can do nothing but watch from his box as Christine falls for the Phantom yet again . However , she once again removes his mask , revealing his deformities to the entire audience , who scream in fear . He escapes with her by dropping the chandelier and setting the opera house on fire . The Phantom brings Christine back down to his lair . Madame Giry shows Raoul where the Phantom lives , and he goes to rescue Christine . The Phantom forces Christine to don the wedding dress and once again professes his love , and orders Christine to marry him . Christine tries to convince the Phantom that she does not fear his ugliness , but rather his anger and willingness to kill to get what he wants . Just then , Raoul enters the lair , and the Phantom ties him to a gate and threatens to kill him if Christine refuses to marry him . Christine reflects over the impossible choice before passionately kissing the Phantom to show him he is not alone in the world . The Phantom is shocked from experiencing real human love for the first time in his life . Ashamed of his murderous actions , he allows Christine and Raoul to leave and orders them to never return . He finds comfort in a little monkey music box . Christine approaches the Phantom , who tells her that he loves her , and she silently gives him the diamond ring from her finger to remember her by . After Christine and Raoul leave , the Phantom smashes every mirror in his underground lair and disappears through a secret passage behind a velvet curtain just before the police arrive . Upon entering , Meg finds only the Phantom 's white mask . Moving back to 1919 , the elderly Raoul visits Christine 's gravesite and places the music box near her tombstone . He stands in silence for a moment and then turns to leave , but stops upon noticing a red rose with a black ribbon tied around the stem lying on the ground with Christine 's engagement ring attached to it ; implying that the Phantom still lives and still loves Christine . = = Cast = = Gerard Butler as The Phantom Emmy Rossum as Christine Daaé Patrick Wilson as Viscount Raoul de Chagny Miranda Richardson as Madame Giry Minnie Driver as Carlotta Giudicelli Margaret Preece as Carlotta 's singing voice Simon Callow as Gilles André Ciarán Hinds as Richard Firmin Victor McGuire as Ubaldo Piangi Jennifer Ellison as Meg Giry Murray Melvin as Monsieur Reyer Kevin McNally as Joseph Buquet James Fleet as Monsieur Lefèvre = = Production = = = = = Development = = = Warner Bros. purchased the film rights to The Phantom of the Opera in early 1989 , granting Andrew Lloyd Webber total artistic control . Despite interest from A @-@ list directors , Lloyd Webber and Warner Bros. instantly hired Joel Schumacher to direct ; Lloyd Webber had been impressed with Schumacher 's use of music in The Lost Boys . The duo wrote the screenplay that same year , while Michael Crawford and Sarah Brightman were cast to reprise their roles from the original stage production . Filming was set to begin at Pinewood Studios in England in July 1990 , under a $ 25 million budget . However , the start date was pushed to November 1990 at both Babelsberg Studios in Munich , Germany and Barrandov Studios in Prague , Czech Republic . Production for The Phantom of the Opera was stalled with Lloyd Webber and Brightman 's divorce . " Everything got tied up in settlements " , Schumacher reflected . " Then my career took off and I was really busy . " As a result , The Phantom of the Opera languished in development limbo for Warner Bros. throughout the 1990s . In February 1997 , Schumacher considered returning , but eventually dropped out in favour of Batman Unchained , Runaway Jury and Dreamgirls . The studio was keen to cast John Travolta for the lead role , but also held discussions with Antonio Banderas , who undertook vocal preparation and sang the role of the Phantom in the TV special Andrew Lloyd Webber : The Royal Albert Hall Celebration . Schumacher and Lloyd Webber restarted development for The Phantom of the Opera in December 2002 . It was then announced in January 2003 that Lloyd Webber 's Really Useful Group had purchased the film rights from Warner Bros. in an attempt to produce The Phantom of the Opera independently . As a result , Lloyd Webber invested $ 6 million of his own money . The Phantom of the Opera was produced on a $ 55 million budget . A further $ 15 million was used for marketing , bringing the final budget to $ 70 million . Warner Bros. was given a first look deal for distribution ; the studio did not sign on until June 2003 , when the principal cast was chosen . = = = Casting = = = Hugh Jackman was offered the chance to audition for the Phantom , but he faced scheduling conflicts with Van Helsing . " They rang to ask about my availability " , Jackman explained in an April 2003 interview , " probably about 20 other actors as well . I wasn 't available , unfortunately . So , that was a bummer . " " We needed somebody who has a bit of rock and roll sensibility in him " , Andrew Lloyd Webber explained . " He 's got to be a bit rough , a bit dangerous ; not a conventional singer . Christine is attracted to the Phantom because he 's the right side of danger . " Director Joel Schumacher had been impressed with Gerard Butler 's performance in Dracula 2000 . Prior to his audition , Butler had no professional singing experience and had only taken four voice lessons before singing " The Music of the Night " for Lloyd Webber . Katie Holmes , who began working with a vocal coach , was the front @-@ runner for Christine Daaé in March 2003 . She was later replaced by Anne Hathaway , a classically trained soprano , in 2004 . However , Hathaway dropped out of the role because the production schedule of the film overlapped with The Princess Diaries 2 : Royal Engagement , which she was contractually obligated to make . Hathaway was then replaced with Emmy Rossum . The actress modeled the relationship between the Phantom and Christine after Suzanne Farrell and George Balanchine . Patrick Wilson was cast as Raoul based on his previous Broadway theatre career . For the role of Carlotta , Minnie Driver devised an over @-@ the @-@ top , camp performance as the egotistical prima donna . Despite also lacking singing experience , Ciarán Hinds was cast by Schumacher as Richard Firmin ; the two had previously worked together on Veronica Guerin . Ramin Karimloo also briefly appears as the portrait of Gustave Daaé , Christine 's father . Karimloo later played the Phantom as well as the role of Raoul on London 's West End . = = = Filming = = = Principal photography lasted from 15 September 2003 to 15 January 2004 . The film was shot entirely using eight sound stages at Pinewood Studios , where , on the Pinewood backlot , the bottom half exterior of the Palais Garnier was constructed . The top half was implemented using a combination of computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) and a scale model created by Cinesite . The surrounding Paris skyline for " All I Ask of You " was entirely composed of matte paintings . Cinesite also created a miniature falling chandelier , since a life @-@ size model was too big for the actual set . Production designer Anthony D. G. Pratt was influenced by French architect Charles Garnier , designer of the original Paris opera house , as well as Edgar Degas , John Singer Sargent , Gustave Caillebotte , the Pre @-@ Raphaelite Brotherhood and Dante Gabriel Rossetti . Schumacher was inspired by Jean Cocteau 's Beauty and the Beast ( 1946 ) , where a hallway is lined with arms holding candelabra . The cemetery was based on the Père Lachaise and Montparnasse . Costume designer Alexandra Byrne utilised a limited black , white , gold and silver colour palette for the Masquerade ball . = = Reception = = = = = Release and awards = = = The Phantom of the Opera was released in the United States on 22 December 2004 . With a limited release of 622 theaters , it opened at tenth place at the weekend box office , grossing $ 6 @.@ 5 million across five days . After expanding to 907 screens on 14 January 2005 the film obtained the 9th spot at the box office , which it retained during its 1 @,@ 511 screens wide release on 21 January 2005 . The total domestic gross was $ 51 @,@ 225 @,@ 796 . With a further $ 107 million earned internationally , The Phantom of the Opera reached a worldwide total of $ 158 @,@ 225 @,@ 796 . A few foreign markets were particularly successful , such as Japan , where the film 's ¥ 4 @.@ 20 billion ( $ 35 million ) gross stood as the 6th most successful foreign film and 9th overall of the year . The United Kingdom and South Korea both had over $ 10 million in receipts , with $ 17 @.@ 5 million and $ 11 @.@ 9 million , respectively . Anthony Pratt and Celia Bobak were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Art Direction , as was John Mathieson for Cinematography . However , both categories were awarded to The Aviator . Andrew Lloyd Webber and lyricist Charles Hart were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song ( " Learn to Be Lonely " ) but lost to " Al otro lado del río " from The Motorcycle Diaries . The song was also nominated for the Golden Globe but it lost to Alfie 's " Old Habits Die Hard " . In the same ceremony , Emmy Rossum was nominated for Best Actress in a Motion Picture Musical or Comedy , losing to Annette Bening in Being Julia . At the Saturn Awards , Rossum won for Best Performance by a Younger Actor , while The Phantom of the Opera was nominated for Best Action / Adventure / Thriller Film and Alexandra Byrne was nominated for Costume Design . The soundtrack of the film was released in two separate CD formats on 23 November 2004 as a two @-@ disc deluxe edition which includes dialogue from the film and a single @-@ disc highlights edition . The film had its initial North America video release on DVD and VHS on 3 May 2005 , following its first digital release on HD @-@ DVD on 18 April 2006 and a Blu @-@ ray edition on 31 October 2006 . = = = Critical reception = = = The film received mixed to negative reviews from film critics . Rotten Tomatoes gives it 32 % rotten with an average score of 5 / 10 . " The music of the night has hit something of a sour note : Critics are calling the screen adaptation of Andrew Lloyd Webber 's popular musical histrionic , boring and lacking in both romance and danger " , the consensus read . " Still , some have praised the film for its sheer spectacle " . By comparison , Metacritic calculated an average score of 40 / 100 from its 39 reviews collected . Despite having been impressed with the cast , Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader wrote that " Teen romance and operetta @-@ style singing replace the horror elements familiar to film @-@ goers , and director Joel Schumacher obscures any remnants of classy stage spectacle with the same disco overkill he brought to Batman Forever . " Stephanie Zacharek of Salon.com believed that Phantom of the Opera " takes everything that 's wrong with Broadway and puts it on the big screen in a gaudy splat . " In a mixed review for Newsweek , David Ansen praised Rossum 's performance , but criticized the filmmakers for their focus on visual design rather than presenting a cohesive storyline . " Its kitschy romanticism bored me on Broadway and it bores me here — I may not be the most reliable witness . Still , I can easily imagine a more dashing , charismatic Phantom than Butler 's . Rest assured , however , Lloyd Webber 's neo @-@ Puccinian songs are reprised and reprised and reprised until you 're guaranteed to go out humming . " Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly believed Schumacher did not add enough dimension in adapting The Phantom of the Opera . " Schumacher , the man who added nipples to Batman 's suit , has staged Phantom chastely , as if his job were to adhere the audience to every note " . Roger Ebert reasoned that " part of the pleasure of movie @-@ going is pure spectacle — of just sitting there and looking at great stuff and knowing it looks terrific . There wasn 't much Schumacher could have done with the story or the music he was handed , but in the areas over which he held sway , he has triumphed . " In contrasting between the popularity of the Broadway musical , Michael Dequina of Film Threat magazine explained that " it conjures up this unexplainable spell that leaves audiences sad , sentimental , swooning , smiling — in some way transported and moved . Now , in Schumacher 's film , that spell lives on . "
= Patriot Games ( Family Guy ) = " Patriot Games " is the 20th episode of the fourth season of the animated television series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox on January 29 , 2006 , around the time of Super Bowl XL , which fits the sports theme of the episode . In it , Peter goes to his high school reunion and meets Tom Brady . After Peter runs to the bathroom and tackles most of the people in his way , Brady hires him for the New England Patriots . Peter wins many games for the Patriots but is fired for showboating and is traded to a team in London called the Silly Nannies . Peter plays versus the Patriots and loses , and returns home . Meanwhile , Stewie becomes a bookie who attacks Brian until he pays off an outstanding debt . " Patriot Games " was written by Mike Henry and directed by Cyndi Tang , and guest starred Jay Leno , Tom Brady , Carol Channing , Bob Costas and Troy Brown as themselves . The episode received positive reviews from critics , and finished as the 55th most @-@ watched program of the week . = = Plot summary = = At his high school reunion , Peter pretends to be a secret agent @-@ astronaut @-@ millionaire who wears a cowboy hat to impress his classmates , but the truth comes out when he meets Tom Brady . He subsequently gets drunk and has to make a run for the bathroom , knocking over everyone between him and the bathroom . Brady is impressed and gets Peter a spot on the New England Patriots football team as the starting center . Peter is soon fired for showboating in a game versus the Dallas Cowboys , driving on to the field then performing a massively @-@ choreographed version of the song " Shipoopi " after scoring one touchdown . He is traded to the London Silly Nannies , who apparently have no clue on how to play football . Peter decides to turn them around and challenges Brady to a game between the Silly Nannies and the Patriots . On the opening kickoff , Peter 's teammates become terrified of the Patriots rushing toward them and run away , leaving Peter to face them alone . He tries and is immediately tackled . However , Brady compliments Peter on having the nerve to stand up to them . Meanwhile , Stewie becomes a bookie and takes a $ 50 bet from Brian on a Celebrity Boxing match pitting Mike Tyson against Carol Channing . Brian bets on Tyson and loses . Stewie comes to collect , but Brian laughs him off and tells him he will have the money in 24 hours . After 24 hours , Stewie asks for the money owed , but Brian says he does not have it and to give him until next Friday . Stewie reveals that he is serious about settling the bet and , on two occasions , savagely beats up Brian ( using such means as a golf club , shooting him in both knees with a pistol , and a flamethrower ) to coerce him into paying up . Eventually , Brian agrees to pay off the bet . After Stewie 's bet is satisfied , he offers Brian an opportunity to get one " free revenge shot " to make up for all the torture he caused . Brian accepts the offer , but leaves Stewie in suspense as to when the free hit will be delivered , until Stewie is overcome with paranoia and starts beating himself up in an attempt to satisfy Brian . After biding his time and making Stewie worry about what could happen , Brian — while the Griffins are in London , leaving the Patriots @-@ Silly Nannies game — nonchalantly shoves Stewie in front of a moving bus . = = Production = = " Patriot Games " was written by Mike Henry and directed by Peter Shin , Pete Michels and Cyndi Tang . The episode aired on January 29 , 2006 , a week before Super Bowl XL . Actress Carol Channing made a guest appearance as herself in a scene in which Brian loses a $ 50 bet on a boxing match between her and professional boxer Mike Tyson , though Tyson did not voice himself . Sportscaster Bob Costas also voiced himself in a short scene in which he interviews Peter and Brady . Much of the episode was scripted with Patriots coach Bill Belichick in mind , but Tom Brady was chosen to replace him . After numerous requests for Brady to voice himself in the episode , he eventually agreed . Comedian Jay Leno voiced himself in two short scenes that show him , respectively , threatening and attempting to kill Brady . Two scenes in which Stewie graphically beats up Brian using a glass filled with orange juice , various household objects , and guns polarized people who viewed it . Several production members were offended . Cast members — as well as MacFarlane 's mother and an animal rights advocate — enjoyed the scene ; MacFarlane quoted his mother : " I don 't see what the problem is ? He ( Brian ) owed him ( Stewie ) money ! " , and so it was kept in the final cut . When Lois gives the finger to the camera during the interview with Peter and Brady , her hand was blurred out on Fox airings of the episode . However , reruns on Adult Swim and TBS left the gesture intact . The gesture was also left intact on the Volume Four DVD ; the production team enjoyed having this level of freedom . After the initial airing of the episode , where newscaster Tom Tucker announces a report on a fictional curse word , clemen , many viewers looked up the word on the Internet to try to find a definition . MacFarlane stated in the episode 's DVD commentary that if someone invents an obscene definition for the word , the show will have to stop using it ( it has not been used since this episode ) . The bathroom scene was reused for a series of YouTube videos promoting the 2009 Primetime Emmy Award nomination of Family Guy for Outstanding Comedy Series , which feature Brian considering voting for fellow nominees The Office , Flight of the Conchords , Entourage , 30 Rock , How I Met Your Mother and Weeds . In the first five videos , Stewie beats up Brian for his different votes asking " Where 's my Emmy man ? " and forces him to vote for Family Guy . In the last video , when Brian thinks about voting for Weeds , Stewie doesn 't beat him up and instead says , " Oh , fuck this . I 'm not doing one for fucking Weeds . " referring to the declining quality of the show . = = Cultural references = = The episode features a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ minute rendition of the song " Shipoopi " from the 1957 musical The Music Man , conducted by Peter and performed by the Patriots and people in the stadium . The rendition was directed by Dan Povenmire , who would later go on to co @-@ create Phineas and Ferb with fellow Family Guy worker Jeff " Swampy " Marsh . The original number in The Music Man was performed by around 40 or 50 singers and around 80 other musicians , as estimated by MacFarlane . Family Guy 's rendition was recorded by an orchestra not as large as the original 's , but one of the largest the show has ever used . Another musical number , in which the London Silly Nannies sing while dancing around a maypole , was taken from the Gilbert and Sullivan production The Sorcerer . A visual joke that shows Peter 's $ 30 @,@ 000 wax sculpture of Harriet Tubman " doing " a naked Gwyneth Paltrow originally featured the droid R2 @-@ D2 from Star Wars in place of Tubman . MacFarlane is a fan of Star Wars , and its characters are often featured in the series ' jokes . A spoof drama programme called Condensation is shown on BBC Four , which is a BBC channel dedicated to the arts , culture and factual programmes . The episode title is taken from the 1987 Tom Clancy novel Patriot Games . = = Reception = = " Patriot Games " was watched by 8 @.@ 45 million viewers , making it the 55th most @-@ watched program of the week . According to MacFarlane , the episode polarized viewers , who either " hated or loved the violence " . Ryan J. Budke from AOL 's TV Squad gave the episode a positive review , specifically praising the scene in which Stewie beats up Brian . Budke also said that it was " fun " and that you could tell the crew had a good time making it . Overall he considered it " not a bad episode . The scene eventually became one of the most popular videos on YouTube . " The episode ranked number 1 in IGN 's Top 10 Musical Moments in the show , for " Shipoopi , " and Brian and Stewie 's fight in the bathroom was named the 5th greatest fight scene in the show on another list .
= Medieval Merchant 's House = The Medieval Merchant 's House is a restored late @-@ 13th @-@ century building in Southampton , Hampshire , England . Built in about 1290 by John Fortin , a prosperous merchant , the house survived many centuries of domestic and commercial use largely intact . German bomb damage in 1940 revealed the medieval interior of the house , and in the 1980s it was restored to resemble its initial appearance and placed in the care of English Heritage , to be run as a tourist attraction . The house is built to a medieval right @-@ angle , narrow plan design , with an undercroft to store wine at a constant temperature , and a first @-@ storey bedchamber that projects out into the street to add additional space . The building is architecturally significant because , as historian Glyn Coppack highlights , it is " the only building of its type to survive substantially as first built " ; it is a Grade I listed building and scheduled monument . = = History = = = = = 13th to 15th centuries = = = The Medieval Merchant 's House was built in about 1290 on French Street , Southampton , then a major port and a large provincial town with a population of around 5 @,@ 000 , grown rich from the trade with England 's continental possessions in Europe . The area of Southampton around French Street had been re @-@ planned earlier in the century , reducing the numbers of farm animals kept in and around the houses , driving poorer merchants and craftsmen into the less desirable northern half of the city , and creating a quarter of large , impressive houses , often built in stone with tiled roofs . The original house was designed for use by John Fortin , a prosperous wine merchant , with a vaulted cellar for holding stock , a shop at the front of the property and accommodation for the family ; much of it was built in stone , but it featured a timber front , a fashionable design for the period . At least 60 other houses similar to the Medieval Merchant 's House were built in Southampton at around the same time . By the 1330s , Southampton 's prosperity was in a slow decline . In 1338 there was a successful French attack on the town , during which various buildings were burned and castle was damaged . The house may have been one of those damaged in the raid , as the south @-@ western corner of the building collapsed around that time and had to be quickly rebuilt ; other alterations , including the addition of a fireplace , may have been carried out at the same time . Southampton 's economy collapsed in the aftermath of the attacks and never fully recovered . The character of French Street began to change , as many houses were sub @-@ divided or redeveloped to fit in more buildings . The Medieval Merchant 's House ceased to be used by major merchants and by 1392 appears to have been rented out to tenants by Thomas Fryke and John Barflet , the latter a descendent of John Fortin , for whom the house was originally built . During the 15th century the economy of Southampton improved as a result of the Italian wool trade and the presence of many foreign merchants . The Medieval Merchant 's House was acquired by a sequence of established Southampton merchants , but it remained intact as a detached dwelling , unlike many other properties in the neighbourhood that were combined to form the larger homes that became more fashionable in the late 15th century . In the middle of the 16th century , however , Southampton 's economy collapsed once again as trade with Italy declined , taking with it the prosperity of French Street . A new parlour was installed in the house , and a floor was added halfway across the open hall to produce additional sleeping space . = = = 16th to 20th centuries = = = The house was transformed into three cottages during the 17th century , which involved a new door and additional fireplaces being added . The economy and status of Southampton did not begin to improve until the 18th century , when it became a noted cultural centre . In 1780 the three cottages were converted back into a single building , owned by a Mrs Collins as a lodging house for actors . During the Victorian era Southampton saw a huge expansion of its maritime docks and the construction of a new railway line . The Medieval Merchant 's House was converted again , and had become a beer @-@ shop by 1883 , and a popular public house called the Bull 's Head . = = = Late 20th and 21st centuries = = = When the Second World War broke out in 1939 the house was being used as a brothel . In 1940 Southampton was heavily targeted during the Blitz . German bombs seriously damaged the house , revealing its medieval interior , and as a result Southampton City Council bought the property . In 1972 it was passed to the Secretary of State for the Environment , before being placed into the care of English Heritage in 1984 . The decision was taken to restore the Medieval Merchant 's House as a tourist attraction , and the necessary work was carried out between 1983 and 1985 . Academic Raphael Samuel has noted that the restoration was heavily influenced by the late @-@ 20th @-@ century tradition of living history , in which " reinterpretation " gives way to " retrofitting " . The process was also constrained by the damage that had occurred to the post @-@ medieval parts of the building during the late 19th and early 20th centuries . Following archaeological investigations , the house was restored as closely as possible to its medieval condition , removing later material . Where the original medieval parts of the house had been lost , the work was based on archaeological reinterpretation . The finished house was fitted with replica late @-@ 13th @-@ century and 14th @-@ century furniture , and the uniform for the English Heritage staff running the house was originally medieval in design . The Medieval Merchant 's House on 58 French Street remains a tourist attraction and is a Grade I listed building and scheduled monument . = = Architecture = = The Medieval Merchant 's House today faces onto French Street and combines walls built of Bembridge and Purbeck stone with a timber frontage . The layout of the house follows a medieval right @-@ angle , narrow plan design , in that the hall stretches away from the street to conserve frontage , and there is no internal courtyard built into the design . Architecturally the house is important because , as historian Glyn Coppack highlights , it is " the only building of its type to survive substantially as first built " . At the front of the house , on the ground floor , is a reconstructed medieval shop front , from where the owner would have conducted his mercantile business . Behind this is the central hall , originally designed with an open hearth in the middle , but now fitted with a 14th @-@ century Flemish chimney , plastered so as to resemble brickwork . A hallway runs along one side of the hall ; hallways were a traditional feature of the period , although the fashion was eventually abandoned because of the difficulty of lighting them effectively . At the rear of the property is an inner private room , with a decorative ceiling . Beneath the house is an undercroft , or cellar , designed to store barrels of wine at a constant temperature ; the brick floor is 18th @-@ century in origin , however . This is an architectural feature found in several other English coastal and river medieval towns , including Winchester and London . On the first floor the house is split into east and west bedchambers , linked across the central hall by a gallery . The east bedchamber is at the front of the house , and projects out into the street — this was a feature used to add space to houses , and is also seen in properties in Shrewsbury , Tewkesbury and York . Some of the makers ' marks of the original builders can still be seen on the timbers in the room . The west bedchamber more closely resembles its 19th @-@ century appearance rather than the medieval , as the Victorian @-@ era ceiling has been left in place . The roof of the house is an identical replacement for the medieval original , tiled with Cornish slate .
= New Jersey Route 47 = Route 47 is a state highway in the southern part of New Jersey , United States . It runs 75 @.@ 20 mi ( 121 @.@ 02 km ) from Atlantic Avenue in Wildwood , Cape May County north to U.S. Route 130 in Brooklawn , Camden County . It is also referred to as Delsea Drive , as it connects the Delaware River near Brooklawn to the Atlantic Ocean ( the sea ) in Wildwood . This name was assigned by the New Jersey Legislature in 1933 . The route runs through rural areas of Cape May and southern Cumberland counties as a two @-@ lane road . Traffic jams along this portion of Route 47 are commonplace in the summer vacation season and can stretch for miles due to the missing southern section of Route 55 , where all Jersey Shore @-@ bound traffic enters the small two @-@ lane road . North of here , the route runs through the cities of Millville and Vineland before entering Gloucester County , where it passes through more rural areas as well as Clayton and Glassboro . Past Glassboro , it heads through suburban areas in Washington and Deptford townships before running through Westville and Brooklawn . Route 47 is the longest state route in New Jersey . What is now Route 47 was originally designated as part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 15 between Rio Grande in 1917 and as a branch of pre @-@ 1927 Route 20 between Millville and Westville in 1923 . In 1927 , Route 47 was designated to run from Tuckahoe to Brooklawn , following current Route 49 south of Millville . Meanwhile , current Route 47 was a part of Route 49 between South Dennis and Millville and Route S49 between Rio Grande and South Dennis . The latter was extended to Wildwood in 1938 . Route 47 and Route 49 were shifted onto their current alignments south of Millville in 1953 . Since then , Route 47 has seen a few improvements and modifications including realignment in Millville and the reconstruction of the intersection with Route 83 in Dennis Township . = = Route description = = = = = Cape May County = = = Route 47 begins at a traffic light with Atlantic Avenue in the beach resort of Wildwood , Cape May County , heading to the northwest on Rio Grande Avenue , a four @-@ lane divided highway that is county maintained and signed as County Route 661 . From this intersection , Rio Grande Avenue continues southeast a block to an intersection with Ocean Avenue near the Wildwood boardwalk . The road passes through resort residential and commercial areas before crossing County Route 621 ( Ocean Drive ) , where it becomes a four @-@ lane undivided road . Upon crossing Park Boulevard , the route passes businesses and intersects Susquehanna Avenue . Here , Route 47 becomes signed and maintained by the New Jersey Department of Transportation , turning into a divided highway again a short distance later at the intersection with County Route 624 ( West Rio Grande Boulevard ) . At this intersection , the route enters Lower Township and crosses over the Grassy Sound via the George Reading Wildwood Bridge . The road turns more to the west @-@ northwest and runs through wetlands with some homes to the south of the road . Route 47 enters Middle Township and continues past more marshland as well as some marinas adjacent to the Richardson Sound on the south side of the road . The route turns northwest again and comes to a partial cloverleaf interchange with the Garden State Parkway . Past this interchange , Route 47 heads into a commercial district in the Rio Grande section of Middle Township . At the intersection with Fifth Street , the route becomes a three @-@ lane undivided road with a center left @-@ turn lane and continues to an intersection with U.S. Route 9 ( Shore Road ) . Past the U.S. Route 9 intersection , Route 47 becomes Delsea Drive and continues past more businesses , crossing the Cape May Seashore Lines railroad before intersecting County Route 626 . Here , the route becomes a two @-@ lane road and heads into more residential areas with some commercial establishments . At the intersection with County Route 654 , Route 47 turns north and leaves the Rio Grande area , heading into woods with some farm fields . It passes homes again and intersects County Route 603 in Green Creek . From here , the road continues past homes with some areas of forests and farms . Route 47 comes to an intersection with County Route 618 which , along with Route 147 , provides an alternate route to The Wildwoods . Past this intersection , the road passes more rural dwellings and enters the community of Dias Creek , where it intersects County Route 612 . The route crosses over Bidwell Creek near wetlands and heads into forests . It reaches the residential community of Goshen , where there is an intersection with County Route 615 . Past Goshen , Route 47 turns northeast and heads through rural woods and farms with some homes and wetlands . Upon crossing Sluice Creek , the route enters Dennis Township and heads into residential areas in the community of South Dennis . Here , the road intersects County Route 657 and turns to the north . Route 47 briefly widens into a two @-@ lane divided highway as it intersects the western terminus of Route 83 . Past this intersection , the road heads through marshland and crosses over the Dennis Creek . It continues into Dennisville , where the route intersects County Route 610 before turning west near Johnson Pond and intersecting County Route 611 ( Tyler Road ) . Route 47 passes more homes before coming to the southern terminus of County Route 557 . Past the County Route 557 intersection , the road runs through woodland before coming to the southern terminus of Route 347 . Here , Route 47 turns to the west and passes a mix of residences , woods , and fields . It turns northwest and crosses East Creek before coming to an intersection with County Route 550 Spur . Past this intersection , the road intersects Old State Highway , a connector road to County Route 550 Spur , before turning west into wooded areas . = = = Cumberland County = = = Upon crossing West Creek , Route 47 enters Maurice River Township , Cumberland County and continues west through more forests . It enters a mix of residences and woodland as it makes a turn to the north past the intersection with County Route 651 . The route runs through more woods , with a clearing for Bayside State Prison to the east of the road . The road comes to an intersection with County Route 550 and County Route 710 to the east of Leesburg and continues north . Route 47 reaches an intersection with County Route 670 in a commercial area prior to Route 347 merging back into the route . Here , Route 47 splits into a brief one @-@ way pair with the northbound direction heading east on County Route 670 and north on Route 347 , and the southbound direction remaining on Delsea Drive . From here , Route 47 continues north on Delsea Drive through forested areas with some homes before crossing over the Muskee Creek . It continues into the community of Port Elizabeth , where it meets the western terminus of County Route 548 . Just past this intersection , the route crosses the Manumuskin River and continues north through woodland with some development . The route intersects the southern terminus of Route 55 , where that route continues north along the road and Route 47 turns off at a jughandle . South of the Route 55 intersection , Route 47 is part of a major road linking the Philadelphia area with the Jersey Shore resorts of Cape May County . During the summer months , it sees regular traffic jams from traffic coming off Route 55 . A proposal to extend Route 55 south to Cape May County , on hold for decades due to environmental concerns , would relieve traffic along Route 47 . From here , Route 47 continues through a mix of trees and residences , intersecting Schooner Landing Road , which provides access to and from northbound Route 55 . Just past this intersection , the route crosses the Manantico Creek into Millville , where it becomes South Second Street , and continues past more woodland containing residences . As the route continues north , residential development increases along with commercial and industrial establishments . Route 47 reaches the commercial downtown of Millville , where it crosses Route 49 / County Route 555 and becomes North Second Street . County Route 555 parallels Route 47 a block to the east as the road crosses a Conrail Shared Assets Operations railroad line and intersects County Route 552 Spur . Past this intersection , County Route 555 heads farther to the east and Route 47 crosses the Conrail Shared Assets Operations line a second time , passing a mix of residences , businesses , and industrial buildings . The road becomes three lanes with a center @-@ left turn lane as it heads through commercial areas in the northern part of Millville . Upon intersecting High Street , the route widens to five lanes before entering Vineland , where the name becomes Delsea Drive again and it intersects Route 55 at a partial cloverleaf interchange . Past this interchange , Route 47 passes the Cumberland Mall on the east side of the road as a six @-@ lane divided highway . Past the mall , the route becomes a five @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane again and passes more commercial establishments in the southern part of Vineland , before heading into wooded residential areas with some farmland . It crosses County Route 552 and becomes a two @-@ lane road , running through business areas with some homes . As Route 47 continues north through the city , it comes to an intersection with Chestnut Avenue , where it gains a center left @-@ turn lane . From here , it passes more commercial buildings before crossing Landis Avenue , which heads to the west as Route 56 . Past this intersection , the road crosses a Winchester & Western Railroad line before intersecting County Route 540 . Route 47 continues north through a mix of dwellings and businesses in the northern part of Vineland , narrowing back into a two @-@ lane road at the crossing of County Route 681 . The road heads through predominantly residential areas as it comes to an intersection with County Route 674 . Past this intersection , the route passes near Kroelinger Airport and continues through mostly rural inhabited areas with some businesses . It crosses County Route 690 ( Weymouth Road ) before passing though wooded sectors with some homes and farms . = = = Gloucester and Camden Counties = = = Route 47 crosses into Franklin Township , Gloucester County , where it passes more farms , woods , and homes before coming to an intersection with U.S. Route 40 in the community of Malaga . Here , U.S. Route 40 and Route 47 form a concurrency and head northeast through populated areas as a three @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane , crossing over a Conrail Shared Assets Operations railroad line . Immediately after this crossing , U.S. Route 40 splits from Route 47 by heading southeast on Harding Highway while Route 47 turns northwest to continue along Delsea Drive , a two @-@ lane road . Route 47 leaves Malaga and passes through a mix of dwellings and businesses with some areas of farms and woods , running a short distance to the east of the railroad line . The road heads into more forested areas before it comes to an intersection with County Route 612 in the residential and business community of Iona . Route 47 continues past homes and commercial establishments as it comes to a crossroads with County Route 538 , where it turns to the north . The route passes more development with some farmland before it enters Clayton . Here , the road heads through residential areas with some commercial establishments , crossing County Route 610 in the center of town . As the road continues north , it heads through a mix of homes and farmland with a few commercial areas . Route 47 enters inhabited areas again as it crosses into Glassboro . The road continues north and enters business areas before heading into neighborhoods and coming to an intersection with High Street , which runs east as U.S. Route 322 / County Route 536 and west as County Route 641 . Here , U.S. Route 322 and County Route 536 join Route 47 for a concurrency . The three routes head through commercial areas before U.S. Route 322 and County Route 536 turn to the west on West Avenue . Past this intersection , Route 47 continues north as a three @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane , passing more buildings . The route intersects County Route 553 and forms a concurrency with that route which lasts until County Route 553 turns north onto Woodbury Avenue . Along this concurrency , the road widens to five lanes as it passes a couple shopping centers . Past the concurrency , Route 47 runs north through suburban localities as a two @-@ lane road , entering Washington Township at the crossing of Kressey Lake . In Washington Township , the road passes more populated areas as well as businesses . Route 47 runs to the east of Bethel Mill County Park before entering more residential areas , crossing County Route 635 . The road passes through a mix of homes and commercial establishments with some farmland and wooded areas as it continues through more of Washington Township . At the border with Deptford Township , Route 47 reaches an intersection known as Five Points . Here , the road meets Route 41 , County Route 603 , and County Route 630 . Route 47 turns northwest as this intersection and runs through wooded areas with some dwellings , with Route 55 intersecting the route at a cloverleaf interchange a short distance later . Past this interchange , the road continues through wooded inhabited areas , eventually turning due north . It comes to an intersection with the western terminus of County Route 534 as the route heads through more suburban homes along with businesses . Past this intersection , Route 47 passes businesses before crossing over the New Jersey Turnpike without an interchange . From here , it heads through more inhabited areas before entering Westville . Upon entering Westville , the route has a partial cloverleaf interchange with Interstate 295 . Past this interchange , the road runs through neighborhoods , intersecting County Route 621 ( Almonesson Road ) and County Route 551 . The latter forms a concurrency with Route 47 and these two routes run northeast through commercial areas as a four @-@ lane undivided road , crossing the Big Timber Creek into Brooklawn , Camden County . Here , it comes to a traffic circle with U.S. Route 130 and County Route 753 , where Route 47 ends and County Route 551 continues on to Camden , forming a brief concurrency with U.S. Route 130 . = = History = = What is now Route 47 was originally designated as a segment of pre @-@ 1927 Route 15 between Rio Grande and Millville in 1917 , and as one of two branches of pre @-@ 1927 Route 20 between Millville and Westville in 1923 . In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 47 was legislated to run from Route 50 in Tuckahoe to Brooklawn , following present @-@ day Route 49 between Tuckahoe and Millville and its current alignment north of Millville . Meanwhile , the present @-@ day alignment of Route 47 between the current Route 83 intersection in South Dennis and Millville was designated a part of Route 49 while the current alignment between South Dennis and U.S. Route 9 / Route 4 in Rio Grande became Route S49 , a spur of Route 49 . In 1933 , the New Jersey Legislature named Route 47 Delsea Drive after a reporter for the Woodbury Times joked how the road connected the DELaware River to the Atlantic SEA . Route S49 was extended from Rio Grande to Park Boulevard in Wildwood in 1938 . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 47 and Route 49 switched alignments south and east of Millville and Route 47 replaced Route S49 south to Wildwood . By the 1980s , Route 47 was moved from High Street to North Second Street through the northern part of Millville . An alternate route of Route 47 was eventually created to the east along county routes in Cape May and Cumberland counties ; this eventually became Route 347 by the 1990s . In the 2000s , Rio Grande Avenue in Wildwood received improvements to make it reminisce the doo wop atmosphere the beach resort is known for . The Route 47 bridge over Dennis Creek in Dennis Township and the Route 83 intersection received improvements that were completed in July 2007 . The Route 47 bridge over the creek was structurally deficient and in need of replacing . The job was completed with wider shoulders and a wider sidewalk on the new bridge . The intersection between Route 47 and Route 83 was also realigned and had signals installed . = = Major intersections = =
= Ryan Gauld = Ryan Gauld ( born 16 December 1995 ) is a Scottish professional footballer who currently plays as an attacking midfielder for Portuguese club Vitória F.C. on loan from Sporting Clube de Portugal and the Scotland national under @-@ 21 football team . He began his professional career at Dundee United , where he helped them reach the 2014 Scottish Cup Final and his abilities on the ball earned comparisons to Lionel Messi from the Scottish media . In July 2014 , he transferred to Sporting for a fee of around £ 3 million , and has mainly appeared for the club 's B team . Gauld also represented Scotland at under @-@ 19 level , and has been called up for their senior squad . = = Early life = = Ryan Gauld was born on 16 December 1995 in Aberdeen and grew up in Laurencekirk , Aberdeenshire , where he was a pupil at Mearns Academy . In 2002 , Gauld began to play for Brechin City Boys Club ( now renamed Brechin City Youths ) , where he was part of a successful team alongside John Souttar and Euan Spark . The trio also developed their skills at coaching schools run in Dundee by Ian Cathro , before they all joined Dundee United 's youth system in 2006 at the age of nine . = = Club career = = = = = Dundee United = = = Gauld made his Scottish Premier League debut as an 87th @-@ minute substitute for Johnny Russell in the final match of the 2011 – 12 season , a 2 – 0 win away to Motherwell on 13 May . On 24 January 2013 , Gauld signed an extended contract keeping him at the club until January 2016 . Later on in the 2012 – 13 season , on 1 April , he made his first start against St Johnstone at McDiarmid Park and marked the occasion with his first senior goal to open a game which ended 1 – 1 . On 4 November 2013 , during the 2013 – 14 season , Gauld 's contract was further extended , to run until May 2016 . Five days later , he scored twice in a 4 – 0 win against Motherwell at Fir Park . On 15 December 2013 , the Daily Record reported that Manchester United 's Scottish manager David Moyes wanted to personally " scout " Gauld , and take the opportunity to run the rule over the potential of other young Dundee United players such as defenders John Souttar and Andrew Robertson . However , the following day , also his 18th birthday , Gauld 's contract was further extended until May 2017 . Around the same time , he was being tracked by English Premier League pair Everton and Liverpool , Italy 's A.S. Roma and Spain 's Real Madrid . On 12 April 2014 , Gauld played in the Scottish Cup semi @-@ final at Ibrox , as United defeated hosts Rangers 3 – 1 to advance to the Final . He made the run into the penalty area from which Stuart Armstrong scored the opening goal , and assisted the second from Gary Mackay @-@ Steven . Five days later , he was shortlisted for the PFA Scotland Young Player of the Year award , which was eventually awarded to his teammate Robertson . In the Cup Final on 17 May , Gauld replaced Mackay @-@ Steven for the final 26 minutes as Dundee United lost 2 – 0 to St Johnstone at Celtic Park . Gauld 's season ended with eight goals in 38 games across all competitions , of which six were scored in his 31 league matches . = = = Sporting Clube de Portugal = = = On 2 July 2014 , Sporting Clube de Portugal announced the signing of Gauld from Dundee United , for an undisclosed fee rumoured to be in the region of £ 3 million . He signed a six @-@ year contract with a € 60 million buy @-@ out clause . He credited Sporting 's track record of developing players such as Luís Figo , Cristiano Ronaldo and Nani for his decision to join them . Despite being put into the club 's B @-@ team , Gauld was named in the 25 @-@ man squad to play in the UEFA Champions League after impressing manager Marco Silva during training sessions . He made his debut for Sporting B on 10 August 2014 , replacing Palhinha at half time in a 1 – 0 defeat away to Farense . Seventeen days later , in his fourth match for the club , he scored for the first time , netting the second in a 3 – 0 home victory over Desportivo Aves . On 7 December , he scored a second goal , opening a 4 – 3 win at Lisbon neighbours Clube Oriental de Lisboa with a 20 @-@ yard volley . On 21 December , he was sent off for two bookings in a 3 – 1 triumph at Vitória de Guimarães B. He finished the season with three goals from 26 games for the B @-@ team , the third coming on 7 February 2015 , when he equalised as the team came from behind to win 2 – 1 against SC Olhanense . Gauld made his debut for the first team on 29 December 2014 in a Taça da Liga game against Vitória S.C. , playing the full 90 minutes in a 2 – 0 win . On his second start for the Sporting first team on 14 January 2015 , Gauld was named man of the match in a 1 – 0 win in the same competition , against Boavista . Having been fouled by goalkeeper Daniel Monllor , he won the penalty converted by Junya Tanaka for the only goal . Four days later , he made his Primeira Liga debut , replacing André Martins for the last 25 minutes of a 4 – 2 win over Rio Ave at the Estádio José Alvalade . Gauld scored twice for the first team in a 3 – 2 defeat away to neighbours Belenenses in a Taça da Liga group game on 21 January . In his second season in the Portuguese capital , Gauld scored his first goal of the B @-@ team 's campaign on 26 August 2015 , the only one of the away match at S.C. Covilhã in the 84th minute . He followed this on 12 September with a strike in a 4 – 0 triumph at Oriental . Gauld matched his goal tally in Segunda Liga from the previous season on 3 October , when he opened a 1 – 1 draw at FC Famalicão , and succeeded it on 28 November with his fourth goal of the campaign , assuring the same result at Gil Vicente F.C. On 20 July 2016 , amidst interest from England 's Sheffield Wednesday , Gauld was loaned to Portuguese rop @-@ flight team Vitória F.C. for the upcoming season , alongside his teammate André Geraldes . = = International career = = Gauld has been capped ten times at under @-@ 19 level , scoring two goals . He made his debut on 9 October 2012 against Armenia , replacing Matthew Kennedy after 66 minutes of an eventual 4 – 0 win in a European qualifier at New Douglas Park in Hamilton . He scored his first goal on his fourth cap on 3 September 2013 , against Iceland at the Forthbank Stadium in Stirling , a 20 @-@ yard free kick to equalise in a 1 – 1 draw . On 6 November 2013 , Gauld was called into the Scotland under @-@ 21 squad for the first time , for the match against Georgia later that month . He scored his first goals for the under @-@ 21 team on his third cap on 8 September 2014 , a brace in a 3 – 0 win away to Luxembourg at the Stade Municipal de Differdange , at the end of a failed European qualification campaign . On 30 September 2014 , Gauld was called up to the senior Scotland national football team for Euro 2016 Group D qualifying matches against Georgia and Poland , but did not play . On 10 October 2015 , Gauld was sent off for a foul on Marcus Coco in a 1 – 2 2017 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Championship qualification loss to France at Pittodrie in his hometown . = = Style of play = = Gauld 's ability on the ball , and his small and slight stature , led him to be compared to Lionel Messi , a comparison made by the British press since 2013 . At Dundee United , he was tutored by Ian Cathro , who favoured creativity and passing over the physicality often expected in Scottish football . After his transfer to Sporting , BBC Sport columnist Richard Wilson predicted that Gauld would be better suited to the style of football in Portugal , due to its slower tempo and its concentration on a passing game . Gauld himself has spoken of his preference for Portuguese football over its Scottish equivalent , and expressed relief at the lower media interest in him at Sporting , opining that comparisons with Messi were exaggerated and premature . = = Career statistics = = As of 30 April
= Columbia River = The Columbia River is the largest river in the Pacific Northwest region of North America . The river rises in the Rocky Mountains of British Columbia , Canada . It flows northwest and then south into the US state of Washington , then turns west to form most of the border between Washington and the state of Oregon before emptying into the Pacific Ocean . The river is 1 @,@ 243 miles ( 2 @,@ 000 km ) long , and its largest tributary is the Snake River . Its drainage basin is roughly the size of France and extends into seven US states and a Canadian province . By volume , the Columbia is the fourth @-@ largest river in the United States ; it has the greatest flow of any North American river draining into the Pacific . The river 's heavy flow and its relatively steep gradient gives it tremendous potential for the generation of electricity . The 14 hydroelectric dams on the Columbia 's main stem and many more on its tributaries produce more than 44 % of total U.S. hydroelectric generation - much more hydroelectric power than those of any other North American river . The Columbia and its tributaries have been central to the region 's culture and economy for thousands of years . They have been used for transportation since ancient times , linking the many cultural groups of the region . The river system hosts many species of anadromous fish , which migrate between freshwater habitats and the saline Pacific Ocean . These fish — especially the salmon species — provided the core subsistence for native peoples ; in past centuries , Indigenous peoples traveled across western North America to the Columbia to trade for fish . In the late 18th century , a private American ship became the first non @-@ indigenous vessel to enter the river ; it was followed by a British explorer , who navigated past the Oregon Coast Range into the Willamette Valley . In the following decades , fur trading companies used the Columbia as a key transportation route . Overland explorers entered the Willamette Valley through the scenic but treacherous Columbia River Gorge , and pioneers began to settle the valley in increasing numbers , following both routes to enter it . Steamships along the river linked communities and facilitated trade ; the arrival of railroads in the late 19th century , many running along the river , supplemented these links . Since the late 19th century , public and private sectors have heavily developed the river . The development , commonly referred to as taming or harnessing of the river , has been massive and multi @-@ faceted . To aid ship and barge navigation , locks have been built along the lower Columbia and its tributaries , and dredging has opened , maintained , and enlarged shipping channels . Since the early 20th century , dams have been built across the river for the purposes of power generation , navigation , irrigation , and flood control . Today , a dam @-@ impounded reservoir lies along nearly every US mile of the once free @-@ flowing river , and much of the Canadian stretch has been impounded as well . Production of nuclear power has taken place at two sites along the river . Plutonium for nuclear weapons was produced for decades at the Hanford Site , which is now the most contaminated nuclear site in the US . All these developments have had a tremendous impact on river environments , mainly through industrial pollution and barriers to fish migration . = = Course = = The Columbia begins its 1 @,@ 243 @-@ mile ( 2 @,@ 000 km ) journey in the southern Rocky Mountain Trench in British Columbia ( BC ) . Columbia Lake – 2 @,@ 690 feet ( 820 m ) above sea level – and the adjoining Columbia Wetlands form the river 's headwaters . The trench is a broad , deep , and long glacial valley between the Canadian Rockies and the Columbia Mountains in BC . For its first 200 miles ( 320 km ) , the Columbia flows northwest along the trench through Windermere Lake and the town of Invermere , a region known in British Columbia as the Columbia Valley , then northwest to Golden and into Kinbasket Lake . Rounding the northern end of the Selkirk Mountains , the river turns sharply south through a region known as the Big Bend Country , passing through Revelstoke Lake and the Arrow Lakes . Revelstoke , the Big Bend , and the Columbia Valley combined are referred to in BC parlance as the Columbia Country . Below the Arrow Lakes , the Columbia passes the cities of Castlegar , located at the Columbia 's confluence with the Kootenay River , and Trail , two major population centers of the West Kootenay region . The Pend Oreille River joins the Columbia about 2 miles ( 3 km ) north of the US – Canada border . The Columbia enters eastern Washington flowing south and turning to the west at the Spokane River confluence . It marks the southern and eastern borders of the Colville Indian Reservation and the western border of the Spokane Indian Reservation . The river turns south after the Okanogan River confluence , then southeasterly near the confluence with the Wenatchee River in central Washington . This C ‑ shaped segment of the river is also known as the " Big Bend " . During the Missoula Floods 10 @,@ 000 to 15 @,@ 000 years ago , much of the floodwater took a more direct route south , forming the ancient river bed known as the Grand Coulee . After the floods , the river found its present course , and the Grand Coulee was left dry . The construction of the Grand Coulee Dam in the mid @-@ 20th century impounded the river , forming Lake Roosevelt , from which water was pumped into the dry coulee , forming the reservoir of Banks Lake . The river flows past The Gorge Amphitheatre , a prominent concert venue in the Northwest , then through Priest Rapids Dam , and then through the Hanford Nuclear Reservation . Entirely within the reservation is Hanford Reach , the only US stretch of the river that is completely free @-@ flowing , unimpeded by dams and not a tidal estuary . The Snake River and Yakima River join the Columbia in the Tri ‑ Cities population center . The Columbia makes a sharp bend to the west at the Washington – Oregon border . The river defines that border for the final 309 miles ( 497 km ) of its journey . The Deschutes River joins the Columbia near The Dalles . Between The Dalles and Portland , the river cuts through the Cascade Range , forming the dramatic Columbia River Gorge . No other river except for the Klamath completely breaches the Cascades — the other rivers that flow through the range also originate in or very near the mountains . The headwaters and upper course of the Pit River flows through much of the Cascades ; in contrast the Columbia cuts through the range nearly a thousand miles from its source in the Rocky Mountains . The gorge is known for its strong and steady winds , scenic beauty , and its role as an important transportation link . The river continues west , bending sharply to the north @-@ northwest near Portland and Vancouver , Washington , at the Willamette River confluence . Here the river slows considerably , dropping sediment that might otherwise form a river delta . Near Longview , Washington and the Cowlitz River confluence , the river turns west again . The Columbia empties into the Pacific Ocean just west of Astoria , Oregon , over the Columbia Bar , a shifting sandbar that makes the river 's mouth one of the most hazardous stretches of water to navigate in the world . Because of the danger and the many shipwrecks near the mouth , it acquired a reputation as the " Graveyard of Ships " . The Columbia drains an area of about 258 @,@ 000 square miles ( 670 @,@ 000 km2 ) . Its drainage basin covers nearly all of Idaho , large portions of British Columbia , Oregon , and Washington , ultimately all of Montana west of the Continental Divide , and small portions of Wyoming , Utah , and Nevada ; the total area is similar to the size of France . Roughly 745 miles ( 1 @,@ 200 km ) of the river 's length and 85 percent of its drainage basin are in the US . The Columbia is the twelfth @-@ longest river and has the sixth @-@ largest drainage basin in the United States . In Canada , where the Columbia flows for 498 miles ( 801 km ) and drains 39 @,@ 700 square miles ( 103 @,@ 000 km2 ) , the river ranks 23rd in length , and the Canadian part of its basin ranks 13th in size among Canadian basins . The Columbia shares its name with nearby places , such as British Columbia , as well as with landforms and bodies of water . = = = Discharge = = = With an average flow at the mouth of about 265 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 7 @,@ 500 m3 / s ) , the Columbia is the largest river by volume flowing into the Pacific from North America and is the fourth @-@ largest by volume in the US . The average flow where the river crosses the international border between Canada and the United States is 99 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 2 @,@ 790 m3 / s ) from a drainage basin of 39 @,@ 700 square miles ( 102 @,@ 800 km2 ) . This amounts to about 15 percent of the entire Columbia watershed . The Columbia 's highest recorded flow , measured at The Dalles , was 1 @,@ 240 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 35 @,@ 000 m3 / s ) in June 1894 , before the river was dammed . The lowest flow recorded at The Dalles was 12 @,@ 100 cubic feet per second ( 340 m3 / s ) on April 16 , 1968 , and was caused by the initial closure of the John Day Dam , 28 miles ( 45 km ) upstream . The Dalles is about 190 miles ( 310 km ) from the mouth ; the river at this point drains about 237 @,@ 000 square miles ( 610 @,@ 000 km2 ) or about 91 percent of the total watershed . Flow rates on the Columbia are affected by many large upstream reservoirs , many diversions for irrigation , and , on the lower stretches , reverse flow from the tides of the Pacific Ocean . The National Ocean Service issues water level observations for six tide gauges and tide forecasts for twenty @-@ two locations along the river between the entrance at the North Jetty and the base of Bonneville Dam . = = Geology = = When the rifting of Pangea , due to the process of plate tectonics , pushed North America away from Europe and Africa and into the Panthalassic Ocean ( ancestor to the modern Pacific Ocean ) , the Pacific Northwest was not part of the continent . As the North American continent moved westward , the Farallon Plate subducted under its western margin . As the plate subducted , it carried along island arcs which were accreted to the North American continent , resulting in the creation of the Pacific Northwest between 150 and 90 million years ago . The general outline of the Columbia Basin was not complete until between 60 and 40 million years ago , but it lay under a large inland sea later subject to uplift . Between 40 and 20 million years ago , in the Eocene and Miocene eras , tremendous volcanic eruptions frequently modified much of the landscape traversed by the Columbia . The lower reaches of the ancestral river passed through a valley near where Mount Hood later arose . Carrying sediments from erosion and erupting volcanoes , it built a 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) thick delta that underlies the foothills on the east side of the Coast Range near Vernonia in northwestern Oregon . Between 17 million and 6 million years ago , huge outpourings of flood basalt lava covered the Columbia River Plateau and forced the lower Columbia into its present course . The Cascade Range began to uplift during the early Pleistocene era ( two million to 700 @,@ 000 years ago ) . Cutting through the uplifting mountains , the Columbia River created the Columbia River Gorge . The river and its drainage basin experienced some of the world 's greatest known catastrophic floods toward the end of the last ice age . The periodic rupturing of ice dams at Glacial Lake Missoula resulted in the Missoula Floods , with discharges 10 times the combined flow of all the rivers of the world , dozens of times over thousands of years . The exact number of floods is unknown , but geologists have documented at least 40 ; evidence suggests that they occurred between about 19 @,@ 000 and 13 @,@ 000 years ago . The floodwaters rushed across eastern Washington , creating the channeled scablands , which are a complex network of dry canyon @-@ like channels , or coulees that are often braided and sharply gouged into the basalt rock underlying the region 's deep topsoil . Numerous flat @-@ topped buttes with rich soil stand high above the chaotic scablands . Constrictions at several places caused the floodwaters to pool into large temporary lakes , such as Lake Lewis , in which sediments were deposited . Water depths have been estimated at 1 @,@ 250 feet ( 380 m ) at Wallula Gap , 830 feet ( 250 m ) at Bonneville Dam , and 400 feet ( 120 m ) over modern Portland , Oregon . Sediments were also deposited when the floodwaters slowed in the broad flats of the Quincy , Othello , and Pasco Basins . The floods ' periodic inundation of the lower Columbia River Plateau deposited rich sediments ; 21st @-@ century farmers in the Willamette Valley " plow fields of fertile Montana soil and clays from Washington 's Palouse " . Over the last several thousand years a series of large landslides have occurred on the north side of the Columbia River Gorge , sending massive amounts of debris south from Table Mountain and Greenleaf Peak into the gorge near the present site of Bonneville Dam . The most recent and significant is known as the Bonneville Slide , which formed a massive earthen dam , filling 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) of the river 's length . Various studies have placed the date of the Bonneville Slide anywhere between 1060 and 1760 AD ; the idea that the landslide debris present today was formed by more than one slide is relatively recent and may explain the large range of estimates . It has been suggested that if the later dates are accurate there may be a link with the 1700 Cascadia earthquake . The pile of debris resulting from the Bonneville Slide blocked the river until rising water finally washed away the sediment . It is not known how long it took the river to break through the barrier ; estimates range from several months to several years . Much of the landslide 's debris remained , forcing the river about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) south of its previous channel and forming the Cascade Rapids . In 1938 , the construction of Bonneville Dam inundated the rapids as well as the remaining trees that could be used to refine the estimated date of the landslide . In 1980 , the eruption of Mount St. Helens deposited large amounts of sediment in the lower Columbia , temporarily reducing the depth of the shipping channel by 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) . = = Indigenous peoples = = Humans have inhabited the Columbia 's watershed for more than 15 @,@ 000 years , with a transition to a sedentary lifestyle based mainly on salmon starting about 3 @,@ 500 years ago . In 1962 , archaeologists found evidence of human activity dating back 11 @,@ 230 years at the Marmes Rockshelter , near the confluence of the Palouse and Snake rivers in eastern Washington . In 1996 the skeletal remains of a 9 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old prehistoric man ( dubbed Kennewick Man ) were found near Kennewick , Washington . The discovery rekindled debate in the scientific community over the origins of human habitation in North America and sparked a protracted controversy over whether the scientific or Native American community was entitled to possess and / or study the remains . Many different Native Americans and First Nations peoples have a historical and continuing presence on the Columbia . South of the Canada – US border , the Colville , Spokane , Coeur d 'Alene , Yakama , Nez Perce , Cayuse , Palus , Umatilla , Cowlitz , and the Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs live along the US stretch . Along the upper Snake River and Salmon River , the Shoshone Bannock tribes are present . The Sinixt or Lakes people lived on the lower stretch of the Canadian portion , while above that the Shuswap people ( Secwepemc in their own language ) reckon the whole of the upper Columbia east to the Rockies as part of their territory . The Canadian portion of the Columbia Basin outline the Traditional homelands of the Canadian Kootenay- Ktunaxa . The Chinook tribe , which is not federally recognized , who live near the lower Columbia River , call it Wimahl in the Chinookan language. and Nch ’ i @-@ Wàna to the Sahaptin @-@ speaking peoples of its middle course in present @-@ day Washington ; The river is known as swah 'netk 'qhu by the Sinixt people , who live in the area of the Arrow Lakes in the river 's upper reaches in Canada . All three terms essentially mean " the big river " . Oral histories describe the formation and destruction of the Bridge of the Gods , a land bridge that connected the Oregon and Washington sides of the river in the Columbia River Gorge . The bridge , which aligns with geological records of the Bonneville Slide , was described in some stories as the result of a battle between gods , represented by Mount Adams and Mount Hood , in their competition for the affection of a goddess , represented by Mount St. Helens . Native American stories about the bridge differ in their details but agree in general that the bridge permitted increased interaction between tribes on the north and south sides of the river . Horses , originally acquired from Spanish New Mexico , spread widely via native trade networks , reaching the Shoshone of the Snake River Plain by 1700 . The Nez Perce , Cayuse , and Flathead people acquired their first horses around 1730 . Along with horses came aspects of the emerging plains culture , such as equestrian and horse training skills , greatly increased mobility , hunting efficiency , trade over long distances , intensified warfare , the linking of wealth and prestige to horses and war , and the rise of large and powerful tribal confederacies . The Nez Perce and Cayuse kept large herds and made annual long @-@ distance trips to the Great Plains for bison hunting , adopted the plains culture to a significant degree , and became the main conduit through which horses and the plains culture diffused into the Columbia River region . Other peoples acquired horses and aspects of the plains culture unevenly . The Yakama , Umatilla , Palus , Spokane , and Coeur d 'Alene maintained sizable herds of horses and adopted some of the plains cultural characteristics , but fishing and fish @-@ related economies remained important . Less affected groups included the Molala , Klickitat , Wenatchi , Okanagan , and Sinkiuse @-@ Columbia peoples , who owned small numbers of horses and adopted few plains culture features . Some groups remained essentially unaffected , such as the Sanpoil and Nespelem people , whose culture remained centered on fishing . Natives of the region encountered foreigners at several times and places during the 18th and 19th centuries . European and American vessels explored the coastal area around the mouth of the river in the late 18th century , trading with local natives . The contact would prove devastating to the Indian tribes ; a large portion of their population was wiped out by a smallpox epidemic . Canadian explorer Alexander Mackenzie crossed what is now interior British Columbia in 1793 . From 1805 to 1807 , the Lewis and Clark Expedition entered the Oregon Country along the Clearwater and Snake rivers , and encountered numerous small settlements of natives . Their records recount tales of hospitable traders who were not above stealing small items from the visitors . They also noted brass teakettles , a British musket , and other artifacts that had been obtained in trade with coastal tribes . From the earliest contact with westerners , the natives of the mid- and lower Columbia were not tribal , but instead congregated in social units no larger than a village , and more often at a family level ; these units would shift with the season as people moved about , following the salmon catch up and down the river 's tributaries . Sparked by the 1848 Whitman Massacre , a number of violent battles were fought between American settlers and the region 's natives . The subsequent Indian Wars , especially the Yakima War , decimated the native population and removed much land from native control . As years progressed , the right of natives to fish along the Columbia became the central issue of contention with the states , commercial fishers , and private property owners . The US Supreme Court upheld fishing rights in landmark cases in 1905 and 1918 , as well as the 1974 case United States v. Washington , commonly called the Boldt Decision . Fish were central to the culture of the region 's natives , both as sustenance and as part of their religious beliefs . Natives drew fish from the Columbia at several major sites , which also served as trading posts . Celilo Falls , located east of the modern city of The Dalles , was a vital hub for trade and the interaction of different cultural groups , being used for fishing and trading for 11 @,@ 000 years . Prior to contact with westerners , villages along this 9 @-@ mile ( 14 km ) stretch may have at times had a population as great as 10 @,@ 000 . The site drew traders from as far away as the Great Plains . The Cascades Rapids of the Columbia River Gorge , and Kettle Falls and Priest Rapids in eastern Washington , were also major fishing and trading sites . In prehistoric times the Columbia 's salmon and steelhead runs numbered an estimated annual average of 10 to 16 million fish . In comparison , the largest run since 1938 was in 1986 , with 3 @.@ 2 million fish entering the Columbia . The annual catch by natives has been estimated at 42 million pounds ( 19 @,@ 000 t ) . The most important and productive native fishing site was located at Celilo Falls , which was perhaps the most productive inland fishing site in North America . The falls were located at the border between Chinookan- and Sahaptian @-@ speaking peoples and served as the center of an extensive trading network across the Pacific Plateau . Celilo was the oldest continuously inhabited community on the North American continent . Salmon canneries established by white settlers beginning in 1866 had a strong negative impact on the salmon population , and in 1908 US President Theodore Roosevelt observed that the salmon runs were but a fraction of what they had been 25 years prior . As river development continued in the 20th century , each of these major fishing sites was flooded by a dam , beginning with Cascades Rapids in 1938 . The development was accompanied by extensive negotiations between natives and US government agencies . The Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs , a coalition of various tribes , adopted a constitution and incorporated after the 1938 completion of the Bonneville Dam flooded Cascades Rapids ; Still , in the 1930s , there were natives who lived along the river and fished year round , moving along with the fish 's migration patterns throughout the seasons . The Yakama were slower to do so , organizing a formal government in 1944 . In the 21st century , the Yakama , Nez Perce , Umatilla , and Warm Springs tribes all have treaty fishing rights along the Columbia and its tributaries . In 1957 Celilo Falls was submerged by the construction of The Dalles Dam , and the native fishing community was displaced . The affected tribes received a $ 26 @.@ 8 million settlement for the loss of Celilo and other fishing sites submerged by The Dalles Dam . The Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs used part of its $ 4 million settlement to establish the Kah @-@ Nee @-@ Ta resort south of Mount Hood . = = New waves of explorers = = Some historians believe that Japanese or Chinese vessels blown off course reached the Northwest Coast long before Europeans — possibly as early as 219 BCE . It is unknown whether they landed near the Columbia . Evidence exists that Spanish castaways reached the shore in 1679 and traded with the Clatsop ; if these were indeed the first Europeans to see the Columbia , they failed to send word home to Spain . In the 18th century , there was strong interest in discovering a Northwest Passage that would permit navigation between the Atlantic ( or inland North America ) and the Pacific Ocean . Many ships in the area , especially those under Spanish and British command , searched the northwest coast for a large river that might connect to Hudson Bay or the Missouri River . The first documented European discovery of the Columbia River was that of Bruno de Heceta , who in 1775 sighted the river 's mouth . On the advice of his officers , he did not explore it , as he was short @-@ staffed and the current was strong . He considered it a bay , and called it Ensenada de Asunción . Later Spanish maps based on his discovery showed a river , labeled Rio de San Roque , or an entrance , called Entrada de Hezeta . Following Heceta 's reports , British maritime fur trader Captain John Meares searched for the river in 1788 but concluded that it did not exist . He named Cape Disappointment for the non @-@ existent river , not realizing the cape marks the northern edge of the river 's mouth . What happened next would form the basis for decades of both cooperation and dispute between British and American exploration of , and ownership claim to , the region . Royal Navy commander George Vancouver sailed past the mouth in April 1792 and observed a change in the water 's color , but he accepted Meares ' report and continued on his journey northward . Later that month , Vancouver encountered the American captain Robert Gray at the Strait of Juan de Fuca . Gray reported that he had seen the entrance to the Columbia and had spent nine days trying but failing to enter . On May 12 , 1792 , Gray returned south and crossed the Columbia Bar , becoming the first explorer to enter the river . Gray 's fur trading mission had been financed by Boston merchants , who outfitted him with a private vessel named Columbia Rediviva ; he named the river after the ship on May 18 . Gray spent nine days trading near the mouth of the Columbia , then left without having gone beyond 13 miles ( 21 km ) upstream . The farthest point reached was Grays Bay at the mouth of Grays River . Gray 's discovery of the Columbia River was later used by the United States to support its claim to the Oregon Country , which was also claimed by Russia , Great Britain , Spain and other nations . In October 1792 , Vancouver sent Lieutenant William Robert Broughton , his second @-@ in @-@ command , up the river . Broughton got as far as the Sandy River at the western end of the Columbia River Gorge , about 100 miles ( 160 km ) upstream , sighting and naming Mount Hood . Broughton formally claimed the river , its drainage basin , and the nearby coast for Britain . In contrast , Gray had not made any formal claims on behalf of the United States . Because the Columbia was at the same latitude as the headwaters of the Missouri River , there was some speculation that Gray and Vancouver had discovered the long @-@ sought Northwest Passage . A 1798 British map showed a dotted line connecting the Columbia with the Missouri . When the American explorers Meriwether Lewis and William Clark charted the vast , unmapped lands of the American West in their overland expedition ( 1803 – 05 ) , they found no passage between the rivers . After crossing the Rocky Mountains , Lewis and Clark built dugout canoes and paddled down the Snake River , reaching the Columbia near the present @-@ day Tri @-@ Cities , Washington . They explored a few miles upriver , as far as Bateman Island , before heading down the Columbia , concluding their journey at the river 's mouth and establishing Fort Clatsop , a short @-@ lived establishment that was occupied for less than three months . Canadian explorer David Thompson , of the North West Company , spent the winter of 1807 – 08 at Kootenae House near the source of the Columbia at present @-@ day Invermere , British Columbia . Over the next few years he explored much of the river and its northern tributaries . In 1811 he traveled down the Columbia to the Pacific Ocean , arriving at the mouth just after John Jacob Astor 's Pacific Fur Company had founded Astoria . On his return to the north , Thompson explored the one remaining part of the river he had not yet seen , becoming the first European @-@ American to travel the entire length of the river . In 1825 the Hudson 's Bay Company ( HBC ) established Fort Vancouver on the bank of the Columbia , in what is now Vancouver , Washington , as the headquarters of the company 's Columbia District , which encompassed everything west of the Rocky Mountains . John McLoughlin , a physician , was appointed Chief Factor of the Columbia District . The HBC reoriented its Columbia District operations toward the Pacific Ocean via the Columbia , which became the region 's main trunk route . In the early 1840s Americans began to colonize the Oregon country in large numbers via the Oregon Trail , despite the HBC 's efforts to discourage American settlement in the region . For many the final leg of the journey involved travel down the lower Columbia River to Fort Vancouver . This part of the Oregon Trail , from The Dalles to Fort Vancouver , was the trail 's most treacherous stretch , which prompted the 1846 construction of the Barlow Road . In the Treaty of 1818 the United States and Britain agreed that both nations were to enjoy equal rights in Oregon Country for 10 years . By 1828 , when the so @-@ called " joint occupation " was renewed for an indefinite period , it seemed probable that the lower Columbia River would in time become the border . For years the Hudson 's Bay Company successfully maintained control of the Columbia River and American attempts to gain a foothold were fended off . In the 1830s , American religious missions were established at several locations in the lower Columbia River region . In the 1840s a mass migration of American settlers undermined British control . The Hudson 's Bay Company tried to maintain dominance by shifting from the fur trade , which was in sharp decline , to exporting other goods such as salmon and lumber . Colonization schemes were attempted , but failed to match the scale of American settlement . Americans generally settled south of the Columbia , mainly in the Willamette Valley . The Hudson 's Bay Company tried to establish settlements north of the river , but nearly all the British colonists moved south to the Willamette Valley . The hope that the British colonists might dilute the American flavor of the valley failed in the face of the overwhelming number of American settlers . These developments rekindled the issue of " joint occupation " and the boundary dispute . While some British interests , especially the Hudson 's Bay Company , fought for a boundary along the Columbia River , the Oregon Treaty of 1846 set the boundary at the 49th parallel . The Columbia River became the border between the US territories of Oregon and Washington . Oregon became a US state in 1859 , Washington in 1889 . By the turn of the 20th century , the difficulty of navigating the Columbia was seen as an impediment to the economic development of the Inland Empire region east of the Cascades . The dredging and dam building that followed would permanently alter the river , disrupting its natural flow but also providing electricity , irrigation , navigability and other benefits to the region . = = Navigation = = American captain Robert Gray and British captain George Vancouver , who explored the river in 1792 , proved that it was possible to cross the Columbia Bar . Many of the challenges associated with that feat remain today ; even with modern engineering alterations to the mouth of the river , the strong currents and shifting sandbar make it dangerous to pass between the river and the Pacific Ocean . The use of steamboats along the river , beginning with the British Beaver in 1836 and followed by American vessels in 1850 , contributed to the rapid settlement and economic development of the region . Steamboats operated in several distinct stretches of the river : on its lower reaches , from the Pacific Ocean to Cascades Rapids ; from the Cascades to Celilo Falls ; from Celilo to the confluence with the Snake River ; on the Wenatchee Reach of eastern Washington ; on British Columbia 's Arrow Lakes ; and on tributaries like the Willamette , the Snake and Kootenay Lake . The boats , initially powered by burning wood , carried passengers and freight throughout the region for many years . Early railroads served to connect steamboat lines interrupted by waterfalls on the river 's lower reaches . In the 1880s , railroads maintained by companies such as the Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company and the Shaver Transportation Company began to supplement steamboat operations as the major transportation links along the river . = = = Opening the passage to Lewiston = = = As early as 1881 , industrialists proposed altering the natural channel of the Columbia to improve navigation . Changes to the river over the years have included the construction of jetties at the river 's mouth , dredging , and the construction of canals and navigation locks . Today , ocean freighters can travel upriver as far as Portland and Vancouver , and barges can reach as far inland as Lewiston , Idaho . The shifting Columbia Bar makes passage between the river and the Pacific Ocean difficult and dangerous , and numerous rapids along the river hinder navigation . Pacific Graveyard , a 1964 book by James A. Gibbs , describes the numerous shipwrecks near the mouth of the Columbia . Jetties , first constructed in 1886 , extend the river 's channel into the ocean . Strong currents and the shifting sandbar remain a threat to ships entering the river and necessitate continuous maintenance of the jetties . In 1891 the Columbia was dredged to enhance shipping . The channel between the ocean and Portland and Vancouver was deepened from 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) to 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) . The Columbian called for the channel to be deepened to 40 feet ( 12 m ) as early as 1905 , but that depth was not attained until 1976 . Cascade Locks and Canal were first constructed in 1896 around the Cascades Rapids , enabling boats to travel safely through the Columbia River Gorge . The Celilo Canal , bypassing Celilo Falls , opened to river traffic in 1915 . In the mid @-@ 20th century , the construction of dams along the length of the river submerged the rapids beneath a series of reservoirs . An extensive system of locks allowed ships and barges to pass easily from one reservoir to the next . A navigation channel reaching to Lewiston , Idaho , along the Columbia and Snake rivers , was completed in 1975 . One of the main commodities is wheat , mainly for export . More than 40 percent of all US wheat exports are barged on the Columbia River . The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens caused mudslides in the area , which reduced the Columbia 's depth by 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) for a 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) stretch , disrupting Portland 's economy . = = = Deeper shipping channel = = = Efforts to maintain and improve the navigation channel have continued to the present day . In 1990 a new round of studies examined the possibility of further dredging on the lower Columbia . The plans were controversial from the start because of economic and environmental concerns . In 1999 , Congress authorized deepening the channel between Portland and Astoria from 40 to 43 feet ( 12 – 13 m ) , which will make it possible for large container and grain ships to reach Portland and Vancouver . The project has met opposition because of concerns about stirring up toxic sediment on the riverbed . Portland @-@ based Northwest Environmental Advocates brought a lawsuit against the Army Corps of Engineers , but it was rejected by the Ninth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in August 2006 . The project includes measures to mitigate environmental damage ; for instance , the US Army Corps of Engineers must restore 12 times the area of wetland damaged by the project . In early 2006 , the Corps spilled 50 US gallons ( 190 L ) of hydraulic oil into the Columbia , drawing further criticism from environmental organizations . Work on the project began in 2005 and concluded in 2010 . The project 's cost is estimated at $ 150 million . The federal government is paying 65 percent , Oregon and Washington are paying $ 27 million each , and six local ports are also contributing to the cost . = = Dams = = In 1902 , the United States Bureau of Reclamation was established to aid in the economic development of arid western states . One of its major undertakings was building Grand Coulee Dam to provide irrigation for the 600 thousand acres ( 2 @,@ 400 km2 ) of the Columbia Basin Project in central Washington . With the onset of World War II , the focus of dam construction shifted to production of hydroelectricity . Irrigation efforts resumed after the war . River development occurred within the structure of the 1909 International Boundary Waters Treaty between the US and Canada . The United States Congress passed the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1925 , which directed the Army Corps of Engineers and the Federal Power Commission to explore the development of the nation 's rivers . This prompted agencies to conduct the first formal financial analysis of hydroelectric development ; the reports produced by various agencies were presented in House Document 308 . Those reports , and subsequent related reports , are referred to as 308 Reports . In the late 1920s , political forces in the Northwestern United States generally favored private development of hydroelectric dams along the Columbia . But the overwhelming victories of gubernatorial candidate George W. Joseph in the 1930 Oregon Republican Party primary , and later his law partner Julius Meier , were understood to demonstrate strong public support for public ownership of dams . In 1933 , President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed a bill that enabled the construction of the Bonneville and Grand Coulee dams as public works projects . The legislation was attributed to the efforts of Oregon Senator Charles McNary , Washington Senator Clarence Dill , and Oregon Congressman Charles Martin , among others . In 1948 floods swept through the Columbia watershed , destroying Vanport , then the second largest city in Oregon , and impacting cities as far north as Trail , British Columbia . The flooding prompted the United States Congress to pass the Flood Control Act of 1950 , authorizing the federal development of additional dams and other flood control mechanisms . By that time local communities had become wary of federal hydroelectric projects , and sought local control of new developments ; a public utility district in Grant County , Washington ultimately began construction of the dam at Priest Rapids . In the 1960s , the United States and Canada signed the Columbia River Treaty , which focused on flood control and the maximization of downstream power generation . Canada agreed to build dams and provide reservoir storage , and the United States agreed to deliver to Canada one @-@ half of the increase in US downstream power benefits as estimated five years in advance . Canada 's obligation was met by building three dams ( two on the Columbia , and one on the Duncan River ) , the last of which was completed in 1973 . Today the main stem of the Columbia River has 14 dams , of which three are in Canada and 11 in the US . Four mainstem dams and four lower Snake River dams contain navigation locks to allow ship and barge passage from the ocean as far as Lewiston , Idaho . The river system as a whole has more than 400 dams for hydroelectricity and irrigation . The dams address a variety of demands , including flood control , navigation , stream flow regulation , storage and delivery of stored waters , reclamation of public lands and Indian reservations , and the generation of hydroelectric power . The larger US dams are owned and operated by the federal government ( some by the Army Corps of Engineers and some by the Bureau of Reclamation ) , while the smaller dams are operated by public utility districts , and private power companies . The federally operated system is known as the Federal Columbia River Power System , which includes 31 dams on the Columbia and its tributaries . The system has altered the seasonal flow of the river in order to meet higher electricity demands during the winter . At the beginning of the 20th century , roughly 75 percent of the Columbia 's flow occurred in the summer , between April and September . By 1980 , the summer proportion had been lowered to about 50 percent , essentially eliminating the seasonal pattern . The installation of dams dramatically altered the landscape and ecosystem of the river . At one time , the Columbia was one of the top salmon @-@ producing river systems in the world . Previously active fishing sites , such as Celilo Falls in the eastern Columbia River Gorge , have exhibited a sharp decline in fishing along the Columbia in the last century , and salmon populations have been dramatically reduced . Fish ladders have been installed at some dam sites to help the fish journey to spawning waters . Chief Joseph Dam has no fish ladders and completely blocks fish migration to the upper half of the Columbia River system . = = = Irrigation = = = The Bureau of Reclamation 's Columbia Basin Project focused on the generally dry region of central Washington known as the Columbia Basin , which features rich loess soil . Several groups developed competing proposals , and in 1933 , President Franklin D. Roosevelt authorized the Columbia Basin Project . The Grand Coulee Dam was the project 's central component ; upon completion , it pumped water up from the Columbia to fill the formerly dry Grand Coulee , forming Banks Lake . By 1935 , the intended height of the dam was increased from a range between 200 and 300 feet ( 61 and 91 m ) to 500 feet ( 150 m ) , a height that would extend the lake impounded by the dam all the way to the Canadian border ; the project had grown from a local New Deal relief measure to a major national project . The project 's initial purpose was irrigation , but the onset of World War II created a high demand for electricity , mainly for aluminum production and for the development of nuclear weapons at the Hanford Site . Irrigation began in 1951 . The project provides water to more than 670 thousand acres ( 2 @,@ 700 km2 ) of fertile but arid land in central Washington , transforming the region into a major agricultural center . Important crops include orchard fruit , potatoes , alfalfa , mint , beans , beets , and wine grapes . Since 1750 , the Columbia has experienced six multi @-@ year droughts . The longest , lasting 12 years in the mid ‑ 19th century , reduced the river 's flow to 20 percent below average . Scientists have expressed concern that a similar drought would have grave consequences in a region so dependent on the Columbia . In 1992 – 1993 , a lesser drought affected farmers , hydroelectric power producers , shippers , and wildlife managers . Many farmers in central Washington build dams on their property for irrigation and to control frost on their crops . The Washington Department of Ecology , using new techniques involving aerial photographs , estimated there may be as many as a hundred such dams in the area , most of which are illegal . Six such dams have failed in recent years , causing hundreds of thousands of dollars of damage to crops and public roads . Fourteen farms in the area have gone through the permitting process to build such dams legally . = = = Hydroelectricity = = = The Columbia 's heavy flow and extreme elevation drop over a short distance , 2 @.@ 16 feet per mile ( 40 @.@ 9 cm / km ) , give it tremendous capacity for hydroelectricity generation . In comparison , the Mississippi drops less than 0 @.@ 65 feet per mile ( 12 @.@ 3 cm / km ) . The Columbia alone possesses one @-@ third of the United States 's hydroelectric potential . In 2012 , the river and its tributaries account for 29 GW of hydroelectricity , contributing 44 % of the total hydroelectric generation in the nation . The largest of the 150 hydroelectric projects , the Grand Coulee Dam and the Chief Joseph Dam , are also the largest in the United States and among the largest in the world . Inexpensive hydropower supported the location of a large aluminum industry in the region , because its reduction from bauxite requires large amounts of electricity . Until 2000 , the Northwestern United States produced up to 17 % of the world 's aluminum and 40 % of the aluminum produced in the US . The commoditization of power in the early 21st century , coupled with drought that reduced the generation capacity of the river , damaged the industry and by 2001 , Columbia River aluminum producers had idled 80 % of its production capacity , and by 2003 , the entire United States produced only 15 % of the world 's aluminum , with many smelters along the Columbia having gone dormant or out of business . Power remains relatively inexpensive along the Columbia , and in recent years high @-@ tech companies like Google have begun to move server farm operations into the area to avail themselves of cheap power . Downriver of Grand Coulee , each dam 's reservoir is closely regulated by the Bonneville Power Administration ( BPA ) , the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers , and various Washington public utility districts to ensure flow , flood control , and power generation objectives are met . Increasingly , hydro @-@ power operations are required to meet standards under the US Endangered Species Act and other agreements to manage operations to minimize impacts on salmon and other fish , and some conservation and fishing groups support removing four dams on the lower Snake River , the largest tributary of the Columbia . In 1941 , the BPA hired Oklahoma folksinger Woody Guthrie to write songs for a documentary film promoting the benefits of hydropower . In the month he spent traveling the region Guthrie wrote 26 songs , which have become an important part of the cultural history of the region . = = Ecology and environment = = = = = Fish migration = = = The Columbia supports several species of anadromous fish that migrate between the Pacific Ocean and fresh water tributaries of the river . Sockeye salmon , Coho and Chinook ( also known as " king " ) salmon , and steelhead , all of the genus Oncorhynchus , are ocean fish that migrate up the rivers at the end of their life cycles to spawn . White sturgeon , which take 15 to 25 years to mature , typically migrate between the ocean and the upstream habitat several times during their lives . Salmon populations declined dramatically after the establishment of canneries in 1867 . In 1879 it was reported that 545 @,@ 450 salmon , with an average weight of 22 pounds ( 10 @.@ 0 kg ) were caught ( in a recent season ) and mainly canned for export to England . A can weighing 1 pound ( 0 @.@ 45 kg ) could be sold for 8d or 9d . By 1908 , there was widespread concern about the decline of salmon and sturgeon . In that year , the people of Oregon passed two laws under their newly instituted program of Citizens ' Initiatives limiting fishing on the Columbia and other rivers . Then in 1948 , another initiative banned the use of seine nets ( devices already used by Native Americans , and refined by later settlers ) altogether . Dams interrupt the migration of anadromous fish . Salmon and steelhead return to the streams in which they were born to spawn ; where dams prevent their return , entire populations of salmon die . Some of the Columbia and Snake River dams employ fish ladders , which are effective to varying degrees at allowing these fish to travel upstream . Another problem exists for the juvenile salmon headed downstream to the ocean . Previously , this journey would have taken two to three weeks . With river currents slowed by the dams , and the Columbia converted from wild river to a series of slackwater pools , the journey can take several months , which increases the mortality rate . In some cases , the Army Corps of Engineers transports juvenile fish downstream by truck or river barge . The Chief Joseph Dam and several dams on the Columbia 's tributaries entirely block migration , and there are no migrating fish on the river above these dams . Sturgeon have different migration habits and can survive without ever visiting the ocean . In many upstream areas cut off from the ocean by dams , sturgeon simply live upstream of the dam . Not all fish have suffered from the modifications to the river ; the northern pikeminnow ( formerly known as the squawfish ) thrives in the warmer , slower water created by the dams . Research in the mid @-@ 1980s found that juvenile salmon were suffering substantially from the predatory pikeminnow , and in 1990 , in the interest of protecting salmon , a " bounty " program was established to reward anglers for catching pikeminnow . In 1994 , the salmon catch was smaller than usual in the rivers of Oregon , Washington , and British Columbia , causing concern among commercial fishermen , government agencies , and tribal leaders . US government intervention , to which the states of Alaska , Idaho , and Oregon objected , included an 11 @-@ day closure of an Alaska fishery . In April 1994 the Pacific Fisheries Management Council unanimously approved the strictest regulations in 18 years , banning all commercial salmon fishing for that year from Cape Falcon north to the Canadian border . In the winter of 1994 , the return of coho salmon far exceeded expectations , which was attributed in part to the fishing ban . Also in 1994 , United States Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt first proposed the removal of several Pacific Northwest dams because of their impact on salmon spawning . The Northwest Power Planning Council approved a plan that provided more water for fish and less for electricity , irrigation , and transportation . Environmental advocates have called for the removal of certain dams in the Columbia system in the years since . Of the 227 major dams in the Columbia River drainage basin , the four Washington dams on the lower Snake River are often identified for removal , for example in an ongoing lawsuit concerning a Bush administration plan for salmon recovery . These dams and reservoirs limit the recovery of upriver salmon runs to Idaho 's Salmon and Clearwater rivers . Historically , the Snake produced over 1 @.@ 5 million spring and summer Chinook salmon , a number that has dwindled to several thousand in recent years . Idaho Power Company 's Hells Canyon dams have no fish ladders ( and do not pass juvenile salmon downstream ) , and thus allow no steelhead or salmon to migrate above Hells Canyon . In 2007 , the destruction of the Marmot Dam on the Sandy River was the first dam removal in the system . Other Columbia Basin dams that have been removed include Condit Dam on Washington 's White Salmon River , and the Milltown Dam on the Clark Fork in Montana . = = = Pollution = = = In southeastern Washington , a 50 @-@ mile ( 80 km ) stretch of the river passes through the Hanford Site , established in 1943 as part of the Manhattan Project . The site served as a plutonium production complex , with nine nuclear reactors and related facilities along the banks of the river . From 1944 to 1971 , pump systems drew cooling water from the river and , after treating this water for use by the reactors , returned it to the river . Before being released back into the river , the used water was held in large tanks known as retention basins for up to six hours . Longer @-@ lived isotopes were not affected by this retention , and several terabecquerels entered the river every day . By 1957 , the eight plutonium production reactors at Hanford dumped a daily average of 50 @,@ 000 curies of radioactive material into the Columbia . These releases were kept secret by the federal government until the release of declassified documents in the late 1980s . Radiation was measured downstream as far west as the Washington and Oregon coasts . The nuclear reactors were decommissioned at the end of the Cold War , and the Hanford site is the focus of one of the world 's largest environmental cleanup , managed by the Department of Energy under the oversight of the Washington Department of Ecology and the Environmental Protection Agency . Nearby aquifers contain an estimated 270 billion US gallons ( 1 billion m3 ) of groundwater contaminated by high @-@ level nuclear waste that has leaked out of Hanford 's massive underground storage tanks . As of 2008 , 1 million US gallons ( 3 @,@ 785 m3 ) of highly radioactive waste is traveling through groundwater toward the Columbia River . This waste is expected to reach the river in 12 to 50 years if cleanup does not proceed on schedule . In addition to concerns about nuclear waste , numerous other pollutants are found in the river . These include chemical pesticides , bacteria , arsenic , dioxins , and polychlorinated biphenyls ( PCB ) . Studies have also found significant levels of toxins in fish and the waters they inhabit within the basin . Accumulation of toxins in fish threatens the survival of fish species , and human consumption of these fish can lead to health problems . Water quality is also an important factor in the survival of other wildlife and plants that grow in the Columbia River drainage basin . The states , Indian tribes , and federal government are all engaged in efforts to restore and improve the water , land , and air quality of the Columbia River drainage basin and have committed to work together to enhance and accomplish critical ecosystem restoration efforts . A number of cleanup efforts are currently underway , including Superfund projects at Portland Harbor , Hanford , and Lake Roosevelt . Timber industry activity further contaminates river water , for example in the increased sediment runoff that results from clearcuts . The Northwest Forest Plan , a piece of federal legislation from 1994 , mandated that timber companies consider the environmental impacts of their practices on rivers like the Columbia . On July 1 , 2003 , Christopher Swain of Portland , Oregon , became the first person to swim the Columbia River 's entire length , in an effort to raise public awareness about the river 's environmental health . = = Watershed = = Most of the Columbia 's drainage basin ( which , at 258 @,@ 000 square miles or 670 @,@ 000 square kilometres , is about the size of France ) lies roughly between the Rocky Mountains on the east and the Cascade Mountains on the west . In the United States and Canada the term watershed is often used to mean drainage basin . The term Columbia Basin is used to refer not only to the entire drainage basin but also to subsets of the river 's full watershed , such as the relatively flat and unforested area in eastern Washington bounded by the Cascades , the Rocky Mountains , and the Blue Mountains . Within the watershed are diverse landforms including mountains , arid plateaus , river valleys , rolling uplands , and deep gorges . Grand Teton National Park lies in the watershed , as well as parts of Yellowstone National Park , Glacier National Park , Mount Rainier National Park , and North Cascades National Park . Canadian National Parks in the watershed include Kootenay National Park , Yoho National Park , Glacier National Park , and Mount Revelstoke National Park . Hells Canyon , the deepest gorge in North America , and the Columbia Gorge are in the watershed . Vegetation varies widely , ranging from western hemlock and western redcedar in the moist regions to sagebrush in the arid regions . The watershed provides habitat for 609 known fish and wildlife species , including the bull trout , bald eagle , gray wolf , grizzly bear , and Canada lynx . The World Wide Fund for Nature ( WWF ) divides the waters of the Columbia and its tributaries into three freshwater ecoregions , naming them Columbia Glaciated , Columbia Unglaciated , and Upper Snake . The Columbia Glaciated ecoregion , making up about a third of the total watershed , lies in the north and was covered with ice sheets during the Pleistocene . The ecoregion includes the mainstem Columbia north of the Snake River and tributaries such as the Yakima , Okanagan , Pend Oreille , Clark Fork , and Kootenay rivers . The effects of glaciation include a number of large lakes and a relatively low diversity of freshwater fish . The Upper Snake ecoregion is defined as the Snake River watershed above Shoshone Falls , which totally blocks fish migration . This region has 14 species of fish , many of which are endemic . The Columbia Unglaciated ecoregion makes up the rest of the watershed . It includes the mainstem Columbia below the Snake River and tributaries such as the Salmon , John Day , Deschutes , and lower Snake Rivers . Of the three ecoregions it is the richest in terms of freshwater species diversity . There are 35 species of fish , of which four are endemic . There are also high levels of mollusk endemism . In 2000 , about six million people lived within the Columbia 's drainage basin . Of this total about 2 @.@ 4 million people lived in Oregon , 1 @.@ 7 million in Washington , 1 million in Idaho , half a million in British Columbia , and 0 @.@ 4 million in Montana . Population in the watershed has been rising for many decades and is projected to rise to about 10 million by 2030 . The highest population densities are found west of the Cascade Mountains along the I @-@ 5 corridor , especially in the Portland @-@ Vancouver urban area . High densities are also found around Spokane , Washington , and Boise , Idaho . Although much of the watershed is rural and sparsely populated , areas with recreational and scenic values are growing rapidly . The central Oregon county of Deschutes is the fastest @-@ growing in the state . Populations have also been growing just east of the Cascades in central Washington around the city of Yakima and the Tri @-@ Cities area . Projections for the coming decades assume growth throughout the watershed , including the interior . The Canadian part of the Okanagan subbasin is also growing rapidly . Climate varies greatly from place to place within the watershed . Elevation ranges from sea level at the river mouth to more than 14 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 300 m ) in the mountains , and temperatures vary with elevation . The highest peak is Mount Rainier , at 14 @,@ 411 feet ( 4 @,@ 392 m ) . High elevations have cold winters and short cool summers ; interior regions are subject to great temperature variability and severe droughts . Over some of the watershed , especially west of the Cascade Mountains , precipitation maximums occur in winter , when Pacific storms come ashore . Atmospheric conditions block the flow of moisture in summer , which is generally dry except for occasional thunderstorms in the interior . In some of the eastern parts of the watershed , especially shrub @-@ steppe regions with Continental climate patterns , precipitation maximums occur in early summer . Annual precipitation varies from more than 100 inches ( 250 cm ) a year in the Cascades to less than 8 inches ( 20 cm ) in the interior . Much of the watershed gets less than 12 inches ( 30 cm ) a year . Several major North American drainage basins and many minor ones share a common border with the Columbia River 's drainage basin . To the east , in northern Wyoming and Montana , the Continental Divide separates the Columbia watershed from the Mississippi @-@ Missouri watershed , which empties into the Gulf of Mexico . To the northeast , mostly along the southern border between British Columbia and Alberta , the Continental Divide separates the Columbia watershed from the Nelson @-@ Lake Winnipeg @-@ Saskatchewan watershed , which empties into Hudson Bay . The Mississippi and Nelson watersheds are separated by the Laurentian Divide , which meets the Continental Divide at Triple Divide Peak near the headwaters of the Columbia 's Flathead River tributary . This point marks the meeting of three of North America 's main drainage patterns , to the Pacific Ocean , to Hudson Bay , and to the Atlantic Ocean via the Gulf of Mexico . Further north along the Continental Divide , a short portion of the combined Continental and Laurentian divides separate the Columbia watershed from the MacKenzie @-@ Slave @-@ Athabasca watershed , which empties into the Arctic Ocean . The Nelson and Mackenzie watersheds are separated by a divide between streams flowing to the Arctic Ocean and those of the Hudson Bay watershed . This divide meets the Continental Divide at Snow Dome ( also known as Dome ) , near the northernmost bend of the Columbia River . To the southeast , in western Wyoming , another divide separates the Columbia watershed from the Colorado – Green watershed , which empties into the Gulf of California . The Columbia , Colorado , and Mississippi watersheds meet at Three Waters Mountain in the Wind River Range of Wyoming . To the south , in Oregon , Nevada , Utah , Idaho , and Wyoming , the Columbia watershed is divided from the Great Basin , whose several watersheds are endorheic , not emptying into any ocean but rather drying up or sinking into sumps . Great Basin watersheds that share a border with the Columbia watershed include Harney Basin , Humboldt River , and Great Salt Lake . The associated triple divide points are Commissary Ridge North , Wyoming , and Sproats Meadow Northwest , Oregon . To the north , mostly in British Columbia , the Columbia watershed borders the Fraser River watershed . To the west and southwest the Columbia watershed borders a number of smaller watersheds that drain to the Pacific Ocean , such as the Klamath River in Oregon and California and the Puget Sound Basin in Washington . = = = Major tributaries = = = The Columbia receives more than 60 significant tributaries . The four largest that empty directly into the Columbia ( measured either by discharge or by size of watershed ) are the Snake River ( mostly in Idaho ) , the Willamette River ( in northwest Oregon ) , the Kootenay River ( mostly in British Columbia ) , and the Pend Oreille River ( mostly in northern Washington and Idaho , also known as the lower part of the Clark Fork ) . Each of these four averages more than 20 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 570 m3 / s ) and drains an area of more than 20 @,@ 000 square miles ( 52 @,@ 000 km2 ) . The Snake is by far the largest tributary . Its watershed of 108 @,@ 000 square miles ( 280 @,@ 000 km2 ) is larger than the state of Idaho . Its discharge is roughly a third of the Columbia 's at the rivers ' confluence , but compared to the Columbia upstream of the confluence the Snake is longer ( 113 % ) and has a larger drainage basin ( 104 % ) . The Pend Oreille River system ( including its main tributaries , the Clark Fork and Flathead rivers ) is also similar in size to the Columbia at their confluence . Compared to the Columbia River above the two rivers ' confluence , the Pend Oreille @-@ Clark @-@ Flathead is nearly as long ( about 86 % ) , its basin about three @-@ fourths as large ( 76 % ) , and its discharge over a third ( 37 % ) .
= Alive or Just Breathing = Alive or Just Breathing is the second studio album by American metalcore band Killswitch Engage . It was released on May 21 , 2002 , through Roadrunner Records . Alive or Just Breathing was Killswitch Engage 's first album on Roadrunner and was recorded from October 2001 to February 2002 . Produced by drummer and guitarist Adam Dutkiewicz , this was the band 's first album on a major label , which prompted them to write and record the album to the best of their abilities . Alive or Just Breathing has been viewed as a landmark album in the metalcore genre and was well praised upon its release by fans and critics . The lyrics , which were all written by vocalist Jesse Leach , were aimed to bring a positive message through the music . Shortly after the release of Alive or Just Breathing , Leach left the band for personal and health issues . Killswitch Engage quickly recruited Howard Jones to replace Leach . Jones would stay in the band for nearly ten years , until his departure in early 2012 , which prompted Leach to rejoin the band on the ten @-@ year anniversary of Alive or Just Breathing . This is also the last album to feature Dutkiewicz on drums , as he would switch to guitar before the touring process . The drumming position was filled by Tom Gomes . = = Background = = In June 2000 , Killswitch Engage released their debut album , titled Killswitch Engage through Ferret Records . The band got its recording deal as a favor for the artwork bassist Mike D 'Antonio created for Ferret . The label 's CEO , Carl Severson signed the band without a contract simply to get the album out to the public because he thought the album " ruled " , and stated " I had a one @-@ off deal and when I knew they wanted to go someplace bigger , I figured it was in my best interest , as their friend , to make the best thing happen for them . " After the album was released , Severson showed it to Roadrunner Records A & R man , Mike Gitter . Gitter played the album for other Roadrunner employees and stated " The feeling was this was something that touched upon classic metal , pulls it up through hardcore , and creates something fairly new and completely exciting . When their music started circulating around the office , there was an immediate ' Holy ... this is great ! ' feeling about it . People weren 't halfway about it . " Gitter offered to sign the band to the label and felt that signing Killswitch Engage was the label 's last chance to have any heavy metal bands on the roster . The band was apprehensive at first , judging by the artist roster of Roadrunner at the time , but after nearly six months of deliberation , Killswitch Engage signed to Roadrunner due to the opportunities provided for them . After signing , the band began work on their major label debut , which would become Alive or Just Breathing . Gitter has claimed that signing Killswitch Engage was the most gratifying signing of his career . = = Writing and recording = = = = = Writing = = = In summer of 2001 , Killswitch Engage recorded a demo produced by drummer / guitarist Adam Dutkiewicz which featured the songs " Transfiguration " ( which would later become " Fixation on the Darkness " ) , " Just Barely Breathing " , and " Numbered Days " . After giving the demo to Roadrunner , the label agreed to let Dutkiewicz produce Alive or Just Breathing because they were impressed with his production skills . As Killswitch Engage started writing for Alive or Just Breathing , then @-@ guitarist Pete Cortese , who co @-@ wrote " Fixation on the Darkness " , left the band to spend more with his family . The music for Alive or Just Breathing was all written by Dutkiewicz , D 'Antonio , and guitarist Joel Stroetzel , while all of the lyrics were written by singer Jesse Leach . After completing the composition for the album , the band knew they would need to find a second guitarist to play with Stroetzel , because Alive or Just Breathing was written for two guitarists during live performances . Taking into account that this would be the band 's first album on a major label , Killswitch Engage was adamant on making the best album that they could . This required Dutkiewicz to spend more time in the studio producing and writing songs as a whole , rather than just a collection of guitar riffs put together . D 'Antonio stated the writing process for the record went very fast as he wrote the " moshy , hardcore " style riffs , Stroetzel wrote the thrash metal styled riffs , and Dutkiewicz wrote the " catchy " choruses . Leach said that his main goal when writing lyrics was to be used as an instrument to shine the light of God through his music . He felt that music lyrics in general featured too much negativity and wanted to have positivity shown in his . = = = Recording = = = On November 3 , 2001 , Killswitch Engage entered Zing Studios in Westfield , Massachusetts to begin recording Alive or Just Breathing . Upon entering the studio , the album already had its title , derived from a lyric in the song " Just Barely Breathing . " The band members all had jobs and some were going to school during the recording of the album , so each member came in for short periods as they had time available . Stroetzel said this was helpful , as it reduced stress , but regretted that they were not able to get more done in one session . A problem that D 'Antonio , Dutkiewicz , and Stroetzel encountered was keeping their guitars in tune during the sessions . They spent a large amount of the recording budget buying new guitars to improve the tuning . Since the recording of Alive or Just Breathing , they have learned how to keep in tune better as they record . Jesse Leach had troubles gaining confidence as he was recording his vocals , but was determined to make them a " masterpiece " . Leach spoke of Dutkiewicz and recording vocals stating , " I definitely hand it to Adam D. – he 's the man . We 're taking our time , dissecting things . It 's made me push myself to my limits – getting a lot more passion and deliver out of what I 'm doing . " After struggling with nervousness for a while , Dutkiewicz and Leach went to Leach 's home in Rhode Island to finish recording vocals . Mike Gitter was reluctant to hear of this when Killswitch Engage turned the record into Roadrunner , but was ultimately pleased with the results . Before the completion of the record , the band brought in Tom Gomes to play drums as Dutkiewicz moved to the empty guitar position . Though Dutkiewicz recorded most of the drums himself , Gomes provided additional percussion on the album , before he was an official member of the band . Backing vocals on Alive or Just Breathing were done by Leach , Dutkiewicz , as well as Dutkiewicz 's sister Becka , and All That Remains singer Philip Labonte . During the Alive or Just Breathing recording sessions , Killswitch Engage recorded 15 songs . Three of the songs were re @-@ recordings of songs from the band 's debut album . Stroetzel stated that the band decided to re @-@ record " Temple From the Within " , " Vide Infra " , and " In the Unblind " because at the time , Killswitch Engage was unsure of how many people would ever hear Killswitch Engage because it was released through a small label . " Temple From the Within " and " Vide Infra " made it onto Alive or Just Breathing . " In the Unblind " and two newly written songs titled " When the Balance is Broken " and " Untitled and Unloved " respectively , did not make it on to the album , but would eventually be heard on the 2005 reissue of Alive or Just Breathing . Alive or Just Breathing was mixed in February 2002 at Backstage Productions in Ripley , Derbyshire , UK by Andy Sneap . Dutkiewicz brought the album to the UK and oversaw the mixing process . The band chose Sneap after hearing good things about his work . The band and label were both very pleased with the mix , and Dutkiewicz in particular noted his satisfaction with the drum tones . = = = Artwork and packaging = = = Mike D 'Antonio owns a graphic design company called Darkicon Designs and has made album covers and various other pieces of art ( T @-@ shirts , posters , logos , etc . ) for bands such as Shadows Fall , All That Remains , Crowbar among others . Killswitch Engage made sure to have written in their contract with Roadrunner that D 'Antonio would produce all of the band 's artwork . D 'Antonio stated about the cover of Alive or Just Breathing , " I wanted something that looked ' old school cut @-@ and @-@ paste ' for the cover . Something with texture that appeared like it was just laid down and photographed . I remember Roadrunner hating the cover , saying there was too much going on and nothing to focus on . I told them I did not agree , and that some day they would get it . " = = Release = = Alive or Just Breathing was released on May 21 , 2002 . Killswitch Engage filmed a music video for the song " My Last Serenade " , which gained heavy rotation on MTV 's Headbanger 's Ball and propelled the album to number 37 on Billboard 's Top Heatseekers chart . Alive or Just Breathing also stayed at number one on CMJ 's Loud Rock radio chart for over a month . By the time the band 's third album , The End of Heartache was released , Alive or Just Breathing sold 114 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . Music videos were also filmed for " Life to Lifeless " and " Fixation on the Darkness " . Upon the release of the album , Killswitch Engage embarked on their first nationwide tour , supporting Soilwork and Hypocrisy and would tour for the next year in support of Alive or Just Breathing . Other legs of the tour featured the band touring with acts such as Kittie , Poison the Well , Shadows Fall , and Hotwire . Missing his wife whom he had married two weeks prior to the tour , Jesse Leach left Killswitch Engage in the middle of their first national tour . With a combination of depression , missing his wife , and throat problems , Leach sent D 'Antonio an email just a few days before the band was scheduled to play a show , announcing his departure . D 'Antonio stated in an interview that " after three years of hanging out with the dude , and considering him a brother , to just get an email was a little bit harsh . " Killswitch Engage very quickly set up auditions to fill the vocalist position in the band and eventually settled on Howard Jones , who was at the time the frontman of Blood Has Been Shed . Jones very quickly had to learn a set of songs to tour with the band . Leach and the rest of the band quickly reconciled and remained close friends . After the touring process for the album was over , Tom Gomes left the band and was replaced by Justin Foley . This line @-@ up of Killswitch Engage would last until early 2012 , when Jones left the band . Following Jones ' departure , Jesse Leach rejoined the band on the ten @-@ year anniversary of Alive or Just Breathing . In 2005 , as part of Roadrunner 's 25th anniversary , the label re @-@ released Alive or Just Breathing as a special edition . The re @-@ release included a bonus enhanced cd with all of the songs left over from the album 's recording sessions , as well as a re @-@ recorded version of " Fixation on the Darkness " , featuring Jones on lead vocals , a track of studio outtakes and music videos for " My Last Serenade " , " Fixation on the Darkness " , and " Life to Lifeless " . The special edition also included expanded artwork and a biography documenting the recording and release of the album . = = Critical reception = = Critical reception of Alive or Just Breathing was generally positive . Erik Thomas from Metalreview.com said " while this album certainly is responsible for the vast amount of saturation , it stands as a pretty trendsetting , stellar must @-@ own example of metalcore . " Jason D. Taylor of AllMusic stated " This is a pure metal album that seemingly has ignored any fashionable trend and instead relies solely on skill and expertise to sculpt some of meatiest heavy metal since the glory days of Metallica and Slayer . " Taylor also expressed the impressiveness of the band 's " do @-@ it @-@ yourself " work ethic as Dutkiewicz handled all production and D 'Antonio " took the time to give much thought on the album 's packaging and art direction . " Dom Lawson of Kerrang ! magazine gave the album five " Ks " ( or five out of five stars ) . He praised the album 's unique new sound , music , and vocal performances from Leach . Kevin Boyce of CMJ said , " This album is more addictive than crack cocaine that 's been smothered in caffeine and nicotine and drenched with chocolate . Starting with the track ' Numbered Days , ' this 12 @-@ track platter never takes its foot off of the throttle . " Boyce also stated his favorite song from the album was " My Last Serenade , " and applauded " Just Barely Breathing , " comparing parts of it to Metallica 's Ride the Lightning . Reviewing the 2005 re @-@ release of the album , Scott Alisoglu of Blabbermouth.net said that Alive or Just Breathing is " one special album " and that its release " marked a defining moment in metal . " Alisoglu also viewed the album as one of the greatest albums of 2002 and of " the new century . " Alive or Just Breathing is one of only 21 albums to have a perfect site rating on Blabbermouth.net. In 2009 , MetalSucks compiled a list of the " 21 Best Metal Albums of the 21st Century So Far " based on the opinions of various musicians , managers , publicists , label representatives and writers , where Alive or Just Breathing was placed at number four on the list . Noisecreep posted a list of the top 10 best metal albums of the past decade in 2010 , where the album was listed at number six . In a review for 411mania.com , Evocator Manes stated his dislike for the melodic " smooth parts " that he felt were too repetitious throughout Alive or Just Breathing , however he praised the album 's production and positive lyrics . Jesse Leach stated there was a small portion of Killswitch Engage fans who disliked his use of clean singing on the album . = = Track listing = = All lyrics written by Jesse Leach . = = Personnel = = Killswitch Engage Jesse Leach – lead vocals Joel Stroetzel – lead guitar , rhythm guitar Mike D 'Antonio – bass guitar Adam Dutkiewicz – drums , guitars , piano , backing vocals , production , engineering Additional musicians Becka Dutkiewicz – backing vocals Philip Labonte – backing vocals Tom Gomes – additional drumming Howard Jones - lead vocals on " Fixation on the Darkness ( re @-@ recorded version ) Technical staff and photography Andy Sneap – mixing and mastering Daniel Moss – photography Mike D 'Antonio – art direction and design
= Jack Crawford ( cricketer ) = John Neville " Jack " Crawford ( 1 December 1886 – 2 May 1963 ) was an English first @-@ class cricketer who played mainly for Surrey and South Australia . An amateur , he played as an all @-@ rounder . As a right @-@ handed batsman , Crawford had a reputation for scoring quickly and hitting powerful shots . He bowled medium @-@ paced off spin and was noted for his accuracy and his ability to make the ball turn sharply from the pitch . Unusually for a first @-@ class cricketer , Crawford wore spectacles while playing . Crawford established a reputation as an outstanding cricketer while still a schoolboy . He played Test cricket for England before he was 21 years old , and successfully toured Australia with the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) in 1907 – 08 . He played only 12 matches for England , although critics believed he had a great future in the sport and was a potential future England captain . In two successive English seasons , he completed the double of 1 @,@ 000 runs and 100 wickets in first @-@ class games . A dispute over the composition of a Surrey side chosen to play a high @-@ profile game in 1909 , after several professional players were omitted for disciplinary reasons , led to an increasingly bitter argument between Crawford and the Surrey authorities . Crawford was told he had no future with the club , and moved to Australia . There , he worked as a teacher and continued his cricket career with South Australia . This arrangement had a controversial end , when he clashed with the South Australian Cricket Association over money and moved to New Zealand to play for Otago . That relationship also ended badly , and he left Otago before being conscripted into the New Zealand armed forces near the end of the First World War . When he was demobilised , he returned to England and made his peace with Surrey . He played a handful of games between 1919 and 1921 but faded out of first @-@ class cricket to pursue a career in industry . In all first @-@ class cricket , Crawford scored 9 @,@ 488 runs at an average of 32 @.@ 60 and took 815 wickets at an average of 20 @.@ 66 . Although he continued to play cricket at a lower level , the remainder of Crawford 's life passed in relative obscurity . = = Early life and career = = Jack Crawford was born on 1 December 1886 at Cane Hill , Coulsdon , Surrey , the youngest of three sons to the Rev John Charles Crawford and his wife Alice ; the couple also had three daughters . Crawford senior was the chaplain at the recently opened Cane Hill Asylum , in the grounds of which Crawford was born . He grew up in a cricketing environment . His father and uncle , Frank Crawford , played first @-@ class cricket for Kent ; his brothers Vivian and Reginald were also first @-@ class cricketers . The whole family played cricket and encouraged Crawford from a young age , and from the age of eleven he regularly played with adults . After attending Glengrove School in Eastbourne , Crawford went to St Winifred 's School in Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames where , in his two years in the cricket team , he scored 2 @,@ 093 runs and took 366 wickets . In 1902 , Crawford moved to Repton School . Reaching the cricket team in his first year , he remained in the eleven until he left the school in 1905 . His impact was considerable . A 1906 report in Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack rated him as one of the best three schoolboy cricketers in the previous 40 years , only matched by A. G. Steel and Stanley Jackson . Cricket historians similarly praised his cricket at Repton . Benny Green notes that his prolific achievements " created ... chaos among schoolboy cricketers . " Gerald Brodribb describes him as " probably the best ever " schoolboy cricketer . By 1904 , Crawford dominated the Repton team . He scored 759 runs and his 75 wickets were more than the combined total of all the other bowlers in the team . He was particularly effective in the school 's most important fixtures . The report in Wisden described him as possibly the best amateur bowler in England that year : he bowled medium @-@ paced off spin , although he varied the speed of his delivery from slow to fast . Surrey County Cricket Club took an interest in Crawford almost immediately , calling him to a trial in 1903 . Following his achievements in 1904 , he was invite to play for the county . The county club was in the midst of a spell of uncertainty ; several men captained the team , but only for a handful of matches each . The composition of the side continually changed , and the team performed poorly , causing unrest among supporters accustomed to success . Crawford was just one of many players brought in as an experiment , albeit one of the most successful . He made his first @-@ class debut against Kent . Taking three wickets and top @-@ scoring in Surrey 's first innings with 54 , Crawford did well enough to retain his place for another seven games , and was praised in the press for his performances . Against Gloucestershire , he took seven wickets for 43 runs in the second innings , and a total of ten wickets in the match . In the season as a whole he took 44 first @-@ class wickets at an average of 16 @.@ 93 to top the county 's bowling averages , and scored 229 runs at an average of 16 @.@ 35 . Although hampered by injuries during the 1905 season for Repton , his last at the school , Crawford scored 766 runs with a batting average of 85 . In the five matches in which he was fit to bowl he took 55 wickets at an average under 13 . In the August holidays , he returned to play for Surrey . In his second game , he took seven for 90 against Yorkshire and in his third , he scored his maiden first @-@ class century — 119 not out against Derbyshire — to become the youngest centurion for the county , a record that was not broken until 2013 . Later , he took eight for 24 against Northamptonshire and scored 142 not out against Leicestershire . At the end of the season , he played in the Hastings Festival , appearing in several representative games for teams representing the South of England and played for the Rest of England against the County Champions Yorkshire . Crawford finished second in Surrey 's batting averages for 1905 ; in all first @-@ class games he scored 543 runs at an average of 33 @.@ 93 and took 47 wickets at an average of 18 @.@ 46 . As the season ended , he was invited by the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) to join their tour of South Africa that winter . = = International cricketer = = = = = Tour to South Africa = = = Having finished his school career , Crawford joined the first MCC tour of South Africa in the 1905 – 06 season . The team was not particularly strong — before the tour , critics judged it to possess the equivalent strength of a moderate county side . The MCC was criticised by the press in both England and South Africa for omitting many of the strongest players . As the youngest member of the team , Crawford was given the traditional role of writing press reports to be sent back home during the tour . When the team played in Worcester during the tour , the local press carried a report that Crawford planned to remain in South Africa . The 1906 Wisden carried the same story ; in a comment on his success in 1905 , it suggested that it was uncertain for how long he would play , and questioned whether , if he played Test cricket , he would do so for England or South Africa . The cricket historian Nigel Hart queries why Wisden mentioned South Africa ; Crawford 's only known connection came through his uncle , who had left South Africa five years before . In all first @-@ class matches on the tour , Crawford scored 531 runs at an average of 31 @.@ 23 , coming third in the tour batting averages , and took 34 wickets at an average of 18 @.@ 44 , placing him fifth among the regular bowlers in the team . In the early tour matches , Crawford recorded two five wicket hauls and scored 98 . He made his Test match debut for England against South Africa in the first Test at the age of 19 years and 32 days to become England 's youngest Test cricketer , a record he held until Brian Close made his debut in 1949 . Batting at number six , Crawford scored 44 runs in the first innings and 43 in the second ; he took a wicket with his first delivery , bowling Bert Vogler . He was wicketless in the second innings , and bowled inaccurately as the home side recorded a one @-@ wicket win . Wisden noted that Crawford batted well in both innings . After a month of cricket in between the Tests , during which Crawford scored 212 in a minor game , the English team were suffering from fatigue when the remaining matches were played . In the second Test , Crawford was promoted to open the batting , a position he retained for most of the series . In the final match , he scored 74 , his first Test fifty and the highest score of his Test career . His best bowling also came in the final match , where he took three for 69 . In the Test series , Crawford scored 281 runs at an average of 31 @.@ 22 and took nine wickets at 35 @.@ 77 . England lost the series 4 – 1 , finding it difficult to bat against the South African googly bowlers . Wisden 's tour report described Crawford 's batting as one of the few positives for his side . Writing home during the tour , the MCC captain Pelham Warner frequently praised Crawford and the extent of his ability at a young age . The English press even parodied what Crawford 's biographer , Michael Burns , describes as Warner 's " near @-@ obsession " with Crawford . Other critics believed that Crawford should have been more successful as a bowler but was distracted by the matting surfaces used in South Africa ; because he was able to make the ball bounce and turn extravagantly from the surface , he tried to spin the ball too much and lost accuracy as a result . = = = Surrey cricketer = = = Returning to England for the 1906 season , Crawford completed the double of 1 @,@ 000 runs and 100 wickets in first @-@ class cricket , the youngest player at the time to accomplish this feat . Against Gloucestershire , he scored 148 and then took seven for 85 and four for 63 with the ball ; he also took ten wickets in his next game . In total , he compiled 1 @,@ 174 runs at an average of 30 @.@ 10 , and took 118 wickets at an average of 20 @.@ 28 . These performances earned him selection for the representative Gentlemen versus Players matches at both Lord 's and The Oval , in which he played for the amateur Gentlemen . At the end of the season , he was chosen as one of Wisden 's Cricketers of the Year . The citation said : " Few cricketers have won equal fame at so early an age " , and noted the unusual ease with which he had moved into first @-@ class cricket . Crawford 's powerful batting and straight hitting were praised , as was his accurate bowling . The report also stated : " That he should have done all this is the more astonishing from the fact that he invariably plays in glasses . No one handicapped in this way has ever been so consistently successful both as batsman and bowler . " Crawford had a reputation by this stage as a batsman who favoured aggressive , powerful shots and his performances drew in crowds . In 1907 , in the space of a few days , he hit deliveries in two different matches through the windows of both the home and the visitors ' dressing rooms at The Oval . Towards the end of the season , he scored 103 runs in 90 minutes against Kent , his only century that year , hitting several deliveries into the crowd ; The Times described the ball in this innings as " soaring away like a bird " . Crawford 's overall batting record was similar to the previous season : he scored 1 @,@ 158 runs at an average of 30 @.@ 47 . With the ball , he took 124 wickets at 16 @.@ 95 , completing his second double . Once again , he was selected in both Gentlemen v Players matches , taking six for 54 in the second , and was chosen to play two of the three Test matches against South Africa . These were his only Test matches in England ; he scored 26 runs in three innings and was wicketless after bowling 29 overs . He missed England 's victory in the second match , the only match in the series not to be a draw , but Wisden 's correspondent believed that the pitch conditions for that game made it a mistake to leave Crawford out . Despite his lack of success in the Tests , Crawford was invited to tour Australia that winter even before the South African series was complete ; he suggested to the press that he might remain in Australia after the tour . = = = Tour to Australia = = = The MCC team which toured Australia in 1907 — 08 , like that which toured South Africa , faced questions about its strength . Because at least four first @-@ choice players chose not to tour , and another was not selected despite strong claims , the team was less representative than usual for an Ashes series . The tourists lost the Tests 4 – 1 , although Wisden suggested that the series was more competitive than suggested by the results . Crawford began the tour well , taking seven wickets in the opening first @-@ class match against Western Australia . In the second game , he scored 114 runs in 58 minutes against South Australia , the fastest first @-@ class century scored in Australia until then , followed by bowling figures of five for 40 in the second innings . Crawford contributed little more with bat or ball in the lead @-@ up to the Test series ; in England , the cricketer Gilbert Jessop wrote an article suggesting that Crawford had become an " unsound " batsman . He scarcely bowled in the first Test , won by Australia , and both the English and Australian press were critical of his bowling . Frederick Fane , the acting @-@ captain of England , seemed to share this view in the second Test , withholding Crawford from the attack for some time . However , Crawford took five for 79 in the first innings helped to restrict Australia on a good batting pitch and took eight wickets in the match as England levelled the series . Australia won the remaining games to win the series . In the third match , Crawford scored his only half @-@ century of the series , hitting 62 out of England 's 363 to help his team build up a first innings lead . However , Australia scored 506 at the second attempt , during which Crawford bowled nearly 46 overs to take three for 113 . The series was settled in the fourth Test ; Australia recorded a big victory after rain affected the pitch and created difficult batting conditions during England 's first innings . On the first day , Crawford took five for 48 , his best Test figures , as Australia were bowled out for 214 on a very good pitch . Wisden noted Crawford " [ mixed ] up his pace with remarkable skill " . By this stage of the tour , the press looked on him much more favourably , and he received praise for his performances . However , his heavy workload with the ball affected his health ; he lost a stone in weight during the tour , and before the final Test a Melbourne doctor diagnosed that he had " strained the right side of his heart " and advised that he see a specialist . Crawford played in that game , won by Australia , despite his ill health , with several other players unfit , and the tour manager later wrote that he looked poorly throughout and should not have played . Nevertheless , he bowled 54 overs and took eight wickets in the match . Wisden considered Crawford 's bowling to be one of the most successful features of the tour and praised his ability to spin the ball , reporting : " It was said of Crawford that even on the most perfect wickets he could at times make the ball break back . " He led the English Test bowling averages with 30 wickets at an average of 24 @.@ 73 . His batting was less productive than expected ; in five Tests , he scored 162 runs at an average of 18 @.@ 00 , batting usually at number eight . In all first @-@ class matches on the tour , he scored 610 runs at 26 @.@ 52 and took 66 wickets at 25 @.@ 19 . Crawford 's contributions enhanced his growing reputation and critics expected his cricket to go from strength to strength . Australian batsman Clem Hill commented : " There are grand cricketers in this game , and then there is Jack Crawford . " The final game in the series turned out to be Crawford 's last Test . In 12 Test matches , he had scored 469 runs at an average of 22 @.@ 33 and took 39 wickets at 29 @.@ 48 . As the tour neared its completion , the Australian press reported that Crawford planned to remain in Australia , that he had attracted the attention of several " society " women , and had become engaged . Even so , he returned to England when the tour ended . In May 1909 , he published a book about the tour , JN Crawford 's Trip to " Kangaroo " land . = = Dispute with Surrey = = = = = Background = = = During the 1908 season , Crawford narrowly failed to complete his third double . He scored 1 @,@ 371 runs at an average of 37 @.@ 05 and took 98 wickets at 21 @.@ 48 . His season began with a probable dispute over the Surrey captaincy . H. D. G. Leveson Gower had been appointed captain for 1908 but the combination of an injury and his marriage left him unavailable for four matches near the beginning of the season . Crawford also missed the beginning of the season ; a newspaper article by Albert Trott , a former Australian Test all @-@ rounder now playing for Middlesex , suggested that Crawford withdrew from the team because he was not appointed captain in Leveson Gower 's absence . Instead Harry Bush , who had not played first @-@ class cricket for five years , led the team . Trott was sympathetic to Crawford , stating that the Surrey committee went out of their way " to inflict a most undeserved slight " on Crawford . In the remainder of the season , Crawford scored 232 against Somerset , his highest first @-@ class score , as well as centuries against Derbyshire and Hampshire . The increased strength and variety of Surrey 's bowling attack restricted his opportunities ; he was used less as a strike bowler and bowled fewer overs than in the previous season . Contemporary reports suggested that his performances tailed off as the season progressed , possibly through tiredness from having played too much cricket , and that he became a less accurate bowler through trying too hard to spin the ball . The Surrey captaincy remained unsettled ; Crawford led the team on several occasions , including Surrey 's final game of the season , when his brother Vivian captained Leicestershire , their opponents . Crawford , who played as an amateur but was not independently wealthy , received an increased expenses allowance during 1908 , but other financial dealings with the committee were less successful : they paid his laundry bills in 1905 , but refused to do so afterwards ; additionally , they refused his request in 1907 to have part of his expenses paid for matches that he missed , as happened with the wages of professionals . His financial problems were compounded by his inability to find a suitable job , and the Surrey committee threatened that he " ought not to be played on the same terms " unless he " [ commenced ] to earn his livelihood " . Crawford 's performances in the 1909 season were less effective than in previous years . He began well , but was later hampered by an injury which prevented him from bowling . His batting average also fell . Surrey experienced disciplinary problems with several of their professional players during the season . The club president , Lord Alverstone , favoured amateurs , arguing that a losing amateur team was preferable to a professional side that won ; several professionals were left out in favour of amateurs . Apart from adversely affecting some players ' careers , this preference had destabilised the team over several seasons . Crawford disagreed with Alverstone , but nevertheless frequently assumed the leadership in the absence of the regular captain Leveson Gower for much of the season . He captained Surrey to a win over the touring Australian team early in 1909 after a strong performance by the professional bowler Tom Rushby . However , his captaincy was strongly criticised in the press , particularly over his management of the bowling . Around this time , Crawford 's form declined . With the bat , he was often dismissed attempting aggressive shots , and he lost his effectiveness as a bowler . As a result , he was not chosen for the Gentlemen and missed selection in the Ashes series . The press continued to criticise his captaincy , despite Surrey 's good results under his leadership . Burns notes : " For a young man with no experience of prolonged failure on the cricket field , this was almost certainly a traumatic time . " Surrey had other problems at this time . When the team arrived in Chesterfield to play Derbyshire , eight of the professionals were arrested following an incident in the street ; the matter was cleared up and the press suggested that the police had been over @-@ eager . The county subsequently defeated Derbyshire by an innings in early July ; Rushby and his fellow professionals Walter Lees and W. C. Smith were very successful with the ball . Shortly after this , Rushby and Lees were involved in an incident of some kind — the exact details are unknown . Leveson Gower suspended them , making them unavailable for Surrey 's second match against the Australians . Crawford was asked to lead the team for that game , but with Rushby and Lees omitted , another bowler missing and himself unable to bowl owing to a shoulder injury , he considered the attack too weak . Consequently , he refused the captaincy , and apologised to the Australians for the selection of what he thought a substandard side . In Crawford 's absence , Surrey were led by the professional Tom Hayward ; the match , affected by rain , was drawn . = = = Correspondence and split = = = The cricket press noticed the absence of Crawford and the professionals from Surrey 's team over the following games , and noted that Crawford was now playing club cricket . Meanwhile , Alverstone wrote to Crawford that the Surrey committee fully supported Leveson Gower 's decision to omit Rushby and Lees , and told him that Surrey would not select him again unless he apologised to Leveson Gower . Crawford refused , writing to Alverstone : " I do not know who was responsible for the selection of the second eleven sort of team furnished up for such an important match ... There seems to be some impression amongst a few of the Surrey committee that I am some young professional instead of being a young fellow who has had an experience of cricket that has seldom fallen to the lot of anyone , and my request for an alteration of the team should have had some weight " . In his History of Cricket , Benny Green describes the letter as evidence of a " literate and quietly self @-@ confident young man who will not easily be manipulated . " Alverstone replied that he " regretted " Crawford 's views ; the committee respected Crawford as a " brilliant amateur with great experience " , but Crawford had not supported his captain — a prime duty for an amateur . Crawford replied that he had been unaware of the reason for the suspensions of Rushby and Lees — which Alverstone and the committee disputed — and would have supported Leveson Gower , but suggested it was unfair to ask him to captain a weak bowling team and then demand he apologise for preferring not to . He also observed that the players omitted from the team against the Australians had since been restored to the county side , making their exclusion harder to understand in the first place . At this point Leveson Gower withdrew his invitation for Crawford to appear at the Scarborough Festival ; Leveson Gower also prevented Crawford 's selection for the MCC winter tour of South Africa . Crawford 's father wrote to the Surrey committee in support of his son . By the beginning of August 1909 , two weeks after the match against the Australians , the Surrey committee severed their connection with Crawford ; Leveson Gower felt that he had shown the " deepest ingratitude " . Wisden reported : " The committee were much incensed and passed a resolution that Crawford be not again asked to play for the county . " Informed of his expulsion by letter , Crawford replied to the committee a final time : " I fail to see why I should practically be branded as a criminal because , as acting captain , I declined the responsibility of skippering a team which did not include three essential players , an independence which I trust will remain in spite of the awful example made of me to every amateur in the United Kingdom . " The Surrey committee initially attempted to keep the dispute private , but Crawford sent copies of the letters to the newspapers , explaining in a letter that he wished to end speculation about his absence from the Surrey team . Burns notes that this " [ generated ] a strong response from the public , mainly unsympathetic to the young amateur " in the letters pages of many newspapers . Many commentators felt that the argument could have been resolved easily had either side made concessions . Green comments that the committee probably either expected Crawford to back down , or were happy to sacrifice him to establish their authority . Another of the players involved , Rushby , left Surrey at the end of the season to play league cricket , but later returned to the team . Crawford 's father made a further attempt to end the dispute between Surrey and his son in 1910 , asking the committee to reverse their decision . Wisden reported that Alverstone declined on the grounds that it would suggest a lack of confidence in the committee , but that if Crawford " came forward in a sportsmanlike way [ Alverstone ] would be proud to give his personal support to the step proposed . This of course meant that an apology was expected . " In his History of Cricket , Green contended that the " Surrey committee must be held accountable for a degree of idiocy rarely met with even in the realms of cricket administration " for the way they dealt with Crawford , " one of the world 's most prodigious all @-@ rounders . " Hart observes that Crawford was challenging figures high up in the cricket establishment on the Surrey committee ; he also suggests that Crawford 's actions in his later career , and the complaints made against him by other cricket authorities , reveal a stubbornness in his character and suggest he was not merely a victim of the Surrey committee . The Times speculated that factors other than the dispute may have contributed to Surrey 's decision . Burns believes that Crawford was feeling pressure from several directions : his inability to secure a job , possible frustration at the controlling influence of his father , a desire to be independent , his poor run of form and criticism of his captaincy . Even though , according to Burns , it was an " unwinnable battle " , he suggests simply : " Young Jack was in the mood for a fight . " At the end of the season , Crawford played his last matches in England for 10 years , appearing for an " England XI " against the Australians and for the Gentlemen of the South . He had previously discussed emigrating to Australia with the Australian Test player Victor Trumper , who had asked Clem Hill to investigate a potential teaching post at St Peter 's College , Adelaide . Originally , assuming that he would be part of the MCC tour to South Africa , he planned to take take up his position in March 1910 . When the dispute arose , Crawford sent a telegram to inform the college he would take up the post of " Resident Master " early in 1910 , for a salary of £ 160 per year . Burns suggests that this knowledge that he had the offer of work may have prompted him to take a stand against the Surrey committee . In October 1910 he was offered the position of " Ordinary Master " at the college , and £ 50 towards his travel expenses if he departed immediately . He left England by boat two days later , seen off by his family . No cricket figures saw his departure , but there was considerable interest from the press . = = Later career = = = = = Cricket in South Australia = = = At St Peter 's School , Crawford combined his teaching role with supervision of sports , including acting as coach for the cricket team . On several occasions , he had to request leave from the headmaster to play first @-@ class cricket . After arriving in Australia in December 1909 , he was playing district cricket for East Torrens within a week , and played in South Australia 's last three matches in the Sheffield Shield competition ; the team went on to win the trophy for the first time since 1893 – 94 . Crawford played a large part in this success . There was some controversy over his eligibility to play ; New South Wales initially protested , but there was a precedent for ignoring the requirement of a three @-@ month qualification period , and the New South Wales Cricket Association ( NSWCA ) Executive Committee accepted this in the case of Crawford , to the displeasure of the full NSWCA . Over four seasons , Crawford played 22 matches for South Australia , scoring 1 @,@ 512 runs at an average of 40 @.@ 86 and taking 120 wickets at 23 @.@ 86 . Green suggests that such a performance would have earned him Test selection if he had been Australian , and Wisden noted that his record in Australia was impressive . In the 1910 – 11 Australian season , Crawford scored a half @-@ century in every first @-@ class game he played but was less successful with the ball . His success against the touring South Africans , perhaps helped by his experience facing their googly bowlers on previous occasions , brought him close to selection for the Australian Test team that year . The Australian Board of Control eventually decided that , as he had already appeared for England , they could not choose him ; instead they picked Charlie Kelleway as the all @-@ rounder . Crawford resigned from his position as St Peter 's in March 1911 , suggesting to the press that he might move into farming . He may have considered leaving South Australia , but the Cricket Association appointed him as a clerk at the Adelaide Oval , a position which earned £ 200 per annum , with additional responsibility for coaching and youth scouting . Meanwhile , in England , after unsuccessful attempts by his father to change the mind of the Surrey committee , including a failed bid to secure his own election to the committee , Crawford sent a written apology to Surrey at some time in 1910 . Consequently , the committee passed a motion in March 1911 which ended the ban on Crawford playing for the county . Press rumours over the following 12 months cast doubt on Crawford 's future , suggestions including a return to England for the 1912 season . Instead , he remained with South Australia in the 1911 – 12 season . Although less successful generally , he played for a non @-@ representative Australian XI against the MCC touring team which contested the Ashes that season and scored 110 in as many minutes against bowlers including Sydney Barnes , at the time regarded as the greatest bowler in the world . The following season , in which South Australia again won the Shield , Crawford took seven for 31 against Western Australia , including a hat @-@ trick , and scored 163 in 177 minutes against Victoria before taking eight for 66 in their first innings . In 1913 , Crawford was included in an Australian team which toured North America . The team was organised by Edgar Mayne , a South Australian batsman who tried to secure backing from the Australian Board of Control to make it an official representative team , but the Board refused to do so . In all matches , Crawford scored over 1 @,@ 000 runs and took over 200 wickets , and he was particularly effective as a bowler in the matches designated first @-@ class . He later stated that this was the best tour he had been on ; more press rumours suggested that he would return to England at the conclusion of the tour , but he returned to Australia with the rest of the team . = = = Further controversy = = = In December 1913 , Crawford wrote to the South Australian Cricket Association ( SACA ) asking for a six @-@ month leave of absence and a guaranteed renewal of his contract . The SACA described his letter as " arrogant " before eventually granting his request and offering him a three @-@ year contract worth around £ 300 per year , including coaching fees . In effect , he wanted to double his salary or leave to seek a position in New Zealand . Describing these events , Hart comments : " Crawford 's financial dealings with the SACA reveal him both as mercenary and as an awkward ' cuss ' . The latter aspect of his personality needs to be taken into account lest he be considered merely an establishment victim in his parting with Surrey " . On the field , Crawford was successful in 1913 – 14 . He took 34 wickets , and against New South Wales he hit 91 in 89 minutes before taking 10 wickets ; against Victoria he took eleven wickets . This latter match was his last for South Australia . Later in 1914 , Crawford toured New Zealand with an Australian team — assembled without the approval of the Australian Board of Control — which contained many leading players , under the captaincy of the former Canterbury batsman Arthur Sims . In first @-@ class games on this tour Crawford took 21 wickets and scored a century , but his most notable innings came in a minor match . Against the " XV of South Canterbury " , he scored 354 in five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter hours , striking 14 sixes and 45 fours . He and Victor Trumper shared a partnership of 298 in 69 minutes , and Monty Noble helped him to score 50 runs in 9 minutes as the Australian team scored 922 for nine . In March 1914 , the Otago Cricket Association ( OCA ) offered Crawford a three @-@ year contract worth £ 350 per year , and a share in the management of a sports store , to play for them . Briefly returning to Adelaide after the tour , he resigned from his South Australia contract before moving to Dunedin in June 1914 . The South Australian Cricket Association were widely criticised for failing to retain Crawford ; in their defence , the committee publicly stated that Crawford had been offered an increased deal and had promised to turn down any offers made to him in New Zealand , but went back on his word . Later historians — Nigel Hart in his biography of Crawford , and Chris Harte in his A History of Australian Cricket ( 1993 ) — condemned Crawford as arrogant and mercenary for his behaviour towards South Australia . Harte also suggests that Crawford left Australia with many debts . Burns , however , suggests that Crawford may have wanted to maximise his earnings to support his upcoming marriage , and notes that his South Australian team @-@ mates held no grudges and even organised a farewell presentation . Once in his new position , Crawford immediately organised a Colts team which produced several future Otago players . While qualifying to play for Otago , he played club cricket in Dunedin , scoring 559 runs and taking 88 wickets . During the 1914 – 15 season he appeared in four first @-@ class games for Otago , in which he scored 337 runs and took 30 wickets . He briefly returned to Australia in 1915 to marry Anita Schmidt in Melbourne in April . Schmidt — from Adelaide and described in the society press as a " beauty " — and Crawford met in 1912 when the former was 18 years old and became well @-@ known as a couple at fashionable events in Adelaide . Burns suggests that the wedding took place in Melbourne rather than Adelaide because Crawford may have been avoiding his creditors . Two days after the wedding , the couple returned to New Zealand . Crawford 's wages caused the OCA some financial difficulty and were the cause of extended negotiations in 1915 . Part of the settlement involved Crawford receiving a lower salary in return for freedom to offer his services to other clubs on a freelance basis . As a consequence , he represented different teams throughout the season in local cricket . He was also paid to coach at Otago Boys High School . There were other difficulties ; the association complained about the lateness of Crawford 's report on the Otago team , and were unhappy that he also coached golf . Crawford in turn told the association that several Otago players were late for practice . After further complaints about Crawford 's coaching in 1916 , the OCA decided to terminate his contract . Crawford initially offered to continue for less money — £ 245 . The OCA bargained , suggesting a payment of £ 200 , whereupon Crawford insisted that he should be paid £ 300 . The OCA then proposed to terminate his contract immediately for a payment of £ 150 but he refused . He was eventually paid £ 200 in June to leave Otago . That November , with the First World War into its third year , New Zealand brought in conscription . Crawford was called up in July 1917 , and was posted to a training camp near Wellington in late 1917 . During this time , he played twice for Wellington 's cricket team in first @-@ class matches during early 1918 . When given weekend passes , he visited his wife who was left alone in Dunedin . He travelled to England prior to a posting to the Western Front , although he arrived too late to join the fighting . He was part of the New Zealand Rifle Brigade but it is unclear what his rank was . The Repton School War Register states that he was a rifleman but New Zealand press accounts named him as a quartermaster sergeant . According to a 1992 article in Wisden Cricket Monthly by Jim Sullivan , Crawford was demoted while he was in the army . The reasons are unknown , but Burns speculates that his " independent and obstinate nature " made it difficult for him to accept military discipline . While Crawford was in the army , his wife moved to Adelaide . According to Anita , the marriage became unhappy in 1916 and Crawford left her in November of that year . She claimed that he had not supported her financially from that point . When the war ended , she returned to live in Australia with her parents . Her subsequent career as a dress designer and fashion buyer necessitated a move to London , where Crawford was living , in 1921 but the couple never reconciled . They were divorced , with some publicity in Australia , in 1923 ; in court , she gave evidence that he had an affair with a " third party " . She went on to remarry and to have a successful career as a designer and orchestral conductor . = = = Return to England = = = After the First World War , Crawford returned to live in England , and was demobilised from the New Zealand Army in April 1919 . Looking for work , he wrote to Surrey offering to play for them if they found him some employment in turn , but the committee , while writing that they would be pleased if he played for the county again , could not " see [ their ] way to find him employment " . Crawford may have been contemplating playing professional cricket — unheard of for a former Public School cricketer — but instead found work at Repton , his old school . It is unclear what his position at Repton was at this time ; he seems to have had no official cricketing role and it is possible he worked as a teacher simply to maintain his amateur status . In any case , Crawford only remained at Repton until the end of the academic year ; his short stay may have been the result of poor results by the cricket team . However , Burns suggests : " Another indication that the school was not entirely happy to be associated with the Surrey rebel , whose baggage also included an indifferent war record , was that when the Old Boys cricket team , the Repton Pilgrims , was formed in 1921 , Crawford was alone among the school 's former distinguished players not to be made a member . He was not invited to join the club until 1952 . " Having settled his disagreement with Surrey , Crawford resumed his English first @-@ class cricket career in 1919 . After appearing for the Gentlemen against the Players , Crawford returned to play for Surrey against the Australian Imperial Forces . He scored 144 not out , which was later described by Wisden as the innings of his life . Surrey were 26 for five in reply to the tourists ' innings of 436 when Crawford came in to bat . Neville Cardus reported : " [ Crawford ] fell upon the advancing Australian attack , and by driving seldom equalled , threw it back . " He more than doubled his score after the ninth wicket had fallen , hitting 73 out of the last 80 runs scored in 35 minutes to take Surrey past the target required to avoid the follow @-@ on . Among his other successes , he scored 92 against Yorkshire . Playing against Kent , he hit 48 not out as Jack Hobbs and he scored 96 in 32 minutes ; this partnership took Surrey to victory as they chased an apparently impossible chase in the short time remaining in the match . In total , Crawford played in eight games in 1919 , scoring 488 runs and taking 20 wickets . Wisden commented that his batting was as good as it had ever been , but his bowling lacked spin and accuracy . He played only four more times in first @-@ class cricket . Part of the explanation was that he joined Dunlop Rubber as a manager at one of its mills in Rochdale . He played as an amateur for Rochdale Cricket Club in 1920 , but by 1921 he had left the club — the Manchester Guardian speculated that he had returned to Surrey . He returned to live with his family in Merton Park , and played for the local cricket club . Of his first @-@ class matches , one was for Surrey against the Australian touring team of 1921 and the others were for teams representing the Gentlemen . In his entire first @-@ class career , Crawford scored 9 @,@ 488 runs at an average of 32 @.@ 60 and took 815 wickets at 20 @.@ 66 . From the mid @-@ 1920s until his retirement in 1952 , Crawford worked for the importers Elders and Fyffes . He played cricket and hockey for the firm until the Second World War , but kept a far lower profile than in his earlier cricketing life . He married his second wife , Hilda May Beman , in December 1925 , but he never had children . He maintained a loose connection with cricket ; he appeared at a birthday dinner for Pelham Warner , at a centenary celebration for the Free Foresters Cricket Club and in a radio broadcast for Jack Hobbs 's 80th birthday . Crawford had a stroke in early 1962 and remained ill for the rest of the year ; he died , aged 76 , in a Surrey hospital on 2 May 1963 . = = Style and technique = = Crawford 's obituary in The Times described him as one of the best young players to play cricket in England and said : " Although he invariably played in glasses , he was a most attractive player to watch , an aggressive hitter of the ball and a dangerous medium @-@ paced bowler " . Wisden described him as a " hard @-@ hitting batsman " , and said he played mainly from the front foot . He had an orthodox batting technique , moved his feet well to get to the ball , and played very straight . Herbie Collins , who played with Crawford in Australia , described one of his innings as " a hurricane innings , full of classical shots charged with dynamite . " As a bowler , Crawford 's technique was also orthodox , although he was unusual in using his second and third fingers to spin the ball — most bowlers used their first and second . His bowling pace varied from fast to medium , and he spun the ball so much that his fingers snapped audibly as he released it . An accurate bowler , it was difficult for batsmen to score runs against him . Crawford could swing the ball away from the bat , but his most effective delivery was his off break : Clem Hill stated that Crawford could make the ball turn several inches , despite the hard pitches prevalent in Australia when he played there . John Arlott described him as " the schoolboy genius who turned on Australian pitches where no one else deviated from straight " . In 1937 , Herbie Collins wrote , at a time when Wally Hammond was considered to be the world 's leading all @-@ rounder , that " people who have seen both men consider [ Crawford ] a better all @-@ rounder " . Commenting on the interruption of Crawford 's career by his dispute with Surrey , Neville Cardus wrote : " His break with Surrey must be regarded as a sad deprivation of fame and pleasure to himself , and a grievous loss to the annals of English cricket . It is as certain as anything in a man 's life can be confidently postulated , that had he continued to play in English county cricket ... he would have taken his place amongst the select company of England 's captains . " The Times commented : " It was one of the great disappointments of English cricket in the first quarter of this century that his outstanding promise was never fully realized . " Hart observes that Crawford 's on @-@ field successes were many up to 1909 but after that , his career effectively stalled during his absence from English cricket . Hart notes Crawford 's " capacity to get on the scoreboard and up establishment noses . He could turn games around and agreements over , antagonise the powerful , endear himself to the young and those young enough at heart to care to characterise great personal performances as ' heroic ' " . He concludes that Crawford spent the last 40 years of his life " in comparative sporting obscurity " . No @-@ one on the Surrey committee ever expressed regret at what had happened , and Leveson Gower did not mention the affair in his autobiography .
= Lactarius torminosus = Lactarius torminosus , commonly known as the woolly milkcap or the bearded milkcap , is a large agaric fungus . A common and widely distributed species , it is found in North Africa , northern Asia , Europe , and North America . It was first described scientifically by Jacob Christian Schäffer in 1774 as an Agaricus , and later transferred to the genus Lactarius in 1821 by Samuel Frederick Gray . A variety , L. torminosus var. nordmanensis , is known from the United States , Canada , and Switzerland . L. torminosus officially became the type species of Lactarius in 2011 after molecular studies prompted the taxonomic reshuffling of species between several Russulaceae genera . A mycorrhizal species , L. torminosus associates with various trees , most commonly birch , and its fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) grow on the ground singly or in groups in mixed forests . The caps of L. torminosus mushrooms are convex with a central depression , and attain a diameter of up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) . A blend of pink and ochre hues , the cap sometimes has concentric zones of alternating lighter and darker shades . The edge of the cap is rolled inward , and shaggy when young . On the underside of the cap are narrow flesh @-@ colored gills that are crowded closely together . The cylindrical stem is a pale flesh color with a delicately downy surface and brittle flesh ; it is up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) long and 0 @.@ 6 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick . When cut or injured , the fruit bodies ooze a bitter white latex that does not change color upon exposure to air . The variety nordmanensis , in contrast , has latex that changes from white to yellow . Lactarius torminosus can be distinguished from similar species like L. pubescens or L. villosus by differences in morphology and coloration , or by microscopic characteristics like spore shape and size . Although it is valued for its peppery flavor and eaten after suitable preparation in Russia and Finland , the species is highly irritating to the digestive system when eaten raw . The toxins , also responsible for the strongly bitter or acrid taste , are destroyed by cooking . Studies have identified several chemicals present in the mushrooms , including ergosterol and derivatives thereof , and the pungent @-@ tasting velleral . = = Taxonomy and phylogeny = = German naturalist Jacob Christian Schäffer was the first to describe the species , placing it in Agaricus in 1774 . Seven years later in 1781 , Jean Bulliard described a species he called Agaricus necator and illustrated it in the first volume of his Herbier de la France ; this name and the synonym Lactarius necator , resulting from Christian Hendrik Persoon 's 1800 transfer to Lactarius , are both considered to refer to L. torminosus . Otto Kuntze , for his part chose to put it in Lactifluus , while Paul Kummer thought Galorrheus was the appropriate placement ; until the recent resurrection of Lactifluus , both genera had been long considered to be unnecessary segregates of Lactarius . According to Index Fungorum , another synonym is Samuel Frederick Gray 's Lactarius necans . Gray also gave the species its modern name when he transferred it to Lactarius in his 1821 Natural Arrangement of British Plants . The specific epithet torminosus means " tormenting " or " causing colic " , in reference to the gastrointestinal distress associated with consuming the raw mushroom . Early English vernacular names were Gray 's " bellyach milk @-@ stool " ( 1821 ) , and James Edward Smith 's " bearded pepper agaric " ( 1824 ) . More recent common names include " shaggy milkcap " , " powderpuff milkcap " , " pink @-@ fringed milkcap " , " bearded milkcap " , and the British Mycological Society @-@ recommended " woolly milkcap " . According to Hesler and Smith 's 1979 classification of the genus Lactarius , L. torminosus belongs to subgenus Piperites , section Piperites ( in which it is the type species ) , subsection Piperites . Species in this subsection are characterized by having latex that does not turn yellow after exposure to air , and / or that does not stain the cut surface of the mushroom surface yellow . A 2004 phylogenetic analysis of European Lactarius species concluded that L. torminosus falls into a group that includes L. torminosulus , and that these two species are closely related to a group that includes L. tesquorum , L. scoticus , and L. pubescens . A multi @-@ gene molecular analysis published in 2008 demonstrated that species then distributed in the genera Lactarius and Russula actually consisted of four distinct lineages . The subsequent reorganization of Russulaceae species — a taxonomic change needed to make Russula and Lactarius monophyletic — required that a new type species be defined for Lactarius , since the previous type , L. piperatus , belonged to the clade that will be transferred to genus Lactifluus . A proposal to conserve Lactarius with L. torminosus as the type was accepted by the Nomenclatural Committee for Fungi and passed at the 2011 International Botanical Congress . The change minimizes " taxonomic disruption " , allowing most of the common and well @-@ known Lactarius species to retain their names . = = Description = = The cap is initially convex , but as it matures the center forms a depression and the outer edges rise until it assumes the shape of a shallow funnel ; its final width is typically between 2 and 12 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 and 4 @.@ 7 in ) . The cap margin is strongly curled inward ; when young , it is tomentose ( covered with a thick matting of hairs ) , forming a veil @-@ like structure that partly covers up the gills . This tomentum diminishes with age . The cap surface is at first similarly tomentose , but eventually the hairs wear off , leaving the surface more or less smooth . The surface starts off somewhat sticky with clear concentric rings of darker shade ( a zonate pattern ) ; these rings , especially the outer ones , usually fade in maturity . The cap color is pinkish @-@ orange to pale dull pink , becoming orange to whitish toward the margin as the pink gradually fades . The white to flesh @-@ colored flesh is firm and brittle , but becomes flaccid in age . The latex that is produced when the mushroom tissue is cut or injured is white to cream , and does not change color with prolonged exposure to air , nor does it stain the gills . It has an acrid taste , with a slight to pungent odor . The gills are subdecurrent ( running only a small way down the length of the stem ) , close to crowded together , narrow , and sometimes forked near the stem . Their color is whitish , becoming pink @-@ tinged , turning pale tan with age . The adult stem is 1 @.@ 5 – 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) long , 0 @.@ 6 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick , fragile , more or less equal in width throughout , and cylindrical or narrowed at the base . Its surface is dry , and either smooth to pruinose ( covered with a very fine whitish powder on the surface ) . The color ranges from pale light pink to yellowish @-@ tinged or slightly pinkish orange to orange white , sometimes spotted . The interior of the stem is firm , beige white , and filled with a soft pith , but it eventually becomes hollow . Occasionally , white mycelium is visible at the base of the stem where it meets the ground . The fruit body formation of L. torminosus is pileostipitocarpic . In this type of development , the hymenium forms early on the underside of the cap and upper stem of the mushroom primordium . As the cap enlarges , the margin , made of flaring filamentous hyphae that grow outward and downward , tends to curve inward , eventually forming a flap of tissue roughly parallel to the stem surface . As further development takes place , these hyphae make contact with and adhere to the hymenial surface of the stem , covering basidia and macrocystidia ( very long cystidia ) already present . The junction between the two tissues produces a cavity that provides some temporary protection to the basidia , although they are already fertile when the cap margin starts to grow . = = = Microscopic characteristics = = = The spore print of L. torminosus is cream to pale yellow , and the spores 8 – 10 @.@ 2 by 5 @.@ 8 – 6 @.@ 6 μm , roughly spherical to broadly elliptical in side view , and hyaline ( translucent ) . Only the ornamentation on their surface is amyloid ; it is partially reticulate ( network @-@ like ) with interrupted ridges roughly 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 7 μm high , and a few isolated warts . Spores have a conspicuous apiculus , demarcating where it was once attached to the basidia via the sterigma . The basidia are four @-@ spored , hyaline and club @-@ shaped to cylindrical , measuring 30 – 47 @.@ 7 by 7 @.@ 3 – 8 @.@ 2 μm . Pleurocystidia are only present in the form of macrocystidia embedded and originating in the hymenium and just below it , they reach 40 @.@ 3 – 80 @.@ 0 by 5 @.@ 1 – 9 @.@ 5 μm . Macrocystidia are abundant in the hymenium . Characterized by their spindle @-@ shaped to ventricose ( swollen on one side ) form that gradually tapers in width , they have granular hyaline contents . Gill edge cystidia ( cheilocystidia ) are smaller : 30 – 52 by 4 @.@ 5 – 8 @.@ 0 μm . The cap cuticle is made of gelatinized , interwoven hyphae arranged more or less parallel to the cap surface ( a form known as ixocutis ) ; the thin @-@ walled , threadlike hyphae of this layer are 2 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 3 μm wide . = = = Variety nordmanensis = = = Lactarius nordmanensis was described by Alexander Smith in 1960 to account for a North American species closely resembling L. torminosus in appearance , but with a slightly larger range of spore sizes ( 9 – 11 by 6 @.@ 5 – 8 μm ) . In contrast to the unchanging latex of L. torminosus , L. nordmanensis has whitish latex that slowly changes to pale yellow upon exposure to air ; the latex also stains mushroom tissues and paper yellow . Hesler and Smith reduced L. nordmanensis to the status of a variety under L. torminosus in 1979 . Lactarius torminosus var. nordmanensis has been recorded from California , Idaho , Michigan , and Wisconsin in the United States , Quebec in Canada , and Switzerland . The variety resembles Lactarius pubescens var. betulae , but differs in its longer pleurocystidia , larger spores with slightly different spore ornamentation , and strongly burning acrid taste . The holotype specimen of L. torminosus var. nordmanensis was collected by Smith in 1956 near Nordman , Idaho . = = = Similar species = = = The woolly cap margin , pinkish tones in the cap , acrid latex , and association with birch are reliable field characteristics to help identify L. torminosus . However , there are several hairy Lactarius species with which it is often confused , and sometimes examination of microscopic characteristics is necessary to distinguish between them . The closely related L. torminosus is a dwarf version of L. torminosus , an arctic species associated with the birches Betula nana or B. glandulosa . Immature fruit bodies of L. scrobiculatus resemble L. torminosus , but they have a white latex that soon turns yellow upon exposure to air , and their stems have shiny depressed spots . The caps of the poorly known species L. cilicioides are not zonate , and its spores are smaller . L. pubescens is physically quite similar , but can be distinguished by its paler color and smaller spores ( 6 @.@ 0 – 7 @.@ 5 by 5 @.@ 0 – 6 @.@ 5 μm ) . L. controversus has a cap margin that is not as hairy , whitish to cream @-@ colored gills , and larger spores measuring 7 @.@ 5 – 10 by 6 – 7 @.@ 5 μm . L. mairei has a coloration similar to L. torminosus , but is rarer and typically found associated with oak trees on calcareous soil . Known only from North Carolina and western Canada , L. subtorminosus was named for its similarity to L. torminosus . It can be distinguished by its mild @-@ tasting latex and smaller , roughly spherical spores measuring 5 @.@ 5 – 7 by 5 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 μm . = = Edibility and toxicity = = The intensely peppery taste of the raw mushroom can blister the tongue if sampled in excess . Some authors have reported the species as outright poisonous , or causing " mild to fatal gastroenteritis " . In a 1930 publication , Hans Steidle reported that although the mushroom was not toxic to " unicellular and cold @-@ blooded organisms " when ingested , the liquid extract and the pressed juice of the fruit bodies , when injected under the skin of a frog , resulted in disturbed breathing , paralysis , and eventually death . Symptoms that are typically experienced after consuming raw mushrooms include nausea , vomiting , and severe diarrhea that starts about one hour after ingestion . This combination can lead to dehydration , muscle spasms , and circulatory collapse . The gastroenteritis will usually resolve without treatment in a couple of days . Despite these reports of toxicity , L. torminosus mushrooms are prepared in Finland , Russia , and other northern and eastern European countries by parboiling , soaking in brine for several days , or pickling , after which it is valued for its peppery taste . In Norway , it is roasted and added to coffee . Mushrooms are harvested for commercial sale in Finland . The nutrient composition of Finnish specimens has been analyzed and found to contain the following components ( as a percentage of dry weight ) : protein , 17 @.@ 2 % ; phosphorus , 0 @.@ 46 % ; calcium , 0 @.@ 12 % ; magnesium , 0 @.@ 088 % ; potassium , 2 @.@ 97 % ; sodium 0 @.@ 011 % . = = Chemistry = = The compound thought to be responsible for the toxicity of raw L. torminosus is the pungent @-@ tasting velleral present at a concentration of 0 @.@ 16 mg / g mushroom . Velleral is a breakdown product of stearyl @-@ velutinal . Broken lactifers — specialized hyphal cells that produce the mushroom 's latex — leak the precursor chemicals whose breakdown products act as the defensive agents toxic to humans , effectively deterring certain vertebrates that might consume the mushroom . The lactarane @-@ type sesquiterpene lactone 15 @-@ hydroxyblennin A is one of several sesquiterpenes produced by the species . Other lactaranes are found in various Lactarius species , such as blennin A in L. deliciosus and L. blennius , and lactarorufin N in Lactarius rufus . Fungal sesquiterpenes are commonly produced as toxins to defend against predation , and as a result some have chemical properties that may have applications in medicinal chemistry . Fruit bodies of Lactarius torminosus contain a number of sterols , of which ergosterol ( a component of fungal cell walls ) is the most predominant at 60 @.@ 5 % of all sterols , followed by its derivatives and ergosta @-@ 5 / 7 @-@ dien @-@ 3 @-@ ol ( 17 @.@ 0 % ) , ergost @-@ 7 @-@ en @-@ 3 @-@ ol ( 13 @.@ 7 % ) and ergosta @-@ 7 @-@ 22 @-@ dien @-@ 3 @-@ ol ( 8 @.@ 3 % ) . Researchers have identified 28 volatile compounds that contribute to the odor of the mushroom . Many of these are alcohols and carbonyl compounds with eight carbon atoms ; the predominant volatile compound ( about 90 % ) is 1 @-@ octen @-@ 3 @-@ one , an odorant common in mushrooms . = = Ecology and distribution = = Lactarius torminosus is a mycorrhizal species , and as such plays an important role in facilitating nutrient and water uptake by trees . It grows in association with birch ( Betula ) and hemlock ( Tsuga ) in mixed forests . It is also known to grow in urban settings when birch trees are nearby . A field study in Scotland concluded that the species is more likely to be present in older than in younger birch woodlands . Fruit bodies grow on the ground , scattered or grouped together . They are a component of the diet of the red squirrel , and serve as breeding sites for some fungus @-@ feeding flies in the Drosophilidae and Mycetophilidae families . Lactarius torminosus mushrooms may be parasitized by the mold Hypomyces lithuanicus , which produces a cream @-@ ochre to cinnamon @-@ colored granular or velvety growth of mycelium on the surfaces of the gills and causes them to be deformed . The species is found in northern temperate and boreal climates , penetrating sometimes into subarctic regions . It has been recorded from North Africa , northern Asia , Europe , and is common in North America , where it sometimes grows with aspen ( Populus species ) . The North American distribution extends north into the Yukon and Alaska and south to Mexico .
= Pauli Murray = Anna Pauline " Pauli " Murray ( November 20 , 1910 – July 1 , 1985 ) was an American civil rights activist , women 's rights activist , lawyer , and author . Drawn to the ministry , in 1977 Murray became the first black woman to be ordained as an Episcopal priest and among the first group of women to become priests in this church . Born in Baltimore , Maryland , Murray was raised mostly by her maternal grandparents in Durham , North Carolina . At the age of sixteen , she moved to New York to attend Hunter College , graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree in English in 1933 . In 1940 , Murray sat in the whites @-@ only section of a Virginia bus with a friend , and they were arrested for violating state segregation laws . This incident , and her subsequent involvement with the socialist Workers ' Defense League , led to a career goal as a civil rights lawyer . She enrolled in the law school of Howard University , where she also became aware of sexism . She called it " Jane Crow " , alluding to the Jim Crow racial segregation laws . Murray graduated first in their class , but was denied the chance to do post @-@ graduate work at Harvard University because of her gender . She earned a master 's in law at University of California , Berkeley , and in 1965 she became the first African American to receive a Doctor of Juridical Science degree from Yale Law School . As a lawyer , Murray argued for civil rights and women 's rights . National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) Chief Counsel Thurgood Marshall called Murray 's 1950 book States ' Laws on Race and Color the " bible " of the civil rights movement . Murray served on the 1961 Presidential Commission on the Status of Women and in 1966 was a co @-@ founder of the National Organization for Women . Ruth Bader Ginsburg later named Murray a coauthor on a brief for Reed v. Reed in recognition of her pioneering work on gender discrimination . Murray held faculty or administrative positions at the Ghana School of Law , Benedict College , and Brandeis University . In 1973 , Murray left academia for the Episcopal Church , becoming an ordained priest in 1977 , among the first generation of women priests . Murray struggled in her adult life with issues related to her sexual and gender identity , describing herself as having an " inverted sex instinct " . She had a brief , annulled marriage to a man and several deep relationships with women . In her younger years , she occasionally passed as a teenage boy . In addition to her legal and advocacy work , Murray published two well @-@ reviewed autobiographies and a volume of poetry . = = Early life = = Murray was born in Baltimore , Maryland in 1910 . Both sides of her family were of mixed racial origins , with ancestors including black slaves , white slave owners , Native Americans , Irish , and free blacks . The varied features and complexions of her family were described as a " United Nations in miniature " . Murray 's parents — schoolteacher William H. Murray and nurse Agnes ( Fitzgerald ) Murray — both identified as black . In 1914 , Agnes died of a cerebral hemorrhage . After her father began to have emotional problems as a result of typhoid fever , relatives took custody of the children and eventually William was committed to a psychiatric institution , where he received no meaningful treatment . Three year old Pauli Murray was sent to Durham , North Carolina , to live with her mother 's family . There , her maternal aunts , Sarah ( Sallie ) Fitzgerald and Pauline Fitzgerald Dame ( both teachers ) as well as her maternal grandparents Robert and Cornelia ( Smith ) Fitzgerald raised her . She attended St. Titus Episcopal Church with her mother 's family , as had her mother before Murray was born . In 1923 , her father , who had been committed to the Hospital for the Negro Insane of Maryland , died as a result of being beaten by a white guard . Murray had wanted to rescue him when she reached legal age , but was just thirteen . Murray lived in Durham until the age of sixteen , at which point she moved to New York to finish high school and prepare for college . There she lived with the family of her cousin Maude ; they were passing for white in their white neighborhood . Murray 's presence discomfited Maude 's neighbors , however , as Murray was more visibly of partial African descent . She nonetheless graduated with her second high school diploma and honors in 1927 , and was able to enroll at Hunter College for two years . Murray was briefly married in 1930 , to a man she referred in her autobiography only as " Billy " , although they would not formally divorce for 18 years . She had the marriage annulled several months after it began . Inspired to attend Columbia University by a favorite teacher , Murray was turned away because the university did not admit women ; she did not have the funds to attend its partner women 's school of Barnard College . Instead she attended Hunter College , a free city university , where she was one of the few students of color . Murray was encouraged in her writing by one of her English instructors , who gave her an " A " for an essay about her maternal grandfather ; this became the basis of her later memoir Proud Shoes ( 1956 ) about her mother 's family . Murray published an article and several poems in the college paper . She graduated in 1933 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in English . Murray took a job selling subscriptions to Opportunity , an academic journal of the National Urban League , a civil rights organization based in New York City . Poor health forced her to resign , and her doctor recommended that Murray seek a healthier environment . She took a position at Camp Tera , a " She @-@ She @-@ She " conservation camp established at the urging of First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt to parallel the male Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) camps formed under President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's New Deal to provide employment to young adults while improving infrastructure . During her three months at the camp , Murray 's health recovered and she met Eleanor Roosevelt , which would later lead to correspondence that changed her life . However , Murray clashed with the camp 's director who found a Marxist book from her Hunter College course in Murray 's belongings , questioned Murray 's stance during the First Lady 's visit , and disapproved of her cross @-@ racial relationship with Peg Holmes , a white counselor . Murray and Holmes left the camp in February 1935 , and began traveling the country by walking , hitchhiking , and hopping freight trains . Murray later worked for the Young Women 's Christian Association . = = Law school years = = Murray applied to the University of North Carolina in 1938 , but was rejected because of her race ; all schools and other public facilities in the state were segregated . The case was broadly publicized in both white and black newspapers . Murray wrote to officials ranging from the university president to President Roosevelt , releasing their responses to the media in an attempt to embarrass them into action . The NAACP was initially interested in the case , but later declined to represent her in court , perhaps fearing that her long residence in New York state weakened her case . NAACP leader Roy Wilkins opposed representing her because Murray had already released her correspondence , which he considered " not diplomatic " . Concerns about her sexuality may also have played a role in the decision ; Murray often wore pants rather than the customary skirts of women and was open about her relationships with women . In early 1940 , Murray was walking the streets in Rhode Island , distraught after " the disappearance of a woman friend . " She was taken into custody by police . She was transferred to Bellevue Hospital in New York City for psychiatric treatment . In March , Murray left the hospital with Adelene McBean , her roommate and girlfriend , and took a bus to Durham to visit her aunts . In Petersburg , Virginia , the two women moved out of the broken seats in the black ( and back ) section of the bus , where state segregation laws mandated they sit , and into the white section . Inspired by a conversation they had been having about Gandhian civil disobedience , the two women refused to return to the rear even after the police were called , and they were arrested and jailed . Murray and McBean were initially defended by the NAACP , but when the pair were convicted only of disorderly conduct rather than violating segregation laws , the organization ceased to represent them . The Workers ' Defense League ( WDL ) , a socialist labor rights organization that was also beginning to take civil rights cases , paid her fine . A few months later the WDL hired Murray for its Administrative Committee . With the WDL , Murray became active in the case of Odell Waller , a black Virginia sharecropper sentenced to death for killing his white landlord , Oscar Davis , during an argument . The WDL argued that Davis had cheated Waller in a settlement and as their argument grew more heated , Waller had shot Davis in legitimate fear of his life . Murray toured the country raising funds for Waller 's appeal . She wrote to First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt on Waller 's behalf . Roosevelt in turn wrote to Virginia Governor James Hubert Price , asking him to guarantee that the trial was fair ; she later persuaded the president to privately request Price to commute the death sentence . Through this correspondence , Murray and Eleanor Roosevelt began a friendship that would last until the latter 's death two decades later . Despite the WDL 's and Roosevelts ' efforts , however , the governor did not commute Waller 's sentence . Waller was executed on July 2 , 1942 . = = = Howard University = = = Murray 's trial on charges stemming from the bus incident and her experience with the Waller case inspired a career in civil rights law . In 1941 , she began attending Howard University law school . Murray was the only woman in her law school class , and she became aware of sexism at the school , which she labeled " Jane Crow " — alluding to Jim Crow , the system of racial discriminatory state laws oppressing African Americans . On Murray 's first day of class , one professor , William Robert Ming , remarked that he did not know why women went to law school . She was infuriated . In 1942 , while still in law school , Murray joined the Congress of Racial Equality ( CORE ) . That year she published an article , " Negro Youth 's Dilemma , " that challenged segregation in the US military , which continued during World War II . She also participated in sit @-@ ins challenging several Washington , D.C. restaurants with discriminatory seating policies . These activities preceded the more widespread sit @-@ ins during the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s . Murray was elected Chief Justice of the Howard Court of Peers , the highest student position at Howard , and in 1944 she graduated first in her class . Men who graduated first in the class were awarded Julius Rosenwald Fellowships for graduate work at Harvard University , but that university did not accept women . Murray was rejected despite a letter of support from President Roosevelt . She wrote in response , " I would gladly change my sex to meet your requirements , but since the way to such change has not been revealed to me , I have no recourse but to appeal to you to change your minds . Are you to tell me that one is as difficult as the other ? " She did post @-@ graduate work at Boalt Hall School of Law at University of California , Berkeley . Her master 's thesis was The Right to Equal Opportunity in Employment , which argued that " the right to work is an inalienable right " . It was published in the California Law Review produced by the school . = = Later career = = After passing the California bar exam in 1945 , Murray was hired as the state 's first black deputy attorney general in January of the following year . That year , the National Council of Negro Women named her its " Woman of the Year ; " Mademoiselle magazine did the same in 1947 . In 1950 , Murray published States ' Laws on Race and Color , an examination and critique of state segregation laws throughout the nation . She drew on psychological and sociological evidence as well as legal , an innovative discussion technique for which she had previously been criticized by Howard professors . Murray argued for civil rights lawyers to directly challenge state segregation laws as unconstitutional , rather than trying to prove the inequality of so @-@ called " separate but equal " facilities , as was done in some challenges . Thurgood Marshall , then NAACP Chief Counsel and a future Supreme Court Justice , called Murray 's book the " bible " of the civil rights movement . Her approach was influential to the NAACP 's arguments in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka ( 1954 ) , by which they drew from psychological studies assessing the effects of segregation on students in school . The US Supreme Court ruled that segregated public schools were unconstitutional . Murray lived in Ghana from 1960 to 1961 , serving on the faculty of the Ghana School of Law . She returned to the US and studied at Yale Law School , in 1965 becoming the first African American to receive a J.S.D. ( Juris Scientium Doctor , Doctor of the Science of Law ) from the school . She taught at Brandeis University from 1968 to 1973 , where she received tenure as Full Professor in American Studies . = = = Jane Crow = = = At the front of the Civil Rights Movement , alongside such leaders as Martin Luther King , Jr. and Rosa Parks , but lesser known , was Pauli Murray , an outspoken woman who protested discrimination on the basis of race and sex . She coined the term " Jane Crow , " which demonstrated Murray 's belief that Jim Crow laws also negatively impacted African @-@ American women . She was determined to work with other activists to put a halt to both racism and sexism . Murray 's speech , " Jim Crow and Jane Crow , " delivered in Washington , D.C. in 1964 , sheds light on the long struggle of African @-@ American women for racial equality and their later fight for equality among the sexes . Pauli Murray ultimately helped push the American Civil Rights Movement by letting her audience know that women 's rights were just as important as civil rights . " Jim Crow and Jane Crow , " Murray 's speech , was given during Lyndon B. Johnson 's presidency . It primarily addresses an audience of African @-@ American women . Pauli Murray acknowledges the fact that African @-@ American women have always contributed to the progress of the Civil Rights Movement . She believes that African @-@ American women have worked just as hard , if not harder than , African @-@ American men to achieve equal rights among whites and blacks . According to Murray , " Not only have they stood ... with Negro men in every phase of the battle , but they have also continued to stand when their men were destroyed by it . " The black women decided to " ... continue ... [ standing ] ... " for their freedom and liberty even when " ... their men ... " began to experience exhaustion from a long struggle for civil rights . These women were unafraid to stand up for what they believed in and refused to back down from the long and tedious " battle . " Murray continues her praise for black women when she says that " ... one cannot help asking : would the Negro struggle have come this far without the indomitable determination of its women ? " The " Negro struggle " was able to progress partly because of " ... the indomitable determination of its women . " African @-@ American women were vital to the Civil Rights Movement and pushed it forward with their own might . They were just as important to the black struggle for racial justice as their male counterparts . Their work ethic and persistence defined African @-@ American women as important to a long fight against racism in America . = = = Women 's rights = = = Ruth Bader Ginsburg named Murray an honorary co @-@ author of her brief in Reed v. Reed ( 1971 ) . US President John F. Kennedy appointed Murray to the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women in 1961 . She prepared a memo titled A Proposal to Reexamine the Applicability of the Fourteenth Amendment to State Laws and Practices Which Discriminate on the Basis of Sex Per Se , which argued that the Fourteenth Amendment forbade sex discrimination as well as racial discrimination . 1963 she became one of the first to criticize the sexism of the civil rights movement , in her speech " The Negro Woman and the Quest for Equality " . In a letter to civil rights leader A. Philip Randolph , she criticized the fact that in the 1963 March on Washington no women were invited to make one of the major speeches or to be part of its delegation of leaders who went to the White House , among other grievances . She wrote : I have been increasingly perturbed over the blatant disparity between the major role which Negro women have played and are playing in the crucial grassroots levels of our struggle and the minor role of leadership they have been assigned in the national policy @-@ making decisions . It is indefensible to call a national march on Washington and send out a call which contains the name of not a single woman leader . In 1965 Murray published her landmark article ( coauthored by Mary Eastwood ) , " Jane Crow and the Law : Sex Discrimination and Title VII " , in the George Washington Law Review . The article discussed Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 as it applied to women , and drew comparisons between discriminatory laws against women and Jim Crow laws . In 1966 she was a cofounder of the National Organization for Women ( NOW ) , which she hoped could act as an NAACP for women 's rights . In March of that year , Murray wrote to Commissioner Richard Alton Graham that the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission was not fulfilling its duty in upholding the gendered portion of its mission , leaving only half the black population protected . Later she and Dorothy Kenyon successfully argued White v. Crook , a case in which the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit ruled that women have an equal right to serve on juries . When lawyer and future Supreme Court justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg wrote her brief for Reed v. Reed — a 1971 Supreme Court case that for the first time extended the Fourteenth Amendment 's Equal Protection Clause to women — she added Murray and Kenyon as coauthors in recognition of her debt to their work . = = = Academia and priesthood = = = Murray served as vice president of Benedict College from 1967 – 68 . She left Benedict to become a professor at Brandeis University , where she remained until 1973 . In addition to teaching law , Murray introduced classes on African @-@ American studies and women 's studies , both firsts for the university . Murray later wrote that her time at Brandeis was " the most exciting , tormenting , satisfying , embattled , frustrated , and at times triumphant period of my secular career " . Increasingly inspired by her connections with other women in the Episcopal Church , Murray , now more than sixty years old , left Brandeis to attend the seminary . After three years of study , in 1977 she became the first African @-@ American woman ordained as an Episcopal priest and among the first generation of Episcopal women priests . That year she celebrated her first Eucharist by invitation at Chapel of the Cross ; this was the first time a woman celebrated the Eucharist at an Episcopal church in North Carolina . In 1978 she preached her first sermon in her ' hometown ' of Durham , North Carolina , on Mother 's Day at St. Philip 's Episcopal Church , where her mother and grandparents had attended in the 19th century . She announced her mission of reconciliation . For the next seven years , Murray worked in a parish in Washington , D.C. , focusing particularly on ministry to the sick . = = Death and legacy = = The Rev. Dr. Pauli Murray died of pancreatic cancer in the house she owned with a lifelong friend , Maida Springer Kemp , in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , on July 1 , 1985 . In 2012 the General Convention of the Episcopal Church voted to honor Murray as one of its Holy Women , Holy Men , to be commemorated on July 1 , the anniversary of her death , along with fellow writer Harriet Beecher Stowe . Bishop Michael Curry of the Episcopal Diocese of North Carolina said this recognition honors " people whose lives have exemplified what it means to follow in the footsteps of Jesus and make a difference in the world . " In 2015 the National Trust for Historic Preservation named the childhood home of Murray ( on Carroll Street in Durham , North Carolina 's West End neighborhood ) as a National Treasure . In April 2016 , Yale University announced that their leadership had selected Murray as the namesake of one of two new residential colleges , the other of which will be named after Benjamin Franklin upon completion in 2017 . = = Sexuality and gender identity = = Murray struggled with her sexual and gender identity through much of her life . Her marriage as a teenager ended almost immediately with the realization that " when men try to make love to me , something in me fights " . Though acknowledging the term " homosexual " in describing others , Murray preferred to describe herself as having an " inverted sex instinct " that caused her to behave as a man attracted to women . She wanted a " monogamous married life " , but one in which she was the man . The majority of her relationships were with women whom she described as " extremely feminine and heterosexual " . In her younger years , Murray would often be devastated by the end of these relationships , to the extent that she was twice hospitalized for psychiatric treatment , in 1937 and in 1940 . Murray wore her hair short and preferred pants to skirts ; due to her slight build , there was a time in her life when she was often able to pass as a teenage boy . In her twenties , she shortened her name from Pauline to the more androgynous Pauli . Murray pursued hormone treatments in the 1940s to correct what she saw as a personal imbalance , and even requested abdominal surgery to test if she had " submerged " male sex organs . = = Memoirs and poetry = = In addition to her legal work , Murray wrote two volumes of autobiography and a collection of poetry . Her first autobiographical book , Proud Shoes ( 1956 ) , traces her family 's complicated racial origins , particularly focusing on her maternal grandparents , Robert and Cornelia Fitzgerald . Cornelia was the daughter of a slave raped by her owner and his brother ; she was raised by her owner 's sister and educated . Robert was a free black from Pennsylvania , also of mixed racial ancestry ; he moved to the South to teach during the Reconstruction Era . Newspapers including The New York Times gave the book very positive reviews . The New York Herald Tribune stated that Proud Shoes is " a personal memoir , it is history , it is biography , and it is also a story that , at its best , is dramatic enough to satisfy the demands of fiction . It is written in anger , but without hatred ; in affection , but without pathos and tears ; and in humor that never becomes extravagant " . Murray published a collection of her poetry , Dark Testament and Other Poems , in 1970 . The volume contains what critic Christina G. Bucher calls a number of " conflicted love poems " , as well as exploring economic and racial injustice . The collection has received little critical attention , and as of 2007 , was out of print . A follow @-@ up volume to Proud Shoes , her memoir Song in a Weary Throat : An American Pilgrimage was published posthumously in 1987 . Song focused on Murray 's own life , particularly her struggles with both gender and racial discrimination . It received the Robert F. Kennedy Book Award , the Christopher Award , and the Lillian Smith Book Award . = = Works by Murray = = = = = Law = = = Davison Douglas , ed . , 1997 . States ' Law on Race and Color , 2d ed . , University of Georgia Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8203 @-@ 1883 @-@ 7 with Rubin , Leslie . The Constitution and Government of Ghana , London : Sweet & Maxwell , 1961 . African Universities Press , 1964 = = = Poetry = = = Dark Testament and Other Poems , Silvermine , Norwalk : Connecticut , 1970 ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87321 @-@ 016 @-@ 4 = = = Autobiographies = = = Proud Shoes : The Story Of An American Family , New York : Harper & Brothers , 1956 ISBN 0 @-@ 8070 @-@ 7209 @-@ 5 . Song In A Weary Throat : An American Pilgrimage , Harper & Row , New York City , 1987 . ISBN 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 015704 @-@ 6 . Reissued as Pauli Murray : The Autobiography of a Black Activist , Feminist , Lawyer , Priest and Poet . University of Tennessee Press , 1989 . ISBN 0 @-@ 87049 @-@ 596 @-@ 8 .
= Cold War ( Doctor Who ) = " Cold War " is the eighth episode of the seventh series of the British science @-@ fiction television drama Doctor Who . It first aired on BBC One on 13 April 2013 , and was written by Mark Gatiss and directed by Douglas Mackinnon . In the episode , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) and his companion Clara Oswald ( Jenna @-@ Louise Coleman ) land on a Soviet submarine in 1983 during the Cold War , where the Ice Warrior Grand Marshal Skaldak breaks loose and plots revenge against humanity . " Cold War " reintroduces the Ice Warriors , who were last seen in the Third Doctor serial The Monster of Peladon ( 1974 ) . Bringing back the monsters was Gatiss ' idea , and he convinced executive producer Steven Moffat by coming up with new things to do with them . The Ice Warriors ' costume was improved but not significantly redesigned , as the production team felt they were not well known enough . The episode was filmed in June 2012 on a submarine set , as the story is a closed " base @-@ under @-@ siege " . " Cold War " was watched by 7 @.@ 37 million viewers and received generally positive reviews from critics . = = Plot = = A Soviet submarine is sailing near the North Pole in 1983 during the Cold War . A nuclear weapons launch drill they are running is interrupted by Professor Grisenko ( David Warner ) . In the submarine 's cargo hold a sailor prematurely begins to defrost a block of ice that Grisenko believes contains a frozen mammoth , and is attacked by what is inside . The submarine begins sinking as the creature in the ice escapes and runs amok . The TARDIS , which originally was on a course set for Las Vegas , materialises inside the submarine and the Doctor and Clara tumble out . The Doctor convinces Captain Zhukov ( Liam Cunningham ) to maneuver the submarine to the side , landing it safely and preventing it from imploding . During this the TARDIS inexplicably dematerialises . They then encounter the escaped Ice Warrior , Grand Marshal Skaldak ( Spencer Wilding , voiced by Nicholas Briggs ) . The Doctor encourages the crew to be peaceful , but the ship 's executive officer Stepashin ( Tobias Menzies ) knocks out Skaldak with a cattle prod , suspecting that he is not an alien but part of a Western plot . Knowing that Skaldak will desire vengeance for being attacked , the Doctor and the crew chain Skaldak , who sends out a distress call for others of his race to find him . Clara volunteers to speak to Skaldak to try and calm him , relaying the Doctor 's words to Skaldak , though he knows that the Doctor is listening . The Doctor informs Skaldak he was encased in the ice for 5000 years . Skaldak laments the loss of his daughter and his people ; however , the Doctor tries to comfort him with the knowledge that the Ice Warriors still live , just not on Earth or Mars . Skaldak escapes from his armour - an act of great dishonour - and stops broadcasting the signal to the other Ice Warriors because he believes himself to be the only one of his kind left . The Doctor surmises that , thinking himself to be the last of his kind , Skaldak has nothing left to lose . He manages to grab and kill three members of the crew . Having learnt of the ongoing Cold War and the doctrine of mutually assured destruction from Stepashin , Skaldak plans to use the submarine 's nuclear missiles to provoke a global thermonuclear war and destroy humanity as revenge for the humans attacking him - under the Martian code humanity as a whole has declared war on the Ice Warrior race by assaulting him . Reaching the bridge , he is able to connect himself to the sub 's missile guidance systems and activate the missiles . The Doctor and Clara are attempting to persuade Skaldak to show mercy when the sub is rocked by a tractor beam from above : the Ice Warriors have arrived over the site of the submarine 's undersea grounding , and they haul it to the surface . Skaldak is beamed aboard the Ice Warriors ' spaceship , though the missile launch system is still active . Showing mercy , Skaldak deactivates the missiles remotely . When the Doctor 's sonic screwdriver informs him the TARDIS has reappeared , he informs Clara that it had " relocated " to the South Pole automatically as part of the H.A.D.S. ( " Hostile Action Displacement System " ) , which the Doctor admits he reactivated by accident while fiddling with the controls . As they are at the North Pole , an embarrassed Doctor asks Zhukov for a lift to get the TARDIS before saluting the Ice Warrior ship as it leaves . = = Production = = The Ice Warriors were a well @-@ known villain of the original Doctor Who series . They appeared alongside the Second Doctor ( Patrick Troughton ) in The Ice Warriors ( 1967 ) and The Seeds of Death ( 1969 ) and returned in the Third Doctor ( Jon Pertwee ) stories The Curse of Peladon ( 1972 ) and The Monster of Peladon ( 1974 ) . Showrunner Steven Moffat had originally been hesitant to bring back the Ice Warriors , worrying that they were seen as " the default condition for what people thought of as rubbish Doctor Who monsters — things that moved very , very slowly and spoke in a way that meant you couldn 't hear a word they said . " Writer Mark Gatiss , however , was a fan of the Ice Warriors ' stories and had been campaigning to bring them back . In a phone conversation with Moffat that was originally supposed to be about their show Sherlock , Gatiss pitched new and " very clever ideas " of what to do with the Ice Warriors , and Moffat agreed . What sold Moffat were the submarine setting and seeing what the Ice Warriors looked like underneath their suits . Gatiss felt that the Ice Warriors had a lot of gaps in their timeline and had not been featured in a while , which allowed a lot of room to explore them . The submarine was Gatiss 's idea ; he felt that Doctor Who called out to be set on a submarine . Executive producer Caroline Skinner described the story as " Letting a huge Ice Warrior loose at the heart of a classic Hunt For Red October style submarine movie . " Gatiss chose the time period because he was " kind of obsessed " with the Cold War , and felt that there were several times in the 1980s where the danger was close . Gatiss also described " Cold War " as a " love @-@ letter " to the base @-@ under @-@ siege stories that were common during Troughton 's time ; the episode even contains a reference to Troughton 's The Krotons , which was the last time the TARDIS 's HADS had been mentioned . The read @-@ through for " Cold War " took place on 6 June 2012 , with filming beginning on 13 June . For the submarine setting , the cast would be sprayed in between every take . The scenes in which the characters are drenched in water were achieved by constantly pouring " gallons and gallons of water " on the cast . Coleman found the experience fun , while Smith said that it made acting easier . Coleman said , " The whole make @-@ up process was reversed as they would damp us down in the morning and rub my mascara off ! " For the shots of the submarine in the ocean , a model was used . It was suspended upside @-@ down with " shredded feathers " blown at it to give the effect of being under the sea . Unlike some other returning monsters , the Ice Warriors were not heavily redesigned . Gatiss insisted upon keeping the fundamentals of the original and Moffat explained that the original design was not well @-@ known enough to put a new spin on it , and so Skaldak 's shell is just a " super @-@ version of the original " . Of the original design , Millennium FX 's Neill Gorton said , " My problem with the old ones is they had Lego hands and weird , spindly arms but a bulky body and these strange saddlebag hips , almost feminine . They had fur sticking out everywhere . So all of that together didn 't suggest " ice warriors . " They should be much beefier and stronger . We gave it more of a bodybuilder physique , changed the hands and styled the body to make it look more like armour @-@ plating , even though it 's reptilian . " The costume was made of flexible urethane rubber instead of the fibreglass like the original , as it would damage less easily and be more comfortable to wear . The costume was made to specially fit Spencer Wilding . Though only some of the Skaldak 's real appearance was shown on @-@ screen , Gorton stated that they created a full animatronic body . = = Broadcast and reception = = " Cold War " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 13 April 2013 . Overnight ratings showed that 5 @.@ 73 million viewers watched the episode live , a 28 @.@ 8 % audience share . When timeshifted viewers were taken into account , the figure rose to 7 @.@ 37 million viewers , the fifth most @-@ watched programme of the week on BBC One . In addition , " Cold War " received 1 @.@ 65 million requests on the online BBC iPlayer during April , the fourth most @-@ watched programme on the service for the month . The episode also received an Appreciation Index of 84 . = = = Critical reception = = = The episode received generally positive reviews . Dan Martin of The Guardian wrote that " Cold War " was " easily the best of this new series so far , and Mark Gatiss 's finest contribution yet . " He praised the reinvention of the Ice Warrior and felt that the elements came together to form a " tense , tightly wound , claustrophobic but also full of heart . " Zap2it 's Geoff Berkshire said that " Cold War " was better than Gatiss ' previous episodes " The Idiot 's Lantern " and " Victory of the Daleks " . He praised the guest cast , but wished " their characters had a bit more meat to them . " The Independent reviewer Neela Debnath described the story as " slick and intelligent " with " cinematic aesthetics and tone . " Patrick Mulkern of Radio Times found an inconsistency with the TARDIS translation matrix , but overall was positive towards the acting , visual aspects , and story . The Daily Telegraph reviewer Gavin Fuller gave the episode four out of five stars , describing it as " finely crafted " and " thrilling . " He praised the setting and the dialogue , but felt that the Soviet characters were " perilously close to being ciphers . " Digital Spy 's Morgan Jeffery awarded the episode five out of five stars , saying that it was " fresh and exciting " but also had a " wonderfully old @-@ school tone . " He wrote that it had " one of the best guest casts to have graced Doctor Who since the show returned in 2005 " and also praised the reintroduction of the Ice Warriors and the production values . Alasdair Wilkins of The A.V. Club gave " Cold War " a grade of A , highlighting the tense atmosphere , the " bold new direction " taken with the Ice Warriors , the guest performances , and Clara 's importance . Russell Lewin of SFX gave " Cold War " four out of five stars , praising the set and direction as well as the Ice Warrior . On the other hand , Lewin noted that , as a base @-@ under @-@ siege story , it did not play with the narrative form or " go anywhere we couldn 't have predicted , " with the exception of the Ice Warrior breaking out of its suit . IGN 's Mark Snow gave the episode a rating of 8 @.@ 3 out of 10 . Snow praised the reintroduction of the Ice Warriors and called Skaldak " the show 's most memorable villain in a while , thanks to his stern , occasionally psychopathic approach to problem solving , and an environment that helped make the bulky , heavy creature design imposing rather than laughably naff . " However , he felt that some of Skaldak 's effects were " laughably rubbery " and that his motivations were " psychotically random . " Tor.com reviewer Emily Asher @-@ Perrin was more critical of the episode , pointing out that little happened . She called the pacing " sloppy " and found Skaldak to not be an interesting foe . In Doctor Who Magazine issue 460 , Graham Kibble @-@ White gave it a mixed review . He complimented the fact that " the action kicks off early - very early - and then doesn 't let up " , and said the Ice Warrior redesign was " the best reinvention so far of an old Doctor Who foe , although admitting he thought it was " a shame to lose the tufts of hair around the joints " , saying they gave the Ice Warriors " a pleasing organic feel upon the shell . " He complained about the reference to the Ice Warriors ' code of honour , claiming it to have always been " damnably dull . " Additionally , he disliked the revelation of Skaldak 's true form , claiming it to look like " a not especially memorable CGI tortoise " and saying the BBC seems to have forgotten that " monsters are diminished when they 're brought into the light " , as well as worrying that it may have been " breaking a taboo for the show " .
= Scarlett Johansson = Scarlett Johansson ( / dʒoʊˈhænsən / ; born November 22 , 1984 ) is an American actress , model , and singer . She made her film debut in North ( 1994 ) . Johansson subsequently starred in Manny & Lo in 1996 , and garnered further acclaim and prominence with roles in The Horse Whisperer ( 1998 ) and Ghost World ( 2001 ) . She shifted to adult roles with her performances in Girl with a Pearl Earring ( 2003 ) and Sofia Coppola 's Lost in Translation ( 2003 ) , for which she won a BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role . Her subsequent films included A Love Song for Bobby Long ( 2004 ) , Woody Allen 's Match Point ( 2005 ) , The Island ( 2005 ) , The Black Dahlia ( 2006 ) , The Prestige ( 2006 ) , The Other Boleyn Girl ( 2008 ) , Vicky Cristina Barcelona ( 2008 ) , He 's Just Not That Into You ( 2009 ) , Don Jon ( 2013 ) , Her ( 2013 ) , Under the Skin ( 2013 ) , and Lucy ( 2014 ) . Since 2010 , Johansson has also portrayed the Marvel Comics character Natasha Romanoff in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . She won the Tony Award for Best Performance by a Featured Actress in a Play for her performance in the 2010 Broadway revival of Arthur Miller 's A View from the Bridge . As a singer , Johansson has released two albums , Anywhere I Lay My Head and Break Up . Johansson is considered one of Hollywood 's modern sex symbols , and has frequently appeared in published lists of the sexiest women in the world , including when she was named the " Sexiest Woman Alive " by Esquire magazine in both 2006 and 2013 ( the only woman to be chosen for the title twice ) , and the " Sexiest Celebrity " by Playboy magazine in 2007 . As of July 2016 , she is the highest @-@ grossing actress of all time and the tenth movie star in general , with her films making over $ 3 @.@ 3 billion . = = Early life = = Johansson was born in New York City . Her father , Karsten Johansson , is a Danish @-@ born architect originally from Copenhagen , and her paternal grandfather , Ejner Johansson , was a screenwriter and director . Her mother , Melanie Sloan , a producer , comes from an Ashkenazi Jewish family from the Bronx ; Sloan 's ancestors were Jewish immigrants from both Poland and Minsk in the Russian Empire . She has an older sister , Vanessa , also an actress ; an older brother , Adrian ; a twin brother , Hunter ( who appeared with her in the film Manny & Lo ) ; and an older half @-@ brother , Christian , from her father 's first marriage . Johansson grew up in a household with " little money " , and with a mother who was a " film buff " . She and her twin brother attended PS 41 elementary school in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of Manhattan . Johansson began her theatrical training by attending and graduating from Professional Children 's School in Manhattan in 2002 . = = Acting career = = = = = Early roles = = = Johansson began acting during childhood , after her mother started taking her to auditions . She would audition for commercials but took rejection so hard her mother began limiting her to film tryouts . She made her film debut at the age of 9 , as John Ritter 's daughter in the 1994 fantasy comedy , North . Following minor roles in the 1995 film Just Cause , as the daughter of Sean Connery and Kate Capshaw , and If Lucy Fell in 1996 , she played the role of Amanda in Manny & Lo ( 1996 ) . Her performance in Manny & Lo garnered a nomination for the Independent Spirit Award for Best Lead Female , and positive reviews , one noting , " [ the film ] grows on you , largely because of the charm of ... Scarlett Johansson " , while San Francisco Chronicle critic Mick LaSalle commentated on her " peaceful aura " , and wrote , " If she can get through puberty with that aura undisturbed , she could become an important actress . " After appearing in minor roles in Fall and Home Alone 3 in 1997 , Johansson garnered widely spread attention for her performance in the 1998 film The Horse Whisperer , directed by Robert Redford . She received a nomination for the Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Most Promising Actress for the film . In 1999 , she appeared in My Brother the Pig and in 2001 in the neo @-@ noir Coen brothers film The Man Who Wasn 't There . Also in 1999 , she appeared in the music video for Mandy Moore 's single , " Candy " . Although the film was not a box office success , she received praise for her break @-@ out role in Ghost World ( 2001 ) . Credited with " sensitivity and talent [ that ] belie her age " . In 2002 , she appeared in Eight Legged Freaks with David Arquette . = = = Transition to adult roles = = = Johansson made the transition from teen roles to adult roles , with two roles in 2003 . In the Sofia Coppola film Lost in Translation , she played Charlotte , a listless and lonely young wife , opposite Bill Murray . Roger Ebert wrote that he loved the film and described the performances of Johansson and Murray as " wonderful " . Entertainment Weekly wrote of Johansson 's " embracing , restful serenity " , and the New York Times said , " At 18 , the actress gets away with playing a 25 @-@ year @-@ old woman by using her husky voice to test the level of acidity in the air ... Ms. Johansson is not nearly as accomplished a performer as Mr. Murray , but Ms. Coppola gets around this by using Charlotte 's simplicity and curiosity as keys to her character . " Johansson won the BAFTA Award and was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress . She received nominations from a number of film critic organizations , including the Broadcast Film Critics Association and the Chicago Film Critics Association . At age 18 , Johansson played Griet in Peter Webber 's Girl with a Pearl Earring . While noting , " Audiences feel as if they are spying on a moment of artistic inspiration when painter Vermeer creates the title work " , USA Today praised her , suggesting , " [ She ] is having a banner year that Oscar voters should recognize . " In his review for the New Yorker , Anthony Lane said , " What keeps Webber 's movie alive is the tenseness of the setup ... and , above all , the presence of Johansson . She is often wordless and close to plain onscreen , but wait for the ardor with which she can summon a closeup and bloom under its gaze ; this is her film , not Vermeer 's , all the way . " Owen Gleiberman , for Entertainment Weekly , wrote of her " nearly silent performance " , observing , " The interplay on her face of fear , ignorance , curiosity , and sex is intensely dramatic . " She was nominated for the Golden Globe for Best Actress in a Drama and the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role . She was nominated by the London Film Critics ' Circle , the Phoenix Film Critics Society . Johansson was invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in June 2004 . The same year , she had voice or onscreen roles in five films : The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie ; A Good Woman , an adaptation of Oscar Wilde 's Lady Windermere 's Fan , which had a limited U.S. release , and was both a box office and critical failure , described by the The New York Times as a " misbegotten Hollywood @-@ minded screen adaptation " with " an excruciating divide between the film 's British actors ( led by Tom Wilkinson and Stephen Campbell Moore ) , who are comfortable delivering Wilde 's aphorisms ... and its American marquee names , Helen Hunt and Scarlett Johansson , [ who have ] little connection to the English language as spoken in the high Wildean style " ; the critically panned teen heist film The Perfect Score , the romantic comedy In Good Company , a critical and box office success ; and , finally , the dark , Southern drama , A Love Song for Bobby Long , for which she earned her a third Golden Globe for Best Actress nomination . = = = 2005 – 07 = = = In July 2005 , Johansson starred with Ewan McGregor in Michael Bay 's science fiction film , The Island , in dual roles as Sarah Jordan and her clone , Jordan Two Delta . The film was a commercial failure and received mixed critical reviews . In contrast , her role as Nola , the American actress with whom Chris ( Jonathan Rhys Meyers ) is obsessed , in the Woody Allen @-@ directed drama Match Point , was well received . The New York Times said , " Ms. Johansson and Mr. Rhys @-@ Meyers manage some of the best acting seen in a Woody Allen movie in a long time , escaping the archness and emotional disconnection that his writing often imposes . " Johansson received her fourth Golden Globe nomination , and one from the Chicago Film Critics Association , for Best Supporting Actress . In another collaboration with Allen , she was cast opposite Hugh Jackman and Allen in the 2006 film Scoop . While the film enjoyed a modest worldwide box office success , it received mixed reviews by critics . The same year , she appeared in Brian De Palma 's The Black Dahlia , a film noir shot in Los Angeles and Bulgaria . Johansson later said she was a De Palma fan and had wanted to work with him on the film , even though she thought that she was " physically wrong " for the part . Johansson next had a supporting role in the Christopher Nolan thriller The Prestige ( 2006 ) , again opposite Hugh Jackman , as well as Christian Bale . Nolan , who described Johansson as possessing an " ambiguity ... a shielded quality " , said he was " very keen " for her to play the role . Johansson said , " I loved working with [ Christopher Nolan ] . He 's incredibly focused and driven and involved , and really involved in the performance in every aspect . He 's incredible to watch . " The film was both a critical and a worldwide box office success , recommended by the Los Angeles Times as " an adult , provocative piece of work . " Also in 2006 , Johansson starred in the short film ' When The Deal Goes Down , directed by Bennett Miller , set to Bob Dylan 's " When the Deal Goes Down ... " , released to promote Dylan 's album , Modern Times . Johansson starred in 2007 's The Nanny Diaries , alongside Laura Linney . The film performed only marginally well at the box office , and was critically panned . Johansson 's reviews were mixed , with Variety saying , " [ She ] essays an engaging heroine " , while The New Yorker criticized her for looking " merely confused " while " trying to give the material a plausible emotional center " . = = = 2008 – present = = = In 2008 , Johansson starred in The Other Boleyn Girl , with Natalie Portman and Eric Bana , a film which garnered mixed reviews . Writing for Rolling Stone , Pete Travers criticized the film for " [ moving ] in frustrating herks and jerks " , but was more positive in his assessment of Johansson and Portman , and wrote , " What works is the combustible teaming of Natalie Portman and Scarlett Johansson , who give the Boleyn hotties a tough core of intelligence and wit , swinging the film 's sixteenth @-@ century protofeminist issues handily into this one . " Johansson filmed her third Woody Allen film , Vicky Cristina Barcelona , in Spain , appearing opposite Javier Bardem and Penélope Cruz . The film was one of Allen 's most profitable and appeared on many critics ' top ten lists of the best films of 2008 . She also played the femme fatale Silken Floss in Frank Miller 's film noir , comedy adaptation of The Spirit . The film received mostly poor reviews . Johansson later appeared in the role of Anna , a yoga instructor , in the 2009 ensemble cast of He 's Just Not That Into You , with Jennifer Connelly , Bradley Cooper , Drew Barrymore and Kevin Connolly . The film was a box office success but only gained average critical reception . In March 2009 , Johansson signed on to play Natalia Romanova / Natasha Romanoff , aka " The Black Widow " in Iron Man 2 after Emily Blunt turned down the role . The film was released on May 7 , 2010 . The film was a box office success and received mostly positive reviews from critics . In 2011 , Johansson played the role of Kelly , a zookeeper in the family film We Bought a Zoo . The film gained mainly favorable reviews . In November 2011 , it was reported that she planned to make her directorial debut by adapting Truman Capote 's novel , Summer Crossing , with the screenplay written by playwright Tristine Skyler . Johansson reprised the role of Natasha Romanoff in The Avengers in 2012 . The Avengers received positive reviews and was highly successful at the box office , becoming the third highest @-@ grossing film both in the United States and worldwide . In early March 2012 , it was announced that Johansson had been cast as Janet Leigh in the Sacha Gervasi @-@ directed film Hitchcock , a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes drama about the making of Alfred Hitchcock 's 1960 film Psycho . Released in November 2012 , Hitchcock received mixed to positive reviews . Johansson received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on May 2 , 2012 , located at 6931 Hollywood Blvd . , in front of Madame Tussauds Hollywood wax museum . Also in 2012 , Johansson was cast in Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt 's directorial debut , Don Jon . The film premiered at the 2013 Sundance Film Festival , and had its wide release in September 2013 . Don Jon received positive reviews . Johansson 's performance was highlighted by critics ; Claudia Puig of USA Today stated that she " gives one of her best performances as the bossy , gum @-@ chewing Jersey girl " . In 2013 , Johansson voiced the character Samantha , an intelligent computer operating system , in the Spike Jonze film Her , replacing Samantha Morton in the role . The film received critical acclaim upon release with Johansson 's performance being well @-@ received among critics . Johansson was also cast in the 2013 film Under the Skin , the film adaptation of Michel Faber 's novel of the same name , directed by Jonathan Glazer , appearing in a role which required full frontal nudity . The film was released in the United States in 2014 , to positive reviews . Johansson 's performance received a positive reception . In October 2014 , it was announced that Johannson will star in and executive produce the upcoming eight @-@ episode period series The Custom of the Country , based on Edith Wharton 's 1913 novel of the same name . She is set to play Undine Spragg , a young woman from the Midwest who tries to climb her way up the New York City social ladder . It will be written by Christopher Hampton . Johansson reprised her role as Black Widow in the 2014 sequel Captain America : The Winter Soldier , alongside frequent co @-@ star Chris Evans as the title character . The film received positive reviews . She played Molly in the 2014 film Chef , alongside Jon Favreau , Robert Downey , Jr. and Sofía Vergara . She also starred in Lucy , a science fiction action film directed by Luc Besson , which was released on July 25 , 2014 . The film received largely positive , but also polarizing , critical reviews , and grossed $ 458 million against a budget of $ 40 million . In 2015 , Johansson again played the Black Widow in Avengers : Age of Ultron , alongside the original cast of the first Avengers film . A mixture of close @-@ ups , concealing costumes , stunt doubles and visual effects were used to help hide Johansson 's pregnancy during filming . On January 5 , 2015 , Variety announced that Johannson has signed on to play the lead role in a film adaptation of the Ghost in the Shell franchise , which will be directed by Rupert Sanders and produced by Avi Arad and Steven Paul . The casting of Johansson for the film was met with criticism from many fans and critics , calling the choice " whitewashing " . A petition was created in the effort to have Johansson removed from the project . Johansson again reprised her role as Black Widow in Captain America : Civil War , released in May 2016 . = = = Stage work = = = Johansson made her first stage appearance when she was 8 years old in the Off Broadway play Sophistry opposite Ethan Hawke . In January 2010 , following previews that began December 28 , 2009 , Johansson made her debut on Broadway , as Catherine Carbone in the drama A View from the Bridge , written by Arthur Miller and directed by Gregory Mosher . Liev Schreiber played opposite her . Johansson won the 2010 Tony Award for Best Performance by a Featured Actress in a Play , for her role in the play . Her win received some backlash from critics and seasoned Broadway actors who felt she was undeserving of the award . Johansson starred as Maggie in a Broadway revival of Cat on a Hot Tin Roof beginning January 17 , 2013 . Her performance received mixed reviews from critics . Thom Geier , writing for Entertainment Weekly , wrote , " Scarlett Johansson brings a fierce fighting spirit to Maggie the Cat in director Rob Ashford 's languorous revival ... Johansson shows a winning determination – to lure back her husband , to defend their share of his family 's fortune , to maintain a sometimes shaky Southern accent . " On the other hand , reviewer Joe Dziemianowicz ( The Daily News ) called her performance " alarmingly one @-@ note " . = = Endorsements = = Johansson has appeared in advertising campaigns for Calvin Klein , L 'Oréal and Louis Vuitton , and has been the face of Spanish brand Mango since 2009 . After appearing at the Metropolitan Museum of Art 's Costume Institute Gala with Domenico Dolce and Stefano Gabbana , Johansson was announced as the face of the new Dolce & Gabbana make @-@ up collection in early 2009 . She made a personal appearance at the London store , Selfridges , on July 31 , 2009 , to help launch and promote the line . Johansson was also the first Hollywood celebrity to become an ambassador for a champagne house . She is the spokesperson for Moët & Chandon . In January 2014 , the Israeli Sodastream home @-@ carbonation system company announced Johannson as its first brand ambassador . She has stayed the course , though her involvement has generated controversy . = = Music career = = In 2005 , Johansson was considered for the role of Maria in Andrew Lloyd Webber 's West End revival of The Sound of Music , though the role ultimately went to newcomer Connie Fisher ( winner of the BBC talent show How Do You Solve a Problem Like Maria ? ) Released on May 8 , 2006 , Johansson sang the track " Summertime " for Unexpected Dreams – Songs From the Stars , a non @-@ profit collection of songs recorded by Hollywood actors . She performed with The Jesus and Mary Chain for a special Coachella Reunion Show in Indio , California in April 2007 . In 2007 , Johansson appeared as the leading lady in Justin Timberlake 's music video , for " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " , which was nominated in August 2007 , for video of the year at the MTV Video Music Awards . In mid @-@ 2007 , she spent about a month in Maurice , Louisiana recording an album at Dockside Studio . The album , consisting of one original song and ten cover versions of Tom Waits songs , was produced by Dave Sitek of TV on the Radio and features David Bowie , members from the Yeah Yeah Yeahs and Celebration . Released on May 20 , 2008 , it was entitled Anywhere I Lay My Head . Reviews of the album were mixed , or average . Spin commented , " There 's nothing particularly compelling about Scarlett Johansson 's singing . " Conversely , some critics found it to be " surprisingly alluring " , " a bravely eccentric selection " , and " a brilliant album " with " ghostly magic " . The album was named the " 23rd best album of 2008 " by NME and peaked at No.1 on the Billboard Top Heatseekers chart and No. 126 on the Billboard 200 chart . Of her album , Johansson said , " I had this golden opportunity to record and thought I would do maybe an album of standards , because I 'm not a songwriter . I 'm a vocalist . " Johansson said for her recording she " wanted to have space and [ she ] wanted to be in a remote place where all of us could just be ourselves and not worry about anyone trying to listen in or get in on that . " Johansson said in an interview that she started listening to Tom Waits when she was 11 or 12 years old . Of Tom Waits , Johansson said in an interview , " His melodies are so beautiful , his voice is so distinct and I had my own way of doing Tom Waits songs . " In December 2008 , MTV reported Johansson planned to follow @-@ up Anywhere I Lay My Head with an album of all original music , saying , " I don 't think I 'd do covers , so it 'd be a project that I have to dedicate myself to . I feel like that 's something for the future . " In 2009 , Johansson covered Jeff Buckley 's " Last Goodbye " for the soundtrack of He 's Just Not That Into You . Released on September 8 , 2009 , she and singer / songwriter Pete Yorn recorded a collaborative album , Break Up , inspired by Serge Gainsbourg 's duets with Brigitte Bardot . In 2010 , Steel Train released Terrible Thrills Vol . 1 , which includes their favourite female artists singing songs from their self @-@ titled album . Johansson is the first artist on the album , singing " Bullet " . In 2011 , Johansson sang " One Whole Hour " for the soundtrack of the documentary film Wretches & Jabberers . In 2012 , Johansson added her voice to a J. Ralph track entitled " Before My Time " to the end credits of the climate documentary Chasing Ice . The song received a nomination from the Academy Awards in the " Best Original Song " category . In February 2015 , Johansson formed a band called The Singles . It is made up of Este Haim from HAIM , Holly Miranda , Kendra Morris , and Julia Haltigan . The first single released by the group was called " Candy " . Johansson was issued a cease and desist order from the lead singer of the Los Angeles @-@ based rock band The Singles , demanding Johansson stop using their name . = = Public image = = Johansson 's physical appearance and personality consistently score high within the US and UK male demographic . Maxim ranked her at No. 6 in their Hot 100 Issue in 2006 , No. 3 in 2007 , No. 2 in 2008 , No. 34 in 2009 , No. 14 in 2010 , and 2011 , No. 17 in 2012 No. 15 in 2013 , and No. 2 in 2014 . In November 2006 , she was named the " Sexiest Woman Alive " by Esquire . She appeared on the cover of the March 2006 issue of Vanity Fair in the nude alongside actress Keira Knightley and fashion designer Tom Ford . In February 2007 , she was named the " Sexiest Celebrity " of the year by Playboy . In 2010 , GQ named her its Babe of the Year . In 2011 , Men 's Health named her one of the " 100 Hottest Women of All @-@ Time " , ranking her at No. 12 . FHM has regularly ranked her as one of their 100 sexiest famous women since 2005 . During the filming of Match Point , director Woody Allen described Johansson as " sexually overwhelming " , saying that he found it " very hard to be extra witty around a sexually overwhelming , beautiful young woman who is wittier than you are . " In 2014 , New Yorker film critic Anthony Lane wrote that " she is evidently , and profitably , aware of her sultriness , and of how much , down to the last inch , it contributes to the contours of her reputation . " Johansson is commonly referred to as " ScarJo " by the media and fans , but has stated that she dislikes the nickname , calling it " awful " and " terrible " . In the May 2014 issue of Glamour , she stated , " I associate that name [ ScarJo ] with , like , pop stars . It sounds tacky . It 's lazy and flippant . And there 's something kind of violent about it . There 's something insulting about it . " = = Activism = = = = = Charity work = = = In 2005 , Johansson became a Global Ambassador for the aid and development agency Oxfam . In March 2008 , a UK @-@ based bidder paid £ 20 @,@ 000 on an eBay auction to benefit Oxfam , winning a hair and makeup treatment , a pair of tickets and a chauffeured trip to accompany Johansson on a 20 @-@ minute date to the world premiere of He 's Just Not That Into You . In January 2014 , Johansson resigned from her Oxfam position after facing criticism for her promotion of SodaStream , whose main factory is based in Mishor Adumim , an Israeli settlement in the West Bank , as Oxfam opposes all trade with such Israeli settlements . Johansson said she and Oxfam " have a fundamental difference of opinion in regards to the Boycott , Divestment and Sanctions movement " . In response to her resignation , Oxfam stated that it was " grateful for her many contributions ... [ in ] helping to highlight the impact of natural disasters and raise funds to save lives and fight poverty " . = = = Political advocacy = = = Johansson was registered as an independent , at least through 2008 , and campaigned for Democratic candidate John Kerry in the 2004 United States presidential election . About George W. Bush 's 2004 reelection , she said , " [ I am ] disappointed . I think it was a disappointment for a large percentage of the population . " Johansson also campaigned for Democratic candidate Barack Obama : Her efforts included appearances in Iowa during January 2008 , where her efforts were targeted at younger voters ; an appearance at Cornell College ; and a speaking engagement at Carleton College in Northfield , Minnesota on Super Tuesday , 2008 . Johansson appeared in the 2008 music video for The Black Eyed Peas front man will.i.am 's song , " Yes We Can " , directed by Jesse Dylan , a song inspired by Obama 's speech following the 2008 New Hampshire primary . On February 7 , 2012 , Johansson and Anna Wintour hosted a fashion launch of pro @-@ Obama clothing , bags and accessories , with proceeds going to the President 's re @-@ election campaign . She addressed voters at the Democratic National Convention on September 6 , 2012 , calling for President Obama 's reelection and for more engagement from young voters . She specifically encouraged women to vote for Obama and condemned Mitt Romney for his opposition to Planned Parenthood . Johansson publicly endorsed and supported Manhattan Borough President Scott Stringer 's 2013 run for New York City Comptroller by hosting a series of fundraisers . = = Personal life = = = = = Religion and relationships = = = Johansson celebrates a " little of both " Christmas and Hanukkah , and has described herself as Jewish . From 2001 to 2002 , while Johansson attended the Professional Children 's School , she dated classmate Jack Antonoff , who went on to become the guitarist for the band Fun . She dated her Black Dahlia co @-@ star Josh Hartnett for about two years until the end of 2006 , with Hartnett citing their busy lives as the reason for the split . Johansson began dating Canadian actor Ryan Reynolds in 2007 , and in May 2008 , it was reported that they were engaged . On September 27 , 2008 , the couple married in a quiet ceremony near Tofino , British Columbia . They purchased a $ 2 @.@ 8 million home together near Los Angeles . On December 14 , 2010 , the couple announced their separation . Their divorce was finalized on July 1 , 2011 . Following her separation from Reynolds , Johansson dated actor Sean Penn in a short @-@ lived , but highly publicized relationship that lasted until June 2011 , after which Johansson entered a year @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half long relationship with advertising executive Nate Naylor . The pair split up in October 2012 . In November 2012 , Johansson started dating Frenchman Romain Dauriac , the owner of an independent advertising agency . In September 2013 , it was announced that Johansson and Dauriac were engaged . In 2014 , Johansson and Dauriac began dividing their time between residences in New York City and Paris , France . Her representative confirmed on September 4 , 2014 , that their daughter , Rose Dorothy Dauriac , had been born at an unspecified date . Johansson and Dauriac married on October 1 , 2014 , in Philipsburg , Montana . = = = Cell phone hack = = = In September 2011 , nude photographs of Johansson hacked from her cell phone were published online . Following an FBI investigation , Christopher Chaney was arrested , pleaded guilty , and was sentenced to 10 years in prison . Johansson said the photos had been sent to her then @-@ husband , Ryan Reynolds , three years prior to the incident . = = Filmography = = = = = Film = = = = = = Television = = = = = = Stage = = = = = Discography = = = = = Studio albums = = = = = = Soundtrack appearances = = = = = = Other album appearances = = =
= Anna Wintour = Anna Wintour , OBE ( / ˈwɪntər / ; born 3 November 1949 ) is a British @-@ American journalist and editor . She has been editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Vogue since 1988 . In 2013 , she became artistic director for Condé Nast , Vogue 's publisher . With her trademark pageboy bob haircut and dark sunglasses , Wintour has become an important figure in much of the fashion world , widely praised for her eye for fashion trends and her support for younger designers . Her reportedly aloof and demanding personality has earned her the nickname " Nuclear Wintour " . She is the eldest daughter of Charles Wintour , who was editor of the London Evening Standard from 1959 to 1976 . Her father consulted her on how to make the newspaper relevant to the youth of the era . Anna became interested in fashion as a teenager . Her career in fashion journalism began at two British magazines . Later , she moved to the United States , with stints at New York and House & Garden . She returned home for a year to turn around British Vogue , and later assumed control of the franchise 's magazine in New York , reviving what many saw as a stagnating publication . Her use of the magazine to shape the fashion industry has been the subject of debate within it . Animal rights activists have attacked her for promoting fur , while other critics have charged her with using the magazine to promote elitist views of femininity and beauty . A former personal assistant , Lauren Weisberger , wrote the 2003 best selling roman à clef The Devil Wears Prada , later made into a successful film starring Meryl Streep as Miranda Priestly , a fashion editor , believed to be based on Wintour . In 2009 , she was the focus of another film , R.J. Cutler 's documentary The September Issue . = = Family = = Wintour was born in London , in 1949 , to Charles Wintour ( 1917 – 1999 ) , editor of the Evening Standard , and Eleanor " Nonie " Trego Baker ( 1917 @-@ 1995 ) , daughter of a Harvard law professor . Her parents married in 1940 and divorced in 1979 . Wintour was named after her maternal grandmother , Anna Baker ( born Gilkynson ) , a merchant 's daughter from Pennsylvania . Audrey Slaughter , a magazine editor who founded publications such as Honey and Petticoat , is her stepmother . The late @-@ 18th @-@ century novelist Lady Elizabeth Foster , Duchess of Devonshire , was Wintour 's great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ grandmother , and Sir Augustus Vere Foster , the last Baronet of that name , was a granduncle . She had four siblings . Her older brother , Gerald , died in a traffic accident as a child . One of her younger brothers , Patrick , is also a journalist , currently political editor of The Guardian . James and Nora Wintour have worked in London local government and for international non @-@ governmental organisations respectively . = = Early life = = In her youth , Wintour was educated at the independent North London Collegiate School , where she frequently rebelled against the dress code by taking up the hemlines of her skirts . At the age of 14 , she began wearing her hair in a bob . She developed an interest in fashion as a regular viewer of Cathy McGowan on Ready Steady Go ! , and from the issues of Seventeen her grandmother sent from America . " Growing up in London in the ' 60s , you 'd have to have had Irving Penn 's sack over your head not to know something extraordinary was happening in fashion , " she recalled . Her father regularly consulted her when he was considering ideas for increasing readership in the youth market . At the age of 15 , she began dating well @-@ connected older men . She was involved briefly with Piers Paul Read , then 24 . In her later teens , she and gossip columnist Nigel Dempster became a fixture on the London club circuit . = = Career = = = = = From fashion to journalism = = = " I think my father really decided for me that I should work in fashion , " she recalled in The September Issue . He arranged for his daughter 's first job , at the influential Biba boutique , when she was 15 . The next year , she left North London Collegiate and began a training program at Harrods . At her parents ' behest , she also took fashion classes at a nearby school . Soon she gave them up , saying , " You either know fashion or you don 't . " Another older boyfriend , Richard Neville , gave her her first experience of magazine production at his popular and controversial Oz . In 1970 , when Harper 's Bazaar UK merged with Queen to become Harper 's & Queen , Wintour was hired as one of its first editorial assistants , beginning her career in fashion journalism . She told her co @-@ workers that she wanted to edit Vogue . While there , she discovered model Annabel Hodin , a former North London classmate . Her connections helped her secure locations for innovative shoots by Helmut Newton , Jim Lee and other trend @-@ setting photographers . One recreated the works of Renoir and Manet using models in go @-@ go boots . After chronic disagreements with her rival , Min Hogg , she quit and moved to New York with her boyfriend , freelance journalist Jon Bradshaw . = = = New York City = = = In her new home , she became a junior fashion editor at Harper 's Bazaar in New York City in 1975 . Wintour 's innovative shoots led editor Tony Mazzola to fire her after nine months . She was introduced to Bob Marley by one of Bradshaw 's friends , and disappeared with him for a week . A few months later , Bradshaw helped her get her first position as a fashion editor , at Viva , a women 's adult magazine started by Kathy Keeton , then wife of Penthouse publisher Bob Guccione . She has rarely discussed working there , due to that connection . This was the first job at which she was able to hire a personal assistant , which began her reputation as a demanding and difficult boss . In late 1978 , Guccione shut down the unprofitable magazine . Wintour decided to take some time off from work . She broke up with Bradshaw and began a relationship with French record producer Michel Esteban , for two years dividing her time with him between Paris and New York . She returned to work in 1980 , succeeding Elsa Klensch as fashion editor for a new women 's magazine named Savvy . It sought to appeal to career @-@ conscious professional women , who spent their own money , the readers Wintour would later target at Vogue . The following year , she became fashion editor of New York . There , the fashion spreads and photo shoots she had been putting together for years finally began attracting attention . Editor Edward Kosner sometimes bent very strict rules for her and let her work on other sections of the magazine . She learned through her work on a cover involving Rachel Ward how effectively celebrity covers sold copies . " Anna saw the celebrity thing coming before everyone else did , " Grace Coddington said three decades later . A former colleague arranged for an interview with Vogue editor Grace Mirabella that ended when Wintour told Mirabella she wanted her job . = = = Condé Nast = = = She went to work at Vogue later when Alex Liberman , editorial director for Condé Nast , publisher of Vogue , talked to Wintour about a position there in 1983 . She eventually accepted after a bidding war that doubled her salary , becoming the magazine 's first creative director , a position with vaguely defined responsibilities . Her changes to the magazine were often made without Mirabella 's knowledge , causing friction among the staff . She began dating child psychiatrist David Shaffer , an older acquaintance from London . They married in 1984 . In 1985 , Wintour attained her first editorship , taking over British Vogue after Beatrix Miller retired . Once in charge , she replaced many staffers and exerted far more control over the magazine than any previous editor had , earning the nickname " Nuclear Wintour " in the process . Those editors who were retained began to refer to the period as " The Wintour of Our Discontent . " Her changes moved the magazine from its traditional eccentricity to a direction more in line with the American magazine . Wintour 's ideal reader was the same woman Savvy had tried to reach . " There 's a new kind of woman out there , " she told the Evening Standard . " She 's interested in business and money . She doesn 't have time to shop anymore . She wants to know what and why and where and how . " In 1987 , Wintour returned to New York to take over House & Garden . Its circulation had long lagged behind rival Architectural Digest , and Condé Nast hoped she could improve it . Again , she made radical changes to staff and look , canceling $ 2 million worth of photo spreads and articles in her first week . She put so much fashion in photo spreads that it became known as House & Garment , and enough celebrities that it was referred to as Vanity Chair , within the industry . Those changes worsened the magazine 's problems . When the title was shortened to just HG , many longtime subscribers thought they were getting a new magazine and put it aside for the real thing to arrive . Most of those subscriptions were eventually canceled , and while some fashion advertisers came over , most of the magazine 's traditional advertisers pulled out . Ten months later , she finally became editor of Vogue . Under Mirabella , it had become more focused on lifestyles as a whole and less on fashion . Industry insiders worried that it was losing ground to the recently introduced American edition of Elle . After making sweeping changes in staff , Wintour also changed the style of the cover pictures . Mirabella had preferred tight head shots of well @-@ known models in studios ; Wintour 's covers showed more of the body and were taken outside , like those Diana Vreeland had done years earlier . She used less well @-@ known models , and mixed inexpensive clothes with the high fashion : the first issue she was in charge of , November 1988 , featured a Peter Lindbergh photograph of 19 @-@ year @-@ old Michaela Bercu in a $ 50 pair of faded jeans and a bejeweled jacket by Christian Lacroix worth $ 10 @,@ 000 . It was the first time a Vogue cover model had worn jeans ( Bercu was originally supposed to have worn the skirt that coordinated with the jacket , but she had gained some weight and it didn 't fit ) . In 2012 , Wintour reflected on the cover : It was so unlike the studied and elegant close @-@ ups that were typical of Vogue ’ s covers back then , with tons of makeup and major jewelry . This one broke all the rules . Michaela wasn 't looking at you , and worse , she had her eyes almost closed . Her hair was blowing across her face . It looked easy , casual , a moment that had been snapped on the street , which it had been , and which was the whole point . Afterwards , in the way that these things can happen , people applied all sorts of interpretations : It was about mixing high and low , Michaela was pregnant , it was a religious statement . But none of these things was true . I had just looked at that picture and sensed the winds of change . And you can ’ t ask for more from a cover image than that . Years later , Wintour admitted the photo had never been planned as the cover shot . In 2011 , when Vogue put its entire archive online , Wintour was quoted as saying , " I just said , ' Well , let 's just try this . ' And off we went . It was just very natural . To me it just said , ' This is something new . This is something different . ' The printers called to make sure that was supposed to be the cover , as they thought a mistake might have been made . " In 2015 she said if she had to pick a favorite of her covers , it would be that one . " [ I ] t was a leap of faith and it was certainly a big change for Vogue . " " Wintour 's approach hit a nerve — this was the way real women put clothes together ( with the likely exception of wearing multi @-@ thousand @-@ dollar T @-@ shirts ) , " one reviewer says . On the June 1989 cover , another model was shown in wet hair , with just a bathrobe and no apparent makeup . Photographers , makeup artists , and hairstylists got credited along with the models . In August 2014 , Gigi Hadid paid tribute to Wintour 's first cover . = = = 1990s = = = Under her editorship , the magazine renewed its focus on fashion and returned to the prominence it had held under Vreeland . Vogue held its position as market leader against three contenders : Elle ; Harper 's Bazaar , which had lured away Liz Tilberis , Wintour 's most prominent deputy , and Mirabella , a magazine Rupert Murdoch created for Wintour 's fired predecessor . Her most serious competitor was within the company : Tina Brown , editor of Vanity Fair and later The New Yorker . At the end of the decade , another of Wintour 's inner circle left to run Harper 's Bazaar . Kate Betts , seen as Wintour 's likely successor , had broadened the magazine 's reach by commissioning stories with a more hard @-@ news edge , about women in politics , street culture , and the financial difficulties of some major designers . She had also added the " Index " section , a few pages of tips meant to be torn out of the magazine . At staff meetings , she earned Wintour 's respect as the only person who publicly challenged her . The two began to disagree about the magazine 's direction . Betts felt Vogue 's fashion coverage was getting too limited . Wintour in turn thought that the stories with popular culture angles Betts was assigning were beneath readers , and began pairing Betts with Plum Sykes , whom Betts reportedly detested as a " pretentious airhead . " Eventually , she left , complaining to the New York Times that Wintour had not even sent her a baby gift . Wintour wrote an editor 's letter that complimented Betts and wished her well . = = = 2000s = = = Betts was one of several longtime editors to leave Vogue around the new millennium . A year later , Sykes , another putative successor , left to concentrate on her best @-@ selling novels set in the city 's upper classes and a screenplay . A number of other editors also left to assume the top jobs at other publications . While some of their replacements didn 't last , a new group of core editors formed . The September 2004 issue was 832 pages , the largest issue of a monthly magazine ever published at that time , since exceeded by the September 2007 issue Cutler 's documentary covered . Wintour also oversaw the introduction of three spinoffs : Teen Vogue , Vogue Living and Men 's Vogue . Teen Vogue has published more ad pages and earned more advertiser revenue than either Elle Girl and Cosmo Girl , and the 164 ad pages in the début issue of Men 's Vogue were the most for a first issue in Condé Nast history . AdAge named her " Editor of the Year " for this brand expansion . Queen Elizabeth II appointed her Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 2008 Birthday Honours . That year was generally difficult , as the economy worsened . After ruffling feathers at the Milan shows in February , the April issue 's cover image of LeBron James and Gisele Bündchen brought criticism for its evocation of racial stereotypes . The next month a lavish Karl Lagerfeld gown she wore to the Met 's Costume Institute Gala was called " the worst fashion faux pas of 2008 . " In the fall , Vogue Living was suspended indefinitely , and Men 's Vogue cut back to two issues a year as an outsert or supplement to the women 's magazine . At the end of the year , December 's cover highlighted a disparaging comment Jennifer Aniston made about Angelina Jolie , to the former 's displeasure . It seemed Wintour had lost her touch . In 2008 , rumours arose that she would retire , and be replaced by French Vogue editor Carine Roitfeld . An editor at Russian GQ reportedly introduced Russian Vogue editor Aliona Doletskaya as the next editor of American Vogue . Condé Nast responded by taking out a full @-@ page ad in The New York Times defending her record . In that same publication , Cathy Horyn later wrote that while Wintour hadn 't lost her touch , the magazine had become " stale and predictable , " as a reader had recently complained . " To read Vogue in recent years is to wonder about the peculiar fascination for the ' villa in Tuscany ' story , " Horyn added . The magazine also dealt awkwardly with the recession , she commented . In 2009 , Wintour began making more media appearances . On a 60 Minutes profile , she said she would not retire . " To me this is a really interesting time to be in this position and I think it would be in a way irresponsible not to put my best foot forward and lead us into a different time . " In September , The September Issue , a documentary film by The War Room producer R.J. Cutler about the production of the September 2007 issue , was released . It focused on the sometimes @-@ difficult relationship between Wintour and creative director Grace Coddington . She appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman to promote it , defending the relevance of fashion in a tough economy . The American Society of Magazine Editors elected her to its Hall of Fame in 2010 . = = = 2010s = = = In 2013 , Condé Nast announced she would be taking on the position of artistic director for the company 's magazines while remaining at Vogue . She assumed some of the responsibilities of Si Newhouse , the company 's longtime editorial director , who , in his mid @-@ 80s at the time , had begun moving from his role at Condé Nast to join the rest of his family in managing Advance Publications , its parent company . A company spokesman told The New York Times the position was created to keep Wintour . She described it as " an extension of what I am doing , but on a broader scale . " In January 2014 , the Metropolitan Museum of Art named its Costume Institute complex after Wintour ; First Lady Michelle Obama opened it in May of that year . Wintour starred in The Fashion Fund , which aired on Ovation TV that year as well ; she was also named the 39th most powerful woman in the world by Forbes . = = = Fashion industry power broker = = = Through the years , she has come to be regarded as one of the most powerful people in fashion , setting trends , and anointing new designers . Industry publicists often hear " Do you want me to go to Anna with this ? " when they have differences with her subordinates . The Guardian has called her the " unofficial mayoress " of New York City . She has encouraged fashion houses such as Christian Dior to hire younger , fresher designers such as John Galliano . Her influence extends outside fashion . She persuaded Donald Trump to let Marc Jacobs use a ballroom at the Plaza Hotel for a show when Jacobs and his partner were short of cash . More recently , she persuaded Brooks Brothers to hire the relatively unknown Thom Browne . A protégée at Vogue , Plum Sykes , became a successful novelist , drawing her settings from New York 's fashionable élite . Her salary was reported to be $ 2 million a year in 2005 . In addition , she receives several perks , such as a chauffeured Mercedes S @-@ Class ( both in New York and abroad ) , a $ 200 @,@ 000 shopping allowance , and the Coco Chanel Suite at the Hotel Ritz Paris while attending European fashion shows . Condé Nast president S. I. Newhouse also had the company make her an interest @-@ free $ 1 @.@ 6 million loan to purchase her townhouse in Greenwich Village . = = Personal life = = She had two children by David Shaffer following their 1984 marriage : Charles ( Charlie ) born 1985 , and Katherine ( known as Bee ) born 1987 . The latter wrote occasional columns for The Daily Telegraph in 2006 , but says she won 't follow her mother into fashion . The couple divorced in 1999 . Newspapers and gossip columnists claimed her affair with investor Shelby Bryan ended the marriage . She declined to comment . Her friends say Bryan has mellowed her . " She smiles now and has been seen to laugh , " the Observer quoted one as saying . Wintour is also a philanthropist . She serves as a trustee of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York , where she has organised benefits that have raised $ 50 million for the museum 's Costume Institute . She began the CFDA / Vogue Fund in order to encourage , support and mentor unknown fashion designers . She has also raised over $ 10 million for AIDS charities since 1990 , by organising various high profile benefits . She claims to rise before 6 am , plays tennis and has her hair and makeup done , then gets to Vogue 's offices two hours later . She always arrives at fashion shows well before their scheduled start . " I use the waiting time to make phone calls and notes ; I get some of my best ideas at the shows , " she says . According to the BBC documentary series Boss Woman , she rarely stays at parties for more than 20 minutes at a time and gets to bed by 10 : 15 every night . She exerts a great deal of control over the magazine 's visual content . Since her first days as editor , she has required that photographers not begin until she has approved Polaroids of the setup and clothing . Afterwards , they must submit all their work to the magazine , not just their personal choices . Her control over the text is less certain . Her staffers claim she reads everything written for publication , but former editor Richard Story has claimed she rarely , if ever , read any of Vogue 's arts coverage or book reviews . Earlier in her career , she often left the task of writing the text accompanying her layouts to others ; former coworkers claim she has minimal skills in that area . Today , she writes little for the magazine save the monthly editor 's letter . She reportedly has three full @-@ time assistants but sometimes surprises callers by answering the phone herself . She often turns her cell phone off in order to eat her lunch , usually a steak ( or bunless hamburger ) , undisturbed . High @-@ protein meals have been a habit of hers for a long time . " It was smoked salmon and scrambled eggs every single day " for lunch , says a coworker at Harpers & Queen . " She would eat nothing else . " = = = Personal fashion preferences = = = Because of her position , Wintour 's wardrobe is often closely scrutinised and imitated . Earlier in her career , she mixed fashionable T @-@ shirts and vests with designer jeans . When she started at Vogue as creative director she switched to Chanel suits with miniskirts . She continued to wear them during both pregnancies , opening the skirts slightly in back and keeping her jacket on to cover up . Wintour was listed as " one of the fifty best @-@ dressed over 50s " by the Guardian in March 2013 . According to biographer Jerry Oppenheimer , her ubiquitous sunglasses are actually corrective lenses , since she suffers from deteriorating vision as her father did . A former colleague he interviewed recalls trying on her Wayfarers in her absence and getting dizzy . " I think at this point they 've become , you know , really armour , " Wintour herself told 60 Minutes correspondent Morley Safer , explaining that they allow her to keep her reactions to a show private . As she rebounded from the end of her marriage and the turnover in the magazine 's editorial staff , a fellow editor and friend noted that " she 's not hiding behind her glasses anymore . Now she 's having fun again . " = = = Politics = = = Wintour has been a supporter of the Democratic Party since Hillary Clinton 's 2000 Senate run and John Kerry 's 2004 presidential run and serving Barack Obama 's 2008 and 2012 presidential runs as a " bundler " of contributions . In 2008 and 2012 , she co @-@ hosted fundraisers with Sarah Jessica Parker , the latter being a 50 @-@ person , $ 40 @,@ 000 @-@ a @-@ plate dinner at Parker 's West Village town house with Meryl Streep , Michael Kors , and Trey Laird , an advertising executive , among the attendees . She has also teamed with Calvin Klein and Harvey Weinstein on fundraisers during Obama 's first term and Donna Karan has been amongst the attendees . In 2013 when Vogue 's former director of communications stepped down , Wintour was rumoured to be looking to hire someone with a political background . Soon after , Wintour hired Hildy Kuryk , a former fundraiser for the Democratic National Committee and Obama 's first campaign.She also supported Hillary Clinton 's 2016 Presidential Campaign , forming part of Clinton 's long list of wealthy donators or " Hillblazers " . = = The Devil Wears Prada = = Lauren Weisberger , a former Wintour assistant who left Vogue for Departures along with Richard Story , wrote The Devil Wears Prada after a writing workshop he suggested she take . It was eagerly anticipated for its supposed insider portrait of Wintour prior to its publication . Wintour told The New York Times , " I always enjoy a great piece of fiction . I haven 't decided whether I am going to read it or not . " While it has been suggested that the setting and Miranda Priestly were based on Vogue and Wintour , Weisberger claims she drew not only from her own experiences but those of her friends as well . Wintour herself makes a cameo appearance near the end of the book , where it is said she and Miranda dislike each other . In the novel , Miranda has many similarities to Wintour — among them , she is British , has two children , and is described as a major contributor to the Met . Priestly is a tyrant ; who makes impossible demands of her subordinates , gives them almost none of the information or time necessary to comply and then berates them for their failures to do so . Betts , who had been fired by Harper 's after two years during which staffers said she tried too hard to emulate Wintour , reviewed it harshly in the New York Times Book Review : Having worked at Vogue myself for eight years and having been mentored by Anna Wintour , I have to say Weisberger could have learned a few things in the year she sold her soul to the devil of fashion for $ 32 @,@ 500 . She had a ringside seat at one of the great editorial franchises in a business that exerts an enormous influence over women , but she seems to have understood almost nothing about the isolation and pressure of the job her boss was doing , or what it might cost a person like Miranda Priestly to become a character like Miranda Priestly . Priestly has some positive qualities . Andrea notes that she makes all the magazine 's key editorial decisions by herself and that she has genuine class and style . " I never for one second didn 't know it was an amazing opportunity to assist Anna , " Weisberger said in 2008 . = = = Film adaptation = = = The film version of the novel has not been the only movie to have a character borrowing some aspects of Wintour . Edna Mode 's similar hairstyle in The Incredibles has been noted , Johnny Depp said he partially based the demeanour of Willy Wonka in Charlie and the Chocolate Factory on Wintour . Fey Sommers in the Ugly Betty television series was also likened to Wintour , from the trademark bob and sunglasses , to Wintour 's last name homophonous with ' Winter ' , while Sommers ' is homophonous with ' Summer ' . During the film 's production in 2005 , Wintour was reportedly threatening prominent fashion personalities , particularly designers , that Vogue would not cover them if they made cameo appearances in the movie as themselves . She denied it through a spokesperson who said she was interested in anything that " supports fashion . " Many designers are mentioned in the film . Only one , Valentino Garavani , appeared as himself . The film was released , in mid @-@ 2006 , to great commercial success . Wintour attended the première wearing Prada . In the film , actress Meryl Streep plays a Priestly different enough from the book 's to receive critical praise as an entirely original ( and more sympathetic ) character . ( Streep 's office in the film was similar enough to Wintour 's that Wintour reportedly had hers redecorated . ) Wintour reportedly said the film would probably go straight to DVD . It made over $ 300 million in worldwide box office receipts . Later in 2006 , in an interview with Barbara Walters that aired the day of the DVD 's release , Wintour said she found the film " really entertaining " and praised it for making fashion " entertaining and glamorous and interesting ... I was 100 percent behind it . " That opinion of the movie has not yet led her to forgive Weisberger . When it was reported that the novelist 's editor told her to start her third novel over , Wintour 's spokesman suggested she " should get a job as someone else 's assistant . " Oppenheimer suggests The Devil Wears Prada may have done Wintour a favour by increasing her name recognition . " Besides giving Weisberger her fifteen minutes , " he says , " [ it ] ... place [ d ] Anna squarely in the mainstream celebrity pantheon . [ She ] was now known and talked about over Big Macs and french fries under the Golden Arches by young fashionistas in Wal @-@ Mart denim in Davenport and Dubuque . " When The September Issue was released three years later , critics compared it with the earlier , fictional film . " For the past year or so , she 's been on the media warpath to win back her image , " said Paul Schrodt in Slant Magazine . Many considered the question of how similar she was to Streep 's Priestly , and praised the film for showing the real person . Manohla Dargis at The New York Times said that Priestly had helped humanise Wintour , and " the documentary continues this . " " The movie offers insights that lift it beyond a realist version of The Devil Wears Prada , " agreed Mary Pols in Time . = = Criticism = = In 2005 , two years after The Devil Wears Prada , Oppenheimer 's Front Row : The Cool Life and Hot Times of Vogue 's Editor in Chief was published . It painted a similar portrait of the real woman . According to Oppenheimer , Wintour not only declined his requests for an interview but discouraged others from talking to him . = = = Personality = = = Wintour is often described as emotionally distant by those who have come to know her well , even her close friends . " At some stage in her career , Anna Wintour stopped being Anna Wintour and became ' Anna Wintour , ' at which point , like wings of a stately home , she closed off large sections of her personality to the public , " wrote The Guardian . " I think she enjoys not being completely approachable . Just her office is very intimidating . You have to walk about a mile into the office before you get to her desk and I 'm sure it 's intentional , " Coddington says . " I don 't find her to be accessible to people she doesn 't need to be accessible to , " agrees Vogue publisher Tom Florio . She has said she admired her father Charles , known as " Chilly Charlie " for being " inscrutable . " Former coworkers told Oppenheimer of a similar aloofness on her part . But she is also known for volatile outbursts of displeasure , and the widely used " Nuclear Wintour " sobriquet is a result of both . She dislikes it enough to have asked The New York Times not to use it . " There are times I get quite angry , " she admitted in The September Issue . " I think she has been very rude to a lot of people in the past , on her way up – very terse , " a friend told the Observer . " She doesn 't do small talk . She is never going to be friends with her assistant . " A former assistant said , " You definitely did not ride the elevator with her . " Unwritten rules imposed by Wintour at the Vogue offices forbid junior staffers from initiating conversation with her ; an editor who greeted her on the elevator was reprimanded by one of Wintour 's assistants . ( She calls that an exaggeration . ) A visiting reporter saw a junior staffer appear visibly panicked when she realised she would have to ride the elevator with Wintour . Once a junior editor saw her trip in the hallway , walked past without offering assistance , and was later told she " did absolutely the right thing . " Even friends admit to some trepidation in her presence . " Anna happens to be a friend of mine , " says Barbara Amiel , " a fact which is of absolutely no help in coping with the cold panic that grips me whenever we meet . " " I know when to stop pushing her , " says Coddington . " She doesn 't know when to stop pushing me . " She has often been described as a perfectionist who routinely makes impossible , arbitrary demands of subordinates : " kitchen scissors at work , " in the words of one commentator . She once made a junior staffer look through a photographer 's trash to find a picture he had refused to give her . In a deleted scene from The September Issue , she complains about the " horrible white plastic buckets " of ice behind the bars at the CFDA 's 7th on Sale AIDS benefit and moves them out of sight . " The notion that Anna would want something done ' now ' and not ' shortly ' is accurate , " Amiel says of The Devil Wears Prada . " Anna wants what she wants right away . " A longtime assistant says , " She throws you in the water and you 'll either sink or swim . " Peter Braunstein , the former Women 's Wear Daily ( WWD ) media reporter , later convicted of sexually assaulting a coworker , allegedly planned to kill Wintour because of perceived slights . After receiving only one ticket to the 2002 Vogue Fashion Awards , which he perceived as a snub , he became so angry that WWD fired him . At his 2007 trial , prosecutors introduced as evidence a journal he kept on his computer in which he stated his intention to kill her . In it he wrote , " She just never talked to peons like us " to justify his intended actions . On one occasion , she has had to pay for her treatment of employees . In 2004 , a court ruled that she and Shaffer were to pay $ 104 @,@ 403 , and Wintour herself an additional $ 32 @,@ 639 , to settle a lawsuit brought against them by the New York State Workers ' Compensation Board . They had failed to pay the $ 140 @,@ 000 judgement it incurred on behalf of a former employee injured on the job , who did not have the necessary insurance coverage . In the 2000s , her relationship with Bryan was credited with softening her personality at work . " Even when she 's in a bad mood , she has a different posture , " someone described as a " Wintour watcher " told the New York Observer . " The consensus is that she 's so much more mellow and easier to work for because she 's probably getting laid . " = = = Pro @-@ fur stance = = = She has often been the target of animal rights organisations like PETA , who are angered by her use of fur in Vogue , her pro @-@ fur editorials and her refusal to run paid advertisements from animal rights organisations . Undeterred , she continues to use fur in photo spreads , saying there 's always a way to wear it . " Nobody was wearing fur until she put it on the cover in the early 1990s , " says Vogue co @-@ worker Tom Florio . " She ignited the entire industry . " She has " lost count " of the times she has been physically attacked by activists . In Paris in October 2005 , she was hit with a tofu pie while waiting to get into the Chloé show . On another occasion , an activist dumped a dead raccoon on her plate at a restaurant ; she told the waiter to remove it . She and Vogue publisher Ron Galotti once retaliated for a protest outside the Condé Nast offices during the company 's annual Christmas party by sending down a plate of roast beef . Others outside of the animal @-@ rights community have raised the fur issue . Fashion journalist Peter Braunstein wrote in his manifesto that she would go to a hell guarded by large rats , where it would be so warm she wouldn 't need to wear fur . Pamela Anderson , in an early 2008 interview , said Wintour was the living person she most despised " because she bullies young designers and models to use and wear fur . " = = = Elitism = = = Another common criticism of Wintour 's editorship focuses on Vogue 's increasing use of celebrities on the cover , and her insistence on making them meet her standards . She reportedly told Oprah Winfrey to lose weight before her cover photograph . Likewise , Hillary Clinton was told not to wear a blue suit . At the 2005 Anglomania celebration , a Vogue @-@ sponsored salute to British fashion at the Met , Wintour is said to have personally chosen the clothes for prominent attendees such as Jennifer Lopez , Kate Moss , Donald Trump , and Diane von Fürstenberg . " I don 't think Vreeland had that kind of concentration , " says WWD publisher Patrick McCarthy . " She wouldn 't have dressed Babe Paley . Nor would Babe Paley have let her . " By persuading designers to loan clothes to prominent socialites and celebrities , who are then photographed wearing the clothes not only in Vogue but more general @-@ interest magazines like People and Us , which in turn influence what buyers want , some in the industry believe Wintour is exerting too much control over it , especially since she is not involved in making or producing clothes herself . " The end result is that Anna can control it all the way to the selling floor , " says Candy Pratts Price , executive fashion director at style.com. She has been credited with killing grunge fashion in the early 1990s , when it wasn 't selling well , by telling designers if they continued to avoid glamour their looks would not be photographed for Vogue . All complied . Another Vogue writer has complained Wintour excluded ordinary working women , many of whom are regular subscribers , from the pages . " She 's obsessed only about reflecting the aspirations of a certain class of reader , " she says . " We once had a piece about breast cancer which started with an airline stewardess , but she wouldn 't have a stewardess in the magazine so we had to go and look for a high @-@ flying businesswoman who 'd had cancer . " Wintour has been accused of setting herself apart even from peers . " I do not think fiction could surpass the reality , " a British fashion magazine editor says of The Devil Wears Prada . " [ A ] rt in this instance is only a poor imitation of life . " Wintour , the editor says , routinely requests to be seated out of sight of competing editors at shows . " We spend our working lives telling people which it @-@ bag to carry but Anna is so above the rest of us she does not even have a handbag . " At the 2008 Milan Fashion Week she requested that some key shows be rescheduled for earlier in the week so she and other U.S.-based editors could have time to return home before the Paris shows . This led to complaints . Other editors said they had to rush through the earlier shows , and lesser @-@ known designers who had to show later were denied an important audience . Dolce & Gabbana said Italian fashion was getting short shrift and Milan was becoming a " circus without sense . " Giorgio Armani , who at the time was co @-@ chairing a Met exhibition on superheroes ' costumes with Wintour , drew some attention for his personal remarks . " Maybe what she thinks is a beautiful dress , I wouldn 't think was a beautiful dress , " he said . While he claimed he couldn 't understand why people disliked her , saying he himself was indifferent , he expressed hope she hadn 't made a comment once attributed to her " the Armani era is over . " He accused her of preferring French and American fashion over Italian . Geoffrey Beene , who stopped inviting Wintour to shows after she stopped writing about him , called her " a boss lady in four @-@ wheel drive who ignores or abandons those who do not fuel her tank . As an editor , she has turned class into mass , taste into waste . " Her remarks about obesity have caused controversy on more than one occasion . In 2005 , Wintour was heavily criticised by the New York chapter of the National Association to Advance Fat Acceptance after Vogue editor @-@ at @-@ large André Leon Talley said on The Oprah Winfrey Show , at one point , Wintour demanded he lose weight . " Most of the Vogue girls are so thin , tremendously thin " he said , " because Miss Anna doesn 't like fat people . " In 2009 , residents of Minneapolis took umbrage after she told 60 Minutes she could " only kindly describe most of the people I saw as little houses . " They noted their city had been named the third fittest in the nation that year by Men 's Fitness while New York had been named the fifth fattest . Wintour surprised observers when developing an association with the Kardashian family and Kanye West , which culminated in having the Kardashian @-@ Wests on a Vogue cover ; Wintour reportedly commented that having only " deeply tasteful " people in the magazine was boring , and her decision to resort to such personalities has led some to accuse the magazine of being " desperate for buzz . " Wintour has nevertheless continued the association with the less @-@ than- " deeply tasteful " pair . = = = Responses = = = Defences of Wintour have often come from others . Amanda Fortini at Slate said she was comfortable with Wintour 's elitism since that was intrinsic to fashion : Most of us read Vogue not with the intention of buying the wildly expensive clothes , but because doing so educates our eye and hones our taste , similar to the way eating gourmet food refines the palate . This is a pleasure enabled by Wintour 's ruthless aesthetic , her refusal to participate in the democratizing tendency of most of her competitors . To deny her that privilege is to deny her readers the privilege of fantasy in the form of beautifully photographed Paris couture . Emma Brockes sees this in Wintour herself : " [ Her ] unwavering ability to look as if she lives within the pages of her magazine has a sort of honesty to it , proof that , whatever one thinks about it , the lifestyle peddled by Vogue is at least physically possible . " " Print publications have to be as luxurious an experience as possible , " Wintour explained in 2015 . " You have to feel it coming off the page . You have to see photographs and pieces that you couldn 't possibly see anywhere else . " Some friends see her purported coldness as just traditional British reserve , or shyness . Brockes says it may be mutual , " partly a reflection of how awkward people are with her , particularly women , who get preemptively chippy when faced with the prospect of meeting Fashion Incarnate . " Wintour describes herself as shy , and Harry Connick Jr . , who escorted her and Bee to shows in 2007 , agrees . When Morley Safer asked her about complaints about her personality , she said I have so many people here , Morley , that have worked with me for 15 , 20 years , and , you know , if I 'm such a bitch , they must really be a glutton for punishment because they 're still here ... If one comes across sometimes as being cold or brusque , it 's simply because I 'm striving for the best . She has made similar statements in defence of her reported refusal to hire fat people . " It 's important to me that the people that are working here , particularly in the fashion department , " she says , " will present themselves in a way that makes sense to the outside world that they work at Vogue . " Her defenders have called criticism sexist . " Powerful women in the media always get inspected more thoroughly than their male counterparts , " said The New York Times in a piece about Wintour shortly after The Devil Wears Prada 's release . When she took over at Vogue , gossip columnist Liz Smith reported rumours she had gotten the job through an affair with Si Newhouse . A reportedly furious Wintour made her anger the subject of one of her first staff meetings . She still complained about it when accepting a media award in 2002 . She has been called a feminist whose changes to Vogue have reflected , acknowledged , and reinforced advances in the status of women . Reviewing Oppenheimer 's book in The Washington Monthly , managing editor Christina Larson notes Vogue , unlike many other women 's magazines , ... doesn 't play to its readership 's sense of inadequacy ... Instead , it reminds women to take satisfaction , parading all manner of fineries ( clothes , furniture , travel destinations ) that a successful woman might buy , or at least admire . While it surely exists to sell ads ... it does so primarily by exploiting ambition , not insecurity . Wintour , unlike Vreeland , " ... shifted Vogue 's focus from the cult of beauty to the cult of the creation of beauty . " To her , the focus on celebrities is a welcome development as it means women are making the cover of Vogue at least in part for what they have accomplished , not just how they look . Complaints about her role as fashion eminence grise are dismissed by those familiar with how she actually exercises it . " She 's honest . She tells you what she thinks . Yes is yes and no is no , " according to Karl Lagerfeld . " She 's not too pushy " agrees François @-@ Henri Pinault , chief executive officer of PPR , Gucci 's parent company . " She lets you know it 's not a problem if you can 't do something she wants . " Defenders also point out she continued supporting Gucci despite her strong belief PPR should not have let Tom Ford go . Designers such as Alice Roi and Isabel Toledo have flourished without indulging Wintour or Vogue . Her willingness to throw her weight around has helped keep Vogue independent despite its heavy reliance on advertising dollars . Wintour was the only fashion editor who refused to follow an Armani ultimatum to feature more of its clothes in the magazine 's editorial pages , although she has also admitted if she has to choose between two dresses , one by an advertiser and the other not , she will choose the former every time . " Commercial is not a dirty word to me . " Wintour herself , when asked about it , dismisses the notion that she has all the power attributed to her . " I don 't think of myself as a powerful person , " she told Forbes in 2011 , when it named her 69th on its list of the world 's hundred most powerful women . " You know , what does it mean ? It means you get a better seat in a restaurant or tickets to a screening or whatever it may be . But it is a wonderful opportunity to be able to help others , and for that I 'm extremely grateful . " In response to criticisms like Beene 's , she has defended the democratisation of what were once exclusive luxury brands . " It means more people are going to get better fashion , " she told Dana Thomas . " And the more people who can have fashion , the better . "
= 2010 Giro d 'Italia = The 2010 Giro d 'Italia was the 93rd edition of the Giro d 'Italia , one of cycling 's Grand Tours . The Giro started off in Amsterdam on 8 May and stayed in the Netherlands for three stages , before leaving the country . The route included climbs such as Monte Zoncolan , Plan de Corones , the Passo del Mortirolo and the Passo di Gavia before ending in Verona with an individual time trial . Principal favorites for overall success in the Giro included Ivan Basso of the Liquigas – Doimo team , Cadel Evans for BMC Racing Team , and Cervélo TestTeam 's Carlos Sastre . After three weeks of racing , it was Basso who claimed his second Giro d 'Italia title , after also winning in 2006 . David Arroyo from Caisse d 'Epargne and Basso 's teammate Vincenzo Nibali rounded out the podium . Australian riders won all the lesser jersey awards , with Evans taking the points classification , Omega Pharma – Lotto 's Matthew Lloyd the winner of the mountains classification , and Richie Porte of Team Saxo Bank the Giro 's best young rider . The road race stages in the Netherlands were both marred by repeated crashes , which led to some unexpected big time gaps before the transfer to Italy . The overall standings were very turbulent in the first week , with four different riders holding the race leader 's pink jersey . The 11th stage greatly re @-@ shaped the overall standings , when several riders , including Sastre , gained almost 13 minutes against the remainder of the field . Porte took the pink jersey after this stage . Two days later , Arroyo took the jersey , and kept it for five days . He eventually lost it to Basso on the first of two very difficult mountain stages to close out the Giro . Success was fairly widespread among the Giro 's 22 teams , as 17 of them came away with either a stage win , classification win , or stint in the pink jersey . = = Teams = = The 22 teams in the race were announced on 22 March . Sixteen teams were guaranteed a place in the race by virtue of a September 2008 agreement between the UCI and the organizers of the season 's three Grand Tours . Those guaranteed a place are those who were members of the UCI ProTour at the time of the agreement . Two from this group , Euskaltel – Euskadi and Française des Jeux , declined to participate in the race , instead focusing on the Tour de France and the Vuelta a España . Two new teams joined the ProTour for 2010 . One , Team Sky , participated in the race , but the other , Team RadioShack , did not wish to participate , since they planned to send their best riders to the partially concurrent Tour of California . Seven UCI Professional Continental teams , two of which ( Bbox Bouygues Telecom and Cofidis ) were part of the September 2008 agreement as they were members of the ProTour at that time , joined the 15 ProTour teams to round out the teams list . Each team entered a squad of nine riders , giving the event a 198 @-@ rider peloton at its outset . The race 's 22 teams were : = = = Non @-@ invitation of Dutch teams = = = The Giro , like the 2009 Vuelta a España before it and the forthcoming Tour de France , began in the Netherlands . The two Dutch Professional Continental teams , Skil – Shimano and Vacansoleil , had both ridden Grand Tours in 2009 . Throughout the season , the two teams tried to prove their combativeness in the hopes of securing Grand Tour invites , trying especially to outdo one another . Since the openings to the Giro and the Tour were partly financed by Dutch tax money , Vacansoleil 's team manager called for political help to get invites for his team , but neither Dutch team made it into either the Giro or the Tour . Consequently , neither made the Vuelta a España teams selection , either . The teams ' disappointment at their non @-@ invitation led to communications with UCI President Pat McQuaid , which may result in reforms to how teams are selected for the Grand Tours . = = Pre @-@ race favorites = = The Giro was often described as being wide open in terms of who had the best chance to win it . This is because many notable riders , including the past three champions , did not enter . 2007 Giro d 'Italia champion Danilo Di Luca , who originally finished second in the 2009 Giro d 'Italia , was suspended by his national federation in February for a doping incident in the 2009 Giro . 2008 Giro d 'Italia champion Alberto Contador skipped the Giro to better focus on the Tour de France , as he also had in the previous season . After first indicating that he might defend his championship , 2009 champion Denis Menchov also announced that he would not ride the Giro , instead focusing on the Tour de France , in order to complete the career sweep of the Grand Tours . Lance Armstrong and Levi Leipheimer , leaders of the Astana squad in the 2009 Giro , announced in October 2009 that they would ride the partially concurrent Tour of California instead of the Giro , which is why Team RadioShack was not selected for the Giro . Just five days before the race began , the UCI announced several riders were under suspicion of doping by virtue of irregular values in their biological passports . Among them was Franco Pellizotti , who had been set to be one of the leaders for the Liquigas – Doimo team and had been described as a pre @-@ race favorite . While team firmly stood behind Pellizotti in the case and expressed anger that the UCI unveiled their findings so close to the start of the Giro , they obligingly pulled him from their squad . He was replaced by Vincenzo Nibali , who had been planning to ride the Tour of California as a squad leader . While not an overall favorite , Alessandro Ballan intended to participate in the race , stating in October that it was a certainty he would start , after missing out on the Giro in 2009 when he was world champion . This was an indication well in advance that the BMC Racing Team was in line for an invite to the race . Ballan was later suspended by his team as a result of an internal doping investigation , meaning he had to miss the Giro . He was later cleared of any wrongdoing . Most pre @-@ race analyses identified Ivan Basso , Cadel Evans , and Carlos Sastre as the major favorites to win the overall classification , with Evans perhaps the consensus pick . Basso and Sastre had both ridden the Giro in 2009 and come away finishing in the top five . Sastre also won two difficult mountain stages in the race 's final week , and was noted as a rider who gets stronger as a race goes along , making the Giro 's very climbing @-@ intensive third week possibly sit in his favor . Evans had finished on a Grand Tour podium in each of the past three seasons , including in the most recent three @-@ week event , the 2009 Vuelta a España . He also entered the race as the reigning world cycling champion and had had a successful 2010 season to date , with a win in La Flèche Wallonne and a podium finish in the Tirreno – Adriatico . Neither Basso nor Sastre had raced much in the 2010 season prior to the Giro . Other riders named as contenders included Bradley Wiggins , former Giro winners Damiano Cunego and Stefano Garzelli , Alexander Vinokourov , Marzio Bruseghin , Christian Vande Velde , Domenico Pozzovivo , David Moncoutié , and Michele Scarponi . Race director Angelo Zomegnan also named Basso , Evans , and Sastre as his three favorites , and included Wiggins and Linus Gerdemann as possible darkhorses . Mark Cavendish and Daniele Bennati , stage winners in the past two editions of the Giro , were absent from this race , but several top sprinters took the start in Amsterdam . These included Tyler Farrar , André Greipel , and Alessandro Petacchi , all of whom had themselves won Grand Tour stages in 2009 and figured to be top favorites for the Giro 's flat stages . Former Tour de France points classification winner Óscar Freire intended to make his Giro debut in this race , but he pulled out due to sinusitis shortly before the race started . Other sprinters in the Giro peloton included Robbie McEwen , Freire 's teammate Graeme Brown , Baden Cooke , Leonardo Duque , Sebastian Haedo , Wouter Weylandt , and Greg Henderson . = = Route and stages = = The Giro 's 21 stages were divided into the following classifications by race organizers Gazzetta dello Sport : four time trials ( three individual and one team ) , seven flat stages , five mixed stages , and six mountain stages . The race began in the Netherlands , the ninth time in the Giro 's history that the race began outside Italy , and the first since 2006 's start in Belgium . A short individual time trial and two flat stages were held there . Starting the race away from Italy meant that an early rest day , coming just three days into the 23 @-@ day race , was necessary to transfer to Italy . The first stage upon entering Italy was a team time trial , the fifth consecutive year that discipline had featured in the Giro . Stage 7 visited Tuscany and was raced partly on unpaved roads used yearly in the Italian semi @-@ classic Montepaschi Strade Bianche . The course honored Italian cycling legends Gino Bartali , Fausto Coppi , and Costante Girardengo by passing through their hometowns in the first road race stages in Italy . Five stages ended with climbs , with most coming in the race 's last week . The first was stage 8 to Monte Terminillo , a 16 @.@ 1 km ( 10 @.@ 0 mi ) long climb gaining 1 @,@ 672 m ( 5 @,@ 486 ft ) of vertical elevation for an average gradient of 7 @.@ 3 percent , one of the most difficult climbs in the Apennine Mountains in the region of Abruzzo . The next was Monte Zoncolan in the Carnic Alps , which at 10 @.@ 5 km ( 6 @.@ 5 mi ) in length was shorter than some of the other climbs in the race , but with 1 @,@ 210 m ( 3 @,@ 970 ft ) of vertical gain in that time , its 20 percent maximum gradient made it one of the most difficult . The Stage 16 individual time trial went to Plan de Corones , on a course identical to the one used in the 2008 Giro d 'Italia . In 12 @.@ 9 km ( 8 @.@ 0 mi ) , this stage gained over 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) and featured a section with 24 percent gradients in the final kilometer . The Giro 's last two road race stages were especially climbing @-@ intensive , including the Passo del Mortirolo , rising 1 @,@ 250 m ( 4 @,@ 100 ft ) in 12 @.@ 8 km ( 8 @.@ 0 mi ) for an average gradient of 10 percent , and the Passo di Gavia , known for being climbed during the 1988 Giro d 'Italia in the middle of a driving blizzard . The Gavia was also the Cima Coppi , the race 's highest point , and Stage 20 , in which it featured , was considered the queen stage . Other climbs during the race included the Passo del Bratello , Monte Grappa , the Passo delle Palade , the Passo di Santa Cristina , the Forcola di Livigno , and the last climb of the race , the Passo del Tonale . Most of these climbs also featured difficult descents . The route was noted to appeal to many types of riders , be they climbers , sprinters , or time trialists . The race had seven flat stages which figured into end in mass sprints , and the hilly mixed stages were inviting for breakaways . Sastre , one of the first riders to announce he would ride the Giro , commented that the route was much harder than that of the 2009 Giro , and would demand a very strong climber to be its champion . Zomegnan concurred that the route favored climbers , noting that the distance spent time trialing was not great and that it would take errors from climbing specialists to allow a rider better suited for time trialing to be Giro champion . = = Race overview = = The Giro began in Amsterdam with an individual time trial . Favorites for the stage included two British riders , Team Sky captain Bradley Wiggins and Garmin – Transitions ' David Millar . Several riders in the Giro peloton considered Wiggins the prohibitive favorite . Wiggins won the stage , securing the first pink jersey . A major surprise on the stage was Grand Tour rookie Brent Bookwalter from BMC Racing Team coming in second , just 2 seconds off Wiggins ' winning time . Millar was seventh , 6 seconds back . This set the stage for a turbulent opening to the Giro , as both of the road race stages in the Netherlands featured several crashes . The courses for the road stages in the Netherlands were noted to have a lot of street furniture on them , which combined with the riders ' nerves on the first day of a three @-@ week Grand Tour as well as crosswinds from the North Sea to make the first mass @-@ start stages very perilous . Tyler Farrar , Carlos Sastre , Christian Vande Velde , Greg Henderson , Wiggins , Alessandro Petacchi , Domenico Pozzovivo , Marzio Bruseghin , Filippo Pozzato , and Gilberto Simoni all fell from their bikes at some point while the Giro was in the Netherlands . There were also many other crashes that took down so many riders it was difficult to keep track of exactly who was effected . Crashing and , consequently , falling away from the leading group on the road , meant different things for different riders . For sprinters like Farrar and Petacchi , crashing meant they were unlikely to be able to contest the finishes for stage wins , while overall contenders like Wiggins and Sastre lost time in the general classification . For the second year in a row , Vandevelde suffered a broken collarbone as a result of his crash , consequently abandoning the race . Despite crashing during stage 2 , Farrar got up and was able to win the stage from a depleted field sprint . The state of the roads in the Netherlands and the sheer quantity of crashes that took place there incurred much criticism and questions over whether they should be included in a Grand Tour . Cadel Evans and Alexander Vinokourov both took the pink jersey while the Giro was in the Netherlands . Vinokourov held it prior to the transfer to Italy , with six riders from three teams within 10 seconds of him , meaning the pink jersey still remained very much in flux . After the transfer , the first stage in Italy was a team time trial , a race where each member of the squad races against the clock together , and the team 's time is taken for the fifth rider to cross the finish line . Liquigas – Doimo was the winning squad , and had a time gap over Vinokourov 's Astana team that was sufficiently large enough for Vincenzo Nibali to become the fourth race leader in as many stages . At last , there was stability in the race leadership , as Nibali comfortably retained over the next two stages , both of which featured breakaways taking the day 's honors while the peloton finished together . Stage 7 was a major one , incorporating stretches of gravel roads near the finish . The day on which this stage was run also happened to have very heavy rainfall , making the course muddy and dangerous . Much like had happened in the Netherlands , a great many riders crashed in this stage , perhaps chief among them Wiggins and Sastre , who both lost more than four minutes . Nibali also crashed , and upon seeing this , Alexander Vinokourov , Damiano Cunego , and Cadel Evans broke free of the leading group . Evans won the stage , one of many riders to cross the finish line covered in mud , and Vinokourov took back the race leadership . Through the first mountain stage and two flat stages that followed , the overall standings did not change much , and Vinokourov retained the jersey . Stage 11 into L 'Aquila provided for major changes to the overall standings . More than 50 riders formed the day 's escape group , and they quickly took 20 minutes advantage . Among them were Sastre , Wiggins , and Team Saxo Bank 's Richie Porte , who was holding the white jersey as best young rider and , at sixth overall , was the best @-@ placed man in the group . Sastre , Wiggins , and Porte all had multiple support riders with them in the breakaway who set strenuous paces to keep the group away . The main field , containing the Giro 's top favorites , pulled back a little time but was still nearly 13 minutes behind stage winner Evgeni Petrov at the finish . The day 's result massively shuffled the overall classification . Porte was the only rider who had been in the top ten before the stage who remained there afterward , and took the pink jersey . Sastre and Wiggins , who entered the Giro as contenders but had fallen well back in the overall standings before this stage , both moved back into the top ten . Porte kept the pink jersey for two days , conceding it to David Arroyo , a fellow member of the L 'Aquila breakaway , on stage 14 when he could not climb Monte Grappa with the leaders on the day . On this stage , the race 's overall favorites began to creep back into the top of the overall classification , as previous race leaders Nibali , Vinokourov , and Evans assumed 8th through 10th in the standings . There were again great changes to the overall classification in stage 15 , by way of the climb up Monte Zoncolan . Ivan Basso won the stage and greatly reduced his deficit to Arroyo , though the Spaniard still held the pink jersey after this stage . Evans , Scarponi , Vinokourov , and Nibali also finished well @-@ placed and moved up . Wiggins again fell out of contention , this time conclusively so , by losing 25 minutes on the climb . Evans turned in the best ride of the pre @-@ race favorites in the Plan de Corones time trial , closing his deficit to Basso and moving past Sastre in the overall . After this stage , the only riders left in the top ten from the L 'Aquila breakaway were Arroyo , Porte , Sastre , and Robert Kišerlovski , who all finished the Giro in the top ten . After a stage each for the breakaway and the sprinters , during which there were no major changes to the overall standings , the riders were faced with the very climbing @-@ intensive final two road stages . The Liquigas – Doimo team rode a very hard tempo in stage 19 over the Passo del Mortirolo , which eventually whittled that group down to just Basso , Nibali , and Scarponi . They crossed the Mortirolo more than two minutes ahead of Arroyo , which was nearly enough time to make Basso the virtual race leader . Arroyo , noted as a far better descender than Basso , took very aggressive lines coming down the Mortirolo and caught up with Vinokourov , Sastre , Evans , and John Gadret , who had been between him and the leading trio . Basso 's group had only 30 seconds on Arroyo 's at the start of the stage @-@ concluding Aprica climb , but they took more and more time as the climb went on and finished three minutes ahead , giving Basso the pink jersey with two days left to race . Arroyo elected not to try to aggressively descend any of the four large climbs on course in the final road race stage , settling for second place by riding with Basso and the other top riders in the peloton most of the day . There were a few changes in time gaps , but the same riders remained in the top ten from the previous day , as Johan Tschopp won the stage from a breakaway . The individual time trial in Verona which closed out the Giro also provided for small changes to the overall , but Basso 's 15th place on the stage was easily enough to make him Giro champion . Arroyo and Nibali rounded out the podium . Australian riders won each of the lesser jersey awards . Evans won the points classification , represented in 2010 with a red jersey in a return to the original colour scheme for the three minor classifications that reflected the colours of the Italian flag . Evans 's victory came about by way of nine top @-@ ten finishes , including a stage win , over the course of the race . This classification was tightly contested throughout the race ; six different riders held the jersey , and it changed hands nine times . Matthew Lloyd of Omega Pharma – Lotto won the green jersey for the mountains classification , taking maximum mountains points during his stage @-@ winning breakaway in stage 6 . He made morning breakaways later on in mountain stages to take points on other climbs and consolidate his lead . Porte won the white jersey as best young rider , holding it for all but three stages . Success was widespread among the 22 teams in the race . In sharp contrast to the 2009 Giro , the only rider to win multiple stages in this year 's race was Farrar , who took the sprint finishes to stages 2 and 10 . Team Sky , Omega Pharma – Lotto , BMC Racing Team , Colnago – CSF Inox , Acqua & Sapone , Cofidis , Androni Giocattoli , and Bbox Bouygues Telecom each won one stage . Quick @-@ Step had two stage wins , first with Wouter Weylandt in a depleted sprint finish to stage 3 in the Netherlands , and two stages later Jérôme Pineau led a winning breakaway across the finish line . Team Saxo Bank 's Chris Anker Sørensen won stage 8 on Monte Terminillo after figuring into a morning breakaway , and their time trial specialist Gustav Larsson won the final race against the clock in Verona . Team HTC – Columbia won multiple sprint stages , first with leadout man Matthew Goss when ace sprinter André Greipel missed out on the opportunity , and later Greipel himself took a win . Team Katusha took back @-@ to @-@ back stage wins , first with Petrov in L 'Aquila and then with Filippo Pozzato , who won a 10 @-@ man sprint after a late breakaway in stage 12 . After there had been no Italian stage winners for the first 11 days of racing , Pozzato 's stage win was the first of five in a row and six overall for Italian riders . Nibali and Basso were among those stage winners ; as they also won the stage 4 team time trial , theirs was the only squad with more than two stage wins . They also won both teams classifications , the time @-@ based Trofeo Fast Team and the points @-@ based Trofeo Super Team . Astana , Caisse d 'Epargne , and Rabobank did not win any stages , but Vinokourov 's and Arroyo 's stints in the pink jersey and Tom Stamsnijder 's win in the Traguardo Volante classification meant that they did not come away from the Giro empty @-@ handed . Only Ag2r – La Mondiale , Cervélo TestTeam , Footon – Servetto – Fuji , Lampre – Farnese Vini , and Team Milram came away from the Giro with nothing , even though Milram had one of their riders ( Paul Voss ) wearing the Mountains jersey at some point . = = Classification leadership = = In the 2010 Giro d 'Italia , four different jerseys were awarded . For the general classification , calculated by adding each cyclist 's finishing times on each stage , and allowing time bonuses for the first three finishers on mass @-@ start stages , the leader received a pink jersey . This classification was considered the most important of the Giro d 'Italia , and the winner was considered the winner of the Giro . Additionally , there was a points classification , which awarded a red jersey . In the points classification , cyclists got points for finishing in the top 15 in a stage . Unlike in the better known points classification in the Tour de France , the type of stage had no effect on what points were on offer – each stage had the same points available on the same scale . The win earned 25 points , second place earned 20 points , third 16 , fourth 14 , fifth 12 , sixth 10 , and one point fewer per place down to a single point for 15th . In addition , points could be won in intermediate sprints . There was also a mountains classification , the leadership of which was marked by a green jersey . In the mountains classifications , points were won by reaching the top of a climb before other cyclists . Each climb was categorized as either first , second , or third category , with more points available for the higher @-@ categorized climbs . The Cima Coppi , the race 's highest point of elevation , awarded still more points than the other first @-@ category climbs . The fourth jersey represented the young rider classification , marked by a white jersey . This was decided the same way as the general classification , but only riders born after 1 January 1985 were eligible . There were also three classifications for teams . In the Trofeo Fast Team classification , the times of the best three cyclists per team on each stage were added ; the leading team was the team with the lowest total time ; the Trofeo Super Team was a team points classification , with the top 20 placed riders on each stage earning points ( 20 for first place , 19 for second place and so on , down to a single point for 20th ) for their team ; and the Fair Play classification rewarded those teams that best avoided penalty points for minor technical infringements . The rows in the following table correspond to the jerseys awarded after that stage was run . = = Final standings = = = = = Minor classifications = = = Other less well @-@ known classifications , whose leaders did not receive a special jersey , were awarded during the Giro . These awards were based on points earned throughout the three weeks of the tour . Each mass @-@ start stage had one intermediate sprint , the Traguardo Volante , or T.V. The T.V. gave bonus seconds towards the general classification , points towards the regular points classification , and also points towards the T.V. classification . This award was known in previous years as the " Intergiro " and the " Expo Milano 2015 " classification . It was won by Tom Stamsnijder of the Rabobank team . Other awards included the Combativity classification , which was a compilation of points gained for position on crossing intermediate sprints , mountain passes and stage finishes . Mountains classification winner Matthew Lloyd won this award . The Azzurri d 'Italia classification was based on finishing order , but points were awarded only to the top three finishers in each stage . It was won , like the closely associated points classification , by Cadel Evans . Additionally , the Premio della Fuga rewarded riders who took part in a breakaway at the head of the field , each rider in an escape of ten or fewer riders getting one point for each kilometre that the group stayed clear . Quick @-@ Step 's Jérôme Pineau was first in this competition . Teams were given penalty points for minor technical infringements . Liquigas – Doimo was most successful in avoiding penalties , and so won the Fair Play classification . = = = World Rankings points = = = The Giro was one of 26 events throughout the season that contributed points towards the 2010 UCI World Ranking . Points were awarded to the top 20 finishers overall , and to the top five finishers in each stage .
= Tales of Legendia = Tales of Legendia ( Japanese : テイルズオブレジェンディア , Hepburn : Teiruzu Obu Rejendia ) , is a role @-@ playing video game that was developed and published by Namco for the PlayStation 2 as the seventh main title in their Tales series . Originally released in Japan in August 2005 , it was later made available in English in North America in February 2006 . The game was created by a development team known collectively as " Project MelFes " , which was composed of members of Namco 's Tales Studio along with developers from the company 's Tekken and Soulcalibur fighting game series . It features character designs from anime artist Kazuto Nakazawa and music from composer Go Shiina , as well as songs performed by Do As Infinity , Donna Burke , and Kanon . Its producers gave it the characteristic genre name RPG Where Bonds Spin Legends ( 絆が伝説を紡ぎだすRPG , Kizuna ga densetsu o tsumugidasu RPG ) . The game is set in a fantasy world covered in water , taking place entirely on a gigantic ship that is actually a remnant of an ancient civilization . Players assume the role of a young man named Senel , who must rescue his sister from individuals who believe her to be a prophesied savior , while the mysteries of his world begin to unravel before him . It received mostly mixed reviews upon its release in North America , with critics routinely commending the title 's music while panning its derivative plot and tedious pace , and would sell approximately 397 @,@ 000 copies worldwide . = = Gameplay = = Tales of Legendia is a console role @-@ playing game set in a fantasy world featuring three @-@ dimensional characters and environments . The game is presented from a top @-@ down perspective , and players must move their character through a number of locales , battle monsters , and interact with non @-@ player characters to advance the story . Unlike previous games in the series where monsters were visible before being encountered , Tales of Legendia features randomized battles that occur every few steps while inside dungeons or other hostile areas . Like previous games in the series , Tales of Legendia was designed to focus on the interactions between the main cast . However , a unique feature to this game is the addition of a second series of scenarios after the player has completed the main story that focuses more on the individual characters themselves . Animated sequences also accompany certain story segments . The game features a variation of the series ' Linear Motion Battle System , where players are able to freely move their characters around the battle area and engage enemies in real @-@ time , known as the " X @-@ LiMBS " ( Crossover Linear Motion Battle System ) , which was specifically designed to resemble a traditional fighting game . Despite playable characters and enemies being rendered in 3D , battles are limited to a two @-@ dimensional plane where combatants can only move forward , backward , or jump straight up into the air . In addition to normal attacks , players can attack enemies using special skills called " Eres " , which involve spending Tech Points ( TP ) , and can be chained together to create combos . A total of eight playable characters can be recruited as the game progresses , with up to four of them making up a player 's party at any time . As players attack enemies , they fill up a " Climax " gauge at the bottom of the screen that can be expended to freeze all enemies in place for a short period . Whenever battles are completed , players are awarded both experience points that allow characters to gain levels and grow stronger , as well as items called " Eres Stones " that allow them to purchase additional skills . = = Plot = = = = = Setting = = = Tales of Legendia is set in a world covered mostly in water , with all the events of the game taking place aboard a massive , country @-@ sized ship called the Legacy , a remnant of a highly advanced ancient civilization . The population is divided into two groups : the Orerines ( " the people of the land " ) and the Ferines ( " the people of the sea " ) , a race of fair @-@ skinned , light @-@ haired people with the ability to live underwater , with the tensions between them serving as the backdrop to the game 's plot . In addition , a select portion of the population are known as " erens " , people born with the ability to use special powers known as " eres " , which are divided into two groups : crystal eres , which includes casting magic spells , and iron eres , which revolves around physical abilities . A fictional language known as Relares appears throughout the game , forming the basis for some location and character names . = = = Main characters = = = Senel Coolidge ( セネル・クーリッジ , Seneru Kūrijji ) is a 17 @-@ year @-@ old martial artist and marine of the Holy Alliance who can use iron eres . Although strong @-@ willed and passionately protective of his surrogate sister Shirley , his cold nature comes off as uncaring to those around him . He is voiced by Kenichi Suzumura in the Japanese version , and Scott Holst in the English version . His name comes from Cuban writer Senel Paz . Shirley Fennes ( シャーリ・フェンネス , Shāri Fennesu ) is a 15 @-@ year @-@ old practitioner of crystal eres . She has a demure yet stubborn demeanor and is constantly chased by those who view her as the " Merines " , the chosen one of the Ferines said to command great power . She is voiced by Ryō Hirohashi in the Japanese version , and Carrie Savage in the English version . Her name comes from the 1849 novel Shirley by English author Charlotte Brontë . Will Raynard ( ウィル・レイナード , Wiru Reinādo , Will Raynerd in the Japanese version ) is a 28 @-@ year @-@ old historian and local sheriff who can use crystal eres . The oldest character in the group , he is often looked to for leadership and advice , and is characterized as having a strict yet kind personality . He is voiced by Susumu Chiba in the Japanese version , and Cam Clarke in the English version . His name comes from English writer William Shakespeare . Chloe Valens ( クロエ・ヴァレンス , Kuroe Varensu ) is a 17 @-@ year @-@ old female knight from the prestigious House of Valens who uses iron eres . Her staunch determination to prove herself as a warrior worthy of her family name masks her true feminine nature . She is voiced by Masumi Asano in the Japanese version , and Heather Halley in the English version . Her name comes from the character Chloë from the 1947 novel Froth on the Daydream by French author Boris Vian . Norma Beatty ( ノーマ・ビアッティ , Nōma Biatti , Norma Biatty in the Japanese version ) is a 16 @-@ year @-@ old treasure hunter and practitioner of crystal eres . Uniformly cheerful and positive , she also possesses an insightful side and has a habit of creating nicknames for other members of the party . She is voiced by Kaori Mizuhashi in the Japanese version , and Amy Gross in the English version . Her name comes from American author Norma Field . Moses Sandor ( モーゼス・シャンドル , Mōzesu Shandoru ) is the 17 @-@ year @-@ old leader of a tribe of bandits and beast @-@ tamers who wields a spear and uses iron eres . Despite his wild , uncouth exterior , he is a caring individual who looks after a large wolf @-@ like creature named Giet ( ギート , Gīto ) , and values family above all else . He is voiced by Kazuya Nakai in the Japanese version , and Shiloh Strong in the English version . His name comes from Romanian writer Moses Gaster . Jay ( ジェイ , Jei ) is a cryptic 16 @-@ year @-@ old ninja and practitioner of iron eres . He is characterized as being highly cynical and tends to liberally use cutting remarks , and has a talent for information gathering and analysis . He is voiced by Ryoko Shiraishi in the Japanese version , and Steve Staley in the English version . His name comes from American author Jay McInerney . Grune ( グリューネ , Guryūne ) is a mysterious woman who wields magic water jugs and has the ability to use crystal eres . Despite being amnesiac , she is perpetually in high spirits and never strays from her calm demeanor , smiling almost constantly . She is voiced by Ayako Kawasumi in the Japanese version . = = = Story = = = The game begins as Senel and Shirley wash ashore on the Legacy after their boat is tossed in a storm . Shirley is soon kidnapped by a bandit named Moses , prompting Senel to team up with a local sheriff named Will and a female knight named Chloe to rescue her . Will explains that Shirley 's arrival coincided with a pillar of light at the center of the ship , leading many to believe that she is the legendary " Merines " , a person destined to lead the Ferines to prosperity . After finding her at the thieves ' hideout , she is captured yet again by a Ferines soldier named Walter Delques , who takes her away . When the group eventually catches Walter , he reveals that he was only protecting her from the real enemy : the Orerine Crusand Empire Army , led by a man named Vaclav Bolud , who promptly arrives and abducts Shirley himself . While in captivity , Shirley becomes friends with another captive , a young Ferines girl named Fenimore Xelnes . Senel and his team are joined by a treasure hunter named Norma as well as Moses , who has decided to atone for his earlier actions . Together , the team travels deeper into the ship , where they discover that not only does Vaclav have Shirley , but her older sister Stella , who Shirley and Senel believed dead three years earlier when the Empire 's forces invaded their hometown . After being forced to escape when they are confronted by Vaclav 's underlings , the Terrors , the party regroups and meets an amnesiac women named Grune and boy named Jay who joins the team and accompanies them to the Legacy 's bridge . They confront Vaclav once more , who plans to use Shirley and Stella 's latent Merines powers to activate a giant laser cannon located on the ship to destroy the Ferines ' village and later subjugate other countries around the world . Although the party is victorious , Vaclav sets the cannon to fire in his final moments , with Stella in turn awakening her powers just in time to fly into the path of the beam , sacrificing herself . Shirley resolves to complete a ritual to fully become the Merines and fulfill her destiny , meeting with Walter and the Ferines leader Maurits Welnes . However , soldiers from the country of Gadoria attack during the ceremony attempting to kill her thinking she willfully sided with Vaclav , with Fenimore jumping in the way of one of their blades and dying instead . The traumatic event causes Shirley to be fully engulfed by Nerifes , the malevolent spirit of the ocean itself , before leaving with Maurits . Senel and his friends go after her , passing through the deeper areas of the ship where they discover from fractured recordings that the Legacy was a colony ship from another world , and the Ferines came to the planet and made war with the Orerines 4000 years ago . Arriving at Maurits ' stronghold , the party faces Walter , who reveals his jealousy over Shirley choosing Senel over him , and fights until his life gives out . They learn from Maurits that it was in fact the Orerines , not the Ferines , who are the outsiders . He explains that the Orerines ' terraforming technology upset the will of the sea so much that his people can no longer live in it , and wishes to use Shirley to flood the world and appease the ocean so that the Ferines can thrive once more . After he is beaten and Shirley brought back to her senses , Maurits summons a physical manifestation of Nerifes itself , which is driven back by Senel and his friends . In the end , Maurits resolves to put aside old hatreds and work towards an era of peace between Orerines and Ferines as the characters return to their old lives . = = Development = = Preliminary development on Tales of Legendia began in 2000 , after the release of Tales of Eternia , with many of its staff drawn from that of Eternia . Its development happened in parallel to Tales of Destiny 2 and Tales of Symphonia . While its exact development time is unknown , a report in Famitsu stated that its development lasted three years . It was first revealed in December 2004 in a teaser trailer featured on a pre @-@ order bonus disc for the series ' previous title Tales of Rebirth , which only referred to the game by its development codename " Project MelFes " . On February 14 , 2005 , Namco posted silhouettes of two characters on their Tales Channel website , with the game 's official reveal coming four days later . A tentative Japanese release date of sometime in 2005 was announced the following month , with an English North American release formally announced by the company in April for February 2006 . In May 2005 , Namco gave a finalized Japanese release date set for the following August . The game would make an appearance at the 2005 Electronic Entertainment Expo in Los Angeles the following June . The game was developed by a team that consisted of staff members from previous Tales entries , as well as developers from the company 's Tekken and Soulcalibur fighting game series . Producer Jun Toyoda explained that the goal was to create a role @-@ playing game with the " exhilarating battle scenes " found in those titles , and to appeal to players who either felt that fighting games lacked a story or felt that traditional role @-@ playing game combat was too " tedious " . Although the game features three @-@ dimensional characters , battle sequences were purposefully restricted to a two @-@ dimensional plane to allow the developers to create large monsters without fear of them obstructing the player 's view of the action . Character animation was handled by Yosuke Kadowaki , who had previously used the same motion @-@ capture technology on Soulcalibur II . The scenario was written by Koki Matsumoto and Tsuyoshi Tanaka . The main story theme was " bonds " , with the main priority being the overlapping stories of the main cast . Unlike previous Tales games where character art and design was mostly done by Mutsumi Inomata , Tales of Legendia features characters designed by anime illustrator and animator Kazuto Nakazawa , known for his prior work on the animated sequences from the 2003 film Kill Bill Vol . 1 , as well as animated features such as El @-@ Hazard and Nadia : The Secret of Blue Water . Tales of Legendia includes animated cutscenes produced by Japanese studio Production I.G. , and contains more animation than any previous game in the series . = = = Audio = = = Tales of Legendia is the first main series title in the Tales franchise to not feature music by Motoi Sakuraba , with composition duties instead going to Go Shiina . The game features the opening theme song " Tao " performed by J @-@ pop group Do As Infinity , as well as the ending theme " My Tales " performed in English by Donna Burke and Gab Desmond . Incidental vocal songs include " A Firefly 's Light " ( 蛍火 , Hotarubi ) performed in Japanese by Mayumi Sudou , " Hotarubi " , performed in English by Donna Burke , " Let 's Talk " ( お話しましょう , Ohanashi Mashou ) performed by the Suzukake Children 's Choir , and both " The Legendary Sorcerer " ( 伝説の巫術士 , Densetsu no Fujutsushi ) and " The Birds Chirp , I Sing " ( 鳥は鳴き、僕は歌う , Toriba Naki , Boku wa Utau ) both performed by Kanon . In addition , some of the game 's instrumental themes were performed live by the New Japan Philharmonic Orchestra . An official soundtrack was released in Japan in August 2005 by Avex Trax , which includes two discs of select tracks from the game , and a third disc that includes a radio drama featuring members of the game 's voice cast . Two follow @-@ up drama albums called Tales of Legendia ~ Voice of Character Quest ~ ( テイルズオブレジェンディア～ voice of character quest ～ 1 , Teiruzu Obu Rejendia Voice of Character Quest ) were released one year later in August and September 2006 respectively , with the second volume containing an additional 41 tracks not present on the previous official soundtrack release . Music from the game has been featured in video game concerts such as the Eminence Symphony Orchestra 's A Night in Fantasia 2007 in Sydney , Australia , and Press Start -Symphony of Games- 2009 at the Tokyo Metropolitan Art Space . = = Reception = = Tales of Legendia was mostly well received in Japan , earning a 32 out of 40 total score from Weekly Famitsu based on individual reviews of 8 , 8 , 8 , and 8 , as well as an 85 out of 100 average from Dengeki PlayStation magazine based on scores of 80 , 80 , 90 , and 90 . The game would go on to sell 342 @,@ 779 copies in the region by the end of 2005 , becoming the 30th best @-@ selling software title of that year , with a total of 397 @,@ 000 copies sold worldwide by December 2007 . Elsewhere , Tales of Legendia received " mixed or average reviews " according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . While IGN felt that the game 's characterization and " addictive " battle system were its high points , the title was ultimately marred by a " run of the mill " story and " lackluster " battle AI . The website would find that the game 's second half was more enjoyable overall , stating that " Legendia is definitely slanted towards more action @-@ oriented role @-@ players who don 't mind breezing through an easy twenty hours before getting to the real tests of skill , " and although the voice acting was " rather stiff , " the translation was of good quality overall . GameSpot similarly praised the strong cast of characters , and the interactions between them , but complained of excessive random battles and backtracking through locations in the game . 1UP.com praised the game 's story , stating that " despite the predictability of the overall narrative , the details are frequently surprising and consistently entertaining , " and additionally found that the game tended to flaunt convention in its characters : " Yet within this morass of overly familiar plot devices , Legendia tries to rise above its limitations by twisting conventions . The strongest combatants are female , and the burly man who wields a massive hammer plays the role of intellectual and healer . " However , the website criticized the game for its sometimes " frustrating " combat and playing too similarly to past Tales titles , and that it would primarily appeal to longtime fans of the series . In 2012 , 1UP would include Tales of Legendia on its list of " Underwhelming RPGs with Overwhelming Soundtracks , " calling the game one of Go Shiina 's strongest works and " one of the best and most moving RPG soundtracks to date . " The characters Chloe and Senel would rank 8th and 29th respectively in Namco Bandai 's 2nd Top 30 character fan poll in 2005 . Game Informer would also list Jay and Moses on their list of the best characters in the series that same year for " having some of the best banter in any Tales game . "
= Scottish religion in the eighteenth century = Scottish religion in the eighteenth century includes all forms of religious organisation and belief in Scotland in the eighteenth century . This period saw the beginnings of a fragmentation of the Church of Scotland that had been created in the Reformation and established on a fully Presbyterian basis after the Glorious Revolution . These fractures were prompted by issues of government and patronage , but reflected a wider division between the Evangelicals and the Moderate Party . The legal right of lay patrons to present clergymen of their choice to local ecclesiastical livings led to minor schisms from the church . The first in 1733 , known as the First Secession and headed by figures including Ebenezer Erskine , led to the creation of a series of secessionist churches . The second in 1761 led to the foundation of the independent Relief Church . In 1743 the Cameronians established themselves as the Reformed Presbyterian Church , remaining largely separate from religious and political debate . Of independent churches from England that were established in the seventeenth century only the Quakers managed to endure in to the eighteenth century . Baptist chapels were re @-@ established in the middle of the century and , although Scotland initially appeared fertile ground for Methodism , it failed to expand as quickly as elsewhere in the Great Britain and Ireland . A number of minor Scottish sects developed , such as the Bereans , Buchanites , Daleites and Glassites . Episcopalianism had retained supporters through the civil wars and changes of regime in the seventeenth century . Since most Episcopalians gave their support to the Jacobite rebellions in the first half of the early eighteenth century , they suffered a decline in fortunes . The remoteness of the Highlands and the lack of a Gaelic @-@ speaking clergy undermined the missionary efforts of the established church . The later eighteenth century saw some success , owing to the efforts of the SSPCK missionaries and to the disruption of traditional society . Catholicism had been reduced to the fringes of the country , particularly the Gaelic @-@ speaking areas of the Highlands and Islands . Conditions grew worse for Catholics after the Jacobite rebellions and Catholicism was reduced to little more than a poorly run mission . There was Evangelical Revival from the 1730s , reaching its peak at the Cambuslang Wark in 1742 . The movement benefited the secessionist churches who gained recruits . The Kirk had considerable control over the lives of the people , with a major role in the Poor Law and schools and over the morals of the population . Strict Sabbatarianism was vital to Presbyterianism . The sermon was seen as central and the only participation by the congregation the singing of the psalms . Communion was the central occasion of the church , conducted infrequently , at most once a year , often taking a week of festivals as part of a communion season . In the second half of the century there were a series of reforms of church music connected to a choir movement . Episcopalians installed organs and hired musicians , following the practice in English parish churches . Catholic worship was deliberately low key , with musical accompaniment prohibited . = = Church of Scotland = = The religious settlement after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 / 9 adopted the legal forms of 1592 , which instituted a fully Presbyterian kirk , and doctrine based on the 1646 Westminster Confession of Faith . The early eighteenth century saw the growth of " praying societies " , who supplemented the services of the established kirk with communal devotions . These often had the approval of parish ministers and their members were generally drawn from the lower ranks of local society . Their outlook varied but they disliked preaching that simply emphasised the Law or that understood the gospel as a new law neonomianism , or that was mere morality , and sought out a gospel that stressed the Grace of God in the sense set out in the Confession of Faith . They often disliked the role of lay patronage in the kirk . The theological division between neonomian and antineonomian tendencies in the kirk were highlighted by the Marrow Controversy . The Marrow of Modern Divinity was a mid @-@ seventeenth century book with an antineonomian perspective that was reprinted in 1718 and promoted by Thomas Boston ( 1676 – 1732 ) and others . The book was condemned by the General Assembly , giving it widespread publicity . The decision was appealed by 12 " Marrow Men " , but the repudiation was upheld in 1722 and although its supporters were not expelled , they were denied advancement and the controversy continued . There were growing divisions between the Evangelicals and the Moderate Party . While Evangelicals emphasised the authority of the Bible and the traditions and historical documents of the kirk , the Moderates tended to stress intellectualism in theology , the established hierarchy of the kirk and attempted to raise the social status of the clergy . From the 1760s the Moderates gained an ascendancy in the General Assembly of the Church . They were led by the historian William Robertson ( 1721 – 93 ) , who became principal of the University of Edinburgh and then by his successor George Hill ( 1750 – 1819 ) , who was professor at the University of Aberdeen . Evangelical leaders included John Willison ( 1680 – 1750 ) , John McLaurin ( 1693 – 1754 ) and Alexander Webster ( 1707 – 84 ) . The most important figure was John Erskine ( 1721 – 1803 ) , who was minister of Old Greyfriars Church in Edinburgh from 1768 and for 26 years a friend and colleague to Robertson . He was orthodox in doctrine , but sympathised with the Enlightenment and supported reforms in religious practice . A popular preacher , he corresponded with religious leaders in other countries , including New England theologian Johnathan Edwards ( 1703 – 58 ) , whose ideas were a major influence on the movement in Scotland . Judged by the number of books printed in Scotland , Boston was the most popular theological writer in the movement . = = Secession = = The eighteenth century saw the beginnings of a fragmentation of the Church of Scotland that had its foundation in the Reformation . These fractures were prompted by issues of government and patronage , but reflected a wider division between the Evangelicals and the Moderate Party over fears of fanaticism by the former and the acceptance of Enlightenment ideas by the latter . Ecclesiastical patronage , the right of local lairds or other notables to appoint ministers to a parish , had been abolished at the Glorious Revolution , but it was reintroduced in the Patronage Act of 1711 , resulting in frequent protests from the kirk . The First Secession was over the right to appoint in cases where a patron made no effort to fill a vacancy . The result was that a group of four ministers , led by Ebenezer Erskine , the minister of Stirling , formed a distinct " Associate Presbytery " in 1733 , but were not forced from the kirk until 1740 . This movement was initially very small , but was petitioned by the praying societies with requests for preaching , leading to rapid growth . Although its founding ministers were from Perthshire and Fife , the forty congregations they had established by 1740 were widely spread across the country , mainly among the middle classes of major towns . The Secessionists soon split amongst themselves over the issue of the burgess oath , which was administered after the 1745 rebellion as an anti @-@ Jacobite measure , but which implied that the Church of Scotland was the only true church . The " burghers " , led by Erskine , maintained that the oath could be taken , but they were excommunicated by an " anti @-@ burgher " faction , led by Andrew Gibb , who established a separate General Associate Synod . In the 1790s the Seceders became embroiled in the Old and New Light controversy . The " Old Lichts " continued to follow the principles of the Covenanters , while the " New Lichts " were more focused on personal salvation , considered the strictures of the Covenants as less binding and that a connection of the church and the state was not warranted . The second break from the kirk was also prompted by issues of patronage . Minister Thomas Gillespie ( 1708 – 74 ) was deposed by the General Assembly in 1752 after he refused to participate in inducting a minister to the Inverkeithing parish , since the parishioners opposed the appointment . Gillespie was joined by two other ministers and they held the first meeting of the Presbytery of Relief at Colinsburgh in Fife in 1761 . While evangelical in doctrine , the Relief Church did not maintain that it was the only true church , but stated that it was still in communion with the kirk and maintained contact with Episcopalians and Independents . Like the Associate Presbytery , the movement was initially small , but benefited from the Evangelical Revival of the later eighteenth century , which helped it expand rapidly . = = Episcopalianism = = Episcopalianism had retained supporters through the civil wars and regime changes in the seventeenth century . Although the bishops had been abolished in the settlement that followed the Glorious Revolution , becoming " non @-@ jurors " , not subscribing to the right of William and Mary to be monarchs , they continued to consecrate Episcopalian clergy . Many clergy were " outed " from their livings , but the king had issued two acts of indulgence in 1693 and 1695 , allowing those who accepted him as king to retain their livings and around a hundred took advantage of the offer . New " meeting houses " sprang up for those who continued to follow the episcopalian clergy . They generally prospered under Queen Anne and all but the hardened Jacobites would be given toleration in 1712 . Since most Episcopalians gave their support to the Jacobite rebellion in 1715 , they suffered a decline in fortunes . A number of the clergy were deprived and in 1719 all meeting houses where prayers were not offered for King George were closed . In 1720 the last surviving bishop died and another was appointed as " primus " , without any particular episcopal see . After the Jacobite rising of 1745 , there was another round of restrictions under the Toleration Act of 1746 and Penal Act of 1748 , and the number of clergy and congregations declined . The church was sustained by the important nobles and gentlemen in its ranks . This period saw the establishment of Qualified Chapels , where worship was conducted according to the English Book of Common Prayer and where congregations , led by priests ordained by Bishops of the Church of England or the Church of Ireland , were willing to pray for the Hanoverians . Such chapels drew their congregations from English people living in Scotland and from Scottish Episcopalians who were not bound to the Jacobite cause . These two forms of episcopalianism existed side by side until 1788 when the Jacobite claimant Charles Edward Stuart died in exile . Unwilling to recognise his brother Henry Benedict Stuart , who was a cardinal in the Roman Catholic Church , as his heir , the non @-@ juror Episcopalians elected to recognise the House of Hanover and offer allegiance to George III . At the repeal of the penal laws in 1792 there were twenty @-@ four Qualified Chapels in Scotland . = = Cameronians = = The Society People , known after one of their leaders as the Cameronians , who had not accepted the restoration of episcopacy in 1660 , remained outside of the established kirk after the Revolution settlement , refusing to rejoin an " un @-@ Covenanted " kirk . However , most of their remaining ministers re @-@ entered the Church of Scotland . After years of persecution their numbers were few and largely confined to the southwest of the country . In the period 1714 – 43 they had only one minister and were unable to form a presbytery and ordain new clergy . Many joined the Secession Church in order to avoid extinction . In 1743 , having obtained the services of a second minister from the Secession Church , they established themselves as the Reformed Presbyterian Church . Roughly 10 @,@ 000 in number , they remained separate from other denominations and abstained from political involvement , refusing even to vote . = = Independent churches = = In the mid @-@ seventeenth century , the extension of toleration to sectaries under the Commonwealth brought a number of independent movements to Scotland . The only one not to collapse after the withdrawal of the army at the Restoration in 1660 were the Quakers . Their numbers remained small in the eighteenth century and they were largely confined to the large cities and the northwest . Baptist churches had been founded in several towns during the Commonwealth , largely consisting of English soldiers and their families . They lapsed when the English occupation ended and the first Scottish Baptist church is usually thought to be founded at Keiss in 1750 by William Sinclair . Occasionally individual Presbyterian ministers led their congregations out of existing churches and into independent churches , leading to the establishment of isolated churches for groups like the Unitarians . The series of evangelical enterprises undertaken by the brothers James and Robert Haldane in the period 1796 – 1800 , which led to the foundation of Sunday schools , day schools and tabernacles in parts of the Lowlands , Highlands and Islands , helped strengthen the Baptist and Congregational churches when the brothers later embraced adult Baptism and the congregations divided between the two traditions . Scotland appeared to be fertile ground for Methodism in the 1740s and 1750s , when visits from figures such as John Wesley and George Whitfield attracted large audiences of presbyterians . Methodist societies were established in textile and fishing villages , particularly in Shetland , where Methodism was to enjoy its greatest relative popularity . Most members were to be in the large cities , with Glasgow and Airdrie accounting for 43 per cent of all members in 1819 . However , in the 1760s the growth of the movement did not keep pace with that elsewhere in the United Kingdom , with an average annual increase of only 0 @.@ 2 per cent , compared with 5 , nearly 6 and nearly 8 per cent in England , Wales and Ireland respectively . The reasons for the relative failure of Methodism in Scotland have been debated by historians . The Scots preferred an ordained clergy , rather than the lay preachers common elsewhere , and when Wesley granted this concession in 1785 membership doubled in four years , but it was rescinded after this death in 1791 and adherence reduced . The middle classes may also have seen the lay positions in the church as not carrying the same status as did offices like that of elder within the presbyterian churches . Allan MacLaren has argued that the doctrinal Arminianism of Methodism conflicted with the dominant Calvinism of Scotland . The place that Methodism occupied elsewhere in the kingdom may also have been taken by the Secession and Relief churches , the last of which were seen as " Scots Methodists " . = = Minor sects = = As well as the series of secessionist movements , the eighteenth century saw the formation of a number of minor sects . These included the Glasites , formed by Church of Scotland minister John Glas , who was expelled from his parish of Tealing in 1730 for his objections to the state 's intervention in the affairs of the kirk . He advocated a strong form of biblical literalism . With his son @-@ in @-@ law Robert Sandeman , from whose name they are known as the Sandemanians , he founded a number of churches in Scotland and the sect expanded to England and the United States . Closely involved with the Glasites were the followers of industrialist David Dale who broke with the kirk in the 1760s and formed the Old Scotch Independents , sometimes known as the Daleists . He preached a combination of industry and faith that led him to co @-@ found the cotton @-@ mill at New Lanark and to contribute to the Utopian Socialism associated with his son @-@ in @-@ law Robert Owen . The Bereans were formed by John Barclay in Edinburgh in 1773 . Barclay was one of the most prominent followers of moral philosopher Archibald Campbell and espoused a rigorous form of pre @-@ destination and insisted on Biblical @-@ based preaching . Having been rejected from various pastorships and by the General Assembly , he founded independent churches in Scotland and then in England , taking the name Bereans from the people mentioned in Acts 17 : 11 . After Barclay 's death in 1798 his followers joined the congregationalists . The Buchanites were a Millenarian cult that broke away from the Relief Church when Hugh White , minister at Irvine , declared Elspeth Buchan to be a special saint identified with the woman described in Revelation 12 . They attracted less than fifty followers and having been expelled by local magistrates they formed a community at a farm known as New Cample in Nithsdale , Dumfriesshire . The sect collapsed after the death of Buchan in 1791 . Other minor sects include the McMillanites , reported as a group of Covernanters who had separated from kirk discipline in Dumfrisshire in 1721 . Another group in the same area , called the Hebronites , were alleged to have sworn at a minister . The Hebronites were later absorbed into the Secession Church with other Covenanters after 1736 . = = Catholicism = = By the eighteenth century Catholicism had been reduced to the fringes of the country , particularly the Gaelic @-@ speaking areas of the Highlands and Islands . Numbers probably reduced in the seventeenth century and organisation had deteriorated . Pope Innocent X appointed Thomas Nicolson as the first Vicar Apostolic over the mission in 1694 . The country was organised into districts and by 1703 there were thirty @-@ three Catholic clergy . Conditions grew worse for Catholics after the Jacobite rebellions and Catholicism was reduced to little more than a poorly run mission . In 1733 it was divided into two vicariates , one for the Highlands and one for the Lowlands , each under a bishop . There were six attempts to found a seminary in the Highlands between 1732 and 1838 , all of which floundered on financial issues . Clergy entered the country secretly and although services were illegal they were maintained . In 1755 it was estimated that there were only 16 @,@ 500 communicants , mainly in the north and west , although the number is probably an underestimate . By the end of the century this had probably fallen by a quarter due to emigration . The First Relief Act of 1778 , was designed to bring a measure of toleration to Catholics , but a campaign led by Lord George Gordon , that resulted anti @-@ Catholic riots in Scotland , known after him as the Gordon Riots , meant that it was limited to England . The provisions of the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1791 , which allowed freedom of worship for Catholics who took an oath of allegiance , were extended to Scotland in 1793 . In 1799 the Lowland District seminary was transferred to Aquhorthies , near Inverurie in Aberdeenshire , so that it could serve the entire country . It was secretly funded by the government , who were concerned at the scale of emigration by Highland Catholics . = = Protestant missions = = Long after the triumph of the Church of Scotland in the Lowlands , Highlanders and Islanders clung to a form of Christianity infused with animistic folk beliefs and practices . The remoteness of the region and the lack of a Gaelic @-@ speaking clergy undermined missionary efforts . The Scottish Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge ( SSPCK ) was founded by Royal Charter in 1708 . Its aim was partly religious and partly cultural , intending to " wear out " Gaelic and " learn the people the English tongue " . By 1715 it was running 25 schools , by 1755 it was 116 and by 1792 it was 149 , but most were on the edges of the Highlands . The difficulty of promoting Protestantism and English in a Gaelic speaking region , eventually led to a change of policy in the SSPCK and in 1754 it sanctioned the printing of a Bible with Gaelic and English text on facing pages . The government only began to seriously promote Protestantism from 1725 , when it began to make a grant to the General Assembly known as the Royal Bounty . Part of this went towards itinerant ministers , but by 1764 there were only ten . Probably more significant for the spread of Protestantism were the lay catechists , who met the people on the Sabbath , read Scripture , and joined them in Psalms and prayers . They would later be important in the Evangelical revival . = = Evangelical Revival = = From the later 1730s Scotland experienced a version of the Evangelical revival that also affected England and Wales and North America . Protestant congregations , usually in a specific locations , experienced intense " awakenings " of enthusiasm , renewed commitment and , sometimes , rapid expansion . This was first seen at Easter Ross in the Highlands in 1739 and most famously in the Cambuslang Wark ( work ) near Glasgow in 1742 , where intense religious activity culminated in a crowd of perhaps 30 @,@ 000 gathering there to hear English preacher George Whitefield . Scotland was also visited 22 times by John Wesley , the English evangelist and founder of Methodism , between 1751 and 1790 . Most of the new converts were relatively young and from the lower groups in society , such as small tenants , craftsmen , servants and the unskilled , with a relatively high proportion of unmarried women . This has been seen as a reaction against the oligarchical nature of the established kirk , which was dominated by local lairds and heritors . Unlike awakenings elsewhere , the revival in Scotland did not give rise to a major religious movement , but benefited the secession churches . The revival was particularly significant in the Highlands , where the lack of a clear parochial structure led to a pattern of spiritual enthusiasm , recession and renewal , often instigated by lay catechists , known as " the Men " , who would occasionally emerge as charismatic leaders . The revival left a legacy of strict Sabbatarianism and local identity . From the late eighteenth century Scotland gained many of the organisations associated with the revival in England , including Sunday schools , mission schools , ragged schools , Bible societies and improvement classes . Because the revival occurred at the same time as the transformation of the Highlands into a crofting society , Evangelicalism was often linked to popular protest against patronage and the clearances , while the Moderates became identified with the interests of the landholding classes . It laid the ground for the Great Disruption in the mid @-@ nineteenth century , leading to the Evangelicals taking control of the General Assembly and those in the Highlands joining the Free Church of Scotland in large numbers . = = Popular religion = = At the beginning of the century , the kirk had considerable control over the lives of the people . It had a major role in the Poor Law and schools , which were administered through the parishes , and over the morals of the population , particularly over sexual offences such as adultery and fornication . A rebuke was necessary for moral offenders to " purge their scandal " . This involved standing or sitting before the congregation for up to three Sundays and enduring a rant by the minister . There was sometimes a special repentance stool near the pulpit for this purpose . In a few places the subject was expected to wear sackcloth . From the 1770s kirk session increasingly administered private rebukes , particularly for men from the social elites , while until the 1820s the poor were almost always give a public rebuke . In the early part of the century the kirk , particularly in the Lowlands , attempted to suppress dancing and events like penny weddings at which secular tunes were played . The oppression of secular music and dancing by the kirk began to ease between about 1715 and 1725 . Strict Sabbatarianism was vital to Presbyterian culture . For members of separatist churches , the Sunday walk to the meeting house , sometimes as much as thirty miles , marked the intensity of dissent and strict keeping of the Sabbath was a mark of true membership . Fast days were also important , particularly in Seeder culture . They often did not involve actual fasting , but focused on stricter observance of the Sabbath . The established kirk had three a year , but the seeders as many as six . In Presbyterian worship the sermon , which could be several hours long , was seen as central , meaning that services tended to have a didactic and wordy character . There were also Bible readings and the only participation by the congregation was musical , in the singing of the psalms . From the late seventeenth century the common practice was lining out , by which the precentor sang or read out each line and it was then repeated by the congregation . From the second quarter of the eighteenth century it was argued that this should be abandoned in favour of the practice of singing stanza by stanza . These innovations became linked to a choir movement that included the setting up of schools to teach new tunes and singing in four parts . Among Presbyterians , communion was the central occasion of the church , conducted infrequently , at most once a year , often taking a week of festivals as part of a communion season . Communicants were examined by a minister and elders , proving their knowledge of the Shorter Catechism . They were then given communion tokens that entitled them to take part in the ceremony . Long tables were set up in the middle of the church at which communicants sat to receive communion . Where ministers refused or neglected parish communion , largely assemblies were carried out in the open air , often combining several parishes . These large gatherings were discouraged by the General Assembly , but continued . They could become mixed with secular activities and were commemorated as such by Robert Burns in the poem Holy Fair . They could also be occasions for evangelical meetings , as at the Cambuslang Wark . Among Episcopalians , Qualified Chapels used the English Book of Common Prayer . They installed organs and hired musicians , following the practice in English parish churches , singing in the liturgy as well as metrical psalms , while the non @-@ jurors had to worship covertly and less elaborately . When the two branches united in the 1790s , the non @-@ juring branch soon absorbed the musical and liturgical traditions of the qualified churches . Catholic worship was deliberately low key , usually in the private houses of recusant landholders or in domestic buildings adapted for services . Surviving chapels from this period are generally austere and simply furnished . Typical worship consisted of a sermon , long vernacular prayers and an unsung Low Mass in Latin . Musical accompaniment was prohibited until the nineteenth century , when organs began to be introduced into chapels .
= Modern Benoni = The Modern Benoni is a chess opening that begins with the moves 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 c5 3.d5 e6 . It is classified under the ECO codes A60 – A79 . After the initial moves , Black proceeds to capture on d5 , creating a majority of black pawns on the queenside . To support their advance , the king 's bishop is usually fianchettoed on g7 . These two features differentiate Black 's setup from the other Benoni defences and the King 's Indian Defence , although transpositions between these openings are common . Frank Marshall invented the Modern Benoni in 1927 , but his experiments with the opening went largely ignored for over 20 years . In the 1950s the system was revitalized by players in the Soviet Union , chief among them Mikhail Tal . Its subsequent adoption by players of a similarly aggressive and uncompromising style such as Bobby Fischer and Garry Kasparov established the opening 's reputation as one of Black 's most dynamic responses to 1.d4. The Modern Benoni suffered a serious theoretical crisis in the 1980s and 1990s , when players as Black encountered great difficulties in meeting the Taimanov Attack and the Modern Main Line . Only in the 21st century has the opening 's reputation and theoretical standing made a recovery . Notably , it was Vladimir Kramnik 's choice when he needed a win with Black in the penultimate game of the 2004 World Championship . = = Initial moves = = The standard move order for Black to enter the Modern Benoni is 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 c5 . Here it is possible for White to avoid 3.d5 : respectable alternatives include 3.Nf3 , typically transposing to a line of the English Opening , as well as 3.e3. Taking the pawn with 3.dxc5 is hardly ever seen , because Black easily recovers it after 3 ... e6 followed by ... Bxc5 . Still , 3.d5 has long been considered White 's most challenging move , as it gains space in the centre . While it is possible for Black to avoid ... e7 @-@ e6 for the time being and play other moves such as 3 ... d6 or 3 ... g6 , delaying this move until after White plays e2 @-@ e4 gives White the extra option of recapturing on d5 with the e @-@ pawn . While recapturing in this fashion does not give White a central pawn majority , it maintains White 's spatial advantage and denies Black the counterplay associated with possession of a queenside pawn majority . Thus players who are seeking the typical imbalance in pawn structure associated with the Modern Benoni tend to prefer the immediate 3 ... e6 followed by 4 ... exd5 . = = Alternative move orders and transpositions = = It is possible , indeed common , for Black 's second and third moves to be reversed : thus 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 c5 and 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nf3 c5 will both transpose into the Modern Benoni if White allows it with 4.d5. The latter move order has been especially popular since the 1980s , as it allows Black to reach the Modern Benoni while sidestepping the Taimanov Attack . It also gives Black the additional option of meeting 4.d5 with 4 ... b5 , the Blumenfeld Gambit . Players who use this move order will often choose a different defence against 3.Nc3 , such as the Nimzo @-@ Indian with 3 ... Bb4 . Another frequent transposition into the Modern Benoni occurs when White invites a Catalan Opening with 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.g3 and Black responds with 3 ... c5 . If White responds with 4.d5 exd5 5.cxd5 , Black can play 5 ... d6 , which often transposes into the Fianchetto Variation ; but a common alternative is 5 ... b5 , which leads to independent positions . Black can also try to reach the Modern Benoni through a Benoni Defence move order , i.e. 1.d4 c5 2.d5 Nf6 , when 3.c4 e6 would complete the transposition . However , White often prefers not to play 3.c4 , since it takes away a useful square from a white knight . Several lines of the King 's Indian Defence , such as the Four Pawns Attack , the Sämisch Variation and the Fianchetto Variation , can also transpose into variations of the Modern Benoni if Black plays ... c5 followed by ... e6 and ... exd5 and White recaptures with the c @-@ pawn . = = History = = The Modern Benoni was invented by Frank Marshall at the New York 1927 chess tournament . He played it twice , gaining a draw against José Raúl Capablanca in the Fianchetto Variation , but losing soundly to Aron Nimzowitsch , who played the Knight 's Tour . Nimzowitsch received the third special prize of the tournament for this game and labelled Marshall 's opening an " unfortunate " " extravagance " in his annotations ; as a result , it lay virtually abandoned for decades . However , Karel Hromádka 's experiments with the Benoni Defence in the 1930s occasionally featured the moves ... e7 @-@ e6 and ... exd5 , resulting in a transposition to the Modern Benoni . Only in the 1950s was interest in the system revived , when the King 's Indian Defence gained in popularity among Soviet players and their investigations branched into related opening systems such as the Modern Benoni . The imbalance inherent in its pawn structure and the counter @-@ chances this implied for Black appealed to aggressive players such as Rashid Nezhmetdinov and Alexander Tolush ; the Israeli master Moshe Czerniak also employed it frequently . Lev Polugaevsky , Boris Spassky and Alexey Suetin were among the younger generation of Soviet players who used it regularly in the 1950s and 1960s . But the player primarily responsible for elevating the Modern Benoni to the status of a major opening was Mikhail Tal , who took up the opening in 1953 after seeing one of Nezhmetdinov 's games . The tactical positions it led to were a perfect fit for Tal 's combinatorial gifts and he crushed many opponents in brilliant style . Famous examples include his game against Bukhuti Gurgenidze at the 1957 USSR championship , excerpted below , and his win against Yuri Averbakh at the same tournament the following year . He also became the first player to use the Modern Benoni in a world championship match , playing it twice against Mikhail Botvinnik in 1960 . Former World Champion and opening authority Max Euwe acknowledged Tal 's contribution to the opening by naming it the " Tal @-@ System " in his 1965 opening encyclopedia . These developments did not go unnoticed outside the Soviet Union : the name " Modern Benoni " had appeared in print by 1956 . In the 1960s Larry Evans began employing the system frequently , and from 1966 onwards , Bobby Fischer also included it in his repertoire , albeit as a secondary weapon . Even so , Fischer was responsible for one of the most famous games ever played with the opening : down 2 – 0 in the 1972 World Championship match , he answered Spassky 's 1.d4 with the Modern Benoni in Game 3 and scored a momentum @-@ changing victory . The successes of Tal and Fischer inspired a new generation of players to take up the Modern Benoni in the 1970s and 1980s , including Walter Browne , Ljubomir Ljubojević , John Nunn , Dragoljub Velimirović , Lev Psakhis , Mihai Suba and Nick de Firmian . The young Garry Kasparov also had the defence in his arsenal — his win against Viktor Korchnoi at the 1982 Lucerne Olympiad was considered the highlight of the tournament and remains one of the most famous games ever played in the opening . It became a favoured weapon for players needing to win against 1.d4 : for example , Psakhis used it to defeat Yuri Razuvaev in the penultimate round of the 1980 USSR Championship , catching Alexander Beliavsky in the lead and ultimately sharing first place with him . But in the early 1980s , White scored several crushing victories at high @-@ profile tournaments using the aggressive Taimanov Attack , which caused players to question the fundamental soundness of Black 's opening . By the end of the decade , the Modern Main Line had also emerged as a dangerous weapon for White , which only compounded Black 's troubles . As a result , the opening declined in popularity and a number of grandmasters gave it up altogether . Those who continued to play it often chose to do so via the move order 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nf3 c5 4.d5 , when White 's early development of the knight to f3 rules out the Taimanov Attack and gives Black opportunities to avoid the Modern Main Line . Mired in this theoretical crisis , the Modern Benoni remained unpopular in the 1990s . Veselin Topalov was the only top @-@ level player to play it regularly , and he too generally preferred the 2 ... e6 3.Nf3 c5 move order . At the beginning of the new millennium , the theoretician John Watson published a well @-@ regarded survey of the opening that may have contributed to the opening 's revival . Many of the ideas he recommended , such as 9 ... Qh4 + versus the Taimanov Attack and 9 ... Nh5 in the Modern Main Line , grew in popularity after its publication . The opening regained some more of its former respectability when Vladimir Kramnik , needing a win with Black against Peter Leko , played it in the second last game of the 2004 World Championship . While he did achieve a winning position at one point , the game ended in a draw . Nevertheless , Étienne Bacrot , Boris Gelfand and Vassily Ivanchuk have all since used the Modern Benoni at the highest levels of competition , while Vugar Gashimov became the opening 's most notable proponent . He was the strongest player willing to use the original 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 c5 3.d5 e6 move order and defend Black 's cause in both the Taimanov Attack and the Modern Main Line . = = Strategy = = The Modern Benoni is one of Black 's sharpest and most active defences against 1.d4. The exchange of White 's c @-@ pawn for Black 's e @-@ pawn leaves White with a pawn majority in the centre and Black with one on the queenside . This asymmetry suggests that White will try to play on the kingside and in the centre , while Black will seek counterplay on the queenside . However , this simplistic generalization does not hold in many cases — depending on how the pieces are arranged , either side may be able to fight back on the flank where they are theoretically weaker . The creation of such a pronounced structural imbalance so early on in the game implies that Black aims to counterattack rather than equalize . Thus the opening has acquired a reputation for being risky : as Psakhis once wrote , the Modern Benoni " is definitely not an opening for cowards . " Since White 's central superiority typically constitutes a positional advantage , Black must frequently resort to tactical play and material sacrifices in order not to be forced into passivity . = = = Black 's queenside play = = = The game Donner – Tal , Zurich 1959 , was a classic demonstration of the power of Black 's queenside pawn advance , backed up by the bishop on g7 . After Black 's 20 ... Qb4 ! White was unable to exchange queens , as 21.Qxb4 cxb4 22.Nd1 Nc5 would fork the pawns on a4 and e4 . However , the actual game did not last long after Donner 's 21.Qf1 : Tal set his pawns in motion with 21 ... c4 22.Re2 b5 23.axb5 axb5 24.Kh1 , created a passed c @-@ pawn with 24 ... Bxc3 ! 25.bxc3 Qxc3 26.Rxb5 Qd3 27.Qe1 c3 28.Rb1 , and forced Donner 's resignation with 28 ... Nc5 ! when White could neither save his e @-@ pawn nor stop Black 's c @-@ pawn from queening . According to Donner , while he spent over two hours on the game , Tal used only fifteen minutes . = = = White 's kingside play = = = The central pawn majority is White 's main positional trump in the Modern Benoni . By staking out an advantage in space on the kingside , it allows White to develop an initiative on that side of the board . The most important tool in White 's arsenal is the e4 @-@ e5 pawn advance , which can open up lines and squares for the white pieces , and result in the creation of a passed d @-@ pawn if Black answers with ... dxe5 . A famous example of the e4 @-@ e5 break leading to a kingside attack occurred in the game Penrose – Tal from the 1960 Leipzig Olympiad . Following 19.e5 ! dxe5 20.f5 ! Bb7 21.Rad1 Ba8 22.Nce4 White had managed to install a powerful knight on e4 , while Black 's pieces were hemmed in by the pawn on e5 . Penrose soon crashed through on the f @-@ file and scored a stunning upset over the reigning world champion . Other classic examples of this central breakthrough include Ojanen – Keres , Estonia – Finland match , Helsinki 1960 and Korchnoi – Tal , USSR championship , Yerevan 1962 . = = = Black 's kingside play = = = Black 's half @-@ open e @-@ file grants him a certain degree of influence over the kingside . A rook on e8 puts pressure on White 's e @-@ pawn and restrains it from advancing . Tactics involving ... Nxe4 are not uncommon — the games Averbakh – Tal , USSR championship , Riga 1958 , and Uhlmann – Fischer , Interzonal , Palma de Mallorca 1970 , are well @-@ known examples . Black can initiate further kingside activity by playing ... Nd7 @-@ e5 followed by ... g7 @-@ g5 . The pawn move prevents White from driving away the knight with f2 @-@ f4 , and sets up the possibility of Black bringing a knight on f4 via g6 or h5 . Further space @-@ gaining pawn advances such as ... g5 @-@ g4 and ... f7 @-@ f5 may even be possible . En route to winning his first USSR championship , Tal provided a brilliant example of how Black 's dark @-@ square control could lead to a kingside attack . Against Gurgenidze at the 1957 championship in Moscow , he unleashed the double sacrifice 14 ... Nxf2 ! ! 15.Kxf2 Qh4 + 16.Kf1 ( 16.g3 ? Bd4 + 17.Kg2 Qxh3 + 18.Kf3 Bg4 + 19.Kf4 g5 + 20.Kxg5 Be3 + 21.Kf6 Qh6 mate ) Bd4 17.Nd1 Qxh3 ! with the point that 18.gxh3 Bxh3 is mate . After 18.Bf3 Qh2 19.Ne3 f5 ! 20.Ndc4 fxe4 21.Bxe4 Ba6 ! White was unable to defend against Black 's threats of 22 ... Rxe4 23.Qxe4 Re8 24.Qc2 Nxd5 and 22 ... Bxc4 + 23.Nxc4 Rf8 + 24 . Bf3 Rxf3 + . Gurgenidze resigned the game after move 27 , which put Tal into the tournament lead with three rounds remaining . = = = White 's queenside play = = = When Black prepares the ... b7 @-@ b5 pawn break with ... a6 , White usually tries to hinder it by playing a2 @-@ a4 , even though this advance weakens the b4 @-@ square . As a further deterrent to Black 's queenside expansion , White often moves the knight on f3 to c4 via d2 . With the knight on c4 , Black 's ... b7 @-@ b5 break may be met by axb5 followed by Na5 , when the arrival of a white knight on c6 could severely disrupt Black 's position . The knight on c4 also attacks Black 's backward pawn on d6 , and White can often increase the pressure on this pawn by playing Bf4 or Nb5 . The strength of White 's knight on c4 often induces Black to exchange it off : typical ways of doing so are ... Nb6 , ... Ne5 , or ... b7 @-@ b6 followed by ... Ba6 . Even if Black should succeed in enforcing the ... b7 @-@ b5 break , White may halt the b @-@ pawn 's further advance by simply playing b2 @-@ b4 . Even though this would give Black the opportunity to establish a passed c @-@ pawn with ... c5 @-@ c4 , blockading the queenside in this manner may allow White to pursue play in the centre and on the kingside undisturbed . The ... c5 @-@ c4 advance would also relinquish Black 's control over the d4 @-@ square , which may be occupied to good effect by a white knight or bishop . A successful demonstration of this last idea occurred in the game Pintér – Brynell at the 1998 Elista Olympiad . White answered Black 's 21 ... b5 with 22.b4 ! , and Black was unable to keep the queenside open with 22 ... bxa4 ? because 23.bxc5 Rxb1 24.Rxb1 dxc5 25.Bxc5 would have left White 's central pawns unstoppable . After the game 's 22 ... c4 23.a5 ! Qe7 24.Bd4 Black 's queenside play had ground to a halt ; Pintér later won with a pawn advance on the kingside . = = Variations = = After the initial moves 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 c5 3.d5 e6 , the moves 4.Nf3 and 4.g3 reach positions discussed previously , while 4.dxe6 fxe6 is also ineffective , since Black gains a half @-@ open f @-@ file and the chance to take over the centre with ... d7 @-@ d5 . Instead White 's most popular move is 4.Nc3 , preparing to support the d @-@ pawn with 5.e4. As mentioned above , were Black to delay the capture on d5 , White would then gain the option of recapturing with the e @-@ pawn . Thus Black generally plays 4 ... exd5 immediately . Following the recapture 5.cxd5 , Black has an eccentric option in 5 ... Bd6 , the Snake Benoni . But most players prefer 5 ... d6 , which stops White 's d @-@ pawn from advancing to d6 . Black 's control over the central dark squares d4 and e5 will then be augmented by fianchettoing the bishop on g7 . Meanwhile , White must decide whether or not to play 6.e4. Although this move gains space in the centre , it also gives Black a target of attack on the half @-@ open e @-@ file . White can deny Black this target for the time being by playing 6.Nf3 first . = = = 4.Nc3 exd5 5.cxd5 d6 6.e4 g6 = = = The most critical lines in the Modern Benoni occur after 6.e4 g6 . At this point 7.Nf3 has historically been White 's most popular move , intending to complete kingside development and castle . Here theory divides into three major branches : 7 ... Bg7 8.Be2 0 @-@ 0 9 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 , the Classical Main Line ; 7 ... Bg7 8.h3 0 @-@ 0 9.Bd3 , the Modern Main Line ; and 7 ... a6 , an attempt by Black to avoid the Modern Main Line . Apart from 7.Nf3 , White also has several important alternatives , including : 7.f4 , which leads to the Taimanov Attack , Four Pawns Attack , or Mikenas Attack ; 7.Bd3 , which often leads to the Knaak Variation but may also transpose to the Modern Main Line ; 7.h3 , which is yet another way for White to reach the Modern Main Line after 7 ... Bg7 8.Nf3 0 @-@ 0 9.Bd3 ; 7.f3 , the Kapengut Variation ; and 7.Nge2 , which was recommended for White in 2012 by Lars Schandorff . The idea is to develop with Ng3 , Be2 and 0 @-@ 0 . = = = = 7.Nf3 Bg7 8.Be2 0 @-@ 0 9 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 : Classical Main Line = = = = Before the advent of the Taimanov Attack and the Modern Main Line , the sequence 7.Nf3 Bg7 8.Be2 0 @-@ 0 9 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 was the most frequently contested line in the Modern Benoni . Here Black has a choice between three main plans . Two of them begin with 9 ... Re8 , attacking the e @-@ pawn . After 10.Nd2 , Black 's most dynamic plan is to prepare kingside play with 10 ... Nbd7 followed by ... Ne5 and ... g6 @-@ g5 . This plan became popular in the 1970s after Fischer used it , and although it is riskier than the alternatives , it remains Black 's best option to complicate the game . Alternatively , Black can try the older move 10 ... Na6 , intending to bring the knight to c7 to prepare the ... b7 @-@ b5 break . White most commonly responds with Gligorić 's 11.f3 Nc7 12.a4 , which clamps down on b5 and overprotects e4 so that White can follow up with Nc4 . Black 's position remains solid but offers fewer active possibilities than after 10 ... Nbd7 . At the 1973 Madrid international tournament Ljubojević demonstrated what is now considered to be Black 's most reliable path to equality . Against Silvino Garcia Martinez he played 9 ... a6 10.a4 Bg4 11.Bf4 Bxf3 12.Bxf3 and now the innovation 12 ... Qe7 ! which prepares ... Nbd7 while keeping the pawn on d6 defended . The exchange of Black 's bishop for White 's knight eases Black 's slightly cramped position and weakens the force of White 's e4 @-@ e5 break . = = = = 7.Nf3 Bg7 8.h3 0 @-@ 0 9.Bd3 : Modern Main Line = = = = By the late 1980s Ljubojević 's plan of exchanging the light @-@ squared bishop had been proven so reliable it was deterring White from entering the Classical Main Line altogether . The desire to prevent ... Bg4 led to the development of the Modern Main Line , 7.Nf3 Bg7 8.h3 0 @-@ 0 9.Bd3. If Black continues in the same manner as in the Classical Main Line , e.g. 9 ... a6 10.a4 Nbd7 11 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Re8 , then White appears to maintain an advantage with 12.Bf4. Originally it was thought that the temporary pawn sacrifice 9 ... b5 was an easy equalizer : after 10.Nxb5 Nxe4 ? ! 11.Bxe4 Re8 Black seemingly regains the sacrificed piece without trouble . But in Alburt – de Firmian , USA ch 1990 , White uncorked 12.Ng5 ! and went on to win : this move was judged the most important theoretical novelty in Volume 50 of Chess Informant . Only later was it discovered that the immediate 10 ... Re8 is a better way of recovering the pawn , with a complicated game in the offing . The other capture 10.Bxb5 has been subjected to extensive analysis and testing , which has led to the conclusion that the sequence 10 ... Nxe4 11.Nxe4 Qa5 + 12.Nfd2 Qxb5 13.Nxd6 Qa6 14.N2c4 Nd7 15 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 is more or less forced . In the resulting positions Black has found it difficult to generate any winning chances , and even finding equality has not been a simple task . The fact that one must know a lot of theory just to secure a draw has rendered the entire variation beginning with 9 ... b5 rather unattractive from Black 's point of view , even though it appears to be objectively the best move . Thus Black has sought other methods of combating the Modern Main Line . The sharp variation 9 ... Re8 10 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 c4 received significant attention in the mid @-@ 1990s , but after 11.Bxc4 Nxe4 12.Nxe4 Rxe4 13.Bg5 Black has yet to demonstrate clear equality . In 2001 John Watson published a detailed analysis of 9 ... Nh5 , which stops White from playing Bc1 @-@ f4 and allows Black to follow up with ... Nd7 @-@ e5 . While it is also unclear whether this move ultimately equalizes , at least Black retains significant counterplay . = = = = 7.Nf3 a6 : Black avoids the Modern Main Line = = = = White 's success with the Modern Main Line has spurred Black to search for ways to get in ... Bg4 before White stops it with h2 @-@ h3 . After 7.Nf3 , the immediate 7 ... Bg4 ? runs into 8.Qa4 + ! , when 8 ... Bd7 9.Qb3 or 8 ... Nbd7 ? 9.Nd2 ! threatening 10.f3 both give White the advantage . So Black first plays 7 ... a6 threatening 8 ... b5 . Only after 8.a4 does Black play 8 ... Bg4 , when a transposition to the Classical Main Line is likely : 9.Be2 Bxf3 10.Bxf3 Bg7 11 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 0 @-@ 0 12.Bf4 Qe7 is Ljubojević 's line , for example . Instead White may try to exploit Black 's early ... Bg4 with 9.Qb3 , but after 9 ... Bxf3 10.Qxb7 Black can either maintain material and positional equality with 10 ... Bxg2 or try for more with 10 ... Nbd7 ! ? . To cut across Black 's idea of ... Bg4 , White has even resorted to 8.h3 allowing 8 ... b5 , but after 9.Bd3 Bg7 10 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 0 @-@ 0 Black obtains an acceptable position . If White has entered the Benoni through the standard move order ( 4.Nc3 exd5 5.cxd5 d6 6.e4 g6 ) , White can dodge such sidelines by avoiding the immediate 7.Nf3 and starting with 7.Bd3 or 7.h3 instead : the latter two moves leave Black little choice but to enter the Modern Main Line after 7 ... Bg7 and 8 ... 0 @-@ 0 . = = = = 7.f4 : Taimanov Attack and other lines = = = = With 7.f4 White stakes out even more space in the centre and threatens to overrun Black 's position with a quick e4 @-@ e5 . After 7 ... Bg7 White can transpose to the main line of the Four Pawns Attack in the King 's Indian Defence with 8.Nf3 0 @-@ 0 9.Be2. A rarer option is 8.e5 , the Mikenas Attack , against which Black can equalize with either 8 ... Nfd7 or the rarer 8 ... dxe5 9.fxe5 Nfd7 . By far the most popular continuation for White is 8.Bb5 + , the Taimanov Attack . Analyzed by Mark Taimanov in 1956 , the strength of this variation was not fully appreciated until the early 1980s . The point of the check is that both 8 ... Bd7 and 8 ... Nbd7 allow 9.e5 with advantage to White , since the knight on f6 can no longer retreat to d7 . After the strongest move 8 ... Nfd7 the most popular move used to be 9.Bd3 , preparing to meet 9 ... a6 with 10.a4. But in two crushing and high @-@ profile victories with White ( against Frans Andre Cuijpers at the 1980 World Junior Chess Championship in Dortmund , and against Nunn at the 1982 Olympiad in Lucerne ) Kasparov showed that 9.a4 was more dangerous for Black , it having the advantage of not determining the bishop 's retreat square for the time being . White 's success with this idea led some to question the soundness of the Modern Benoni , at least in its original move order . In 1982 , Nunn concluded his analysis of the Taimanov with the words , " Black badly needs a new idea against 8.Bb5 + and 9.a4 to keep the Benoni in business " ; two years later , he had given up the opening altogether . Other players such as Psakhis resorted to using the move order 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 , only playing 3 ... c5 in response to 3.Nf3 to avoid the Taimanov , while choosing an entirely different opening against 3.Nc3. The damage this variation did to the opening 's reputation led David Norwood to rechristen it the " Flick @-@ Knife Attack . " Not until the 21st century did players and analysts begin to revive Black 's chances in this line . First , Watson showed that the disruptive check 9 ... Qh4 + was playable , the point being that after 10.g3 White is no longer able to bring the bishop on c1 to the squares g3 or h4 , where it can assist in White 's kingside attack . Later players such as Gashimov showed that the queen check is not mandatory , and that Black also retains good chances in the line 9 ... 0 @-@ 0 10.Nf3 Na6 11 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Nb4 , taking advantage of the outpost on b4 . = = = = 7.Bd3 : Knaak Variation = = = = The move 7.Bd3 is sometimes used by White to enter the Modern Main Line after 7 ... Bg7 8.h3 without allowing Black 's attempts to play an early ... Bg4 . It is also the prelude to a variation championed by Rainer Knaak , 7 ... Bg7 8.Nge2 0 @-@ 0 9 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 . White 's plan is to play for a kingside attack beginning with the moves Ng3 , f2 @-@ f4 , and then either e4 @-@ e5 or f4 @-@ f5 . A famous demonstration of White 's kingside attack was the game Penrose – Tal , Leipzig ol 1960 . However , the development of the knight to e2 rules out the Nf3 @-@ d2 @-@ c4 manoeuvre , so Black is able to get quick counterplay on the queenside with ideas like ... c5 @-@ c4 followed by ... Nd7 @-@ c5 . = = = = 7.f3 : Kapengut Variation = = = = In 1996 Albert Kapengut published a dense analysis of the move 7.f3 , which now bears his name . Kapengut himself gave it the name " Half @-@ Sämisch Variation " , because the positions it leads to are often reached via transposition from the Sämisch Variation of the King 's Indian Defence . The pawn on f3 overprotects e4 and prevents ... Ng4 , so that White can continue 7 ... Bg7 8.Bg5 and retreat the bishop to e3 after ... h7 @-@ h6 without it being further harassed by Black 's knight . Notable past practitioners of this line have included Viktor Korchnoi and Murray Chandler . = = = 4.Nc3 exd5 5.cxd5 d6 6.Nf3 g6 = = = This position arises particularly frequently through the transposition 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nf3 c5 4.d5 exd5 5.cxd5 d6 6.Nc3 g6 . At this point White can still transpose to the Classical or Modern Main Lines after 7.e4. Other common alternatives are : 7.g3 , the Fianchetto Variation ; 7.Nd2 , the Knight 's Tour Variation ; 7.Bf4 ; 7.Bg5 , the Uhlmann Variation ; and 7.h3 , which is yet another attempt for White to enter the Modern Main Line without allowing an early ... Bg4 . But in this move order Black can also prevent the transposition with 7 ... a6 ( the immediate 7 ... Qe7 ? 8.e4 Nxe4 ? ? loses the knight to 9.Qa4 + ) 8.a4 Qe7 , which stops White from playing e2 @-@ e4 . = = = = 7.g3 : Fianchetto Variation = = = = The Fianchetto Variation has never been considered particularly dangerous for Black to meet , since White 's setup does not put Black 's position under immediate pressure . However , it also offers Black no obvious target to attack — the fianchettoed bishop covers e4 and d5 and also protects White 's king . Since the same bishop no longer covers the a6 @-@ f1 diagonal , White typically plays Nf3 @-@ d2 @-@ c4 to help defend against Black 's queenside expansion . After further preparatory moves such as Bf4 and Re1 , White may be able to push forward in the centre with e2 @-@ e4 @-@ e5 . Noted proponents of the Fianchetto Variation have included strong positional players such as Viktor Korchnoi , Gennadi Sosonko and Predrag Nikolić , and after a recommendation by the influential theorist Boris Avrukh in 2010 , the line has become more topical . Play typically proceeds 7.g3 Bg7 8.Bg2 0 @-@ 0 9 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 , and now the most common continuation sees Black developing in standard Benoni fashion while White manoeuvres the king 's knight to c4 , i.e. 9 ... a6 10.a4 Nbd7 11.Nd2 Re8 12.h3 Rb8 13.Nc4. Here Black can challenge White 's knight with either 13 ... Ne5 or 13 ... Nb6 . White may also try to develop more quickly with 11.Bf4 in order to strengthen the threat of e2 @-@ e4 @-@ e5 . The idea of an early Bf4 is also effective in other variations such as 9 ... Re8 10.Bf4. Black too can deviate : for example , the idea of playing for ... b7 @-@ b5 after 9 ... Na6 10.Nd2 Nc7 is frequently seen . The Fianchetto Variation is often reached via transposition from other openings . For instance , the position in the diagram can be reached from the King 's Indian via 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 g6 3.g3 Bg7 4.Bg2 c5 5.d5 d6 6.Nc3 0 @-@ 0 7.Nf3 e6 8 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 exd5 9.cxd5 , or from the Catalan via 1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.g3 c5 4.d5 exd5 5.cxd5 d6 6.Nc3 g6 7.Bg2 Bg7 8.Nf3 0 @-@ 0 9 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 . = = = = 7.Nd2 : Knight 's Tour Variation = = = = The Knight 's Tour Variation 7.Nd2 immediately sends the knight towards c4 , where it attacks the d @-@ pawn ; the pressure on it can be increased with moves like Bf4 . Black can counter this plan with 7 ... Nbd7 intending 8.Nc4 Nb6 , while 8.e4 Bg7 9.Be2 0 @-@ 0 10 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 would lead to a major variation of the Classical Main Line after 10 ... Re8 , with White having avoided Black 's alternative plan of ... Bg4 . Black is not obliged to allow this transposition though : 7 ... Bg7 is also playable . After 8.e4 0 @-@ 0 9.Be2 , Black has alternatives to 9 ... Re8 , such as the 9 ... Na6 10 @.@ 0 @-@ 0 Ne8 Kramnik played against Leko at the 2004 World Championship . And if White carries out his original intention with 8.Nc4 0 @-@ 0 9.Bf4 , Black can either defend the pawn with 9 ... Ne8 or sacrifice it with 9 ... Na6 or 9 ... b6 . = = = = 7.Bf4 = = = = The move 7.Bf4 is similar in spirit to 7.Nd2 , in that White hopes to inconvenience Black by a quick attack on d6 . After 7 ... Bg7 8.Qa4 + ! Bd7 9.Qb3 White attacks both b7 and d6 , and Black must be careful not to drift into a passive position after 9 ... Qc7 10.e4 0 @-@ 0 . More commonly Black prefers to rule out White 's queen check with 7 ... a6 , which incidentally threatens to expand on the queenside . White can ignore this with 8.e4 b5 9.Qe2 , aiming to quickly overrun Black in the centre with the e4 @-@ e5 advance . However , 8.a4 Bg7 is the most popular continuation , when White can aim for a transposition to the Classical Main Line with 9.e4. Another possibility is 9.h3 0 @-@ 0 10.e3 , which gives the bishop a retreat square in case of ... Nh5 and delays further expansion in the centre until the White 's development is complete . Although a number of opening books recommended the 7.Bf4 variation for White in the early 21st century , Black appears to be able to maintain the balance in this line . = = = = 7.Bg5 : Uhlmann Variation = = = = The variation with 7.Bg5 is named after Wolfgang Uhlmann , who played it a few times in the 1960s . Botvinnik also employed it in his 1960 world championship match against Tal . By pinning the knight , White aims to transpose into favourable lines of the Averbakh Variation of the King 's Indian Defence , which may occur after 7 ... 0 @-@ 0 8.Nd2 ! . To prevent this , Black can either break the pin immediately with 7 ... h6 8.Bh4 g5 9.Bg3 Nh5 , or after developing with 7 ... Bg7 8.e4 h6 9.Bh4. At this point 9 ... g5 10.Bg3 Nh5 runs into the pawn sacrifice 11.Bb5 + Kf8 12.e5 ! when White has a dangerous attack , and in the late 1970s this line was even thought to have refuted the Modern Benoni . Later it was realized that Black can prevent the bishop check with 9 ... a6 ! : the only way White can forestall ... g5 and ... Nh5 is with 10.Nd2 , but this allows Black to expand on the queenside with 10 ... b5 and reach a satisfactory position .
= Indiana @-@ class battleship = The three Indiana @-@ class battleships were the first battleships to be built by the United States Navy that were comparable to contemporary European ships , such as the British HMS Hood . Authorized in 1890 and commissioned between November 1895 and April 1896 , they were relatively small battleships with heavy armor and ordnance that pioneered the use of an intermediate battery . Specifically intended for coastal defense , their freeboard was insufficient to deal well with the waves of the open ocean . Their turrets lacked counterweights , and the main belt armor was placed too low to be effective under most conditions . The ships were named Indiana , Massachusetts , and Oregon and were designated Battleship Number 1 through 3 . All three served in the Spanish – American War , although Oregon — which was stationed on the West Coast — had to cruise 14 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 26 @,@ 000 km ; 16 @,@ 000 mi ) around South America to the East Coast first . After the war , Oregon returned to the Pacific and participated in the Philippine – American War and Boxer Rebellion , while her sister ships were restricted to training missions in the Atlantic Ocean . After 1903 , the obsolete battleships were de- and recommissioned several times , the last time during World War I when Indiana and Massachusetts served as training ships , while Oregon was a transport escort for the Siberian Intervention . In 1919 , all three ships were decommissioned for the final time . Indiana was sunk in shallow water as an explosives test target a year later and sold for scrap in 1924 . Massachusetts was scuttled off the coast of Pensacola in 1920 and used as an artillery target . The wreck was never scrapped and is now a Florida Underwater Archaeological Preserve . Oregon was initially preserved as a museum , but was sold for scrap during World War II . The scrapping was later halted and the stripped hulk was used as an ammunition barge during the battle of Guam . The hulk was finally sold for scrap in 1956 . = = Background = = The Indiana class was very controversial at the time of its approval by the United States Congress . A policy board convened by the Secretary of the Navy Benjamin F. Tracy came up with an ambitious 15 @-@ year naval construction program on 16 July 1889 , three years after the Maine and the Texas were authorized . The battleships in their plan would include ten first @-@ rate long @-@ range battleships with a 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) top speed and a steaming radius of 5 @,@ 400 nmi ( 10 @,@ 000 km ; 6 @,@ 200 mi ) at 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) — 6 @,@ 500 nmi ( 12 @,@ 000 km ; 7 @,@ 500 mi ) maximum . These ocean @-@ going ships were envisioned as a possible fleet in being , a fleet capable of raiding an enemy 's home ports and intended to deter powerful warships from ranging too far from home . Twenty @-@ five short @-@ range second @-@ rate battleships would provide home defense in both the Atlantic and Pacific and support the faster and larger long @-@ range vessels . With a range of roughly 2 @,@ 700 nmi ( 5 @,@ 000 km ; 3 @,@ 100 mi ) at 10 knots and a draft of 23 @.@ 5 ft ( 7 @.@ 2 m ) , they would roam from the St. Lawrence River in the north to the Windward Islands and Panama in the south and would be able to enter all of the ports in the southern United States . It was proposed , probably for cost reasons , that the short @-@ range battleships should have a hierarchy of three subclasses . The first would mount four 13 @-@ inch ( 330 mm ) guns each on eight 8 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 8 @,@ 100 t ; 9 @,@ 000 @-@ short @-@ ton ) ships , the second would mount four 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns each on ten 7 @,@ 150 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 7 @,@ 260 t ; 8 @,@ 010 @-@ short @-@ ton ) ships , and the third would mount two 12 @-@ inch and two 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) guns each on five 6 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 6 @,@ 100 t ; 6 @,@ 700 @-@ short @-@ ton ) ships . The two battleships already under construction , Texas and Maine , were to be grouped under the last class . In addition , 167 smaller ships , including rams , cruisers and torpedo boats , would be built , coming to a total cost of $ 281 @.@ 55 million , approximately equal to the sum of the entire US Navy budget during the previous 15 years ( adjusted for inflation , $ 6 @.@ 6 billion in 2009 dollars ) . Congress balked at the plan , seeing in it an end to the United States policy of isolationism and the beginning of imperialism . Even some supporters of naval expansion were wary ; Senator Eugene Hale feared that because the proposal was so large , the entire bill would be shot down and no money appropriated for any ships . However , in April 1890 , the United States House of Representatives approved funding for three 8 @,@ 000 @-@ long ton battleships . Tracy , trying to soothe tensions within Congress , remarked that these ships were so powerful that only twelve would be necessary instead of the 35 called for in the original plan . He also slashed the operating costs of the Navy by giving the remaining Civil War @-@ era monitors — which were utterly obsolete by this time — to navy militias operated by the states . The appropriation was also approved by the Senate , and in total three coast @-@ defense battleships ( the Indiana class ) , a cruiser , and a torpedo boat were given official approval and funding on 30 June 1890 . The first class of short @-@ range ships as envisioned by the policy board were to mount 13 @-@ inch / 35 caliber and new 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) guns , with 17 in ( 432 mm ) of belt armor , 2 @.@ 75 in ( 70 mm ) of deck armor and 4 in ( 102 mm ) of armor over the casemates . The Indiana class , as actually built , exceeded the design in displacement by 25 percent , but most other aspects were relatively similar to the original plan . An 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) belt and a secondary battery of 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) and 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns were adopted , the latter because the Bureau of Ordnance did not have the capability to construct rapid @-@ firing 5 @-@ inch weaponry . The larger weapons were much slower firing and much heavier , but without the bigger guns , the ships would not be able to penetrate the armor of foreign battleships . = = Design = = = = = General characteristics = = = The Indiana @-@ class ships were designed specifically for coastal defense and were not intended for offensive actions . This design view was reflected in their moderate coal endurance , relatively small displacement and low freeboard , which limited seagoing capability . However , they were heavily armed and armored , so much in fact that Conway 's All The Worlds Fighting Ships describes them as " attempting too much on a very limited displacement . " They resembled the British battleship HMS Hood , but were 60 ft ( 18 m ) shorter and featured an intermediate battery consisting of eight 8 @-@ inch guns not found in European ships , giving them a very respectable amount of firepower for their time . The original design of the Indiana class included bilge keels , but with keels they would not fit in any of the American drydocks at the time , so they were omitted during construction . This meant a reduction in stability and caused a serious problem for Indiana , when both main turrets broke loose from their clamps in heavy seas a year after being commissioned . Because the turrets were not centrally balanced , they swung from side to side with the motion of the ship , until they were secured with heavy ropes . When the ship encountered more bad weather four months later , she promptly steamed back to port for fear the clamps would break again . This convinced the navy that bilge keels were necessary and they were subsequently installed on all three ships . = = = Armament = = = Given their limited displacement , the Indiana class had formidable armament for the time : four 13 @-@ inch guns , an intermediate battery of eight 8 @-@ inch guns and a secondary battery of four 6 @-@ inch guns , twenty Hotchkiss 6 @-@ pounders , and six Maxim @-@ Nordenfelt 1 @-@ pounders , as well as six 18 @-@ inch Whitehead torpedo tubes . The 13 @-@ inch gun was 35 calibers long and used black powder , giving a range of about 12 @,@ 000 yards ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) at 15 degrees of elevation . At 6 @,@ 000 yards ( 5 @,@ 500 m ) , a shell was expected to penetrate 10 – 12 inches ( 250 – 300 mm ) of side armor . The four guns were mounted in two centerline turrets , located fore and aft . The turrets were originally designed to feature sloping side armor , but space requirements made this impossible without using significantly larger gun turrets or redesigning the gun mounts ( which was later done for the Illinois @-@ class battleships ) . The ships ' low freeboard greatly hindered the use of the main battery in rough weather conditions , because the deck would become awash . Also , because the ship lacked a counterweight to offset the weight of the gun barrels , the ship would list in the direction the guns were aimed . This reduced the maximum arc of elevation ( and thus range ) to about 5 degrees , brought the main armor belt under water on that side , and exposed the unarmored bottom on the other . It was considered in 1901 to replace the turrets with new balanced models used in later ships , but that was decided to be too costly as the ships were already obsolete . Instead , counterweights were added , which partially solved the problem . The hydraulic rammers and turning mechanisms of the 8 @-@ inch turrets were also replaced by faster and more efficient electric equivalents , new sights were fitted on Indiana and Massachusetts , and new turret hoists were installed to improve the reloading speed , but the gun mountings never performed in an entirely satisfactory manner . The eight 8 @-@ inch guns were mounted in pairs in four wing turrets placed on the superstructure . Their arc of fire , although big on paper , was in reality limited . Adjacent gun positions and superstructure would be damaged by their muzzle blast if the gun was trained alongside it , a defect also suffered by the 13 @-@ inch guns . The smaller 6 @-@ inch guns were mounted in twin wing casemates midships on the main deck level , with a 6 @-@ pounder in between . The other Hotchkiss 6 @-@ pounders lined the superstructure and bridge decks . Four of the 1 @-@ pounders were placed in hull casemates at the bow and stern of the ship and two more in the fighting tops of the masts . In 1908 , all the 6 @-@ inch and most of the lighter guns were removed to compensate for the counterweights added to the main battery and because ammunition supply for the guns was considered problematic . A year later , twelve 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) / 50 @-@ caliber single @-@ purpose guns were added midships and in the fighting tops . Sources conflict on the number of torpedo tubes originally included in the ships , but it is clear they were located on the berth deck and had above @-@ water ports located on the extreme front and aft and midships . Located too close to the waterline to allow use while moving and vulnerable to gunfire when opened , they were considered useless and were quickly reduced in number , and removed entirely before 1908 . = = = Protection = = = With the exception of the deck armor , 8 @-@ inch turrets and conning tower — which consisted of conventional nickel steel — the Indiana class was protected with the new Harvey armor . Its main protection was a belt 18 in ( 457 mm ) thick , placed along two thirds of the length of the hull from 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) above to 1 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) under the waterline . Beyond this point , the belt gradually grew thinner until it ended 4 ft 3 in ( 1 @.@ 30 m ) under the waterline , where the belt was only 8 @.@ 5 in ( 220 mm ) thick . Below the belt the ship had no armor , only a double bottom . On both ends the belt was connected to the barbettes of the main guns with 14 @-@ inch ( 360 mm ) armored bulkheads . In the waterline sections outside this central citadel , compartments were filled with compressed cellulose , intended to self @-@ seal when damaged . Between the deck and the main belt , 5 @-@ inch hull armor was used . The deck armor was 2 @.@ 75 in ( 70 mm ) thick inside the citadel and 3 in ( 76 mm ) outside it . The hollow conning tower was a single forging 10 inches thick . The 13 @-@ inch gun battery had 15 in ( 380 mm ) of vertical turret plating and 17 @-@ inch @-@ thick ( 430 mm ) barbettes , while the 8 @-@ inch cannons only had 6 inches of vertical turret plating and 8 @-@ inch @-@ thick ( 200 mm ) barbettes . The casemates protecting the 6 @-@ inch guns were 5 inches thick and the other casemates , lighter guns , shell hoists and turret crowns were all lightly armored . The placement of the belt armor was based on the draft from the design , which was 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) with a normal load of 400 long tons ( 406 t ; 448 short tons ) of coal on board . Her total coal storage capacity was 1 @,@ 600 long tons ( 1 @,@ 626 t ; 1 @,@ 792 short tons ) , and fully loaded her draft would increase to 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) , entirely submerging the armor belt . During actual service , especially at war , the ships were kept fully loaded whenever possible , rendering her belt armor almost useless . That this was not considered in the design outraged the Walker policy board – convened in 1896 to evaluate the existing American battleships and propose a design for the new Illinois @-@ class battleships – and they set a standard that the load of coal and ammunition that future ships were designed for had to be at least two @-@ thirds of the maximum , so similar problems would be prevented in new ships . = = = Propulsion = = = Two vertical inverted triple expansion reciprocating steam engines powered by four double @-@ ended Scotch boilers drove twin propellers , while two single @-@ ended Scotch boilers supplied steam for auxiliary machinery . The engines were designed to provide 9 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 6 @,@ 700 kW ) , giving the ships a top speed of 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . During sea trials , which were conducted with limited amounts of coal , ammunition and supplies on board , it was found that the indicated horsepower and top speed exceeded design values and a significant variation between the three ships existed . The engines of Indiana delivered 9 @,@ 700 ihp ( 7 @,@ 200 kW ) , giving a top speed of 15 @.@ 6 kn ( 28 @.@ 9 km / h ; 18 @.@ 0 mph ) . Massachusetts had a top speed of 16 @.@ 2 kn ( 30 @.@ 0 km / h ; 18 @.@ 6 mph ) with 10 @,@ 400 ihp ( 7 @,@ 800 kW ) and Oregon reached a speed of 16 @.@ 8 kn ( 31 @.@ 1 km / h ; 19 @.@ 3 mph ) with 11 @,@ 000 ihp ( 8 @,@ 200 kW ) . Eight Babcock & Wilcox boilers , including four with superheaters , were installed on Indiana in 1904 and the same number on Massachusetts in 1907 to replace the outdated Scotch boilers . = = Ships in class = = = = = Indiana ( BB @-@ 1 ) = = = Commissioned in 1895 , Indiana did not participate in any notable events until the outbreak of the Spanish – American War in 1898 , when Indiana was part of the North Atlantic Squadron under Rear Admiral William T. Sampson . His squadron was ordered to the Spanish port of San Juan in an attempt to intercept and destroy Admiral Cevera 's Spanish squadron , which was en route to the Caribbean from Spain . The harbor was empty , but Indiana and the rest of the squadron bombarded it for two hours before realizing their mistake . Three weeks later news arrived that Commodore Schley 's Flying Squadron had found Cervera and was now blockading him in the port of Santiago de Cuba . Sampson reinforced Schley two days later and assumed overall command . Cervera saw that his situation was desperate and attempted to run the blockade on 3 July 1898 . Indiana did not join in the chase of the fast Spanish cruisers because of her extreme eastern position on the blockade and low speed caused by engine problems , but was near the harbor entrance when the Spanish destroyers Pluton and Furor emerged . Together with the battleship Iowa and armed yacht Gloucester she opened fire , destroying the lightly armored enemy ships . After the war , Indiana returned to training exercises before being decommissioned in 1903 . The battleship was recommissioned in January 1906 to function as a training vessel until she was decommissioned again in 1914 . Her third commission was in 1917 when Indiana served as a training ship for gun crews during World War I. She was decommissioned for the final time on 31 January 1919 , shortly after being reclassified Coast Battleship Number 1 so that the name Indiana could be assigned to the newly authorized — but never completed — battleship Indiana ( BB @-@ 50 ) . She was sunk in shallow water as a target in underwater explosion and aerial bombing tests in November 1920 . Her hulk was sold for scrap on 19 March 1924 . = = = Massachusetts ( BB @-@ 2 ) = = = Between being commissioned in 1896 and the outbreak of the Spanish – American War in 1898 , Massachusetts conducted training exercises off the eastern coast of the United States . During the war , she was placed in the Flying Squadron under Commodore Winfield Scott Schley . Schley went searching for Cervera 's Spanish squadron and found it in the port of Santiago . The battleship was part of the blockade fleet until 3 July , but missed the Battle of Santiago de Cuba , because she had steamed to Guantánamo Bay the night before to resupply coal . The next day , the battleship came back to Santiago , where she and Texas fired at the Spanish cruiser Reina Mercedes , which was being scuttled by the Spanish in a failed attempt to block the harbor entrance channel . During the next seven years , Massachusetts cruised the Atlantic coast and eastern Caribbean as a member of the North Atlantic Squadron and then served for a year as a training ship for Naval Academy midshipmen until she was decommissioned in January 1906 . In May 1910 , she was placed in reduced commission as a training ship again before entering the Atlantic Reserve Fleet in September 1912 , where she stayed until being decommissioned in May 1914 . Massachusetts was recommissioned in June 1917 to serve as a training ship for gun crews during World War I. She was decommissioned for the final time on 31 March 1919 , after being redesignated Coast Battleship Number 2 two days earlier so her name could be reused for Massachusetts ( BB @-@ 54 ) . On 6 January 1921 she was scuttled off the coast of Pensacola and used as an artillery target for Fort Pickens . The Navy attempted to sell her for scrap , but no buyer could be found and in 1956 the ship was declared the property of the state of Florida . The wreck is currently one of the Florida Underwater Archaeological Preserves and serves as an artificial reef . = = = Oregon ( BB @-@ 3 ) = = = Oregon served for a short time with the Pacific Station before being ordered on a voyage around South America to the East Coast in March 1898 in preparation for war with Spain . She departed from San Francisco on 19 March , and reached Jupiter Inlet on 24 May , stopping several times for additional coal on the way . A journey of over 14 @,@ 000 nautical miles was completed in 66 days , which was considered a remarkable achievement at the time . The Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships describes the effect of the journey on the American public and government as follows : " On one hand the feat had demonstrated the many capabilities of a heavy battleship in all conditions of wind and sea . On the other it swept away all opposition for the construction of the Panama Canal , for it was then made clear that the country could not afford to take two months to send warships from one coast to the other each time an emergency arose . " After completing her journey , Oregon was ordered to join the blockade at Santiago as part of the North Atlantic Squadron under Rear Admiral Sampson . She took part in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba , where she and the cruiser Brooklyn were the only ships fast enough to chase down the Spanish cruiser Cristobal Colon , forcing its surrender . Around this time , she received the nickname " Bulldog of the Navy " , most likely because of her high bow wave — known as " having a bone in her teeth " in nautical slang — and perseverance during the cruise around South America and the battle of Santiago . After the war , Oregon was refitted in New York before she was sent back to the Pacific , where she served as a guard ship for two years . She served for a year in the Philippines during the Philippine – American War and then spent a year in China at Wusong during the Boxer Rebellion until May 1901 , when she was ordered back to the United States for an overhaul . In March 1903 , Oregon returned to Asiatic waters and the ship remained in the Far East , returning only shortly before decommissioning in April 1906 . Oregon was recommissioned in August 1911 , but saw little activity and was officially placed on reserve status in 1914 . On 2 January 1915 , the ship was returned to full commission and sailed to San Francisco for the Panama – Pacific International Exposition . A year later , she was back to reserve status , only to be returned to full commission in April 1917 when the United States joined World War I. Oregon acted as one of the escorts for transport ships during the Siberian Intervention . In June 1919 , she was decommissioned , but a month later she was temporarily recommissioned as the reviewing ship for President Woodrow Wilson during the arrival of the Pacific Fleet at Seattle . In October 1919 , she was decommissioned for the final time . As a result of the Washington Naval Treaty , Oregon was declared " incapable of further warlike service " in January 1924 . In June 1925 , she was loaned to the State of Oregon , who used her as a floating monument and museum in Portland . In February 1941 , Oregon was redesignated IX @-@ 22 . Due to the outbreak of World War II , it was decided that the scrap value of the ship was more important than her historical value , so she was sold . Her stripped hulk was later returned to the Navy and used as an ammunition barge during the battle of Guam , where she remained for several years . During a typhoon in November 1948 , she broke loose and drifted out to sea . She was located 500 mi ( 800 km ) southeast of Guam and towed back . She was sold on 15 March 1956 and scrapped in Japan .
= Andromeda Galaxy = The Andromeda Galaxy ( / ænˈdrɒmᵻdə / ) , also known as Messier 31 , M31 , or NGC 224 , is a spiral galaxy approximately 780 kiloparsecs ( 2 @.@ 5 million light @-@ years ) from Earth . It is the nearest major galaxy to the Milky Way and was often referred to as the Great Andromeda Nebula in older texts . It received its name from the area of the sky in which it appears , the constellation of Andromeda , which was named after the mythological princess Andromeda . Being approximately 220 @,@ 000 light years across , it is the largest galaxy of the Local Group , which also contains the Milky Way , the Triangulum Galaxy , and about 44 other smaller galaxies . Despite earlier findings that suggested that the Milky Way contains more dark matter and could be the largest in the grouping , the 2006 observations by the Spitzer Space Telescope revealed that Andromeda contains one trillion ( 1012 ) stars : at least twice the number of stars in the Milky Way , which is estimated to be 200 – 400 billion . The mass of the Andromeda Galaxy is estimated to be 1 @.@ 5 × 1012 solar masses , while the Milky Way is estimated to be 8 @.@ 5 × 1011 solar masses . In comparison , a 2009 study estimated that the Milky Way and M31 are about equal in mass , while a 2006 study put the mass of the Milky Way at ~ 80 % of the mass of the Andromeda Galaxy . The Milky Way and Andromeda are expected to collide in 3 @.@ 75 billion years , eventually merging to form a giant elliptical galaxy or perhaps a large disc galaxy . The apparent magnitude of the Andromeda Galaxy , at 3 @.@ 4 , is one of the brightest of any of the Messier objects , making it visible to the naked eye on moonless nights , even when viewed from areas with moderate light pollution . Although it appears more than six times as wide as the full moon when photographed through a larger telescope , only the brighter central region is visible to the naked eye or when viewed using binoculars or a small telescope , making it appear similar to a star . = = Observation history = = In the year 964 , the Persian astronomer Abd al @-@ Rahman al @-@ Sufi described the Andromeda Galaxy , in his Book of Fixed Stars as a " nebulous smear " . Star charts of that period labeled it as the Little Cloud . In 1612 , the German astronomer Simon Marius gave an early description of the Andromeda Galaxy based on telescopic observations . In 1764 , Charles Messier catalogued Andromeda as object M31 and incorrectly credited Marius as the discoverer despite it being visible to the naked eye . In 1785 , the astronomer William Herschel noted a faint reddish hue in the core region of M31 . He believed M31 to be the nearest of all the " great nebulae " and based on the color and magnitude of the nebula , he incorrectly guessed that it is no more than 2 @,@ 000 times the distance of Sirius . In 1850 , William Parsons , 3rd Earl of Rosse , saw and made the first drawing of Andromeda 's spiral structure . In 1864 , William Huggins observed the spectrum of M31 and noted that it differs from a gaseous nebula . The spectra of M31 displays a continuum of frequencies , superimposed with dark absorption lines that help identify the chemical composition of an object . M31 's spectrum is very similar to the spectra of individual stars , and from this it was deduced that M31 has a stellar nature . In 1885 , a supernova ( known as S Andromedae ) was seen in M31 , the first and so far only one observed in that galaxy . At the time M31 was considered to be a nearby object , so the cause was thought to be a much less luminous and unrelated event called a nova , and was named accordingly ; " Nova 1885 " . In 1887 , Isaac Roberts took the first photographs of M31 , which was still commonly thought to be a nebula within our galaxy . Roberts actually mistook M31 and similar spiral nebulae as solar systems being formed . In 1912 , Vesto Slipher used spectroscopy to measure the radial velocity of M31 with respect to our solar system — the largest velocity yet measured , at 300 kilometres per second ( 190 mi / s ) . = = = Island universe = = = In 1917 , American astronomer Heber Curtis observed a nova within M31 . Searching the photographic record , 11 more novae were discovered . Curtis noticed that these novae were , on average , 10 magnitudes fainter than those that occurred elsewhere in the sky . As a result , he was able to come up with a distance estimate of 500 @,@ 000 light @-@ years ( 3 @.@ 2 × 1010 AU ) . He became a proponent of the so @-@ called " island universes " hypothesis , which held that spiral nebulae were actually independent galaxies . In 1920 , the Great Debate between Harlow Shapley and Curtis took place , concerning the nature of the Milky Way , spiral nebulae , and the dimensions of the universe . To support his claim of the Great Andromeda Nebula being , in fact , an external galaxy , Curtis also noted the appearance of dark lanes within Andromeda which resembled the dust clouds in our own galaxy , as well as historical observations of Andromeda 's significant Doppler shift . In 1922 Ernst Öpik presented a method to estimate the distance of M31 using the measured velocities of its stars . His result placed the Andromeda Nebula far outside our galaxy at a distance of about 450 @,@ 000 parsecs ( 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 ly ) . Edwin Hubble settled the debate in 1925 when he identified extra @-@ galactic Cepheid variable stars for the first time on astronomical photos of M31 . These were made using the 2 @.@ 5 @-@ metre ( 100 @-@ in ) Hooker telescope , and they enabled the distance of Great Andromeda Nebula to be determined . His measurement demonstrated conclusively that this feature was not a cluster of stars and gas within our own Galaxy , but an entirely separate galaxy located a significant distance from the Milky Way . M31 plays an important role in galactic studies , as it is the nearest major galaxy ( although not the nearest galaxy ) . In 1943 Walter Baade was the first person to resolve stars in the central region of the Andromeda Galaxy . Baade identified two distinct populations of stars based on their metallicity , naming the young , high velocity stars in the disk Type I and the older , red stars in the bulge Type II . This nomenclature was subsequently adopted for stars within the Milky Way , and elsewhere . ( The existence of two distinct populations had been noted earlier by Jan Oort . ) Baade also discovered that there were two types of Cepheid variables , which resulted in a doubling of the distance estimate to M31 , as well as the remainder of the Universe . Radio emission from the Andromeda Galaxy was first detected by Hanbury Brown and Cyril Hazard at Jodrell Bank Observatory using the 218 @-@ ft Transit Telescope , and was announced in 1950 ( earlier observations were made by radio astronomy pioneer Grote Reber in 1940 , but were inconclusive , and were later shown to be an order of magnitude too high ) . The first radio maps of the galaxy were made in the 1950s by John Baldwin and collaborators at the Cambridge Radio Astronomy Group . The core of the Andromeda Galaxy is called 2C 56 in the 2C radio astronomy catalogue . In 2009 , the first planet may have been discovered in the Andromeda Galaxy . This was detected using a technique called microlensing , which is caused by the deflection of light by a massive object . = = General = = The estimated distance of the Andromeda Galaxy was doubled in 1953 when it was discovered that there is another , dimmer type of Cepheid . In the 1990s , measurements of both standard red giants as well as red clump stars from the Hipparcos satellite measurements were used to calibrate the Cepheid distances . = = = Formation and history = = = According to a team of astronomers reporting in 2010 , M31 was formed out of the collision of two smaller galaxies between 5 and 9 billion years ago . A paper published in 2012 has outlined M31 's basic history since its birth . According to it , Andromeda was born roughly 10 billion years ago from the merger of many smaller protogalaxies , leading to a galaxy smaller than the one we see today . The most important event in M31 's history was the merger mentioned above that took place 8 billion years ago . This violent collision formed most of its ( metal @-@ rich ) galactic halo and extended disk and during that epoch Andromeda 's star formation would have been very high , to the point of becoming a luminous infrared galaxy for roughly 100 million years . M31 and the Triangulum Galaxy ( M33 ) had a very close passage 2 – 4 billion years ago . This event produced high levels of star formation across the Andromeda Galaxy 's disk – even some globular clusters – and disturbed M33 's outer disk . While there has been activity during the last 2 billion years , this has been much lower than during the past . During this epoch , star formation throughout M31 's disk was thought to have decreased to the point of near @-@ inactivity , however , such activity had increased relatively recently . There have been interactions with satellite galaxies like M32 , M110 , or others that have already been absorbed by M31 . These interactions have formed structures like Andromeda 's Giant Stellar Stream . A merger roughly 100 million years ago is believed to be responsible for a counter @-@ rotating disk of gas found in the center of M31 as well as the presence there of a relatively young ( 100 million years old ) stellar population . = = = Recent distance estimate = = = At least four distinct techniques have been used to estimate distances to the Andromeda Galaxy . In 2003 , using the infrared surface brightness fluctuations ( I @-@ SBF ) and adjusting for the new period @-@ luminosity value of Freedman et al . 2001 and using a metallicity correction of − 0 @.@ 2 mag dex − 1 in ( O / H ) , an estimate of 2 @.@ 57 ± 0 @.@ 06 million light @-@ years ( 1 @.@ 625 × 1011 ± 3 @.@ 8 × 109 AU ) was derived . Using the Cepheid variable method , an estimate of 2 @.@ 51 ± 0 @.@ 13 million light @-@ years ( 770 ± 40 kpc ) was reported in 2004 . In 2005 Ignasi Ribas ( CSIC , Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia ( IEEC ) ) and colleagues announced the discovery of an eclipsing binary star in the Andromeda Galaxy . The binary star , designated M31VJ00443799 + 4129236 , has two luminous and hot blue stars of types O and B. By studying the eclipses of the stars , which occur every 3 @.@ 54969 days , astronomers were able to measure their sizes . Knowing the sizes and temperatures of the stars , they were able to measure their absolute magnitude . When the visual and absolute magnitudes are known , the distance to the star can be measured . The stars lie at a distance of 2 @.@ 52 × 10 ^ 6 ± 0 @.@ 14 × 10 ^ 6 ly ( 1 @.@ 594 × 1011 ± 8 @.@ 9 × 109 AU ) and the whole Andromeda Galaxy at about 2 @.@ 5 × 10 ^ 6 ly ( 1 @.@ 6 × 1011 AU ) . This new value is in excellent agreement with the previous , independent Cepheid @-@ based distance value . M31 is close enough that the Tip of the Red Giant Branch ( TRGB ) method may also be used to estimate its distance . The estimated distance to M31 using this technique in 2005 yielded 2 @.@ 56 × 10 ^ 6 ± 0 @.@ 08 × 10 ^ 6 ly ( 1 @.@ 619 × 1011 ± 5 @.@ 1 × 109 AU ) . Averaged together , all these distance estimates give a combined value of 2 @.@ 54 × 10 ^ 6 ± 0 @.@ 11 × 10 ^ 6 ly ( 1 @.@ 606 × 1011 ± 7 @.@ 0 × 109 AU ) . And , from this , the diameter of M31 at the widest point is estimated to be 220 ± 3 kly ( 67 @,@ 450 ± 920 pc ) . Applying trigonometry ( angular diameter ) , this is equivalent to an apparent 4 @.@ 96 ° angle in the sky . = = = Mass and luminosity estimates = = = = = = = Mass = = = = Mass estimates for the Andromeda Galaxy 's halo ( including dark matter ) give a value of approximately 1 @.@ 5 × 1012 M ☉ ( or 1 @.@ 5 trillion solar masses ) compared to 8 × 1011 M ☉ for the Milky Way . This contradicts earlier measurements , that seem to indicate that Andromeda and the Milky Way are almost equal in mass . Even so , M31 's spheroid actually has a higher stellar density than that of the Milky Way and its galactic stellar disk is about twice the size of that of the Milky Way . The total stellar mass of Andromeda is estimated to be 1 @.@ 1 × 1011 M ☉ . , ( i.e. , around twice as massive as that of the Milky Way ) , or up to 1 @.@ 5 × 1011 M ☉ according to other estimates , with around 30 % of that mass in the central bulge , 56 % in the disk , and the remaining 14 % in the halo . In addition to it , M31 's interstellar medium contains at least around 7 @.@ 2 × 109 M ☉ in the form of neutral hydrogen , at least 3 @.@ 4 × 108 M ☉ as molecular hydrogen ( within its innermost 10 kiloparsecs ) , and 5 @.@ 4 × 107 M ☉ of dust . Studies made with the help of the Hubble Space Telescope and published in 2015 , have uncovered a large and massive halo of hot gas enveloping M31 . This halo is estimated to contain half the mass of the stars in the Andromeda galaxy itself . As of May 7 , 2015 , the halo is about six times larger and 1 @,@ 000 times more massive than previously measured . The nearly invisible halo stretches about a million light @-@ years from its host galaxy , halfway to our Milky Way galaxy . Simulations of galaxies indicate the halo formed at the same time as the Andromeda galaxy . The halo is enriched in elements heavier than hydrogen and helium , formed from supernovae and its properties are the expected on a galaxy that lies in the green valley of the color @-@ magnitude diagram ( see below ) . The supernovae erupt in Andromeda 's star @-@ filled disk and eject these heavier elements into space . Over Andromeda 's lifetime , nearly half of the heavy elements made by its stars have been ejected far beyond the galaxy 's 200 @,@ 000 @-@ light @-@ year @-@ diameter stellar disk . = = = = Luminosity = = = = M31 appears to have significantly more common stars than the Milky Way , seeming to predominate the old stars with ages > 7 × 109 years , and the estimated luminosity of M31 , ~ 2 @.@ 6 × 1010 L ☉ , is about 25 % higher than that of our own galaxy . However , the galaxy has a high inclination as seen from Earth and its interstellar dust absorbs an unknown amount of light , so it is difficult to estimate its actual brightness and other authors have given other values for the luminosity of the Andromeda Galaxy ( including to propose it is the second brightest galaxy within a radius of 10 mega parsecs of the Milky Way , after the Sombrero Galaxy , with an absolute magnitude of around -22.21 or close ) An estimation done with the help of Spitzer Space Telescope published in 2010 suggests an absolute magnitude ( in the blue ) of − 20 @.@ 89 ( that with a color index of + 0 @.@ 63 translates to an absolute visual magnitude of − 21 @.@ 52 , compared to − 20 @.@ 9 for the Milky Way ) , and a total luminosity in that wavelength of 3 @.@ 64 × 1010 L ☉ . The rate of star formation in the Milky Way is much higher , with M31 producing only about one solar mass per year compared to 3 – 5 solar masses for the Milky Way . The rate of supernovae in the Milky Way is also double that of M31 . This suggests that M31 once experienced a great star formation phase , but is now in a relative state of quiescence , whereas the Milky Way is experiencing more active star formation . Should this continue , the luminosity in the Milky Way may eventually overtake that of M31 . According to recent studies , like the Milky Way , the Andromeda Galaxy lies in what in the galaxy color – magnitude diagram is known as the green valley , a region populated by galaxies in transition from the blue cloud ( galaxies actively forming new stars ) to the red sequence ( galaxies that lack star formation ) . Star formation activity in green valley galaxies is slowing as they run out of star @-@ forming gas in the interstellar medium . In simulated galaxies with similar properties , star formation will typically have been extinguished within about five billion years from now , even accounting for the expected , short @-@ term increase in the rate of star formation due to the collision between Andromeda and the Milky Way . = = Structure = = Based on its appearance in visible light , the Andromeda Galaxy is classified as an SA ( s ) b galaxy in the de Vaucouleurs – Sandage extended classification system of spiral galaxies . However , data from the 2MASS survey showed that the bulge of M31 has a box @-@ like appearance , which implies that the galaxy is actually a barred spiral galaxy like the Milky Way , with the Andromeda Galaxy 's bar viewed almost directly along its long axis . In 2005 , astronomers used the Keck telescopes to show that the tenuous sprinkle of stars extending outward from the galaxy is actually part of the main disk itself . This means that the spiral disk of stars in M31 is three times larger in diameter than previously estimated . This constitutes evidence that there is a vast , extended stellar disk that makes the galaxy more than 220 @,@ 000 light @-@ years ( 67 @,@ 000 pc ) in diameter . Previously , estimates of the Andromeda Galaxy 's size ranged from 70 @,@ 000 to 120 @,@ 000 light @-@ years ( 21 @,@ 000 to 37 @,@ 000 pc ) across . The galaxy is inclined an estimated 77 ° relative to the Earth ( where an angle of 90 ° would be viewed directly from the side ) . Analysis of the cross @-@ sectional shape of the galaxy appears to demonstrate a pronounced , S @-@ shaped warp , rather than just a flat disk . A possible cause of such a warp could be gravitational interaction with the satellite galaxies near M31 . The galaxy M33 could be responsible for some warp in M31 's arms , though more precise distances and radial velocities are required . Spectroscopic studies have provided detailed measurements of the rotational velocity of M31 as a function of radial distance from the core . The rotational velocity has a maximum value of 225 kilometres per second ( 140 mi / s ) at 1 @,@ 300 light @-@ years ( 82 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 AU ) from the core , and it has its minimum possibly as low as 50 kilometres per second ( 31 mi / s ) at 7 @,@ 000 light @-@ years ( 440 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 AU ) from the core . Further out , rotational velocity rises out to a radius of 33 @,@ 000 light @-@ years ( 2 @.@ 1 × 109 AU ) , where it reaches a peak of 250 kilometres per second ( 160 mi / s ) . The velocities slowly decline beyond that distance , dropping to around 200 kilometres per second ( 120 mi / s ) at 80 @,@ 000 light @-@ years ( 5 @.@ 1 × 109 AU ) . These velocity measurements imply a concentrated mass of about 6 × 109 M ☉ in the nucleus . The total mass of the galaxy increases linearly out to 45 @,@ 000 light @-@ years ( 2 @.@ 8 × 109 AU ) , then more slowly beyond that radius . The spiral arms of M31 are outlined by a series of H II regions , first studied in great detail by Walter Baade and described by him as resembling " beads on a string " . his studies show two spiral arms that appear to be tightly wound , although they are more widely spaced than in our galaxy . His descriptions of the spiral structure , as each arm crosses the major axis of M31 , are as follows § pp1062 § pp92 : Since the Andromeda Galaxy is seen close to edge @-@ on , however , the studies of its spiral structure are difficult . While as stated above rectified images of the galaxy seem to show a fairly normal spiral galaxy with the arms wound up in a clockwise direction , exhibiting two continuous trailing arms that are separated from each other by a minimum of about 13 @,@ 000 light @-@ years ( 820 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 AU ) and that can be followed outward from a distance of roughly 1 @,@ 600 light @-@ years ( 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 AU ) from the core , other alternative spiral structures have been proposed such as a single spiral arm or a flocculent pattern of long , filamentary , and thick spiral arms . The most likely cause of the distortions of the spiral pattern is thought to be interaction with galaxy satellites M32 and M110 . This can be seen by the displacement of the neutral hydrogen clouds from the stars . In 1998 , images from the European Space Agency 's Infrared Space Observatory demonstrated that the overall form of the Andromeda Galaxy may be transitioning into a ring galaxy . The gas and dust within M31 is generally formed into several overlapping rings , with a particularly prominent ring formed at a radius of 32 @,@ 000 light @-@ years ( 2 @.@ 0 × 109 AU ) ( 10 kiloparsecs ) from the core , nicknamed by some astronomers the ring of fire . This ring is hidden from visible light images of the galaxy because it is composed primarily of cold dust , and most of the star formation that is taking place in M31 is concentrated there . Later studies with the help of the Spitzer Space Telescope showed how Andromeda 's spiral structure in the infrared appears to be composed of two spiral arms that emerge from a central bar and continue beyond the large ring mentioned above . Those arms , however , are not continuous and have a segmented structure . Close examination of the inner region of M31 with the same telescope also showed a smaller dust ring that is believed to have been caused by the interaction with M32 more than 200 million years ago . Simulations show that the smaller galaxy passed through the disk of the galaxy in Andromeda along the latter 's polar axis . This collision stripped more than half the mass from the smaller M32 and created the ring structures in M31 . It is the co @-@ existence of the long @-@ known large ring @-@ like feature in the gas of Messier 31 , together with this newly discovered inner ring @-@ like structure , offset from the barycenter , that suggested a nearly head @-@ on collision with the satellite M32 , a milder version of the Cartwheel encounter . Studies of the extended halo of M31 show that it is roughly comparable to that of the Milky Way , with stars in the halo being generally " metal @-@ poor " , and increasingly so with greater distance . This evidence indicates that the two galaxies have followed similar evolutionary paths . They are likely to have accreted and assimilated about 100 – 200 low @-@ mass galaxies during the past 12 billion years . The stars in the extended halos of M31 and the Milky Way may extend nearly one @-@ third the distance separating the two galaxies . = = Nucleus = = M31 is known to harbor a dense and compact star cluster at its very center . In a large telescope it creates a visual impression of a star embedded in the more diffuse surrounding bulge . The luminosity of the nucleus is in excess of the most luminous globular clusters . In 1991 Tod R. Lauer used WFPC , then on board the Hubble Space Telescope , to image M31 's inner nucleus . The nucleus consists of two concentrations separated by 1 @.@ 5 parsecs ( 4 @.@ 9 ly ) . The brighter concentration , designated as P1 , is offset from the center of the galaxy . The dimmer concentration , P2 , falls at the true center of the galaxy and contains a black hole measured at 3 – 5 × 107 M ☉ in 1993 , and at 1 @.@ 1 – 2 @.@ 3 × 108 M ☉ in 2005 . The velocity dispersion of material around it is measured to be ≈ 160 km / s . Scott Tremaine has proposed that the observed double nucleus could be explained if P1 is the projection of a disk of stars in an eccentric orbit around the central black hole . The eccentricity is such that stars linger at the orbital apocenter , creating a concentration of stars . P2 also contains a compact disk of hot , spectral class A stars . The A stars are not evident in redder filters , but in blue and ultraviolet light they dominate the nucleus , causing P2 to appear more prominent than P1 . While at the initial time of its discovery it was hypothesized that the brighter portion of the double nucleus is the remnant of a small galaxy " cannibalized " by M31 , this is no longer considered a viable explanation , largely because such a nucleus would have an exceedingly short lifetime due to tidal disruption by the central black hole . While this could be partially resolved if P1 had its own black hole to stabilize it , the distribution of stars in P1 does not suggest that there is a black hole at its center . = = Discrete sources = = Apparently , by late 1968 , no X @-@ rays had been detected from the Andromeda Galaxy . A balloon flight on October 20 , 1970 , set an upper limit for detectable hard X @-@ rays from M31 . Multiple X @-@ ray sources have since been detected in the Andromeda Galaxy , using observations from the ESA 's XMM @-@ Newton orbiting observatory . Robin Barnard et al. hypothesized that these are candidate black holes or neutron stars , which are heating incoming gas to millions of kelvins and emitting X @-@ rays . The spectrum of the neutron stars is the same as the hypothesized black holes , but can be distinguished by their masses . There are approximately 460 globular clusters associated with the Andromeda Galaxy . The most massive of these clusters , identified as Mayall II , nicknamed Globular One , has a greater luminosity than any other known globular cluster in the Local Group of galaxies . It contains several million stars , and is about twice as luminous as Omega Centauri , the brightest known globular cluster in the Milky Way . Globular One ( or G1 ) has several stellar populations and a structure too massive for an ordinary globular . As a result , some consider G1 to be the remnant core of a dwarf galaxy that was consumed by M31 in the distant past . The globular with the greatest apparent brightness is G76 which is located in the south @-@ west arm 's eastern half . Another massive globular cluster -named 037 @-@ B327- , discovered in 2006 as is heavily reddened by the Andromeda Galaxy 's interstellar dust , was thought to be more massive than G1 and the largest cluster of the Local Group ; however other studies have shown is actually similar in properties to G1 . Unlike the globular clusters of the Milky Way , which show a relatively low age dispersion , Andromeda 's globular clusters have a much larger range of ages : from systems as old as the galaxy itself to much younger systems , with ages between a few hundred million years to five billion years In 2005 , astronomers discovered a completely new type of star cluster in M31 . The new @-@ found clusters contain hundreds of thousands of stars , a similar number of stars that can be found in globular clusters . What distinguishes them from the globular clusters is that they are much larger — several hundred light @-@ years across — and hundreds of times less dense . The distances between the stars are , therefore , much greater within the newly discovered extended clusters . In the year 2012 , a microquasar , a radio burst emanating from a smaller black hole , was detected in the Andromeda Galaxy . The progenitor black hole was located near the galactic center and had about 10 <formula> . Discovered through a data collected by the ESA 's XMM @-@ Newton probe , and subsequently observed by NASA 's Swift and Chandra , the Very Large Array , and the Very Long Baseline Array , the microquasar was the first observed within the Andromeda Galaxy and the first outside of the Milky Way Galaxy . = = Satellites = = Like the Milky Way , the Andromeda Galaxy has satellite galaxies , consisting of 14 known dwarf galaxies . The best known and most readily observed satellite galaxies are M32 and M110 . Based on current evidence , it appears that M32 underwent a close encounter with M31 ( Andromeda ) in the past . M32 may once have been a larger galaxy that had its stellar disk removed by M31 , and underwent a sharp increase of star formation in the core region , which lasted until the relatively recent past . M110 also appears to be interacting with M31 , and astronomers have found in the halo of M31 a stream of metal @-@ rich stars that appear to have been stripped from these satellite galaxies . M110 does contain a dusty lane , which may indicate recent or ongoing star formation . In 2006 it was discovered that nine of these galaxies lie along a plane that intersects the core of the Andromeda Galaxy , rather than being randomly arranged as would be expected from independent interactions . This may indicate a common tidal origin for the satellites . = = Collision with the Milky Way = = The Andromeda Galaxy is approaching the Milky Way at about 110 kilometres per second ( 68 mi / s ) . It has been measured approaching relative to our Sun at around 300 kilometres per second ( 190 mi / s ) as the Sun orbits around the center of our galaxy at a speed of approximately 225 kilometres per second ( 140 mi / s ) . This makes Andromeda one of about 100 blueshifted galaxies that we observe . Andromeda 's tangential or side @-@ ways velocity with respect to the Milky Way is relatively much smaller than the approaching velocity and therefore it is expected to directly collide with the Milky Way in about 4 billion years . A likely outcome of the collision is that the galaxies will merge to form a giant elliptical galaxy or perhaps even a large disc galaxy . Such events are frequent among the galaxies in galaxy groups . The fate of the Earth and the Solar System in the event of a collision is currently unknown . Before the galaxies merge , there is a small chance that the Solar System could be ejected from the Milky Way or join M31 .
= Lactarius vietus = Lactarius vietus ( commonly known as the grey milkcap ) is a species of fungus in the family Russulaceae , first described by Elias Magnus Fries . It produces moderately sized and brittle mushrooms , which grow on the forest floor or on rotting wood . The flattened @-@ convex cap can vary in shape , sometimes forming the shape of a wide funnel . It is typically grey , but the colour varies . The species has crowded , light @-@ coloured gills , which produce white milk . The spore print is typically whitish , but also varies considerably . The mushrooms typically have a strong , acrid taste and have been described as inedible , but other authors have described them as consumable after boiling . L. vietus feeds by forming an ectomycorrhizal relationship with surrounding trees , and it favours birch . It grows in autumn months and is fairly common in Europe , North America and eastern Asia . = = Taxonomy = = Lactarius vietus was first described by Elias Magnus Fries in 1821 as Agaricus vietus in his Systema Mycologicum . In his 1838 work Epicrisis systematis mycologici , Fries reclassified the species as a Lactarius , giving it its current name . Subsequent attempts to reclassify the species have been unsuccessful . In his 1871 work Der Führer in die Pilzkunde , Paul Kummer reclassified the species as a member of Galorrheus , and in Otto Kuntze 's 1891 Revisio generum plantarum , the species was placed in the genus Lactifluus . Both Galorrheus vietus and Lactifluus vietus are now considered obligate synonyms ( different names for the same species based on one type ) of Lactarius vietus . The specific epithet is from the Latin vietus , meaning shrunken . It is commonly known as the grey milkcap . = = Description = = Lactarius vietus typically has a cap of 2 @.@ 5 to 7 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 1 to 3 in ) across , with a flattened @-@ convex shape . At times , the cap becomes widely funnel @-@ shaped , and sometimes features a broad or pointed umbo , though the centre of the cap is typically depressed . The cap is coloured grey , sometimes with violet , flesh @-@ coloured , pale yellowish @-@ brown or red tints , though it is paler towards the cap margin in young mushrooms . Very pale specimens have also been recorded in the United States , though they are not true albinos . The cap 's margin is curved inwards in younger specimens , and wavey . The cap surface is smooth , and can be slimey or sticky when wet . The stem measures 2 @.@ 5 to 8 centimetres ( 1 to 3 in ) by 2 to 7 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 8 to 3 in ) , and is generally cylindrical in shape . Sometimes the stem narrows downwards , or is club @-@ shaped . In colour , the stem whitish or greyish , paler at the top , and is rather weak and easily broken . The flesh is a whitish @-@ buff colour , and is often absent in the stem , leaving it hollow . The crowded gills are can be decurrent ( with the gill running down the stem ) or adnate ( with the entire depth of the gill connecting to the stem ) , and in colour are whitish to a dirty buff . They are thin and flaccid , and there are three to four tiers of lamellulae ( short gills that do not reach the stem from the cap margin ) . The gills produce white milk , which dries a brownish or greenish grey after about 20 minutes . The mushroom flesh will slowly stain a greyish colour if a drop of FeSO4 solution is applied to it as a chemical colour test . = = = Microscopic features = = = The spore print is typically a creamy white , with a slight salmon tinge , but it has been observed to vary from white to yellow depending on the density , meaning that it is not a useful means of identification . Individual spores are a buff @-@ white , amyloid ( staining blue in Melzer 's reagent ) and hyaline . In shape , the spores are elliptic , with a moderately well @-@ developed network of ridges , measuring between 8 and 9 @.@ 5 by 6 @.@ 5 to 7 @.@ 5 micrometres ( μm ) . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the face of the gills ) are shaped like narrow spindles , typically measuring between 40 and 75 μm long , but sometimes reaching 86 μm in length , by 6 and 11 μm wide at the widest point . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the edge of the gills ) are leaf or spindle shaped , measuring between 30 and 52 μm long by 4 to 7 μm wide . The basidia are four @-@ spored and club @-@ shaped , measuring between 36 and 42 μm in length by 8 and 12 μm wide . = = = Similar species = = = Lactarius uvidus is similar in appearance . In colour , it is a pale pink @-@ buff , and its flesh turns a violet @-@ lilac colour when cut . The white milk has a mild taste . Lactarius mammosus , a species described by Fries but not often mentioned by the mycological community for some time after his death , is also similar . Meinhard Moser , examining the identity of L. mammosus , concluded that it " is certainly more closely related to L. vietus than to L. fuscus , but differs in habit and colour . The spores are slightly longer and the sculptures are less pronounced in L. vietus . " = = Edibility = = Lactarius vietus milk has a very hot taste , and the mushroom lacks a distinctive smell . Although described by many mycologists as inedible , David Pegler claims that its acrid taste can be removed after boiling , allowing it to be consumed . Though the strong , acrid taste is a defining feature of the species , it is weaker or even absent in some older mushrooms , which is not unusual for Lactarius species . Occasionally , however , mushrooms of the species have been collected which have a mild taste ; this has also been observed in other species with typically acrid tastes . = = Distribution , habitat and ecology = = Lactarius vietus is fairly common , and can be found growing in moist areas under trees in autumn , often among Sphagnum moss . Though it strongly favours beech , it has also been found under oak . It forms an ectomycorrhizal relationship with the trees under which it grows . It can also be found growing on rotting wood or other hard surfaces ; specimens have been observed on both conifer and hardwood logs . These are typically smaller specimens , and it is possible that they represent a dwarf variety . Despite growing on rotting wood , the species is not saprotrophic ; instead , the mycelia of the species are linking with tree roots growing through or near the wood . This is a particularly useful adaptation when the soil is either wet or nutrient @-@ poor . Mushrooms can sometimes grow in large numbers , but they can also be found growing in tight clumps , or solitarily when growing out of season . The species can be found in Europe , with collections in Scandinavia , the British Isles Bulgaria , Germany , and northern Turkey ; in North America , it has been recorded as common in Canada and both the northern and southern United States ; in northern Asia , it was found in regions near both the Oka River and the central Angara River in Siberia ; and in eastern Asia , it has been collected in China .
= HMS Basilisk ( H11 ) = HMS Basilisk was a B @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy around 1930 . Initially assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet , she was transferred to the Home Fleet in 1936 . The ship escorted convoys and conducted anti @-@ submarine patrols early in World War II before participating in the Norwegian Campaign . Basilisk was sunk by German aircraft during the Dunkirk evacuation in 1940 . = = Description = = Basilisk displaced 1 @,@ 360 long tons ( 1 @,@ 380 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 790 long tons ( 1 @,@ 820 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 32 feet 3 inches ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 3 inches ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) . She was powered by Brown @-@ Curtis geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . Basilisk carried a maximum of 390 long tons ( 400 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 134 officers and enlisted men , although it increased to 142 during wartime . The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre QF 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Basilisk had two 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk II AA guns mounted on a platform between her funnels . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began . The ship was fitted with a Type 119 ASDIC set to detect submarines by reflections from sound waves beamed into the water . = = Career = = The ship was ordered on 4 March 1929 from John Brown & Company at Clydebank , Glasgow , under the 1928 Naval Programme . She was laid down on 19 August 1929 , and launched on 6 August 1930 , as the eighth RN ship to carry this name . Basilisk was completed on 4 March 1931 at a cost of £ 220 @,@ 342 , excluding items supplied by the Admiralty such as guns , ammunition and communications equipment . After her commissioning , she was assigned to the 4th Destroyer Flotilla with the Mediterranean Fleet until 1936 . The flotilla was reassigned to the Home Fleet in September 1936 . In February 1937 Basilisk arrived at the post of Málaga , Spain , captured a few days before by the Franco 's forces in the Spanish Civil War . Basilisk 's captain gained the release of Sir Peter Chalmers Mitchell , a British zoologist resident in Málaga , who was arrested by Franco 's troops due to his support of the Spanish Republic . The ship became the emergency destroyer at Devonport in March 1939 and was assigned to the 19th Destroyer Flotilla when World War II began . Basilisk spent the next two months escorting convoys and patrolling in the English Channel and the North Sea . The ship and her sister Blanche were escorting the minelayer Adventure on the morning of 13 November in the Thames Estuary when they entered a minefield laid the night before by several German destroyers . Adventure and Blanche both struck mines ; the latter lost all power and later capsized whilst under tow . Basilisk continued to escort convoys and patrol until April 1940 when the Norwegian Campaign began . On 24 April , the ship , together with the destroyers Wren and Hesperus , escorted the battleship Resolution to Narvik on 24 April . In early May , she escorted the troopship Empress of Australia to Norway . Basilisk supported the Allied landings on 12 – 13 May at Bjerkvik during the Battle of Narvik . The ship was transferred from the Western Approaches Command on 30 May to support the evacuation from Dunkirk . She made two trips to Dover during the following day and evacuated a total of 695 men . Basilisk returned to La Panne to load more troops on the morning of 1 June and was attacked three times by German bombers . One bomb from the first wave detonated inside the No. 3 boiler room , killed all of her boiler and engine room personnel , fractured her steam lines and knocked out all her machinery . Near misses from the same attack buckled the sides of her hull and her upper deck . The ship 's torpedoes and depth charges were jettisoned to reduce topweight and the French fishing trawler Jolie Mascotte attempted to tow Basilisk . A second attack caused no further damage , but caused the French ship to drop the tow . The third attack around noon sank Basilisk in shallow water at 51 ° 08 ′ 16 ″ N 02 ° 35 ′ 06 ″ E. Jolie Mascotte and the destroyer Whitehall rescued eight officers and 123 crewmen from the ship . Whitehall then destroyed the wreck with gunfire and torpedoes .
= DNA = Deoxyribonucleic acid ( / diˈɒksiˌraɪboʊnjʊˌkliːɪk , -ˌkleɪɪk / ; DNA ) is a molecule that carries the genetic instructions used in the growth , development , functioning and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses . DNA and RNA are nucleic acids ; alongside proteins and complex carbohydrates ( polysaccharides ) , they are one of the three major types of macromolecule that are essential for all known forms of life . Most DNA molecules consist of two biopolymer strands coiled around each other to form a double helix . The two DNA strands are known as polynucleotides since they are composed of simpler units called nucleotides . Each nucleotide is composed of a nitrogen @-@ containing nucleobase — either cytosine ( C ) , guanine ( G ) , adenine ( A ) , or thymine ( T ) — as well as a sugar called deoxyribose and a phosphate group . The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next , resulting in an alternating sugar @-@ phosphate backbone . According to base pairing rules ( A with T , and C with G ) , hydrogen bonds bind the nitrogenous bases of the two separate polynucleotide strands to make double @-@ stranded DNA . The total amount of related DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5 @.@ 0 x 1037 , and weighs 50 billion tonnes . In comparison , the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 TtC ( trillion tons of carbon ) . DNA stores biological information . The DNA backbone is resistant to cleavage , and both strands of the double @-@ stranded structure store the same biological information . Biological information is replicated as the two strands are separated . A significant portion of DNA ( more than 98 % for humans ) is non @-@ coding , meaning that these sections do not serve as patterns for protein sequences . The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions to each other and are therefore anti @-@ parallel . Attached to each sugar is one of four types of nucleobases ( informally , bases ) . It is the sequence of these four nucleobases along the backbone that encodes biological information . Under the genetic code , RNA strands are translated to specify the sequence of amino acids within proteins . These RNA strands are initially created using DNA strands as a template in a process called transcription . Within eukaryotic cells , DNA is organized into long structures called chromosomes . During cell division these chromosomes are duplicated in the process of DNA replication , providing each cell its own complete set of chromosomes . Eukaryotic organisms ( animals , plants , fungi , and protists ) store most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus and some of their DNA in organelles , such as mitochondria or chloroplasts . In contrast , prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ) store their DNA only in the cytoplasm . Within the eukaryotic chromosomes , chromatin proteins such as histones compact and organize DNA . These compact structures guide the interactions between DNA and other proteins , helping control which parts of the DNA are transcribed . DNA was first isolated by Friedrich Miescher in 1869 . Its molecular structure was identified by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953 , whose model @-@ building efforts were guided by X @-@ ray diffraction data acquired by Rosalind Franklin . DNA is used by researchers as a molecular tool to explore physical laws and theories , such as the ergodic theorem and the theory of elasticity . The unique material properties of DNA have made it an attractive molecule for material scientists and engineers interested in micro- and nano @-@ fabrication . Among notable advances in this field are DNA origami and DNA @-@ based hybrid materials . = = Properties = = DNA is a long polymer made from repeating units called nucleotides . The structure of DNA is non @-@ static , all species comprises two helical chains each coiled round the same axis , and each with a pitch of 34 ångströms ( 3 @.@ 4 nanometres ) and a radius of 10 ångströms ( 1 @.@ 0 nanometre ) . According to another study , when measured in a particular solution , the DNA chain measured 22 to 26 ångströms wide ( 2 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 6 nanometres ) , and one nucleotide unit measured 3 @.@ 3 Å ( 0 @.@ 33 nm ) long . Although each individual repeating unit is very small , DNA polymers can be very large molecules containing millions of nucleotides . For instance , the DNA in the largest human chromosome , chromosome number 1 , consists of approximately 220 million base pairs and would be 85 mm long if straightened . In living organisms DNA does not usually exist as a single molecule , but instead as a pair of molecules that are held tightly together . These two long strands entwine like vines , in the shape of a double helix . The nucleotide repeats contain both the segment of the backbone of the molecule , which holds the chain together , and a nucleobase , which interacts with the other DNA strand in the helix . A nucleobase linked to a sugar is called a nucleoside and a base linked to a sugar and one or more phosphate groups is called a nucleotide . A polymer comprising multiple linked nucleotides ( as in DNA ) is called a polynucleotide . The backbone of the DNA strand is made from alternating phosphate and sugar residues . The sugar in DNA is 2 @-@ deoxyribose , which is a pentose ( five @-@ carbon ) sugar . The sugars are joined together by phosphate groups that form phosphodiester bonds between the third and fifth carbon atoms of adjacent sugar rings . These asymmetric bonds mean a strand of DNA has a direction . In a double helix the direction of the nucleotides in one strand is opposite to their direction in the other strand : the strands are antiparallel . The asymmetric ends of DNA strands are called the 5 ′ ( five prime ) and 3 ′ ( three prime ) ends , with the 5 ′ end having a terminal phosphate group and the 3 ′ end a terminal hydroxyl group . One major difference between DNA and RNA is the sugar , with the 2 @-@ deoxyribose in DNA being replaced by the alternative pentose sugar ribose in RNA . The DNA double helix is stabilized primarily by two forces : hydrogen bonds between nucleotides and base @-@ stacking interactions among aromatic nucleobases . In the aqueous environment of the cell , the conjugated π bonds of nucleotide bases align perpendicular to the axis of the DNA molecule , minimizing their interaction with the solvation shell and therefore , the Gibbs free energy . The four bases found in DNA are adenine ( abbreviated A ) , cytosine ( C ) , guanine ( G ) and thymine ( T ) . These four bases are attached to the sugar / phosphate to form the complete nucleotide , as shown for adenosine monophosphate . Adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with cytosine . It was represented by A @-@ T base pairs and G @-@ C base pairs . = = = Nucleobase classification = = = The nucleobases are classified into two types : the purines , A and G , being fused five- and six @-@ membered heterocyclic compounds , and the pyrimidines , the six @-@ membered rings C and T. A fifth pyrimidine nucleobase , uracil ( U ) , usually takes the place of thymine in RNA and differs from thymine by lacking a methyl group on its ring . In addition to RNA and DNA a large number of artificial nucleic acid analogues have also been created to study the properties of nucleic acids , or for use in biotechnology . Uracil is not usually found in DNA , occurring only as a breakdown product of cytosine . However , in a number of bacteriophages – Bacillus subtilis bacteriophages PBS1 and PBS2 and Yersinia bacteriophage piR1 @-@ 37 – thymine has been replaced by uracil . Another phage - Staphylococcal phage S6 - has been identified with a genome where thymine has been replaced by uracil . Base J ( beta @-@ d @-@ glucopyranosyloxymethyluracil ) , a modified form of uracil , is also found in a number of organisms : the flagellates Diplonema and Euglena , and all the kinetoplastid genera . Biosynthesis of J occurs in two steps : in the first step a specific thymidine in DNA is converted into hydroxymethyldeoxyuridine ; in the second HOMedU is glycosylated to form J. Proteins that bind specifically to this base have been identified . These proteins appear to be distant relatives of the Tet1 oncogene that is involved in the pathogenesis of acute myeloid leukemia . J appears to act as a termination signal for RNA polymerase II . = = = Grooves = = = Twin helical strands form the DNA backbone . Another double helix may be found tracing the spaces , or grooves , between the strands . These voids are adjacent to the base pairs and may provide a binding site . As the strands are not symmetrically located with respect to each other , the grooves are unequally sized . One groove , the major groove , is 22 Å wide and the other , the minor groove , is 12 Å wide . The width of the major groove means that the edges of the bases are more accessible in the major groove than in the minor groove . As a result , proteins such as transcription factors that can bind to specific sequences in double @-@ stranded DNA usually make contact with the sides of the bases exposed in the major groove . This situation varies in unusual conformations of DNA within the cell ( see below ) , but the major and minor grooves are always named to reflect the differences in size that would be seen if the DNA is twisted back into the ordinary B form . = = = Base pairing = = = In a DNA double helix , each type of nucleobase on one strand bonds with just one type of nucleobase on the other strand . This is called complementary base pairing . Here , purines form hydrogen bonds to pyrimidines , with adenine bonding only to thymine in two hydrogen bonds , and cytosine bonding only to guanine in three hydrogen bonds . This arrangement of two nucleotides binding together across the double helix is called a base pair . As hydrogen bonds are not covalent , they can be broken and rejoined relatively easily . The two strands of DNA in a double helix can therefore be pulled apart like a zipper , either by a mechanical force or high temperature . As a result of this complementarity , all the information in the double @-@ stranded sequence of a DNA helix is duplicated on each strand , which is vital in DNA replication . Indeed , this reversible and specific interaction between complementary base pairs is critical for all the functions of DNA in living organisms . The two types of base pairs form different numbers of hydrogen bonds , AT forming two hydrogen bonds , and GC forming three hydrogen bonds ( see figures , right ) . DNA with high GC @-@ content is more stable than DNA with low GC @-@ content . As noted above , most DNA molecules are actually two polymer strands , bound together in a helical fashion by noncovalent bonds ; this double stranded structure ( dsDNA ) is maintained largely by the intrastrand base stacking interactions , which are strongest for G , C stacks . The two strands can come apart – a process known as melting – to form two single @-@ stranded DNA molecules ( ssDNA ) molecules . Melting occurs at high temperature , low salt and high pH ( low pH also melts DNA , but since DNA is unstable due to acid depurination , low pH is rarely used ) . The stability of the dsDNA form depends not only on the GC @-@ content ( % G , C basepairs ) but also on sequence ( since stacking is sequence specific ) and also length ( longer molecules are more stable ) . The stability can be measured in various ways ; a common way is the " melting temperature " , which is the temperature at which 50 % of the ds molecules are converted to ss molecules ; melting temperature is dependent on ionic strength and the concentration of DNA . As a result , it is both the percentage of GC base pairs and the overall length of a DNA double helix that determines the strength of the association between the two strands of DNA . Long DNA helices with a high GC @-@ content have stronger @-@ interacting strands , while short helices with high AT content have weaker @-@ interacting strands . In biology , parts of the DNA double helix that need to separate easily , such as the TATAAT Pribnow box in some promoters , tend to have a high AT content , making the strands easier to pull apart . In the laboratory , the strength of this interaction can be measured by finding the temperature necessary to break the hydrogen bonds , their melting temperature ( also called Tm value ) . When all the base pairs in a DNA double helix melt , the strands separate and exist in solution as two entirely independent molecules . These single @-@ stranded DNA molecules ( ssDNA ) have no single common shape , but some conformations are more stable than others . = = = Sense and antisense = = = A DNA sequence is called " sense " if its sequence is the same as that of a messenger RNA copy that is translated into protein . The sequence on the opposite strand is called the " antisense " sequence . Both sense and antisense sequences can exist on different parts of the same strand of DNA ( i.e. both strands can contain both sense and antisense sequences ) . In both prokaryotes and eukaryotes , antisense RNA sequences are produced , but the functions of these RNAs are not entirely clear . One proposal is that antisense RNAs are involved in regulating gene expression through RNA @-@ RNA base pairing . A few DNA sequences in prokaryotes and eukaryotes , and more in plasmids and viruses , blur the distinction between sense and antisense strands by having overlapping genes . In these cases , some DNA sequences do double duty , encoding one protein when read along one strand , and a second protein when read in the opposite direction along the other strand . In bacteria , this overlap may be involved in the regulation of gene transcription , while in viruses , overlapping genes increase the amount of information that can be encoded within the small viral genome . = = = Supercoiling = = = DNA can be twisted like a rope in a process called DNA supercoiling . With DNA in its " relaxed " state , a strand usually circles the axis of the double helix once every 10 @.@ 4 base pairs , but if the DNA is twisted the strands become more tightly or more loosely wound . If the DNA is twisted in the direction of the helix , this is positive supercoiling , and the bases are held more tightly together . If they are twisted in the opposite direction , this is negative supercoiling , and the bases come apart more easily . In nature , most DNA has slight negative supercoiling that is introduced by enzymes called topoisomerases . These enzymes are also needed to relieve the twisting stresses introduced into DNA strands during processes such as transcription and DNA replication . = = = Alternative DNA structures = = = DNA exists in many possible conformations that include A @-@ DNA , B @-@ DNA , and Z @-@ DNA forms , although , only B @-@ DNA and Z @-@ DNA have been directly observed in functional organisms . The conformation that DNA adopts depends on the hydration level , DNA sequence , the amount and direction of supercoiling , chemical modifications of the bases , the type and concentration of metal ions , as well as the presence of polyamines in solution . The first published reports of A @-@ DNA X @-@ ray diffraction patterns — and also B @-@ DNA — used analyses based on Patterson transforms that provided only a limited amount of structural information for oriented fibers of DNA . An alternative analysis was then proposed by Wilkins et al . , in 1953 , for the in vivo B @-@ DNA X @-@ ray diffraction / scattering patterns of highly hydrated DNA fibers in terms of squares of Bessel functions . In the same journal , James Watson and Francis Crick presented their molecular modeling analysis of the DNA X @-@ ray diffraction patterns to suggest that the structure was a double @-@ helix . Although the " B @-@ DNA form " is most common under the conditions found in cells , it is not a well @-@ defined conformation but a family of related DNA conformations that occur at the high hydration levels present in living cells . Their corresponding X @-@ ray diffraction and scattering patterns are characteristic of molecular paracrystals with a significant degree of disorder . Compared to B @-@ DNA , the A @-@ DNA form is a wider right @-@ handed spiral , with a shallow , wide minor groove and a narrower , deeper major groove . The A form occurs under non @-@ physiological conditions in partially dehydrated samples of DNA , while in the cell it may be produced in hybrid pairings of DNA and RNA strands , as well as in enzyme @-@ DNA complexes . Segments of DNA where the bases have been chemically modified by methylation may undergo a larger change in conformation and adopt the Z form . Here , the strands turn about the helical axis in a left @-@ handed spiral , the opposite of the more common B form . These unusual structures can be recognized by specific Z @-@ DNA binding proteins and may be involved in the regulation of transcription . = = = Alternative DNA chemistry = = = For a number of years exobiologists have proposed the existence of a shadow biosphere , a postulated microbial biosphere of Earth that uses radically different biochemical and molecular processes than currently known life . One of the proposals was the existence of lifeforms that use arsenic instead of phosphorus in DNA . A report in 2010 of the possibility in the bacterium GFAJ @-@ 1 , was announced , though the research was disputed , and evidence suggests the bacterium actively prevents the incorporation of arsenic into the DNA backbone and other biomolecules . = = = Quadruplex structures = = = At the ends of the linear chromosomes are specialized regions of DNA called telomeres . The main function of these regions is to allow the cell to replicate chromosome ends using the enzyme telomerase , as the enzymes that normally replicate DNA cannot copy the extreme 3 ′ ends of chromosomes . These specialized chromosome caps also help protect the DNA ends , and stop the DNA repair systems in the cell from treating them as damage to be corrected . In human cells , telomeres are usually lengths of single @-@ stranded DNA containing several thousand repeats of a simple TTAGGG sequence . These guanine @-@ rich sequences may stabilize chromosome ends by forming structures of stacked sets of four @-@ base units , rather than the usual base pairs found in other DNA molecules . Here , four guanine bases form a flat plate and these flat four @-@ base units then stack on top of each other , to form a stable G @-@ quadruplex structure . These structures are stabilized by hydrogen bonding between the edges of the bases and chelation of a metal ion in the centre of each four @-@ base unit . Other structures can also be formed , with the central set of four bases coming from either a single strand folded around the bases , or several different parallel strands , each contributing one base to the central structure . In addition to these stacked structures , telomeres also form large loop structures called telomere loops , or T @-@ loops . Here , the single @-@ stranded DNA curls around in a long circle stabilized by telomere @-@ binding proteins . At the very end of the T @-@ loop , the single @-@ stranded telomere DNA is held onto a region of double @-@ stranded DNA by the telomere strand disrupting the double @-@ helical DNA and base pairing to one of the two strands . This triple @-@ stranded structure is called a displacement loop or D @-@ loop . = = = Branched DNA = = = In DNA , fraying occurs when non @-@ complementary regions exist at the end of an otherwise complementary double @-@ strand of DNA . However , branched DNA can occur if a third strand of DNA is introduced and contains adjoining regions able to hybridize with the frayed regions of the pre @-@ existing double @-@ strand . Although the simplest example of branched DNA involves only three strands of DNA , complexes involving additional strands and multiple branches are also possible . Branched DNA can be used in nanotechnology to construct geometric shapes , see the section on uses in technology below . = = Chemical modifications and altered DNA packaging = = = = = Base modifications and DNA packaging = = = The expression of genes is influenced by how the DNA is packaged in chromosomes , in a structure called chromatin . Base modifications can be involved in packaging , with regions that have low or no gene expression usually containing high levels of methylation of cytosine bases . DNA packaging and its influence on gene expression can also occur by covalent modifications of the histone protein core around which DNA is wrapped in the chromatin structure or else by remodeling carried out by chromatin remodeling complexes ( see Chromatin remodeling ) . There is , further , crosstalk between DNA methylation and histone modification , so they can coordinately affect chromatin and gene expression . For one example , cytosine methylation , produces 5 @-@ methylcytosine , which is important for X @-@ chromosome inactivation . The average level of methylation varies between organisms – the worm Caenorhabditis elegans lacks cytosine methylation , while vertebrates have higher levels , with up to 1 % of their DNA containing 5 @-@ methylcytosine . Despite the importance of 5 @-@ methylcytosine , it can deaminate to leave a thymine base , so methylated cytosines are particularly prone to mutations . Other base modifications include adenine methylation in bacteria , the presence of 5 @-@ hydroxymethylcytosine in the brain , and the glycosylation of uracil to produce the " J @-@ base " in kinetoplastids . = = = Damage = = = DNA can be damaged by many sorts of mutagens , which change the DNA sequence . Mutagens include oxidizing agents , alkylating agents and also high @-@ energy electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light and X @-@ rays . The type of DNA damage produced depends on the type of mutagen . For example , UV light can damage DNA by producing thymine dimers , which are cross @-@ links between pyrimidine bases . On the other hand , oxidants such as free radicals or hydrogen peroxide produce multiple forms of damage , including base modifications , particularly of guanosine , and double @-@ strand breaks . A typical human cell contains about 150 @,@ 000 bases that have suffered oxidative damage . Of these oxidative lesions , the most dangerous are double @-@ strand breaks , as these are difficult to repair and can produce point mutations , insertions and deletions from the DNA sequence , as well as chromosomal translocations . These mutations can cause cancer . Because of inherent limitations in the DNA repair mechanisms , if humans lived long enough , they would all eventually develop cancer . DNA damages that are naturally occurring , due to normal cellular processes that produce reactive oxygen species , the hydrolytic activities of cellular water , etc . , also occur frequently . Although most of these damages are repaired , in any cell some DNA damage may remain despite the action of repair processes . These remaining DNA damages accumulate with age in mammalian postmitotic tissues . This accumulation appears to be an important underlying cause of aging . Many mutagens fit into the space between two adjacent base pairs , this is called intercalation . Most intercalators are aromatic and planar molecules ; examples include ethidium bromide , acridines , daunomycin , and doxorubicin . For an intercalator to fit between base pairs , the bases must separate , distorting the DNA strands by unwinding of the double helix . This inhibits both transcription and DNA replication , causing toxicity and mutations . As a result , DNA intercalators may be carcinogens , and in the case of thalidomide , a teratogen . Others such as benzo [ a ] pyrene diol epoxide and aflatoxin form DNA adducts that induce errors in replication . Nevertheless , due to their ability to inhibit DNA transcription and replication , other similar toxins are also used in chemotherapy to inhibit rapidly growing cancer cells . = = Biological functions = = DNA usually occurs as linear chromosomes in eukaryotes , and circular chromosomes in prokaryotes . The set of chromosomes in a cell makes up its genome ; the human genome has approximately 3 billion base pairs of DNA arranged into 46 chromosomes . The information carried by DNA is held in the sequence of pieces of DNA called genes . Transmission of genetic information in genes is achieved via complementary base pairing . For example , in transcription , when a cell uses the information in a gene , the DNA sequence is copied into a complementary RNA sequence through the attraction between the DNA and the correct RNA nucleotides . Usually , this RNA copy is then used to make a matching protein sequence in a process called translation , which depends on the same interaction between RNA nucleotides . In alternative fashion , a cell may simply copy its genetic information in a process called DNA replication . The details of these functions are covered in other articles ; here the focus is on the interactions between DNA and other molecules that mediate the function of the genome . = = = Genes and genomes = = = Genomic DNA is tightly and orderly packed in the process called DNA condensation to fit the small available volumes of the cell . In eukaryotes , DNA is located in the cell nucleus , as well as small amounts in mitochondria and chloroplasts . In prokaryotes , the DNA is held within an irregularly shaped body in the cytoplasm called the nucleoid . The genetic information in a genome is held within genes , and the complete set of this information in an organism is called its genotype . A gene is a unit of heredity and is a region of DNA that influences a particular characteristic in an organism . Genes contain an open reading frame that can be transcribed , as well as regulatory sequences such as promoters and enhancers , which control the transcription of the open reading frame . In many species , only a small fraction of the total sequence of the genome encodes protein . For example , only about 1 @.@ 5 % of the human genome consists of protein @-@ coding exons , with over 50 % of human DNA consisting of non @-@ coding repetitive sequences . The reasons for the presence of so much noncoding DNA in eukaryotic genomes and the extraordinary differences in genome size , or C @-@ value , among species represent a long @-@ standing puzzle known as the " C @-@ value enigma " . However , some DNA sequences that do not code protein may still encode functional non @-@ coding RNA molecules , which are involved in the regulation of gene expression . Some noncoding DNA sequences play structural roles in chromosomes . Telomeres and centromeres typically contain few genes , but are important for the function and stability of chromosomes . An abundant form of noncoding DNA in humans are pseudogenes , which are copies of genes that have been disabled by mutation . These sequences are usually just molecular fossils , although they can occasionally serve as raw genetic material for the creation of new genes through the process of gene duplication and divergence . = = = Transcription and translation = = = A gene is a sequence of DNA that contains genetic information and can influence the phenotype of an organism . Within a gene , the sequence of bases along a DNA strand defines a messenger RNA sequence , which then defines one or more protein sequences . The relationship between the nucleotide sequences of genes and the amino @-@ acid sequences of proteins is determined by the rules of translation , known collectively as the genetic code . The genetic code consists of three @-@ letter ' words ' called codons formed from a sequence of three nucleotides ( e.g. ACT , CAG , TTT ) . In transcription , the codons of a gene are copied into messenger RNA by RNA polymerase . This RNA copy is then decoded by a ribosome that reads the RNA sequence by base @-@ pairing the messenger RNA to transfer RNA , which carries amino acids . Since there are 4 bases in 3 @-@ letter combinations , there are 64 possible codons ( 43 combinations ) . These encode the twenty standard amino acids , giving most amino acids more than one possible codon . There are also three ' stop ' or ' nonsense ' codons signifying the end of the coding region ; these are the TAA , TGA , and TAG codons . = = = Replication = = = Cell division is essential for an organism to grow , but , when a cell divides , it must replicate the DNA in its genome so that the two daughter cells have the same genetic information as their parent . The double @-@ stranded structure of DNA provides a simple mechanism for DNA replication . Here , the two strands are separated and then each strand 's complementary DNA sequence is recreated by an enzyme called DNA polymerase . This enzyme makes the complementary strand by finding the correct base through complementary base pairing , and bonding it onto the original strand . As DNA polymerases can only extend a DNA strand in a 5 ′ to 3 ′ direction , different mechanisms are used to copy the antiparallel strands of the double helix . In this way , the base on the old strand dictates which base appears on the new strand , and the cell ends up with a perfect copy of its DNA . = = = Extracellular nucleic acids = = = Naked extracellular DNA ( eDNA ) , most of it released by cell death , is nearly ubiquitous in the environment . Its concentration in soil may be as high as 2 μg / L , and its concentration in natural aquatic environments may be as high at 88 μg / L. Various possible functions have been proposed for eDNA : it may be involved in horizontal gene transfer ; it may provide nutrients ; and it may act as a buffer to recruit or titrate ions or antibiotics . Extracellular DNA acts as a functional extracellular matrix component in the biofilms of a number of bacterial species . It may act as a recognition factor to regulate the attachment and dispersal of specific cell types in the biofilm ; it may contribute to biofilm formation ; and it may contribute to the biofilm 's physical strength and resistance to biological stress . = = Interactions with proteins = = All the functions of DNA depend on interactions with proteins . These protein interactions can be non @-@ specific , or the protein can bind specifically to a single DNA sequence . Enzymes can also bind to DNA and of these , the polymerases that copy the DNA base sequence in transcription and DNA replication are particularly important . = = = DNA @-@ binding proteins = = = Structural proteins that bind DNA are well @-@ understood examples of non @-@ specific DNA @-@ protein interactions . Within chromosomes , DNA is held in complexes with structural proteins . These proteins organize the DNA into a compact structure called chromatin . In eukaryotes this structure involves DNA binding to a complex of small basic proteins called histones , while in prokaryotes multiple types of proteins are involved . The histones form a disk @-@ shaped complex called a nucleosome , which contains two complete turns of double @-@ stranded DNA wrapped around its surface . These non @-@ specific interactions are formed through basic residues in the histones making ionic bonds to the acidic sugar @-@ phosphate backbone of the DNA , and are therefore largely independent of the base sequence . Chemical modifications of these basic amino acid residues include methylation , phosphorylation and acetylation . These chemical changes alter the strength of the interaction between the DNA and the histones , making the DNA more or less accessible to transcription factors and changing the rate of transcription . Other non @-@ specific DNA @-@ binding proteins in chromatin include the high @-@ mobility group proteins , which bind to bent or distorted DNA . These proteins are important in bending arrays of nucleosomes and arranging them into the larger structures that make up chromosomes . A distinct group of DNA @-@ binding proteins are the DNA @-@ binding proteins that specifically bind single @-@ stranded DNA . In humans , replication protein A is the best @-@ understood member of this family and is used in processes where the double helix is separated , including DNA replication , recombination and DNA repair . These binding proteins seem to stabilize single @-@ stranded DNA and protect it from forming stem @-@ loops or being degraded by nucleases . In contrast , other proteins have evolved to bind to particular DNA sequences . The most intensively studied of these are the various transcription factors , which are proteins that regulate transcription . Each transcription factor binds to one particular set of DNA sequences and activates or inhibits the transcription of genes that have these sequences close to their promoters . The transcription factors do this in two ways . Firstly , they can bind the RNA polymerase responsible for transcription , either directly or through other mediator proteins ; this locates the polymerase at the promoter and allows it to begin transcription . Alternatively , transcription factors can bind enzymes that modify the histones at the promoter . This changes the accessibility of the DNA template to the polymerase . As these DNA targets can occur throughout an organism 's genome , changes in the activity of one type of transcription factor can affect thousands of genes . Consequently , these proteins are often the targets of the signal transduction processes that control responses to environmental changes or cellular differentiation and development . The specificity of these transcription factors ' interactions with DNA come from the proteins making multiple contacts to the edges of the DNA bases , allowing them to " read " the DNA sequence . Most of these base @-@ interactions are made in the major groove , where the bases are most accessible . = = = DNA @-@ modifying enzymes = = = = = = = Nucleases and ligases = = = = Nucleases are enzymes that cut DNA strands by catalyzing the hydrolysis of the phosphodiester bonds . Nucleases that hydrolyse nucleotides from the ends of DNA strands are called exonucleases , while endonucleases cut within strands . The most frequently used nucleases in molecular biology are the restriction endonucleases , which cut DNA at specific sequences . For instance , the EcoRV enzyme shown to the left recognizes the 6 @-@ base sequence 5 ′ -GATATC @-@ 3 ′ and makes a cut at the vertical line . In nature , these enzymes protect bacteria against phage infection by digesting the phage DNA when it enters the bacterial cell , acting as part of the restriction modification system . In technology , these sequence @-@ specific nucleases are used in molecular cloning and DNA fingerprinting . Enzymes called DNA ligases can rejoin cut or broken DNA strands . Ligases are particularly important in lagging strand DNA replication , as they join together the short segments of DNA produced at the replication fork into a complete copy of the DNA template . They are also used in DNA repair and genetic recombination . = = = = Topoisomerases and helicases = = = = Topoisomerases are enzymes with both nuclease and ligase activity . These proteins change the amount of supercoiling in DNA . Some of these enzymes work by cutting the DNA helix and allowing one section to rotate , thereby reducing its level of supercoiling ; the enzyme then seals the DNA break . Other types of these enzymes are capable of cutting one DNA helix and then passing a second strand of DNA through this break , before rejoining the helix . Topoisomerases are required for many processes involving DNA , such as DNA replication and transcription . Helicases are proteins that are a type of molecular motor . They use the chemical energy in nucleoside triphosphates , predominantly ATP , to break hydrogen bonds between bases and unwind the DNA double helix into single strands . These enzymes are essential for most processes where enzymes need to access the DNA bases . = = = = Polymerases = = = = Polymerases are enzymes that synthesize polynucleotide chains from nucleoside triphosphates . The sequence of their products are created based on existing polynucleotide chains — which are called templates . These enzymes function by repeatedly adding a nucleotide to the 3 ′ hydroxyl group at the end of the growing polynucleotide chain . As a consequence , all polymerases work in a 5 ′ to 3 ′ direction . In the active site of these enzymes , the incoming nucleoside triphosphate base @-@ pairs to the template : this allows polymerases to accurately synthesize the complementary strand of their template . Polymerases are classified according to the type of template that they use . In DNA replication , DNA @-@ dependent DNA polymerases make copies of DNA polynucleotide chains . In order to preserve biological information , it is essential that the sequence of bases in each copy are precisely complementary to the sequence of bases in the template strand . Many DNA polymerases have a proofreading activity . Here , the polymerase recognizes the occasional mistakes in the synthesis reaction by the lack of base pairing between the mismatched nucleotides . If a mismatch is detected , a 3 ′ to 5 ′ exonuclease activity is activated and the incorrect base removed . In most organisms , DNA polymerases function in a large complex called the replisome that contains multiple accessory subunits , such as the DNA clamp or helicases . RNA @-@ dependent DNA polymerases are a specialized class of polymerases that copy the sequence of an RNA strand into DNA . They include reverse transcriptase , which is a viral enzyme involved in the infection of cells by retroviruses , and telomerase , which is required for the replication of telomeres . Telomerase is an unusual polymerase because it contains its own RNA template as part of its structure . Transcription is carried out by a DNA @-@ dependent RNA polymerase that copies the sequence of a DNA strand into RNA . To begin transcribing a gene , the RNA polymerase binds to a sequence of DNA called a promoter and separates the DNA strands . It then copies the gene sequence into a messenger RNA transcript until it reaches a region of DNA called the terminator , where it halts and detaches from the DNA . As with human DNA @-@ dependent DNA polymerases , RNA polymerase II , the enzyme that transcribes most of the genes in the human genome , operates as part of a large protein complex with multiple regulatory and accessory subunits . = = Genetic recombination = = A DNA helix usually does not interact with other segments of DNA , and in human cells the different chromosomes even occupy separate areas in the nucleus called " chromosome territories " . This physical separation of different chromosomes is important for the ability of DNA to function as a stable repository for information , as one of the few times chromosomes interact is in chromosomal crossover which occurs during sexual reproduction , when genetic recombination occurs . Chromosomal crossover is when two DNA helices break , swap a section and then rejoin . Recombination allows chromosomes to exchange genetic information and produces new combinations of genes , which increases the efficiency of natural selection and can be important in the rapid evolution of new proteins . Genetic recombination can also be involved in DNA repair , particularly in the cell 's response to double @-@ strand breaks . The most common form of chromosomal crossover is homologous recombination , where the two chromosomes involved share very similar sequences . Non @-@ homologous recombination can be damaging to cells , as it can produce chromosomal translocations and genetic abnormalities . The recombination reaction is catalyzed by enzymes known as recombinases , such as RAD51 . The first step in recombination is a double @-@ stranded break caused by either an endonuclease or damage to the DNA . A series of steps catalyzed in part by the recombinase then leads to joining of the two helices by at least one Holliday junction , in which a segment of a single strand in each helix is annealed to the complementary strand in the other helix . The Holliday junction is a tetrahedral junction structure that can be moved along the pair of chromosomes , swapping one strand for another . The recombination reaction is then halted by cleavage of the junction and re @-@ ligation of the released DNA . = = Evolution = = DNA contains the genetic information that allows all modern living things to function , grow and reproduce . However , it is unclear how long in the 4 @-@ billion @-@ year history of life DNA has performed this function , as it has been proposed that the earliest forms of life may have used RNA as their genetic material . RNA may have acted as the central part of early cell metabolism as it can both transmit genetic information and carry out catalysis as part of ribozymes . This ancient RNA world where nucleic acid would have been used for both catalysis and genetics may have influenced the evolution of the current genetic code based on four nucleotide bases . This would occur , since the number of different bases in such an organism is a trade @-@ off between a small number of bases increasing replication accuracy and a large number of bases increasing the catalytic efficiency of ribozymes . However , there is no direct evidence of ancient genetic systems , as recovery of DNA from most fossils is impossible because DNA survives in the environment for less than one million years , and slowly degrades into short fragments in solution . Claims for older DNA have been made , most notably a report of the isolation of a viable bacterium from a salt crystal 250 million years old , but these claims are controversial . Building blocks of DNA ( adenine , guanine and related organic molecules ) may have been formed extraterrestrially in outer space . Complex DNA and RNA organic compounds of life , including uracil , cytosine and thymine , have also been formed in the laboratory under conditions mimicking those found in outer space , using starting chemicals , such as pyrimidine , found in meteorites . Pyrimidine , like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ( PAHs ) , the most carbon @-@ rich chemical found in the universe , may have been formed in red giants or in interstellar dust and gas clouds . = = Uses in technology = = = = = Genetic engineering = = = Methods have been developed to purify DNA from organisms , such as phenol @-@ chloroform extraction , and to manipulate it in the laboratory , such as restriction digests and the polymerase chain reaction . Modern biology and biochemistry make intensive use of these techniques in recombinant DNA technology . Recombinant DNA is a man @-@ made DNA sequence that has been assembled from other DNA sequences . They can be transformed into organisms in the form of plasmids or in the appropriate format , by using a viral vector . The genetically modified organisms produced can be used to produce products such as recombinant proteins , used in medical research , or be grown in agriculture . = = = DNA profiling = = = Forensic scientists can use DNA in blood , semen , skin , saliva or hair found at a crime scene to identify a matching DNA of an individual , such as a perpetrator . This process is formally termed DNA profiling , but may also be called " genetic fingerprinting " . In DNA profiling , the lengths of variable sections of repetitive DNA , such as short tandem repeats and minisatellites , are compared between people . This method is usually an extremely reliable technique for identifying a matching DNA . However , identification can be complicated if the scene is contaminated with DNA from several people . DNA profiling was developed in 1984 by British geneticist Sir Alec Jeffreys , and first used in forensic science to convict Colin Pitchfork in the 1988 Enderby murders case . The development of forensic science , and the ability to now obtain genetic matching on minute samples of blood , skin , saliva or hair has led to a re @-@ examination of a number of cases . Evidence can now be uncovered that was not scientifically possible at the time of the original examination . Combined with the removal of the double jeopardy law in some places , this can allow cases to be reopened where previous trials have failed to produce sufficient evidence to convince a jury . People charged with serious crimes may be required to provide a sample of DNA for matching purposes . The most obvious defence to DNA matches obtained forensically is to claim that cross @-@ contamination of evidence has taken place . This has resulted in meticulous strict handling procedures with new cases of serious crime . DNA profiling is also used to identify victims of mass casualty incidents . As well as positively identifying bodies or body parts in serious accidents , DNA profiling is being successfully used to identify individual victims in mass war graves – matching to family members . DNA profiling is also used in DNA paternity testing in order to determine if someone is the biologicalparent or grandparent of a child with the probability of parentage is typically 99 @.@ 99 % when the alleged parent is biologically related to the child . Normal DNA sequencing methods happen after birth but there are new methods to test paternity while the mother is still pregnant . = = = DNA enzymes or catalytic DNA = = = Deoxyribozymes , also called DNAzymes or catalytic DNA are first discovered in 1994 . They are mostly single stranded DNA sequences isolated from a large pool of random DNA sequences through a combinatorial approach called in vitro selection or SELEX . DNAzymes catalyze variety of chemical reactions including RNA / DNA cleavage , RNA / DNA ligation , amino acids phosphorylation / dephosphorylation , carbon @-@ carbon bond formation , and etc . DNAzymes can enhance catalytic rate of chemical reactions up to 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 @-@ fold over the uncatalyzed reaction . The most extensively studied class of DNAzymes are RNA @-@ cleaving DNAzymes which have been used in detection of different metal ions and designing therapeutic agents . Several metal @-@ specific DNAzymes have been reported including the GR @-@ 5 DNAzyme ( lead @-@ specific ) , the CA1 @-@ 3 DNAzymes ( copper @-@ specific ) , the 39E DNAzyme ( uranyl @-@ specific ) and the NaA43 DNAzyme ( sodium @-@ specific ) . The NaA43 DNAzyme , which is reported to be more than 10 @,@ 000 @-@ fold selective for sodium over other metal ions , was used to make a real @-@ time sodium sensor in living cells . = = = Bioinformatics = = = Bioinformatics involves the development of techniques to store , data mine , search and manipulate biological data , including DNA nucleic acid sequence data . These have led to widely applied advances in computer science , especially string searching algorithms , machine learning and database theory . String searching or matching algorithms , which find an occurrence of a sequence of letters inside a larger sequence of letters , were developed to search for specific sequences of nucleotides . The DNA sequence may be aligned with other DNA sequences to identify homologous sequences and locate the specific mutations that make them distinct . These techniques , especially multiple sequence alignment , are used in studying phylogenetic relationships and protein function . Data sets representing entire genomes ' worth of DNA sequences , such as those produced by the Human Genome Project , are difficult to use without the annotations that identify the locations of genes and regulatory elements on each chromosome . Regions of DNA sequence that have the characteristic patterns associated with protein- or RNA @-@ coding genes can be identified by gene finding algorithms , which allow researchers to predict the presence of particular gene products and their possible functions in an organism even before they have been isolated experimentally . Entire genomes may also be compared , which can shed light on the evolutionary history of particular organism and permit the examination of complex evolutionary events . = = = DNA nanotechnology = = = DNA nanotechnology uses the unique molecular recognition properties of DNA and other nucleic acids to create self @-@ assembling branched DNA complexes with useful properties . DNA is thus used as a structural material rather than as a carrier of biological information . This has led to the creation of two @-@ dimensional periodic lattices ( both tile @-@ based and using the " DNA origami " method ) as well as three @-@ dimensional structures in the shapes of polyhedra . Nanomechanical devices and algorithmic self @-@ assembly have also been demonstrated , and these DNA structures have been used to template the arrangement of other molecules such as gold nanoparticles and streptavidin proteins . = = = History and anthropology = = = Because DNA collects mutations over time , which are then inherited , it contains historical information , and , by comparing DNA sequences , geneticists can infer the evolutionary history of organisms , their phylogeny . This field of phylogenetics is a powerful tool in evolutionary biology . If DNA sequences within a species are compared , population geneticists can learn the history of particular populations . This can be used in studies ranging from ecological genetics to anthropology ; For example , DNA evidence is being used to try to identify the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel . = = = Information storage = = = In a paper published in Nature in January 2013 , scientists from the European Bioinformatics Institute and Agilent Technologies proposed a mechanism to use DNA 's ability to code information as a means of digital data storage . The group was able to encode 739 kilobytes of data into DNA code , synthesize the actual DNA , then sequence the DNA and decode the information back to its original form , with a reported 100 % accuracy . The encoded information consisted of text files and audio files . A prior experiment was published in August 2012 . It was conducted by researchers at Harvard University , where the text of a 54 @,@ 000 @-@ word book was encoded in DNA . = = History of DNA research = = DNA was first isolated by the Swiss physician Friedrich Miescher who , in 1869 , discovered a microscopic substance in the pus of discarded surgical bandages . As it resided in the nuclei of cells , he called it " nuclein " . In 1878 , Albrecht Kossel isolated the non @-@ protein component of " nuclein " , nucleic acid , and later isolated its five primary nucleobases . In 1919 , Phoebus Levene identified the base , sugar and phosphate nucleotide unit . Levene suggested that DNA consisted of a string of nucleotide units linked together through the phosphate groups . Levene thought the chain was short and the bases repeated in a fixed order . In 1937 , William Astbury produced the first X @-@ ray diffraction patterns that showed that DNA had a regular structure . In 1927 , Nikolai Koltsov proposed that inherited traits would be inherited via a " giant hereditary molecule " made up of " two mirror strands that would replicate in a semi @-@ conservative fashion using each strand as a template " . In 1928 , Frederick Griffith in his experiment discovered that traits of the " smooth " form of Pneumococcus could be transferred to the " rough " form of the same bacteria by mixing killed " smooth " bacteria with the live " rough " form . This system provided the first clear suggestion that DNA carries genetic information — the Avery – MacLeod – McCarty experiment — when Oswald Avery , along with coworkers Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty , identified DNA as the transforming principle in 1943 . DNA 's role in heredity was confirmed in 1952 , when Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase in the Hershey – Chase experiment showed that DNA is the genetic material of the T2 phage . In 1953 , James Watson and Francis Crick suggested what is now accepted as the first correct double @-@ helix model of DNA structure in the journal Nature . Their double @-@ helix , molecular model of DNA was then based on a single X @-@ ray diffraction image ( labeled as " Photo 51 " ) taken by Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling in May 1952 , as well as the information that the DNA bases are paired . Experimental evidence supporting the Watson and Crick model was published in a series of five articles in the same issue of Nature . Of these , Franklin and Gosling 's paper was the first publication of their own X @-@ ray diffraction data and original analysis method that partially supported the Watson and Crick model ; this issue also contained an article on DNA structure by Maurice Wilkins and two of his colleagues , whose analysis and in vivo B @-@ DNA X @-@ ray patterns also supported the presence in vivo of the double @-@ helical DNA configurations as proposed by Crick and Watson for their double @-@ helix molecular model of DNA in the previous two pages of Nature . In 1962 , after Franklin 's death , Watson , Crick , and Wilkins jointly received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . Nobel Prizes are awarded only to living recipients . A debate continues about who should receive credit for the discovery . In an influential presentation in 1957 , Crick laid out the central dogma of molecular biology , which foretold the relationship between DNA , RNA , and proteins , and articulated the " adaptor hypothesis " . Final confirmation of the replication mechanism that was implied by the double @-@ helical structure followed in 1958 through the Meselson – Stahl experiment . Further work by Crick and coworkers showed that the genetic code was based on non @-@ overlapping triplets of bases , called codons , allowing Har Gobind Khorana , Robert W. Holley and Marshall Warren Nirenberg to decipher the genetic code . These findings represent the birth of molecular biology .
= Florence Nagle = Florence Nagle ( 26 October 1894 – 30 October 1988 ) was a trainer and breeder of racehorses , a breeder of pedigree dogs , and an active feminist . Nagle purchased her first Irish Wolfhound in 1913 , and went on to own or breed twenty @-@ one United Kingdom Champions . Best in Show at Crufts in 1960 was awarded to Sulhamstead Merman , who was bred , owned and exhibited by Nagle . She also competed successfully in field trials with Irish Setters , from the 1920s until the mid @-@ 1960s resulting in eighteen Field Trial Champions . The male dog who was a linchpin in the 1970s revival of the Irish Red and White Setter breed was descended from one of Nagle 's Irish Setters . Described as " the Mrs Pankhurst of British horse racing " , Nagle trained her first racehorse in 1920 , the Irish @-@ bred colt Fernley . At that time women were forced to employ men to hold a Jockey Club trainers licence on their behalf , or to have licences in their husbands ' names . Nagle worked peacefully to redress such injustices to her sex . She successfully challenged the well @-@ established leading gentlemen 's clubs of the racing and canine worlds over their gender inequality , and in 1966 became one of the first two women in the United Kingdom licensed to train racehorses . The first racehorse officially trained in Nagle 's name was Mahwa , registered as being owned by her friend Miss Newton Deakin , with whom she jointly owned some of her dogs . Dissatisfied with the lack of opportunities for women jockeys , Nagle sponsored the Florence Nagle Girl Apprentices ' Handicap first run in 1986 at Kempton Park . She died at her home in West Chiltington , Sussex , two years later at the age of 94 , leaving funds in her will for the continuation of the race . = = Background and early life = = Born in Fallowfield , Manchester , Nagle was the daughter of Sir William George Watson , 1st Baronet of Sulhamstead ( 1861 – 1930 ) and his second wife Bessie ( née Atkinson ) ; she was also the elder sister of art connoisseur Peter Watson . Nagle was educated at Wycombe Abbey before studying domestic economy at Evendine Court , from which she was expelled after visiting Worcester Cathedral without permission . Accompanied by the daughter of a canon , Nagle had hired a car for the excursion – she was one of the first women in Berkshire to hold a driving licence , gaining it when she was fifteen years old . Her education was completed at a finishing school after which she spent some time in Paris , where she became friends with Megan Lloyd George . Sulhamstead Abbots , Nagle 's family home in Berkshire , was used as a hospital during the First World War . There she met James Nagle , a native of Ireland who had emigrated to Canada but returned to serve with the King 's Royal Rifle Corps and then had been sent to Sulhamstead Abbots to recuperate . Against her parents ' wishes the couple were married on 1 July 1916 , resulting in them threatening to disinherit her . The early days of Nagle 's marriage were hard ; she was used to a wealthy lifestyle – her family money came from her father 's successful business , Maypole Dairies – but her parents offered the couple no financial assistance . Nagle always worked hard and subsidised their income by making cream teas , cleaning windows and scrubbing toilets . The couple had two children , a son , David , and a daughter , Patricia . The marriage was not a success , and her husband ran off with one of the kennel maids . Obtaining a divorce was not easy in the 1920s ; when asked in court for the reason James left , Nagle answered " He must have got bored with me . " The divorce took place in 1928 , five years before her husband 's death . At the time of the divorce she was living on a smallholding near Headley , but returned to Sulhamstead in 1932 after inheriting land and money from Sir William . Ten years later , in 1942 , she purchased Westerlands , a farm in Petworth , so she could personally oversee the stables . Working in Folkestone during the Second World War , Nagle managed a canteen for the ARP . She also donated the full cost of £ 5 @,@ 000 to purchase a Spitfire named Sulhamstead for the Royal Air Force . = = Dog breeding = = As a child , Nagle had a Pomeranian and a Bulldog , but was promised she could have a larger dog once her schooling was completed . In 1913 her dream came to fruition with the purchase of her first Irish Wolfhound , Manin Michael , for £ 5 . James Nagle subsequently registered the dog with the Kennel Club , before it was transferred to the ownership of Mr and Mrs Nagle , and its name changed to Sir Michael of Sheppey in May 1917 . Food shortages during the First World War resulted in an official prohibition on dog breeding , but Nagle ignored it and bred her first litter from a bitch called Lady Alma of Sheppey . During her marriage , while residing in Concara , Sulhamstead , near Reading , she began breeding dogs and served as a judge of Irish Wolfhounds and Setters ; Great Danes and Deerhounds were other breeds she judged at championship show level . Her dogs were exhibited at shows by her husband , who was also a judge of Wolfhounds , and they were entered in his name until the couple divorced . A bitch puppy , the runt of the litter , was purchased for £ 48 in 1923 and she became Nagle 's first dog to gain the title of Champion . Named Sulhamstead Thelma , she was declared the best Irish Wolfhound bitch and awarded the Challenge Certificate at three consecutive Crufts , in 1925 , 1926 and 1927 . Her next Champion was Sulhamstead Conncara , a male dog , born in 1925 . Conncara was blind , possibly owing to an accident as a young puppy , but Nagle kept that secret until three years after his death , believing that his qualities would have been overlooked by other breeders if they had known . According to Nagle 's biographer , Ferelith Somerfield , this dog was " one of the great sires of all time in the breed " and an " outstanding show dog " . A prepotent sire , he produced several Champions and other top @-@ class show specimens . Nagle owned or bred forty @-@ five Wolfhounds who were awarded Challenge Certificates , twenty @-@ one of them Champions . She believed dogs should be capable of carrying out the work the breed was developed to do , and she promoted coursing . Irish Wolfhounds bred by Nagle were also successful in America ; she began exporting dogs there in 1933 . Best of breed awards at the Irish Wolfhound Club of America speciality shows were secured by Champion Sulhamstead Matador of Killybracken in 1960 and by Sulhamstead Mars of Riverlawn in 1963 . She also judged the national speciality there twice and judged Irish Setters and Irish Wolfhounds at Westminster in 1937 . Other countries she exported Wolfhounds to included Sweden , Italy and Uruguay . As late as 1960 , Sulhamstead Merman , a 150 @-@ pound Irish Wolfhound bred , owned and shown by Nagle at " London 's big dog show " , Crufts , won the Hound Group and went on to be declared Best in Show or " supreme champion " ; the judges were H. S. Lloyd and Fred Cross . She judged the breed twice at Crufts : in 1961 , the only time in a nine @-@ year period her dogs were not best of breed there ; and in 1970 . Nagle acquired her first Irish Setter , whom she named Sulhamstead D 'Or , in 1924 to keep a wolfhound puppy company . In April 1930 she entered him into the All @-@ Aged Stakes at the Kennel Club field trials . In August 1932 she entered a dog named Sulhamstead Token D 'Or into the Scottish Field Trials in the same category . At the Kennel Club field trials of April 1933 , Nagle entered Sulhamstead Bob D 'Or into the All @-@ Aged Stakes and the judge awarded her the prize presented by the Irish Setter Association of England . In September 1934 , she entered her Irish Setter Sulhamstead Snip D 'Or into the Novice Stake of the Devon and Cornwall Pointer and Setter Society 's 12th working trials at Pynes , near Exeter . In July 1935 Nagle entered the field trials of the Irish Setter Association near Ruabon in North Wales , competing in the Open Stake for Irish Setters and the Puppy Stake for Irish Setters , for puppies which were born the previous year . At the 35th International Gun Dog League trials held at Douglas Castle in August 1935 , she was awarded a diploma in the Champion Stakes for Pointers and Setters . The following month , Nagle took the silver perpetual challenge trophy in the Open Stake of the field trials of the Devon and Cornwall Pointer and Setter Society at Newlyn , near Newquay , competing with her Irish Setter Sulhamstead Baffle D 'Or . At the Kennel Club field trials for pointers and setters in April 1936 , she entered Sulhamstead Bluff D 'Or into the All @-@ Aged Stake and was awarded the Penheale Challenge Cup by Captain N. R. Colville for the " best constitutioned dog or bitch , displaying the greatest game @-@ finding ability " . At the 18th annual Scottish Field Trial Association 's field trials for pointers and setters at Yester estate in Gifford , East Lothian , Scotland in August 1936 , Nagle won first prize in the Brace Stake with Sulhamstead Bluff D 'Or . The Kennel Club own a pastel painting by Cecil Aldin of two of Nagle 's Irish Setters , the Field Trial Champions Sulhamstead Sheilin D 'Or and Sulhamstead Valla D 'Or . Field trials saw a general downturn in popularity of Irish Setters competing in the 1930s ; during the following decade the breed was principally represented by Nagle 's dogs . Nagle had eighteen Irish Setter field trial champions during the period she was active in the breed from the 1920s to the mid @-@ 1960s . The male dog Harlequin of Knockalla was pivotal in the revival of the Irish Red and White Setter breed in the 1970s ; he was a descendant of Nagle 's Irish Setter Sulhamstead Natty D 'Or , so the Sulhamstead bloodline is behind most modern day red and whites . Nagle withdrew from the field @-@ trial scene in the mid @-@ 1960s following the retirement of her handler , George Abbott . Other breeds she owned included Golden Retrievers and Pointers . Nagle 's activities were not confined to dogs and horses . A Berkshire boar named Pamber Ugly Duckling was champion at the Royal Show in 1921 . Later he was exported to Argentina , after the purchaser paid what at the time was a record price of £ 750 . During the 1930s she owned Prince Everett of Auchterarder , a prize @-@ winning Aberdeen Angus . = = Racehorse training and breeding = = According to the Encyclopedia of British Horseracing , Nagle trained her first racehorse in 1920 , the Irish @-@ bred colt Fernley . Her fascination with the sport stemmed from a much earlier time pre @-@ dating her decision to concentrate on breeding dogs but it was particularly the breeding aspect of racehorses she was drawn to . Nagle owned the winner of the Newport Nursery Handicap in 1932 , a horse named Solano , and a reporter recorded that " While Solano is not Mrs Nagle 's first winner , it is some years since the ' rifle green , red cross @-@ belts ' caught the judge 's eye " . On 5 July 1935 , she entered her racehorse Comanche at Newmarket . Nagle entered the Epsom Derby in 1937 ; that horse , Sandsprite , ridden by John Crouch at odds of 100 – 1 , finished second to Mid @-@ day Sun , owned by Mrs Lettice Miller , the first woman owner ever to win the Derby . This was the first horse Nagle bred herself and reactions from commentators were mixed . One report described the horse as a " commanding individual " , whereas another reporter 's opposing opinion was revealed by Nagle when after Sandsprite 's success at Epsom she stated " Not bad for a horse which one newspaper said was only good enough to give rides at the seaside " . Sandsprite 's dam was Wood Nymph , a mare purchased by Nagle for 240 guineas . She wanted to have her mated by the stallion Sansovino but had to settle for using his son , Sandwich , as she could not afford his stud fee . Sandsprite had several other outings in which he gained second or third placings , but was put down at the onset of his stud career after breaking a leg . One of Nagle 's early equine purchases was 15 @-@ year @-@ old Rose of England , the winner of the 1930 Oaks , for 3 @,@ 500 guineas . The mare had already produced the 1937 St. Leger winner , Chulmleigh , and the 1939 top winning two @-@ year @-@ old , British Empire . In Nagle 's ownership she foaled Westerlands Rose , by the stallion Colombo who produced several winners . These included Westerlands Chalice , by Chamossaire , who won three races in 1957 ; and Game Rose , by Big Game , another winner during the 1950s . Other winning progeny from Westerlands Rose were Westerlands Champagne , Westerlands Prince and Westerlands Rosebud . These five horses accounted for ten race wins between them . At the December Newmarket sales in 1944 Nagle bought the two @-@ year old Carpatica , by the Epsom Derby winner , Hyperion out of Campanula , the 1 @,@ 000 Guineas Stakes winner , for a record 15 @,@ 000 guineas with the intention of looking after the filly 's training at her stables in Petworth . She also bought a five @-@ year @-@ old mare in foal , Hay Harvest , for 5 @,@ 500 guineas . When bred to Sayajirao , Carpatica produced the 1950s winner , Cavina . One of the main winners in the Nagle stables in the early 1960s was Gelert , trained by Nagle and owned by Miss Newton Deakin . Sired by Owen Tudor out of Westerlands Rosebud , he won a race at Ascot . His dam had been successfully raced in the early 1950s and then proved herself as a useful brood . In the first half of the 20th century women trainers were not unknown – Norah Wilmot was training horses for The Queen . But women trained in an unofficial capacity , and were forced to employ men to hold the training licence on their behalf , or to have licences in their husbands ' names . Thus , beginning in 1932 , the divorced Nagle employed Alfred Stickley , a licensed trainer , to work at her stables in the capacity of head lad . Mahwa , by Match III out of Media , was owned by Newton Deakin and was the first winning horse to be officially listed as trained by Nagle . As late as 1975 , she trained twelve horses and recommended feeding them some seaweed to provide iodine . She was also a great believer in the beneficial effects of fresh air , insisting that her horses ' top stable doors were permanently left open . She was vehemently opposed to the vaccination of horses against equine influenza , and challenged a Jockey Club decision to make vaccination compulsory . She thought the hardest part of animal breeding was " to breed for ' guts ' . You can produce lovely looking animals that go well – till they are on a race course with a stiff race to win . " = = Activism = = For twenty years Nagle worked to end the Jockey Club 's ban on licensing women as race horse trainers , which she saw as an injustice : eventually , frustrated by the Jockey Club 's persistent refusal to grant training licences to women , Nagle sought legal redress . It has been suggested that the club used its considerable influence within the Establishment to have her claim blocked twice . Her fight finally reached the Court of Appeal in 1966 . Following her third appearance in court , Nagle emerged victorious . The verdict of the three presiding judges , Lord Denning , Lord Justice Dankwerts and Lord Justice Salmon , was , in the words of Lord Denning , that " If she is to carry on her trade without stooping to subterfuge she has to have a licence . " Lord Denning went on to describe the refusal to grant Nagle a training licence as " arbitrary and capricious " , and Lord Justice Danckwerts called it " restrictive and nonsensical " . Of the Jockey Club itself , Lord Justice Danckwerts went on to pronounce that " The courts have the right to protect the right of a person to work when it is being prevented by the dictatorial powers of a body which holds a monopoly . " All three judges also referred to the Sex Disqualification ( Removal ) Act 1919 . Faced with the court 's damning and embarrassing decision , the Jockey Club capitulated , and on 3 August 1966 Florence Nagle and Norah Wilmot became the first women in Britain to receive licences to train racehorses . Nagle credited herself with " dragging the Jockey Club into the twentieth century " . She said : " This was a matter of principle . I am a feminist . I believe in equal rights for women . Things should be decided by ability , not sex " . At odds with Nagle 's view , in her court case Lord Justice Salmon commented that " No doubt there are occupations , such as boxing , which may be reasonably regarded inherently unsuitable for women " , and Lord Denning had gone on to say that " It is not as if the training of horses could be regarded as an unsuitable occupation for a woman , like that of a jockey or speedway @-@ rider " ; it was another eight years before Jockey Club rules permitted women jockeys in 1972 . When asked by a journalist in the late 1970s if she thought women could ever match men on the racecourse , Nagle replied : " My dear man , it used to be said women couldn 't stand up to three @-@ day @-@ eventing . Now they 're beating the men regularly – and the same will happen in racing . Give them time . " Her endeavours led to her being described as " the Mrs Pankhurst of British horse racing " in Stud & Stable Magazine and " Racing 's Emily Pankhurst " . At the age of 83 Nagle was still pursuing gender equality , accusing the Kennel Club of sexual discrimination in their insistence on male @-@ only membership and taking them to court over the matter . After the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 was enacted , Nagle was proposed as a member of the Kennel Club at the end of September 1977 ; the nomination was refused in January 1978 because the Kennel Club 's constitution restricted membership to men only . Nagle referred the matter to an Industrial Tribunal five months later . She was Chairwoman of the Ladies Joint Committee , a group set up in 1975 as a part of the Kennel Club hierarchy , but the committee was not allowed any input into general club decisions . Her actions against the club were fully supported by the other members of the Ladies Committee . Legal technicalities caused the tribunal to reject the case , but it recommended that the Equal Opportunities Commission should be approached as discrimination was clearly demonstrated . Nagle was determined and stated her intention to appeal the decision . Leonard Pagliero was Chairman of the Kennel Club at the time , and before Nagle was able to complete the appeal he contacted the canine press , Dog World and Our Dogs , on 8 September 1978 announcing that the Club 's General Committee was recommending that the club 's constitution be changed to allow women members . The proposal was carried unanimously at a meeting held on 23 November 1978 . The result was that Nagle and many other ladies were accepted as members of the Kennel Club at a formal meeting held on 10 April 1979 . The total number of women approved for membership at the landmark meeting was 80 ; the costs of the campaign were funded by Nagle . = = Later life = = In the 1980s , still dissatisfied with the lack of opportunities for women jockeys , Nagle sponsored a race at Kempton Park , The Florence Nagle Girl Apprentices ' Handicap . The first event took place in 1986 ; after the race John Oaksey wrote in the Daily Telegraph that Nagle was no doubt looking down from her celestial cloud with approval . She subsequently wrote to inform him that she was still alive , but that when the time came she expected to end up in a hotter place – " and there to meet most of her racing friends " . Nagle left a bequest in her will to ensure the race 's survival . Nagle died at her home , Little Mayfield in West Chiltington , Sussex , at the age of 94 .
= Hurricane Claudette ( 2003 ) = Hurricane Claudette was the third tropical storm and first hurricane of the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season . A fairly long @-@ lived July Atlantic hurricane , Claudette began as a tropical wave in the eastern Caribbean . It moved quickly westward , brushing past the Yucatán Peninsula before moving northwestward through the Gulf of Mexico . Claudette remained a tropical storm until just before making landfall in Port O 'Connor , Texas , when it quickly strengthened to a strong Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . Forecasting of its path and intensity was uncertain throughout its lifetime , resulting in widespread and often unnecessary preparations along its path . Claudette was the first hurricane to make landfall in July in the United States since Hurricane Danny in the 1997 season . The hurricane caused one death and moderate damage in Texas , mostly from strong winds , as well as extensive beach erosion . Because of the damage , President George W. Bush declared portions of South Texas a Federal Disaster Area , allowing the affected citizens to apply for aid . Claudette also caused significant rainfall and minor damage in the Mexican state of Quintana Roo as a tropical storm , as well as minor damage on Saint Lucia before developing into a tropical cyclone . = = Meteorological history = = A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on July 1 . It steadily organized as it moved westward , and resembled a tropical depression by July 7 . However , surface reports and reconnaissance aircraft indicated the system did not have tropical characteristics , and remained simply a low @-@ pressure system . The wave produced tropical storm @-@ force winds as it moved through the Lesser Antilles on July 8 , but did not acquire tropical characteristics until it reached the eastern Caribbean . Because it had tropical storm @-@ force winds , the system was upgraded immediately to Tropical Storm Claudette after it developed a low @-@ level circulation later on July 8 . By early on July 9 , while south of Puerto Rico , Claudette quickly strengthened over the warm waters of the Caribbean , and its strongest winds were just shy of the threshold for hurricane intensity . Possibly due to its fast forward motion , the storm became disorganized and weakened . Conditions briefly became more favorable over the western Caribbean , and Claudette reached hurricane status for six hours on July 10 . Soon after , the storm encountered unfavorable upper @-@ level winds and weakened back into a tropical storm . In response to a break in the subtropical ridge — a high @-@ pressure ridge that often prevents tropical systems from moving northward — it turned to the west @-@ northwest . Claudette made its first landfall at Puerto Morelos on the Yucatán Peninsula on July 11 as a tropical storm with 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) winds . Claudette wobbled to the northwest over the Gulf of Mexico and gradually restrengthened . Upper @-@ level winds steadily decreased , and Claudette again became a hurricane late on July 14 . Just prior to landfall , it strengthened quickly and picked up its forward motion in a more westerly direction , striking Port O 'Connor , Texas , on July 15 as a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale with 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) winds . Residents along and inland of the central Texas coast were caught off guard both by its intensity and its time of arrival . The hurricane was projected to make landfall in the evening hours of July 15 , but instead came ashore before noon . Furthermore , some initial estimates suggested that Claudette had reached Category 2 status , with sustained winds of up to 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) ; these were based on unofficial observations which were not backed up by official data . As slow as Claudette was to strengthen , it was also slow to dissipate over land . Inland hurricane warnings were issued for several counties away from the coastline and winds gusted to 83 mph ( 134 km / h ) at Victoria Regional Airport . It maintained tropical storm intensity for over 24 hours after landfall , a rarity for such a weak storm ; most tropical systems weaken rapidly after landfall , as they are separated from the warm waters that power them . The storm finally lost its low @-@ level circulation early on July 17 over Chihuahua , although its rainfall and upper @-@ level circulation continued into the Pacific Ocean . = = Preparations = = Mexican officials issued a tropical storm warning 37 hours prior to the storm 's landfall between Chetumal and Cabo Catoche , Quintana Roo . The warning was upgraded to a hurricane warning about a day before landfall , but was downgraded when Claudette weakened just 13 hours prior to its landfall in the Yucatán Peninsula . The Mexican government declared a state of emergency in the projected path of the storm , and declared an evacuation order for 1 @,@ 500 citizens in Quintana Roo . There , residents remained calm during the evacuation . Tourists left nightclubs for supermarkets to stock up on , among other items , beer , which was banned at midnight . Schools were set up as shelters , while police forced tourists to remain in their hotels . The consistent variation in the path of Claudette caused uncertainty over the strength and location of its final landfall . On July 13 , two days prior to Claudette 's eventual landfall , the National Hurricane Center issued a hurricane watch between Brownsville and Port O 'Connor , Texas . By the next day , a hurricane warning existed from Baffin Bay to High Island , Texas , while a tropical storm warning extended from High Island to Intracoastal City , Louisiana . When it became apparent that Louisiana would not be affected significantly by the storm , the state 's tropical storm warnings were canceled . In Texas , Galveston County officials recommended evacuations for western Galveston Island and Jamaica Beach , 24 hours prior to Claudette 's projected landfall . The Emergency Phone Notification System notified citizens in the evening to avoid evacuating during the night . Many citizens heeded the evacuation suggestion , some of whom remembered the flooding from Tropical Storm Frances five years before . Hurricane Claudette also affected the oil industry . ExxonMobil , Chevron , ConocoPhillips , Shell Oil , Marathon Oil , Unocal Corporation , and Anadarko Petroleum Corporation all limited production and evacuated many of their workers . Chevron , which evacuated more than 1 @,@ 800 workers , returned many of its workers on the day when Claudette made landfall . Unocal closed 23 rigs and platforms in the region . The combined closures stopped the daily production of 225 @,@ 000 barrels ( 35 @,@ 800 m3 ) per day of oil and 2 billion cubic feet ( 57 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of natural gas , which accounted for 15 % of the total production in the Gulf of Mexico . = = Impact = = Outside of Texas , Hurricane Claudette caused little damage due to its low intensity . In total , damage estimates rose to $ 180 million ( 2003 USD , $ 198 million 2006 USD ) , and the storm caused one direct and two indirect deaths . One of the indirect deaths occurred from a man having a heart attack while surfing in the eastern Gulf of Mexico . = = = Caribbean Sea = = = As a tropical wave , Claudette dropped torrential rainfall and brought strong winds to the island of Saint Lucia . The George F. L. Charles Airport in Castries reported a wind gust of 52 mph ( 84 km / h ) , while other parts of the island experienced nearly horizontal rainfall from the gusts . On the northern and eastern portions of the island , the strong winds ripped off roofs and downed trees across roadways . Overall , damage was light , and amounted to $ 1 @.@ 1 million ( 2003 USD , $ 1 @.@ 41 million 2016 USD ) . In the Dominican Republic , the outer bands of the storm caused moderate rainfall of up to 3 inches ( 76 mm ) in Santo Domingo . Winds gusted up to 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) , knocking down trees , sign posts , and iron roofs . Also , flooding in metropolitan areas blocked traffic for cars and pedestrians . Banana and other fruit plantations in the southwestern portion of the country experienced severe damage , although exact damage totals are unknown . On Jamaica , the storm caused wind gusts of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) in Montego Bay . Forecasters predicted high tides , strong waves , and up to 6 inches ( 150 mm ) of rain on the island , although exact post @-@ storm totals are not known . Many fishermen moved their boats from the water to safety , while a cruise line diverted three ships away from Claudette 's path . In the Cayman Islands , where the storm remained 165 miles ( 266 km ) away at its closest point , rainfall totals ranged from 1 to 3 inches ( 25 to 76 mm ) . On the south side of Grand Cayman , Claudette caused wave heights of around 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) , while the western side received little precipitation . Also on Grand Cayman , the storm caused winds of 35 – 40 mph ( 56 – 64 km / h ) , causing minor tree damage but little else . On Mexico 's Yucatán Peninsula , Claudette lashed strong waves against the coastline at Cancún , but overall caused light damage . While crossing the peninsula , the storm dropped moderate rainfall , including a total of 3 @.@ 22 inches ( 82 mm ) in Cancún . Winds were moderate , causing the Cancún International Airport to delay several flights , though there were no cancellations . Overall , Claudette sank a few small boats and flooded a few streets in Cancún , though damage was minor in the Yucatán Peninsula . = = = Texas = = = Upon making landfall on the central Texas coast , Claudette 's storm surge reached a maximum height of 5 @.@ 3 feet ( 1 @.@ 6 m ) in Galveston . Freeport reported a " storm tide " — the overall rise of water over the mean low tide — of 9 @.@ 15 feet ( 2 @.@ 79 m ) . Claudette produced moderate rainfall across southern Texas , peaking at 6 @.@ 5 inches ( 170 mm ) in Tilden . On Matagorda Island , the local weather station measured winds of 75 mph ( 121 km / h ) — the only official report of hurricane @-@ force winds along the coastline . However , several offshore oil rigs reported winds of up to 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) , and one unofficial reading in Seadrift indicated winds of 96 @.@ 6 mph ( 155 @.@ 5 km / h ) . This report would suggest the storm was a low @-@ end Category 2 hurricane , though this contradicted Hurricane Hunters ' data , which pointed to a storm of a lesser intensity . Severe beach erosion occurred from High Island to Freeport , though large geo @-@ tubes reduced the erosion on Galveston Island and the Bolivar Peninsula . The outer bands of the hurricane spawned two tornadoes . One was an F1 on the Fujita scale that caused damage to several buildings in Palacios , and the other damaged homes in Port Lavaca . Widespread flooding and gusty winds destroyed 204 houses along the southeast Texas coastline , most of which occurred in Matagorda County . In addition , the winds damaged 1 @,@ 407 homes , with 144 of them being severely damaged . The wind also affected 147 businesses , of which 64 were either destroyed or severely damaged . Strong winds downed numerous power lines , leaving around 74 @,@ 000 residents without power in the immediate aftermath . Overall , Claudette caused $ 180 million ( 2003 USD , $ 232 million 2016 USD ) in damage in Texas and one death from a fallen tree during the storm . Also , the storm was indirectly responsible for a death when a tree fell on a person in the aftermath of the storm . = = Aftermath = = On July 17 , President George W. Bush declared 18 south Texas counties as a federal disaster area . Within 2 months of the storm , over 15 @,@ 000 citizens registered for assistance . The government approved $ 34 @.@ 8 million ( 2003 USD , $ 44 @.@ 8 million 2016 USD ) in aid , of which nearly half went to basic house repairs . The Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) provided 75 % of the $ 1 @.@ 35 million ( 2003 USD , $ 1 @.@ 74 million 2016 USD ) debris removal cost , with the other 25 % being covered through local agencies . FEMA also provided $ 1 @.@ 26 million ( 2003 USD , $ 1 @.@ 62 million 2016 USD ) to repair geo @-@ tubes on the Bolivar Peninsula in Galveston County . The geo @-@ tubes , which protect buildings along coastal areas , were severely damaged by the hurricane . In western Texas , heavy rainfall of up to 5 inches ( 130 mm ) temporarily sparked widespread growth of wildflowers in a normally arid landscape . The rainfall restored the flow of the Rio Grande at Big Bend National Park , which had ceased in the area due to lack of rainfall . In addition , the precipitation increased the water level in the Amistad Reservoir by more than 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) .
= Space Travel ( video game ) = Space Travel is an early video game developed by Ken Thompson in 1969 that simulates travel in the solar system . The player flies their ship around a two @-@ dimensional scale model of the solar system with no objectives other than to attempt to land on various planets and moons . The player can move and turn the ship , and adjust the overall speed by adjusting the scale of the simulation . The ship is affected by the single strongest gravitational pull of the astronomical bodies . The game was developed at Bell Labs before the rise of the commercial video game industry in the early history of video games , and was ported during 1969 from the Multics operating system to the GECOS operating system on the GE 635 computer , and then to the PDP @-@ 7 computer . As a part of porting the game to the PDP @-@ 7 , Thompson developed his own operating system , which later formed the core of the Unix operating system . Space Travel never spread beyond Bell Labs or had an effect on future games , leaving its primary legacy as part of the original push for the development of Unix . = = Gameplay = = Space Travel is a spaceflight simulation video game , presented in a two @-@ dimensional top @-@ down view , with monochrome graphics consisting of white lines on a black background . In it , the player controls a spaceship as it flies through a representation of the solar system . The game has no specific objectives , other than to attempt to land on the various planets and moons of the system . The planets and most of the moons in the solar system are represented to scale both in size and distance from each other , though the orbits are simplified to be circles . To land on a body , the player 's ship must cross the line representing the surface while moving at a low enough speed . The player is able to control the ship to go forwards and backwards and turn . The ship moves at a constant level of acceleration relative to the scale of the screen , which the player can control ; scaling the screen up high enough allows the player to travel across the solar system in seconds , though they risk overshooting their target and becoming unable to find the solar system again , and scaling down allows the player to be moving slowly enough to land . The ship is always in the center of the screen , facing the top ; turning the ship right or left therefore rotates the solar system around the ship instead . Each planet or moon has a mass , and therefore a gravitational pull , though they do not affect one another and only the single strongest pull affects the player 's ship . This sometimes results in odd behavior ; for example , the gravitational effect of Mars is much stronger than that of its moon Phobos . This means that a player attempting to land on Phobos needs to allow the ship to fall below the moon 's surface until it is close enough to Phobos 's center that Phobos 's pull becomes the dominant force , at which point the ship snaps back to be landed on the surface . The name of the planet or moon with the current strongest pull is displayed on the screen . Players are able to edit the program to change the conditions ; popular variations by the original players were increasing the gravity level and thus the difficulty , or an adjustment to the coordinate display system so that , rather than the ship staying in the center of the screen and the planets moving relative to it , the current dominant planet would always be at the bottom of the screen , with the ship moving relative to it . = = Development = = In 1969 , programmer Ken Thompson worked for Bell Labs on the Multics operating system . During his work , he developed Space Travel on a GE 635 computer . When Bell Labs pulled out of the Multics project , he adapted the code from Multics to a Fortran program so that it could run on the GECOS operating system already present on the GE 635 . Thompson and other Bell Labs employees , such as Ravi Sethi and Dennis Ritchie , played the game on the system . The computer , however , was run on an " interactive batch " model , meaning that several computer terminals were attached to the central computer and each terminal 's program jobs had to be submitted in a queue , resulting in long pauses in the game while the GE 635 worked on jobs for other terminals . The company tracked the computer usage internally with a cost system , meaning that each game cost US $ 50 to US $ 75 on the internal balance sheet to play . The game also did not run as well on the GECOS system as it had on the Multics . Additionally , the system required the user to type in commands rather than press buttons , resulting in the ship being difficult to control . Wanting to find a better solution , Thompson initially petitioned for Bell to purchase a DEC @-@ 10 computer , then US $ 120 @,@ 000 , for the purposes of writing a new operating system ; he was turned down , as Bell Labs was uninterested in spending money on an operating system project after just cancelling the previous one . Thompson , however , learned that a neighboring department had an older , little @-@ used PDP @-@ 7 minicomputer which he could re @-@ purpose . As Thompson began porting the game to the new system , he decided not to base the code on any of the existing software for the computer , and instead write his own . As a result , he implemented his own base code libraries for programs to use , including arithmetic packages and graphics subsystems . These initial subsystems were coded in assembly language on the GECOS system and assembled , then the output physically put on punched tapes to be carried over and inserted into the PDP @-@ 7 . Thompson then wrote an assembler for the PDP @-@ 7 to avoid this laborious process . The game ran very slowly on the new machine , causing Thompson to branch out from there to design his own file system based on some ideas by Dennis Ritchie and Rudd Cassaway , rooted in their experience with the Multics file system , with which he then ran Space Travel . = = Legacy = = By the time Space Travel was fully ported to the PDP @-@ 7 , Thompson had expanded his software suite to a full , basic operating system , in a way he had been unable to with the Multics project and the GE 635 . The operating system he designed spread to other users in the company , and formed the core of what would be named in 1970 the Unix operating system . Space Travel was one of the early mainframe games developed before the rise of the commercial video game industry in the early history of video games , and was never distributed beyond its initial locations . As a result , it had no effect on future video games , and its primary legacy is that of sparking the creation of Unix .
= Mount Bailey ( Oregon ) = Mount Bailey is a relatively young tephra cone and shield volcano in the Cascade Range , located on the opposite side of Diamond Lake from Mount Thielsen in southern Oregon , United States . Bailey consists of a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 610 m ) -high main cone on top of an old basaltic andesite shield volcano . With a volume of 8 to 9 km3 ( 1 @.@ 9 to 2 @.@ 2 cu mi ) , Mount Bailey is slightly smaller than neighboring Diamond Peak . Mount Bailey is a popular destination for recreational activities . Well known in the Pacific Northwest region as a haven for skiing in the winter months , the mountain 's transportation , instead of a conventional chairlift , is provided by snowcats — treaded , tractor @-@ like vehicles that can ascend Bailey 's steep , snow @-@ covered slopes and carry skiers to the higher reaches of the mountain . In the summer months , a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 km ) hiking trail gives foot access to Bailey 's summit . Native Americans are credited with the first ascents of Bailey . Spiritual leaders held feasts and prayer vigils on the summit . = = Etymology = = The origin of the mountain 's name is a matter of dispute . Older maps show its name as either " Old Baldy " or " Old Bailey " , " Bailey " possibly being a drafting error . The summit 's bald , burnt @-@ over appearance might indicate the origin of the designation " Baldy " . No record of a person named Bailey who was connected with the peak has been found . In 1992 the Oregon Geographic Names Board voted to name the mountain in honor of naturalists Vernon and Florence Bailey . According to William G. Steel , the Klamath name for the mountain was Youxlokes , which means " Medicine Mountain " . According to Klamath tradition , their medicine men and priests would feast on the mountain 's summit and commune with the upper world . = = Geography and geology = = Mount Bailey is part of the High Cascades in the western United States . The High Cascades have long been glaciated , by both Pacific @-@ bred storms and natural , elevation @-@ caused , glaciation . In fact , glaciation probably formed on them as early as the late Miocene . Over time , as the range built up , newer activity diminished older Tertiary age rock . Creating lava plateaus , Pliocene activity , mostly basaltic and andesitic , was probably responsible for the original cones at Bailey , Thielsen , and Union Peak . Mount Bailey heads the Mount Bailey chain , which consists of the mountain and smaller cinder cones trending north . Similarly to its neighbor Mount Thielsen , it is a shield volcano with precipitous summit slopes , and the two are almost equal in appearance . Built around the same time as Rodley Butte , according to morphological study , the current volcano is no more than 100 @,@ 000 years old , and formed relatively close to Diamond Peak 's current cone . Despite its similarity to Rodley Butte , both in age and original composition , Bailey switched from erupting basaltic andesite to pure andesite ( silicon dioxide ) . Bailey is comprised by a central tephra cone , upon which basaltic andesite eruptions streamed over , building up to create the current volcano . Eventually switching to andesite , it may have been built over several eruptions or even eruptive periods , judging from the silicic nature of its rock . It is currently inactive , having been since approximately the time Mount Mazama became active , sometime in the early Pleistocene epoch . = = Ecology and recreation = = Diverse flora exists on Mount Bailey . Starting at the lower slopes , the prominent tree type is standard pine , eventually changing to a landscape of mountain hemlock , western white pine , and Shasta fir . Bailey is a popular hiking and skiing site , due to its steep climbs and views of Diamond Lake . It is accessible from Oregon Route 230 , starting at the Fox Spring trailhead . Following the Mount Bailey Trail , part of the Diamond Lake Recreational Area , hikers can see " panoramas to the northeast of Diamond Lake and Bailey 's dizzying avalanche bowl " . To skiers , the peak is known for its method of transportation , featuring snowcats .
= Alexandra of Denmark = Alexandra of Denmark ( Alexandra Caroline Marie Charlotte Louise Julia ; 1 December 1844 – 20 November 1925 ) was Queen consort of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and Empress consort of India as the wife of King @-@ Emperor Edward VII . Her family had been relatively obscure until her father , Prince Christian of Schleswig @-@ Holstein @-@ Sonderburg @-@ Glücksburg , was chosen with the consent of the great powers to succeed his distant cousin , Frederick VII , to the Danish throne . At the age of sixteen , she was chosen as the future wife of Albert Edward , Prince of Wales , the heir apparent of Queen Victoria . They married eighteen months later in 1863 , the same year her father became king of Denmark as Christian IX and her brother was appointed to the vacant Greek throne as George I. She was Princess of Wales from 1863 to 1901 , the longest anyone has ever held that title , and became generally popular ; her style of dress and bearing were copied by fashion @-@ conscious women . Largely excluded from wielding any political power , she unsuccessfully attempted to sway the opinion of British ministers and her husband 's family to favour Greek and Danish interests . Her public duties were restricted to uncontroversial involvement in charitable work . On the death of Queen Victoria in 1901 , Albert Edward became king @-@ emperor as Edward VII , with Alexandra as queen @-@ empress consort . She held the status until Edward 's death in 1910 . She greatly distrusted her nephew , German Emperor Wilhelm II , and supported her son during World War I , in which Britain and its allies fought Germany . = = Early life = = Princess Alexandra Caroline Marie Charlotte Louise Julia , or " Alix " , as her immediate family knew her , was born at the Yellow Palace , an 18th @-@ century town house at 18 Amaliegade , right next to the Amalienborg Palace complex in Copenhagen . Her father was Prince Christian of Schleswig @-@ Holstein @-@ Sonderburg @-@ Glücksburg and her mother was Princess Louise of Hesse @-@ Kassel . Although she was of royal blood , her family lived a comparatively normal life . They did not possess great wealth ; her father 's income from an army commission was about £ 800 per year and their house was a rent @-@ free grace and favour property . Occasionally , Hans Christian Andersen was invited to call and tell the children stories before bedtime . In 1848 , King Christian VIII of Denmark died and his only son , Frederick ascended the throne . Frederick was childless , had been through two unsuccessful marriages , and was assumed to be infertile . A succession crisis arose as Frederick ruled in both Denmark and Schleswig @-@ Holstein , and the succession rules of each territory differed . In Holstein , the Salic law prevented inheritance through the female line , whereas no such restrictions applied in Denmark . Holstein , being predominantly German , proclaimed independence and called in the aid of Prussia . In 1852 , the great powers called a conference in London to discuss the Danish succession . An uneasy peace was agreed , which included the provision that Prince Christian of Schleswig @-@ Holstein @-@ Sonderburg @-@ Glücksburg would be Frederick 's heir in all his dominions and the prior claims of others ( who included Christian 's own mother @-@ in @-@ law , brother @-@ in @-@ law and wife ) were surrendered . Prince Christian was given the title Prince of Denmark and his family moved into a new official residence , Bernstorff Palace . Although the family 's status had risen , there was little or no increase in their income and they did not participate in court life at Copenhagen as they refused to meet Frederick 's third wife and former mistress , Louise Rasmussen , because she had an illegitimate child by a previous lover . Alexandra shared a draughty attic bedroom with her sister , Dagmar ( later Empress of Russia ) , made her own clothes and waited at table along with her sisters . Alexandra and Dagmar were given swimming lessons by the Swedish pioneer of women 's swimming , Nancy Edberg . At Bernstorff , Alexandra grew into a young woman ; she was taught English by the English chaplain at Copenhagen and was confirmed in Christiansborg Palace . She was devout throughout her life , and followed High Church practice . = = Marriage and family = = Queen Victoria and her husband , Prince Albert , were already concerned with finding a bride for their son and heir , Albert Edward , the Prince of Wales . They enlisted the aid of their daughter , Crown Princess Victoria of Prussia , in seeking a suitable candidate . Alexandra was not their first choice , since the Danes were at loggerheads with the Prussians over the Schleswig @-@ Holstein Question and most of the British royal family 's relations were German . Eventually , after rejecting other possibilities , they settled on her as " the only one to be chosen " . On 24 September 1861 , Crown Princess Victoria introduced her brother Albert Edward to Alexandra at Speyer . Almost a year later on 9 September 1862 ( after his affair with Nellie Clifden and the death of his father ) Albert Edward proposed to Alexandra at the Royal Palace of Laeken , the home of his great @-@ uncle , King Leopold I of Belgium . A few months later , Alexandra travelled from Denmark to Britain aboard the royal yacht Victoria and Albert II and arrived in Gravesend , Kent , on 7 March 1863 . Sir Arthur Sullivan composed music for her arrival and Poet Laureate Alfred , Lord Tennyson , wrote an ode in Alexandra 's honour : Thomas Longley , the Archbishop of Canterbury , married the couple on 10 March 1863 at St George 's Chapel , Windsor Castle . The choice of venue was criticised widely . As the ceremony took place outside London , the press complained that large public crowds would not be able to view the spectacle . Prospective guests thought it awkward to get to and , as the venue was small , some people who had expected invitations were disappointed . The Danes were dismayed because only Alexandra 's closest relations were invited . The British court was still in mourning for Prince Albert , so ladies were restricted to wearing grey , lilac or mauve . As the couple left Windsor for their honeymoon at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight , they were cheered by the schoolboys of neighbouring Eton College , including Lord Randolph Churchill . By the end of the following year , Alexandra 's father had ascended the throne of Denmark , her brother George had become King of the Hellenes , her sister Dagmar was engaged to the Tsesarevich of Russia , and Alexandra had given birth to her first child . Her father 's accession gave rise to further conflict over the fate of Schleswig @-@ Holstein . The German Confederation successfully invaded Denmark , reducing the area of Denmark by two @-@ fifths . To the great irritation of Queen Victoria and the Crown Princess of Prussia , Alexandra and Albert Edward supported the Danish side in the war . The Prussian conquest of former Danish lands heightened Alexandra 's profound dislike of the Germans , a feeling which stayed with her for the rest of her life . Alexandra 's first child , Albert Victor , was born two months premature in early 1864 . Alexandra showed devotion to her children : " She was in her glory when she could run up to the nursery , put on a flannel apron , wash the children herself and see them asleep in their little beds . " Albert Edward and Alexandra had six children in total : Albert Victor , George , Louise , Victoria , Maud , and John . All of Alexandra 's children were apparently born prematurely ; biographer Richard Hough thought Alexandra deliberately misled Queen Victoria as to her probable delivery dates , as she did not want the queen to be present at their births . During the birth of her third child in 1867 , the added complication of a bout of rheumatic fever threatened Alexandra 's life , and left her with a permanent limp . In public , Alexandra was dignified and charming ; in private , affectionate and jolly . She enjoyed many social activities , including dancing and ice @-@ skating , and was an expert horsewoman and tandem driver . She also enjoyed hunting , to the dismay of Queen Victoria , who asked her to stop , but without success . Even after the birth of her first child , she continued to socialise much as before , which led to some friction between the queen and the young couple , exacerbated by Alexandra 's loathing of Prussians and the queen 's partiality towards them . = = Princess of Wales = = Albert Edward and Alexandra visited Ireland in April 1868 . After her illness the previous year , she had only just begun to walk again without the aid of two walking sticks , and was already pregnant with her fourth child . The royal couple undertook a six @-@ month tour taking in Austria , Egypt and Greece over 1868 and 1869 , which included visits to her brother King George I of Greece , to the Crimean battlefields and ( for her only ) to the harem of the Khedive Ismail . In Turkey she became the first woman to sit down to dinner with the Sultan ( Abdülâziz ) . The Waleses made Sandringham House their preferred residence , with Marlborough House their London base . Biographers agree that their marriage was in many ways a happy one ; however , some have asserted that Albert Edward did not give his wife as much attention as she would have liked and that they gradually became estranged , until his attack of typhoid fever ( the disease which was believed to have killed his father ) in late 1871 brought about a reconciliation . This is disputed by others , who point out Alexandra 's frequent pregnancies throughout this period and use family letters to deny the existence of any serious rift . Nevertheless , the prince was severely criticised from many quarters of society for his apparent lack of interest in her very serious illness with rheumatic fever . Throughout their marriage Albert Edward continued to keep company with other women , including the actress Lillie Langtry ; Daisy Greville , Countess of Warwick ; humanitarian Agnes Keyser ; and society matron Alice Keppel . Alexandra knew about most of these relationships , and later permitted Alice Keppel to visit the king as he lay dying . Alexandra herself remained faithful throughout her marriage . An increasing degree of deafness , caused by hereditary otosclerosis , led to Alexandra 's social isolation ; she spent more time at home with her children and pets . Her sixth and final pregnancy ended tragically when her infant son died only a day after his birth . Despite Alexandra 's pleas for privacy , Queen Victoria insisted on announcing a period of court mourning , which led unsympathetic elements of the press to describe the birth as " a wretched abortion " and the funeral arrangements as " sickening mummery " , even though the infant was not buried in state with other members of the royal family at Windsor , but in strict privacy in the churchyard at Sandringham , where he had lived out his brief life . For eight months over 1875 – 76 , the Prince of Wales was absent from Britain on a tour of India , but to her dismay Alexandra was left behind . The prince had planned an all @-@ male group and intended to spend much of the time hunting and shooting . During the prince 's tour , one of his friends who was travelling with him , Lord Aylesford , was told by his wife that she was going to leave him for another man : Lord Blandford , who was himself married . Aylesford was appalled and decided to seek a divorce . Meanwhile , Lord Blandford 's brother , Lord Randolph Churchill , persuaded the lovers against an elopement . Now concerned by the threat of divorce , Lady Aylesford sought to dissuade her husband from proceeding but Lord Aylesford was adamant and refused to reconsider . In an attempt to pressure Lord Aylesford to drop his divorce suit , Lady Aylesford and Lord Randolph Churchill called on Alexandra and told her that if the divorce was to proceed they would subpoena her husband as a witness and implicate him in the scandal . Distressed at their threats , and following the advice of Sir William Knollys and the Duchess of Teck , Alexandra informed the queen , who then wrote to the Prince of Wales . The prince was incensed . Eventually , the Blandfords and the Aylesfords both separated privately . Although Lord Randolph Churchill later apologised , for years afterwards the Prince of Wales refused to speak to or see him . Alexandra spent the spring of 1877 in Greece recuperating from a period of ill health and visiting her brother King George of the Hellenes . During the Russo @-@ Turkish War , Alexandra was clearly partial against Turkey and towards Russia , where her sister was married to the Tsarevitch , and she lobbied for a revision of the border between Greece and Turkey in favour of the Greeks . Alexandra and her two sons spent the next three years largely parted from each other 's company as the boys were sent on a worldwide cruise as part of their naval and general education . The farewell was very tearful and , as shown by her regular letters , she missed them dreadfully . In 1881 , Alexandra and Albert Edward travelled to Saint Petersburg after the assassination of Alexander II of Russia , both to represent Britain and so that Alexandra could provide comfort to her sister , who was now the Tsarina . Alexandra undertook many public duties ; in the words of Queen Victoria , " to spare me the strain and fatigue of functions . She opens bazaars , attends concerts , visits hospitals in my place ... she not only never complains , but endeavours to prove that she has enjoyed what to another would be a tiresome duty . " She took a particular interest in the London Hospital , visiting it regularly . Joseph Merrick , the so @-@ called " Elephant Man " , was one of the patients whom she met . Crowds usually cheered Alexandra rapturously , but during a visit to Ireland in 1885 , she suffered a rare moment of public hostility when visiting the City of Cork , a hotbed of Irish nationalism . She and her husband were booed by a crowd of two to three thousand people brandishing sticks and black flags . She smiled her way through the ordeal , which the British press still portrayed in a positive light , describing the crowds as " enthusiastic " . As part of the same visit , she received a Doctorate in Music from Trinity College , Dublin . The death of her eldest son , Prince Albert Victor , Duke of Clarence and Avondale , in 1892 was a serious blow to Alexandra . His room and possessions were kept exactly as he had left them , much as those of Prince Albert were left after his death in 1861 . She said , " I have buried my angel and with him my happiness . " Surviving letters between Alexandra and her children indicate that they were mutually devoted . In 1894 , her brother @-@ in @-@ law Alexander III of Russia died and her nephew Nicholas II of Russia became Tsar . Alexandra 's widowed sister , the Dowager Empress , leant heavily on her for support ; Alexandra slept , prayed , and stayed beside her sister for the next two weeks until Alexander 's burial . = = Queen Alexandra = = = = = Queen consort = = = With the death of her mother @-@ in @-@ law , Queen Victoria , in 1901 , Alexandra became queen @-@ empress consort to the new king . Just two months later , her surviving son George and daughter @-@ in @-@ law Mary left on an extensive tour of the empire , leaving their young children in the care of Alexandra and Edward , who doted on their grandchildren . On George 's return , preparations for Edward and Alexandra 's coronation were well in hand but just a few days before the scheduled coronation in June 1902 the king became seriously ill with appendicitis . Alexandra deputised for him at a military parade , and attended the Royal Ascot races without him , in an attempt to prevent public alarm . Eventually , the coronation had to be postponed and Edward had an operation performed by Frederick Treves of the London Hospital to drain the infected appendix . After his recovery , Alexandra and Edward were crowned together in August : he by the Archbishop of Canterbury , Frederick Temple , and she by the Archbishop of York , William Dalrymple Maclagan . Despite being queen , Alexandra 's duties changed little , and she kept many of the same retainers . Alexandra 's Woman of the Bedchamber , Charlotte Knollys , the daughter of Sir William Knollys , served Alexandra loyally for many years . On 10 December 1903 , Knollys woke to find her bedroom full of smoke . She roused Alexandra and shepherded her to safety . In the words of Grand Duchess Augusta of Mecklenburg @-@ Strelitz , " We must give credit to old Charlotte for really saving [ Alexandra 's ] life . " Alexandra again looked after her grandchildren when George and Mary went on a second tour , this time to British India , over the winter of 1905 – 06 . Her father , King Christian IX of Denmark , died that January . Eager to retain their family links , to each other and to Denmark , in 1907 Alexandra and her sister , the Dowager Empress of Russia , purchased a villa north of Copenhagen , Hvidøre , as a private getaway . Biographers have asserted that Alexandra was denied access to the king 's briefing papers and excluded from some of his foreign tours to prevent her meddling in diplomatic matters . She was deeply distrustful of Germans , and invariably opposed anything that favoured German expansion or interests . For example , in 1890 Alexandra wrote a memorandum , distributed to senior British ministers and military personnel , warning against the planned exchange of the British North Sea island of Heligoland for the German colony of Zanzibar , pointing out Heligoland 's strategic significance and that it could be used either by Germany to launch an attack , or by Britain to contain German aggression . Despite this , the exchange went ahead anyway . The Germans fortified the island and , in the words of Robert Ensor and as Alexandra had predicted , it " became the keystone of Germany 's maritime position for offence as well as for defence " . The Frankfurter Zeitung was outspoken in its condemnation of Alexandra and her sister , the Dowager Empress of Russia , saying that the pair were " the centre of the international anti @-@ German conspiracy " . She despised and distrusted her nephew , Wilhelm II of Germany , calling him in 1900 " inwardly our enemy " . In 1910 , Alexandra became the first queen consort to visit the British House of Commons during a debate . In a remarkable departure from precedent , for two hours she sat in the Ladies ' Gallery overlooking the chamber while the Parliament Bill , a bill to remove the right of the House of Lords to veto legislation , was debated . Privately , Alexandra disagreed with the bill . Shortly afterward , she left to visit her brother , King George I of Greece , in Corfu . While there , she received news that King Edward was seriously ill . Alexandra returned at once and arrived just the day before her husband died . In his last hours , she personally administered oxygen from a gas cylinder to help him breathe . She told Frederick Ponsonby , " I feel as if I had been turned into stone , unable to cry , unable to grasp the meaning of it all . " Later that year , she moved out of Buckingham Palace to Marlborough House , but she retained possession of Sandringham . The new king , Alexandra 's son George , soon faced a decision over the Parliament Bill . Despite her personal views , Alexandra supported her son 's reluctant agreement to Prime Minister H. H. Asquith 's request to create sufficient Liberal peers after a general election if the Lords continued to block the legislation . = = = Queen mother = = = From Edward 's death , Alexandra was queen mother , being a dowager queen and the mother of the reigning monarch . She was styled " Her Majesty Queen Alexandra " . She did not attend her son 's coronation in 1911 since it was not customary for a crowned queen to attend the coronation of another king or queen , but otherwise continued the public side of her life , devoting time to her charitable causes . One such cause included Alexandra Rose Day , where artificial roses made by people with disabilities were sold in aid of hospitals by women volunteers . During the First World War , the custom of hanging the banners of foreign princes invested with Britain 's highest order of knighthood , the Order of the Garter , in St George 's Chapel , Windsor Castle , came under criticism , as the German members of the Order were fighting against Britain . Alexandra joined calls to " have down those hateful German banners " . Driven by public opinion , but against his own wishes , the king had the banners removed but to Alexandra 's dismay he had down not only " those vile Prussian banners " but also those of her Hessian relations who were , in her opinion , " simply soldiers or vassals under that brutal German Emperor 's orders " . On 17 September 1916 , she was at Sandringham during a Zeppelin air raid , but far worse was to befall other members of her family . In Russia , her nephew Tsar Nicholas II was overthrown and he , his wife and children were killed by revolutionaries . Her sister the Dowager Empress was rescued from Russia in 1919 by HMS Marlborough and brought to England , where she lived for some time with Alexandra . Alexandra retained a youthful appearance into her senior years , but during the war her age caught up with her . She took to wearing elaborate veils and heavy makeup , which was described by gossips as having her face " enamelled " . She made no more trips abroad , and suffered increasing ill health . In 1920 , a blood vessel in her eye burst , leaving her with temporary partial blindness . Towards the end of her life , her memory and speech became impaired . She died on 20 November 1925 at Sandringham after suffering a heart attack , and was buried in an elaborate tomb next to her husband in St George 's Chapel , Windsor Castle . = = Legacy = = The Queen Alexandra Memorial by Alfred Gilbert was unveiled on Alexandra Rose Day 8 June 1932 at Marlborough Gate , London . An ode in her memory , " So many true princesses who have gone " , composed by the then Master of the King 's Musick Sir Edward Elgar to words by the Poet Laureate John Masefield , was sung at the unveiling and conducted by the composer . Alexandra was highly popular with the British public . After she married the Prince of Wales in 1863 , a new park and " People 's Palace " , a public exhibition and arts centre under construction in north London , were renamed the Alexandra Palace and park to commemorate her . There are at least sixty @-@ seven roads and streets in the Greater London area alone called Alexandra Road , Alexandra Avenue , Alexandra Gardens , Alexandra Close or Alexandra Street , all named after her . Unlike her husband and mother @-@ in @-@ law , she was not castigated by the press . Funds that she helped to collect were used to buy a river launch , called Alexandra , to ferry the wounded during the Sudan campaign , and to fit out a hospital ship , named The Princess of Wales , to bring back wounded from the Boer War . During the Boer War , Queen Alexandra 's Imperial Military Nursing Service , later renamed Queen Alexandra 's Royal Army Nursing Corps , was founded under Royal Warrant . Alexandra had little understanding of money . The management of her finances was left in the hands of her loyal comptroller , Sir Dighton Probyn VC , who undertook a similar role for her husband . In the words of her grandson , Edward VIII ( later the Duke of Windsor ) , " Her generosity was a source of embarrassment to her financial advisers . Whenever she received a letter soliciting money , a cheque would be sent by the next post , regardless of the authenticity of the mendicant and without having the case investigated . " Though she was not always extravagant ( she had her old stockings darned for re @-@ use and her old dresses were recycled as furniture covers ) , she would dismiss protests about her heavy spending with a wave of a hand or by claiming that she had not heard . She hid a small scar on her neck , which was likely the result of a childhood operation , by wearing choker necklaces and high necklines , setting fashions which were adopted for fifty years . Alexandra 's effect on fashion was so profound that society ladies even copied her limping gait , after her serious illness in 1867 left her with a stiff leg . This came to be known as the " Alexandra limp " . She used predominantly the London fashion houses ; her favourite was Redfern 's , but she shopped occasionally at Doucet and Fromont of Paris . Queen Alexandra has been portrayed on television by Deborah Grant and Helen Ryan in Edward the Seventh , Ann Firbank in Lillie , Maggie Smith in All the King 's Men , and Bibi Andersson in The Lost Prince . She was portrayed in film by Helen Ryan again in the 1980 film The Elephant Man , Sara Stewart in the 1997 film Mrs Brown , and Julia Blake in the 1999 film Passion . In a 1980 stage play by Royce Ryton , Motherdear , she was portrayed by Margaret Lockwood in her last acting role . = = Titles , styles , honours and arms = = = = = Titles and styles = = = 1 December 1844 – 31 July 1853 : Her Highness Princess Alexandra of Schleswig @-@ Holstein @-@ Sonderburg @-@ Glücksburg 31 July 1853 – 21 December 1858 : Her Highness Princess Alexandra of Denmark 21 December 1858 – 10 March 1863 : Her Royal Highness Princess Alexandra of Denmark 10 March 1863 – 22 January 1901 : Her Royal Highness The Princess of Wales 22 January 1901 – 6 May 1910 : Her Majesty The Queen 6 May 1910 – 20 November 1925 : Her Majesty Queen Alexandra = = = Honours = = = In 1901 , she became the first woman since 1488 to be made a Lady of the Garter . Other honours she held included Member First Class of the Royal Order of Victoria and Albert , Lady of the Imperial Order of the Crown of India , and Lady of Justice of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem . Among foreign honours received by Queen Alexandra was the Japanese Order of the Precious Crown , delivered to her on behalf of Emperor Meiji by Prince Komatsu Akihito when he visited the United Kingdom in June 1902 to attend the coronation . At the same time she also received the Order of Nishan @-@ i @-@ Sadakat from the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire , despatched to London by a special messenger together with their coronation representatives . = = = Arms = = = Queen Alexandra 's arms upon the ascension of her husband in 1901 were the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom impaled with the arms of her father , King Christian IX of Denmark . The shield is surmounted by the imperial crown , and supported by the crowned lion of England and a wild man or savage from the Danish royal arms . = = Issue = = = = Ancestry = =
= Stafford L. Warren = Stafford Leak Warren ( July 19 , 1896 - July 26 , 1981 ) was an American physician and radiologist who was a pioneer in the field of nuclear medicine and best known for his invention of the mammogram . Warren developed the technique of producing stereoscopic images of the breast with X @-@ rays while working in the Department of Radiology at the University of Rochester School of Medicine . Warren was commissioned as a colonel in the United States Army Medical Corps in 1943 and appointed Chief of the Medical Section of the Manhattan Engineering District . He was responsible for the health and safety of the thousands of personnel involved in the Manhattan Project . He was present at the Trinity nuclear test in Alamogordo , New Mexico where he was responsible for the safety aspects of the detonation of the world 's first nuclear weapon . He led a survey team from the Manhattan Project to assess the effects of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . In 1946 he was Chief of the Radiological Safety Section of the Joint Task Force for Operation Crossroads , the nuclear test at Bikini Atoll . In 1947 Warren became the first dean of the School of Medicine at the University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) . Under his leadership , the new school grew from nothing to a major medical school . Warren became Vice Chancellor , Health Services in 1962 . From 1963 to 1965 he served as special assistant to President John F. Kennedy and later Lyndon B. Johnson on mental retardation . Returning to UCLA in 1965 , he became professor emeritus , a position he held until his death in 1981 . In 1971 , he was awarded the Enrico Fermi Award for his contributions to science and medicine . = = Early life = = Stafford Leak Warren was born in Maxwell , New Mexico on June 19 , 1896 . He attended the University of California , Berkeley , where he earned his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1918 . He married Viola Lockhart on May 22 , 1920 . Their marriage produced two sons and a daughter . He went to medical school at the University of California , San Francisco , graduating with his Doctor of Medicine degree in 1922 . He then did post @-@ doctoral work at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine and Harvard University . = = University of Rochester = = Warren joined the faculty of the Department of Radiology at the University of Rochester School of Medicine in 1926 , becoming an Assistant Professor of Medicine . The department was a new one that had only been founded in 1921 , based upon the ideals of medical education propounded by Abraham Flexner in his 1910 Flexner Report . The medical school had opened in 1925 and did not graduate its first class until 1929 . Warren was one of the original group that Dean George Whipple assembled to staff the new medical school . At Rochester , Warren investigated the effects of artificial fever , including its possible use for treating gonococci infections . He was also interested in radiography . In 1930 , Warren became an Associate Professor of Medicine . That year he published " A Roentgenologic Study of the Breast " . X @-@ ray imaging of the breast had first been investigated by Albert Salomon at the University of Berlin in 1913 . He produced images of over 3 @,@ 000 mastectomy specimens , and observed different forms and stages of cancer . He was even able to detect an undiagnosed cancer in a breast that had been removed because of a large cyst . However , Salomon apparently did not appreciate the life saving potential of his observations . Warren used radiology to track changes in breast tissue as a result of pregnancy and mastitis . He developed a stereoscopic technique , using patients rather than specimens and adapting general purpose X @-@ ray equipment to his needs . His method involved having the patient lie on her side with one arm raised while being X @-@ rayed . In 119 women who subsequently underwent surgery , he correctly found breast cancer in 54 out of 58 cases . This represented a leap forward , as it made diagnosis of breast cancer possible without surgery . It also sparked intense interest in the technique around the world . Today mammography saves thousands of lives . = = Manhattan Project = = In February 1943 , Warren met with Dr Albert K. Chapman , the Vice President and General Manager of Eastman Kodak , Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , the director of the Manhattan Project and Colonel James C. Marshall , the commander of the Manhattan Engineer District ( MED ) . They asked him about his work with radiation and isotopes and asked Warren to become a civilian consultant for the MED . In March 1943 , Warren met with Major Hymer L. Friedell at the MED 's New York City headquarters . Friedell had joined the Metallurgical Laboratory in August 1942 from the University of California , Berkeley , where he had been involved in radiology research under Dr Robert S. Stone . Friedell requested information about safety matters involving radiation . Warren was unable to provide all the information , but agreed to initiate research at Rochester . Friedell recommended that in view of the scope of the Manhattan Project , a more senior officer be placed in charge . In October , Groves penned a letter to the Surgeon General of the United States Army , Major General Norman T. Kirk , requesting that he cooperate with the Manhattan Project in furnishing medical supplies , providing funds for medical care of military personnel , and directly commissioning Warren and other doctors at specified ranks . This letter was signed by Lieutenant General Brehon B. Somervell and delivered in person by Colonel Kenneth D. Nichols , who had replaced Marshall as the district engineer . Kirk was furious at what he saw as usurpation of his statutory responsibilities as Surgeon General . When told that Warren was the man the district had in mind to commission as a colonel , and apparently familiar with Warren 's work only from his use of radiation to treat venereal disease asked " Why do you want that clap doctor ? " Warren was duly commissioned as a colonel in the United States Army Medical Corps on November 3 , 1943 . He was appointed as chief of the MED 's medical section and medical advisor to the director of the Manhattan Project , with Friedell as his deputy . Warren 's office was initially located in New York City but moved to Oak Ridge , Tennessee soon after . Warren 's initial task was to staff hospitals at Oak Ridge , Richland , Washington and Los Alamos , New Mexico . Warren 's section was responsible for medical research , but also for the MED 's health and safety programs . This presented an enormous challenge , because workers were handling a variety of toxic chemicals , using hazardous liquids and gases under high pressures , working with high voltages used in novel ways , and performing experiments involving explosives , not to mention the largely unknown dangers presented by radioactivity and handling fissile materials . Yet in December 1945 , the National Safety Council presented the Manhattan Project with the Award of Honor for Distinguished Service to Safety in recognition of its safety record . Between January 1943 and June 1945 , there were 62 fatalities and 3 @,@ 879 disabling injuries , which was about 62 percent below that of private industry . Warren was personally responsible for the safety aspects of the Trinity nuclear test on 16 July 1945 at Alamogordo , New Mexico . There was considerable concern about radioactive fallout and a network of geiger counters was established to track the fallout cloud . Groves found Warren at the base camp shortly after the explosion and was displeased to discover that Warren had been awake for the previous 48 hours . Groves had US Navy Captain George Lyons take over so Warren could get some rest . Fortunately , no problems arose with the test . The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were carried out on 6 and 9 August 1945 . On 11 August , Groves phoned Warren and ordered him to organize a survey team and proceed to Guam , and thence to Japan to evaluate the effect of the atomic bombs and take measures to insure the safety of Allied troops occupying the cities . Initially the survey team was to accompany the assault troops of the III Amphibious Corps and the V Amphibious Corps in the invasion of Japan , but Japan surrendered on 14 August , the day the survey team departed San Francisco by air . The survey team arrived on Tinian on 17 August , where it was split into two parties , one under Warren and the other under Friedell . Warren 's party , equipped with portable geiger counters , arrived in Hiroshima by air on 8 September as part of a group headed by Brigadier General Thomas F. Farrell that also included Brigadier General James B. Newman Jr and Japanese Rear Admiral Masao Tsuzuki , who acted as a translator . They remained in Hiroshima until 14 September and then surveyed Nagasaki from 19 September to 8 October . They were impressed by both the damage done by the atomic bombs and the extensive Japanese preparations for an American invasion . The detonation of the two atomic bombs in Japan " raised as many military and medicomilitary questions as they answered " . A series of nuclear tests was planned , codenamed Operation Crossroads . Some 42 @,@ 000 personnel were deployed to Bikini Atoll as part of Admiral William H. P. Blandy 's Joint Task Force 1 to conduct the test . Their health and safety was Lyons 's responsibility , but the specialised job of radiological safety was handled by the Manhattan Project . Warren , as Chief of the Radiological Safety Section ( RADSAFE ) , planned and implemented measures to assess , limit and control the impact of radiation . Teams were given special training at Oak Ridge in the operation of instrumentation to measure radioactivity , and the interpretation of their readings . Training was also conducted aboard USS Haven en route to Bikini Atoll , where it arrived on 12 June 1946 . In all , some 3 @,@ 500 personnel were assigned to RADSAFE . Warren was appalled by the effects of radioactive contamination on the environment . " The deadly range of radioactive products from the atomic bomb has been clearly demonstrated under controlled conditions ... " he wrote , " the only defense against atomic bombs still lies outside the scope of science . It is the prevention of atomic war . " Warren left the Army on 6 November 1946 . He temporarily became the Chief of the Medical Section of the Atomic Energy Commission , the civilian agency which succeeded the Manhattan Project . In February 1947 , he was replaced by Dr Shields Warren . For his services with the Manhattan Engineer District . Warren was awarded the Army Distinguished Service Medal and the Legion of Merit . = = University of California = = Toward the end of World War II , a group of physicians proposed that the University of California should establish a medical school in Southern California . One of them was the urologist Elmer Belt , whose patients included the Governor of California , Earl Warren . The University of California Board of Regents voted to establish a medical school as part of the University of California at Los Angeles ( UCLA ) on October 19 , 1945 . In 1946 the California State Legislature unanimously voted $ 7 million to establish the new school , and Earl Warren signed it into law . In 1947 , Warren was appointed the new school 's first dean . Once again he found himself involved in creating a new medical school . His first appointments were three former associates in Rochester : Dr Charles Carpenter as the first professor of infectious disease ; Dr Andrew H. Dowdy as the first professor of radiology ; and Dr John S. Lawrence , who had pioneered the use of phosphorus @-@ 32 as a radioactive tracer , as professor of medicine . With Dr William P. Longmire Jr , a 34 @-@ year @-@ old plastic surgeon from Johns Hopkins University recruited by Lawrence as professor of surgery , they became the " Founding Five " of the new school . Initially , the new school was accommodated in wartime Quonset huts scattered about the UCLA campus . Warren was still wearing his army fatigues . Construction of permanent accommodation commenced in 1949 . By 1951 when the first students , 26 men and two women , arrived there were 15 faculty members . By the time the first class graduated in 1955 there were 43 faculty members . The UCLA Medical Center opened in 1955 . Under Warren 's leadership , the school grew steadily , adding Schools of Dentistry , Nursing , and Public Health . Against some influential opposition , Warren established his medical school on the UCLA campus rather than in another part of the city . He strove to integrate not only the structures but the faculty with other departments of the university . He fostered the development of a major biomedical library as both a tangible and intellectual link between the life sciences and the health sciences . Warren became Vice Chancellor , Health Services in 1962 . From 1963 to 1965 he served as special assistant to President John F. Kennedy and later Lyndon B. Johnson on mental retardation . Returning to UCLA in 1965 , he became professor emeritus , a position he held until his death in 1981 . His first wife Viola died in 1963 and on July 18 , 1970 he married Gertrude Turner Hubberty . In 1971 , Warren was awarded the Enrico Fermi Award . His citation read : For the imaginative , prescient , and vigorous efforts which made possible the early development of atomic energy so as to assure the protection of man and the environment , and for the establishment of a biomedical research program which has resulted in many substantial applications of ionizing radiation to diagnosis and treatment of disease and to the general welfare . He died on July 26 , 1981 in Pacific Palisades , California . He was survived by his wife and three children . His papers are in the UCLA Library , Department of Special Collections .
= Electron = The electron is a subatomic particle , symbol e − or β − , with a negative elementary electric charge . Electrons belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family , and are generally thought to be elementary particles because they have no known components or substructure . The electron has a mass that is approximately 1 / 1836 that of the proton . Quantum mechanical properties of the electron include an intrinsic angular momentum ( spin ) of a half @-@ integer value in units of ħ , which means that it is a fermion . Being fermions , no two electrons can occupy the same quantum state , in accordance with the Pauli exclusion principle . Like all matter , electrons have properties of both particles and waves , and so can collide with other particles and can be diffracted like light . The wave properties of electrons are easier to observe with experiments than those of other particles like neutrons and protons because electrons have a lower mass and hence a higher De Broglie wavelength for typical energies . Many physical phenomena involve electrons in an essential role , such as electricity , magnetism , and thermal conductivity , and they also participate in gravitational , electromagnetic and weak interactions . An electron generates an electric field surrounding it . An electron moving relative to an observer generates a magnetic field . External electromagnetic fields affect an electron according to the Lorentz force law . Electrons radiate or absorb energy in the form of photons when accelerated . Laboratory instruments are capable of containing and observing individual electrons as well as electron plasma using electromagnetic fields , whereas dedicated telescopes can detect electron plasma in outer space . Electrons are involved in many applications such as electronics , welding , cathode ray tubes , electron microscopes , radiation therapy , lasers , gaseous ionization detectors and particle accelerators . Interactions involving electrons and other subatomic particles are of interest in fields such as chemistry and nuclear physics . The Coulomb force interaction between positive protons inside atomic nuclei and negative electrons composes atoms . Ionization or changes in the proportions of particles changes the binding energy of the system . The exchange or sharing of the electrons between two or more atoms is the main cause of chemical bonding . British natural philosopher Richard Laming first hypothesized the concept of an indivisible quantity of electric charge to explain the chemical properties of atoms in 1838 ; Irish physicist George Johnstone Stoney named this charge ' electron ' in 1891 , and J. J. Thomson and his team of British physicists identified it as a particle in 1897 . Electrons can also participate in nuclear reactions , such as nucleosynthesis in stars , where they are known as beta particles . Electrons may be created through beta decay of radioactive isotopes and in high @-@ energy collisions , for instance when cosmic rays enter the atmosphere . The antiparticle of the electron is called the positron ; it is identical to the electron except that it carries electrical and other charges of the opposite sign . When an electron collides with a positron , both particles may be totally annihilated , producing gamma ray photons . = = History = = The ancient Greeks noticed that amber attracted small objects when rubbed with fur . Along with lightning , this phenomenon is one of humanity 's earliest recorded experiences with electricity . In his 1600 treatise De Magnete , the English scientist William Gilbert coined the New Latin term electricus , to refer to this property of attracting small objects after being rubbed . Both electric and electricity are derived from the Latin ēlectrum ( also the root of the alloy of the same name ) , which came from the Greek word for amber , ἤλεκτρον ( ēlektron ) . In the early 1700s , Francis Hauksbee and French chemist Charles François de Fay independently discovered what they believed were two kinds of frictional electricity — one generated from rubbing glass , the other from rubbing resin . From this , Du Fay theorized that electricity consists of two electrical fluids , vitreous and resinous , that are separated by friction , and that neutralize each other when combined . A decade later Benjamin Franklin proposed that electricity was not from different types of electrical fluid , but the same electrical fluid under different pressures . He gave them the modern charge nomenclature of positive and negative respectively . Franklin thought of the charge carrier as being positive , but he did not correctly identify which situation was a surplus of the charge carrier , and which situation was a deficit . Between 1838 and 1851 , British natural philosopher Richard Laming developed the idea that an atom is composed of a core of matter surrounded by subatomic particles that had unit electric charges . Beginning in 1846 , German physicist William Weber theorized that electricity was composed of positively and negatively charged fluids , and their interaction was governed by the inverse square law . After studying the phenomenon of electrolysis in 1874 , Irish physicist George Johnstone Stoney suggested that there existed a " single definite quantity of electricity " , the charge of a monovalent ion . He was able to estimate the value of this elementary charge e by means of Faraday 's laws of electrolysis . However , Stoney believed these charges were permanently attached to atoms and could not be removed . In 1881 , German physicist Hermann von Helmholtz argued that both positive and negative charges were divided into elementary parts , each of which " behaves like atoms of electricity " . Stoney initially coined the term electrolion in 1881 . Ten years later , he switched to electron to describe these elementary charges , writing in 1894 : " ... an estimate was made of the actual amount of this most remarkable fundamental unit of electricity , for which I have since ventured to suggest the name electron " . A 1906 proposal to change to electrion failed because Hendrik Lorentz preferred to keep electron . The word electron is a combination of the words electric and ion . The suffix -on which is now used to designate other subatomic particles , such as a proton or neutron , is in turn derived from electron . = = = Discovery = = = The German physicist Johann Wilhelm Hittorf studied electrical conductivity in rarefied gases : in 1869 , he discovered a glow emitted from the cathode that increased in size with decrease in gas pressure . In 1876 , the German physicist Eugen Goldstein showed that the rays from this glow cast a shadow , and he dubbed the rays cathode rays . During the 1870s , the English chemist and physicist Sir William Crookes developed the first cathode ray tube to have a high vacuum inside . He then showed that the luminescence rays appearing within the tube carried energy and moved from the cathode to the anode . Furthermore , by applying a magnetic field , he was able to deflect the rays , thereby demonstrating that the beam behaved as though it were negatively charged . In 1879 , he proposed that these properties could be explained by what he termed ' radiant matter ' . He suggested that this was a fourth state of matter , consisting of negatively charged molecules that were being projected with high velocity from the cathode . The German @-@ born British physicist Arthur Schuster expanded upon Crookes ' experiments by placing metal plates parallel to the cathode rays and applying an electric potential between the plates . The field deflected the rays toward the positively charged plate , providing further evidence that the rays carried negative charge . By measuring the amount of deflection for a given level of current , in 1890 Schuster was able to estimate the charge @-@ to @-@ mass ratio of the ray components . However , this produced a value that was more than a thousand times greater than what was expected , so little credence was given to his calculations at the time . In 1892 Hendrik Lorentz suggested that the mass of these particles ( electrons ) could be a consequence of their electric charge . In 1896 , the British physicist J. J. Thomson , with his colleagues John S. Townsend and H. A. Wilson , performed experiments indicating that cathode rays really were unique particles , rather than waves , atoms or molecules as was believed earlier . Thomson made good estimates of both the charge e and the mass m , finding that cathode ray particles , which he called " corpuscles , " had perhaps one thousandth of the mass of the least massive ion known : hydrogen . He showed that their charge to mass ratio , e / m , was independent of cathode material . He further showed that the negatively charged particles produced by radioactive materials , by heated materials and by illuminated materials were universal . The name electron was again proposed for these particles by the Irish physicist George F. Fitzgerald , and the name has since gained universal acceptance . While studying naturally fluorescing minerals in 1896 , the French physicist Henri Becquerel discovered that they emitted radiation without any exposure to an external energy source . These radioactive materials became the subject of much interest by scientists , including the New Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford who discovered they emitted particles . He designated these particles alpha and beta , on the basis of their ability to penetrate matter . In 1900 , Becquerel showed that the beta rays emitted by radium could be deflected by an electric field , and that their mass @-@ to @-@ charge ratio was the same as for cathode rays . This evidence strengthened the view that electrons existed as components of atoms . The electron 's charge was more carefully measured by the American physicists Robert Millikan and Harvey Fletcher in their oil @-@ drop experiment of 1909 , the results of which were published in 1911 . This experiment used an electric field to prevent a charged droplet of oil from falling as a result of gravity . This device could measure the electric charge from as few as 1 – 150 ions with an error margin of less than 0 @.@ 3 % . Comparable experiments had been done earlier by Thomson 's team , using clouds of charged water droplets generated by electrolysis , and in 1911 by Abram Ioffe , who independently obtained the same result as Millikan using charged microparticles of metals , then published his results in 1913 . However , oil drops were more stable than water drops because of their slower evaporation rate , and thus more suited to precise experimentation over longer periods of time . Around the beginning of the twentieth century , it was found that under certain conditions a fast @-@ moving charged particle caused a condensation of supersaturated water vapor along its path . In 1911 , Charles Wilson used this principle to devise his cloud chamber so he could photograph the tracks of charged particles , such as fast @-@ moving electrons . = = = Atomic theory = = = By 1914 , experiments by physicists Ernest Rutherford , Henry Moseley , James Franck and Gustav Hertz had largely established the structure of an atom as a dense nucleus of positive charge surrounded by lower @-@ mass electrons . In 1913 , Danish physicist Niels Bohr postulated that electrons resided in quantized energy states , with the energy determined by the angular momentum of the electron 's orbits about the nucleus . The electrons could move between these states , or orbits , by the emission or absorption of photons at specific frequencies . By means of these quantized orbits , he accurately explained the spectral lines of the hydrogen atom . However , Bohr 's model failed to account for the relative intensities of the spectral lines and it was unsuccessful in explaining the spectra of more complex atoms . Chemical bonds between atoms were explained by Gilbert Newton Lewis , who in 1916 proposed that a covalent bond between two atoms is maintained by a pair of electrons shared between them . Later , in 1927 , Walter Heitler and Fritz London gave the full explanation of the electron @-@ pair formation and chemical bonding in terms of quantum mechanics . In 1919 , the American chemist Irving Langmuir elaborated on the Lewis ' static model of the atom and suggested that all electrons were distributed in successive " concentric ( nearly ) spherical shells , all of equal thickness " . The shells were , in turn , divided by him in a number of cells each containing one pair of electrons . With this model Langmuir was able to qualitatively explain the chemical properties of all elements in the periodic table , which were known to largely repeat themselves according to the periodic law . In 1924 , Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli observed that the shell @-@ like structure of the atom could be explained by a set of four parameters that defined every quantum energy state , as long as each state was inhabited by no more than a single electron . ( This prohibition against more than one electron occupying the same quantum energy state became known as the Pauli exclusion principle . ) The physical mechanism to explain the fourth parameter , which had two distinct possible values , was provided by the Dutch physicists Samuel Goudsmit and George Uhlenbeck . In 1925 , Goudsmit and Uhlenbeck suggested that an electron , in addition to the angular momentum of its orbit , possesses an intrinsic angular momentum and magnetic dipole moment . The intrinsic angular momentum became known as spin , and explained the previously mysterious splitting of spectral lines observed with a high @-@ resolution spectrograph ; this phenomenon is known as fine structure splitting . = = = Quantum mechanics = = = In his 1924 dissertation Recherches sur la théorie des quanta ( Research on Quantum Theory ) , French physicist Louis de Broglie hypothesized that all matter possesses a de Broglie wave similar to light . That is , under the appropriate conditions , electrons and other matter would show properties of either particles or waves . The corpuscular properties of a particle are demonstrated when it is shown to have a localized position in space along its trajectory at any given moment . Wave @-@ like nature is observed , for example , when a beam of light is passed through parallel slits and creates interference patterns . In 1927 , the interference effect was found in a beam of electrons by English physicist George Paget Thomson with a thin metal film and by American physicists Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer using a crystal of nickel . De Broglie 's prediction of a wave nature for electrons led Erwin Schrödinger to postulate a wave equation for electrons moving under the influence of the nucleus in the atom . In 1926 , this equation , the Schrödinger equation , successfully described how electron waves propagated . Rather than yielding a solution that determined the location of an electron over time , this wave equation also could be used to predict the probability of finding an electron near a position , especially a position near where the electron was bound in space , for which the electron wave equations did not change in time . This approach led to a second formulation of quantum mechanics ( the first being by Heisenberg in 1925 ) , and solutions of Schrödinger 's equation , like Heisenberg 's , provided derivations of the energy states of an electron in a hydrogen atom that were equivalent to those that had been derived first by Bohr in 1913 , and that were known to reproduce the hydrogen spectrum . Once spin and the interaction between multiple electrons were considered , quantum mechanics later made it possible to predict the configuration of electrons in atoms with higher atomic numbers than hydrogen . In 1928 , building on Wolfgang Pauli 's work , Paul Dirac produced a model of the electron – the Dirac equation , consistent with relativity theory , by applying relativistic and symmetry considerations to the hamiltonian formulation of the quantum mechanics of the electro @-@ magnetic field . To resolve some problems within his relativistic equation , in 1930 Dirac developed a model of the vacuum as an infinite sea of particles having negative energy , which was dubbed the Dirac sea . This led him to predict the existence of a positron , the antimatter counterpart of the electron . This particle was discovered in 1932 by Carl Anderson , who proposed calling standard electrons negatrons , and using electron as a generic term to describe both the positively and negatively charged variants . In 1947 Willis Lamb , working in collaboration with graduate student Robert Retherford , found that certain quantum states of hydrogen atom , which should have the same energy , were shifted in relation to each other , the difference being the Lamb shift . About the same time , Polykarp Kusch , working with Henry M. Foley , discovered the magnetic moment of the electron is slightly larger than predicted by Dirac 's theory . This small difference was later called anomalous magnetic dipole moment of the electron . This difference was later explained by the theory of quantum electrodynamics , developed by Sin @-@ Itiro Tomonaga , Julian Schwinger and Richard Feynman in the late 1940s . = = = Particle accelerators = = = With the development of the particle accelerator during the first half of the twentieth century , physicists began to delve deeper into the properties of subatomic particles . The first successful attempt to accelerate electrons using electromagnetic induction was made in 1942 by Donald Kerst . His initial betatron reached energies of 2 @.@ 3 MeV , while subsequent betatrons achieved 300 MeV . In 1947 , synchrotron radiation was discovered with a 70 MeV electron synchrotron at General Electric . This radiation was caused by the acceleration of electrons , moving near the speed of light , through a magnetic field . With a beam energy of 1 @.@ 5 GeV , the first high @-@ energy particle collider was ADONE , which began operations in 1968 . This device accelerated electrons and positrons in opposite directions , effectively doubling the energy of their collision when compared to striking a static target with an electron . The Large Electron – Positron Collider ( LEP ) at CERN , which was operational from 1989 to 2000 , achieved collision energies of 209 GeV and made important measurements for the Standard Model of particle physics . = = = Confinement of individual electrons = = = Individual electrons can now be easily confined in ultra small ( L
= 20 nm , W = 20 nm ) CMOS transistors operated at cryogenic temperature over a range of − 269 ° C ( 4 K ) to about − 258 ° C ( 15 K ) . The electron wavefunction spreads in a semiconductor lattice and negligibly interacts with the valence band electrons , so it can be treated in the single particle formalism , by replacing its mass with the effective mass tensor . = = Characteristics = = = = = Classification = = = In the Standard Model of particle physics , electrons belong to the group of subatomic particles called leptons , which are believed to be fundamental or elementary particles . Electrons have the lowest mass of any charged lepton ( or electrically charged particle of any type ) and belong to the first @-@ generation of fundamental particles . The second and third generation contain charged leptons , the muon and the tau , which are identical to the electron in charge , spin and interactions , but are more massive . Leptons differ from the other basic constituent of matter , the quarks , by their lack of strong interaction . All members of the lepton group are fermions , because they all have half @-@ odd integer spin ; the electron has spin 1 / 2 . = = = Fundamental properties = = = The invariant mass of an electron is approximately 9 @.@ 109 × 10 − 31 kilograms , or 5 @.@ 489 × 10 − 4 atomic mass units . On the basis of Einstein 's principle of mass – energy equivalence , this mass corresponds to a rest energy of 0 @.@ 511 MeV . The ratio between the mass of a proton and that of an electron is about 1836 . Astronomical measurements show that the proton @-@ to @-@ electron mass ratio has held the same value for at least half the age of the universe , as is predicted by the Standard Model . Electrons have an electric charge of − 1 @.@ 602 × 10 − 19 coulomb , which is used as a standard unit of charge for subatomic particles , and is also called the elementary charge . This elementary charge has a relative standard uncertainty of 2 @.@ 2 × 10 − 8 . Within the limits of experimental accuracy , the electron charge is identical to the charge of a proton , but with the opposite sign . As the symbol e is used for the elementary charge , the electron is commonly symbolized by e − , where the minus sign indicates the negative charge . The positron is symbolized by e + because it has the same properties as the electron but with a positive rather than negative charge . The electron has an intrinsic angular momentum or spin of 1 / 2 . This property is usually stated by referring to the electron as a spin @-@ 1 / 2 particle . For such particles the spin magnitude is √ 3 / 2 ħ. while the result of the measurement of a projection of the spin on any axis can only be ± ħ / 2 . In addition to spin , the electron has an intrinsic magnetic moment along its spin axis . It is approximately equal to one Bohr magneton , which is a physical constant equal to 9 @.@ 27400915 ( 23 ) × 10 − 24 joules per tesla . The orientation of the spin with respect to the momentum of the electron defines the property of elementary particles known as helicity . The electron has no known substructure. and it is assumed to be a point particle with a point charge and no spatial extent . In classical physics , the angular momentum and magnetic moment of an object depend upon its physical dimensions . Hence , the concept of a dimensionless electron possessing these properties contrasts to experimental observations in Penning traps which point to finite non @-@ zero radius of the electron . A possible explanation of this paradoxical situation is given below in the " Virtual particles " subsection by taking into consideration the Foldy @-@ Wouthuysen transformation . The issue of the radius of the electron is a challenging problem of the modern theoretical physics . The admission of the hypothesis of a finite radius of the electron is incompatible to the premises of the theory of relativity . On the other hand , a point @-@ like electron ( zero radius ) generates serious mathematical difficulties due to the self @-@ energy of the electron tending to infinity . These aspects have been analyzed in detail by Dmitri Ivanenko and Arseny Sokolov . Observation of a single electron in a Penning trap shows the upper limit of the particle 's radius is 10 − 22 meters . Also an upper bound of electron radius of 10 − 18 meters can be derived using the uncertainty relation in energy . There is also a physical constant called the " classical electron radius " , with the much larger value of 2 @.@ 8179 × 10 − 15 m , greater than the radius of the proton . However , the terminology comes from a simplistic calculation that ignores the effects of quantum mechanics ; in reality , the so @-@ called classical electron radius has little to do with the true fundamental structure of the electron . There are elementary particles that spontaneously decay into less massive particles . An example is the muon , which decays into an electron , a neutrino and an antineutrino , with a mean lifetime of 2 @.@ 2 × 10 − 6 seconds . However , the electron is thought to be stable on theoretical grounds : the electron is the least massive particle with non @-@ zero electric charge , so its decay would violate charge conservation . The experimental lower bound for the electron 's mean lifetime is 6 @.@ 6 × 1028 years , at a 90 % confidence level . = = = Quantum properties = = = As with all particles , electrons can act as waves . This is called the wave – particle duality and can be demonstrated using the double @-@ slit experiment . The wave @-@ like nature of the electron allows it to pass through two parallel slits simultaneously , rather than just one slit as would be the case for a classical particle . In quantum mechanics , the wave @-@ like property of one particle can be described mathematically as a complex @-@ valued function , the wave function , commonly denoted by the Greek letter psi ( ψ ) . When the absolute value of this function is squared , it gives the probability that a particle will be observed near a location — a probability density . Electrons are identical particles because they cannot be distinguished from each other by their intrinsic physical properties . In quantum mechanics , this means that a pair of interacting electrons must be able to swap positions without an observable change to the state of the system . The wave function of fermions , including electrons , is antisymmetric , meaning that it changes sign when two electrons are swapped ; that is , ψ ( r1 , r2 ) = − ψ ( r2 , r1 ) , where the variables r1 and r2 correspond to the first and second electrons , respectively . Since the absolute value is not changed by a sign swap , this corresponds to equal probabilities . Bosons , such as the photon , have symmetric wave functions instead . In the case of antisymmetry , solutions of the wave equation for interacting electrons result in a zero probability that each pair will occupy the same location or state . This is responsible for the Pauli exclusion principle , which precludes any two electrons from occupying the same quantum state . This principle explains many of the properties of electrons . For example , it causes groups of bound electrons to occupy different orbitals in an atom , rather than all overlapping each other in the same orbit . = = = Virtual particles = = = In a simplified picture , every photon spends some time as a combination of a virtual electron plus its antiparticle , the virtual positron , which rapidly annihilate each other shortly thereafter . The combination of the energy variation needed to create these particles , and the time during which they exist , fall under the threshold of detectability expressed by the Heisenberg uncertainty relation , ΔE · Δt ≥ ħ . In effect , the energy needed to create these virtual particles , ΔE , can be " borrowed " from the vacuum for a period of time , Δt , so that their product is no more than the reduced Planck constant , ħ ≈ 6 @.@ 6 × 10 − 16 eV · s . Thus , for a virtual electron , Δt is at most 1 @.@ 3 × 10 − 21 s . While an electron – positron virtual pair is in existence , the coulomb force from the ambient electric field surrounding an electron causes a created positron to be attracted to the original electron , while a created electron experiences a repulsion . This causes what is called vacuum polarization . In effect , the vacuum behaves like a medium having a dielectric permittivity more than unity . Thus the effective charge of an electron is actually smaller than its true value , and the charge decreases with increasing distance from the electron . This polarization was confirmed experimentally in 1997 using the Japanese TRISTAN particle accelerator . Virtual particles cause a comparable shielding effect for the mass of the electron . The interaction with virtual particles also explains the small ( about 0 @.@ 1 % ) deviation of the intrinsic magnetic moment of the electron from the Bohr magneton ( the anomalous magnetic moment ) . The extraordinarily precise agreement of this predicted difference with the experimentally determined value is viewed as one of the great achievements of quantum electrodynamics . The apparent paradox ( mentioned above in the properties subsection ) of a point particle electron having intrinsic angular momentum and magnetic moment can be explained by the formation of virtual photons in the electric field generated by the electron . These photons cause the electron to shift about in a jittery fashion ( known as zitterbewegung ) , which results in a net circular motion with precession . This motion produces both the spin and the magnetic moment of the electron . In atoms , this creation of virtual photons explains the Lamb shift observed in spectral lines . = = = Interaction = = = An electron generates an electric field that exerts an attractive force on a particle with a positive charge , such as the proton , and a repulsive force on a particle with a negative charge . The strength of this force is determined by Coulomb 's inverse square law . When an electron is in motion , it generates a magnetic field . The Ampère @-@ Maxwell law relates the magnetic field to the mass motion of electrons ( the current ) with respect to an observer . This property of induction supplies the magnetic field that drives an electric motor . The electromagnetic field of an arbitrary moving charged particle is expressed by the Liénard – Wiechert potentials , which are valid even when the particle 's speed is close to that of light ( relativistic ) . When an electron is moving through a magnetic field , it is subject to the Lorentz force that acts perpendicularly to the plane defined by the magnetic field and the electron velocity . This centripetal force causes the electron to follow a helical trajectory through the field at a radius called the gyroradius . The acceleration from this curving motion induces the electron to radiate energy in the form of synchrotron radiation . The energy emission in turn causes a recoil of the electron , known as the Abraham – Lorentz – Dirac Force , which creates a friction that slows the electron . This force is caused by a back @-@ reaction of the electron 's own field upon itself . Photons mediate electromagnetic interactions between particles in quantum electrodynamics . An isolated electron at a constant velocity cannot emit or absorb a real photon ; doing so would violate conservation of energy and momentum . Instead , virtual photons can transfer momentum between two charged particles . This exchange of virtual photons , for example , generates the Coulomb force . Energy emission can occur when a moving electron is deflected by a charged particle , such as a proton . The acceleration of the electron results in the emission of Bremsstrahlung radiation . An inelastic collision between a photon ( light ) and a solitary ( free ) electron is called Compton scattering . This collision results in a transfer of momentum and energy between the particles , which modifies the wavelength of the photon by an amount called the Compton shift . The maximum magnitude of this wavelength shift is h / mec , which is known as the Compton wavelength . For an electron , it has a value of 2 @.@ 43 × 10 − 12 m . When the wavelength of the light is long ( for instance , the wavelength of the visible light is 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 7 μm ) the wavelength shift becomes negligible . Such interaction between the light and free electrons is called Thomson scattering or Linear Thomson scattering . The relative strength of the electromagnetic interaction between two charged particles , such as an electron and a proton , is given by the fine @-@ structure constant . This value is a dimensionless quantity formed by the ratio of two energies : the electrostatic energy of attraction ( or repulsion ) at a separation of one Compton wavelength , and the rest energy of the charge . It is given by α ≈ 7 @.@ 297353 × 10 − 3 , which is approximately equal to 1 / 137 . When electrons and positrons collide , they annihilate each other , giving rise to two or more gamma ray photons . If the electron and positron have negligible momentum , a positronium atom can form before annihilation results in two or three gamma ray photons totalling 1 @.@ 022 MeV . On the other hand , high @-@ energy photons may transform into an electron and a positron by a process called pair production , but only in the presence of a nearby charged particle , such as a nucleus . In the theory of electroweak interaction , the left @-@ handed component of electron 's wavefunction forms a weak isospin doublet with the electron neutrino . This means that during weak interactions , electron neutrinos behave like electrons . Either member of this doublet can undergo a charged current interaction by emitting or absorbing a W and be converted into the other member . Charge is conserved during this reaction because the W boson also carries a charge , canceling out any net change during the transmutation . Charged current interactions are responsible for the phenomenon of beta decay in a radioactive atom . Both the electron and electron neutrino can undergo a neutral current interaction via a Z0 exchange , and this is responsible for neutrino @-@ electron elastic scattering . = = = Atoms and molecules = = = An electron can be bound to the nucleus of an atom by the attractive Coulomb force . A system of one or more electrons bound to a nucleus is called an atom . If the number of electrons is different from the nucleus ' electrical charge , such an atom is called an ion . The wave @-@ like behavior of a bound electron is described by a function called an atomic orbital . Each orbital has its own set of quantum numbers such as energy , angular momentum and projection of angular momentum , and only a discrete set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus . According to the Pauli exclusion principle each orbital can be occupied by up to two electrons , which must differ in their spin quantum number . Electrons can transfer between different orbitals by the emission or absorption of photons with an energy that matches the difference in potential . Other methods of orbital transfer include collisions with particles , such as electrons , and the Auger effect . To escape the atom , the energy of the electron must be increased above its binding energy to the atom . This occurs , for example , with the photoelectric effect , where an incident photon exceeding the atom 's ionization energy is absorbed by the electron . The orbital angular momentum of electrons is quantized . Because the electron is charged , it produces an orbital magnetic moment that is proportional to the angular momentum . The net magnetic moment of an atom is equal to the vector sum of orbital and spin magnetic moments of all electrons and the nucleus . The magnetic moment of the nucleus is negligible compared with that of the electrons . The magnetic moments of the electrons that occupy the same orbital ( so called , paired electrons ) cancel each other out . The chemical bond between atoms occurs as a result of electromagnetic interactions , as described by the laws of quantum mechanics . The strongest bonds are formed by the sharing or transfer of electrons between atoms , allowing the formation of molecules . Within a molecule , electrons move under the influence of several nuclei , and occupy molecular orbitals ; much as they can occupy atomic orbitals in isolated atoms . A fundamental factor in these molecular structures is the existence of electron pairs . These are electrons with opposed spins , allowing them to occupy the same molecular orbital without violating the Pauli exclusion principle ( much like in atoms ) . Different molecular orbitals have different spatial distribution of the electron density . For instance , in bonded pairs ( i.e. in the pairs that actually bind atoms together ) electrons can be found with the maximal probability in a relatively small volume between the nuclei . On the contrary , in non @-@ bonded pairs electrons are distributed in a large volume around nuclei . = = = Conductivity = = = If a body has more or fewer electrons than are required to balance the positive charge of the nuclei , then that object has a net electric charge . When there is an excess of electrons , the object is said to be negatively charged . When there are fewer electrons than the number of protons in nuclei , the object is said to be positively charged . When the number of electrons and the number of protons are equal , their charges cancel each other and the object is said to be electrically neutral . A macroscopic body can develop an electric charge through rubbing , by the triboelectric effect . Independent electrons moving in vacuum are termed free electrons . Electrons in metals also behave as if they were free . In reality the particles that are commonly termed electrons in metals and other solids are quasi @-@ electrons — quasiparticles , which have the same electrical charge , spin and magnetic moment as real electrons but may have a different mass . When free electrons — both in vacuum and metals — move , they produce a net flow of charge called an electric current , which generates a magnetic field . Likewise a current can be created by a changing magnetic field . These interactions are described mathematically by Maxwell 's equations . At a given temperature , each material has an electrical conductivity that determines the value of electric current when an electric potential is applied . Examples of good conductors include metals such as copper and gold , whereas glass and Teflon are poor conductors . In any dielectric material , the electrons remain bound to their respective atoms and the material behaves as an insulator . Most semiconductors have a variable level of conductivity that lies between the extremes of conduction and insulation . On the other hand , metals have an electronic band structure containing partially filled electronic bands . The presence of such bands allows electrons in metals to behave as if they were free or delocalized electrons . These electrons are not associated with specific atoms , so when an electric field is applied , they are free to move like a gas ( called Fermi gas ) through the material much like free electrons . Because of collisions between electrons and atoms , the drift velocity of electrons in a conductor is on the order of millimeters per second . However , the speed at which a change of current at one point in the material causes changes in currents in other parts of the material , the velocity of propagation , is typically about 75 % of light speed . This occurs because electrical signals propagate as a wave , with the velocity dependent on the dielectric constant of the material . Metals make relatively good conductors of heat , primarily because the delocalized electrons are free to transport thermal energy between atoms . However , unlike electrical conductivity , the thermal conductivity of a metal is nearly independent of temperature . This is expressed mathematically by the Wiedemann – Franz law , which states that the ratio of thermal conductivity to the electrical conductivity is proportional to the temperature . The thermal disorder in the metallic lattice increases the electrical resistivity of the material , producing a temperature dependence for electric current . When cooled below a point called the critical temperature , materials can undergo a phase transition in which they lose all resistivity to electric current , in a process known as superconductivity . In BCS theory , this behavior is modeled by pairs of electrons entering a quantum state known as a Bose – Einstein condensate . These Cooper pairs have their motion coupled to nearby matter via lattice vibrations called phonons , thereby avoiding the collisions with atoms that normally create electrical resistance . ( Cooper pairs have a radius of roughly 100 nm , so they can overlap each other . ) However , the mechanism by which higher temperature superconductors operate remains uncertain . Electrons inside conducting solids , which are quasi @-@ particles themselves , when tightly confined at temperatures close to absolute zero , behave as though they had split into three other quasiparticles : spinons , orbitons and holons . The former carries spin and magnetic moment , the next carries its orbital location while the latter electrical charge . = = = Motion and energy = = = According to Einstein 's theory of special relativity , as an electron 's speed approaches the speed of light , from an observer 's point of view its relativistic mass increases , thereby making it more and more difficult to accelerate it from within the observer 's frame of reference . The speed of an electron can approach , but never reach , the speed of light in a vacuum , c . However , when relativistic electrons — that is , electrons moving at a speed close to c — are injected into a dielectric medium such as water , where the local speed of light is significantly less than c , the electrons temporarily travel faster than light in the medium . As they interact with the medium , they generate a faint light called Cherenkov radiation . The effects of special relativity are based on a quantity known as the Lorentz factor , defined as <formula> where v is the speed of the particle . The kinetic energy Ke of an electron moving with velocity v is : <formula> where me is the mass of electron . For example , the Stanford linear accelerator can accelerate an electron to roughly 51 GeV . Since an electron behaves as a wave , at a given velocity it has a characteristic de Broglie wavelength . This is given by λe = h / p where h is the Planck constant and p is the momentum . For the 51 GeV electron above , the wavelength is about 2 @.@ 4 × 10 − 17 m , small enough to explore structures well below the size of an atomic nucleus . = = Formation = = The Big Bang theory is the most widely accepted scientific theory to explain the early stages in the evolution of the Universe . For the first millisecond of the Big Bang , the temperatures were over 10 billion Kelvin and photons had mean energies over a million electronvolts . These photons were sufficiently energetic that they could react with each other to form pairs of electrons and positrons . Likewise , positron @-@ electron pairs annihilated each other and emitted energetic photons : γ + γ ↔ e + + e − An equilibrium between electrons , positrons and photons was maintained during this phase of the evolution of the Universe . After 15 seconds had passed , however , the temperature of the universe dropped below the threshold where electron @-@ positron formation could occur . Most of the surviving electrons and positrons annihilated each other , releasing gamma radiation that briefly reheated the universe . For reasons that remain uncertain , during the process of leptogenesis there was an excess in the number of electrons over positrons . Hence , about one electron in every billion survived the annihilation process . This excess matched the excess of protons over antiprotons , in a condition known as baryon asymmetry , resulting in a net charge of zero for the universe . The surviving protons and neutrons began to participate in reactions with each other — in the process known as nucleosynthesis , forming isotopes of hydrogen and helium , with trace amounts of lithium . This process peaked after about five minutes . Any leftover neutrons underwent negative beta decay with a half @-@ life of about a thousand seconds , releasing a proton and electron in the process , n → p + e − + ν e For about the next 300000 – 400000 years , the excess electrons remained too energetic to bind with atomic nuclei . What followed is a period known as recombination , when neutral atoms were formed and the expanding universe became transparent to radiation . Roughly one million years after the big bang , the first generation of stars began to form . Within a star , stellar nucleosynthesis results in the production of positrons from the fusion of atomic nuclei . These antimatter particles immediately annihilate with electrons , releasing gamma rays . The net result is a steady reduction in the number of electrons , and a matching increase in the number of neutrons . However , the process of stellar evolution can result in the synthesis of radioactive isotopes . Selected isotopes can subsequently undergo negative beta decay , emitting an electron and antineutrino from the nucleus . An example is the cobalt @-@ 60 ( 60Co ) isotope , which decays to form nickel @-@ 60 ( 60Ni ) . At the end of its lifetime , a star with more than about 20 solar masses can undergo gravitational collapse to form a black hole . According to classical physics , these massive stellar objects exert a gravitational attraction that is strong enough to prevent anything , even electromagnetic radiation , from escaping past the Schwarzschild radius . However , quantum mechanical effects are believed to potentially allow the emission of Hawking radiation at this distance . Electrons ( and positrons ) are thought to be created at the event horizon of these stellar remnants . When pairs of virtual particles ( such as an electron and positron ) are created in the vicinity of the event horizon , the random spatial distribution of these particles may permit one of them to appear on the exterior ; this process is called quantum tunnelling . The gravitational potential of the black hole can then supply the energy that transforms this virtual particle into a real particle , allowing it to radiate away into space . In exchange , the other member of the pair is given negative energy , which results in a net loss of mass @-@ energy by the black hole . The rate of Hawking radiation increases with decreasing mass , eventually causing the black hole to evaporate away until , finally , it explodes . Cosmic rays are particles traveling through space with high energies . Energy events as high as 3 @.@ 0 × 1020 eV have been recorded . When these particles collide with nucleons in the Earth 's atmosphere , a shower of particles is generated , including pions . More than half of the cosmic radiation observed from the Earth 's surface consists of muons . The particle called a muon is a lepton produced in the upper atmosphere by the decay of a pion . π − → μ − + ν μ A muon , in turn , can decay to form an electron or positron . μ − → e − + ν e + ν μ = = Observation = = Remote observation of electrons requires detection of their radiated energy . For example , in high @-@ energy environments such as the corona of a star , free electrons form a plasma that radiates energy due to Bremsstrahlung radiation . Electron gas can undergo plasma oscillation , which is waves caused by synchronized variations in electron density , and these produce energy emissions that can be detected by using radio telescopes . The frequency of a photon is proportional to its energy . As a bound electron transitions between different energy levels of an atom , it absorbs or emits photons at characteristic frequencies . For instance , when atoms are irradiated by a source with a broad spectrum , distinct absorption lines appear in the spectrum of transmitted radiation . Each element or molecule displays a characteristic set of spectral lines , such as the hydrogen spectral series . Spectroscopic measurements of the strength and width of these lines allow the composition and physical properties of a substance to be determined . In laboratory conditions , the interactions of individual electrons can be observed by means of particle detectors , which allow measurement of specific properties such as energy , spin and charge . The development of the Paul trap and Penning trap allows charged particles to be contained within a small region for long durations . This enables precise measurements of the particle properties . For example , in one instance a Penning trap was used to contain a single electron for a period of 10 months . The magnetic moment of the electron was measured to a precision of eleven digits , which , in 1980 , was a greater accuracy than for any other physical constant . The first video images of an electron 's energy distribution were captured by a team at Lund University in Sweden , February 2008 . The scientists used extremely short flashes of light , called attosecond pulses , which allowed an electron 's motion to be observed for the first time . The distribution of the electrons in solid materials can be visualized by angle @-@ resolved photoemission spectroscopy ( ARPES ) . This technique employs the photoelectric effect to measure the reciprocal space — a mathematical representation of periodic structures that is used to infer the original structure . ARPES can be used to determine the direction , speed and scattering of electrons within the material . = = Plasma applications = = = = = Particle beams = = = Electron beams are used in welding . They allow energy densities up to 107 W · cm − 2 across a narrow focus diameter of 0 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 3 mm and usually require no filler material . This welding technique must be performed in a vacuum to prevent the electrons from interacting with the gas before reaching their target , and it can be used to join conductive materials that would otherwise be considered unsuitable for welding . Electron @-@ beam lithography ( EBL ) is a method of etching semiconductors at resolutions smaller than a micrometer . This technique is limited by high costs , slow performance , the need to operate the beam in the vacuum and the tendency of the electrons to scatter in solids . The last problem limits the resolution to about 10 nm . For this reason , EBL is primarily used for the production of small numbers of specialized integrated circuits . Electron beam processing is used to irradiate materials in order to change their physical properties or sterilize medical and food products . Electron beams fluidise or quasi @-@ melt glasses without significant increase of temperature on intensive irradiation : e.g. intensive electron radiation causes a many orders of magnitude decrease of viscosity and stepwise decrease of its activation energy . Linear particle accelerators generate electron beams for treatment of superficial tumors in radiation therapy . Electron therapy can treat such skin lesions as basal @-@ cell carcinomas because an electron beam only penetrates to a limited depth before being absorbed , typically up to 5 cm for electron energies in the range 5 – 20 MeV . An electron beam can be used to supplement the treatment of areas that have been irradiated by X @-@ rays . Particle accelerators use electric fields to propel electrons and their antiparticles to high energies . These particles emit synchrotron radiation as they pass through magnetic fields . The dependency of the intensity of this radiation upon spin polarizes the electron beam — a process known as the Sokolov – Ternov effect . Polarized electron beams can be useful for various experiments . Synchrotron radiation can also cool the electron beams to reduce the momentum spread of the particles . Electron and positron beams are collided upon the particles ' accelerating to the required energies ; particle detectors observe the resulting energy emissions , which particle physics studies . = = = Imaging = = = Low @-@ energy electron diffraction ( LEED ) is a method of bombarding a crystalline material with a collimated beam of electrons and then observing the resulting diffraction patterns to determine the structure of the material . The required energy of the electrons is typically in the range 20 – 200 eV . The reflection high @-@ energy electron diffraction ( RHEED ) technique uses the reflection of a beam of electrons fired at various low angles to characterize the surface of crystalline materials . The beam energy is typically in the range 8 – 20 keV and the angle of incidence is 1 – 4 ° . The electron microscope directs a focused beam of electrons at a specimen . Some electrons change their properties , such as movement direction , angle , and relative phase and energy as the beam interacts with the material . Microscopists can record these changes in the electron beam to produce atomically resolved images of the material . In blue light , conventional optical microscopes have a diffraction @-@ limited resolution of about 200 nm . By comparison , electron microscopes are limited by the de Broglie wavelength of the electron . This wavelength , for example , is equal to 0 @.@ 0037 nm for electrons accelerated across a 100 @,@ 000 @-@ volt potential . The Transmission Electron Aberration @-@ Corrected Microscope is capable of sub @-@ 0 @.@ 05 nm resolution , which is more than enough to resolve individual atoms . This capability makes the electron microscope a useful laboratory instrument for high resolution imaging . However , electron microscopes are expensive instruments that are costly to maintain . Two main types of electron microscopes exist : transmission and scanning . Transmission electron microscopes function like overhead projectors , with a beam of electrons passing through a slice of material then being projected by lenses on a photographic slide or a charge @-@ coupled device . Scanning electron microscopes rasteri a finely focused electron beam , as in a TV set , across the studied sample to produce the image . Magnifications range from 100 × to 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 × or higher for both microscope types . The scanning tunneling microscope uses quantum tunneling of electrons from a sharp metal tip into the studied material and can produce atomically resolved images of its surface . = = = Other applications = = = In the free @-@ electron laser ( FEL ) , a relativistic electron beam passes through a pair of undulators that contain arrays of dipole magnets whose fields point in alternating directions . The electrons emit synchrotron radiation that coherently interacts with the same electrons to strongly amplify the radiation field at the resonance frequency . FEL can emit a coherent high @-@ brilliance electromagnetic radiation with a wide range of frequencies , from microwaves to soft X @-@ rays . These devices may find manufacturing , communication and various medical applications , such as soft tissue surgery . Electrons are important in cathode ray tubes , which have been extensively used as display devices in laboratory instruments , computer monitors and television sets . In a photomultiplier tube , every photon striking the photocathode initiates an avalanche of electrons that produces a detectable current pulse . Vacuum tubes use the flow of electrons to manipulate electrical signals , and they played a critical role in the development of electronics technology . However , they have been largely supplanted by solid @-@ state devices such as the transistor .
= A Weekend in the City = A Weekend in the City is the second studio album by British indie rock band Bloc Party . It was recorded at Grouse Lodge Studios in Westmeath , Ireland , in mid @-@ 2006 and was produced by Jacknife Lee . The album was refined and mixed at several locations in London at the end of 2006 . It was released on 24 January 2007 in Japan and in the first week of February in the rest of the world , with Wichita Recordings as the primary label . The album peaked at number two on the UK Albums Chart and on the Irish Albums Chart . In the United States , it entered the Billboard 200 at number 12 . Bloc Party worked to craft an album that distanced them from the conventional guitar band set @-@ up by incorporating more electronically processed beats and additional instrumentation . Computer programs were extensively used to enrich and amend recorded takes , while a string sextet was hired to perform on some of the tracks . The subject matter of frontman and chief lyricist Kele Okereke 's lyrics for A Weekend in the City covers issues such as drug use , sexuality , and terrorism . The album 's three original singles , " The Prayer " , " I Still Remember " , and " Hunting for Witches " , address these themes respectively . Bloc Party 's new musical directions and more forthright lyrics either impressed or alienated critics . Reviewers generally treated A Weekend in the City as an important stepping stone for the band members in their quest for musical maturity , while The Guardian included it in its list of the " 1000 Albums To Hear Before You Die " . In November 2007 , the album was re @-@ released globally — with the final single , " Flux " , as a bonus track — to coincide with Bloc Party 's extensive touring schedule . = = Origins = = All band members of Bloc Party conceived A Weekend in the City during 2005 while on tour in support of their critically acclaimed debut album Silent Alarm . Despite missing their home city of London , the quartet became increasingly disillusioned with the culture in the area each time they sporadically returned . Band member Gordon Moakes has noted , " The contrast we saw between being away on tour and being home ... we would see that London wasn 't changing really and that the people we 'd grown up with were part of that . " Okereke wrote many songs in 2005 and early 2006 and used a concept he called " Urbanite Relaxation " to expand upon the themes of life and leisure in the metropolis . The band recorded around 30 sound checks for the initial lyrics using a MiniDisc player . The rest of the tracks were written in April 2006 before they entered the studio recording process . The band members drew up a shortlist of possible producers in early 2006 , which included dance music @-@ oriented staff such as Chemical Brothers sound engineer Steve Dub and high @-@ profile producers like Garret " Jacknife " Lee . At the time , Moakes told Rolling Stone that the album would hopefully include electronic , processed beats and a sound in the vein of alternative rock band Radiohead and indie rock ensemble TV on the Radio . Bloc Party wanted to expand their sonic palette without losing the musical " jerkiness " of Silent Alarm . They selected Lee — who had worked with world @-@ renowned act U2 and indie rock band Snow Patrol — based on the rapport that developed between the two parties while recording the demo song " I Still Remember " , which later appeared in A Weekend in the City . Moakes has explained the choice of producer by stating that the band members were looking to work with someone who could help them craft an accomplished album , " although as much as anything it 's about finding someone who you 'd want to spend six weeks in an enclosed space with " . Before the studio sessions , Bloc Party listened to varied musical sources , from composers Philip Glass , György Ligeti , and Krzysztof Penderecki to urban artists Amerie and Missy Elliott . The band members were largely disillusioned with the evolution of contemporary guitar music and aimed to re @-@ create the highly stylised production values of R & B and hip @-@ hop records , while relying on an atmosphere similar to neo @-@ classical music . = = Recording = = In mid @-@ 2006 , Bloc Party travelled to Lee 's Grouse Lodge Studios in Westmeath , Ireland , to record A Weekend in the City . The band members initially worked by experimenting with their respective instruments and sound check arrangements . Moakes additionally focused on using different types of synthesiser . All parties soon moved to the main recording room , a large area with " a lot of natural ambience " according to sound engineer Tom McFall . A makeshift booth was built around the back of the drum kit to reduce any sonic interference , while a roof was sometimes used over drummer Matt Tong to isolate a pure sound . Different types of microphones were used for each component of the drum kit . The miking scheme was crucial to prepare the drum tracks for the looping and processing Lee planned using production program Logic . The band worked by setting up all the instruments with only a single power amplifier . McFall has pointed out that distorted and heavily compressed mics were used to capture some of the room 's ambience " to add a bit of grit " to the instrumental tracks ; the recordings were often processed further using distressors , special types of compressor noted for their distinctively aggressive sound . The production staff tried other unconventional effects once the basic tracks were recorded . The band sometimes performed while Tong 's kit was re @-@ amped and played sections live while a brick was placed on the sustain pedal of a piano to capture the vibrations during the performances . During the six weeks at Grouse Lodge , Bloc Party tried multiple versions of songs and , at times , attempted playing live alongside recorded versions of the same track . Lee recorded everything using Digital Audio Workstation Pro Tools and treated the parts as individual stereo files in Logic . The drum and guitar tracks were processed using computers . Much of the synthesiser @-@ sounding parts of the album were generated by Russell Lissack 's lead guitar following his extensive use of pedal effects . Lee added the live string , synth , drum machine , sample , and ambient noise tracks to create an expansive , hyper @-@ stereophonic final product . After finishing the instrumental album , Bloc Party left Ireland to continue touring . Okereke later returned to Lee 's studio to add the vocal tracks to the album ; he has noted that he tried to " convey range and dynamics " rather than simply yelp the lyrics . Several track names were changed following the voice sessions : " Merge on the Freeway " became " Song for Clay ( Disappear Here ) " , " A Prayer to the Lord " was renamed " The Prayer " , " Wet " became " On " , and " Perfect Teens " was renamed " Where Is Home ? " . = = Promotion and release = = Bloc Party confirmed a preliminary track list of 13 songs in August 2006 ; this included future bonus tracks " England " and " We Were Lovers " . A low @-@ quality rip of A Weekend in the City was leaked in November and showed a track list of 11 songs . Wichita Recordings did not comment , but the band members were quoted as being worried about a reduction in the potential impact of the album 's content and sales . Bloc Party started a promotional tour of North America the same month with Panic ! at the Disco , but cut it short after three concerts when Tong suffered a collapsed lung . The focus was changed to interviews throughout the world to explain the album 's stylised lyrics and composition in the run @-@ up to its release . Final tweaks on the album were completed in December 2006 in London . A high @-@ quality version was leaked in January 2007 and its contents were confirmed by Okereke . Journalists who obtained an official copy of the album 's final mix suggested that it featured electronically tampered rock soundscapes in the vein of Radiohead , New Order , and Björk . Bloc Party previewed A Weekend in the City in its entirety on 24 January 2007 at the Bournemouth Old Firestation , a performance which coincided with the Japanese release of the album . The first single , " The Prayer " , was released on 29 January . The band performed at a special BBC Radio 1 showcase at Maida Vale Studios on 30 January as a precursor to a February promotional tour of the UK . The album was released in the rest of the world in the first week of February . The title comes as a tangent to the central theme of the album , " the living noise of a metropolis " . The cover art is part of A Modern Project by German photographer Rut Blees Luxemburg , famous for her night cityscapes of London and for the cover art of The Streets ' Original Pirate Material . The photograph is an aerial image of London 's Westway , which shows the road and the adjacent sports pitches lit by the sodium glow of street lamps , and was chosen because the band believed " it was important we captured London breathing " . Luxemburg has explained that " in this picture you can see how intricately and optimistically public space in the city is shared " . = = Content = = = = = Lyrics = = = Okereke 's lyrics attempt to juxtapose the monotonous events — nights out on club dancefloors and waiting for a train — with the seemingly epic experiences — terrorist attacks and racial angst — witnessed in a city environment . The direct narrative approach divided reviewers . BBC 's Tom Young concluded , " Some will appreciate Kele 's openness and revel in his philosophical focus on modern lives ... others will be too distracted by questionable content such as ... lines about sudoku to take Okereke 's grumbles into consideration . " Okereke has conceded that he was disappointed with the abstraction in Silent Alarm ; he used The Smiths as inspiration to try to make a personal album with " a real centre " . The lyricist has noted , " I wanted it to be a snapshot , a frozen moment in time . Like in a city , with thousands of stories going on at once , layered on top of each other ... Although I might be speaking through the voice of a character , I 'm still expressing , perhaps , my sentiments . " The words to " Where Is Home ? " begin at the funeral of Christopher Alaneme , a black teenager stabbed to death in Kent in April 2006 in a racially motivated attack . Okereke has described him as a " cousin " due to their Nigerian mothers ' close friendship . The track castigates right @-@ wing newspapers for perpetuating a hysterical fear of black youths in hoodies , an action which often leads to opportunities being denied to the Black British community at large . Populist media is also the target of " Hunting for Witches " ( with the right @-@ wing tabloid Daily Mail being singled out for criticism ) , whose subject matter is terrorism , namely the 7 July 2005 London bombings . Okereke has stated , " I guess the point about the song for me is post @-@ September 11th , the media has really traded on fear and the use of fear in controlling people . " Two songs , " Kreuzberg " and " I Still Remember " , explore sexuality and homosexuality ; the former is an account of promiscuity in the Berlin area of the same name , while the latter details an unrequited crush of a boy for his schoolmate . The leading track , " Song for Clay ( Disappear Here ) " , was inspired by Less Than Zero , a novel by Bret Easton Ellis which depicts excessive hedonism and its effects on individuals . The song title references the protagonist Clay and a billboard in the book which displays the phrase " Disappear Here " , while the action is relocated to Les Trois Garçons restaurant in Shoreditch , East London . " Waiting for the 7 @.@ 18 " provides an escapist counterpoint by mentioning a trip to Brighton following disillusionment with working life in the capital . The fifth song on A Weekend in the City , " Uniform " , references London again and criticises the youth subculture in the area . It is directly inspired by Douglas Rushkoff 's Merchants of Cool documentary , which details the corporate exploitation of popular culture by advertisement companies . Okereke read Guy Debord 's The Society of the Spectacle and Henri Lefebvre 's Critique of Everyday Life , works which analyse how people experience leisure in modern societies , and was inspired to pen several songs which detail the drug and drink culture present in a metropolis . " The Prayer " is based on drug use during nights out in clubs , while " On " specifies the effects and after @-@ effects of cocaine . Okereke tried to treat the tracks as explanations of people 's actions , rather than moralising tales ; he has stated , " In a time when so many people feel they can 't communicate or feel hemmed in , I can see the appeal of cocaine . " " Sunday " details the morning @-@ after hangover following a drunken and promiscuous night out , while " SRXT " takes the form of a suicide note following the loneliness and despair of hedonism in the metropolis . The album closer is named after Seroxat , a trade name for the antidepressant paroxetine , and was crafted following the suicide attempts of two of Okereke 's friends after they left university in 2005 . = = = Composition = = = A Weekend in the City is largely built around a mix of distorted and layered guitars , electronic elements , and multilayered vocals . The creation of compositions required a high level of technical proficiency and led to songs " tinged with discord " . The opening section of " Song for Clay ( Disappear Here ) " includes a bare falsetto , while " Hunting for Witches " starts with a John Cage @-@ like collage of spliced voices from random radio broadcasts as its main rhythm . The rest of the second track makes extensive use of guitar pedal effects and includes a heavily distorted riff . Moakes has pointed out that the original sound check of " Waiting for the 7 @.@ 18 " was a ballad with a simple rhythmic pattern on the glockenspiel before the band members added a drum and bass section to its second half . " Kreuzberg " , " I Still Remember " , and " Sunday " are the few songs to provide a counterpoint to the musical manipulation on the rest of the album by having more conventional indie rock arrangements ; Moakes has called the compositions " lush , without being too syrupy " . In A Weekend in the City , layered vocals are often used to resemble choral sections , for example in the middle of " The Prayer " and throughout " Uniform " , which has over 100 stacked vocal tracks . " SRXT " is a chiming ballad directly inspired by Brian Eno 's " By This River " and incorporates double @-@ tracked lead and background vocals . Synthetic aspects — drum machines , synths , and computer glitches — were included as integral parts of compositions . " The Prayer " is built around a computer sample and includes MTV Base @-@ inspired urban contemporary beats and a prominent guitar solo towards the end . " On " is also a computer @-@ reworked live take . Half of the song was recorded as a series of loops of drum beats and bass guitar chords . The recorded take was split in two to make up the first and last quarters of the track , while the middle section was intentionally left blank for the band to improvise in . " On " is one of two songs , together with " Where Is Home ? " , to use a string sextet . The latter track includes erratic rhythms and clashing guitars . = = Reception = = = = = Commercial = = = A Weekend in the City was a commercial success and entered the UK Albums Chart , the Irish Albums Chart , and the Australian Albums Chart at number two . The album was listed at number 56 on the end @-@ of @-@ year UK Albums Chart for 2007 and was certified Gold by the British Phonographic Industry . In the US , it sold 47 @,@ 726 copies in its first week of release and entered the Billboard 200 at number twelve , a marked improvement on predecessor Silent Alarm which had only made number 114 when it was released in 2005 . The album also topped the Billboard Top Independent Albums . According to Nielsen SoundScan , it had sold 148 @,@ 000 copies in the US by August 2008 . More than one million copies have been sold worldwide . The first single , " The Prayer " , became Bloc Party 's highest charting song on the UK Singles Chart and on the Irish Singles Chart to date by peaking at number four and number 18 respectively . The song reached number 20 in Australia and is the band 's only Australian Singles Chart career entry . The next single and the first US release from the album , " I Still Remember " , entered the Hot Modern Rock Tracks at number 24 and became the band 's highest charting US single to date . The third single , " Hunting for Witches " , failed to chart in the US , but peaked at number 22 in the UK . = = = Critical = = = Media response to A Weekend in the City was mixed , but generally positive ; aggregating website Metacritic reports a normalised rating of 65 % based on 30 critical reviews . Louis Pattison of NME described the album as " tender and reflective , edgy and embittered ; a difficult and emotional beast that jolts with nervous electricity " and pointed out that its notable achievement is that it finds moments of genuine contentment amidst " a maelstrom of anger and confusion " . Allmusic 's Heather Phares did not find the album as immediate as Bloc Party 's earlier work , but noted that " its gradual move from alienation to connection and hope is just as bold as Silent Alarm , and possibly even more resonant " . Drowned in Sound 's Mike Diver called it " dirty , dishevelled , unsure and paranoid ; fearful , easily distracted , boisterous and ashamed ; reckless , wild , nervous and terrified ; graceful , thought @-@ provoking , clumsy and contradictory ... and very nearly perfect . " Jeff Miller of the Chicago Tribune concluded , " For Bloc Party , Silent Alarm was a baby step and this is a giant leap . " Michael Endelman of Entertainment Weekly was less receptive and stated , " Too often , the music on A Weekend in the City is less memorable than the ambitious subject matter . " Robert Christgau , reviewing for Rolling Stone , suggested that the album fails because it lacks " killer choruses " , while Sia Michel of The New York Times wrote that the multitracked vocals and baroque effects do not have " the wiry catchiness " of Bloc Party 's previous work . Mike Schiller of PopMatters commented that the sonic direction the band had moved to was unsuited to the members ' musical strengths . The Guardian included A Weekend in the City in its " 1000 Albums To Hear Before You Die " list compiled in November 2007 and praised the band 's " ambitious indie soundscapes packing a sizeable political punch " . The album was named by Los Angeles Times in its unnumbered shortlist of the best releases of 2007 . It figured in several other end @-@ of @-@ year best album lists , notably , at number eight by Gigwise , at number nine by Hot Press , and at number ten by The A.V. Club . = = Tours and re @-@ release = = Bloc Party started a lengthy promotional world tour for A Weekend in the City in March 2007 , which included concerts in Japan , the US — where they also headlined at the SXSW Festival in Austin , Texas — Canada , and Italy . A few UK performances in mid @-@ April were followed by a month @-@ long headlining tour with Biffy Clyro , which covered most of mainland Europe . Bloc Party spent the end of May and the start of June 2007 on another headlining tour of the US and were asked to play at Live Earth upon their return to London . The band performed at the main stages of several European summer fests , including Glastonbury , T in the Park , the Reading and Leeds Festivals , Oxegen , and Summercase . Bloc Party embarked on their second major worldwide tour for the album in August 2007 , playing across Australia , the US , Mexico , and Canada . Upon their return to Europe , the band performed at the BBC Electric Proms with the Exmoor Singers as backing chamber choir . The final single from A Weekend in the City , " Flux " , was released on 12 November 2007 after the European Flux Tour ; a promotional CD of remixes of the song was given out free with the 14 November issue of NME . The track gave Bloc Party another top 10 hit in the UK Singles Chart by entering at number eight . A Weekend in the City was re @-@ released with " Flux " in the track list on 16 and 19 November in mainland Europe and the UK respectively . = = Track listing = = All songs written and composed by Bloc Party . = = = Bonus tracks = = = When present , all songs follow " SRXT " on the January / February 2007 release after a silent three @-@ minute pregap . " Secrets " ( Canadian edition and Target version ) – 4 : 06 " The Once and Future King " ( Canadian edition and Target version ) – 3 : 20 " England " ( Japanese edition ) – 4 : 15 " We Were Lovers " ( Japanese edition ) – 4 : 12 " Emma Kate 's Accident " ( Best Buy version ) – 5 : 38 " Version 2 @.@ 0 " ( Best Buy version ) – 3 : 19 " Rhododendrons " ( US eMusic download version ) – 4 : 49 " Atonement " ( US iTunes download pre @-@ order version ) – 3 : 46 " Cain Said to Abel " ( US iTunes download version ) – 3 : 24 " Selfish Son " ( Napster and Rhapsody download versions ) – 4 : 59 Another B side , " Vision of Heaven " ( 3 : 32 ) , was released as a promotional track exclusively at PureVolume . = = = Additional formats = = = Vinyl Two LP versions of A Weekend in the City were released : a standard black vinyl copy in a gatefold sleeve and a limited edition picture disc version that has the album cover printed on Side A and the track listing printed on side B. DVD In February 2007 , a CD + DVD set contained in a red case was released in the UK and Europe simultaneously with the regular CD version of the album . The DVD contains footage of Bloc Party at Grouse Lodge and music videos for " The Prayer " and " I Still Remember " . An Australian edition of the CD with an extra DVD was released in July 2007 . The DVD contains remixes of " Hunting for Witches " , " Uniform " , and " I Still Remember " , and live footage of the band at a special Channel 4 showcase . A new version of the CD + DVD was released in the UK and Europe in November 2007 . This DVD contains live footage of the band at the 2007 Reading Festival and music videos for the album 's four singles . = = Personnel = = Credits adapted from the liner notes of A Weekend in the City . = = Release history = = = = Chart positions = =
= American Civil Liberties Union = The American Civil Liberties Union ( ACLU ) is a nonpartisan , non @-@ profit organization whose stated mission is " to defend and preserve the individual rights and liberties guaranteed to every person in this country by the Constitution and laws of the United States . " It works through litigation , lobbying , and community empowerment . Founded in 1920 by Roger Baldwin , Crystal Eastman , Walter Nelles , Morris Ernst , Albert DeSilver , Arthur Garfield Hays , Jane Addams , Felix Frankfurter , and Elizabeth Gurley Flynn , the ACLU has over 500 @,@ 000 members and has an annual budget of over $ 100 million . Local affiliates of the ACLU are active in all 50 states and Puerto Rico . The ACLU provides legal assistance in cases when it considers civil liberties to be at risk . Legal support from the ACLU can take the form of direct legal representation , or preparation of amicus curiae briefs expressing legal arguments ( when another law firm is already providing representation ) . When the ACLU was founded in 1920 , its focus was on freedom of speech , primarily for anti @-@ war protesters . During the 1920s , the ACLU expanded its scope to include protecting the free speech rights of artists and striking workers , and working with the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) to decrease racism and discrimination . During the 1930s , the ACLU started to engage in work combating police misconduct and for Native American rights . Most of the ACLU 's cases came from the Communist party and Jehovah 's Witnesses . In 1940 , the ACLU leadership was caught up in the Red Scare , and voted to exclude Communists from its leadership positions . During World War II , the ACLU defended Japanese @-@ American citizens , unsuccessfully trying to prevent their forcible relocation to internment camps . During the Cold War , the ACLU headquarters was dominated by anti @-@ communists , but many local affiliates defended members of the Communist Party . By 1964 , membership had risen to 80 @,@ 000 , and the ACLU participated in efforts to expand civil liberties . In the 1960s , the ACLU continued its decades @-@ long effort to enforce separation of church and state . It defended several anti @-@ war activists during the Vietnam War . The ACLU was involved in the Miranda case , which addressed misconduct by police during interrogations ; and in the New York Times case , which established new protections for newspapers reporting on government activities . In the 1970s and 1980s , the ACLU ventured into new legal areas , defending homosexuals , students , prisoners , and the poor . In the twenty @-@ first century , the ACLU has fought the teaching of creationism in public schools and challenged some provisions of anti @-@ terrorism legislation as infringing on privacy and civil liberties . In addition to representing persons and organizations in lawsuits , the ACLU lobbies for policies that have been established by its board of directors . Current positions of the ACLU include : opposing the death penalty ; supporting same @-@ sex marriage and the right of gays to adopt ; supporting birth control and abortion rights ; eliminating discrimination against women , minorities , and LGBT people ; supporting the rights of prisoners and opposing torture ; and opposing government preference for religion over non @-@ religion , or for particular faiths over others . Legally , the ACLU consists of two separate but closely affiliated nonprofit organizations : the American Civil Liberties Union , a 501 ( c ) ( 4 ) social welfare group , and the ACLU Foundation , a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) public charity . Both organizations engage in civil rights litigation , advocacy , and education , but only donations to the 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) foundation are tax deductible , and only the 501 ( c ) ( 4 ) group can engage in unlimited political lobbying . The two organizations share office space and employees . = = Organization = = = = = Leadership = = = The ACLU is led by a president and an executive director , Susan N. Herman and Anthony Romero , respectively , in 2015 . The president acts as chairman of the ACLU 's board of directors , leads fundraising , and facilitates policy @-@ setting . The executive director manages the day @-@ to @-@ day operations of the organization . The board of directors consists of 80 persons , including representatives from each state affiliate , as well as at @-@ large delegates . The organization has its headquarters in 125 Broad Street , a 40 @-@ story skyscraper located in Lower Manhattan , New York City . The leadership of the ACLU does not always agree on policy decisions ; differences of opinion within the ACLU leadership have sometimes grown into major debates . In 1937 , an internal debate erupted over whether to defend Henry Ford 's right to distribute anti @-@ union literature . In 1939 , a heated debate took place over whether to prohibit communists from serving in ACLU leadership roles . During the early 1950s the board was divided on whether to defend communists persecuted under McCarthyism . In 1968 , a schism formed over whether to represent Dr. Spock 's anti @-@ war activism . In 1973 , there was internal conflict over whether to call for the impeachment of Richard Nixon . In 2005 , there was internal conflict about whether or not a gag rule should be imposed on ACLU employees to prevent publication of internal disputes . = = = Funding = = = In the year ending March 31 , 2014 , the ACLU and the ACLU Foundation had a combined income from support and revenue of $ 100 @.@ 4 million , originating from grants ( 50 @.@ 0 % ) , membership donations ( 25 @.@ 4 % ) , donated legal services ( 7 @.@ 6 % ) , bequests ( 16 @.@ 2 % ) , and revenue ( .9 % ) . Membership dues are treated as donations ; members choose the amount they pay annually , averaging approximately $ 50 per member per year . In the year ending March 31 , 2014 , the combined expenses of the ACLU and ACLU Foundation were $ 133 @.@ 4 million , spent on programs ( 86 @.@ 2 % ) , management ( 7 @.@ 4 % ) , and fundraising ( 8 @.@ 2 % ) . ( After factoring in other changes in net assets of + $ 30 @.@ 9 million , from sources such as investment income , the organization had an overall decrease in net assets of $ 2 @.@ 1 million . ) Over the period from 2011 to 2014 the ACLU Foundation , on the average , has accounted for roughly 70 % of the combined budget , and the ACLU roughly 30 % . The ACLU solicits donations to its charitable foundation . The ACLU is accredited by the Better Business Bureau , and the Charity Navigator has ranked the ACLU with a four @-@ star rating . The local affiliates solicit their own funding ; however , some also receive funds from the national ACLU , with the distribution and amount of such assistance varying from state to state . At its discretion , the national organization provides subsidies to smaller affiliates that lack sufficient resources to be self @-@ sustaining ; for example , the Wyoming ACLU chapter received such subsidies until April 2015 , when , as part of a round of layoffs at the national ACLU , the Wyoming office was closed . In October 2004 , the ACLU rejected $ 1 @.@ 5 million from both the Ford Foundation and Rockefeller Foundation because the Foundations had adopted language from the USA PATRIOT Act in their donation agreements , including a clause stipulating that none of the money would go to " underwriting terrorism or other unacceptable activities . " The ACLU views this clause , both in Federal law and in the donors ' agreements , as a threat to civil liberties , saying it is overly broad and ambiguous . Due to the nature of its legal work , the ACLU is often involved in litigation against governmental bodies , which are generally protected from adverse monetary judgments ; a town , state or federal agency may be required to change its laws or behave differently , but not to pay monetary damages except by an explicit statutory waiver . In some cases , the law permits plaintiffs who successfully sue government agencies to collect money damages or other monetary relief . In particular , the Civil Rights Attorney 's Fees Award Act of 1976 leaves the government liable in some civil rights cases . Fee awards under this civil rights statute are considered " equitable relief " rather than damages , and government entities are not immune from equitable relief . Under laws such as this , the ACLU and its state affiliates sometimes share in monetary judgments against government agencies . In 2006 , the Public Expressions of Religion Protection Act sought to prevent monetary judgments in the particular case of violations of church @-@ state separation . The ACLU has received court awarded fees from opponents , for example , the Georgia affiliate was awarded $ 150 @,@ 000 in fees after suing a county demanding the removal of a Ten Commandments display from its courthouse ; a second Ten Commandments case in the State , in a different county , led to a $ 74 @,@ 462 judgment . The State of Tennessee was required to pay $ 50 @,@ 000 , the State of Alabama $ 175 @,@ 000 , and the State of Kentucky $ 121 @,@ 500 , in similar Ten Commandments cases . = = = State affiliates = = = Most of the organization 's workload is performed by the 54 local affiliates . There is an affiliate in each state , in Washington , D.C. and in Puerto Rico . California has three affiliates . The affiliates operate autonomously from the national organization ; each affiliate has its own staff , executive director , board of directors , and budget . Each affiliate consists of two non @-@ profit corporations : a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) corporation that does not perform lobbying , and a 501 ( c ) ( 4 ) corporation which is entitled to lobby . ACLU affiliates are the basic unit of the ACLU 's organization and engage in litigation , lobbying , and public education . For example , in a twenty @-@ month period beginning January 2004 , the ACLU 's New Jersey chapter was involved in fifty @-@ one cases according to their annual report — thirty @-@ five cases in state courts , and sixteen in federal court . They provided legal representation in thirty @-@ three of those cases , and served as amicus in the remaining eighteen . They listed forty @-@ four volunteer attorneys who assisted them in those cases . = = = Positions = = = The ACLU 's official position statements , as of January 2012 , included the following policies : Affirmative action – The ACLU supports affirmative action . Birth control and abortion – The ACLU supports the right to abortion , as established in the Roe v. Wade decision . The ACLU believes that everyone should have affordable access to the full range of contraceptive options . The ACLU 's Reproductive Freedom Project manages efforts related to reproductive rights . Campaign funding – The ACLU believes that the current system is badly flawed , and supports a system based on public funding . The ACLU supports full transparency to identify donors . However , the ACLU opposes attempts to control political spending . The ACLU supported the Supreme Court 's decision in Citizens United v. FEC , which allowed corporations and unions more political speech rights . Child pornography – The Arizona chapter of the ACLU believes that production of child pornography should be illegal , but that possessing it is protected by the right to privacy . " Our policy is that possessing even pornographic material about children should not itself be a crime . The way to deal with this issue is to prosecute the makers of child pornography for exploiting minors . " Criminal law reform – The ACLU seeks an end to excessively harsh sentences that it feels " stand in the way of a just and equal society " . The ACLU 's Criminal Law Reform Project focuses on this issue . Death penalty – The ACLU is opposed to the death penalty in all circumstances . The ACLU 's Capital Punishment Project focuses on this issue . Free speech – The ACLU supports free speech , including the right to express unpopular ideas , such as flag desecration . Gun rights – The national ACLU 's position is that the Second Amendment protects a collective right to own guns , rather than an individual right despite the Supreme Court 's decision in District of Columbia v. Heller that the Second Amendment is an individual right . The national organization 's position is based on the phrases " a well regulated Militia " and " the security of a free State " . However , the ACLU opposes any effort to create a registry of gun owners and has worked with the National Rifle Association to prevent a registry from being created and has favored protecting the right to carry guns under the 4th Amendment . HIV / AIDS – The policy of the ACLU is to " create a world in which discrimination based on HIV status has ended , people with HIV have control over their medical information and care , and where the government 's HIV policy promotes public health and respect and compassion for people living with HIV and AIDS . " This effort is managed by the ACLU 's AIDS Project . Human rights – The ACLU 's Human Rights project advocates ( primarily in an international context ) for children 's rights , immigrants rights , gay rights , and other international obligations . Immigrants ' rights – The ACLU supports civil liberties for immigrants to the United States . Lesbian , gay , bisexual and transgender rights – The ACLU 's LGBT Rights Project supports equal rights for all gays and lesbians , and works to eliminate discrimination . The ACLU supports equal employment , housing , civil marriage and adoption rights for LGBT couples . National security – The ACLU is opposed to compromising civil liberties in the name of national security . In this context , the ACLU has condemned government use of spying , indefinite detention without charge or trial , and government @-@ sponsored torture . This effort is led by the ACLU 's National Security Project . Prisoners ' rights – The ACLU 's National Prison Project believes that incarceration should only be used as a last resort , and that prisons should focus on rehabilitation . The ACLU works to ensure that prisons treat prisoners in accordance with the Constitution and domestic law . Privacy and technology – The ACLU 's Project on Speech , Privacy , and Technology promotes " responsible uses of technology that enhance privacy protection " , and opposes uses " that undermine our freedoms and move us closer to a surveillance society " . Racial issues – The ACLU 's Racial Justice Program combats racial discrimination in all aspects of society , including the educational system , justice system , and the application of the death penalty . However , the ACLU opposes state censorship of the Confederate flag . Religion – The ACLU supports the right of religious persons to practice their faiths without government interference . The ACLU believes the government should neither prefer religion over non @-@ religion , nor favor particular faiths over others . The ACLU is opposed to school @-@ led prayer , but protects students ' right to pray in school . Single Sex Public Education – The ACLU opposes single sex public education options . It believes that single @-@ sex education contributes to gender stereotyping and compares single @-@ sex education to racial segregation . Voting rights – The ACLU believes that impediments to voting should be eliminated , particularly if they disproportionately impact minority or poor citizens . The ACLU believes that misdemeanor convictions should not lead to a loss of voting rights . The ACLU 's Voting Rights Project leads this effort . Women 's rights – The ACLU works to eliminate discrimination against women in all realms . The ACLU encourages government to be proactive in stopping violence against women . These efforts are led by the ACLU 's Women 's Rights project . = = = Support and opposition = = = The ACLU is supported by a variety of persons and organizations . There were over 500 @,@ 000 members in 2011 , and the ACLU annually receives thousands of grants from hundreds of charitable foundations . Allies of the ACLU in legal actions have included the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People , the American Jewish Congress , People For the American Way , the National Rifle Association , the Electronic Frontier Foundation , Americans United for Separation of Church and State , and the National Organization for Women . The ACLU has been criticized by liberals , such as when it excluded communists from its leadership ranks , when it defended Neo @-@ Nazis , when it declined to defend Paul Robeson , or when it opposed the passage of the National Labor Relations Act . Conversely , it has been criticized by conservatives , such as when it argued against official prayer in public schools , or when it opposed the Patriot Act . The ACLU has supported conservative figures such as Rush Limbaugh , George Wallace , Henry Ford , and Oliver North ; and it has supported liberal figures such as Dick Gregory , H. L. Mencken , Rockwell Kent , and Dr. Benjamin Spock . A major source of criticism are legal cases in which the ACLU represents an individual or organization that promotes offensive or unpopular viewpoints , such as the Ku Klux Klan , Neo @-@ Nazis , Nation of Islam , North American Man / Boy Love Association , or Westboro Baptist Church . The ACLU responded to these criticisms by stating " It is easy to defend freedom of speech when the message is something many people find at least reasonable . But the defense of freedom of speech is most critical when the message is one most people find repulsive . " = = Early years = = = = = CLB era = = = The ACLU developed from the National Civil Liberties Bureau ( CLB ) , co @-@ founded in 1917 during the Great War by Crystal Eastman , an attorney activist , and Roger Nash Baldwin . The focus of the CLB was on freedom of speech , primarily anti @-@ war speech , and on supporting conscientious objectors who did not want to serve in World War I. Three United States Supreme Court decisions in 1919 each upheld convictions under laws against certain kinds of anti @-@ war speech . In 1919 , the Court upheld the conviction of Socialist Party leader Charles Schenck for publishing anti @-@ war literature . In Debs v. United States , the court upheld the conviction of Eugene Debs . While the Court upheld a conviction a third time in Abrams v. United States , Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote an important dissent which has gradually been absorbed as an American principle : he urged the court to treat freedom of speech as a fundamental right , which should rarely be restricted . In 1918 Crystal Eastman resigned from the organization due to health issues . After assuming sole leadership of the CLB , Baldwin insisted that the organization be reorganized . He wanted to change its focus from litigation to direct action and public education . The CLB directors concurred , and on January 19 , 1920 , they formed an organization under a new name , the American Civil Liberties Union . Although a handful of other organizations in the United States at that time focused on civil rights , such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) and Anti @-@ Defamation League ( ADL ) , the ACLU was the first that did not represent a particular group of persons , or a single theme . Like the CLB , the NAACP pursued litigation to work on civil rights , including efforts to overturn the disfranchisement of African Americans in the South that had taken place since the turn of the century . During the first decades of the ACLU , Baldwin continued as its leader . His charisma and energy attracted many supporters to the ACLU board and leadership ranks . Baldwin was ascetic , wearing hand @-@ me @-@ down clothes , pinching pennies , and living on a very small salary . The ACLU was directed by an executive committee , but it was not particularly democratic or egalitarian . The ACLU 's base in New York resulted in its being dominated by people from the city and state . Most ACLU funding came from philanthropies , such as the Garland Fund . = = = Free speech era = = = In the 1920s , government censorship was commonplace . Magazines were routinely confiscated under the anti @-@ obscenity Comstock laws ; permits for labor rallies were often denied ; and virtually all anti @-@ war or anti @-@ government literature was outlawed . Right @-@ wing conservatives wielded vast amounts of power , and activists that promoted unionization , socialism , or government reform were often denounced as un @-@ American or unpatriotic . In one typical instance in 1923 , author Upton Sinclair was arrested for trying to read the First Amendment during an Industrial Workers of the World rally . ACLU leadership was divided on how to challenge the civil rights violations . One faction , including Baldwin , Arthur Garfield Hays and Norman Thomas , believed that direct , militant action was the best path . Hays was the first of many successful attorneys that relinquished their private practices to work for the ACLU . Another group , including Walter Nelles and Walter Pollak felt that lawsuits taken to the Supreme Court were the best way to achieve change . Both groups worked in tandem , but equally revered the Bill of Rights and the US Constitution . During the 1920s , the ACLU 's primary focus was on freedom of speech in general , and speech within the labor movement particularly . Because most of the ACLU 's efforts were associated with the labor movement , the ACLU itself came under heavy attack from conservative groups , such as the American Legion , the National Civic Federation , and Industrial Defense Association and the Allied Patriotic Societies . In addition to labor , the ACLU also led efforts in non @-@ labor arenas , for example , promoting free speech in public schools . The ACLU itself was banned from speaking in New York public schools in 1921 . The ACLU , working with the NAACP , also supported racial discrimination cases . The ACLU defended free speech regardless of the opinions being espoused . For example , the reactionary , anti @-@ Catholic , anti @-@ black Ku Klux Klan ( KKK ) was a frequent target of ACLU efforts , but the ACLU defended the KKK 's right to hold meetings in 1923 . There were some civil rights that the ACLU did not make an effort to defend in the 1920s , including censorship of the arts , government search and seizure issues , right to privacy , or wiretapping . The Communist party of the United States was routinely harassed and oppressed by government officials , leading it to be the primary client of the ACLU . The Communists were very aggressive in their tactics , often engaging in illegal or unethical conduct , and this led to frequent conflicts between the Communists and ACLU . Communist leaders often attacked the ACLU , particularly when the ACLU defended the free speech rights of conservatives . This uneasy relationship between the two groups continued for decades . = = = Scopes trial = = = When 1925 arrived – five years after the ACLU was formed – the organization had virtually no success to show for its efforts . That changed in 1925 , when the ACLU persuaded John T. Scopes to defy Tennessee 's anti @-@ evolution law in a court test . Clarence Darrow , a member of the ACLU National Committee , headed Scopes ' legal team . The prosecution , led by William Jennings Bryan , contended that the Bible should be interpreted literally in teaching creationism in school . The ACLU lost the case and Scopes was fined $ 100 . The Tennessee Supreme Court later upheld the law but overturned the conviction on a technicality . The Scopes trial was a phenomenal public relations success for the ACLU . The ACLU became well known across America , and the case led to the first endorsement of the ACLU by a major U.S. newspaper . The ACLU continued to fight for the separation of church and state in schoolrooms , decade after decade , including the 1982 case McLean v. Arkansas and the 2005 case Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District . Baldwin himself was involved in an important free speech victory of the 1920s , after he was arrested for attempting to speak at a rally of striking mill workers in New Jersey . Although the decision was limited to the state of New Jersey , the appeals court 's judgement in 1928 declared that constitutional guarantees of free speech must be given " liberal and comprehensive construction " , and it marked a major turning point in the civil rights movement , signaling the shift of judicial opinion in favor of civil rights . The most important ACLU case of the 1920s was Gitlow v. New York , in which Benjamin Gitlow was arrested for violating a state law against inciting anarchy and violence , when he distributed literature promoting communism . Although the Supreme Court did not overturn Gitlow 's conviction , it adopted the ACLU 's stance ( later termed the incorporation doctrine ) that the First Amendment freedom of speech applied to state laws , as well as federal laws . = = = First victories = = = Leaders of the ACLU were divided on the best tactics to use to promote civil liberties . Felix Frankfurter felt that legislation was the best long @-@ term solution , because the Supreme Court could not ( and – in his opinion – should not ) mandate liberal interpretations of the Bill of Rights . But Walter Pollack , Morris Ernst , and other leaders felt that Supreme Court decisions were the best path to guarantee civil liberties . A series of Supreme Court decisions in the 1920s foretold a changing national atmosphere ; anti @-@ radical emotions were diminishing , and there was a growing willingness to protect freedom of speech and assembly via court decisions . = = = Free speech = = = Censorship was commonplace in the early 20th century . State laws and city ordinances routinely outlawed speech deemed to be obscene or offensive , and prohibited meetings or literature that promoted unions or labor organization . Starting in 1926 , the ACLU began to expand its free speech activities to encompass censorship of art and literature . In that year , H. L. Mencken deliberately broke Boston law by distributing copies of his banned American Mercury magazine ; the ACLU defended him and won an acquittal . The ACLU went on to win additional victories , including the landmark case United States v. One Book Called Ulysses in 1933 , which reversed a ban by the Customs Department against the book Ulysses by James Joyce . The ACLU only achieved mixed results in the early years , and it was not until 1966 that the Supreme Court finally clarified the obscenity laws in the Roth v. United States and Memoirs v. Massachusetts cases . The Comstock laws banned distribution of sex education information , based on the premise that it was obscene and led to promiscuous behavior Mary Ware Dennett was fined $ 300 in 1928 , for distributing a pamphlet containing sex education material . The ACLU , led by Morris Ernst , appealed her conviction and won a reversal , in which judge Learned Hand ruled that the pamphlet 's main purpose was to " promote understanding " . The success prompted the ACLU to broaden their freedom of speech efforts beyond labor and political speech , to encompass movies , press , radio and literature . The ACLU formed the National Committee on Freedom from Censorship in 1931 to coordinate this effort . By the early 1930s , censorship in the United States was diminishing . Two major victories in the 1930s cemented the ACLUs campaign to promote free speech . In Stromberg v. California , decided in 1931 , the Supreme Court sided with the ACLU and affirmed the right of a communist party member to salute a communist flag . The result was the first time the Supreme Court used the Due Process Clause of the 14th amendment to subject states to the requirements of the First Amendment . In Near v. Minnesota , also decided in 1931 , the Supreme Court ruled that states may not exercise prior restraint and prevent a newspaper from publishing , simply because the newspaper had a reputation for being scandalous . = = 1930s = = The late 1930s saw the emergence of a new era of tolerance in the United States . National leaders hailed the Bill of Rights , particularly as it protected minorities , as the essence of democracy . The 1939 Supreme Court decision in Hague v. Committee for Industrial Organization affirmed the right of communists to promote their cause . Even conservative elements , such as the American Bar Association began to campaign for civil liberties , which were long considered to be the domain of left @-@ leaning organizations . By 1940 , the ACLU had achieved many of the goals it set in the 1920s , and many of its policies were the law of the land . = = = Expansion = = = In 1929 , after the Scopes and Dennett victories , Baldwin perceived that there was vast , untapped support for civil liberties in the United States . Baldwin proposed an expansion program for the ACLU , focusing on police brutality , Native American rights , African American rights , censorship in the arts , and international civil liberties . The board of directors approved Baldwin 's expansion plan , except for the international efforts . The ACLU played a major role in passing the 1932 Norris – La Guardia Act , a federal law which prohibited employers from preventing employees from joining unions , and stopped the practice of outlawing strikes , unions , and labor organizing activities with the use of injunctions . The ACLU also played a key role in initiating a nationwide effort to reduce misconduct ( such as extracting false confessions ) within police departments , by publishing the report Lawlessness in Law Enforcement in 1931 , under the auspices of Herbert Hoover 's Wickersham Commission . In 1934 , the ACLU lobbied for the passage of the Indian Reorganization Act , which restored some autonomy to Native American tribes , and established penalties for kidnapping Native American children . Although the ACLU deferred to the NAACP for litigation promoting civil liberties for African Americans , the ACLU did engage in educational efforts , and published Black Justice in 1931 , a report which documented institutional racism throughout the South , including lack of voting rights , segregation , and discrimination in the justice system . Funded by the Garland Fund , the ACLU also participated in producing the influential Margold Report , which outlined a strategy to fight for civil rights for blacks . The ACLU 's plan was to demonstrate that the " separate but equal " policies governing the Southern discrimination were illegal because blacks were never , in fact , treated equally . = = = Depression era and the New Deal = = = In 1932 – twelve years after the ACLU was founded – it had achieved significant success ; the Supreme Court had embraced the free speech principles espoused by the ACLU , and the general public was becoming more supportive of civil rights in general . But the Great Depression brought new assaults on civil liberties ; the year 1930 saw a large increase in the number of free speech prosecutions , a doubling of the number of lynchings , and all meetings of unemployed persons were banned in Philadelphia . The Franklin D. Roosevelt administration proposed the New Deal to combat the depression . ACLU leaders were of mixed opinions about the New Deal , since many felt that it represented an increase in government intervention into personal affairs , and because the National Recovery Administration suspended anti @-@ trust legislation . Roosevelt was not personally interested in civil rights , but did appoint many civil libertarians to key positions , including Interior Secretary Harold Ickes , a member of the ACLU . The economic policies of the New Deal leaders were often aligned with ACLU goals , but social goals were not . In particular , movies were subject to a barrage of local ordinances banning screenings that were deemed immoral or obscene . Even public health films portraying pregnancy and birth were banned ; as was Life magazine 's April 11 , 1938 issue which included photos of the birth process . The ACLU fought these bans , but did not prevail . The Catholic Church attained increasing political influence in the 1930s , and used its influence to promote censorship of movies , and to discourage publication of birth control information . This conflict between the ACLU and the Catholic Church led to the resignation of the last Catholic priest from ACLU leadership in 1934 ; a Catholic priest would not be represented there again until the 1970s . The ACLU took no official position on president Franklin Delano Roosevelt 's 1937 court @-@ packing plan , which threatened to increase the number of Supreme Court justices , unless the Supreme Court reversed its course and began approving New Deal legislation . The Supreme Court responded by making a major shift in policy , and no longer applied strict constitutional limits to government programs , and also began to take a more active role in protecting civil liberties . The first decision that marked the court 's new direction was De Jonge v. Oregon , in which a communist labor organizer was arrested for calling a meeting to discuss unionization . The ACLU attorney Osmond Fraenkel , working with International Labor Defense , defended De Jonge in 1937 , and won a major victory when the Supreme Court ruled that " peaceable assembly for lawful discussion cannot be made a crime . " The De Jonge case marked the start of an era lasting for a dozen years , during which Roosevelt appointees ( led by Hugo Black , William O. Douglas , and Frank Murphy ) established a body of civil liberties law . In 1938 , Justice Harlan F. Stone wrote the famous " footnote four " in United States v. Carolene Products Co. in which he suggested that state laws which impede civil liberties would – henceforth – require compelling justification . Senator Robert F. Wagner proposed the National Labor Relations Act in 1935 , which empowered workers to unionize . Ironically , the ACLU , after 15 years of fighting for workers ' rights , initially opposed the act ( it later took no stand on the legislation ) because some ACLU leaders feared the increased power the bill gave to the government . The newly formed National Labor Relations Board ( NLRB ) posed a dilemma for the ACLU , because in 1937 it issued an order to Henry Ford , prohibiting Ford from disseminating anti @-@ union literature . Part of the ACLU leadership habitually took the side of labor , and that faction supported the NLRB 's action . But part of the ACLU supported Ford 's right to free speech . ACLU leader Arthur Garfield Hays proposed a compromise ( supporting the auto workers union , yet also endorsing Ford 's right to express personal opinions ) , but the schism highlighted a deeper divide that would become more prominent in the years to come . The ACLU 's support of the NLRB was a major development for the ACLU , because it marked the first time it accepted that a government agency could be responsible for upholding civil liberties . Until 1937 , the ACLU felt that civil rights were best upheld by citizens and private organizations . Some factions in the ACLU proposed new directions for the organization . In the late 1930s , some local affiliates proposed shifting their emphasis from civil liberties appellate actions , to becoming a legal aid society , centered on store front offices in low income neighborhoods . The ACLU directors rejected that proposal . Other ACLU members wanted the ACLU to shift focus into the political arena , and to be more willing to compromise their ideals in order to strike deals with politicians . This initiative was also rejected by the ACLU leadership . = = = Jehovah 's Witnesses = = = The ACLU 's support of defendants with unpopular , sometimes extreme , viewpoints have produced many landmark court cases and established new civil liberties . One such defendant was the Jehovah 's Witnesses , who were involved in a large number of Supreme Court cases . Cases that the ACLU supported included Lovell v. City of Griffin ( which struck down a city ordinance that required a permit before a person could distribute " literature of any kind " ) ; Martin v. Struthers ( which struck down an ordinance prohibiting door @-@ to @-@ door canvassing ) ; and Cantwell v. Connecticut ( which reversed the conviction of a Witness who was reciting offensive speech on a street corner ) . The most important cases involved statutes requiring flag salutes . The Jehovah 's Witnesses felt that saluting a flag was contrary to their religious beliefs . Two children were convicted in 1938 of not saluting the flag . The ACLU supported their appeal to the Supreme Court , but the court affirmed the conviction , in 1940 . But three years later , in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette , the Supreme court reversed itself and wrote " If there is any fixed star in our constitutional constellation , it is that no official , high or petty , can prescribe what shall be orthodox in politics , nationalism , religion , or other matters of opinion or force citizens to confess by word or act their faith therein . " To underscore its decision , the Supreme Court announced it on Flag Day . = = = Communism and totalitarianism = = = The rise of totalitarianism in Germany , Russia , and Italy during World War II had a tremendous impact on the civil liberties movement . On the one hand , the oppression of the totalitarian states put into sharp relief the virtue of freedom of speech and association in the United States ; on the other hand , they prompted an anti @-@ communist hysteria in America which eroded many civil liberties . The ACLU leadership was divided over whether or not to defend pro @-@ Nazi speech in the United States ; pro @-@ labor elements within the ACLU were hostile towards Nazism and fascism , and objected when the ACLU defended Nazis . Several states passed laws outlawing the hate speech directed at ethnic groups . The first person arrested under New Jersey 's 1935 hate speech law was a Jehovah 's Witness who was charged with disseminating anti @-@ Catholic literature . The ACLU defended the Jehovah 's Witnesses , and the charges were dropped . The ACLU proceeded to defend numerous pro @-@ Nazi groups , defending their rights to free speech and free association . In the late 1930s , the ACLU allied itself with the Popular Front , a coalition of liberal organizations coordinated by the United States Communist Party . The ACLU benefited because affiliates from the Popular Front could often fight local civil rights battles much more effectively than the New York @-@ based ACLU . The association with the Communist Party led to accusations that the ACLU was a " communist front " , particularly because Harry F. Ward was both chairman of the ACLU and chairman of the American League Against War and Fascism , a communist organization . The House Unamerican Activities Committee ( HUAC ) was created in 1938 to uncover sedition and treason within the United States . When witnesses testified at its hearings , the ACLU was mentioned several times , leading the HUAC to mention the ACLU prominently in its 1939 report . This damaged the ACLU 's reputation severely , even though the report said that it could not " definitely state whether or not " the ACLU was a communist organization . While the ACLU rushed to defend its image against allegations of being a communist front , it also worked to protect witnesses who were being harassed by the HUAC . The ACLU was one of the few organizations to protest ( unsuccessfully ) against passage of the Smith Act in 1940 , which would later be used to imprison many persons who supported Communism . The ACLU defended many persons who were prosecuted under the Smith Act , including labor leader Harry Bridges . ACLU leadership was split on whether to purge its leadership of communists . Norman Thomas , John Haynes Holmes , and Morris Ernst were anti @-@ communists who wanted to distance the ACLU from communism ; opposing them were Harry Ward , Corliss Lamont and Elizabeth Flynn who rejected any political test for ACLU leadership . A bitter struggle ensued throughout 1939 , and the anti @-@ communists prevailed in February 1940 , when the board voted to prohibit anyone who supported totalitarianism from ACLU leadership roles . Chairman Harry Ward immediately resigned , and – following a contentious six @-@ hour debate – Elizabeth Flynn was voted off the ACLU 's board . The 1940 resolution was a disaster for the ACLU , and considered by many to be a betrayal of its fundamental principles . The resolution was rescinded in 1968 , and Flynn was posthumously reinstated to the ACLU in 1970 . = = Mid @-@ century = = = = = World War II = = = When World War II engulfed the United States , the Bill of Rights was enshrined as a hallowed document , and numerous organizations defended civil liberties . Chicago and New York proclaimed " Civil Rights " weeks , and President Franklin Delano Roosevelt announced a national Bill of Rights day . Eleanor Roosevelt was the keynote speaker at the 1939 ACLU convention . In spite of this newfound respect for civil rights , Americans were becoming adamantly anti @-@ communist , and believed that excluding communists from American society was an essential step to preserve democracy . Contrasted with World War I , there was relatively little violation of civil liberties during World War II . President Roosevelt was a strong supporter of civil liberties , but – more importantly – there were few anti @-@ war activists during World War II . The most significant exception was the internment of Japanese Americans . Two months after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , Roosevelt authorized the creation of military " exclusion zones " with Executive Order 9066 , paving the way for the detention of all West Coast Japanese Americans in inland camps . In addition to the non @-@ citizen Issei ( prohibited from naturalization as members of an " unassimilable " race ) , over two @-@ thirds of those swept up were American @-@ born citizens . The ACLU immediately protested to Roosevelt , comparing the evacuations to Nazi concentration camps . The ACLU was the only major organization to object to the internment plan , and their position was very unpopular , even within the organization . Not all ACLU leaders wanted to defend the Japanese Americans ; Roosevelt loyalists such as Morris Ernst wanted to support Roosevelt 's war effort , but pacifists such as Baldwin and Norman Thomas felt that Japanese Americans needed access to due process before they could be imprisoned . In a March 20 , 1942 letter to Roosevelt , Baldwin called on the administration to allow Japanese Americans to prove their loyalty at individual hearings , describing the constitutionality of the planned removal " open to grave question . " His suggestions went nowhere , and opinions within the organization became increasingly divided as the Army began the " evacuation " of the West Coast . In May , the two factions , one pushing to fight the exclusion orders then being issued , the other advocating support for the President 's policy of removing citizens whose " presence may endanger national security , " brought their opposing resolutions to a vote before the board and the ACLU 's national leaders . They decided not to challenge the eviction of Japanese American citizens , and on June 22 instructions were sent to West Coast branches not to support cases that argued the government had no constitutional right to do so . The ACLU offices on the West Coast had been more directly involved in addressing the tide of anti @-@ Japanese prejudice from the start , as they were geographically closer to the issue , and were already working on cases challenging the exclusion by this time . The Seattle office , assisting in Gordon Hirabayashi 's lawsuit , created an unaffiliated committee to continue the work the ACLU had started , while in Los Angeles , attorney A.L. Wirin continued to represent Ernest Kinzo Wakayama but without addressing the case 's constitutional questions . ( Wirin would lose private clients because of his defense of Wakayama and other Japanese Americans . ) However , the San Francisco branch , led by Ernest Besig , refused to discontinue its support for Fred Korematsu , whose case had been taken on prior to the June 22 directive , and attorney Wayne Collins , with Besig 's full support , centered his defense on the illegality of Korematsu 's exclusion . The West Coast offices had wanted a test case to take to court , but had a difficult time finding a Japanese American who was both willing to violate the internment orders and able to meet the ACLU 's desired criteria of a sympathetic , Americanized plaintiff . Of the 120 @,@ 000 Japanese Americans affected by the order , only 12 disobeyed , and Korematsu , Hirabayashi , and two others were the only resisters whose cases eventually made it to the Supreme Court . Hirabayashi v. United States came before the Court in May 1943 , and the justices upheld the government 's right to exclude Japanese Americans from the West Coast ; although it had earlier forced its local office in L.A. to stop aiding Hirabayashi , the ACLU donated $ 1 @,@ 000 to the case ( over a third of the legal team 's total budget ) and submitted an amicus brief . Besig , dissatisfied with Osmond Fraenkel 's tamer defense , filed an additional amicus brief that directly addressed Hirabayashi 's constitutional rights . In the meantime , A.L. Wirin served as one of the attorneys in Yasui v. United States ( decided the same day as the Hirabayashi case , and with the same results ) , but he kept his arguments within the perimeters established by the national office . The only case to receive a favorable ruling , ex parte Endo , was also aided by two amicus briefs from the ACLU , one from the more conservative Fraenkel and another from the more putative Wayne Collins . Korematsu v. United States proved to be the most controversial of these cases , as Besig and Collins refused to bow to national pressure to pursue the case without challenging the government 's right to remove citizens from their homes . The ACLU board threatened to revoke the San Francisco branch 's national affiliation , while Baldwin tried unsuccessfully to convince Collins to step down so he could replace him as lead attorney in the case . Eventually Collins agreed to present the case alongside Charles Horsky , although their arguments before the Supreme Court remained based in the unconstitutionality of the exclusion order Korematsu had disobeyed . The case was decided in December 1944 , when the Court once again upheld the government 's right to relocate Japanese Americans , although Korematsu 's , Hirabayashi 's and Yasui 's convictions were later overturned in coram nobis proceedings in the 1980s . Although the ACLU ( somewhat unevenly ) defended the Japanese Americans , it was more reluctant to defend anti @-@ war protesters . A majority of the board passed a resolution in 1942 which declared the ACLU unwilling to defend anyone who interfered with the United States ' war effort . Included in this group were the thousands of Nisei who renounced their U.S. citizenship during the war but later regretted the decision and tried to revoke their applications for " repatriation . " ( A significant number of those slated to " go back " to Japan had never actually been to the country and were in fact being deported rather than repatriated . ) Ernest Besig had in 1944 visited the Tule Lake Segregation Center , where the majority of these " renunciants " were concentrated , and subsequently enlisted Wayne Collins ' help to file a lawsuit on their behalf , arguing the renunciations had been given under duress . The national organization prohibited local branches from representing the renunciants , forcing Collins to pursue the case on his own , although Besig and the Northern California office provided some support . When the war ended in 1945 , the ACLU was 25 years old , and had accumulated an impressive set of legal victories . President Harry S. Truman sent a congratulatory telegram to the ACLU on the occasion of their 25th anniversary . American attitudes had changed since World War I , and dissent by minorities was tolerated with more willingness . The Bill of Rights was more respected , and minority rights were becoming more commonly championed . During their 1945 annual conference , the ACLU leaders composed a list of important civil rights issues to focus on in the future , and the list included racial discrimination and separation of church and state . The ACLU supported the African @-@ American defendants in Shelley v. Kraemer , when they tried to occupy a house they had purchased in a neighborhood which had racially restrictive housing covenants . The African @-@ American purchasers won the case in 1945 . = = = Cold War era = = = Anti @-@ communist sentiment gripped the United States during the Cold War beginning in 1946 . Federal investigations caused many persons with communist or left @-@ leaning affiliations to lose their jobs , become blacklisted , or be jailed . During the Cold War , although the United States collectively ignored the civil rights of communists , other civil liberties — such as due process in law and separation of church and state — continued to be reinforced and even expanded . The ACLU was internally divided when it purged communists from its leadership in 1940 , and that ambivalence continued as it decided whether to defend alleged communists during the late 1940s . Some ACLU leaders were anti @-@ communist , and felt that the ACLU should not defend any victims . Some ACLU leaders felt that communists were entitled to free speech protections , and the ACLU should defend them . Other ACLU leaders were uncertain about the threat posed by communists , and tried to establish a compromise between the two extremes . This ambivalent state of affairs would last until 1954 , when the civil liberties faction prevailed , leading to the resignation of most of the anti @-@ communist leaders . In 1947 , President Truman issued Executive Order 9835 , which created the Federal Loyalty Program . This program authorized the Attorney General to create a list of organizations which were deemed to be subversive . Any association with these programs was ground for barring the person from employment . Listed organizations were not notified that they were being considered for the list , nor did they have an opportunity to present counterarguments ; nor did the government divulge any factual basis for inclusion in the list . Although ACLU leadership was divided on whether to challenge the Federal Loyalty Program , some challenges were successfully made . Also in 1947 , the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee ( HUAC ) subpoenaed ten Hollywood directors and writers , the Hollywood Ten , intending to ask them to identify Communists , but the witnesses refused to testify . All were imprisoned for contempt of Congress . The ACLU supported the appeals of several of the artists , but lost on appeal . The Hollywood establishment panicked after the HUAC hearings , and created a blacklist which prohibited anyone with leftist associations from working . The ACLU supported legal challenges to the blacklist , but those challenges failed . The ACLU was more successful with an education effort ; the 1952 report The Judges and the Judged , prepared at the ACLU 's direction in response to the blacklisting of actress Jean Muir , described the unfair and unethical actions behind the blacklisting process , and it helped gradually turn public opinion against McCarthyism . The federal government took direct aim at the U.S. communist party in 1948 when it indicted its top twelve leaders in the Foley Square trial . The case hinged on whether or not mere membership in a totalitarian political party was sufficient to conclude that members advocated the overthrow of the United States government . The ACLU chose to not represent any of the defendants , and they were all found guilty and sentenced to three to five years in prison . Their defense attorneys were all cited for contempt , went to prison and were disbarred . When the government indicted additional party members , the defendants could not find attorneys to represent them . Communists protested outside the courthouse ; a bill to outlaw picketing of courthouses was introduced in Congress , and the ACLU supported the anti @-@ picketing law . The ACLU , in a change of heart , supported the party leaders during their appeal process . The Supreme Court upheld the convictions in the Dennis v. United States decision by softening the free speech requirements from a " clear and present danger " test , to a " grave and probable " test . The ACLU issued a public condemnation of the Dennis decision , and resolved to fight it . One reason for the Supreme Court 's support of cold war legislation was the 1949 deaths of Supreme Court justices Frank Murphy and Wiley Rutledge , leaving Hugo Black and William O. Douglas as the only remaining civil libertarians on the Court . The Dennis decision paved the way for the prosecution of hundreds of other communist party members . The ACLU supported many of the communists during their appeals ( although most of the initiative originated with local ACLU affiliates , not the national headquarters ) but most convictions were upheld . The two California affiliates , in particular , felt the national ACLU headquarters was not supporting civil liberties strongly enough , and they initiated more cold war cases than the national headquarters did . The ACLU also challenged many loyalty oath requirements across the country , but the courts upheld most of the loyalty oath laws . California ACLU affiliates successfully challenged the California state loyalty oath . The Supreme Court , until 1957 , upheld nearly every law which restricted the liberties of communists . The ACLU , even though it scaled back its defense of communists during the Cold War , still came under heavy criticism as a " front " for communism . Critics included the American Legion , Senator Joseph McCarthy , the HUAC , and the FBI . Several ACLU leaders were sympathetic to the FBI , and as a consequence , the ACLU rarely investigated any of the many complaints alleging abuse of power by the FBI during the Cold War . = = = Organizational change = = = In 1950 , the ACLU board of directors asked executive director Baldwin to resign , feeling that he lacked the organizational skills to lead the 9 @,@ 000 ( and growing ) member organization . Baldwin objected , but a majority of the board elected to remove him from the position , and he was replaced by Patrick Murphy Malin . Under Malin 's guidance , membership tripled to 30 @,@ 000 by 1955 – the start of a 24 @-@ year period of continual growth leading to 275 @,@ 000 members in 1974 . Malin also presided over an expansion of local ACLU affiliates . The ACLU , which had been controlled by an elite of a few dozen New Yorkers , became more democratic in the 1950s . In 1951 , the ACLU amended its bylaws to permit the local affiliates to participate directly in voting on ACLU policy decisions . A bi @-@ annual conference , open to the entire membership , was instituted in the same year , and in later decades it became a pulpit for activist members , who suggested new directions for the ACLU , including abortion rights , death penalty , and rights of the poor . = = = McCarthyism era = = = During the early 1950s , the ACLU continued to steer a moderate course through the Cold War . When leftist singer Paul Robeson was denied a passport in 1950 , even though he was not a communist and not accused of any illegal acts , the ACLU chose to not defend him . The ACLU later reversed their stance , and supported William Worthy and Rockwell Kent in their passport confiscation cases , which resulted in legal victories in the late 1950s . In response to communist witch @-@ hunts , many witnesses and employees chose to use the fifth amendment protection against self @-@ incrimination to avoid divulging information about their political beliefs . Government agencies and private organizations , in response , established polices which inferred communist party membership for anyone who invoked the fifth amendment . The national ACLU was divided on whether to defend employees who had been fired merely for pleading the fifth amendment , but the New York affiliate successfully assisted teacher Harry Slochower in his Supreme Court case which reversed his termination . The fifth amendment issue became the catalyst for a watershed event in 1954 , which finally resolved the ACLU 's ambivalence by ousting the anti @-@ communists from ACLU leadership . In 1953 , the anti @-@ communists , led by Norman Thomas and James Fly , proposed a set of resolutions that inferred guilt of persons that invoked the fifth amendment . These resolutions were the first that fell under the ACLU 's new organizational rules permitting local affiliates to participate in the vote ; the affiliates outvoted the national headquarters , and rejected the anti @-@ communist resolutions . Anti @-@ communists leaders refused to accept the results of the vote , and brought the issue up for discussion again at the 1954 bi @-@ annual convention . ACLU member Frank Graham , president of the University of North Carolina , attacked the anti @-@ communists with a counter @-@ proposal , which stated that the ACLU " stand [ s ] against guilt by association , judgment by accusation , the invasion of privacy of personal opinions and beliefs , and the confusion of dissent with disloyalty . " The anti @-@ communists continued to battle Graham 's proposal , but were outnumbered by the affiliates . The anti @-@ communists finally gave up and departed the board of directors in late 1954 and 1955 , ending an eight @-@ year reign of ambivalence within the ACLU leadership ranks . Thereafter , the ACLU proceeded with firmer resolve against Cold War anti @-@ communist legislation . The period from the 1940 resolution ( and the purge of Elizabeth Flynn ) to the 1954 resignation of the anti @-@ communist leaders is considered by many to be an era in which the ACLU abandoned its core principles . McCarthyism declined in late 1954 after television journalist Edward R. Murrow and others publicly chastised McCarthy . The controversies over the Bill of Rights that were generated by the Cold War ushered in a new era in American Civil liberties . In 1954 in Brown v. Board of Education , the Supreme Court unanimously overturned state @-@ sanctioned school segregation , and thereafter a flood of civil rights victories dominated the legal landscape . The Supreme Court handed the ACLU two key victories in 1957 , in Watkins v. United States and Yates v. United States , both of which undermined the Smith Act and marked the beginning of the end of communist party membership inquiries . In 1965 , the Supreme Court produced some decisions , including Lamont v. Postmaster General ( in which the plaintiff was Corliss Lamont , a former ACLU board member ) , which upheld fifth amendment protections and brought an end to restrictions on political activity . = = 1960s = = The decade from 1954 to 1964 was the most successful period in the ACLU 's history . Membership rose from 30 @,@ 000 to 80 @,@ 000 , and by 1965 it had affiliates in seventeen states . During the ACLU 's bi @-@ annual conference in Colorado in 1964 , the Supreme Court issued rulings on eight cases in which the ACLU was involved ; the ACLU prevailed on seven of the eight . The ACLU played a role in Supreme Court decisions reducing censorship of literature and arts , protecting freedom of association , prohibiting racial segregation , excluding religion from public schools , and providing due process protection to criminal suspects . The ACLU 's success arose from changing public attitudes ; the American populace was more educated , more tolerant , and more willing to accept unorthodox behavior . = = = Separation of church and state = = = Legal battles concerning the separation of church and state originated in laws dating to 1938 which required religious instruction in school , or provided state funding for religious schools . The Catholic church was a leading proponent of such laws ; and the primary opponents ( the " separationists " ) were the ACLU , Americans United for Separation of Church and State , and the American Jewish Congress . The ACLU led the challenge in the 1947 Everson v. Board of Education case , in which Justice Hugo Black wrote " [ t ] he First Amendment has erected a wall between church and state … . That wall must be kept high and impregnable . " It was not clear that the Bill of Rights forbid state governments from supporting religious education , and strong legal arguments were made by religious proponents , arguing that the Supreme Court should not act as a " national school board " , and that the Constitution did not govern social issues . However , the ACLU and other advocates of church / state separation persuaded the Court to declare such activities unconstitutional . Historian Samuel Walker writes that the ACLU 's " greatest impact on American life " was its role in persuading the Supreme Court to " constitutionalize " so many public controversies . In 1948 , the ACLU prevailed in the McCollum v. Board of Education case , which challenged public school religious classes taught by clergy paid for from private funds . The ACLU also won cases challenging schools in New Mexico which were taught by clergy and had crucifixes hanging in the classrooms . In the 1960s , the ACLU , in response to member insistence , turned its attention to in @-@ class promotion of religion . In 1960 , 42 percent of American schools included Bible reading . In 1962 , the ACLU published a policy statement condemning in @-@ school prayers , observation of religious holidays , and Bible reading . The Supreme Court concurred with the ACLU 's position , when it prohibited New York 's in @-@ school prayers in the 1962 Engel v. Vitale decision . Religious factions across the country rebelled against the anti @-@ prayer decisions , leading them to propose the School Prayer Constitutional Amendment , which declared in @-@ school prayer legal . The ACLU participated in a lobbying effort against the amendment , and the 1966 congressional vote on the amendment failed to obtain the required two @-@ thirds majority . However , not all cases were victories ; ACLU lost cases in 1949 and 1961 which challenged state laws requiring commercial businesses to close on Sunday , the Christian Sabbath . The Supreme Court has never overturned such laws , although some states subsequently revoked many of the laws under pressure from commercial interests . = = = Freedom of expression = = = During the 1940s and 1950s , the ACLU continued its battle against censorship of art and literature . In 1948 , the New York affiliate of the ACLU received mixed results from the Supreme Court , winning the appeal of Carl Jacob Kunz , who was convicted for speaking without a police permit , but losing the appeal of Irving Feiner who was arrested to prevent a breach of the peace , based on his oration denouncing president Truman and the American Legion . The ACLU lost the case of Joseph Beahharnais , who was arrested for group libel when he distributed literature impugning the character of African Americans . Cities across America routinely banned movies because they were deemed to be " harmful " , " offensive " , or " immoral " – censorship which was validated by the 1915 Mutual v. Ohio Supreme Court decision which held movies to be mere commerce , undeserving of first amendment protection . The film The Miracle was banned in New York in 1951 , at the behest of the Catholic Church , but the ACLU supported the film 's distributor in an appeal of the ban , and won a major victory in the 1952 decision Joseph Burstyn , Inc. v. Wilson . The Catholic Church led efforts throughout the 1950s attempting to persuade local prosecutors to ban various books and movies , leading to conflict with the ACLU when the ACLU published it statement condemning the church 's tactics . Further legal actions by the ACLU successfully defended films such as M and la Ronde , leading the eventual dismantling of movie censorship . Hollywood continued employing self @-@ censorship with its own Production Code , but in 1956 the ACLU called on Hollywood to abolish the Code . The ACLU defended beat generation artists , including Allen Ginsberg who was prosecuted for his poem " Howl " ; and – in an unorthodox case – the ACLU helped a coffee house regain its restaurant license which was revoked because its Beat customers were allegedly disturbing the peace and quiet of the neighborhood . The ACLU lost an important press censorship case when , in 1957 , the Supreme Court upheld the obscenity conviction of publisher Samuel Roth for distributing adult magazines . As late as 1953 , books such as Tropic of Cancer and From Here to Eternity were still banned . But public standards rapidly became more liberal though the 1960s , and obscenity was notoriously difficult to define , so by 1971 prosecutions for obscenity had halted . = = = Racial discrimination = = = A major aspect of civil liberties progress after World War II was the undoing centuries of racism in federal , state , and local governments – an effort generally known as the Civil Rights Movement . Several civil liberties organizations worked together for progress , including the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) , the ACLU , and the American Jewish Congress . The NAACP took primary responsibility for Supreme Court cases ( often led by lead NAACP attorney Thurgood Marshall ) , with the ACLU focusing on police misconduct , and supporting the NAACP with amicus briefs . The NAACP achieved a key victory in 1950 with the Henderson v. United States decision that ended segregation in interstate bus and rail transportation . In 1954 , the ACLU filed an amicus brief in the case of Brown v. Board of Education , which led to the ban on racial segregation in U.S. public schools . Southern states instituted a McCarthyism @-@ style witch @-@ hunt against the NAACP , attempting it to disclose membership lists . The ACLU 's fight against racism was not limited to segregation ; in 1964 the ACLU provided key support to plaintiffs , primarily lower income urban residents , in Reynolds v. Sims , which required states to establish the voting districts in accordance with the " one person , one vote " principle . = = = Police misconduct = = = The ACLU regularly tackled police misconduct issues , starting with the 1932 case Powell v. Alabama ( right to an attorney ) , and including 1942 's Betts v. Brady ( right to an attorney ) , and 1951 's Rochin v. California ( involuntary stomach pumping ) . In the late 1940s , several ACLU local affiliates established permanent committees to address policing issues . During the 1950s and 1960s , the ACLU was responsible for substantially advancing the legal protections against police misconduct . The Philadelphia affiliate was responsible for causing the City of Philadelphia , in 1958 , to create the nation 's first civilian police review board . In 1959 , the Illinois affiliate published the first report in the nation , Secret Detention by the Chicago Police , which documented unlawful detention by police . Some of the most well known ACLU successes came in the 1960s , when the ACLU prevailed in a string of cases limiting the power of police to gather evidence ; in 1961 's Mapp v. Ohio , the Supreme court required states to obtain a warrant before searching a person 's home . The Gideon v. Wainwright decision in 1963 provided legal representation to indigents . In 1964 , the ACLU persuaded the Court , in Escobedo v. Illinois , to permit suspects to have an attorney present during questioning . And , in 1966 , the Miranda v. Arizona decision required police to notify suspects of their constitutional rights . Although many law enforcement officials criticized the ACLU for expanding the rights of suspects , police officers themselves took advantage of the ACLU . For example , when the ACLU represented New York policemen in their lawsuit which objected to searches of their workplace lockers . In the late 1960s , civilian review boards in New York and Philadelphia were abolished , over the ACLU 's objection . = = = Civil liberties revolution of the 1960s = = = The 1960s was a tumultuous era in the United States , and public interest in civil liberties underwent an explosive growth . Civil liberties actions in the 1960s were often led by young people , and often employed tactics such as sit ins and marches . Protests were often peaceful , but sometimes employed militant tactics . The ACLU played a central role in all major civil liberties debates of the 1960s , including new fields such as gay rights , prisoner 's rights , abortion , rights of the poor , and the death penalty . Membership in the ACLU increased from 52 @,@ 000 at the beginning of the decade , to 104 @,@ 000 in 1970 . In 1960 , there were affiliates in seven states , and by 1974 there were affiliates in 46 states . During the 1960s , the ACLU underwent a major transformation tactics ; it shifted emphasis from legal appeals ( generally involving amicus briefs submitted to the Supreme Court ) to direct representation of defendants when they were initially arrested . At the same time , the ACLU transformed its style from " disengaged and elitist " to " emotionally engaged " . The ACLU published a breakthrough document in 1963 , titled How Americans Protest , which was borne of frustration with the slow progress in battling racism , and which endorsed aggressive , even militant protest techniques . African @-@ American protests in the South accelerated in the early 1960s , and the ACLU assisted at every step . After four African @-@ American college students staged a sit @-@ in in a segregated North Carolina department store , the sit @-@ in movement gained momentum across the United States . During 1960 @-@ 61 , the ACLU defended black students arrested for demonstrating in North Carolina , Florida , and Louisiana . The ACLU also provided legal help for the Freedom Rides in 1961 , the integration of the University of Mississippi , the 1963 protests in Birmingham , Alabama , and the 1964 Freedom Summer . The NAACP was responsible for managing most sit @-@ in related cases that made it to the Supreme Court , winning nearly every decision . But it fell to the ACLU and other legal volunteer efforts to provide legal representation to hundreds of protestors – white and black – who were arrested while protesting in the South . The ACLU joined with other civil liberties groups to form the Lawyers Constitutional Defense Committee ( LCDC ) which subsequently provided legal representation to many of the protesters . The ACLU provided the majority of the funding for the LCDC . In 1964 , the ACLU opened up a major office in Atlanta , Georgia , dedicated to serving Southern issues . Much of the ACLU 's progress in the South was due to Charles Morgan , Jr . , the charismatic leader of the Atlanta office . He was responsible for desegregating juries ( Whitus v. Georgia ) , desegregating prisons ( Lee v. Washington ) , and reforming election laws . The ACLU 's southern office also defended African @-@ American congressman Julian Bond in Bond v. Floyd , when the Georgia congress refused to formally induct Bond into the legislature . Another widely publicized case defended by Morgan was that of Army doctor Howard Levy , who was convicted of refusing to train Green Berets . Despite raising the defense that the Green Berets were committing war crimes in Vietnam , Levy lost on appeal in Parker v. Levy , 417 U.S. 733 ( 1974 ) . In 1969 , the ACLU won a major victory for free speech , when it defended Dick Gregory after he was arrested for peacefully protesting against the mayor of Chicago . The court ruled in Gregory v. Chicago that a speaker cannot be arrested for disturbing the peace when the hostility is initiated by someone in the audience , as that would amount to a " heckler 's veto " . = = = Vietnam war = = = The ACLU was at the center of several legal aspects of the Vietnam war : defending draft resisters , challenging the constitutionality of the war , the potential impeachment of Richard Nixon , and the use of national security concerns to preemptively censor newspapers . David J. Miller was the first person prosecuted for burning his draft card . The New York affiliate of the ACLU appealed his 1965 conviction ( 367 F.2d 72 : United States of America v. David J. Miller , 1966 ) , but the Supreme Court refused to hear the appeal . Two years later , the Massachusetts affiliate took the card @-@ burning case of David O 'Brien to the Supreme Court , arguing that the act of burning was a form of symbolic speech , but the Supreme Court upheld the conviction in United States v. O 'Brien , 391 US 367 ( 1968 ) . Thirteen @-@ year @-@ old Junior High student Mary Tinker wore a black armband to school in 1965 to object to the war , and was suspended from school . The ACLU appealed her case to the Supreme Court and won a victory in Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District . This critical case established that the government may not establish " enclaves " such as schools or prisons where all rights are forfeit . The ACLU defended Sydney Street , who was arrested for burning an American flag to protest the reported assassination of civil rights leader James Meredith . In the Street v. New York decision , the court agreed with the ACLU that encouraging the country to abandon one of its national symbols was constitutionally protected form of expression . The ACLU successfully defended Paul Cohen , who was arrested for wearing a jacket with the words " fuck the draft " on its back , while he walked through the Los Angeles courthouse . The Supreme Court , in Cohen v. California , held that the vulgarity of the wording was essential to convey the intensity of the message . Non @-@ war related free speech rights were also advanced during the Vietnam war era ; in 1969 , the ACLU defended a Ku Klux Klan member who advocated long @-@ term violence against the government , and the Supreme Court concurred with the ACLU 's argument in the landmark decision Brandenburg v. Ohio , which held that only speech which advocated imminent violence could be outlawed . A major crisis gripped the ACLU in 1968 when a debate erupted over whether to defend Benjamin Spock and the Boston Five against federal charges that they encouraged draftees to avoid the draft . The ACLU board was deeply split over whether to defend the activists ; half the board harbored anti @-@ war sentiments , and felt that the ACLU should lend its resources to the cause of the Boston Five . The other half of the board believed that civil liberties were not at stake , and the ACLU would be taking a political stance . Behind the debate was the longstanding ACLU tradition that it was politically impartial , and provided legal advice without regard to the political views of the defendants . The board finally agreed to a compromise solution that permitted the ACLU to defend the anti @-@ war activists , without endorsing the activist 's political views . Some critics of the ACLU suggest that the ACLU became a partisan political organization following the Spock case . After the Kent State shootings in 1970 , ACLU leaders took another step towards politics by passing a resolution condemning the Vietnam war . The resolution was based in a variety of legal arguments , including civil liberties violations and a claim that the war was illegal . Also in 1968 , the ACLU held an internal symposium to discuss its dual roles : providing " direct " legal support ( defense for accused in their initial trial , benefiting only the individual defendant ) , and appellate support ( providing amicus briefs during the appeal process , to establish widespread legal precedent ) . Historically , the ACLU was known for its appellate work which led to landmark Supreme Court decisions , but by 1968 , 90 % of the ACLU 's legal activities involved direct representation . The symposium concluded that both roles were valid for the ACLU . = = 1970s and 1980s = = = = = Watergate era = = = The ACLU supported The New York Times in its 1971 suit against the government , requesting permission to publish the Pentagon papers . The court upheld the Times and ACLU in the New York Times Co. v. United States ruling , which held that the government could not preemptively prohibit the publication of classified information and had to wait until after it was published to take action . As the Watergate saga unfolded , the ACLU became the first national organization to call for Nixon 's impeachment . This , following the resolution opposing the Vietnam war , was a second major decision that caused critics of the ACLU , particularly conservatives , to claim that the ACLU had evolved into a liberal political organization . = = = Enclaves and new civil liberties = = = The decade from 1965 to 1975 saw an expansion of the field of civil liberties . Administratively , the ACLU responded by appointing Aryeh Neier to take over from Pemberton as Executive Director in 1970 . Neier embarked on an ambitious program to expand the ACLU ; he created the ACLU Foundation to raise funds , and he created several new programs to focus the ACLU 's legal efforts . By 1974 , ACLU membership had reached 275 @,@ 000 . During those years , the ACLU led the way in expanding legal rights in three directions : new rights for persons within government @-@ run " enclaves " , new rights for victim groups , and privacy rights for mainstream citizens . At the same time , the organization grew substantially . The ACLU helped develop the field of constitutional law that governs " enclaves " , which are groups of persons that live in conditions under government control . Enclaves include mental hospital patients , members of the military , and prisoners , and students ( while at school ) . The term enclave originated with Supreme Court justice Abe Fortas 's use of the phrase " schools may not be enclaves of totalitarianism " in the Tinker v. Des Moines decision . The ACLU initiated the legal field of student 's rights with the Tinker v. Des Moines case , and expanded it with cases such as Goss v. Lopez which required schools to provide students an opportunity to appeal suspensions . As early as 1945 , the ACLU had taken a stand to protect the rights of the mentally ill , when it drafted a model statute governing mental commitments . In the 1960s , the ACLU opposed involuntary commitments , unless it could be demonstrated that the person was a danger to himself or the community . In the landmark 1975 O 'Connor v. Donaldson decision the ACLU represented a non @-@ violent mental health patient who had been confined against his will for 15 years , and persuaded the Supreme Court to rule such involuntary confinements illegal . The ACLU has also defended the rights of mentally ill individuals who are not dangerous , but who create disturbances . The New York chapter of the ACLU defended Billie Boggs , a mentally ill woman who exposed herself and defecated and urinated in public . Prior to 1960 , prisoners had virtually no recourse to the court system , because courts considered prisoners to have no civil rights . That changed in the late 1950s , when the ACLU began representing prisoners that were subject to police brutality , or deprived of religious reading material . In 1968 , the ACLU successfully sued to desegregate the Alabama prison system ; and in 1969 , the New York affiliate adopted a project to represent prisoners in New York prisons . Private attorney Phil Hirschkop discovered degrading conditions in Virginia prisons following the Virginia State Penitentiary strike , and won an important victory in 1971 's Landman v. Royster which prohibited Virginia from treating prisoners in inhumane ways . In 1972 , the ACLU consolidated several prison rights efforts across the nation and created the National Prison Project . The ACLU 's efforts led to landmark cases such as Ruiz v. Estelle ( requiring reform of the Texas prison system ) and in 1996 U.S. Congress enacted the Prison Litigation Reform Act ( PLRA ) which codified prisoners ' rights . = = = Victim groups = = = The ACLU , during the 1960s and 1970s , expanded its scope to include what it referred to as " victim groups " , namely women , the poor , and homosexuals . Heeding the call of female members , the ACLU endorsed the Equal Rights Amendment in 1970 and created the Women 's Rights Project in 1971 . The Women 's Rights Project dominated the legal field , handling more than twice as many cases as the National Organization for Women , including breakthrough cases such as Reed v. Reed , Frontiero v. Richardson , and Taylor v. Louisiana . ACLU leader Harriet Pilpel raised the issue of the rights of homosexuals in 1964 , and two years later the ACLU formally endorsed gay rights . In 1972 , ACLU cooperating attorneys in Oregon filed the first federal civil rights case involving a claim of unconstitutional discrimination against a gay or lesbian public school teacher . The U.S. District Court held that a state statute that authorized school districts to fire teachers for " immorality " was unconstitutionally vague , and awarded monetary damages to the teacher . The court refused to reinstate the teacher , and the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed that refusal by a 2 to 1 vote . Burton v. Cascade School District , 353 F. Supp . 254 ( D. Or . 1972 ) , aff 'd 512 F.2d 850 ( 1975 ) . In 1973 the ACLU created the Sexual Privacy Project ( later the Gay and Lesbian Rights Project ) which combated discrimination against homosexuals . This support continues even today . After then @-@ Senator Larry Craig was arrested for soliciting sex in a public bathroom , the ACLU wrote an amicus brief for Craig , saying that sex between consenting adults in public places was protected under privacy rights . Rights of the poor was another area that was expanded by the ACLU . In 1966 and again in 1968 , activists within the ACLU encouraged the organization to adopt a policy overhauling the welfare system , and guaranteeing low @-@ income families a baseline income ; but the ACLU board did not approve the proposals . The ACLU played a key role in the 1968 King v. Smith decision , where the Supreme Court ruled that welfare benefits for children could not be denied by a state simply because the mother cohabited with a boyfriend . = = = Privacy = = = The right to privacy is not explicitly identified in the U.S. Constitution , but the ACLU led the charge to establish such rights in the indecisive 1961 Poe v. Ullman case , which addressed a state statute outlawing contraception . The issue arose again in Griswold v. Connecticut ( 1965 ) , and this time the Supreme Court adopted the ACLU 's position , and formally declared a right to privacy . The New York affiliate of the ACLU pushed to eliminate anti @-@ abortion laws starting in 1964 , a year before Griswold was decided , and in 1967 the ACLU itself formally adopted the right to abortion as a policy . The ACLU led the defense in United States v. Vuitch which expanded the right of physicians to determine when abortions were necessary . These efforts culminated in one of the most controversial Supreme Court decisions of all time , Roe v. Wade , which legalized abortion in the first three months of pregnancy . The ACLU successfully argued against state bans on interracial marriage , in the case of Loving v. Virginia ( 1967 ) . Related to privacy , the ACLU engaged in several battles to ensure that government records about individuals were kept private , and to give individuals the right to review their records . The ACLU supported several measures , including the 1970 Fair Credit Reporting Act required credit agencies to divulge credit information to individuals ; the 1973 Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act , which provided students the right to access their records ; and the 1974 Privacy Act which prevented the federal government from disclosing personal information without good cause . = = = Allegations of bias = = = In the early 1970s , conservatives and libertarians began to criticize the ACLU for being too political and too liberal . Legal scholar Joseph W. Bishop wrote that the ACLU 's trend to partisanship started with its defense of Dr. Spock 's anti @-@ war protests . Critics also blamed the ACLU for encouraging the Supreme Court to embrace judicial activism . Critics claimed that the ACLU 's support of controversial decisions like Roe v. Wade and Griswold v. Connecticut violated the intention of the authors of the Bill of Rights . The ACLU became an issue in the 1988 presidential campaign , when Republican candidate George H. W. Bush accused Democratic candidate Michael Dukakis ( a member of the ACLU ) of being a " card carrying member of the ACLU " . = = = The Skokie case = = = It is the policy of the ACLU to support the civil liberties of defendants regardless of their ideological stance . The ACLU takes pride in defending individuals with unpopular viewpoints , such as George Wallace , George Lincoln Rockwell , and KKK members . The ACLU has defended American Nazis many times , and their actions often brought protests , particularly from American Jews . In 1977 , a small group of American Nazis , led by Frank Collin , applied to the town of Skokie , Illinois for permission to hold a demonstration in the town park . Skokie at the time had a majority population of Jews , totaling 40 @,@ 000 of 70 @,@ 000 citizens , some of whom were survivors of Nazi concentration camps . Skokie refused to grant permission , and an Illinois judge supported Skokie and prohibited the demonstration . Skokie immediately passed three ordinances aimed at preventing the group from meeting in Skokie . The ACLU assisted Collin and appealed to federal court . The appeal dragged on for a year , and the ACLU eventually prevailed in Smith v. Collin , 447 F.Supp. 676 . The Skokie case was heavily publicized across America , partially because Jewish groups such as the Jewish Defense League and Anti Defamation League strenuously objected to the demonstration , leading many members of the ACLU to cancel their memberships . The Illinois affiliate of the ACLU lost about 25 % of its membership and nearly one @-@ third of its budget . The financial strain from the controversy led to layoffs at local chapters . After the membership crisis died down , the ACLU sent out a fund @-@ raising appeal which explained their rationale for the Skokie case , and raised over $ 500 @,@ 000 ( $ 1 @,@ 952 @,@ 499 in 2016 dollars ) . = = = Reagan era = = = The inauguration of Ronald Reagan as president in 1981 , ushered in an eight @-@ year period of conservative leadership in the U.S. government . Under his leadership , the government pushed a conservative social agenda , including outlawing abortion , inserting prayer in schools , banning pornography , and resisting gay rights . Fifty years after the Scopes trial , the ACLU found itself fighting another classroom case , the Arkansas 1981 creationism statute , which required schools to teach the biblical account of creation as a scientific alternative to evolution . The ACLU won the case in the McLean v. Arkansas decision . In 1982 , the ACLU became involved in a case involving the distribution of child pornography ( New York v. Ferber ) . In an amicus brief , the ACLU argued that child pornography that violates the three prong obscenity test should be outlawed , but that the law in question was overly restrictive because it outlawed artistic displays and otherwise non @-@ obscene material . The court did not adopt the ACLU 's position . During the 1988 presidential election , Vice President George H. W. Bush noted that his opponent Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis had described himself as a " card @-@ carrying member of the ACLU " and used that as evidence that Dukakis was " a strong , passionate liberal " and " out of the mainstream " . The phrase subsequently was used by the organization in an advertising campaign . In 1990 the ACLU defended Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North , whose conviction was tainted by coerced testimony – a violation of his fifth amendment rights – during the Iran – Contra affair , where Oliver North was involved in illegal weapons sales to Iran in order to illegally fund the Contra guerillas . = = Modern era = = = = = 1990 to 2000 = = = In 1997 , ruling unanimously in the case of Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union , the Supreme Court voted down anti @-@ indecency provisions of the Communications Decency Act ( the CDA ) , finding they violated the freedom of speech provisions of the First Amendment . In their decision , the Supreme Court held that the CDA 's " use of the undefined terms ' indecent ' and ' patently offensive ' will provoke uncertainty among speakers about how the two standards relate to each other and just what they mean . " The ACLU 's position on spam is considered controversial by a broad cross @-@ section of political points of view . In 2000 , Marvin Johnson , a legislative counsel for the ACLU , stated that proposed anti @-@ spam legislation infringed on free speech by denying anonymity and by forcing spam to be labeled as such , " Standardized labeling is compelled speech . " He also stated , " It 's relatively simple to click and delete . " The debate found the ACLU joining with the Direct Marketing Association and the Center for Democracy and Technology in criticizing a bipartisan bill in the House of Representatives in 2000 . As early as 1997 the ACLU had taken a strong position that nearly all spam legislation was improper , although it has supported " opt @-@ out " requirements in some cases . The ACLU opposed the 2003 CAN @-@ SPAM act suggesting that it could have a chilling effect on speech in cyberspace . In November 2000 , 15 African @-@ American residents of Hearne , Texas , were indicted on drug charges after being arrested in a series of " drug sweeps " . The ACLU filed a class action lawsuit , Kelly v. Paschall , on their behalf , alleging that the arrests were unlawful . The ACLU contended that 15 percent of Hearne 's male African American population aged 18 to 34 were arrested based on the " uncorroborated word of a single unreliable confidential informant coerced by police to make cases . " On May 11 , 2005 , the ACLU and Robertson County announced a confidential settlement of the lawsuit , an outcome which " both sides stated that they were satisfied with . " The District Attorney dismissed the charges against the plaintiffs of the suit . The 2009 film American Violet depicts this case . In 2000 , the ACLU 's Massachusetts affiliate represented the North American Man Boy Love Association ( NAMBLA ) , on first amendment grounds , in the Curley v. NAMBLA wrongful death civil suit that was based solely on the fact that a man who raped and murdered a child had visited the NAMBLA website . Also In 2000 , the ACLU lost the Boy Scouts of America v. Dale case , which had asked the Supreme Court to require the Boy Scouts of America to drop their policy of prohibiting homosexuals from becoming Boy Scout leaders . = = = Twenty @-@ first century = = = In March 2004 , the ACLU , along with Lambda Legal and the National Center for Lesbian Rights , sued the state of California on behalf of six same @-@ sex couples who were denied marriage licenses . That case , Woo v. Lockyer , was eventually consolidated into In re Marriage Cases , the California Supreme Court case which led to same @-@ sex marriage being available in that state from June 16 , 2008 until Proposition 8 was passed on November 4 , 2008 . During the 2004 trial regarding allegations of Rush Limbaugh 's drug abuse , the ACLU argued that his privacy should not have been compromised by allowing law enforcement examination of his medical records . In June 2004 , the school district in Dover , Pennsylvania , required that its high school biology students listen to a statement which asserted that the theory of evolution is not fact and mentioning intelligent design as an alternative theory . Several parents called the ACLU to complain , because they believed that the school was promoting a religious idea in the classroom and violating the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment . The ACLU , joined by Americans United for Separation of Church and State , represented the parents in a lawsuit against the school district . After a lengthy trial , Judge John E. Jones III ruled in favor of the parents in the Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District decision , finding that intelligent design is not science and permanently forbidding the Dover school system from teaching intelligent design in science classes . In April 2006 , Edward Jones and the ACLU sued the City of Los Angeles , on behalf of Robert Lee Purrie and five other homeless people , for the city 's violation of the 8th and 14th Amendments to the U.S. Constitution , and Article I , sections 7 and 17 of the California Constitution ( supporting due process and equal protection , and prohibiting cruel and unusual punishment ) . The Court ruled in favor of the ACLU , stating that , " the LAPD cannot arrest people for sitting , lying , or sleeping on public sidewalks in Skid Row . " Enforcement of section 41 @.@ 18 ( d ) 24 hours a day against persons who have nowhere else to sit , lie , or sleep , other than on public streets and sidewalks , is breaking these amendments . The Court said that the anti @-@ camping ordinance is " one of the most restrictive municipal laws regulating public spaces in the United States " . Jones and the ACLU wanted a compromise in which the LAPD is barred from enforcing section 41 @.@ 18 ( d ) ( arrest , seizure , and imprisonment ) in Skid Row between the hours of 9 : 00 p.m. and 6 : 30 a.m. The compromise plan permits the homeless to sleep on the sidewalk , provided they are not " within 10 feet of any business or residential entrance " and only between these hours . One of the motivations for the compromise is the shortage of space in the prison system . Downtown development business interests and the Central City Association ( CCA ) were against the compromise . Police Chief William Bratton said the case had slowed the police effort to fight crime and clean up Skid Row , and that when he was allowed to clean up Skid Row , real estate profited . On September 20 , 2006 , the Los Angeles City Council voted to reject the compromise . On October 3 , 2006 , police arrested Skid Row 's transients for sleeping on the streets for the first time in months . In 2006 , the ACLU of Washington State joined with a pro @-@ gun rights organization , the Second Amendment Foundation , and prevailed in a lawsuit against the North Central Regional Library District ( NCRL ) in Washington for its policy of refusing to disable restrictions upon an adult patron 's request . Library patrons attempting to access pro @-@ gun web sites were blocked , and the library refused to remove the blocks . In 2012 , the ACLU sued the same library system for refusing to temporarily , at the request of an adult patron , disable Internet filters which blocked access to Google Images . In 2006 , the ACLU challenged a Missouri law that prohibited picketing outside of veterans ' funerals . The suit was filed in support of the Westboro Baptist Church and Shirley Phelps @-@ Roper , who were threatened with arrest . The Westboro Baptist Church is well known for their picket signs that contain messages such as , " God Hates Fags " , " Thank God for Dead Soldiers " and " Thank God for 9 / 11 " . The ACLU issued a statement calling the legislation a " law that infringes on Shirley Phelps @-@ Roper 's rights to religious liberty and free speech " . The ACLU prevailed in the lawsuit . In 2008 , the ACLU was part of a consortium of legal advocates , including Lambda Legal and the National Center for Lesbian Rights , that challenged California 's Proposition 8 , which declared same @-@ sex marriages illegal . The ACLU and its allies prevailed . In light of the Supreme Court 's Heller decision recognizing that the Constitution protects an individual right to bear arms , ACLU of Nevada took a position of supporting " the individual 's right to bear arms subject to constitutionally permissible regulations " and pledged to " defend this right as it defends other constitutional rights " . Since 2008 , the ACLU has increasingly assisted gun owners recover firearms that have been seized illegally by law enforcement . In 2009 , the ACLU filed an amicus brief in Citizens United v. FEC , arguing that the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 violated the First Amendment right to free speech by curtailing political speech . This stance on the landmark Citizens United case caused considerable disagreement within the organization , resulting in a discussion about its future stance during a quarterly board meeting in 2010 . On March 27 , 2012 , the ACLU reaffirmed its stance in support of the Supreme Court 's Citizens United ruling , at the same time voicing support for expanded public financing of election campaigns and stating the organization would firmly oppose any future constitutional amendment limiting free speech . In 2010 the ACLU of Illinois was inducted into the Chicago Gay and Lesbian Hall of Fame as a Friend of the Community . In 2011 the ACLU started its Don 't Filter Me project , countering LGBT @-@ related Internet censorship in public schools in the United States . On January 7 , 2013 , the ACLU reached a settlement with the federal government in Collins v. United States that provided for the payment of full separation pay to servicemembers discharged under " don 't ask , don 't tell " since November 10 , 2004 , who had previously been granted only half that . Some 181 were expected to receive about $ 13 @,@ 000 each . = = = Anti @-@ terrorism issues = = = After the September 11 , 2001 attacks , the federal government instituted a broad range of new measures to combat terrorism , including the passage of the Patriot Act . The ACLU challenged many of the measures , claiming that they violated rights regarding due process , privacy , illegal searches , and cruel and unusual punishment . An ACLU policy statement states : Our way forward lies in decisively turning our backs on the policies and practices that violate our greatest strength : our Constitution and the commitment it embodies to the rule of law . Liberty and security do not compete in a zero @-@ sum game ; our freedoms are the very foundation of our strength and security . The ACLU 's National Security Project advocates for national security policies that are consistent with the Constitution , the rule of law , and fundamental human rights . The Project litigates cases relating to detention , torture , discrimination , surveillance , censorship , and secrecy . During the ensuing debate regarding the proper balance of civil liberties and security , the membership of the ACLU increased by 20 % , bringing the group 's total enrollment to 330 @,@ 000 . The growth continued , and by August 2008 ACLU membership was greater than 500 @,@ 000 . It remained at that level through 2011 . The ACLU has been a vocal opponent of the USA PATRIOT Act of 2001 , the PATRIOT 2 Act of 2003 , and associated legislation made in response to the threat of domestic terrorism . In response to a requirement of the USA PATRIOT Act , the ACLU withdrew from the Combined Federal Campaign charity drive . The campaign imposed a requirement that ACLU employees must be checked against a federal anti @-@ terrorism watch list . The ACLU has stated that it would " reject $ 500 @,@ 000 in contributions from private individuals rather than submit to a government ' blacklist ' policy . " In 2004 , the ACLU sued the federal government in American Civil Liberties Union v. Ashcroft on behalf of Nicholas Merrill , owner of an Internet service provider . Under the provisions of the Patriot Act , the government had issued national security letters to Merrill to compel him to provide private Internet access information from some of his customers . In addition , the government placed a gag order on Merrill , forbidding him from discussing the matter with anyone . In January 2006 , the ACLU filed a lawsuit , ACLU v. NSA , in a federal district court in Michigan , challenging government spying in the NSA warrantless surveillance controversy . On August 17 , 2006 , that court ruled that the warrantless wiretapping program is unconstitutional and ordered it ended immediately . However , the order was stayed pending an appeal . The Bush administration did suspend the program while the appeal was being heard . In February 2008 , the U.S. Supreme Court turned down an appeal from the ACLU to let it pursue a lawsuit against the program that began shortly after the September 11 terror attacks . The ACLU and other organizations also filed separate lawsuits around the country against telecommunications companies . The ACLU filed a lawsuit in Illinois ( Terkel v. AT & T ) which was dismissed because of the state secrets privilege and two others in California requesting injunctions against AT & T and Verizon . On August 10 , 2006 , the lawsuits against the telecommunications companies were transferred to a federal judge in San Francisco . The ACLU represents a Muslim @-@ American who was detained but never accused of a crime in Ashcroft v. al @-@ Kidd , a civil suit against former Attorney General John Ashcroft . In January 2010 , the American military released the names of 645 detainees held at the Bagram Theater Internment Facility in Afghanistan , modifying its long @-@ held position against publicizing such information . This list was prompted by a Freedom of Information Act lawsuit filed in September 2009 by the ACLU , whose lawyers had also requested detailed information about conditions , rules and regulations . The ACLU has also criticized targeted killings of American citizens who fight against the United States . In 2011 the ACLU criticized the killing of radical Muslim cleric Anwar al @-@ Awlaki on the basis that it was a violation of his Fifth Amendment right to not be deprived of life , liberty , or property without due process of law . = = = Archives = = = American Civil Liberties Union of Washington . 1942 – 1996 . 136 @.@ 66 cubic feet ( including 13 microfilm reels and 1 videocassette ) plus 62 cartons and 2 rolled posters . Labor Archives of Washington . University of Washington Special Collections . American Civil Liberties Union of Michigan : Detroit Branch Records 1952 @-@ 1966 . This collection documents the early years of the Detroit ACLU branch . The collection contains documents related to academic freedom ; censorship ; church and state ; civil liberties ; police brutality ; HUAC ; and legal assistance to prisoners . Walter P. Reuther Library , Detroit , Michigan . American Civil Liberties Union of Oakland County , Michigan 1970 @-@ 1984 . This collection illustrates that the branch was formed to address issues such as Oakland County jail conditions , lie detector use , senior housing rights , and attempts to reinstate the death penalty . Walter P. Reuther Library , Detroit , Michigan . = = = Selected works sponsored or published by the ACLU = = = Annual Report - American Civil Liberties Union , American Civil Liberties Union , 1921 . Black Justice , ACLU , 1931 . How Americans Protest , American Civil Liberties Union , 1963 . Secret detention by the Chicago police : a report , American Civil Liberties Union , 1959 . Report on lawlessness in law enforcement , Wickersham Commission , Patterson Smith , 1931 . This report was written by the ACLU but published under the auspices of the Wickersham Commission . Miller , Merle , ( 1952 ) , The Judges and the Judged , Doubleday . ACLU organization records , 1947 – 1995 . Princeton University Library , Mudd Manuscript Library . The Dangers of Domestic Spying by Federal Law Enforcement , American Civil Liberties Union , 2002 .
= Concerto delle donne = The concerto delle donne ( lit. consort of ladies ) was a group of professional female singers in the late Renaissance court of Ferrara , Italy , renowned for their technical and artistic virtuosity . The ensemble was founded by Alfonso II , Duke of Ferrara , in 1580 and was active until the court was dissolved in 1597 . Giacomo Vincenti , a music publisher , praised the women as " virtuose giovani " ( young virtuosas ) , echoing the sentiments of contemporaneous diarists and commentators . The origins of the ensemble lay in an amateur group of high @-@ placed courtiers who performed for each other within the context of the Duke 's informal musica secreta in the 1570s . The ensemble evolved into an all @-@ female group of professional musicians , the concerto delle donne , who performed formal concerts for members of the inner circle of the court and important visitors . Their signature style of florid , highly ornamented singing brought prestige to Ferrara and inspired composers of the time . The concerto delle donne revolutionized the role of women in professional music , and continued the tradition of the Este court as a musical center . Word of the ladies ' ensemble spread across Italy , inspiring imitations in the powerful courts of the Medici and Orsini . The founding of the concerto delle donne was the most important event in secular Italian music in the late sixteenth century ; the musical innovations established in the court were important in the development of the madrigal , and eventually the seconda pratica . = = History = = = = = Formation = = = At the court in Ferrara , a collection of ladies skilled in music inspired the composer Luzzasco Luzzaschi and caught the Duke 's interest . This group , which led to the formation of the concerto delle donne , performed within the context of the Duke 's musica secreta , a regular series of chamber music concerts performed for an exclusive audience . This preliminary group was originally made up of talented but amateur members of the court : the sisters Lucrezia and Isabella Bendidio , Leonora Sanvitale , and Vittoria Bentivoglio . They were joined by bass Giulio Cesare Brancaccio , who was specifically brought to the court in 1577 for his singing ability . The preliminary ensemble was active throughout the 1570s , and its membership solidified in 1577 . Only later did professionals replace these original singers . The Duke did not announce the creation of a professional , all @-@ female ensemble ; instead , the group infiltrated and gradually dominated the musica secreta , so that after the dismissal of Brancaccio for insubordination in 1583 , no more male members of the musica secreta were hired . Even when Brancaccio was performing with the consort it was referred to as a ladies ' ensemble , because women singing together was the most exciting aspect of the group . This new ensemble , the concerto delle donne , was created by Alfonso in part to amuse his young new wife , Margherita Gonzaga d 'Este ( she was only fourteen when they wed in 1579 ) , and in part to help the Duke achieve his artistic goals for the court . According to Grana , a contemporary correspondent , " Signora Machiavella [ Lucrezia ] , Signora Isabella , and Signora Vittoria have abandoned the field , having lost the backing of Luzzaschi " . The first recorded performance by the professional ladies was on November 20 , 1580 ; by carnival season in 1581 , they were performing together regularly . This new " consort of ladies " was viewed as an extraordinary and novel phenomenon ; most witnesses did not connect the second period of the concerto delle donne with the group of ladies who sang in the musica secreta . Today , however , the earlier group is viewed as a crucial part of the creation and development of the social and vocal genre of the concerto delle donne . = = = Roster and duties = = = The most prominent member of the new ensemble was Laura Peverara , followed by Livia d 'Arco and Anna Guarini , daughter of the prolific poet Giovanni Battista Guarini . Giovanni wrote poems for many of the madrigals which were set for the ensemble , and choreographed scenes for the balletto delle donne . Judith Tick believes Tarquinia Molza sang with the group , but Anthony Newcomb says she was involved solely as an advisor and instructor . Whether Tarquinia Molza ever performed with them or not , she was ousted from any role in the group after her affair with the composer Giaches de Wert came to light in 1589 . Luzzasco Luzzaschi directed and composed music to showcase the ensemble , and accompanied them on the harpsichord . Ippolito Fiorini was the maestro di capella , in charge of the entire court 's musical activities . In addition to his duties to the overall court , he accompanied the concerto on the lute . Vittorio Baldini was brought to the court as ducal music printer in 1582 . The singers of the second era of the concerto delle donne were officially ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting of Duchess Margherita Gonzaga d 'Este , but were hired primarily as singers . Peverara 's musical abilities prompted the Duke to specifically ask his wife Margherita to bring Peverara from Mantua as part of her retinue . The new singers played instruments , including the lute , harp , and viol , but focused their energies on developing vocal virtuosity . This skill became highly prized in the mid @-@ sixteenth century , beginning with basses like Brancaccio , but by the end of the century virtuosic bass singing went out of style , and higher voices came into vogue . The ladies ' musical duties included performing with the duchess ' balletto delle donne , a group of female dancers who frequently crossdressed . Despite their upper @-@ class background , the singers would not have been welcomed into the court 's inner circle had they not been such skilled performers . D 'Arco belonged to the nobility , but a minor family only . Peverara was the daughter of a wealthy merchant , and Molza came from a prominent family of artists . The women performed up to six hours a day , either singing their own florid repertoire from memory , sight @-@ reading from partbooks , or participating in the balletti as singers and dancers . Thomasin LaMay posits that the women of the concerti delle donne provided sexual favors for members of the court , but there is no evidence for this , and the circumstances of their marriages and dowries argues against this interpretation . The women were paid salaries and received other benefits , such as dowries and apartments in the ducal palace . Peverara received 300 scudi a year and lodging in the ducal palace for herself , her husband , and her mother - as well as a dowry of 10 @,@ 000 scudi upon her marriage . Despite having married three times in the hopes of producing an heir , Alfonso II died in 1597 without issue , legitimate or otherwise . His cousin Cesare inherited the Duchy , but the city of Ferrara , which was legally a Papal fief , was annexed to the Papal States in 1598 through a combination of " firm diplomacy and unscrupulous pressure " by Pope Clement VIII . The Este court had to abandon Ferrara in disarray and the concerto delle donne was disbanded . = = Music = = The greatest musical innovation of the concerto delle donne was the multiplication of the ornamented upper voices , from one voice singing diminutions above an instrumental accompaniment to two or three voices singing varying diminutions at once . This practice , which listeners found remarkable , was imitated by many composers , including Carlo Gesualdo , Luca Marenzio and Claudio Monteverdi . These composers wrote music either inspired by the concerto delle donne or specifically for them . Such works are characterized by a high tessitura , a virtuosic and florid style , and a wide range . Lodovico Agostini 's third book of madrigals was perhaps the first publication fully dedicated to the new singing style . Agostini dedicated songs to Guarini , Peverara , and Luzzaschi . Gesualdo wrote music for the group in 1594 while visiting Ferrara to marry the Duke 's niece Leonora d 'Este . De Wert 's Seventh Book of Madrigals à 5 and Marenzio 's First Book à 6 were the first true musical monuments to the new concerto delle donne . Monteverdi 's Canzonette a tre voci was probably influenced by the " Ladies of Ferrara " . Although the only works clearly intended for or inspired by the concerto delle donne were works for multiple high voices executing written @-@ out diminutions , in practice concerts with the concerto delle donne included the older style of solo ornamented madrigals with instrumental accompaniment . Peverara was singularly lauded for her skill in this genre . Works written for the concerto delle donne were not limited to music : Torquato Tasso and G.B. Guarini wrote poems dedicated to the ladies in the concerto , some of which were later set by composers . Tasso wrote over seventy @-@ five poems to Peverara alone . Luzzaschi 's book of madrigals for one , two , and three sopranos with keyboard accompaniment , published in 1601 , comprises works written throughout the 1580s . This music may have been kept back from publication in order to maintain the secrecy of Alfonso 's musica secreta , and to maintain control over it . Newcomb considers this publication the exemplar of the ladies ' signature musical style . In 1584 , Alessandro Striggio , responding to requests from Francesco I de ' Medici , Grand Duke of Tuscany , described the ladies and composed pieces imitating their style so that Francesco could start his own concerto delle donne . Striggio mentioned an ornamented four voice madrigal for three sopranos and a dialogue with imitative diminutions for two sopranos . He added that he had forgotten the intabulation for the madrigal in Mantua , and noted that the skilled singer Giulio Caccini could play the bass part on either lute or harpsichord . This indicates both that male singers were probably not used after Brancaccio , and that instrumental accompaniments were a common and acceptable means of filling in the counterpoint . The output of the ducal printer , Baldini , consisted largely of music written for the concerto delle donne , including the works of the foremost madrigalists : Luzzaschi , Gesualdo , and Alfonso Fontanelli . His first publication for the Duke was Il lauro secco ( 1582 ) , which was followed by Il lauro verde ( 1583 ) , both containing music by the leading composers of Rome and Northern Italy . Music in honor of the concerto was printed as far away as Venice , with Paolo Virchi 's First Book à 5 , published by Giacomo Vincenti and Ricciardo Amadino containing the madrigal which begins SeGU 'ARINAscer LAURA e prenda LARCO / Amor soave e dolce / Ch 'ogni cor duro MOLCE . This capitalization is in the original , clearly spelling out the equivalent of the names Anna Guarini , Laura Peverara , Livia d 'Arco , and Tarquinia Molza . With the obvious exception of Brancaccio , all the singers in the concerto were female sopranos . Although the music written for the concerto focused on high voices , there is no evidence that the ensemble used either castrati or falsettists . This fact is surprising , considering that castrati were shortly to become the biggest stars of a new art form , opera . In 1607 , Monteverdi 's Orfeo featured four castrato roles out of a cast of nine , showing the new dominance of this vocal type . It also contrasts with Margherita 's father 's court , where Guglielmo Gonzaga actively sought out eunuchs . Polyphonic arrangements called for the women to sing diminutions ( melodic divisions of longer notes ) and other ornaments in consort . Diminutions were traditionally improvised in performance . However , to coordinate their voices , they transcribed and rehearsed the music in advance , transforming these improvisations into highly developed musical forms that composers would emulate . The singers may have used the more traditional practice in their solo repertoire , performing ornaments extemporaneously . Specific ornaments used by the concerto delle donne , mentioned in a source from 1581 , were such popular sixteenth @-@ century devices as passaggi ( division of a long note into many shorter notes , usually stepwise ) , cadenze ( decoration of the penultimate note , sometimes quite elaborate ) , and tirate ( rapid scales ) . Accenti ( connection of two longer notes , using dotted rhythms ) , a staple of early Baroque music , are absent from the list . In 1592 Caccini claimed that Alfonso II asked him to teach his ladies the new accenti and passaggi styles . = = = Styles = = = There are two separate styles of madrigals written for and inspired by the concerto delle donne . The first is the " luxuriant " style of the 1580s . The second is music in the style of the seconda pratica , written in the 1590s . Luzzaschi wrote music in both of these styles . The style of the earlier period , as exemplified in the works of Luzzaschi , involves the use of madrigal texts written by poets within the Ferrarese sphere , such as Tasso and G.B. Guarini . These poems tend to be short and witty with single sections . Musically , Luzzaschi 's works are highly sectionalized and based on melodic themes , rather than harmonic structures . Luzzaschi lessens the sectionalizing effect of his compositional techniques by weakening cadences . His tendency to reiterate melodies in different voices , including the bass voice , leads to tonal creations which are sometimes bewildering . These aspects make Luzzaschi 's music much more polyphonic than Monteverdi 's later compositions , and thus more conservative ; however , Luzzaschi 's use of jarring melodic leaps and harmonic dissonance are individualistic . These dissonances , which contrast sharply with the careful treatment of dissonance during most of the 16th century , is closely connected with the ornamented polyphonic madrigals of the concerto delle donne . In Giovanni Artusi 's socratic dialogue , the character defending Monteverdi connects haphazard treatment of dissonance with ornamental singing . = = = Performance = = = The concerto delle donne transformed the musica secreta . In the past , members of the audience would perform , and performers would become audience members . During the ascendancy of the concerto delle donne the roles within the musica secreta became fixed , as did the roster of those who performed for the Duke 's pleasure every night . The elite , hand @-@ selected audience members favored with admission to performances by the concerto delle donne demanded diversions and entertainment beyond the pleasures of beautiful music alone . During the concerts , members of the concerto 's audience would sometimes play cards . Orazio Urbani , ambassador of the Grand Duke of Tuscany , having waited several years to see the concerto , complained that he was forced not only to play cards , distracting him from the performance , but also simultaneously admire and praise the women 's music to their patron Alfonso . After at least one concert , to continue the entertainment , a dwarf couple danced . Alfonso was not as interested in these peripheral entertainments , and in one instance excused himself from the party to go sit under a tree to listen to the ladies , and follow along with the madrigal texts and musical scores , including embellishments , which were made available to listeners . = = Influence = = The concerto delle donne was a revolutionary musical establishment that helped effect a shift in women 's role in music ; its success took women from obscurity to " the apex of the profession " . Women were openly brought to court to train as professional musicians , and by 1600 , a woman could have a viable career as a musician , independent of her husband or father . New women 's ensembles inspired by the concerto delle donne resulted in more positions for women as professional singers and more music for them to perform . Despite the dissolution of the court in 1597 , the musical style which was inspired by the concerto delle donne spread throughout Europe , and remained prominent for almost fifty years . The concerto delle donne was so influential and often imitated that it became a cliché of northern Italian courts . The concerto brought Alfonso and his court international prestige , as the ladies ' reputation spread throughout Italy and southern Germany . It functioned as a powerful tool of propaganda , projecting an image of strength and affluence . Having seen the concerto delle donne in Ferrara , Caccini created a rival group made up of his family and a pupil . This ensemble was sponsored by the Medici , and traveled as far abroad as Paris to perform for Marie de ' Medici . Francesca Caccini had much success composing and singing in the style of the concerto delle donne . Beginning in 1585 , rival groups were created in Florence by the Medici , Rome by the Orsini , and Mantua by the Gonzaga . There was even a rival group in Ferrara based in the Castello Estense , the very palace where the concerto delle donne performed . This group was formed by Alfonso 's sister Lucrezia d 'Este , Duchess of Urbino . She had lived at the Este court since 1576 , and shortly after Margherita 's marriage to Alfonso in 1579 , Alfonso and his henchmen killed Lucrezia 's lover . Lucrezia was unhappy about being replaced as the matron of the house by Margherita , and upset by the murder of her lover , leading to her desire to be separate from the rest of her family during her evening entertainments . Barbara Strozzi was among the last composers and performers in this style , which by the mid @-@ seventeenth century was considered archaic .
= Hildegard von Krone = Hildegard von Krone ( ヒルデガルド・フォン・クローネ , Hirudegarudo fon Kurōne ) , Hilde ( ヒルダ , Hiruda ) / ˈhɪldɛ / for short , is a fictional character in the Soul series of video games . Created by Namco 's Project Soul division , she first appeared in Soulcalibur IV and its subsequent sequels , later appearing in various merchandise related to the series . She is voiced by Yūko Kaida in Japanese . A princess in the fictional European country of Wolfkrone , in Soulcalibur IV she finds her kingdom under attack by Nightmare and his forces . With her father driven insane , she takes control of the kingdom 's army and seeks to revive an ancient " Hero King " , Algol , in order to bring peace to the land . In Soulcalibur : Broken Destiny , the game 's Gauntlet storyline ( non @-@ canon ) revolves around her search for ingredients necessary to cure her father , interacting with various characters in the series . As a video game character , Hilde 's fighting style is unique to others in the Soul series , allowing players to " charge " attack command inputs to increase the strength of their offensive strikes . Since her introduction , IGN heavily praised the character , citing her gameplay and stating approval for the contrast of her design against other female characters in the series . Other sources stated similar , with some such as Edge and Game Informer describing her as the best new character introduced in the game or its predecessor , Soulcalibur III . = = Conception and design = = Hilde 's look derived from the development team 's desire to make a fully clothed " sexy " female character for Soulcalibur IV , and encasing her in armor as a result . Her characteristics and personality were developed after deciding what weapons she would use , a spear and short sword . While fully armored , they endeavored to keep her appearing feminine , shaping the appearance of the armor thus and giving " peeks " of her figure beneath it . When it was pointed out to lead animator Yusuke Shibata that her short sword and related attacks appeared to display her femininity , he agreed , though added that her spear was another matter entirely . After developing her appearance and character model , her backstory was developed by a team led by Yoshihiro Nakagawa , and during this process they worked out how to tie Hilde into the plot of the series . In interviews , Soulcalibur IV director Katsutoshi Sasaki has called Hilde " the ' most alluring ' " female character in the title , designed as an opposite to characters such as Ivy and characters that " always have their boobs popping out " . He added that he felt that as gaming became more accepted , characters similar to Hilde would become more common . Hilde appears as a slender woman with long , red hair . Her primary appearance encases her fully in form @-@ fitting body armor , with red and black fabric underneath . A wolf 's head , the character 's family symbol , extends from the right pauldron and covers her helmet 's visor , while the left pauldron is covered by red fabric , fastened to the center of her breastplate 's collar underneath a large brooch . Beneath the armor , a red coat covers her torso , the tail of which extends past her waist . Her alternate character design consists of a long , blue dress , extending to her feet and neck , exposing her shoulders and angled towards her right leg . White gloves , shoes , and stockings cover her arms and legs , while a darker colored sash surrounds her waist and midsection , also angled to the right . = = In video games = = Hilde is the daughter of the king of Wolfkrone , a fictional European kingdom under assault by series antagonist Nightmare 's forces . After her father was driven insane by the Evil Seed event brought upon by the cursed sword Soul Edge ( which took place seven years before the events of Soulcalibur IV ) , Hilde was forced to take the throne of Wolfkrone despite her young age . She took the responsibilities to protect her people and lead her armies in the front lines against Nightmare . As a desperate measure , Hilde seeks the Sword of Resurrection , Soul Calibur , to bring back an ancient king who once restored peace to the world . Eventually , both Nightmare and Soul Edge are destroyed for good by Soul Calibur , wielded by Hilde 's friend , Siegfried , thus ending the long @-@ term war . However , the Wolfkrone is still at turmoil , and Hilde must search for a new land for her people to settle . Throughout seventeen years , Hilde goes from nation to nation to search for territory , where she also become a mother of two children . Eventually , the Wolfkrone manages to find a land and live at peace , but Hilde is alarmed by Siegfried that an army of malfested have challenged wars upon the kingdom . Thus , Hilde allies herself with Siegfried 's group of mercenaries , Schwarzwind , to defend her kingdom , regardless of the possibility that she might lose her life in the process . In Soulcalibur : Broken Destiny 's Gauntlet storyline , a non @-@ canon side story set after the events of Soulcalibur IV , the plot revolves around Hilde and her ally Cassandra , who search for ingredients to develop a potion to cure Hilde 's father . To this end they force the protagonist to assist them , and later recruit another person , Dampierre , after Hilde is briefly kidnapped . = = = Gameplay = = = Sasaki described her fighting style as revolving around her dual weapons , comparing her to previous series character Cervantes but with the combination of her spear and short sword weapons allowing for both long distance and close @-@ quarters combat . Control of her weapons is mapped to different inputs from the player 's controller , allowing the attacks to be combined and create different horizontal and vertical strikes . However , as a result at long range Hilde 's attacks become limited to entirely linear strikes . Several of her attacks can also be " charged " by holding controller inputs , a feature unique in the series to the character . Doing so results in a stronger blow , but also creates a window of vulnerability due to the delay , negatable by performing the controller input during other attacks . Hilde 's strongest attack , Mystic Star and Moonlight Dance , can be triggered through this method and will be both unguardable and do a high amount of damage if they hit the opponent , though at the cost of a twenty @-@ five second delay while charging the attack . = = Promotion and reception = = Hilde is visible on both Soulcalibur IV arcade joysticks for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 . To explain the new features of Soulcalibur IV , Namco released an omake manga featuring Hilde and Cassandra . Written in a humorous tone , Cassandra , representing a veteran of the series , " taught " Hilde about the game 's features , while introducing the audience to aspects of Hilde 's character . Hilde was also featured in a promotional comic bundled with the North American release of Soulcalibur IV 's Premium Edition . Drawn by Udon Entertainment for DC Comics , it served as a prelude to the events of the game . IGN stated her armored appearance makes her more alluring , as well as commented on her gameplay . They additionally listed Hilde as one of the series ' top ten fighters at number ten . They cited her as a fierce opponent and " hell of a lot of fun to control " , adding " ... we tend to sit up and take notice when a new character shows promise ... we expect she 'll stick around for the long haul . " In a similar list , Complex enlisted the 20 best characters from the series , ranking her the 17th best character . Comparison was also made to the other female characters in the game such as Ivy , calling it a " stark contrast " . Additional praise was given in their review of Soulcalibur IV , stating an approval of her design combined with her personality , and a preference for her over the game 's unlockable characters . Other publications have also praised the character . Game Informer called her the best of any of the new characters introduced in either Soul Calibur III or IV . Edge described her as the best of the new characters in Soulcalibur IV , calling her fighting style a worthy rival to another series character , Kilik. iafrica.com described her as the " standout newcomer " of the title , describing her fighting style as unusual and " unwieldy to watch " , but easy to get into . Ars Technica also called her a standout addition to the game , describing her fighting style as good for skilled players . Good Game described her as an interesting character , and further named her " the hottest [ ... ] girl in the game " . Shacknews stated that her combination of close and long range attacks made for " a refreshingly dynamic fighting style " . Topless Robot named her one of the " 11 Most Dignified Videogame Heroines " , suggesting that her presence in the game was added to offset the other female characters and praising the lack of " ridiculous romantic contrivances " in her character background . Neoseeker praised her design an " unbelievably awesome outfit " , adding that despite the lack of exposed skin , " she will win you over " . GameDaily featured her as one of their " Babes of the Week " , stating approval for her contrast to the other females , and praised the contrast of her fighting style to other characters in the series .
= Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis = Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis , known in Japan as Biohazard 3 : Last Escape , is a survival horror video game developed by Capcom and originally released for the PlayStation video game console in 1999 . It is the third installment in the Resident Evil video game series and takes place before and after the events of Resident Evil 2 . The story of the game follows Resident Evil protagonist Jill Valentine and her efforts to escape from a city that has been infected with a new type of biological weapon secretly developed by the pharmaceutical company Umbrella . The game uses the same engine as its predecessors and features 3D models over pre @-@ rendered backgrounds with fixed camera angles . Unlike previous Resident Evil games , Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis was designed to have more action @-@ oriented gameplay . It features a larger number of enemies for the player to defeat and introduces the eponymous Nemesis creature , which periodically pursues the player from one area to the next until the end of the game . The game was a critical and commercial success , selling more than three million units worldwide . Most critics praised the graphics for being detailed and the Nemesis creature as an intimidating villain , but some criticized the game 's short length and story . After its release on the PlayStation console , Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis was subsequently ported to the Dreamcast , Microsoft Windows and GameCube systems . = = Gameplay = = Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis is a survival horror game where the player controls the protagonist Jill Valentine from a third @-@ person perspective to interact with the environment and enemies . Aside from Jill , the player takes control of another character for a brief portion of the game . To advance through the game , the player has to explore a city while avoiding , outsmarting and defeating various types of enemies . The player can interact with the environment in several ways , such as opening doors , pushing objects or climbing obstacles . Scattered throughout the city are weapons , ammunition and other items , which can be collected and put in the player 's inventory . Items can be examined , used , or combined with others . The inventory is limited to a certain number of slots , and the player must often move items from the inventory to a storage box located in special rooms to manage space . The player can use a variety of firearms to defeat enemies , ranging from pistols to a rocket launcher . Aside from enemies , parts of the environment , such as explosive barrels , can be targeted and shot at , causing them to explode and damage nearby enemies . The game also introduces the ability for players to dodge attacks or perform a quick 180 degree turn to evade enemies . The player has a certain amount of health which decreases when attacked by enemies . Health is regained with herbs , which can be used separately or mixed together to increase their healing effect . The game also features an ammunition creation system that allows players to create new ammunition from different varieties of gunpowder . In addition to engaging in combat , the player must often solve puzzles that focus on logical and conceptual challenges . During certain situations the player will be put in a perilous situation , where they will be prompted to choose between two possible actions or suffer a certain penalty , if not instant death . These choices affect how the story unfolds and which ending is achieved . Additionally , a creature called Nemesis is encountered multiple times throughout the game as a recurring boss . Nemesis is considerably more powerful than the player and has the ability to use a rocket launcher as a weapon , dodge incoming fire , and pursue the player from one area to the next . During one of these encounters , the player can choose to either fight Nemesis or run until he is evaded . A variety of encounters are possible , with some being mandatory , and some varying in nature and location based on certain choices made by the player . Even if evaded or defeated during one of these encounters , Nemesis will inevitably continue to pursue the player until the end of the game . Upon completing the main story mode , a minigame titled " The Mercenaries : Operation Mad Jackal " is unlocked . In Mad Jackal , the player must control one of three members of the Umbrella Biohazard Countermeasure Service that Jill encounters during the main game and run from one side of the city to the other within a limited amount of time and resources . However , the starting time limit given is insufficient to actually perform this task directly , and the player must continuously receive time extensions by performing certain actions such as defeating enemies , rescuing civilians and exploring hidden areas . Completing the main game also unlocks alternate costumes for Jill and epilogue files that detail the activities of different characters following the events of the game . The mercenaries minigame and alternate costumes for Jill are available from the start of the game in the Microsoft Windows and Dreamcast versions of the game . = = Plot = = Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis begins 24 hours prior to the events of Resident Evil 2 . Jill Valentine , a former Special Tactics And Rescue Service ( S.T.A.R.S. ) member , attempts to escape from Raccoon City . Nearly all of Raccoon City 's citizens have been transformed into zombies by an outbreak of the T @-@ virus , a new type of biological weapon secretly developed by the pharmaceutical company Umbrella . On her way to the Raccoon City Police Department , Jill runs into fellow team member Brad Vickers , who is killed by a new enemy . This creature , named Nemesis , is a bio @-@ organic weapon programmed to target surviving S.T.A.R.S. members , witnesses of Umbrella 's experiments . As she evades Nemesis , Jill encounters three surviving members of the Umbrella Biohazard Countermeasure Service ( U.B.C.S. ) : Carlos Oliveira , Mikhail Victor and Nicholai Ginovaef . Nicholai explains to Jill and Carlos that a rescue helicopter can be contacted if they manage to reach the city 's Clock Tower and ring the bell . As they make their way to the tower , Nicholai disappears and is presumed dead , while Nemesis corners the remaining members of the group on the cable car headed to the tower . Mikhail sacrifices himself with a grenade , causing the car to crash into the tower 's main courtyard and separating Jill and Carlos briefly . At the Clock Tower , Jill summons the helicopter by ringing the Clock Tower 's bell before being confronted by Nemesis , which destroys the helicopter and infects Jill with the T @-@ virus . Jill manages to temporarily defeat Nemesis but falls unconscious due to the T @-@ Virus . Carlos finds Jill and takes her to safety within the Clock Tower . Three days later , he manages to find a cure for Jill 's T @-@ Virus infection in the Raccoon City General Hospital . He returns to Jill and injects her with a vaccine , saving her . After she regains consciousness , Jill proceeds towards the Raccoon Park and enters the park caretaker 's cabin . There , she runs into Nicholai , who is alive . Nicholai is revealed to be one of the " supervisors " sent into Raccoon City to gather combat data of Umbrella 's bio @-@ weapons . Nicholai retreats , and Jill is confronted by a massive worm @-@ like creature . Jill defeats the creature and escapes to an abandoned factory at the rear of the park . Inside the factory , Jill meets up with Carlos , who tells her that the US government is planning to launch a nuclear missile into Raccoon City to eradicate the T @-@ Virus infestation . After confronting Nemesis and grabbing a keycard needed to escape , Jill learns from the factory 's control tower that the missile attack on Raccoon City has begun , with only a short time left before the city is destroyed . Depending on the path taken by the player , Jill 's final encounter with Nicholai will differ . In one version of the events , Nicholai will attempt to start a gunfight with Jill , only to be taken by surprise by Nemesis . In another event , Nicholai will hijack Jill 's intended escape chopper , and the player must choose to either reason with Nicholai or destroy the helicopter . If Jill negotiates with Nicholai , he reveals that he has killed the other supervisors and boasts about collecting the bounty placed on Jill by Umbrella before escaping . Regardless of Nicholai 's fate , Jill makes her way to the rear yard and confronts Nemesis one last time . After an intense battle , Jill defeats Nemesis with the help of a prototype railgun before meeting up with Carlos and escaping the city via a helicopter . If the previous escape chopper was stolen by Nicholai , Jill and Carlos will instead meet up with S.T.A.R.S. Alpha Team 's weapons specialist Barry Burton , who helps them escape in his own helicopter instead . The final cutscene of the game shows the nuclear missile vaporizing the Raccoon City and its infected populace . = = Development = = Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis was developed by Capcom and produced by Shinji Mikami , who previously worked on the original Resident Evil and Resident Evil 2 . After the release of Resident Evil 2 , Capcom was working on multiple Resident Evil projects and had a team led by Hideki Kamiya developing what was planned to be the next main installment in the Resident Evil series . According to Resident Evil 3 scenario writer Yasuhisa Kawamura , the intended game " was loosely set on a luxury cruise liner and had a general plot where HUNK was attempting to bring back a sample of the G @-@ Virus " featured in Resident Evil 2 . However , Capcom realised that the game would not be completed in time for a PlayStation release due to Sony 's announcement of the PlayStation 2 , so the project was ultimately cancelled . As Capcom did not want fans to wait some years for a new game , the company promoted one of its other projects as the third main canonical game while Kamiya 's team was moved onto developing Resident Evil 4 . The selected project was a spin @-@ off that was being developed by an inexperienced team under director Kazuhiro Aoyama . The spin @-@ off was originally intended to introduce a new character who would have to escape from an infected Raccoon City . However , after the promotion , Capcom decided that Resident Evil protagonist Jill Valentine would be the main character and Raccoon City would be destroyed . Unlike the majority of the early scripts in the series , the scenario of the game was not created by Capcom 's Flagship studio but by internal Capcom writer Yasuhisa Kawamura , who had very little experience with the Resident Evil series at the time . Kawamura noted that he had to play the original game to familiarize himself with the series ' fictional universe immediately . Nevertheless , the story was proofread and sanctioned by Flagship to avoid continuity errors with other installments in the series , an issue that was also given attention in monthly meetings between all directors and producers . Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis uses the same game engine as its predecessors . The environments consist of 2D pre @-@ rendered backgrounds while moving objects such as enemies and some interactive elements consist of 3D polygon graphics . The developers chose this technique because having full 3D graphics would not allow them to create graphically rich and detailed environments . According to project supervisor Yoshiki Okamoto , " the number of polygons allocated for the enemies would not be sufficient . We did not want to have blocky , pixelated zombies . " Interaction with the environment was improved so that the player could shoot objects like explosive barrels to damage enemies . Developers also added more variety of zombies , who can take the form of policemen , doctors , and ordinary citizens , among others . Unlike previous Resident Evil games , which take place inside buildings , Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis takes place in Raccoon City . The developers noted that the city setting allowed them to create more varied environments . Capcom also decided to give the game a more action @-@ oriented style , which resulted in the 180 @-@ degree turn and the introduction of a dodge feature so that the player can avoid enemy attacks . Additionally , the developers designed the game so that up to nine enemies can appear at the same time and improved their artificial intelligence to hunt the player up and down stairs . The eponymous Nemesis creature was inspired by the liquid @-@ metal T @-@ 1000 Terminator from Terminator 2 : Judgment Day . According to Mikami , " I wanted to introduce a new kind of fear into the game , a persistent feeling of paranoia . The Nemesis brings that on in spades . When it disappears after the first confrontation , you live in constant dread of the next attack . The idea is to make you feel like you 're being stalked . " The game was developed in tandem with the Dreamcast version of Resident Evil Code : Veronica and was originally referred to as Biohazard 1 @.@ 9 due to its setting between the first two Resident Evil games , although the codename Biohazard 1 @.@ 5 was also used . Although Code : Veronica takes place after Resident Evil 2 , Okamoto explained that Capcom wanted Nemesis to be the third numbered game in the series to keep the titles of the PlayStation games consistent . Development of the game began with a team of 20 people . However , as the game was getting closer to its release date , the development team gradually increased to between 40 and 50 staff members . Unlike Resident Evil 2 , which features two discs with two different protagonists , Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis is a single @-@ CD game that centers mainly on Jill Valentine . Capcom chose Jill as the protagonist of the game because she was " the only suitable character remaining " , noting that Resident Evil protagonists Claire Redfield and Chris Redfield were previously chosen for Code : Veronica . = = Marketing and release = = Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis was featured at the Tokyo Game Show in March 1999 . A playable version of the game was available at the Electronic Entertainment Expo in 1999 . At the time , the dodging feature had not been completed and was absent from the demo . To promote the game , Capcom included a brief demo of Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis in the US shipments of their earlier game Dino Crisis , which had a successful launch in Japan . Prior to the release of the game , Capcom spent US $ 20 million on advertisement campaigns for Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis and Dino Crisis , as well as the Nintendo 64 version of Resident Evil 2 . The marketing campaign included dedicated television advertising , print advertising , and incentives to the consumer . A double soundtrack album for the game , composed by Masami Ueda , Saori Maeda and Shusaku Uchiyama , was released on September 22 , 1999 . Additionally , a novelization of the game titled Nemesis and written by S. D. Perry was published in 2000 . Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis was first released for the PlayStation video game console on September 22 , 1999 in Japan and November 10 , 1999 in North America . The first 500 @,@ 000 units of the game included additional demo discs of Dino Crisis . According to NPD , Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis was the top selling game for the PlayStation in the US during the first two weeks of November 1999 . The game was eventually released on March 17 , 2000 in Europe and became a bestseller in the UK . As of May 2008 , a total of 3 @.@ 5 million copies of the PlayStation version had been sold according to Capcom . After its original release on the PlayStation , Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis was subsequently ported to the Microsoft Windows , Dreamcast , and GameCube systems , featuring enhanced 3D character models and higher resolution graphics . As of November 2003 , 41 @,@ 395 copies of the GameCube version had been sold in the US . Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis was digitally released on the PlayStation Network in Japan in 2008 and North America in 2009 , allowing PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable users to play any version of the game via emulation . = = Reception = = Upon release , the original PlayStation version of Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis received very positive reviews from video game critics . GameSpot reviewer James Mielke described it as the most sophisticated and accomplished Resident Evil game for the PlayStation console in terms of both graphics and gameplay . Official UK PlayStation Magazine called Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis " a modern @-@ day classic " , concluding that the game " creates a believable environment , populates it with a host of evil adversaries and uses Raccoon City 's urban sprawl to enhance the friendish puzzles . " Computer and Video Games remarked that the game preserves the best features of its predecessors and " adds some exciting new elements " . The game 's pre @-@ rendered backgrounds were credited for their rich details and dismal art style . According to IGN editor Doug Perry , " Crashed cars , rubbish and rubble , totally destroyed city streets , and scattered broken glass and debris , all are housed in a suburban area that truly looks devastated in the worst possible way . " GameSpot felt that the 3D modeling of the protagonist Jill Valentine " [ looks ] light years ahead of the comparatively blocky models in the original game . " The music and sound effects received similar praise , with GamePro remarking that the game " keeps the action hot by hiding what you shouldn 't see , but telling you about it through the audio . " The introduction of the Nemesis creature was highly praised . Official UK PlayStation Magazine described the first encounter as shocking , while Computer and Video Games observed that the creature increases the tension level " to an insane degree ; you never know when he 's going to show up and cause mayhem . " GameSpot highlighted positively the prompted choices during certain points in the game as they encourage replay value , but also admitted that the game length is too short compared to Resident Evil 2 because it only features one disc with one protagonist . IGN praised the live action choice feature , stating that it " speeds up the pace , increases the tension , and forces a decision that varies the following scene . " Writing for GameCritics , Dale Weir felt that the fact that players can mix different types of gunpowder to create ammunition adds a new layer of strategy and customizability to the game . Both the 180 degree turn and dodge move were seen by IGN as welcome and necessary additions . In contrast , Official US PlayStation Magazine criticized the dodge feature for being impractical and for relying too much on timing , resulting in doing more harm to the player than against opponents . Other aspects of the game were not positively received : Official US PlayStation Magazine criticized the story of the game for being lacking , while Game Revolution pointed out that the voice acting was poor . The game was a runner up for GameSpot 's 1999 Adventure Game of the Year . Critical reception for the Microsoft Windows , Dreamcast , and GameCube ports of the game was not as positive . Writing for GameSpot , Ron Dulin criticized the saving system of the Microsoft Windows version for not letting players save their progress at any time , but found the higher resolution backgrounds and 3D character models praiseworthy . IGN stated similar pros for the Dreamcast version of the game , but noted that some backgrounds were not improved , resulting in them looking not as good as the PlayStation version 's due to the Dreamcast 's clearer and sharper graphics . The GameCube version , released more than three years later than the original PlayStation version , received mixed to negative reviews from critics . It was mainly criticized for its relatively high retail price and outdated graphics .
= Hermética = Hermética was an Argentine thrash metal band from San Martín , Buenos Aires . It was formed by bassist Ricardo Iorio in 1987 after his previous band V8 disbanded . Hermética was signed to the independent record label Radio Trípoli Discos throughout their career . The band 's initial lineup consisted of Iorio , vocalist Claudio O 'Connor , drummer Fabián Spataro and guitarist Antonio Romano . Spataro left the band in 1988 and was replaced by Antonio Scotto . This lineup recorded their eponymous album , the first thrash metal album recorded in Argentina . At this point of their career , Hermética performed mainly in Argentina , except for one concert held in Uruguay . In 1990 , they released Intérpretes — an extended play which included covers of Argentine rock and tango songs . Both albums were released by Radio Trípoli Discos as a single CD when digital technology became available . Scotto left the band in 1991 and was replaced by drummer Claudio Strunz . This lineup recorded the band 's second studio album , Ácido Argentino . Hermética opened for Black Sabbath and Motörhead during their visits to Argentina , but had to cancel their headlining tour in Paraguay . They recorded a live album , En vivo 1993 Argentina , and took part in a concert at a penal facility . They participated in the first Argentine Monsters of Rock festival , which featured Black Sabbath , Slayer , and Kiss . Their last studio album , Víctimas del Vaciamiento , was released in 1994 . To promote the album , the group held a concert at the Obras Sanitarias stadium later that year . Hermética disbanded at the end of 1994 , a few days before their second concert in Obras . Ricardo Iorio , who performed lead vocals on a number of tracks , formed a new band Almafuerte and served as its vocalist . The remaining ex @-@ members of Hermética hired a new bassist and created the band Malón . Both bands began a mutual rivalry after their respective establishment . = = History = = = = = Early years and Hermética ( 1987 – 1989 ) = = = Ricardo Iorio was the frontman and bassist of the band V8 , which broke up in 1987 . After its disbandment , Iorio formed Hermética , which had a similar musical style to V8 . Initially , he tried to work with Martín Knye , a former member of Kamikaze , but after two meetings , the idea was abandoned . Iorio then appointed the guitarist Antonio Romano from the band Cerbero , who had been previously considered for V8 . Iorio wanted Romano to be both a vocalist and bassist , but his manager Marcelo Tommy persuaded Iorio to hire someone else . Iorio eventually chose Claudio O 'Connor for vocals and Fabián Spataro from the band Mark as drummer . They began to practice at Villa Ballester in 1987 . The name of the band is a reference to hermeticism ; Iorio saw similarities between the hermetic doctrine and the context of the Argentine heavy metal . The first songs composed by Iorio were " Sepulcro Civil " , " Masa Anestesiada " , and " Cráneo Candente " . The band 's first show was in a pub called " Helloween " in San Martín , on May 7 , 1988 . Although Horcas had been established before Hermética by Osvaldo Civile — a fellow member of V8 — Hermética was the first of the two bands to perform a live concert . Spataro left the band in 1988 because of a labor dispute . He was replaced by drummer Tony Scotto , who was introduced by friends of the band . He performed his first concert with the band in August at the " Sáenz Peña " club — where Spataro played for the last time . The fanzine Zote organized a free concert at the main plaza of Lomas de Zamora , but it was canceled because of the failed military uprising of the Carapintadas insurgents . Hermética made regular appearances at the Arlequines theater in San Telmo in 1989 . They were the first heavy metal band to play there . They performed with the bands Doppler , 666 , Militia , Genocidio , Ultraje , Cross , Legión , and Devastación . Hermética wanted to record their first album but the national economic crisis had a negative impact on the project . The fanzine " Rebellion Rock " proposed an independent production , which would be sold at Parque Centenario , but the band rejected this offer . They also rejected working for EMI and instead signed for a new label , Radio Trípoli Discos . They signed a contract in May 1989 , and two months later the band began to record the LP at the Sonovisión studios . The eponymous album Hermética was released in November 1989 . It was the first thrash metal album to be recorded in Argentina . Ricardo Iorio made his debut as lead vocalist on the song " Desde el Oeste " . Hermética performed a concert in Córdoba , with the band Hammer . Alberto Zamarbide , a former singer with V8 , made a guest appearance during a concert in Mataderos . Hermética ended the year by performing two concerts with Pappo 's new band Pappo & The Widowmakers . = = = Intérpretes and Ácido Argentino ( 1990 – 1992 ) = = = Hermética performed their only concert outside of Argentina in the early 1990s at the " Club Platense " in Montevideo , Uruguay . They played with Retrosatán and Alvacast , — two bands from Uruguay . Hermética had to spend the night in the street because of the faulty Uruguayan production . Once they returned to Argentina , they performed at several locations in Buenos Aires and in Mar del Plata with Divididos , Los Violadores , Arácnido and Rata Blanca . They were offered a chance to record an EP with only 27 hours of recording time . They accepted the proposal , and recorded improvised cover versions of songs by V8 , Patricio Rey y sus Redonditos de Ricota , Enrique Santos Discépolo , Motörhead , and Manal . Iorio , a fan of a band called Budgie , made deliberate similarities to Metallica 's cover EP , The $ 5 @.@ 98 E.P. : Garage Days Re @-@ Revisited — which included a cover version of a song by that band . Hermética performed at the " Metal en acción " festival at the José Amalfitani stadium , sharing the bill with 2112 , Lethal , Horcas , Kamikaze , Alakran , and Riff . The band searched for a new concert venue because the Arlequines was becoming too small for their growing audience . They moved to Cemento , where most of the 1991 concerts took place . They played with the bands Todos tus muertos , Pobres pibes , Nepal , Militia , Devastación , Rapier , and Resistencia Nativa . Their albums Hermética and Intérpretes — which had been released as LP records and cassettes , were released by Tripoli on a single compact disc . Tony Scotto left the band because of creative differences and was replaced by Claudio Strunz . Strunz , drummer of the band Heinkel and owner of Hermética 's rehearsal room , had already played with the band during practice sessions when Scotto was absent . He made his debut at Sunchales . The band appeared in two television programs , La movida del ' 90 and Siglo XX Cambalache and recorded their second full @-@ length album , Ácido Argentino , with 150 hours of recording time at the Aguilar studios . It was released at Cemento on December 27 . Following an avalanche at San Carlos Minas in January 1992 , Hermética joined a charity music festival held at the Chateau Carreras stadium . Hermética played only a few songs at a concert with Riff — the headline band — , which ended with minor riots . Hermética were the opening act for Black Sabbath at Obras Sanitarias ; Black Sabbath 's frontman Ronnie James Dio thanked the band for playing with them . The band leased 25 % of the copyright of their songs to Daniel Grinbank , the businessman who brought rock bands to Argentina to play with Black Sabbath . In October 1992 , they were the supporting band for Motörhead in Obras . They were offered a concert in Paraguay , but once in the country the show 's producers tried to pay less money than had been agreed . Unable to find an alternative location , the band refused to play and returned to Argentina . = = = Live albums and Víctimas del Vaciamiento ( 1993 – 1994 ) = = = Hermética toured Patagonia at the beginning of 1993 . In March that year , Ácido Argentino was certified gold by the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers ( CAPIF ) , having shipped 30 @,@ 000 copies in Argentina . Tripoli invited them to produce a new studio album in Miami or Los Ángeles but the band refused , preferring to stay in Argentina . Hermética was scheduled to support Megadeth , but their guitarist / vocalist Dave Mustaine had health problems which forced the band to cancel the concert . They received proposals to play with Metallica , but rejected the required terms of the contract . After touring in Rosario and Greater Buenos Aires , Hermética performed their first concert in Buenos Aires on May 15 , 1993 , at Stadium , a new concert hall with a capacity of 5 @,@ 000 . They recorded the live album En vivo 1993 Argentina and a home video . The album included a heavy metal cover version of " Si se calla el cantor " , a song first recorded by folk singer José Larralde . This album ended the contract with Radio Trípoli , which was renewed . Hermética performed at the Olmos penal facility on August 17 , along with Lethal , A.N.I.M.A.L. , Massacre , Attaque 77 , Pilsen and the British UK Subs . The concert was presented by the radio host Norberto Verea , and was recorded and released on a live CD named " Radio Olmos " . The band performed another concert at Stadium on September 4 , and began to produce their third studio album . Hermética was part of the 1994 edition of the Monsters of Rock festival in Buenos Aires , alongside Black Sabbath , Slayer , and Kiss . Shortly after , they released their third studio album , Víctimas del Vaciamiento . As the Stadium 's hall was not big enough to accommodate the audience , they held a concert at Estadio Obras Sanitarias . Hermética recorded their performance and released it as a live album titled Lo último . Meanwhile , their newest studio album received gold certification . The band recorded a cover version of a folk song , " De los pagos del tiempo " , also by Larralde . The band had received proposals to play at Obras the previous year , which the accepted with the condition that they would organize it themselves . = = = Disbandment = = = Hermética 's last concert was held in Mar del Plata . Their second concert in Obras was canceled ; rumors that Iorio had contracted hepatitis B turned out to be false . The other members sent him a formal request to attend the concert but Iorio refused and the band broke up . Iorio did not attend any meeting since then and ordered the other band members to stop using the name Hermética , which Iorio had invented . Iorio gave his first interviews after the break @-@ up to the Clarín newspaper and the other members to the music magazine Madhouse . Iorio said that the band had always been united , but few weeks before their final concert , the members were not talking to each other . He said he had lied about having hepatitis B , expecting to end the hostilities , but it did not work . Iorio flew from Mar del Plata to Buenos Aires to avoid seeing the other members , who returned by bus . O 'Connor , Romano , and Strunz stated in Madhouse magazine that the harsh relation was because Iorio had not consulted the others about the decisions he was making , that he received most of the money , and that he avoided meeting them when they were discussing the problems in the band . The concert in Obras was filmed and released as a live album . The first edition was released under the name Lo Último with a black front @-@ cover ; it was edited in studio to match the quality of a regular studio CD . It was later reissued as a double album titled " En Concierto " ; this version was not edited in the studio and reinstated the raw sound of the band 's live performance . Ricardo Iorio started a new band , Almafuerte , with guitarist Claudio Marciello and drummer Claudio Cardacci . Iorio took lead vocal duties and included covers of Hermética and V8 songs in his new band 's repertoire . O 'Connor , Romano , and Strunz hired a new bassist , Karlos Cuadrado , and formed the band Malón . The bands became rivals ; Hermética 's popularity was inherited by both bands . A 1995 poll among readers of Madhouse was led by members or works of both bands in all national categories . Hermética remained a popular band in the Argentine heavy metal scene , even among the younger fans who had never seen the band live . Since their disbandment , the band 's members have not attempted any reunion . At the 2011 reunion of Malón , Claudio O 'Connor said that their personal conflicts with Iorio would not allow it and that they would not reunite the band if the four members do not have a good personal relationship . = = Style and lyrics = = Hermética was a thrash metal band , drawing influences from Motörhead , Megadeth , and Black Sabbath . Their music was composed primarily by bassist Ricardo Iorio with occasional input from guitarist Antonio Romano , who composed the guitar solos . The band used a counterpoint between the singing styles of their two vocalists ; lead singer Claudio O 'Connor 's vocals were high pitched , while Iorio had a raucous style of singing . Iorio sang segments of some songs but rarely performed songs in their entirety . Iorio thought that his singing style in Hermética was inferior to his later work with Almafuerte because the songs had not been composed specifically for him . The success of Hermética 's second studio album Ácido Argentino allowed the band to increase the budget for the production of its follow @-@ up , Víctimas del Vaciamiento . Iorio proposed re @-@ recording the band 's first album with drummer Claudio Strunz and a higher budget , but the label refused his proposal . The musical style of Hermética was considered to be " old @-@ fashioned " . The band achieved success as a result of their introspective lyrics . Unlike most heavy metal bands , Hermética 's music was appealing to poor people . Iorio wrote about his thoughts and concerns from a personal perspective . He stated that some of his lyrics were inspired by 1940s Argentine tango music . Hermética was part of the Rock chabón movement within Argentine rock ; their music was influenced by Argentine nationalism , family values and neighbourhood @-@ centered localism . Iorio said that he does not support racism or fascism . The lyrics , except for covers , were always written in Spanish because Iorio does not approve of artists who write in English to gain foreign audience . The first two albums addressed a variety of topics ; the track " Memoria de siglos " ( " Memory of centuries " ) references the cult of personality , buck passing , peace through strength , and wage slavery . Each song from their third album is devoted to a different subject . = = Members = = = = = Last line @-@ up = = = Ricardo Iorio - bass guitar , occasional vocalist ( 1987 – 1994 ) Antonio Romano - guitar ( 1987 – 1994 ) Claudio O 'Connor - lead vocals ( 1987 – 1994 ) Claudio Strunz - drums ( 1991 – 1994 ) = = = Former members = = = Fabián Spataro - drums ( 1987 – 1988 ) Antonio Scotto - drums ( 1988 – 1991 ) = = Discography = = = = = Studio albums = = = Hermética ( 1989 ) Intérpretes ( 1990 ) Ácido Argentino ( 1991 ) Víctimas del Vaciamiento ( 1994 ) = = = Live albums = = = En vivo 1993 Argentina ( 1993 ) Lo último / En Concierto Parte I & II ( 1995 ) = = = VHS = = = En Vivo 1993 ( 1993 ) = = = Compilation albums = = = Sentimiento Argentino ( 1998 )
= Charles Darwin = Charles Robert Darwin , FRS FRGS FLS FZS ( / ˈdɑːrwɪn / ; 12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882 ) was an English naturalist and geologist , best known for his contributions to the science of evolution . He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors , and in a joint publication with Alfred Russel Wallace introduced his scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection , in which the struggle for existence has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in selective breeding . Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species , overcoming scientific rejection of earlier concepts of transmutation of species . By the 1870s , the scientific community and much of the general public had accepted evolution as a fact . However , many favoured competing explanations and it was not until the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the 1950s that a broad consensus developed in which natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution . In modified form , Darwin 's scientific discovery is the unifying theory of the life sciences , explaining the diversity of life . Darwin 's early interest in nature led him to neglect his medical education at the University of Edinburgh ; instead , he helped to investigate marine invertebrates . Studies at the University of Cambridge ( Christ 's College ) encouraged his passion for natural science . His five @-@ year voyage on HMS Beagle established him as an eminent geologist whose observations and theories supported Charles Lyell 's uniformitarian ideas , and publication of his journal of the voyage made him famous as a popular author . Puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage , Darwin began detailed investigations and in 1838 conceived his theory of natural selection . Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists , he needed time for extensive research and his geological work had priority . He was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay that described the same idea , prompting immediate joint publication of both of their theories . Darwin 's work established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature . In 1871 he examined human evolution and sexual selection in The Descent of Man , and Selection in Relation to Sex , followed by The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals . His research on plants was published in a series of books , and in his final book , The Formation of Vegetable Mould , through the Actions of Worms ( published 1881 ) , he examined earthworms and their effect on soil . Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history ; and was honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey . = = Biography = = = = = Early life and education = = = Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury , Shropshire , England , on 12 February 1809 at his family 's home , The Mount . He was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier Robert Darwin , and of Susannah Darwin ( née Wedgwood ) . He was the grandson of two prominent abolitionists : Erasmus Darwin on his father 's side , and Josiah Wedgwood on his mother 's side . Both families were largely Unitarian , though the Wedgwoods were adopting Anglicanism . Robert Darwin , himself quietly a freethinker , had baby Charles baptised in November 1809 in the Anglican St Chad 's Church , Shrewsbury , but Charles and his siblings attended the Unitarian chapel with their mother . The eight @-@ year @-@ old Charles already had a taste for natural history and collecting when he joined the day school run by its preacher in 1817 . That July , his mother died . From September 1818 , he joined his older brother Erasmus attending the nearby Anglican Shrewsbury School as a boarder . Darwin spent the summer of 1825 as an apprentice doctor , helping his father treat the poor of Shropshire , before going to the University of Edinburgh Medical School ( at the time the best medical school in the UK ) with his brother Erasmus in October 1825 . He found lectures dull and surgery distressing , so neglected his studies . He learned taxidermy in around 40 daily hour @-@ long sessions from John Edmonstone , a freed black slave who had accompanied Charles Waterton in the South American rainforest . In Darwin 's second year at the university he joined the Plinian Society , a student natural @-@ history group featuring lively debates in which radical democratic students with materialistic views challenged orthodox religious concepts of science . He assisted Robert Edmond Grant 's investigations of the anatomy and life cycle of marine invertebrates in the Firth of Forth , and on 27 March 1827 presented at the Plinian his own discovery that black spores found in oyster shells were the eggs of a skate leech . One day , Grant praised Lamarck 's evolutionary ideas . Darwin was astonished by Grant 's audacity , but had recently read similar ideas in his grandfather Erasmus ' journals . Darwin was rather bored by Robert Jameson 's natural @-@ history course , which covered geology - including the debate between Neptunism and Plutonism . He learned the classification of plants , and assisted with work on the collections of the University Museum , one of the largest museums in Europe at the time . Darwin 's neglect of medical studies annoyed his father , who shrewdly sent him to Christ 's College , Cambridge , to study for a Bachelor of Arts degree as the first step towards becoming an Anglican parson . As Darwin was unqualified for the Tripos , he joined the ordinary degree course in January 1828 . He preferred riding and shooting to studying . His cousin William Darwin Fox introduced him to the popular craze for beetle collecting ; Darwin pursued this zealously , getting some of his finds published in Stevens ' Illustrations of British entomology . He became a close friend and follower of botany professor John Stevens Henslow and met other leading parson @-@ naturalists who saw scientific work as religious natural theology , becoming known to these dons as " the man who walks with Henslow " . When his own exams drew near , Darwin focused on his studies and was delighted by the language and logic of William Paley 's Evidences of Christianity ( 1794 ) . In his final examination in January 1831 Darwin did well , coming tenth out of 178 candidates for the ordinary degree . Darwin had to stay at Cambridge until June 1831 . He studied Paley 's Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity ( first published in 1802 ) , which made an argument for divine design in nature , explaining adaptation as God acting through laws of nature . He read John Herschel 's new book , Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy ( 1831 ) , which described the highest aim of natural philosophy as understanding such laws through inductive reasoning based on observation , and Alexander von Humboldt 's Personal Narrative of scientific travels in 1799 @-@ 1804 . Inspired with " a burning zeal " to contribute , Darwin planned to visit Tenerife with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics . In preparation , he joined Adam Sedgwick 's geology course , then travelled with him in the summer for a fortnight , in order to map strata in Wales . = = = Voyage of the Beagle = = = After a week with student friends at Barmouth , Darwin returned home on 29 August to find a letter from Henslow proposing him as a suitable ( if unfinished ) gentleman naturalist for a self @-@ funded supernumerary place on HMS Beagle with captain Robert FitzRoy , more as a companion than a mere collector . The ship was to leave in four weeks on an expedition to chart the coastline of South America . Robert Darwin objected to his son 's planned two @-@ year voyage , regarding it as a waste of time , but was persuaded by his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Josiah Wedgwood , to agree to ( and fund ) his son 's participation . Darwin took care to remain in a private capacity to retain control over his collection : the ship 's surgeon Robert McCormick expected to be the official naturalist . After delays , the voyage began on 27 December 1831 ; it lasted almost five years . As FitzRoy had intended , Darwin spent most of that time on land investigating geology and making natural history collections , while the Beagle surveyed and charted coasts . He kept careful notes of his observations and theoretical speculations , and at intervals during the voyage his specimens were sent to Cambridge together with letters including a copy of his journal for his family . He had some expertise in geology , beetle collecting and dissecting marine invertebrates , but in all other areas was a novice and ably collected specimens for expert appraisal . Despite suffering badly from seasickness , Darwin wrote copious notes while on board the ship . Most of his zoology notes are about marine invertebrates , starting with plankton collected in a calm spell . On their first stop ashore at St Jago in Cape Verde , Darwin found that a white band high in the volcanic rock cliffs included seashells . FitzRoy had given him the first volume of Charles Lyell 's Principles of Geology , which set out uniformitarian concepts of land slowly rising or falling over immense periods , and Darwin saw things Lyell 's way , theorising and thinking of writing a book on geology . When they reached Brazil , Darwin was delighted by the tropical forest , but detested the sight of slavery . McCormick left the ship at this point , feeling that Darwin had supplanted him as naturalist . The survey continued to the south in Patagonia . They stopped at Bahía Blanca , and in cliffs near Punta Alta Darwin made a major find of fossil bones of huge extinct mammals beside modern seashells , indicating recent extinction with no signs of change in climate or catastrophe . He identified the little @-@ known Megatherium by a tooth and its association with bony armour , which had at first seemed to him to be like a giant version of the armour on local armadillos . The finds brought great interest when they reached England . On rides with gauchos into the interior to explore geology and collect more fossils , Darwin gained social , political and anthropological insights into both native and colonial people at a time of revolution , and learnt that two types of rhea had separate but overlapping territories . Further south , he saw stepped plains of shingle and seashells as raised beaches showing a series of elevations . He read Lyell 's second volume and accepted its view of " centres of creation " of species , but his discoveries and theorising challenged Lyell 's ideas of smooth continuity and of extinction of species . Three Fuegians on board had been seized during the first Beagle voyage , then during a year in England were educated as missionaries . Darwin found them friendly and civilised , yet at Tierra del Fuego he met " miserable , degraded savages " , as different as wild from domesticated animals . He remained convinced that , despite this diversity , all humans were interrelated with a shared origin and potential for improvement towards civilisation . Unlike his scientist friends , he now thought there was no unbridgeable gap between humans and animals . A year on , the mission had been abandoned . The Fuegian they had named Jemmy Button lived like the other natives , had a wife , and had no wish to return to England . Darwin experienced an earthquake in Chile and saw signs that the land had just been raised , including mussel @-@ beds stranded above high tide . High in the Andes he saw seashells , and several fossil trees that had grown on a sand beach . He theorised that as the land rose , oceanic islands sank , and coral reefs round them grew to form atolls . On the geologically new Galápagos Islands , Darwin looked for evidence attaching wildlife to an older " centre of creation " , and found mockingbirds allied to those in Chile but differing from island to island . He heard that slight variations in the shape of tortoise shells showed which island they came from , but failed to collect them , even after eating tortoises taken on board as food . In Australia , the marsupial rat @-@ kangaroo and the platypus seemed so unusual that Darwin thought it was almost as though two distinct Creators had been at work . He found the Aborigines " good @-@ humoured & pleasant " , and noted their depletion by European settlement . The Beagle investigated how the atolls of the Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands had formed , and the survey supported Darwin 's theorising . FitzRoy began writing the official Narrative of the Beagle voyages , and after reading Darwin 's diary he proposed incorporating it into the account . Darwin 's Journal was eventually rewritten as a separate third volume , on natural history . In Cape Town , Darwin and FitzRoy met John Herschel , who had recently written to Lyell praising his uniformitarianism as opening bold speculation on " that mystery of mysteries , the replacement of extinct species by others " as " a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process " . When organising his notes as the ship sailed home , Darwin wrote that , if his growing suspicions about the mockingbirds , the tortoises and the Falkland Islands fox were correct , " such facts undermine the stability of Species " , then cautiously added " would " before " undermine " . He later wrote that such facts " seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species " . = = = Inception of Darwin 's evolutionary theory = = = When the Beagle reached Falmouth , Cornwall , on 2 October 1836 , Darwin was already a celebrity in scientific circles as in December 1835 Henslow had fostered his former pupil 's reputation by giving selected naturalists a pamphlet of Darwin 's geological letters . Darwin visited his home in Shrewsbury and saw relatives , then hurried to Cambridge to see Henslow , who advised him on finding naturalists available to catalogue the collections and agreed to take on the botanical specimens . Darwin 's father organised investments , enabling his son to be a self @-@ funded gentleman scientist , and an excited Darwin went round the London institutions being fêted and seeking experts to describe the collections . Zoologists had a huge backlog of work , and there was a danger of specimens just being left in storage . Charles Lyell eagerly met Darwin for the first time on 29 October and soon introduced him to the up @-@ and @-@ coming anatomist Richard Owen , who had the facilities of the Royal College of Surgeons to work on the fossil bones collected by Darwin . Owen 's surprising results included other gigantic extinct ground sloths as well as the Megatherium , a near complete skeleton of the unknown Scelidotherium and a hippopotamus @-@ sized rodent @-@ like skull named Toxodon resembling a giant capybara . The armour fragments were actually from Glyptodon , a huge armadillo @-@ like creature as Darwin had initially thought . These extinct creatures were related to living species in South America . In mid @-@ December , Darwin took lodgings in Cambridge to organise work on his collections and rewrite his Journal . He wrote his first paper , showing that the South American landmass was slowly rising , and with Lyell 's enthusiastic backing read it to the Geological Society of London on 4 January 1837 . On the same day , he presented his mammal and bird specimens to the Zoological Society . The ornithologist John Gould soon announced that the Galapagos birds that Darwin had thought a mixture of blackbirds , " gros @-@ beaks " and finches , were , in fact , twelve separate species of finches . On 17 February , Darwin was elected to the Council of the Geological Society , and Lyell 's presidential address presented Owen 's findings on Darwin 's fossils , stressing geographical continuity of species as supporting his uniformitarian ideas . Early in March , Darwin moved to London to be near this work , joining Lyell 's social circle of scientists and experts such as Charles Babbage , who described God as a programmer of laws . Darwin stayed with his freethinking brother Erasmus , part of this Whig circle and a close friend of the writer Harriet Martineau , who promoted Malthusianism underlying the controversial Whig Poor Law reforms to stop welfare from causing overpopulation and more poverty . As a Unitarian , she welcomed the radical implications of transmutation of species , promoted by Grant and younger surgeons influenced by Geoffroy . Transmutation was anathema to Anglicans defending social order , but reputable scientists openly discussed the subject and there was wide interest in John Herschel 's letter praising Lyell 's approach as a way to find a natural cause of the origin of new species . Gould met Darwin and told him that the Galápagos mockingbirds from different islands were separate species , not just varieties , and what Darwin had thought was a " wren " was also in the finch group . Darwin had not labelled the finches by island , but from the notes of others on the Beagle , including FitzRoy , he allocated species to islands . The two rheas were also distinct species , and on 14 March Darwin announced how their distribution changed going southwards . By mid @-@ March , Darwin was speculating in his Red Notebook on the possibility that " one species does change into another " to explain the geographical distribution of living species such as the rheas , and extinct ones such as the strange Macrauchenia , which resembled a giant guanaco . His thoughts on lifespan , asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction developed in his " B " notebook around mid @-@ July on to variation in offspring " to adapt & alter the race to changing world " explaining the Galápagos tortoises , mockingbirds and rheas . He sketched branching descent , then a genealogical branching of a single evolutionary tree , in which " It is absurd to talk of one animal being higher than another " , discarding Lamarck 's independent lineages progressing to higher forms . = = = Overwork , illness , and marriage = = = While developing this intensive study of transmutation , Darwin became mired in more work . Still rewriting his Journal , he took on editing and publishing the expert reports on his collections , and with Henslow 's help obtained a Treasury grant of £ 1 @,@ 000 to sponsor this multi @-@ volume Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle , a sum equivalent to about £ 82 @,@ 000 in 2014 . He stretched the funding to include his planned books on geology , and agreed to unrealistic dates with the publisher . As the Victorian era began , Darwin pressed on with writing his Journal , and in August 1837 began correcting printer 's proofs . Darwin 's health suffered under the pressure . On 20 September he had " an uncomfortable palpitation of the heart " , so his doctors urged him to " knock off all work " and live in the country for a few weeks . After visiting Shrewsbury he joined his Wedgwood relatives at Maer Hall , Staffordshire , but found them too eager for tales of his travels to give him much rest . His charming , intelligent , and cultured cousin Emma Wedgwood , nine months older than Darwin , was nursing his invalid aunt . His uncle Jos pointed out an area of ground where cinders had disappeared under loam and suggested that this might have been the work of earthworms , inspiring " a new & important theory " on their role in soil formation , which Darwin presented at the Geological Society on 1 November . William Whewell pushed Darwin to take on the duties of Secretary of the Geological Society . After initially declining the work , he accepted the post in March 1838 . Despite the grind of writing and editing the Beagle reports , Darwin made remarkable progress on transmutation , taking every opportunity to question expert naturalists and , unconventionally , people with practical experience such as farmers and pigeon fanciers . Over time , his research drew on information from his relatives and children , the family butler , neighbours , colonists and former shipmates . He included mankind in his speculations from the outset , and on seeing an orangutan in the zoo on 28 March 1838 noted its childlike behaviour . The strain took a toll , and by June he was being laid up for days on end with stomach problems , headaches and heart symptoms . For the rest of his life , he was repeatedly incapacitated with episodes of stomach pains , vomiting , severe boils , palpitations , trembling and other symptoms , particularly during times of stress , such as attending meetings or making social visits . The cause of Darwin 's illness remained unknown , and attempts at treatment had little success . On 23 June , he took a break and went " geologising " in Scotland . He visited Glen Roy in glorious weather to see the parallel " roads " cut into the hillsides at three heights . He later published his view that these were marine raised beaches , but then had to accept that they were shorelines of a proglacial lake . Fully recuperated , he returned to Shrewsbury in July . Used to jotting down daily notes on animal breeding , he scrawled rambling thoughts about career and prospects on two scraps of paper , one with columns headed " Marry " and " Not Marry " . Advantages included " constant companion and a friend in old age ... better than a dog anyhow " , against points such as " less money for books " and " terrible loss of time . " Having decided in favour , he discussed it with his father , then went to visit Emma on 29 July . He did not get around to proposing , but against his father 's advice he mentioned his ideas on transmutation . = = = = Malthus and natural selection = = = = Continuing his research in London , Darwin 's wide reading now included the sixth edition of Malthus 's An Essay on the Principle of Population , and on 28 September 1838 he noted its assertion that human " population , when unchecked , goes on doubling itself every twenty five years , or increases in a geometrical ratio " , a geometric progression so that population soon exceeds food supply in what is known as a Malthusian catastrophe . Darwin was well prepared to compare this to de Candolle 's " warring of the species " of plants and the struggle for existence among wildlife , explaining how numbers of a species kept roughly stable . As species always breed beyond available resources , favourable variations would make organisms better at surviving and passing the variations on to their offspring , while unfavourable variations would be lost . He wrote that the " final cause of all this wedging , must be to sort out proper structure , & adapt it to changes " , so that " One may say there is a force like a hundred thousand wedges trying force into every kind of adapted structure into the gaps of in the economy of nature , or rather forming gaps by thrusting out weaker ones . " This would result in the formation of new species . As he later wrote in his Autobiography : In October 1838 , that is , fifteen months after I had begun my systematic enquiry , I happened to read for amusement Malthus on Population , and being well prepared to appreciate the struggle for existence which everywhere goes on from long @-@ continued observation of the habits of animals and plants , it at once struck me that under these circumstances favourable variations would tend to be preserved , and unfavourable ones to be destroyed . The result of this would be the formation of new species . Here , then , I had at last got a theory by which to work ... " By mid December , Darwin saw a similarity between farmers picking the best stock in selective breeding , and a Malthusian Nature selecting from chance variants so that " every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical and perfected " , thinking this comparison " a beautiful part of my theory " . He later called his theory natural selection , an analogy with what he termed the artificial selection of selective breeding . On 11 November , he returned to Maer and proposed to Emma , once more telling her his ideas . She accepted , then in exchanges of loving letters she showed how she valued his openness in sharing their differences , also expressing her strong Unitarian beliefs and concerns that his honest doubts might separate them in the afterlife . While he was house @-@ hunting in London , bouts of illness continued and Emma wrote urging him to get some rest , almost prophetically remarking " So don 't be ill any more my dear Charley till I can be with you to nurse you . " He found what they called " Macaw Cottage " ( because of its gaudy interiors ) in Gower Street , then moved his " museum " in over Christmas . On 24 January 1839 , Darwin was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society ( FRS ) . On 29 January , Darwin and Emma Wedgwood were married at Maer in an Anglican ceremony arranged to suit the Unitarians , then immediately caught the train to London and their new home . = = = Geology books , barnacles , evolutionary research = = = Darwin now had the framework of his theory of natural selection " by which to work " , as his " prime hobby " . His research included extensive experimental selective breeding of plants and animals , finding evidence that species were not fixed and investigating many detailed ideas to refine and substantiate his theory . For fifteen years this work was in the background to his main occupation of writing on geology and publishing expert reports on the Beagle collections . When FitzRoy 's Narrative was published in May 1839 , Darwin 's Journal and Remarks was such a success as the third volume that later that year it was published on its own . Early in 1842 , Darwin wrote about his ideas to Charles Lyell , who noted that his ally " denies seeing a beginning to each crop of species " . Darwin 's book The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs on his theory of atoll formation was published in May 1842 after more than three years of work , and he then wrote his first " pencil sketch " of his theory of natural selection . To escape the pressures of London , the family moved to rural Down House in September . On 11 January 1844 , Darwin mentioned his theorising to the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker , writing with melodramatic humour " it is like confessing a murder " . Hooker replied " There may in my opinion have been a series of productions on different spots , & also a gradual change of species . I shall be delighted to hear how you think that this change may have taken place , as no presently conceived opinions satisfy me on the subject . " By July , Darwin had expanded his " sketch " into a 230 @-@ page " Essay " , to be expanded with his research results if he died prematurely . In November , the anonymously published sensational best @-@ seller Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation brought wide interest in transmutation . Darwin scorned its amateurish geology and zoology , but carefully reviewed his own arguments . Controversy erupted , and it continued to sell well despite contemptuous dismissal by scientists . Darwin completed his third geological book in 1846 . He now renewed a fascination and expertise in marine invertebrates , dating back to his student days with Grant , by dissecting and classifying the barnacles he had collected on the voyage , enjoying observing beautiful structures and thinking about comparisons with allied structures . In 1847 , Hooker read the " Essay " and sent notes that provided Darwin with the calm critical feedback that he needed , but would not commit himself and questioned Darwin 's opposition to continuing acts of creation . In an attempt to improve his chronic ill health , Darwin went in 1849 to Dr. James Gully 's Malvern spa and was surprised to find some benefit from hydrotherapy . Then , in 1851 , his treasured daughter Annie fell ill , reawakening his fears that his illness might be hereditary , and after a long series of crises she died . In eight years of work on barnacles ( Cirripedia ) , Darwin 's theory helped him to find " homologies " showing that slightly changed body parts served different functions to meet new conditions , and in some genera he found minute males parasitic on hermaphrodites , showing an intermediate stage in evolution of distinct sexes . In 1853 , it earned him the Royal Society 's Royal Medal , and it made his reputation as a biologist . In 1854 he became a Fellow of the Linnean Society of London , gaining postal access to its library . He began a major reassessment of his theory of species , and in November realised that divergence in the character of descendants could be explained by them becoming adapted to " diversified places in the economy of nature " . = = = Publication of the theory of natural selection = = = By the start of 1856 , Darwin was investigating whether eggs and seeds could survive travel across seawater to spread species across oceans . Hooker increasingly doubted the traditional view that species were fixed , but their young friend Thomas Henry Huxley was firmly against the transmutation of species . Lyell was intrigued by Darwin 's speculations without realising their extent . When he read a paper by Alfred Russel Wallace , " On the Law which has Regulated the Introduction of New Species " , he saw similarities with Darwin 's thoughts and urged him to publish to establish precedence . Though Darwin saw no threat , on 14 May 1856 he began writing a short paper . Finding answers to difficult questions held him up repeatedly , and he expanded his plans to a " big book on species " titled Natural Selection , which was to include his " note on Man " . He continued his researches , obtaining information and specimens from naturalists worldwide including Wallace who was working in Borneo . In mid @-@ 1857 he added a chapter heading ; " Theory applied to Races of Man " , but then left out this topic . On 5 September 1857 , Darwin sent the American botanist Asa Gray a detailed outline of his ideas , including an abstract of Natural Selection , which omitted human origins and sexual selection . In December , Darwin received a letter from Wallace asking if the book would examine human origins . He responded that he would avoid that subject , " so surrounded with prejudices " , while encouraging Wallace 's theorising and adding that " I go much further than you . " Darwin 's book was only partly written when , on 18 June 1858 , he received a paper from Wallace describing natural selection . Shocked that he had been " forestalled " , Darwin sent it on that day to Lyell , as requested by Wallace , and although Wallace had not asked for publication , Darwin suggested he would send it to any journal that Wallace chose . His family was in crisis with children in the village dying of scarlet fever , and he put matters in the hands of his friends . After some discussion , Lyell and Hooker decided on a joint presentation at the Linnean Society on 1 July of On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties ; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection . On the evening of 28 June , Darwin 's baby son died of scarlet fever after almost a week of severe illness , and he was too distraught to attend . There was little immediate attention to this announcement of the theory ; the president of the Linnean Society remarked in May 1859 that the year had not been marked by any revolutionary discoveries . Only one review rankled enough for Darwin to recall it later ; Professor Samuel Haughton of Dublin claimed that " all that was new in them was false , and what was true was old " . Darwin struggled for thirteen months to produce an abstract of his " big book " , suffering from ill health but getting constant encouragement from his scientific friends . Lyell arranged to have it published by John Murray . On the Origin of Species proved unexpectedly popular , with the entire stock of 1 @,@ 250 copies oversubscribed when it went on sale to booksellers on 22 November 1859 . In the book , Darwin set out " one long argument " of detailed observations , inferences and consideration of anticipated objections . In making the case for common descent , he included evidence of homologies between humans and other mammals . Having outlined sexual selection , he hinted that it could explain differences between human races . He avoided explicit discussion of human origins , but implied the significance of his work with the sentence ; " Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history . " His theory is simply stated in the introduction : As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive ; and as , consequently , there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence , it follows that any being , if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself , under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life , will have a better chance of surviving , and thus be naturally selected . From the strong principle of inheritance , any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form . At the end of the book he concluded that : There is grandeur in this view of life , with its several powers , having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one ; and that , whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity , from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been , and are being , evolved . The last word was the only variant of " evolved " in the first five editions of the book . " Evolutionism " at that time was associated with other concepts , most commonly with embryological development , and Darwin first used the word evolution in The Descent of Man in 1871 , before adding it in 1872 to the 6th edition of The Origin of Species . = = = Responses to publication = = = The book aroused international interest , with less controversy than had greeted the popular Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation . Though Darwin 's illness kept him away from the public debates , he eagerly scrutinised the scientific response , commenting on press cuttings , reviews , articles , satires and caricatures , and corresponded on it with colleagues worldwide . The book did not explicitly discuss human origins , but included a number of hints about the animal ancestry of humans from which the inference could be made . The first review asked , " If a monkey has become a man – what may not a man become ? " and said it should be left to theologians as it was too dangerous for ordinary readers . Amongst early favourable responses , Huxley 's reviews swiped at Richard Owen , leader of the scientific establishment Huxley was trying to overthrow . In April , Owen 's review attacked Darwin 's friends and condescendingly dismissed his ideas , angering Darwin , but Owen and others began to promote ideas of supernaturally guided evolution . Patrick Matthew drew attention to his 1831 book which had a brief appendix suggesting a concept of natural selection leading to new species , but he had not developed the idea . The Church of England 's response was mixed . Darwin 's old Cambridge tutors Sedgwick and Henslow dismissed the ideas , but liberal clergymen interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God 's design , with the cleric Charles Kingsley seeing it as " just as noble a conception of Deity " . In 1860 , the publication of Essays and Reviews by seven liberal Anglican theologians diverted clerical attention from Darwin , with its ideas including higher criticism attacked by church authorities as heresy . In it , Baden Powell argued that miracles broke God 's laws , so belief in them was atheistic , and praised " Mr Darwin 's masterly volume [ supporting ] the grand principle of the self @-@ evolving powers of nature " . Asa Gray discussed teleology with Darwin , who imported and distributed Gray 's pamphlet on theistic evolution , Natural Selection is not inconsistent with natural theology . The most famous confrontation was at the public 1860 Oxford evolution debate during a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science , where the Bishop of Oxford Samuel Wilberforce , though not opposed to transmutation of species , argued against Darwin 's explanation and human descent from apes . Joseph Hooker argued strongly for Darwin , and Thomas Huxley 's legendary retort , that he would rather be descended from an ape than a man who misused his gifts , came to symbolise a triumph of science over religion . Even Darwin 's close friends Gray , Hooker , Huxley and Lyell still expressed various reservations but gave strong support , as did many others , particularly younger naturalists . Gray and Lyell sought reconciliation with faith , while Huxley portrayed a polarisation between religion and science . He campaigned pugnaciously against the authority of the clergy in education , aiming to overturn the dominance of clergymen and aristocratic amateurs under Owen in favour of a new generation of professional scientists . Owen 's claim that brain anatomy proved humans to be a separate biological order from apes was shown to be false by Huxley in a long running dispute parodied by Kingsley as the " Great Hippocampus Question " , and discredited Owen . Darwinism became a movement covering a wide range of evolutionary ideas . In 1863 Lyell 's Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man popularised prehistory , though his caution on evolution disappointed Darwin . Weeks later Huxley 's Evidence as to Man 's Place in Nature showed that anatomically , humans are apes , then The Naturalist on the River Amazons by Henry Walter Bates provided empirical evidence of natural selection . Lobbying brought Darwin Britain 's highest scientific honour , the Royal Society 's Copley Medal , awarded on 3 November 1864 . That day , Huxley held the first meeting of what became the influential " X Club " devoted to " science , pure and free , untrammelled by religious dogmas " . By the end of the decade most scientists agreed that evolution occurred , but only a minority supported Darwin 's view that the chief mechanism was natural selection . The Origin of Species was translated into many languages , becoming a staple scientific text attracting thoughtful attention from all walks of life , including the " working men " who flocked to Huxley 's lectures . Darwin 's theory also resonated with various movements at the time and became a key fixture of popular culture . Cartoonists parodied animal ancestry in an old tradition of showing humans with animal traits , and in Britain these droll images served to popularise Darwin 's theory in an unthreatening way . While ill in 1862 Darwin began growing a beard , and when he reappeared in public in 1866 caricatures of him as an ape helped to identify all forms of evolutionism with Darwinism . = = = Descent of Man , sexual selection , and botany = = = Despite repeated bouts of illness during the last twenty @-@ two years of his life , Darwin 's work continued . Having published On the Origin of Species as an abstract of his theory , he pressed on with experiments , research , and writing of his " big book " . He covered human descent from earlier animals including evolution of society and of mental abilities , as well as explaining decorative beauty in wildlife and diversifying into innovative plant studies . Enquiries about insect pollination led in 1861 to novel studies of wild orchids , showing adaptation of their flowers to attract specific moths to each species and ensure cross fertilisation . In 1862 Fertilisation of Orchids gave his first detailed demonstration of the power of natural selection to explain complex ecological relationships , making testable predictions . As his health declined , he lay on his sickbed in a room filled with inventive experiments to trace the movements of climbing plants . Admiring visitors included Ernst Haeckel , a zealous proponent of Darwinismus incorporating Lamarckism and Goethe 's idealism . Wallace remained supportive , though he increasingly turned to Spiritualism . The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication of 1868 was the first part of Darwin 's planned " big book " , and included his unsuccessful hypothesis of pangenesis attempting to explain heredity . It sold briskly at first , despite its size , and was translated into many languages . He wrote most of a second part , on natural selection , but it remained unpublished in his lifetime . Lyell had already popularised human prehistory , and Huxley had shown that anatomically humans are apes . With The Descent of Man , and Selection in Relation to Sex published in 1871 , Darwin set out evidence from numerous sources that humans are animals , showing continuity of physical and mental attributes , and presented sexual selection to explain impractical animal features such as the peacock 's plumage as well as human evolution of culture , differences between sexes , and physical and cultural racial characteristics , while emphasising that humans are all one species . His research using images was expanded in his 1872 book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals , one of the first books to feature printed photographs , which discussed the evolution of human psychology and its continuity with the behaviour of animals . Both books proved very popular , and Darwin was impressed by the general assent with which his views had been received , remarking that " everybody is talking about it without being shocked . " His conclusion was " that man with all his noble qualities , with sympathy which feels for the most debased , with benevolence which extends not only to other men but to the humblest living creature , with his god @-@ like intellect which has penetrated into the movements and constitution of the solar system – with all these exalted powers – Man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin . " His evolution @-@ related experiments and investigations led to books on Orchids , Insectivorous Plants , The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom , different forms of flowers on plants of the same species , and The Power of Movement in Plants . His botanical work was interpreted and popularised by various writers including Grant Allen and H. G. Wells , and helped transform plant science in the late C19 and early C20 . In his last book he returned to The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms . = = = Death and funeral = = = In 1882 he was diagnosed with what was called " angina pectoris " which then meant coronary thrombosis and disease of the heart . At the time of his death , the physicians diagnosed " anginal attacks " , and " heart @-@ failure " . He died at Down House on 19 April 1882 . His last words were to his family , telling Emma " I am not the least afraid of death – Remember what a good wife you have been to me – Tell all my children to remember how good they have been to me " , then while she rested , he repeatedly told Henrietta and Francis " It 's almost worth while to be sick to be nursed by you " . He had expected to be buried in St Mary 's churchyard at Downe , but at the request of Darwin 's colleagues , after public and parliamentary petitioning , William Spottiswoode ( President of the Royal Society ) arranged for Darwin to be honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey , close to John Herschel and Isaac Newton . The funeral was held on Wednesday 26 April and was attended by thousands of people , including family , friends , scientists , philosophers and dignitaries . = = Legacy = = Darwin had convinced most scientists that evolution as descent with modification was correct , and he was regarded as a great scientist who had revolutionised ideas . Though few agreed with his view that " natural selection has been the main but not the exclusive means of modification " , he was honoured in June 1909 by more than 400 officials and scientists from across the world who met in Cambridge to commemorate his centenary and the fiftieth anniversary of On the Origin of Species . During this period , which has been called " the eclipse of Darwinism " , scientists proposed various alternative evolutionary mechanisms which eventually proved untenable . Ronald Fisher , an English statistician finally united Mendelian genetics with natural selection between 1918 and his 1930 book The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection , giving the theory a mathematical footing and bringing broad scientific consensus that it was the basic mechanism of evolution , founding the basis for population genetics and the modern evolutionary synthesis , with J.B.S. Haldane and Sewall Wright , which set the frame of reference for modern debates and refinements of the theory . = = = Commemoration = = = During Darwin 's lifetime , many geographical features were given his name . An expanse of water adjoining the Beagle Channel was named Darwin Sound by Robert FitzRoy after Darwin 's prompt action , along with two or three of the men , saved them from being marooned on a nearby shore when a collapsing glacier caused a large wave that would have swept away their boats , and the nearby Mount Darwin in the Andes was named in celebration of Darwin 's 25th birthday . When the Beagle was surveying Australia in 1839 , Darwin 's friend John Lort Stokes sighted a natural harbour which the ship 's captain Wickham named Port Darwin : a nearby settlement was renamed Darwin in 1911 , and it became the capital city of Australia 's Northern Territory . More than 120 species and nine genera have been named after Darwin . In one example , the group of tanagers related to those Darwin found in the Galápagos Islands became popularly known as " Darwin 's finches " in 1947 , fostering inaccurate legends about their significance to his work . Darwin 's work has continued to be celebrated by numerous publications and events . The Linnean Society of London has commemorated Darwin 's achievements by the award of the Darwin – Wallace Medal since 1908 . Darwin Day has become an annual celebration , and in 2009 worldwide events were arranged for the bicentenary of Darwin 's birth and the 150th anniversary of the publication of On the Origin of Species . Darwin has been commemorated in the UK , with his portrait printed on the reverse of £ 10 banknotes printed along with a hummingbird and HMS Beagle , issued by the Bank of England . A life size seated statue of Darwin can be seen in the main hall of the Natural History Museum in London . A seated statue of Darwin , unveiled 1897 , stands in front of Shrewsbury Library , the building that used to house Shrewsbury School , which Darwin attended as a boy . Another statue of Darwin as a young man is situated in the grounds of Christ 's College , Cambridge . Darwin College , a postgraduate college at Cambridge University , is named after the Darwin family . = = Children = = The Darwins had ten children : two died in infancy , and Annie 's death at the age of ten had a devastating effect on her parents . Charles was a devoted father and uncommonly attentive to his children . Whenever they fell ill , he feared that they might have inherited weaknesses from inbreeding due to the close family ties he shared with his wife and cousin , Emma Wedgwood . He examined this topic in his writings , contrasting it with the advantages of crossing amongst many organisms . Despite his fears , most of the surviving children and many of their descendants went on to have distinguished careers ( see Darwin @-@ Wedgwood family ) . Of his surviving children , George , Francis and Horace became Fellows of the Royal Society , distinguished as astronomer , botanist and civil engineer , respectively . All three were knighted . Another son , Leonard , went on to be a soldier , politician , economist , eugenicist and mentor of the statistician and evolutionary biologist Ronald Fisher . = = Views and opinions = = = = = Religious views = = = Darwin 's family tradition was nonconformist Unitarianism , while his father and grandfather were freethinkers , and his baptism and boarding school were Church of England . When going to Cambridge to become an Anglican clergyman , he did not doubt the literal truth of the Bible . He learned John Herschel 's science which , like William Paley 's natural theology , sought explanations in laws of nature rather than miracles and saw adaptation of species as evidence of design . On board the Beagle , Darwin was quite orthodox and would quote the Bible as an authority on morality . He looked for " centres of creation " to explain distribution , and related the antlion found near kangaroos to distinct " periods of Creation " . By his return , he was critical of the Bible as history , and wondered why all religions should not be equally valid . In the next few years , while intensively speculating on geology and the transmutation of species , he gave much thought to religion and openly discussed this with his wife Emma , whose beliefs also came from intensive study and questioning . The theodicy of Paley and Thomas Malthus vindicated evils such as starvation as a result of a benevolent creator 's laws , which had an overall good effect . To Darwin , natural selection produced the good of adaptation but removed the need for design , and he could not see the work of an omnipotent deity in all the pain and suffering , such as the ichneumon wasp paralysing caterpillars as live food for its eggs . He still viewed organisms as perfectly adapted , and On the Origin of Species reflects theological views . Though he thought of religion as a tribal survival strategy , Darwin was reluctant to give up the idea of God as an ultimate lawgiver . He was increasingly troubled by the problem of evil . Darwin remained close friends with the vicar of Downe , John Brodie Innes , and continued to play a leading part in the parish work of the church , but from around 1849 would go for a walk on Sundays while his family attended church . He considered it " absurd to doubt that a man might be an ardent theist and an evolutionist " and , though reticent about his religious views , in 1879 he wrote that " I have never been an atheist in the sense of denying the existence of a God . – I think that generally ... an agnostic would be the most correct description of my state of mind " . The " Lady Hope Story " , published in 1915 , claimed that Darwin had reverted to Christianity on his sickbed . The claims were repudiated by Darwin 's children and have been dismissed as false by historians . = = = Human society = = = Darwin 's views on social and political issues reflected his time and social position . He grew up in a family of Whig reformers who , like his uncle Josiah Wedgwood , supported electoral reform and the emancipation of slaves . Darwin was passionately opposed to slavery , while seeing no problem with the working conditions of English factory workers or servants . His taxidermy lessons in 1826 from the freed slave John Edmonstone , who he long recalled as " a very pleasant and intelligent man " , reinforced his belief that black people shared the same feelings , and could be as intelligent as people of other races . He took the same attitude to native people he met on the Beagle voyage . These attitudes were not unusual in Britain in the 1820s , much as it shocked visiting Americans . British society became more racist in mid century , but Darwin remained strongly against slavery , against " ranking the so @-@ called races of man as distinct species " , and against ill @-@ treatment of native people . He valued European civilisation and saw colonisation as spreading its benefits , with the sad but inevitable effect that savage peoples who did not become civilised faced extinction . Darwin 's theories presented this as natural , and were cited to promote policies that went against his humanitarian principles . He thought men 's eminence over women was the outcome of sexual selection , a view disputed by Antoinette Brown Blackwell in The Sexes Throughout Nature . Darwin was intrigued by his half @-@ cousin Francis Galton 's argument , introduced in 1865 , that statistical analysis of heredity showed that moral and mental human traits could be inherited , and principles of animal breeding could apply to humans . In The Descent of Man , Darwin noted that aiding the weak to survive and have families could lose the benefits of natural selection , but cautioned that withholding such aid would endanger the instinct of sympathy , " the noblest part of our nature " , and factors such as education could be more important . When Galton suggested that publishing research could encourage intermarriage within a " caste " of " those who are naturally gifted " , Darwin foresaw practical difficulties , and thought it " the sole feasible , yet I fear utopian , plan of procedure in improving the human race " , preferring to simply publicise the importance of inheritance and leave decisions to individuals . Francis Galton named this field of study " eugenics " in 1883 . = = Evolutionary social movements = = Darwin 's fame and popularity led to his name being associated with ideas and movements that , at times , had only an indirect relation to his writings , and sometimes went directly against his express comments . Thomas Malthus had argued that population growth beyond resources was ordained by God to get humans to work productively and show restraint in getting families , this was used in the 1830s to justify workhouses and laissez @-@ faire economics . Evolution was by then seen as having social implications , and Herbert Spencer 's 1851 book Social Statics based ideas of human freedom and individual liberties on his Lamarckian evolutionary theory . Soon after the Origin was published in 1859 , critics derided his description of a struggle for existence as a Malthusian justification for the English industrial capitalism of the time . The term Darwinism was used for the evolutionary ideas of others , including Spencer 's " survival of the fittest " as free @-@ market progress , and Ernst Haeckel 's racist ideas of human development . Writers used natural selection to argue for various , often contradictory , ideologies such as laissez @-@ faire dog @-@ eat dog capitalism , racism , warfare , colonialism and imperialism . However , Darwin 's holistic view of nature included " dependence of one being on another " ; thus pacifists , socialists , liberal social reformers and anarchists such as Peter Kropotkin stressed the value of co @-@ operation over struggle within a species . Darwin himself insisted that social policy should not simply be guided by concepts of struggle and selection in nature . After the 1880s , a eugenics movement developed on ideas of biological inheritance , and for scientific justification of their ideas appealed to some concepts of Darwinism . In Britain , most shared Darwin 's cautious views on voluntary improvement and sought to encourage those with good traits in " positive eugenics " . During the " Eclipse of Darwinism " , a scientific foundation for eugenics was provided by Mendelian genetics . Negative eugenics to remove the " feebleminded " were popular in America , Canada and Australia , and eugenics in the United States introduced compulsory sterilization laws , followed by several other countries . Subsequently , Nazi eugenics brought the field into disrepute . The term " Social Darwinism " was used infrequently from around the 1890s , but became popular as a derogatory term in the 1940s when used by Richard Hofstadter to attack the laissez @-@ faire conservatism of those like William Graham Sumner who opposed reform and socialism . Since then , it has been used as a term of abuse by those opposed to what they think are the moral consequences of evolution . = = Works = = Darwin was a prolific writer . Even without publication of his works on evolution , he would have had a considerable reputation as the author of The Voyage of the Beagle , as a geologist who had published extensively on South America and had solved the puzzle of the formation of coral atolls , and as a biologist who had published the definitive work on barnacles . While On the Origin of Species dominates perceptions of his work , The Descent of Man and The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals had considerable impact , and his books on plants including The Power of Movement in Plants were innovative studies of great importance , as was his final work on The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms .
= Ohio State Route 257 = State Route 257 ( SR 257 , OH 257 ) is a 26 @.@ 19 @-@ mile ( 42 @.@ 15 km ) north - south state highway in the central portion of the U.S. state of Ohio . The highway 's southern terminus is in the northwestern Columbus suburb of Dublin at a signalized intersection with U.S. Route 33 ( US 33 ) and SR 161 . This mainly two @-@ lane highway follows the eastern side of the Scioto River from Dublin to its junction with US 42 . After crossing over the river with the U.S. highway , SR 257 parallels the river 's western bank . SR 257 has its northern terminus at a T @-@ intersection with SR 47 on the western village limits of Prospect . SR 257 was created in 1926 , and extended in 1935 and 1937 . = = Route description = = Along its way , SR 257 travels primarily north through northwestern Franklin County , western Delaware County and the extreme southern part of Marion County , following the Scioto River for most of the way . There are no segments of SR 257 that are included within the National Highway System ( NHS ) . The NHS is a network of highways identified as being most important for the economy , mobility and defense of the nation . SR 257 starts at the intersection of US 33 / SR 161 . The route moves north intersecting with Emerald Parkway , which is currently being built eastward . SR 257 continues north to Hard Road , and the entrance to Thaddeus Kosciuszko Park ( about 200 yards up Hard Rd . ) After crossing the Franklin – Delaware county line , the next major junction is with SR 750 at the Columbus Zoo and Aquarium and the O 'Shaughnessy Dam . From here to US 42 the route follows the eastern bank of O 'Shaughnessy Reservoir . The next intersection is Seldom Seen Road . Two miles later , SR 257 meets Home Road at a traffic circle . Home Road provides access to SR 745 heading west and to Sawmill Parkway and Liberty Rd heading east . SR 257 continues north to signaled intersection with US 42 and runs concurrently with US 42 for about 1 mile within Concord Township . The route travels southwest with US 42 across the Scioto River . At the signalized northern terminus of SR 745 the concurrency ends , as SR 257 turns north . SR 257 passes through the former communities of Bellpoint ( Concord Township ) and White Sulfur Springs Station ( Scioto Township ) on the way to intersecting with US 36 about 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) north of US 42 . Continuing north , SR 257 crosses SR 37 at a flashing red light . After nine miles , the route crosses into Marion County prior to ending at OH 47 in Prospect , crossing minor roads within Thompson Township in between . = = History = = The SR 257 designation was applied in 1926 . Originally , the highway was routed along its present southernmost alignment along the eastern banks of the Scioto River between Dublin and its northeastern junction with US 42 . In 1935 , SR 257 was extended via a short concurrency with US 42 across the Scioto River , then north along its present alignment along the western side of the river to a new northern terminus at SR 37 west of Delaware . Then , two years after its first northward extension , SR 257 was extended to the north again , this time to its present northern terminus at SR 47 in Prospect . SR 257 was designated the General Thaddeus Kosciusko Memorial Highway in December 1975 . = = Major intersections = =
= The Sea of Monsters = The Sea of Monsters is a fantasy @-@ adventure novel based on Greek mythology written by Rick Riordan published in 2006 . It is the second novel in the Percy Jackson & the Olympians series and the sequel to The Lightning Thief . This book chronicles the adventures of thirteen @-@ year @-@ old demigod Percy Jackson as he and his friends rescue his satyr friend Grover from the Cyclops Polyphemus and save the camp from a Titan 's attack by bringing the Golden Fleece to cure Thalia 's poisoned pine tree . The Sea of Monsters was released on April 1 , 2006 , by Miramax Books , an imprint of Hyperion Books for Children and thus Disney Publishing ( succeeded by the Disney Hyperion imprint ) . It was generally well – received and was nominated for numerous awards , including the 2006 Book Sense Top Ten Summer Pick and the 2009 Mark Twain Award . It sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies in paperback with over one million copies total and was released in audiobook format on September 6 , 2006 . The Sea of Monsters is followed by The Titan 's Curse , the third book of the five in the series . A film adaptation of the book , Percy Jackson : Sea of Monsters , was released on August 7 , 2013 . = = Plot = = Percy Jackson has been having nightmares about Grover , the first involving him running from an unseen force and taking refuge in a wedding dress shop . At school , a group of Laestrygonians attack Percy and his classmates in a fiery game of dodge @-@ ball , but he is saved by his half @-@ brother Tyson ( a young Cyclops ) . Annabeth takes Percy and Tyson to Camp Half @-@ Blood by the taxi of the Gray Sisters , but they arrive to find the camp under attack by two bronze Colchis bulls which Tyson defeats . Thalia 's tree has been poisoned , leaving the camp vulnerable to enemy attacks and Chiron is suspected of poisoning it ( largely because of his family connection to the titan Kronos ) . Percy tells Annabeth about his dreams , and she deduces that Grover has found the Golden Fleece , which can cure Thalia 's poisoned tree . After the campers are attacked at a chariot race by Stymphalian birds , Tantalus ( who was replacing Chiron as camp counsellor ) sends Clarisse on a quest to find the Golden Fleece , as Percy , Annabeth , and Tyson run away from camp in order to try to find Grover . Hermes gives them gifts to help them on their quest and tells them to call on some Hippocampi , who carry them to a passing cruise ship , the Princess Andromeda . Once aboard , they discover that the ship appears to be deserted , but find fully stocked cabins to sleep in . In the morning , they wake to find the ship full of tourists , but also populated with monsters . They are captured by Luke Castellan , whom the ship belongs to , transporting an army of monsters . Luke sends them to be fed to a drakon in the hold , but they escape on a lifeboat and eventually find land , a marshy swamp area . They find one of many hideouts that Luke , Thalia , and Annabeth built . Percy and Annabeth talk about Luke briefly while Tyson looks for powdered doughnuts , but he soon returns , with an actual box of doughnuts . They find a doughnut shop ( Monster Donut ) , but a hydra appears , having tracked them . After a brief fight , it is about to kill them , when they are saved by Clarisse , who is sailing on a confederate battleship called the CSS Birmingham . En route to the Sea of Monsters , the CSS Birmingham is destroyed by the monster Charybdis and then attacked by Scylla . Presuming Tyson and Clarisse are dead , Percy and Annabeth escape to a nearby island , where they find " CC 's Spa and Resort " . CC has an assistant give Annabeth a tour of the resort , saying that Percy needs a full makeover . She shows Percy the best version of himself with magic , and gives him a magical drink . However , when he drinks it , he is turned into a guinea pig and CC puts him into a cage with six ' mean looking ' others . When Annabeth returns , the spa resort 's owner is revealed to be the sorceress Circe , who turns men into guinea pigs and put them in a cage . Annabeth asks for a moment alone with Percy , and then uses Hermes ' anti @-@ magic vitamins to protect herself from Circe 's magic , and turn Percy and the others , who are revealed to be the crew of the notorious pirate Blackbeard ( the demigod son of Ares ) , back to normal . Percy and Annabeth then manage to escape Circe 's island by stealing Blackbeard 's ship , the Queen Anne 's Revenge . Percy and Annabeth reach Polyphemus ' island , where they are reunited with Tyson and Clarisse , who survived the shipwreck . They rescue Grover and find the Golden Fleece , and are returned to the mainland by Hippocampi . Clarisse returns to Camp Half @-@ Blood with the Fleece by plane . Percy and company are captured by Luke and taken to the Princess Andromeda . Percy manages to contact Camp Half @-@ Blood through an Iris Message and tricks Luke into admitting that he poisoned Thalia 's tree , proving Chiron 's innocence in front of the entire camp . Luke duels Percy , beats him , and is about to kill them , but before he does , Chiron and the Party Ponies , a large group of centaurs armed with modern weapons such as paint @-@ ball guns appears , and rescues them . Returning to the camp , Chiron is given his job back and the Golden Fleece heals Thalia 's tree . However , the Golden Fleece revives Thalia Grace , who is pushed out of the tree . = = = Prophecy = = = The prophecy given by the oracle to Clarisse reads : = = = Meaning = = = 1 . Clarisse 's father , Ares gave her a steamship crewed with undead Confederate sailors 2 . She does find and retrieves the Fleece 3 . Clarisse was trapped in Polyphemus 's cave with Grover 4 . Annabeth , Percy , and Tyson help Clarisse escape Polyphemus and get on a plane to Camp Half @-@ Blood with the Fleece = = Major characters = = Percy Jackson : The son of Poseidon ; a 13 @-@ year @-@ old demigod who travels to the island of Polyphemus in the Bermuda Triangle to find Grover and recover the Golden Fleece . He is accompanied by Annabeth and Tyson , his half @-@ brother , on the quest . He is successful in the end ; and gives Clarisse the Fleece while he is attacked by Luke on his way to the Camp . However , he and his friends are rescued by Chiron and the Party Ponies . Annabeth Chase : The daughter of Athena . A demigod who is 13 years old and a friend of Percy . She accompanies him to the island and helps him in his quest by rescuing Percy from Circe 's island . Annabeth is injured by Polyphemus and recovers with the help of the Golden Fleece . She accompanies Percy to Camp after Chiron succeeds in rescuing them from the hands of Luke and the Titan army . Grover Underwood : The guard for Percy given by the gods , a satyr who has been captured by Polyphemus during his search for the wild god Pan . Due to his poor eyesight , Polyphemus mistakes Grover for a female Cyclops . He is rescued by his friends Percy and Annabeth . Clarisse La Rue : Daughter of Ares who was given the quest of retrieving the Golden Fleece . With the help of Percy and his friends , she is successful in her quest . Percy gives her the Fleece that she takes to Camp Half Blood . Polyphemus wishes to wed her after it is revealed to him that Grover is a male satyr . Luke Castellan : The main antagonist , now 20 ; he works for Kronos . He captures Percy and the rest before being thwarted by Chiron and his brethren , the Party Ponies . Tyson the Cyclops : Percy 's half brother ; he is initially portrayed as a homeless child before Annabeth helps Percy realize that he is a Cyclops . He accompanies Percy and Annabeth in their quest and befriends a hippocampus whom he names Rainbow . He is very big and has one brown eye . When Clarisse 's ship explodes , he is presumed dead until it is learned that he survived due to his immunity to fire . = = Critical reception = = The Sea of Monsters received generally positive reviews with reviewers praising the storyline , the themes and the author 's style of writing . " In a feat worthy of his heroic subjects , Riordan crafts a sequel stronger than his compelling debut , " said a Publishers Weekly review . School Library Journal singled out the novel 's plot and main character , stating , " Percy is an appealing kid , and the subject of a chilling prophecy may resonate with readers . " Child magazine wrote , " Featuring the cliff @-@ hangers and sassy attitude kids loved in The Lightning Thief – plus a surprising new family secret – this outstanding sequel should win over a fresh legion of fans . " Children 's Literature called the writing extraordinary and added , " This book , sequel to The Lightning Thief , is an amazing mixture of mythology and young adult fiction . " Matt Berman , of Common Sense Media , praised the book , saying " The Percy Jackson series continues to be pure fun , with the author doing nearly everything right to produce a book that few kids will be able to resist . " Norah Piehl of Kidsreads.com lauded the style of the book , and noted similarities with its prequel . It sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies in hardcover by the time paperback copies were released in April 2007 . However , Kirkus was critical of the book , writing , " it 's doubtful Percy wouldn 't guess Tyson 's otherworldly connection immediately after the dodgeball game ... some of the humor will zip over the heads of the target audience " although they added , " Percy 's sardonic narration and derring @-@ do would keep the pages turning . " = = = Awards = = = 2006 Book Sense Top Ten Summer Pick 2006 Child magazine Best Book 2006 Kirkus Reviews Best Fantasy Sequel 2006 Barnes & Noble Best of 2006 for Kids & Teens 2006 Voice of Youth Advocates ( VOYA ) Top Shelf Fiction Pick for Middle School Readers 2007 Cooperative Children 's Book Center choice 2007 Young Adult Library Services Association ( YALSA ) Best Book for Young Adults 2009 Mark Twain Award ( Riordan 's The Lightning Thief won the previous year ) = = Adaptations = = = = = Audiobook = = = On September 6 , 2006 , a seven @-@ hour and 54 minute audiobook version of The Sea of Monsters , read by actor Jesse Bernstein , who also narrated The Lightning Thief 's audiobook , was published worldwide by Listening Library . AudioFile magazine praised the audio book , raving , " This action @-@ packed book ( second in a series ) will delight fans of Percy Jackson , the half @-@ blood son of Poseidon , as Percy once again battles mythical monsters in modern @-@ day settings while on his mission to save the tree that guards Camp Half @-@ Blood . " They praised Bernstein , saying " Narrator Jesse Berns helps listeners slip right into the oddly engaging world that Riordan creates , in which contemporary teen characters and those from classical mythology intermingle " and that he could successfully portray teenagers , while keeping the pace fast allowing listeners time to revel in the book 's humor . Auditions have already been cast for this yet to be blockbuster . There may still be a few spaces for extras , though . The magazine Publishers Weekly raved about Bernstein 's " snappy delivery and all the right funny touches " that made the " action @-@ packed fantasy such fun . " = = = Film adaptation = = = Following the box office and DVD success of the movie , Percy Jackson & the Olympians : The Lightning Thief , a film adaptation of The Sea of Monsters was first reported in early 2011 . In fall 2011 , it was confirmed that 20th Century Fox would release the film on March 27 , 2013 . Filming began in April 2012 . In February 2012 , Mary Birdsong , Missi Pyle and Yvette Nicole Brown were cast as the Gray Sisters . In March 2012 , Nathan Fillion joined the cast as Hermes and Anthony Head , replacing Pierce Brosnan , as Chiron . In April 2012 , Paloma Kwiatkowski was cast as Thalia and The Hunger Games star Leven Rambin has been cast as Clarisse La Rue . It was announced on May 8 , 2012 that the film had moved up to March 15 , 2013 . But later it was postponed for an August 16 , 2013 release . Fox decided on a final release date for August 7 , 2013 . Logan Lerman returned as Percy Jackson in the movie . Jake Abel also returned to the role of Luke Castellan . On January 2012 The Secret Circle star Grey Damon was cast as Chris Rodriguez . According to Alexandra Daddario , the film would be more similar to the book than the first film . = = = Graphic novel = = = It has been published as a graphic novel . = = Sequel = = The novel was followed by The Titan 's Curse , released on May 1 , 2007 . In The Titan 's Curse , Percy , Grover , Annabeth and Thalia go to a school to recruit two powerful demigods . Like its predecessors , this book was well received and reviewers praised its humorous style and the plot of the story .
= Cliché ( Hush Hush ) ( song ) = " Cliché ( Hush Hush ) " is a song recorded by Romanian recording artist Alexandra Stan for her Japan @-@ only reissue of the same name ( 2013 ) . Written and produced by Marcel Prodan and Andrei Nemirschi , it was released for digital download on 3 October 2012 through MediaPro . Described as a dance @-@ pop track that features eurodance elements into its sound , " Cliché ( Hush Hush ) " discusses different themes of love . An accompanying music video for the single was posted onto YouTube on 27 September 2012 , being filmed by Iulian Moga at Palatul Snagov . It was generally praised by music critics , with Los 40 Principales citing it under their list of Stan 's best clips . Particularly , a scene of the video was compared to vampire movies for teenagers , while another one to 1970s film works . The track peaked at number 11 in Japan and within the top 50 in her native country and Italy ; it was promoted by several live performances , including a tour throughout the United States and an appearance at French music event Starlooor 2012 . = = Composition = = According to Romanian sources , " Cliché ( Hush Hush ) " is a " dynamic " dance @-@ pop track that incorporates influences of eurodance into its sound ; its lyrics speak about love . About the message of the song , Stan confessed that it " shows love in different ways and portrays as well relationships between obvious couples , which fall into a certain pattern . Love can transform everyone and everything in the most wonderful and important thing in the universe " . Alvaro from Spanish music website Popelera pointed out major differences between the dance style of the track and that of its predecessor , " Lemoande " ( 2012 ) , while Mia , writing for Romanian portal Info Music , drew comparisons with the Pussycat Dolls ' single " Hush Hush ; Hush Hush " ( 2009 ) . = = Music video = = An accompanying music video for the song was uploaded onto the YouTube channel of Stan 's label , Maan Studio , on 27 September 2012 , after teasing it on 19 September . The clip was filmed by Iulian Moga at Palatul Snagov It commences with Stan entering a party hall in sepia while being pictured by a photographer . Following her flirting with the man , she leaves the room and the video introduces to pool @-@ party in normal color , where Stan dances along with fellow background dancers sporting a pink outfit . Next , the singer is shown in a dark hall , sitting on an old @-@ fashioned couch . Following this , Stan is portrayed in a church , with her body and face being covered by a red robe ; fellow black @-@ clothed people surround her . Subsequently , scenes with the singer and her love interest from a hotel room are shown , after which the clip ends with the people from the church scene getting out of disguise and running through the hall in white lingerie , followed by Stan dancing around a fire after letting candles falling down at a date with her boyfriend . Alexandra Necula , writing for music website Info Music , compared the opening scene of the video to 1970s films , while stating that some parts of the clip did not match with the song 's message . She went on to compare the church scene to vampire films for teenagers ; Necula stated that one of the outfits sported by Stan were inspired by S & M fetish . Showbiz.ro felt that the " 80s vibe of the video coincided with the melodic line " . Los 40 Principales cited the video as one of Stan 's best clips ever . = = Live performances = = In order to promote " Cliché ( Hush Hush ) " , Stan embarked on a tour in the United States . She also provided live performances of the song throughout her concert tours that promoted the Japan @-@ only reissue . Furthermore , Stan sang the song in a medley with " Mr. Saxobeat " , " Get Back ( ASAP ) " and " Lemonade " at French event Starfloor 2012 . = = Track listing = = = = Credits and personnel = = Credits adapted from the liner notes of Cliché ( Hush Hush ) and The Collection . Alexandra Stan – lead vocals Iulian Moga – director Andrei Nemirschi – songwriter , producer , photography Maan Studio – recording studio Marcel Prodan – songwriter , producer Iliaro Drago – artists and repertoire = = Charts = = = = = Weekly charts = = = = = Release history = =
= Andriamanelo = Andriamanelo ( 1540 – 1575 ) was King of Alasora in the central highlands region of Madagascar . He is generally considered by historians to be the founder of the Kingdom of Imerina and originator of the Merina royal line that , by the 19th century , had extended its rule over virtually all of Madagascar . The son of a Vazimba mother and a man of the newly arrived Hova people originating in southeast Madagascar , Andriamanelo ultimately led a series of military campaigns against the Vazimba , beginning a several @-@ decade process to drive them from the Highlands . The conflict that defined his reign also produced many lasting innovations , including the development of fortified villages in the highlands and the use of iron weapons . Oral tradition furthermore credits Andriamanelo with establishing a ruling class of nobles ( andriana ) and defining the rules of succession . Numerous cultural traditions , including the ritual of circumcision , the wedding custom of vodiondry and the art of Malagasy astrology ( sikidy ) are likewise associated with this king . = = Early life = = Andriamanelo was the oldest son of the reigning Vazimba queen ( alternately given in the oral histories as Rafohy or Rangita ) and her Hova husband Manelobe , who may have had origins in the Zafiraminia people of Anosy . At the time of the marriage between Rafohy and Manelobe , the Hova were a minority clan who had recently moved into the Vazimba @-@ dominated highlands from their ancestral homeland in the southeast . The marriage produced two sons , Andriamanelo and his younger brother Andriamananitany , as well as a sister named Rafotsindrindramanjaka . In a bid to counteract further fracturing of their kingdom , Rafohy and Rangita decided that while the Vazimba had historically been ruled by queens , Andriamanelo would inherit the crown upon his mother 's death and would be succeeded not by his own child but by his younger brother . This system of succession , ordered by the queens to be followed for all time , was called fanjakana arindra ( " organized government " ) and applied to families as well : in any instance where there was an elder child and a younger one , the parents would designate an elder child to assume authority within the family upon their death , and that authority would be handed to the designated younger child in the event of the death of the elder child . The queen gave the village of Alasora to Andriamanelo to rule as his territory while she still lived , while Andriamananitany was given the village of Ambohitrandriananahary . = = Reign = = Among the distinguishing features of Andriamanelo 's reign was the expansion of his territory around the sacred hill of Alasora through a military campaign against the Vazimba to push these legendary , primitive first settlers of Madagascar toward the west of the island . After Andriamanelo had successfully expanded his kingdom to include Alasora to the south and Merimanjaka to the north , the continued presence of a Vazimba stronghold at Analamanga ( located between the two halves of his realm and effectively separating them ) posed too great a threat to the unity of his kingdom to allow the situation to stand . He resolved to capture Analamanga and drive the Vazimba from his territory , an ambition partially realized during his reign . Popular legend attributes Andriamanelo 's military successes to several innovations , including the discovery of iron smelting and propagation of the iron @-@ tipped spear against the Vazimba who fought with weapons of clay . He also fortified his capital at Alasora by creating hadivory ( dry moats ) , hadifetsy ( defensive trenches ) and vavahady ( town gates protected by a large rolled stone disc acting as a barrier ) , thereby rendering the town more resistant to Vazimba attacks . However , his attempt to establish Merina dominance in the central Highlands was thwarted when he proved unable to seize Analamanga ; this Vazimba stronghold would not fall until at last conquered by Andriamanelo 's grandson , Andrianjaka . Warfare was not the only strategy by which Andriamanelo sought to expand the territory under his control . Several years into his reign ( after the death of his younger brother ) Andriamanelo married a maternal cousin named Ramaitsoanala ( " Green Forest " ) who was a princess through her astrologer father , King Rabiby ( for whom his capital , the village of Ambohidrabiby , is named ) , and her mother Ivorombe who is described in legends as a Vazimba water goddess . Through this union Andriamanelo ensured he would become master of the lands around Ambohidrabiby upon the death of his wife 's father . Ramaitsoanala took the name Randapavola upon her marriage and then became known as Queen Rasolobe upon the birth of the couple 's seventh and final son , Ralambo — the only one of Andriamanelo 's children to survive to adulthood . Six earlier pregnancies ended in stillbirth or the death of the child in infancy . Andriamanelo is typically portrayed as a civilizing king in contrast to the primitive Vazimba against whom he waged war . As such , oral history credits him with discovering such diverse arts as silversmithing and astrology ( sikidy ) in addition to iron working . He reputedly introduced knowledge about the construction and use of pirogues , and was the first in the highlands to transform lowland swamps into irrigated rice paddies through the construction of dikes in the valleys around Alasora . The Merina rite of circumcision , described by Bloch ( 1986 ) in great detail , continued to be practiced by the Merina monarchy through the end of the 19th century in precisely the way first established by Andriamanelo generations before . Many elements of these rituals continue to form part of the circumcision traditions of Merina families in the 21st century . Many of the innovations attributed to Andriamanelo were not his personal invention . Rather , their origins can be traced back to the southeastern part of the island that the Hova had left behind as they migrated into the central highlands . Astrology , for instance , had been introduced early to the island by way of trade contacts between coastal Malagasy communities and Arab seafarers . Similarly , archaeological evidence proves the existence of iron implements in Madagascar at least four centuries prior to the war between Andriamanelo and the Vazimba , suggesting that while the technology was not discovered during his reign , Andriamanelo may have been among the first sovereigns in Imerina to make wide @-@ scale use of it in military campaigns . = = = Rules of succession = = = Andriamanelo 's antecedents , Rafohy and Rangita , had jointly decreed a system of social order whereby the designated heir should have a younger sibling who would succeed him . However , this decree proved challenging upon the first instance of its application . According to oral tradition , upon Rafohy 's designation of elder son Andriamanelo as her successor , her younger son Andriamananitany initially claimed to accept her decree . However , Andriamananitany soon began building a new village immodestly named Ambohitrandriamanitra ( " Village of God " ) and copied the system of fortifications introduced by his older brother at Alasora , reportedly constructing them even faster than Andriamanelo . Word spread that Andriamananitany wished to undermine his older brother 's rule . Upon learning of Andriamanelo 's consequent wrath , Andriamananitany promptly abandoned his " Village of God " and sought permission from his brother to build a village called Ambohimanoa ( " Village of Submission " ) where , according to one version of the oral history , he may have imprudently attempted to construct another defensive trench . Due to this provocative behavior , Andriamanantany was murdered by a group of Hova , possibly at Andriamanelo 's command . Consumed with remorse , the king sought to rectify the situation by arranging a marriage between his brother 's orphaned son and Andriamanelo 's own sister ( the orphan 's aunt ) , Rafotsindrindramanjaka . He declared that the child from this union would , if female , be wed to his own son Ralambo ; if male , he would become Ralambo 's successor . A girl was born , and she was promised to Ralambo as his future wife with the stipulation that the child born of their union would rule after Ralambo . In this way Andriamanelo established a tradition of succession that indirectly respected the queens ' decree by ensuring that a child of his brother 's line ( and his own ) would rule after him . Because of this decree , Ralambo 's first son by his second wife was passed over in the line of succession in favor of Andrianjaka , Ralambo 's son by Rafotsindrindramanjaka . Andriamanelo was also reportedly the first to formally establish the andriana as a caste of Merina nobles , thereby laying the foundation for a stratified and structured society . From this point forward , the term Hova was used to refer only to the non @-@ noble free people of the society which would later be renamed Merina by Andriamanelo 's son Ralambo . = = = Vodiondry = = = The marriage tradition of the vodiondry , still practiced to this day throughout the Highlands , is said to have originated with Andriamanelo . According to oral history , after the sovereign had successfully contracted a marriage with Ramaitsoanala , sole daughter of Vazimba King Rabiby , Andriamanelo sent her a variety of gifts including vodiondry — meat from the hindquarters of a sheep — which he believed to be the tastiest portion . The value placed on this cut of meat was reaffirmed by Ralambo who , upon discovering the edibility of zebu meat , declared the hindquarters of every slaughtered zebu throughout the kingdom to be his royal due . From the time of Andriamanelo forward , it became a marriage tradition for the groom to offer vodiondry to the bride 's family . Over time the customary offerings of meat have been increasingly replaced by a symbolic piastre , sums of money and other gifts . = = Death and succession = = Andriamanelo ruled until his death at an advanced age around 1575 and was succeeded by his only surviving son , Ralambo . He was buried in Alasora in an earthen ditch . According to oral tradition , the placement of his tomb may have been to the south @-@ east of the royal compound rather than to the north as was customary . This anomaly may have been intended to symbolically indicate Andriamanelo 's " otherness " as a man of mixed ethnic background . A similar tomb to the north of the Alasora compound may have been that of Andriamanelo 's mother . These two earthen tombs are considered the oldest known royal @-@ style tombs in Imerina .
= M @-@ 20 ( Michigan highway ) = M @-@ 20 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan that runs from New Era to Midland . It crosses through rural Lower Peninsula forest land between the two ends . The highway serves the college towns of Big Rapids and Mt . Pleasant , home of the main campuses of Ferris State University and Central Michigan University , both located near the trunkline . Originally in July 1919 , M @-@ 20 was routed farther north along a corridor now used by US Highway 10 ( US 10 ) . The M @-@ 20 designation was shifted south to the corridor it now follows . It previously connected to Bay City , and in 1958 , a freeway was opened from Bay City to Midland . The former M @-@ 20 along Midland Road , going through Auburn , was returned to local control at that time . In 1960 , the M @-@ 20 freeway became US 10 , moving M @-@ 20 's terminus to Midland . Prior to 1969 , M @-@ 20 extended on the west end to Muskegon before it was rerouted from White Cloud to New Era . = = Route description = = M @-@ 20 starts near Lake Michigan at the US 31 freeway in New Era where it runs east through the Manistee National Forest , crossing the North Branch of the White River near Ferry and the South Branch near Hesperia on the way to White Cloud . There it turns south along M @-@ 37 and then east along a new routing following Baseline and Newcosta roads north of the Hardy Dam to meet the US 131 freeway at exit 131 near Stanwood . M @-@ 20 turns north , running concurrently along the US 131 freeway to Big Rapids and joins Business US 131 ( Bus . US 131 ) at exit 139 . The section along the freeway is listed on the National Highway System ( NHS ) , a system of highways important to the nation 's economy , defense and mobility . Together Bus . US 131 / M @-@ 20 runs along the Perry Street commercial corridor to State Street near the main campus of Ferris State University . The business loop turns north by the campus and at Michigan Street , M @-@ 20 turns eastward to cross the Muskegon River in downtown Big Rapids , north of the campus . M @-@ 20 zig @-@ zags southeast of town bypassing the Canadian Lakes area and turns due east through rural Remus in Isabella County and the Isabella Indian Reservation . In Mt . Pleasant , M @-@ 20 runs near the campus of Central Michigan University crossing the Chippewa River , and the trunkline joins Bus . US 127 along the Mission Street business area to Pickard Road . The highway turns east on Pickard and passes under the US 127 freeway near the Soaring Eagle Casino . From Mt . Pleasant to Midland , M @-@ 20 is designed as a four – lane highway with a continuous center turn lane passing through rural forest land . M @-@ 20 picks up inclusion on the NHS from this point east . Once M @-@ 20 reaches Midland on Jerome Street , it crosses the Tittabawassee River north of the Tridge , a three @-@ legged bridge over the confluence of the Tittabawassee and Chippewa rivers . There it joins Business US 10 ( Bus . US 10 ) on a pair of one @-@ way streets : Indian Street ( westbound ) and Buttles Street ( eastbound ) . The two streets pass by Dow Diamond , home to the Great Lakes Loons , the city 's minor league baseball team . Bus . US 10 / M @-@ 20 then passes some Dow Chemical Company buildings and curves into a freeway stub connecting with the US 10 freeway on the east side of town . This short section of business loop freeway has two interchanges before terminating at one final interchange . At this junction , both Bus . US 10 and M @-@ 20 have a common eastern terminus . Traffic headed eastbound on the business loop defaults onto eastbound US 10 , and traffic destined for the business loop is fed from the westbound direction of the freeway only . = = History = = = = = Previous designation = = = On July 1 , 1919 , M @-@ 20 was routed from Ludington to Bay City , Michigan by way of Reed City and Clare . This routing was redesignated as US 10 on November 11 , 1926 . M @-@ 20 would be moved to a new routing . = = = Current designation = = = The M @-@ 20 designation was moved to a new alignment , roughly today 's current routing from Midland through Mt . Pleasant , Big Rapids and White Cloud continuing to Muskegon . The western terminus was extended to end at Muskegon State Park in 1932 . The last paving would be completed along M @-@ 20 in 1957 in Newaygo County . The eastern end of M @-@ 20 was converted to freeway between Midland and Bay City in 1958 . The former alignment along Midland Road , from Midland , going through Auburn , and ending at Euclid Avenue in Bay City , at the junction of what was then US 23 , was returned to local control at the time . US 10 was rerouted along this freeway section and the I @-@ 75 / US 23 freeway in 1960 . M @-@ 20 was truncated back to Midland with the US 10 rerouting . The west end was rerouted through Muskegon to end at US 16 in 1961 . The former routing connecting to Muskegon State Park became a new M @-@ 213 until it was removed from the trunkline system in 1970 . M @-@ 20 was completely rerouted on the west end in 1969 from White Cloud replacing M @-@ 82 to US 31 in New Era . The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) swapped jurisdiction of M @-@ 20 and B @-@ 88 with Mecosta and Newaygo counties . The swap was finalized on October 1 , 1998 . M @-@ 20 was rerouted south from Big Rapids , along US 131 from exit 139 to exit 131 at Stanwood . There M @-@ 20 replaced B @-@ 88 westward to M @-@ 37 . = = Major intersections = = All exits are unnumbered .
= Bullet Club = The Bullet Club ( バレットクラブ , Barettokurabu ) , sometimes shortened to BC , is a professional wrestling group , primarily appearing in the Japanese promotion New Japan Pro Wrestling ( NJPW ) . In the U.S. , the group appears most notably in Ring of Honor ( ROH ) . The group was formed in May 2013 , when Irish wrestler Prince Devitt turned on his partner Ryusuke Taguchi and came together with American wrestler Karl Anderson and Tongan wrestlers Bad Luck Fale and Tama Tonga to form a villainous stable of foreigners , which they subsequently named " Bullet Club " . Before the end of the year , the stable was also joined by three other Americans ; The Young Bucks ( Matt Jackson and Nick Jackson ) and Doc Gallows . Wrestlers from the Mexican Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre ( CMLL ) promotion have also worked tours of NJPW as members of Bullet Club , which led to the formation of an offshoot group named Bullet Club Latinoamerica in CMLL in October 2013 . At the end of 2013 , Bullet Club held both the IWGP Junior Heavyweight and IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championships , while also having conquered three of NJPW 's five annual tournaments . The stable marked a major turning point for the career of Devitt , a longtime fan favorite , who began his ascent out of the junior heavyweight division and into the IWGP Heavyweight Championship picture . In April 2014 , Devitt left NJPW and was replaced in Bullet Club by American wrestler A.J. Styles . The following month , Bullet Club received its first Japanese member , when Yujiro Takahashi joined and helped Styles capture the IWGP Heavyweight Championship . The following June , members of Bullet Club also won the IWGP Intercontinental and NEVER Openweight Championships , meaning that the stable had now held all titles NJPW had to offer . When NJPW added a seventh title , the NEVER Openweight 6 @-@ Man Tag Team Championship , at the start of 2016 , Bullet Club quickly won that as well . The stable continued adding members , most notably Canadian Kenny Omega , who took over its leadership in early 2016 , when Styles , Anderson , and Gallows all left NJPW for WWE — with this trio appearing in WWE as " The Club " in reference to the group . = = Concept = = Bullet Club was conceived by New Japan Pro Wrestling ( NJPW ) in early 2013 , following a positive fan response to a storyline , where Prince Devitt turned on his longtime tag team partner Ryusuke Taguchi to form a villainous partnership with Bad Luck Fale . Originally , Devitt and Fale were scheduled to go on as a duo , but the storyline was altered with them instead coming together with Karl Anderson and Tama Tonga to form an all @-@ gaijin ( foreigner ) stable . Devitt came up with the name Bullet Club , which was in reference to his finger gun hand gesture and " Real Shooter " nickname and Anderson 's nickname , " The Machine Gun " . In naming the group , Devitt has stated that he specifically did not want the word " the " in front of the name or a name consisting of just three letters . Other names considered for the group included " Bullet Parade " and " Bullet League " . As of May 2016 , the Bullet Club trademark is owned by NJPW . Behind the scenes , the four founding members of Bullet Club were best friends and travel partners . The group has been compared to the World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) stable New World Order ( nWo ) . As a way of paying homage to the nWo , members of Bullet Club began using the stable 's signature " Too Sweet " hand gesture . In March 2015 , WWE filed a trademark application for the hand gesture . Some , including Matt and Nick Jackson , suggested this was done due to Bullet Club 's popularity . The application was ultimately abandoned by WWE . In August 2015 , after Devitt had joined WWE as " Finn Bálor " , WWE released " Bálor Club " merchandise playing off Bullet Club . WWE recognized Bullet Club in the first week of January 2016 , when discussing rumors about members of the stable joining the promotion , preceding A.J. Styles ' debut in the WWE as a 2016 Royal Rumble contestant . In April 2016 , the former Bullet Club tag team of Karl Anderson and Luke Gallows debuted for WWE , with their NJPW background again being acknowledged by the company , eventually forming " The Club " with Styles . nWo 's founding member Kevin Nash has praised Bullet Club as a more athletic version of the nWo , stating that there is mutual respect between the two stables , and informally passing the torch from his stable to Bullet Club . Jeff Jarrett , who has represented both Bullet Club and nWo , has named in @-@ ring ability as the main difference between the two stables , stating " Bullet Club is off the charts bell to bell more talented " . Former NJPW wrestler Matt Bloom has stated that Bullet Club 's popularity helped the promotion become global . Bullet Club 's matches often involve excessive outside interference , ref bumps and other tactics , which are more common in " American " professional wrestling and are rarely seen in Japanese puroresu , even in matches involving other villainous acts . This disregard for Japanese traditions and culture got the stable over as a top act . Bullet Club has garnered a substantial amount of worldwide popularity , especially among American professional wrestling fans . As of March 2016 , the stable 's original " Bone Soldier " shirt was the top selling shirt on the Pro Wrestling Tees store , outselling all top independent wrestlers and WWE veterans that are affiliated with the site . Bullet Club 's popularity in the United States has led to members of the stable working as babyfaces at events held in the country . = = History = = = = = Formation ( 2013 ) = = = On February 3 , 2013 , IWGP Junior Heavyweight Champion Prince Devitt pinned IWGP Heavyweight Champion Hiroshi Tanahashi in a tag team match , where he and Karl Anderson faced Tanahashi and Devitt 's longtime Apollo 55 tag team partner Ryusuke Taguchi . This led to a match between Devitt and Tanahashi on March 3 at NJPW 's 41st anniversary event . Though neither man 's title was on the line in the match , Tanahashi vowed to relinquish the IWGP Heavyweight Championship in case Devitt was victorious . After defeating Devitt , Tanahashi went to help his opponent up , but was pushed away by the disappointed Junior Heavyweight Champion . The following weeks , Devitt began portraying a more cocky and villainous persona , regularly disrespecting both partners and opponents , with the exception of Ryusuke Taguchi , whom he tried to get to go along with his new attitude . However , this changed on April 7 at the Invasion Attack pay @-@ per @-@ view , when Devitt turned on Taguchi , after the two had failed to recapture the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship from the Time Splitters ( Alex Shelley and Kushida ) . During the attack , Devitt was helped by the returning King Fale , who attacked not only Taguchi , but also Shelley , Kushida and Captain New Japan , whom Devitt then proceeded to unmask . Following the attack , Devitt took a microphone , introduced Fale as his new " bouncer " , giving him the new name " The Underboss " Bad Luck Fale and dubbed himself the " Real Rock ' n ' Rolla " . At the following pay @-@ per @-@ view , Wrestling Dontaku 2013 on May 3 , Devitt and Fale teamed up for the first time to defeat Taguchi and Captain New Japan in a tag team match . Later in the event , Devitt and Fale entered the ring to attack the now former IWGP Heavyweight Champion Hiroshi Tanahashi , after he had defeated Karl Anderson in a singles match . Anderson first went to stop Devitt and Fale , but then turned on Tanahashi , hitting him with the Gun Stun . As the three men continued their attack on Tanahashi , they were also joined by Tama Tonga , with whom Anderson had formed a partnership during the past two weeks . In a post @-@ match interview , the four men announced the formation of an all @-@ gaijin stable named " Bullet Club " . = = = Prince Devitt 's leadership ( 2013 – 2014 ) = = = The four members of Bullet Club wrestled their first match together on May 22 , when they defeated Captain New Japan , Hiroshi Tanahashi , Manabu Nakanishi and Ryusuke Taguchi in an eight @-@ man tag team match . Two days later , Devitt entered the 2013 Best of the Super Juniors tournament , where he won his block with a clean record of eight wins and zero losses , advancing to the knockout stage on June 9 , where he first defeated Kenny Omega in the semifinals and then Alex Shelley in the finals to win the tournament , after which he proceeded to challenge Hiroshi Tanahashi . Devitt 's old tag team partner Ryusuke Taguchi had originally earned a spot in the semifinals of the tournament , but a legitimate hip injury forced him to pull out . During the following day 's press conference , Devitt also mentioned a move to the heavyweight division , aiming to become the first wrestler to hold the IWGP Junior Heavyweight and IWGP Heavyweight Championships simultaneously . On June 22 at Dominion 6 @.@ 22 , Devitt defeated Tanahashi , again following interference from the rest of the Bullet Club , to earn his first @-@ ever shot at the IWGP Heavyweight Championship . The reigning champion , Kazuchika Okada , accepted Devitt 's challenge for the title later in the event on the condition that he first defend the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship against his Chaos stablemate Gedo . Bullet Club 's feud with Tanahashi continued at the July 5 Kizuna Road 2013 pay @-@ per @-@ view , where Tama Tonga and visiting Mexican wrestler Terrible lost the Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre ( CMLL ) World Tag Team Championship to Tanahashi and Jushin Thunder Liger . Terrible worked also the rest of his two @-@ week NJPW tour as a member of Bullet Club . After successfully defending his IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship against Gedo , Devitt received his match for the IWGP Heavyweight Championship on July 20 , but was defeated by Okada , despite interference from the rest of Bullet Club . From August 1 to 11 , both Devitt and Anderson took part in the 2013 G1 Climax , wrestling in separate round @-@ robin blocks . During the tournament , Devitt picked up big wins , albeit through outside interference , over reigning IWGP Heavyweight Champion Kazuchika Okada and former champions Hiroshi Tanahashi , Satoshi Kojima and Togi Makabe , but failed to advance from his block . Meanwhile , Anderson entered the final day with a chance to reach the finals , but a loss against Tetsuya Naito eliminated him from the tournament . On September 5 , Rey Bucanero , another CMLL wrestler , started a NJPW tour working as a member of Bullet Club . On September 14 , the rest of Bullet Club helped Bucanero and Tama Tonga defeat Hiroshi Tanahashi and Jushin Thunder Liger for the CMLL World Tag Team Championship . The rivalry between Devitt and Tanahashi culminated in a Lumberjack Deathmatch on September 29 at Destruction , where Tanahashi was victorious . On October 11 , Tonga and Bucanero returned to CMLL , where they formed " Bullet Club Latinoamerica " with CMLL World Heavyweight Champion Terrible and female wrestler and manager La Comandante . However , a week later , Tonga and Bucanero were stripped of the CMLL World Tag Team Championship , when they were unable to defend the title against La Máscara and Rush due to Bucanero being sidelined with an injury . On October 25 , American tag team The Young Bucks ( Matt Jackson and Nick Jackson ) made their NJPW debut as the newest members of Bullet Club by entering the 2013 Super Jr . Tag Tournament . In early November , The Young Bucks first defeated the Forever Hooligans ( Alex Koslov and Rocky Romero ) in the finals to win the tournament , and then Suzuki @-@ gun ( Taichi and Taka Michinoku ) to become the new IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Champions . On November 11 , NJPW announced the participating teams in the 2013 World Tag League . In the tournament , Bullet Club would be represented by two teams in separate blocks ; Devitt and Fale in block A and Anderson and the debuting American Doc Gallows in block B. On December 7 , both teams entered the final day of the round @-@ robin portion of the tournament with a chance to advance to the semifinals . Anderson and Gallows won their block with a record of four wins and two losses by defeating NWA World Tag Team Champions The IronGodz ( Jax Dane and Rob Conway ) , while Devitt and Fale were eliminated with a record of three wins and three losses , after losing to Captain New Japan and Hiroshi Tanahashi , who had lost all their other matches in the tournament . The following day , Anderson and Gallows first defeated Togi Makabe and Tomoaki Honma in the semifinals and then Hiroyoshi Tenzan and Satoshi Kojima in the finals to win the tournament . This led to a match on January 4 , 2014 , at Wrestle Kingdom 8 in Tokyo Dome , where they defeated K.E.S. ( Davey Boy Smith Jr. and Lance Archer ) to win the IWGP Tag Team Championship . During the same event , Devitt lost the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship to Kota Ibushi , ending his fourteen @-@ month reign . February 's The New Beginning tour featured Bullet Club defending both of their tag team championships and the re @-@ ignition of a rivalry between Devitt and his former partner Ryusuke Taguchi , who returned from an eight @-@ month injury break . Devitt dominated his encounters with Taguchi for most of the tour , including pinning him in his return eight @-@ man tag team match on February 2 , but at the tour ending event , The New Beginning in Osaka , Taguchi pinned his former partner in a tag team match , where he teamed with Togi Makabe and Devitt with Fale . In March , Bad Luck Fale made it to the finals of the 2014 New Japan Cup , but was defeated there by Shinsuke Nakamura . As the one @-@ year anniversary of the break @-@ up of Apollo 55 approached , the rivalry between Devitt and Taguchi escalated , leading to Taguchi challenging his rival to a Loser Leaves Town match . The stipulation , however , was never made official for their April 6 Invasion Attack 2014 match . During the match , Devitt got into an argument with The Young Bucks , after the two repeatedly interfered in the match despite his orders not to do so . This led to The Young Bucks turning on Devitt , who responded by diving onto his Bullet Club stablemates . After Taguchi defeated Devitt , the two men shook hands , ending their rivalry with each other and Devitt 's association with Bullet Club . Devitt 's resignation from NJPW was announced the following day . = = = Rebirth and championship dominance ( 2014 – 2015 ) = = = Later at Invasion Attack 2014 , American wrestler A.J. Styles debuted as the newest member of Bullet Club , attacking IWGP Heavyweight Champion Kazuchika Okada . Styles , who knew Okada from their days working together for the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) promotion , claimed that Okada was still the same " young boy " ( rookie ) he had known in TNA and asserted himself as the next challenger for his title . Following Invasion Attack 2014 , with Styles still working a full schedule on the American independent circuit and only booked to work NJPW 's larger events , Anderson was positioned as the new leader of Bullet Club . However , Styles was considered the leader of the Ring of Honor ( ROH ) version of Bullet Club , a role which was also given to him by NJPW by the end of 2015 . On May 3 at Wrestling Dontaku 2014 , Styles defeated Okada to become the new IWGP Heavyweight Champion , when Yujiro Takahashi turned on Okada and the Chaos stable and jumped to Bullet Club , becoming its first Japanese member . With Bullet Club capturing NJPW 's top title , while also holding both of its tag team titles , and adding new members , this was billed as a " rebirth " for the stable , which was celebrating its one @-@ year anniversary during the event . Later in the month , Bullet Club took part in NJPW 's North American tour , produced in collaboration with ROH . On June 21 at Dominion 6 @.@ 21 , The Young Bucks ' seven @-@ month reign as the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Champions came to an end , when they were defeated by the Time Splitters in their sixth defense . Later that same event , Bad Luck Fale defeated Shinsuke Nakamura to become the new IWGP Intercontinental Champion . On June 29 , Yujiro Takahashi brought another title over to the Bullet Club , when he defeated Tomohiro Ishii with help from his stablemates for the NEVER Openweight Championship . With the win , Bullet Club had won every title in NJPW , now simultaneously holding all four of its heavyweight titles . From July 21 to August 8 , five members of Bullet Club took part in the 2014 G1 Climax with Fale and Gallows wrestling in block A and Anderson , Styles and Takahashi in block B. All five failed to advance from their blocks with Fale finishing third and Gallows ninth in their block of eleven and Styles finishing second , Anderson third and Takahashi tied sixth in their block . Styles was eliminated due to losing to block winner Okada in their head @-@ to @-@ head match . On August 10 , Global Force Wrestling ( GFW ) founder Jeff Jarrett joined Bullet Club , attacking Hiroshi Tanahashi after he had defeated Styles in a non @-@ title match . On September 21 at Destruction in Kobe , Fale lost the IWGP Intercontinental Championship back to Shinsuke Nakamura in his first defense . Bullet Club lost their two remaining singles titles on October 13 at King of Pro @-@ Wrestling with Takahashi losing the NEVER Openweight Championship back to Tomohiro Ishii in his second title defense , while in the main event Styles lost the IWGP Heavyweight Championship to Hiroshi Tanahashi in his third defense , after Jeff Jarrett 's outside interference was stopped by the returning Yoshitatsu . On November 8 at Power Struggle , Kenny Omega , who had joined NJPW at the beginning of the month , became the newest member of Bullet Club , challenging Ryusuke Taguchi to a match for the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship . Omega had earlier dismissed the idea of joining Bullet Club as he did not consider himself a gaijin after six years of living in Japan , but now claimed he had lied and only wanted money and the title . Refusing to speak Japanese despite being fluent in the language , Omega dubbed himself " The Cleaner " with the idea of him being there to " clean up " the junior heavyweight division . From November 22 to December 5 , three Bullet Club teams took part in the 2014 World Tag League ; Anderson and Gallows and Styles and Takahashi in block A and Fale and Tonga in block B. Anderson and Gallows won their block with a record of five wins and two losses , while Styles and Takahashi finished close behind with four wins and three losses . Styles and Takahashi were victorious over the reigning IWGP Tag Team Champions in the head @-@ to @-@ head match between the Bullet Club teams , but were left behind them in the final standings due to losing to Okada and Yoshi @-@ Hashi on the final day . Meanwhile , Fale and Tonga finished at the bottom of their block with a record of three wins and four losses . On December 7 , Anderson and Gallows were defeated in the finals of the tournament by Hirooki Goto and Katsuyori Shibata . On January 4 , 2015 , at Wrestle Kingdom 9 in Tokyo Dome , Omega , in his first match as a member of Bullet Club , defeated Ryusuke Taguchi to become the new IWGP Junior Heavyweight Champion , while Anderson and Gallows lost the IWGP Tag Team Championship to Goto and Shibata , ending their year @-@ long reign in their seventh defense . The following day , Cody Hall , the son of nWo founding member Scott Hall , joined Bullet Club as the stable 's personal " young boy " with Anderson stating that he would have to earn his spot as a full @-@ fledged member . Later that month , NJPW relaunched Bullet Club Latin America in time for the Fantastica Mania 2015 tour , co @-@ produced by NJPW and CMLL . On January 18 , during the fifth day of Fantastica Mania 2015 , CMLL wrestler Mephisto joined Bullet Club , prior to successfully defending his Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship against Stuka Jr . On February 11 at The New Beginning in Osaka , The Young Bucks regained the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship by defeating defending champions reDRagon ( Bobby Fish and Kyle O 'Reilly ) and Time Splitters in a three @-@ way match . Later that same event , Anderson and Gallows regained the IWGP Tag Team Championship from Goto and Shibata , while in the main event A.J. Styles defeated Hiroshi Tanahashi to also bring the IWGP Heavyweight Championship back to Bullet Club . Both of Bullet Club 's tag team championship reigns ended in their first title defenses on April 5 at Invasion Attack 2015 with The Young Bucks being defeated by Roppongi Vice ( Beretta and Rocky Romero ) and Anderson and Gallows by the ROH tag team The Kingdom ( Matt Taven and Michael Bennett ) . The Young Bucks regained the title on May 3 at Wrestling Dontaku 2015 in a three @-@ way match with Roppongi Vice and reDRagon . Also during the event , Bullet Club was involved in the first NJPW match to feature female wrestlers in over twelve years , where Karl Anderson , Doc Gallows and his wife Amber Gallows were defeated by Maria Kanellis , Matt Taven and Michael Bennett in a six @-@ person intergender tag team match . On July 5 at Dominion 7 @.@ 5 in Osaka @-@ jo Hall , Kenny Omega lost the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship to the 2015 Best of the Super Juniors winner Kushida in his fourth defense , while Anderson and Gallows defeated Bennett and Taven in a rematch to win the IWGP Tag Team Championship for the third time . In the main event , Styles lost the IWGP Heavyweight Championship to Kazuchika Okada in his second defense . From July 20 to August 15 , five members of Bullet Club took part in the 2015 G1 Climax with Fale , Gallows and Styles in block A and Anderson and Takahashi in block B. Both Styles and Anderson entered their last round @-@ robin matches with a chance to advance to the finals , but were eliminated after losing to Hiroshi Tanahashi and Satoshi Kojima , respectively . On August 16 , The Young Bucks lost the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship to reDRagon in their second defense . From September 4 to 6 , Styles and The Young Bucks represented Bullet Club in American promotion Chikara 's 2015 King of Trios tournament , where they made it to the finals , before losing to Team AAA ( Aero Star , Drago and Fénix ) . On September 23 at Destruction in Okayama , Omega defeated Kushida , following outside interference from Anderson , to regain the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship . On October 23 , Chase Owens became the newest member of Bullet Club . = = = Kenny Omega 's leadership ; The Elite ( 2016 – present ) = = = On January 4 , 2016 , at Wrestle Kingdom 10 in Tokyo Dome , Bullet Club was involved in five championship matches . In the first , The Young Bucks defeated reDRagon , Roppongi Vice and the team of Matt Sydal and Ricochet to regain the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship . In the following match , Fale , Takahashi and Tonga were defeated by Toru Yano and the ROH tag team The Briscoe Brothers ( Jay Briscoe and Mark Briscoe ) in a match to determine the inaugural NEVER Openweight 6 @-@ Man Tag Team Champions . This was followed by two title matches , where Bullet Club lost two of their championships with Omega losing the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship back to Kushida and Anderson and Gallows losing the IWGP Tag Team Championship to Togi Makabe and Tomoaki Honma . In Bullet Club 's final title match of the event , Styles unsuccessfully challenged Shinsuke Nakamura for the IWGP Intercontinental Championship . Hours after the event it was reported that Anderson , Gallows and Styles had all given their notice to NJPW and would be leaving the promotion for WWE . The following day , the rest of Bullet Club turned on Styles and kicked him out of the group with Omega taking over the leadership . Omega also announced his graduation from the junior heavyweight division , stating that he did not want a rematch with Kushida , but instead a match with Nakamura for the IWGP Intercontinental Championship . In the aftermath of Omega taking over Bullet Club 's leadership , he and The Young Bucks formed their own subgroup within the stable , called " The Elite " . Omega and The Young Bucks came up with the idea for The Elite themselves , feeling the need to create something new after being forced by NJPW into Bullet Club and what Omega called a " ' Too Sweet , ' ' Suck it ' parody of the NWO " . Omega stated that he and The Young Bucks were The Elite , but accepted if NJPW continued calling them Bullet Club " in parentheses " as the stable was their " cash cow " . He explained the name change by stating that following Anderson , Gallows and Styles ' departures from NJPW , " Bullet Club [ was not ] so much the Bullet Club anymore " , adding that the stable " had all sorts of wrestlers come and go . Some were good , some were bad , some were god @-@ awful " , but that " there 's a place you can go to watch the most ridiculous and entertaining stuff in pro wrestling , and it 's The Elite " . Omega later added his opinion that Anderson , Gallows and Styles ' departures had " watered down " Bullet Club 's ranks , which is why he wanted to push The Elite to the forefront , claiming that when people said that " Bullet Club [ had ] been doing some really cool stuff " , they always meant him and The Young Bucks and not the other members of the group . On February 11 at The New Beginning in Osaka , Fale , Takahashi and Tonga defeated the Briscoes and Yano in a rematch to capture the NEVER Openweight 6 @-@ Man Tag Team Championship . Later that same event , The Young Bucks lost the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship to Matt Sydal and Ricochet in a three @-@ way match , also involving reDRagon . Three days later at The New Beginning in Niigata , Fale , Takahashi and Tonga lost the NEVER Openweight 6 @-@ Man Tag Team Championship back to the Briscoes and Yano . Also during the event , Anderson and Gallows received a rematch for the IWGP Tag Team Championship , but were again defeated by Makabe and Honma , who were afterwards challenged by Tonga , who stated that his partner would be a new member of Bullet Club . In the main event of the show , Omega defeated Hiroshi Tanahashi to win the IWGP Intercontinental Championship , which had been vacated following Shinsuke Nakamura 's departure from NJPW . On February 20 at Honor Rising : Japan 2016 , Anderson and Gallows wrestled their final NJPW match , an eight @-@ man tag team match , where they , along with Fale and Tonga , were defeated by Bobby Fish , Hirooki Goto , Katsuyori Shibata and Kyle O 'Reilly . Later that same event , Omega and The Young Bucks defeated the Briscoes and Yano to bring the NEVER Openweight 6 @-@ Man Tag Team Championship back to Bullet Club , while also making Omega a double champion in the process . On March 12 , Tonga revealed that his partner for the upcoming IWGP Tag Team Championship match and the newest member of Bullet Club was his real @-@ life brother Tevita Fifita , who was two days later given the ring name " Tanga Roa " , with the tag team between him and Tonga dubbed " Guerrillas of Destiny " ( GOD ) . On April 10 at Invasion Attack 2016 , The Elite lost the NEVER Openweight 6 @-@ Man Tag Team Championship to Hiroshi Tanahashi , Michael Elgin and Yoshitatsu . Later that same event , Guerrillas of Destiny defeated Togi Makabe and Tomoaki Honma to win the IWGP Tag Team Championship . On May 3 at Wrestling Dontaku 2016 , The Elite regained the NEVER Openweight 6 @-@ Man Tag Team Championship from Tanahashi , Elgin and Yoshitatsu . Five days later at the NJPW and ROH co @-@ produced Global Wars show , Adam Cole was revealed as the newest member of Bullet Club as he helped the Guerrillas of Destiny and The Young Bucks take over the ring in a show @-@ closing angle . The following day , during the first show on the War of the Worlds tour , Adam Page also joined Bullet Club . In NJPW , Page was given the ring name " Hangman Page " , which he eventually also began using in ROH . On June 19 at Dominion 6 @.@ 19 in Osaka @-@ jo Hall , The Young Bucks won the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship for the fifth time by defeating Matt Sydal and Ricochet , reDRagon and Roppongi Vice in a four @-@ way elimination match . Later that same event , Bullet Club lost two titles , with the Briscoe Brothers defeating the Guerrillas of Destiny for the IWGP Tag Team Championship and Michael Elgin defeating Kenny Omega for the IWGP Intercontinental Championship in NJPW 's first ever ladder match . On July 3 , Omega and The Young Bucks lost the NEVER Openweight 6 @-@ Man Tag Team Championship to Matt Sydal , Ricochet and Satoshi Kojima . = = Other media = = In January 2016 , NJPW announced a DVD chronicling the history of Bullet Club and featuring interviews with members of the stable . The DVD was released on March 30 , 2016 . = = Members = = = = = Current = = = = = = Former = = = = = = Part @-@ time / associates = = = = = = Sub @-@ groups = = = Timeline = = In wrestling = = Triple @-@ team finishing moves Omega and The Young Bucks Tiger Hattori Special ( Rolling fireman 's carry slam into a springboard moonsault by Omega followed by a high @-@ angle senton bomb by Nick followed by a 450 ° splash by Matt ) Styles and The Young Bucks Double superkick ( The Young Bucks ) / Styles Clash ( Styles ) combination Double @-@ team finishing moves Anderson and Gallows Magic Killer ( Aided snap swinging neckbreaker ) Fale and Tonga Dawn Raid ( Lariat ( Fale ) / Spear ( Tonga ) combination ) Roa and Tonga Guerrilla Warfare ( Aided double arm DDT ) The Young Bucks Indytaker ( Springboard spike kneeling reverse piledriver ) Meltzer Driver ( Springboard somersault spike kneeling reverse piledriver ) More Bang 4 Your Buck ( Rolling fireman 's carry slam by Matt followed by a 450 ° splash by Nick followed by a moonsault by Matt ) Anderson 's finishing moves Gun Stun ( Cutter ) Devitt 's finishing moves Bloody Sunday ( Lifting single underhook DDT , sometimes from the top rope ) Reverse Bloody Sunday ( Lifting inverted DDT ) Fale 's finishing moves Bad Luck Fall ( Throwing crucifix powerbomb ) Grenade ( Chokeslam transitioned into a thumb thrust to the opponent 's throat ) Gallows ' finishing moves Gallows Pole / Hangman 's Noose ( Chokebomb , sometimes from the top rope ) Hall 's finishing moves Razor 's Edge ( Crucifix powerbomb ) Mephisto 's finishing moves Devil 's Wings ( Lifting double underhook facebuster , sometimes from the second rope ) Omega 's finishing moves Croyt 's Wrath ( Electric chair dropped into a bridging German suplex ) Katayoku no Tenshi / One @-@ Winged Angel ( One @-@ handed electric chair driver ) V @-@ Trigger ( Running knee strike ) Owens ' finishing moves Package piledriver Page 's finishing moves The Adam 's Apple ( Slingshot lariat ) Rite of Passage ( Kneeling back @-@ to @-@ belly piledriver ) Roa 's finishing moves Running Samoan drop Styles ' finishing moves Calf Killer ( Calf slicer ) Styles Clash ( Belly @-@ to @-@ back inverted mat slam , sometimes from the second rope ) Takahashi 's finishing moves Miami Shine ( Modified Death Valley bomb ) Tokyo Pimps ( Sitout inverted front powerslam ) Tonga 's finishing moves Headshrinker / Veleno ( Double arm DDT ) Nicknames " Bullet @-@ gun " ( Japanese for " Bullet Army " ) " Biz Cliz " " Good Brothers " Entrance themes " Last Chance Saloon " by Deviant and Naive Ted " Shot 'Em " by [ Q ] Brick = = Championships and accomplishments = = Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre CMLL World Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time ) – Terrible CMLL World Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – Terrible and Tonga ( 1 ) and Bucanero and Tonga ( 1 ) Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time ) – Mephisto Family Wrestling Entertainment FWE Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time ) – Styles FWE Tag Team Championship ( 1 time , current ) – The Young Bucks National Wrestling Alliance NWA World Women 's Championship ( 1 time , current ) – Amber Gallows New Japan Pro Wrestling IWGP Heavyweight Championship ( 2 times ) – Styles IWGP Intercontinental Championship ( 2 times ) – Fale ( 1 ) and Omega ( 1 ) IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship ( 3 times ) – Devitt ( 1 ) and Omega ( 2 ) IWGP Junior Heavyweight Tag Team Championship ( 5 times , current ) – The Young Bucks IWGP Tag Team Championship ( 4 times ) – Anderson and Gallows ( 3 ) , Roa and Tonga ( 1 ) NEVER Openweight Championship ( 1 time ) – Takahashi NEVER Openweight 6 @-@ Man Tag Team Championship ( 3 times ) – Fale , Takahashi and Tonga ( 1 ) and Omega / Young Bucks ( 2 ) Best of the Super Juniors ( 2013 ) – Devitt Super Jr . Tag Tournament ( 2013 ) – The Young Bucks World Tag League ( 2013 ) – Anderson and Gallows Ring of Honor ROH World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – The Young Bucks Squared Circle Wrestling 2CW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – The Young Bucks Wrestling Observer Newsletter Best Wrestling Maneuver ( 2014 ) The Young Bucks ' Meltzer Driver Best Wrestling Maneuver ( 2015 ) A.J. Styles ' Styles Clash Match of the Year ( 2014 ) A.J. Styles vs. Minoru Suzuki on August 1 Most Outstanding Wrestler ( 2014 , 2015 ) A.J. Styles Tag Team of the Year ( 2014 , 2015 ) The Young Bucks Wrestler of the Year ( 2015 ) A.J. Styles
= Battle of Anzen = The Battle of Anzen or Dazimon was fought on 22 July 838 at Anzen or Dazimon ( now Dazmana , Turkey ) between the Byzantine Empire and the forces of the Abbasid Caliphate . The Abbasids had launched a huge expedition with two separate armies in retaliation for the Byzantine emperor Theophilos 's successes the previous year , and aimed to sack Amorion , one of Byzantium 's largest cities . Theophilos with his army confronted the smaller Muslim army , under the Iranian vassal prince Afshin , at Dazimon . The numerically superior Byzantine army was initially successful , but when Theophilos resolved to lead an attack in person , his absence from his usual post caused panic among the Byzantine troops , who feared that he had been killed . Coupled with a fierce counterattack by Afshin 's Turkish horse @-@ archers , the Byzantine army broke and fled . Theophilos and his guard were besieged for a while in a hill , before making good their escape . The defeat opened the way for the brutal sack of Amorion a few weeks later , one of the most serious blows Byzantium suffered in the centuries @-@ long Arab – Byzantine Wars . = = Background = = In 829 , as the young Theophilos ( reigned 829 – 842 ) ascended the Byzantine throne , the Arab – Byzantine wars had continued on and off for almost two centuries . An ambitious man and a convinced iconoclast , Theophilos sought to bolster his regime and gain support for his religious policies by military success against the Abbasid Caliphate , Byzantium 's major antagonist . Throughout the 830s , Theophilos launched a series of campaigns against the Caliphate . These were only moderately successful , but sufficient for the imperial propaganda to portray Theophilos in the traditional Roman manner as a " victorious emperor " . In 837 , Theophilos personally led a major campaign to the region of the upper Euphrates , sacking the cities of Arsamosata and Sozopetra – which some sources claim as Abbasid Caliph al @-@ Mu 'tasim ( r . 833 – 842 ) own birthplace – and forcing the city of Melitene to pay tribute and deliver hostages in return for being spared . In response , al @-@ Mu 'tasim decided to launch a major punitive expedition against Byzantium , aiming to capture the two major Byzantine cities of central Anatolia , Ancyra and Amorion . The latter was probably the largest city in Anatolia at the time , as well as the birthplace of the reigning Amorian dynasty and consequently of particular symbolic importance ; according to the chronicles , al @-@ Mu 'tasim 's soldiers painted the word " Amorion " on their shields and banners . A vast army was gathered at Tarsus ( 80 @,@ 000 men according to Treadgold ) , which was then divided into two main forces . The northern force , under the Iranian vassal prince of Usrushana Afshin , would invade the Armeniac theme from the region of Melitene , joining up with the forces of the city 's emir , Omar al @-@ Aqta . The southern , main force , under the Caliph himself , would pass the Cilician Gates into Cappadocia and head to Ancyra . After the city was taken , the Arab armies would join and march to Amorion . Afshin 's force included , according to John Skylitzes , the entire army of the vassal Armenian princes , and numbered an estimated 20 @,@ 000 ( Haldon ) to 30 @,@ 000 men ( Treadgold ) , among whom were some 10 @,@ 000 Turkish horse @-@ archers . On the Byzantine side , Theophilos became soon aware of the Caliph 's intentions , and set out from Constantinople in early June . His army included the men from the Anatolian and possibly also the European themes , the elite tagmata regiments , as well as a contingent of Persian and Kurdish Khurramites . Under their leader Nasr ( converted to Christianity and baptized as Theophobos ) , these people had fled religious persecution in the Caliphate , deserted to the Empire in the previous years , and formed the so @-@ called " Persian tourma " . Setting up camp at Dorylaion , the Emperor divided his forces : a strong corps was sent to reinforce the garrison of Amorion , while he himself set out with the remainder ( circa 25 @,@ 000 according to Haldon and 40 @,@ 000 according to Treadgold ) to interpose himself between the Cilician Gates and Ancyra . = = Battle = = In mid @-@ June , Afshin crossed the Anti @-@ Taurus Mountains and encamped at the fort of Dazimon ( Greek : Δαζιμῶν , modern Dazmana ) , between Amaseia and Tokat , a strategically important location which served as a concentration point ( aplekton ) for the Byzantines too . A few days later , on 19 June , the vanguard of the main Abbasid army also invaded Byzantine territory , followed two days after by the Caliph with the main body . Theophilos was informed of these movements in mid @-@ July . Afshin 's force was smaller , but also threatened to cut off his supply lines . Consequently , the Emperor left a small covering force against the Caliph 's army and marched east to confront Afshin . On 21 July , the imperial army came into view of the Arab force , and encamped on a hill in the plain of Dazimonitis south of the fort of Dazimon , named Anzen ( Greek : Ἀνζῆν ) . Although Theophilos 's principal commanders , Theophobos and the Domestic of the Schools Manuel , both advised for a surprise night attack , the Emperor sided with the opinion of the other officers and resolved to wait and launch his attack on the next day . The Byzantine army attacked at dawn , and initially made good progress : they drove back one wing of the opposite army , inflicting 3 @,@ 000 casualties on the Arabs . Near noon , Theophilos resolved to reinforce the other wing , and detached 2 @,@ 000 Byzantines and the Kurdish contingent to do so , abandoning his post and passing behind his own army 's lines . At this point , however , Afshin launched his Turkish horse @-@ archers in a ferocious counter @-@ attack which stymied the Byzantine advance and allowed the Arab forces to regroup . The Byzantine troops then noticed the emperor 's absence , and , thinking he had been killed , began to waver . This soon turned into a disorderly retreat ; some men fled as far as Constantinople , bringing with them the rumour that the Emperor had been killed . Some units , however , were apparently able to retreat in good order and assemble at a place called Chiliokomon . Theophilos found himself isolated with his tagmata and the Kurds on the hill of Anzen . The Arabs proceeded to surround the hill , but the Byzantines were saved by a sudden rain , which loosened the strings of the Turkish bows , rendering them useless . Afshin then sent for catapults to be brought up to batter the Byzantine position . At the same time , Theophilos 's officers , afraid of treachery by the Kurdish troops , persuaded him to withdraw . Breaking through the Arab lines and suffering many wounds in the process ( the sources variously credit Manuel , who was severely wounded and possibly died soon after , and Theophobos for saving the Emperor ) , Theophilos and his small escort managed to reach safety at Chiliokomon , where he gradually re @-@ assembled the remnants of his army . = = Aftermath = = In the aftermath of this defeat , and with rumours circulating in Constantinople of his death , Theophilos 's position was precarious . He abandoned the campaign and withdrew to Dorylaion , whence he soon departed for the imperial capital . Ancyra itself was left abandoned , and plundered by the Arab army on 27 July . Then the united Abbasid army marched unopposed to Amorion , which fell after a siege of two weeks . Out of its entire population of some 70 @,@ 000 , only about half survived the brutal sack , to be sold as slaves . The fall of the city was one of the heaviest blows Byzantium suffered in the entire 9th century , both in material and symbolic terms . Fortunately for the Empire , news of a rebellion in the Caliphate forced al @-@ Mu 'tasim to withdraw soon after . At the same time , Theophilos had to deal with a revolt by Theophobos and his Kurds . When rumours of Theophilos 's death reached the capital , the name of Theophobos , who was related to the Emperor by marriage and apparently an iconodule , was put forward by some as the new emperor . On returning to the city , Theophilos recalled his general , but the latter , fearful of being punished , fled with his loyal Kurds to Sinope , where he was proclaimed emperor . In the event , however , Theophobos was persuaded to surrender peacefully in the next year , while the " Persian " corps was disbanded and its men dispersed throughout the themes . Tragic though they were for the Byzantines at the time , the defeat at Anzen and the subsequent sack of Amorion were militarily of no long @-@ term importance to the Empire , since the Abbasids failed to follow up on their success . They did , however , play a crucial role in discrediting iconoclasm , which had always relied on military success to maintain its validity . Shortly after Theophilos 's sudden death in 842 , the veneration of icons was restored as part of the Triumph of Orthodoxy throughout the Empire . The Battle of Anzen is also notable for illustrating the difficulties faced by the Byzantine military of the time against horse @-@ archers , a remarkable change from the army of the 6th – 7th centuries , when such skills formed a core part of Byzantine tactical doctrine . It is also remarkable for being the first confrontation of the middle Byzantine army with the Turkic nomads from Central Asia , whose descendants , the Seljuq Turks , would emerge as Byzantium 's major antagonists from the mid @-@ 11th century on .
= Neil Barrett ( footballer ) = Neil William Barrett ( born 24 December 1981 ) is an English semi @-@ professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Isthmian League Premier Division club Metropolitan Police . Barrett started his career in the youth system of Chelsea , before joining Portsmouth in 2001 . He made over 20 appearances in his first season with Portsmouth , but having not played over a season @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half he moved to Dundee on loan . He joined them permanently in 2004 , but left a year later following their relegation from the Scottish Premier League . Following a period with Livingston , he signed for Conference National club Woking in 2007 . After half a season with them he joined Ebbsfleet United , and played for them in their victory in the 2008 FA Trophy Final at Wembley Stadium . Barrett left Ebbsfleet after two seasons to sign for York City in 2009 and played for them in the 2010 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final at Wembley . He was released by York in 2011 and after a short spell with Havant & Waterlooville in the Conference South he returned to Ebbsfleet United . After their relegation to the Conference South in 2013 he signed for their divisional rivals Basingstoke Town , but was released by them after one season . = = Career = = = = = Chelsea and Portsmouth = = = Born in Tooting , London , Barrett started his career as a trainee in the Chelsea youth system . While at the club he was an England schools international . He joined First Division team Portsmouth on 25 June 2001 on a free transfer and he made his first team debut in a 1 – 0 victory at Stockport County on 25 August . His first goal for Portsmouth came with the equaliser against Gillingham on 8 September 2001 with a header from a Robert Prosinečki cross , in a game that finished as a 2 – 1 victory . Barrett was offered a new contract with Portsmouth in October 2001 after impressing in the first team . He finished the 2001 – 02 season with 26 appearances and two goals , despite not playing any games for Portsmouth from March 2002 . Barrett was taken to hospital with a suspected broken knee suffered during a reserve team game against Bristol City in September 2002 , although an X @-@ ray later confirmed there was no break . However , tests were carried out and he was expected to be out of the team for six weeks to recover from the injury . Having fallen out of favour at Portsmouth , he had a trial at Notts County in December 2002 and manager Bill Dearden commented that Barrett " could be a reasonable prospect " . He finished the 2002 – 03 season with no appearances for Portsmouth and was told by manager Harry Redknapp he was surplus to requirements . He had a one @-@ week trial with Wimbledon in August 2003 , having been told he could leave Portsmouth . = = = Dundee = = = Having made no appearances for Portsmouth up to that point during the 2003 – 04 season , Barrett joined Scottish Premier League ( SPL ) team Dundee on loan until the end of the season on 23 January 2004 . His debut came two days later in the 2 – 1 victory over Dundee United in a Dundee derby match , in which he made a reasonable contribution and was cautioned for a " bone @-@ crunching " challenge on Charlie Miller . He scored his first two goals for Dundee in the Scottish League Cup against Motherwell , with a shot set up by Sebastian Kneißl and a header , although Dundee went on to lose 5 – 3 . He finished the loan period with 13 appearances and two goals , during which he had to deal with a " serious " ankle injury . He joined Dundee permanently on 18 July 2004 , signing a one @-@ year contract , after having his contract at Portsmouth cancelled . He scored his first goal of the 2004 – 05 season on 18 December 2004 with a 57th @-@ minute goal against Aberdeen that was set up by Fabián Caballero , which earned his team a 1 – 0 victory . He finished the season with 32 appearances and two goals while Dundee were relegated to the Scottish First Division , and was released by the club in May 2001 . = = = Livingston = = = Barrett had a trial with Major League Soccer team the New York / New Jersey MetroStars , and claimed he was offered a two @-@ year contract , although this claim was denied by an organisation spokesman . He started a trial with League Two club Oxford United in August 2005 and in his first game was substituted after six minutes after sustaining a head injury . He resumed playing in the SPL after signing for Livingston on 9 September 2005 , on a contract until January 2006 , with the option of it being extended for a further three years , following a successful trial . He made his debut two days later in a 4 – 1 defeat to Hearts , during which he conceded a penalty kick . He made 11 appearances for Livingston , with his last coming in December 2005 . Conference National team Exeter City handed him a one @-@ week trial in September 2006 , and after training with them for six weeks he was offered a contract until January 2007 . = = = Woking = = = He eventually signed for another Conference National club , Woking , in January 2007 after being recommended to the club by former Dundee teammate Tom Hutchinson and he made his debut in a 2 – 0 victory over Altrincham on 20 January , in which he had a goal disallowed that was adjudged to be offside . Barrett missed some games because of injury and he finished the 2006 – 07 season with seven appearances for Woking , and manager Frank Gray wanted him to return to the club for pre @-@ season training . = = = Ebbsfleet United = = = He signed for Conference Premier rivals Ebbsfleet United on a free transfer on 19 June 2007 as a replacement for Mark DeBolla . He made his debut in a 2 – 1 victory over Northwich Victoria on 11 August 2007 . He sustained an ankle injury in the second game of the 2007 – 08 season , which meant he was expected to be unable to play for six weeks , before he made a " surprise " return after four weeks in a 1 – 1 draw with Burton Albion . He scored his first goal with a shot from 20 yards , which was Ebbsfleet 's first goal in a 4 – 1 victory over Grays Athletic . He went on to score goals in two consecutive games , with strikes in victories over Burton and Weymouth . Barrett played for Ebbsfleet in the 2008 FA Trophy Final at Wembley Stadium on 10 May 2008 , which the team won 1 – 0 against Torquay United . He finished the season with 44 appearances and three goals , after which he signed a new one @-@ year contract with Ebbsfleet . He played for Ebbsfleet in their 3 – 2 defeat to Stevenage Borough in the semi @-@ final first @-@ leg of the FA Trophy on 14 March 2009 , during which he sustained a broken jaw while scoring a goal , which ruled him out for the remainder of the 2008 – 09 season . He finished the season with 37 appearances for Ebbsfleet , scoring seven goals . = = = York City = = = Barrett signed for fellow Conference Premier team York City on a free transfer on 29 June 2009 . He made his debut in a 2 – 1 defeat to Oxford on 8 August 2009 , before scoring his first goal for the club with the opener in a 1 – 1 draw with Luton Town on 20 October with a shot in the bottom corner . He scored the opening goal in a 3 – 1 defeat to Premier League team Stoke City in the FA Cup third round on 2 January 2010 , with a header from an Alex Lawless free kick . He picked up a hamstring injury during March 2010 , missing one match before making his return in a 1 – 0 victory over Mansfield Town later that month . He played in both legs of York 's play @-@ off semi @-@ final victory over Luton , which finished 2 – 0 on aggregate . He signed a new one @-@ year contract with York on 13 May 2010 . He started in the 2010 Conference Premier play @-@ off Final at Wembley on 16 May , being substituted on 81 minutes , with York losing 3 – 1 to Oxford . He finished the 2009 – 10 season with 51 appearances and five goals for York . Barrett made his first appearance of the 2010 – 11 season in the second game , starting in a 0 – 0 draw at Grimsby Town on 17 August 2010 . He scored his first goal of the season with an effort from six yards out to score the final goal in a 4 – 0 victory at Rushden & Diamonds on 20 November 2010 . He finished the season with 25 appearances and two goals before being released on 23 June 2011 after being told he could find another club . = = = Havant & Waterlooville = = = Following his release by York , Barrett went on trial with Luton and played the first half of their first friendly of the 2011 – 12 pre @-@ season , a 4 – 2 victory away at Hitchin Town . He subsequently went on trial with Kingstonian of the Isthmian League Premier Division and played in a friendly against former club Woking . His next move came on 9 September 2011 , when he signed for Havant & Waterlooville of the Conference South on non @-@ contract terms , making his debut the following day after starting in a 2 – 2 draw at home to Sutton United . He was released by Havant in October 2011 after making seven appearances for the club . = = = Return to Ebbsfleet United = = = Barrett returned to Conference Premier side Ebbsfleet United on non @-@ contract terms on 4 November 2011 after contacting manager Liam Daish over the possibility of signing . His second debut for the club came the following day in a 1 – 0 away win over Newport County , and scored his first goal of the 2011 – 12 season came with a header in a 3 – 2 win at Gateshead on 3 March 2012 . Barrett made 28 appearances and score done goal as Ebbsfleet finished 14th in the Conference Premier , before signing a new one @-@ year contract with the club in July 2012 . He missed only four matches for Ebbsfleet in the 2012 – 13 season , making 45 appearances and scoring one goal , as the team were relegated to the Conference South after ranking 23rd in the Conference Premier table . = = = Later career = = = Barrett signed for Conference South team Basingstoke Town on 1 July 2013 . His debut came in Basingstoke 's 2 – 1 win away against Concord Rangers on 17 August 2013 , before scoring his first goal for the club in a 2 – 0 home win over Eastleigh on 24 August . He made 28 appearances and scored four goals in the 2013 – 14 season as Basingstoke finished in 14th place in the Conference South table . He was released by the club in May 2014 . Barrett joined Isthmian League Premier Division club Leatherhead during the 2014 – 15 season and made his debut as a 73rd @-@ minute substitute in their 2 – 1 away defeat to Maidstone United on 9 December 2014 . He made 11 appearances as they achieved an 11th @-@ place finish in the Isthmian League Premier Division table . Barrett signed for Leatherhead 's divisional rivals Metropolitan Police in September 2015 , and made his debut in a 1 – 1 home draw with VCD Athletic on 19 September . = = Style of play = = Barrett plays as a central midfielder and provides " plenty of drive in midfield " . He has described himself as being " one to get in the box " and having " a bit of a knack of being in the right place at the right time " . He has been described as being " not afraid of sticking his foot in " . Ebbsfleet manager Liam Daish commented " He will bring a physical presence to our midfield and is capable of getting his name on the score sheet . " and while at the club was pivotal in midfield . = = Personal life = = Barrett 's wife Rebecca , whom he married in Leatherhead , Surrey on 29 May 2010 , works as a flight attendant for Virgin Atlantic and he has a son called George . He combined playing with being Ebbsfleet 's commercial manager during 2011 – 12 . = = Career statistics = = As of match played 26 March 2016 . = = Honours = = Ebbsfleet United FA Trophy : 2007 – 08
= Oslo Tunnel = The Oslo Tunnel ( Norwegian : Oslotunnelen ) is a 3 @,@ 632 @-@ meter ( 11 @,@ 916 ft ) , double @-@ track , railway tunnel which runs between Olav Kyrres plass and Oslo Central Station ( Oslo S ) in Oslo , Norway . The tunnel constitutes the eastern @-@ most section of the Drammen Line and runs below the central business district of Oslo . It features the four @-@ track Nationaltheatret Station , Norway 's second @-@ busiest railway station , where the Oslo Tunnels lies directly beneath the Common Tunnel of the Oslo Metro . At Frogner , the Elisenberg Station was built , but has never been used . The tunnel is the busiest section of railway line in Norway and serves all west @-@ bound trains from Oslo , including many services of the Oslo Commuter Rail and the Airport Express Train . Traditionally , Oslo had two stations , the larger Oslo East Station ( or Oslo Ø , located at the spot of the current Oslo S ) and Oslo West Station ( Oslo V ) , which served the Drammen Line . This caused a physical barrier between the two parts of the railway network , only connected by the Oslo Port Line which ran partly in city streets . Formal planning of a central station and a tunnel connecting the Drammen Line to Oslo Ø started in 1938 , and the final plans were approved in 1968 . The Oslo Tunnel opened on 1 June 1980 , and made it possible to close Oslo V in 1989 . Nationaltheatret saw a major upgrade in 1999 , when it was expanded to four tracks , and from 2008 to 2010 , the tunnel will see a major technical upgrade . There are plans to build a second tunnel to increase train capacity west of Oslo . = = Route = = The tunnel constitutes the easternmost 3 @,@ 632 meters ( 11 @,@ 916 ft ) of the Drammen Line , and runs between Oslo S and Skøyen . At Oslo S , 12 of the 19 tracks ( platforms 2 through 13 ) connect to the tunnel , which is shaped as a funnel , eventually merging the twelve tracks into two . The tunnel runs below some important heritage buildings in Oslo , including Basarhallene , the Parliament of Norway Building and Oslo Cathedral . Nationaltheatret Station is the second @-@ busiest railway station in the country , and is located below the Oslo Metro station with the same name . The station has four tracks and two 250 @-@ meter ( 820 ft ) long island platforms , serving the central business district of Oslo . Through this section , the line runs below the Common Tunnel of the Oslo Metro for 280 meters ( 920 ft ) . At this point , the line is 18 meters ( 59 ft ) below the surface . Elisenberg Station , located in Frogner , is partially built , including a 220 @-@ meter ( 720 ft ) long island platform and one of the entrances . The line follows Bygdøy allé and surfaces just west of Olav Kyrres plass . Immediately afterwards , the Skøyen – Filipstad Line merges into the Drammen Line . The next station along the line is Skøyen Station . = = Service = = The Oslo Tunnel is the most heavily trafficked section of mainline railway in Norway . It has a theoretical capacity of 40 trains per hour in each direction , and an applied capacity of 24 trains per hour in each direction . In rush hour , there are up to 20 trains operating through the tunnel , with a capacity of 8 @,@ 000 passengers per hour . All eight line of the Oslo Commuter Rail have some or all of their services operate through the tunnel , although many of these terminate at Skøyen . The Airport Express Train operates three hourly services through the tunnel and the Norwegian State Railways operate regional trains along the Vestfold Line and intercity trains along the Sørland Line and Bergen Line through the tunnel . Freight trains along the Sørland Line operate through the tunnel , although only at night , while freight trains along the Bergen Line do not , instead using the Roa – Hønefoss Line . = = History = = By the 1930s , Oslo had two main railway stations , Oslo East Station and Oslo West Station . The Drammen Line , consisting of commuter trains , and regional and intercity trains from the Sørland Line and the Vestfold Line , terminated at Oslo V. The Østfold , Trunk and Gjøvik Lines terminated at Oslo Ø . Between the two stations ran the Oslo Port Line , which in part ran in the city streets and was only used for a limited number of freight trains . Several plans had been launched to connect the two stations , with the most prominent being a line running west of Oslo and merging with the Gjøvik Line at Grefsen , and an elevated line from Oslo V to Tordensskiolds plass , in a tunnel under Akershus Fortress and again as an elevated line past Oslo Stock Exchange to Oslo Ø . In 1938 , the Station Committee of 1938 was established to look into a possible connection of the Drammen Line to Oslo Ø and extension of the railway station . Led by Axel Grenholm , the committee recommended one of two alternatives : either establish a branch from the Drammen Line and built a tunnel under the city center , in which all trains would terminate at Oslo Ø . The tunnel was proposed run from Lassons gate west of Oslo V to Fred . Olsens gate , with an intermediate station close to the location of Oslo V. The proposed tunnel would be 1 @,@ 660 meters ( 1 @.@ 03 mi ) long and largely run through clay , making construction more difficult and expensive . Alternatively , a branch of Drammen Line should be built around the city and connect with the Gjøvik Line at Grefsen . Commuter trains would continue to run to Oslo V , while regional and intercity trains would run to Oslo Ø . The committee stated that it preferred the former suggestion . In 1946 , the Planning Office for Oslo Central Station , led by Fin Hvoslef , was established by the government . In 1950 , they presented a new report , which recommended that a new route for the tunnel be considered to ease construction and increase safety . This was in part based on an engineering report from 1949 , which had made the first detailed plans for the line . It was a compromise between the Norwegian State Railways ' need for a line as straight as possible , and Oslo Municipality 's demands that the construction should not be a risk to buildings in the area . The ground in Oslo consists of clay @-@ filled grooves up to 30 meters ( 98 ft ) deep . The area also contains alum shale , which expands when it comes into contact with air and water and can attack concrete , argillaceous schist , cracks with clay and water , and hard volcanic rocks . Another committee , led by Oddvar Halvorsen , was established in 1960 to look at the matter again . Also it recommended a tunnel and a central station . However , it felt that the tunnel should be longer and intersect with the Drammen Line at a point between Skarpsno and Skøyen , and build a second station at Frogner . The proposal was presented to the Parliament of Norway on 4 November 1961 , along with several other matters related to rail transport investments . Construction of the Oslo Tunnel and Oslo Central Station was passed unanimously . Another planning office was established in 1962 , initially led by Erik Himle . The final plans for the route were passed by parliament in 1968 , and construction started in 1971 . The main contractors were Ingeniør Thor Furuholmen , Dipl.ing. Kaare Backer , NSB , Jernbaneanlegget Oslo Sentralstasjon and Ingeniørbygg . Consultants included Ingeniørene Bonde & Co . , Peer Qvam 's arkitektkontor and the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute . The tunnel was officially opened on 30 May 1980 by Minister of Transport and Communications , Ronald Bye , and officially taken into use on 1 June . When it opened , it was the eighth @-@ longest railway tunnel in Norway , although since 2005 it has been the thirteenth @-@ longest . The tunnel cost 625 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) , of which Oslo Municipality had paid NOK 170 million . At first , the tunnel was used by commuter trains from Lillestrøm to Drammen and Spikkestad , and trains from Eidsvoll and Årnes used the tunnel and turned at Skøyen . Oslo Central Station was taken into use on 26 November 1986 . On 27 May 1989 , Oslo West Station was closed and all traffic transferred to Oslo S. In October 1997 , construction of an upgraded Nationaltheatret Station started and was taken into use on 16 December 2009 . The work expanded the station from two to four platforms , thus increasing the applied capacity for the whole tunnel from 16 to 24 trains per direction per hour . The expansion cost NOK 920 million , which included blasting 110 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 3 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of rock and pouring 33 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of concrete . The work resulted in 830 meters ( 2 @,@ 720 ft ) of new tunnel , a new entrance hall and art . The station was designed for 40 @,@ 000 passengers daily . In 2008 , the old section of Nationaltheatret Station was renovated . Upgrades included new lighting , a new public address system , new escalators , a more powerful fire safety system , improved emergency exits and replacement of cables . The upgrade made the old section lighter , as it was previously painted in dark red , and visually similar to the new section . Between 2008 and 2012 , the Norwegian National Rail Administration is performing a major upgrade to the section between Lysaker and Etterstad , including the Oslo Tunnel . Among the upgrades are axle counters , mounting of an overhead conductor rail , new switches , switch heaters at the tunnel openings and new tracks . = = Future = = The Oslo Tunnel is the largest bottle @-@ neck in the railway system in Norway , and delays caused around the tunnel can spread throughout the whole network . The local rail lines have only one or two departures per hour , where more is wished in order to attract people who want to find departure times matching work hours . The National Rail Administration has stated that until at the earliest 2040 , it is unnecessary with more capacity through the West Corridor , i.e. running west of Oslo . This includes possible ungraded to the railway lines around Oslo , such as high @-@ speed lines along the Østfold and Vestfold Lines , and to Lillehammer . In 2012 , after the completion of the Asker Line , a new schedule plan has been proposed . NSB , the Airport Express Train and CargoNet have all asked for more slots through the tunnel than is available . One possible solution is to decrease the reserve capacity , thus increasing the capacity from 24 to 30 trains per hour per direction . However , the tunnel is already characterized as " critically overloaded " . Should a new tunnel be built , it would not necessarily run next to the Oslo Tunnel . One proposal from the National Rail Administration calls for a separate commuter train station to be built underground , at the location of Oslo Bus Terminal , within walking distance of Oslo S. This proposal involves the line connecting to the existing route before reaching Nationaltheatret . The lobby organisation Norsk Bane have called for a line to run further north , and serve Majorstuen , where there is a major metro and tramway hub . Norsk Bane also call for the tunnel to be built for higher speeds , and state that it is necessary to build high @-@ speed rail to Bergen and Stavanger . Combined with a new line from Drammen to the tunnel , it would allow travel time from Drammen and Oslo to be reduced to 18 minutes .
= Job Fair ( The Office ) = " Job Fair " is the seventeenth episode of the fourth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's seventieth episode overall . Written by Lee Eisenberg and Gene Stupnitsky and directed by Tucker Gates , the episode first aired in the United States on May 8 , 2008 on NBC . The episode featured Trevor Einhorn as a guest star . In the episode , Michael and a few employees go to a high school 's job fair to find a summer intern for Dunder Mifflin . However , very few students seem interested in the internship . Meanwhile , Jim attempts to make an important sale by golfing with a potential client . At first the client claims to be not interested in talking about business , but after much negotiation , Jim lands the sale . Back at the office , Dwight is left in charge . Everyone leaves except his ex @-@ girlfriend Angela , leading to an awkward day . = = Plot = = After Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) gives Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) a warning about his job performance , Jim tries to land his biggest client ever ( Phil Reeves ) . He takes the potential client golfing , bringing along co @-@ workers Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) and Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) . When Jim tries to talk business , the client reveals that he is not interested in switching paper suppliers . But after much persistence and negotiation , Jim lands the account . Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) , Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) , Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) and Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) set up a booth at a local job fair to find a student for Dunder Mifflin ’ s summer internship but while other companies are prepared and have provided materials and products for their booth , Michael only brought a single white piece of Dunder @-@ Mifflin paper . The fair proves unsuccessful , as Michael drives away the only interested student , Justin ( Trevor Einhorn ) because Justin is not cool enough for him . After everyone else either ignores the booth or tells Michael to piss off , Michael tries to recruit Justin as their intern , only for Justin to call Michael out for treating him badly and walk away . Michael then makes such a commotion that the teacher ( Lori Murphy Saux ) calls security and has him removed from the fair . After , Pam ventures to a booth advertising graphic design , where she discovers that she has yet to learn many graphic design programs . The man working at the booth recommends she goes to either Philadelphia or New York City to learn about the graphic design technology . Meanwhile , Michael has left Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) in charge of the office , but none of the employees obey his wishes . When most of the employees leave in the middle of the day , Dwight is left alone except for ex @-@ girlfriend Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) , causing the two to interact awkwardly for the rest of the day . When Jim and Pam meet up again in the office , they share two long , passionate kisses having accomplished both of their goals ( Jim making the sale and Pam finding out the next step for her future in graphic design ) . = = Production = = This episode was the third episode of the series directed by Tucker Gates . Gates had previously directed the third season episodes " Branch Closing " and " Women 's Appreciation " . " Job Fair " was written by Gene Stupnitsky and Lee Eisenberg . In order to create the blisters that Andy had on his hands during the episode , the make @-@ up crew had to use Ben Nye sunburn colors , RCMA scar making material , and acetone . The process took twenty to thirty minutes , in which the sunburn colors were applied first and the scar making material was applied last . Angela Kinsey was pregnant during shooting . Her character wasn 't pregnant , so items ( such as a copy machine ) were placed between her stomach and the camera to hide her pregnancy . Writer Lee Eisenberg recalled that during editing " I asked if we had any wider shots . Both Gene ( Stupnitsky ) and Dave Rogers ( the editor ) reminded me that we were shooting around Angela 's enormous belly " . Kinsey later gave birth on May 3 , five days before the episode premiered . = = Reception = = " Job Fair " received 3 @.@ 6 / 9 in the ages 18 – 49 demographic in the Nielsen ratings . This means that 3 @.@ 6 percent of all households with an 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old living in it watched the episode , and nine percent had their televisions tuned to the channel at any point . The episode was watched by 7 @.@ 22 million viewers . Reviews for this episode were mixed . Travis Fickett , of IGN , criticized parts of the episode , saying that the situation between Dwight and Angela was " played out so minimalist that virtually nothing develops " and even though Michael " gets up and makes an ass of himself " the resolution " isn 't much of a pay @-@ off " . Fickett did say that although " this may not be the funniest episode , it shows how the series is capable of subtlety and depth . " BuddyTV 's Oscar Dahl thought that " Job Fair " " had some nice moments , but it was a bit lacking in the comedy department " . Jay Black , from TV Squad , wrote that Andy " stole the show " .
= Jeremy Thorpe = John Jeremy Thorpe , PC ( 29 April 1929 – 4 December 2014 ) was a British politician who served as Member of Parliament for North Devon from 1959 to 1979 , and as leader of the Liberal Party between 1967 and 1976 . In May 1979 he was tried at the Old Bailey on charges of conspiracy and incitement to murder , based on his earlier relationship with Norman Scott , a former model . Thorpe was acquitted on all charges , but the case ended his political career . Thorpe was the son and grandson of Conservative MPs , but decided to align with the small and ailing Liberal Party . After studying at Oxford University he became one of the Liberals ' brightest stars in the 1950s . He entered parliament at the age of 30 , made a rapid mark , and was elected party leader in 1967 . After an uncertain start during which the party lost ground , Thorpe capitalised on the growing unpopularity of the Conservative and Labour parties to lead the Liberals through a period of notable electoral success . This culminated in the general election of February 1974 , when the party won 6 million votes . Under the first @-@ past @-@ the @-@ post electoral system this gave them only 14 seats , but with neither of the main parties attaining a majority ( " Hung parliament " ) , Thorpe was in a strong position . He was offered a cabinet post by the Conservative prime minister , Edward Heath , if he would bring the Liberals into a coalition . His price for such a deal , reform of the electoral system , was rejected by Heath , who resigned in favour of a minority Labour government . The February 1974 election proved to be the high water @-@ mark of Thorpe 's career . Thereafter his and his party 's fortunes declined , particularly from late 1975 when rumours of his involvement in a plot to murder Scott began to multiply . Thorpe finally resigned the leadership in May 1976 , when his position became untenable . When the matter came to court three years later , Thorpe chose not to give evidence on the grounds that the prosecution had not established its case . This stance left many questions unanswered ; despite his acquittal , Thorpe was discredited and could not return to public life . From the mid @-@ 1980s he was disabled by Parkinson 's disease . During his long retirement he gradually recovered the affections of his party , and by the time of his death was honoured by a later generation of leaders , who drew attention to his record as an internationalist , a supporter of human rights , and an opponent of apartheid and all forms of racism . = = Family background and early childhood = = Thorpe was born in South Kensington , London , on 29 April 1929 . His father was John Henry Thorpe , a lawyer and politician who was the Conservative MP for Manchester Rusholme between 1919 and 1923 . His mother , Ursula , née Norton @-@ Griffiths , was the daughter of another Conservative MP , Sir John Norton @-@ Griffiths , widely known as " Empire Jack " because of his passionate imperialism . The Thorpe family claimed kinship with distant forbears carrying the name , including Sir Robert Thorpe who was briefly Lord Chancellor in 1372 , and Thomas Thorpe who was Speaker of the House of Commons in 1453 – 54 . The more recent Thorpe ancestors were Irish . Jeremy Thorpe 's great @-@ grandfather , William Thorpe , was a Dublin policeman who rose to the rank of superintendent . One of his many sons , John Thorpe , became an Anglican priest and served as Archdeacon of Macclesfield from 1922 to 1932 . The archdeacon 's marriage in 1884 to a daughter of the prosperous Anglo @-@ Irish Aylmer family brought considerable wealth to the Thorpes , as did his daughter Olive 's wedding into the influential Christie @-@ Miller family of Cheshire . Both John Henry and Jeremy Thorpe would benefit from this connection , as the Christie @-@ Millers paid the costs of their education . Jeremy was his parents ' third child , following two sisters . His upbringing was privileged and protected , under the care of nannies and nursemaids until , in 1935 , he began attending Wagner 's day school in Queen 's Gate . He became a proficient violinist , and often performed at school concerts . Although John Henry Thorpe was no longer in parliament , he had maintained many of his political contacts and friendships , and leading politicians were regularly entertained at the Thorpe home . Among the strongest of these friendships was that with the Lloyd George family — Ursula Thorpe was a close friend of the former Liberal prime minister 's daughter , Megan , who became Jeremy 's godmother . The former prime minister David Lloyd George , an occasional visitor , became Jeremy 's political hero and role model , and helped form his ambitions for a political career in the Liberal Party . = = Education = = = = = Schooling = = = In January 1938 Jeremy went to Cothill House , a school in Oxfordshire that prepared boys for entry to Eton . By summer 1939 war looked likely , and the Thorpe family moved from London to the Surrey village of Limpsfield where Jeremy attended a local school . War began in September 1939 ; in June 1940 , with invasion threatening , the Thorpe children were sent to live with their American aunt , Kay Norton @-@ Griffiths , in Boston . In September that year Jeremy began at The Rectory School in Pomfret , Connecticut . He remained there for three generally happy years ; his main extracurricular task , he later recalled , was looking after the school 's pigs . In 1943 it was thought safe for the children to return to England , and John Henry used his political connections to secure for Jeremy a passage in the Royal Navy cruiser HMS Phoebe . Thorpe started at Eton in September 1943 . He proved an indifferent scholar , he lacked sporting aptitude , and although superficially a rebel against conformity , his frequent toadying to authority earned him the nickname " Oily Thorpe " . He also annoyed his fellow @-@ pupils by parading his acquaintance with a range of famous and important people . He offended the school 's traditionalists by resigning from the school 's cadet force , and shocked others by expressing his intention to marry Princess Margaret , then second in line to the British throne . Thorpe has revealed little about his Eton years , beyond his membership of the school orchestra and his winning a cup for his violin playing — he briefly considered the possibility of a career as a professional violinist . The Eton years were marred by the death of Thope 's father in 1944 , at the age of 57 , worn out by his heavy workload within the war administration . = = = Oxford = = = Having secured a place at Trinity College , Oxford , Thorpe left Eton in March 1947 . In September he began his eighteen months ' National Service , but within six weeks was discharged on medical grounds after collapsing while attempting an assault course . As his place at Oxford was unavailable until the following year , Thorpe worked as a temporary preparatory school teacher before his admission to Trinity on 8 October 1948 . Thorpe was reading law , but his primary interests at Oxford were political and social . From his earliest undergraduate days he drew attention to himself by his flamboyant behaviour ; according to Thorpe 's biographer Michael Bloch , his " pallid appearance , dark hair and eyes and angular features , gave him a diabolonian air " . He was quick to seek political office , initially in the Oxford University Liberal Club ( OULC ) which , despite the doldrums affecting the Liberal Party nationally , was a thriving club with over 800 members . Thorpe was elected to the club 's committee at the end of his first term ; in November 1949 he became its president . Outside Oxford , Thorpe showed a genuine commitment to Liberalism in his enthusiastic contributions to the party 's national election campaigns , and on reaching his 21st birthday in April 1950 , applied to have his name added to the party 's list of possible parliamentary candidates . Beyond the OULC , Thorpe achieved the presidency of the Oxford University Law Society , although his principal objective was the presidency of the Oxford Union , an office frequently used as a stepping @-@ stone to national prominence . Normally , would @-@ be presidents first served in the Union 's junior offices , as Secretary , Treasurer or Librarian , but Thorpe , having impressed as a confident and forceful debater , decided early in 1950 to try directly for the presidency . He was easily defeated by the future broadcaster Robin Day . His single @-@ minded pursuit of office , and the dubious strategies he sometimes employed , led to some acrimonious campaigns , but he gained many supporters , and later in 1950 beat two formidable contenders — the socialist Dick Taverne and the Conservative William Rees @-@ Mogg — to secure the presidency for the Hilary term of 1951 . Thorpe 's term as president was marked by the range of distinguished guest speakers that he recruited , among them Lord Hailsham , the jurist and former Liberal MP Norman Birkett , and the humorist Stephen Potter . The time @-@ consuming nature of his various offices meant that Thorpe required a fourth year to complete his law studies , which ended in the summer of 1952 with a third @-@ class honours degree . At Oxford Thorpe enjoyed numerous friendships with his contemporaries , many of whom later achieved distinction . These were almost exclusively with men ; even so , he was not identified as a member of any of Oxford 's homosexual sets . He confided to a friend that politics provided him with the necessary level of emotional excitement , thus making sexual relationships unnecessary . Thus , Bloch suggests , he was accepted by his fellow @-@ students as " a basically asexual character , wrapped up in politics and his career " . = = Early career = = = = = Parliamentary candidate = = = Having been accepted as a potential Liberal parliamentary candidate , Thorpe looked for a constituency . The general elections of 1950 and 1951 had seen the party 's MPs fall , first to nine , then six ; some commentators saw little future except " further attrition and further losses to the two major parties " . The journalist Julian Glover writes that Thorpe 's determination to stay with the party , despite its woes , showed a more principled commitment to Liberalism than many critics have acknowledged ; his prospects of reaching parliament would have been considerably greater within either the Conservative or Labour parties . Initially the young would @-@ be candidate was offered the opportunity of succeeding the party leader , Clement Davies , in the Welsh seat of Montgomeryshire , when Davies decided to retire . There being no immediate prospect of that , Thorpe looked elsewhere , in particular to Devon and Cornwall , where the party had long @-@ standing traditions and had polled respectably in 1950 and 1951 . In these elections Thorpe had assisted the Liberal candidate for North Cornwall , Dingle Foot , whose agent recommended him to the neighbouring North Devon constituency . The Torrington local party was also anxious to adopt Thorpe as their candidate , while Foot saw him as a possible successor in North Cornwall . Thorpe chose to fight North Devon , a seat once held by the Liberals although , in 1951 , the party finished in third place behind Conservative and Labour , with less than 20 % of the vote . Thorpe was adopted as North Devon 's Liberal candidate in April 1952 . His political stance matched that of other young activists , who believed that the party should offer a radical non @-@ socialist alternative to the Conservative government . He and others founded the Radical Reform Group , to drive the party in that direction . He spent much of his spare time cultivating the voters in North Devon ; at rallies and on the doorstep he mixed local concerns with conspicuously liberal views on larger , international issues such as colonialism and apartheid . When Anthony Eden , who had succeeded Winston Churchill as prime minister , called a snap general election in April 1955 , Thorpe fought an energetic local campaign . He succeeded in halving the Conservative majority in the constituency , and restoring the Liberals to second place . = = = Barrister @-@ at @-@ law and television journalist = = = In need of paid employment , Thorpe opted for the law , and in February 1954 , after completing his pupillage , was called to the bar in the Inner Temple . Initially he found it difficult to earn a living from his fees ; he needed another source of income , and found it in the medium of television journalism . Thorpe was employed by Associated Rediffusion , at first as chairman of a science discussion programme , The Scientist Replies , and later as an interviewer on the station 's major current affairs vehicle This Week . Among various assignments for This Week he travelled to Ghana in 1957 to cover the country 's independence celebrations , and in 1958 he reported from Jordan on a plot to assassinate King Hussein . Thorpe was a skilful broadcaster , and in addition to his television work he became a regular guest on the BBC radio programme Any Questions ? In 1959 he was offered the post of chief commentator by Associated Rediffusion , but as the condition was that he gave up his parliamentary candidature , he declined . Through the later 1950s Thorpe juggled his legal and television work with his political duties in North Devon , where he worked tirelessly to build up support . From September 1956 the Liberal Party was led by Jo Grimond , a more up @-@ to @-@ date figure than his elderly predecessor Davies , and more in tune with the ideas of Thorpe and the Radical Reform Group . After an uncertain beginning — the Liberals lost one of their six seats to Labour in a February 1957 by @-@ election — Grimond 's leadership began to produce results . The party polled well in a series of by @-@ elections during 1957 and 1958 , culminating in a victory at Torrington in March 1958 — a seat which the party had not even contested in the 1955 general election . Thorpe , who had figured prominently in the Torrington campaign , saw this victory in an adjoining Devon constituency as a harbinger of his own future success . Thorpe 's television and radio work had brought him a measure of celebrity , and his colourful and individualistic campaigning style was widely admired . The journalist Christopher Booker recalled : " He had an extraordinary ability both to cheer up his followers and send up his opponents " . However , throughout the 1950s Thorpe was leading a secret homosexual life , at a time when all such activity was illegal in the United Kingdom , and subject to heavy penalties ; exposure would have ended his political prospects instantly . This sexual preference , concealed from the wider public , was known and tolerated in North Devon , and was at least suspected by many in the Liberal Party . = = Member of Parliament = = Thorpe 's efforts in North Devon came to fruition in the October 1959 general election , when he won the seat with a majority of 362 over his Conservative opponent — the Liberal Party 's solitary gain in what was generally an electoral triumph for Harold Macmillan 's Conservative government . On 10 November 1959 he made his maiden speech , during a debate on the government 's local employment bill . He highlighted poor communications as the principal reason for the lack of employment opportunities in North Devon , and called for urgent government action . After the speech a Conservative member looked forward to " many very useful contributions from the hon . Member for Devon , North on any subject to which he turns his agile legal brain " . Thorpe was a diligent MP , active in promoting local issues — a new general hospital , and a link road to the Exeter @-@ Taunton motorway — and campaigned successfully to save the Barnstaple @-@ to @-@ Exeter railway line from the Beeching axe . On broader questions he made no secret of his anti @-@ hanging , pro @-@ immigrant , pro @-@ Europe opinions , largely not shared by his constituents . He championed freedom from colonial and minority rule , and was an outspoken opponent of regimes he considered oppressive such as those in South Africa and the short @-@ lived Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland . He was also noted for his verve and wit ; when in 1962 , after a series of by @-@ election disasters , Macmillan sacked a third of his cabinet , Thorpe 's reported comment , an inversion of the biblical verse John 15 : 13 , was " Greater love hath no man than this , that he lay down his friends for his life " . Within the Liberal Party , Thorpe helped to found an informal organisation known as " Winnable Seats " , which directed energy and funding to selected target constituencies . This strategy led to some notable by @-@ election performances during 1961 – 62 , culminating in March 1962 with victory in Orpington , where a 14 @,@ 760 Conservative majority was turned into a Liberal majority of 7 @,@ 855 . These results were accompanied by substantial Liberal gains in municipal elections ; national opinion polls briefly showed the party on equal terms with the Labour and Conservative parties . This advance was barely reflected in the results of the October 1964 general election ; the party nearly doubled its share of the national vote , to 11 @.@ 2 % , but secured a net gain of only two seats . One of the new Liberals was Peter Bessell , who won the Cornish seat of Bodmin . In North Devon , Thorpe increased his personal majority to over 5 @,@ 000 . After the election , which Labour won with a small majority , Thorpe was seen by many as Grimond 's natural successor ; his speeches were generally the highlights of the party 's annual assemblies , and he strengthened his position when , in 1965 , he secured the important post of party treasurer . He proved to be an excellent fund @-@ raiser , although his insistence on personal control of much of the party 's funds aroused criticism and resentment . In July 1965 , after the end of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland , Thorpe toured Central and East Africa , visiting both Zambia and Rhodesia . On his return he advised the prime minister , Harold Wilson , that the all @-@ white Rhodesian government under Ian Smith would make a unilateral declaration of independence ( UDI ) before the end of the year , unless deterred by the threat of armed intervention . Wilson would not countenance the use of troops ; the UDI took place on 11 November . In a speech to the Liberal assembly in September 1966 , Thorpe condemned Wilson 's handling of the Rhodesia issue ( " misjudged and misplanned " ) , and called for the bombing by United Nations aircraft of the rail link through which the post @-@ UDI Rhodesian government received its oil supplies . The speech delighted the more radical elements in the Liberal Party but outraged many Conservatives , who used the derisive nickname " Bomber Thorpe " for the rest of Thorpe 's parliamentary career . In March 1966 Wilson called an election , hoping to improve his tiny parliamentary majority . He did so , increasing it to almost 100 . The Liberals , although their overall share of the vote fell to 8 @.@ 5 % , increased their number of MPs from nine to twelve , an indication of success in selective campaigning under the " Winnable Seats " strategy . Thorpe suffered a personal disappointment in North Devon , where his majority dropped to 1 @,@ 166 . = = Party leader = = = = = First phase , 1967 – 70 = = = After the 1966 election , Grimond confided to senior party officials that he wished soon to step down from the leadership . Thorpe was now the senior Liberal MP after Grimond , and the party 's highest @-@ profile member , although Timothy Beaumont , chairman of the party 's organising committee , noted in his diary : " I am pretty certain that he has little popularity within the Parliamentary Party " . When Grimond finally resigned , on 17 January 1967 , an election to replace him was arranged to take place within 48 hours , leaving little time for manoeuvring . The 12 Liberal MPs formed the whole electorate ; after the first ballot , Thorpe had secured six votes against three each for Eric Lubbock , the Orpington MP , and Emlyn Hooson who had succeeded to the Montgomeryshire seat . On 18 January Lubbock and Hooson withdrew their candidacies , and Thorpe was declared the winner . As Liberal leader , Thorpe provided a clear contrast with the pedestrian images of Wilson and Edward Heath , the Conservative leader since March 1965 . He was considerably younger , and much more telegenic . His first years of leadership were problematic ; he found himself at odds with the Young Liberals , who were advocating policies far to the left of the Liberal mainstream . Their demands for workers ' control in nationalised industries , British withdrawal from NATO , and massive cuts in the defence budget , caused bitter disputes within the party and damaged its public image . At this time the political climate was not conducive to radical policies ; the Wilson government 's rapid descent into unpopularity brought a sharp swing to the right among voters . The beneficiaries were the Conservatives , who made spectacular by @-@ election gains at Labour 's expense while the Liberals failed to make any real impact . Discontent against Thorpe 's leadership was being voiced within a year of his election , culminating in June 1968 when disaffected senior party members combined with Young Liberals in an attempt to depose him . Thorpe had just married Caroline Allpass , and was abroad on honeymoon when the plotters struck . The timing of their attempted coup , widely seen in and out of the party as treachery , ensured that on Thorpe 's return the party executive backed him by 48 votes to 2 . Thorpe 's marriage provided him with a period of emotional stability ; a son was born in April 1969 . Shortly afterwards , Thorpe received a political boost when the Liberals unexpectedly won a by @-@ election at Birmingham Ladywood , in a previously safe Labour seat . This was , however , a solitary success , and the party faced the general election of June 1970 with little confidence . The results justified their gloomy premonitions ; the party 's share of the vote fell to 7 @.@ 5 % , and seven of its thirteen seats , including Ladywood , were lost . Thorpe barely hung on in North Devon , his majority reduced to 369 . Three of his colleagues had comparably small majorities ; only Grimond and Hooson were relatively safe . Heath 's Conservatives secured a 30 @-@ seat majority . = = = Second phase 1970 – 74 = = = After the Liberals ' poor election performance Thorpe came under fire , but such criticisms were stifled when , ten days after the election , Caroline Thorpe was killed in a car accident . For the rest of 1970 and for much of 1971 , Thorpe was preoccupied with his loss and his plan for a permanent memorial to Caroline . Meanwhile , the party began to recover , chiefly through its adoption of " community politics " — engagement with local rather than national issues — and achieved modest gains in the 1971 local elections . By early 1972 , with the monument to Caroline erected on Codden Hill , Thorpe was fully re @-@ engaged in political life . In February he assisted the passage through the House of Commons of Heath 's European Communities Bill , approving the United Kingdom 's accession to the European Economic Community . The bill was opposed by Labour and by some Conservatives . By aligning his party with the government , Thorpe ensured a majority of eight for the bill 's second reading , and it duly became law . By mid @-@ 1972 the Liberals ' fortunes were rising significantly ; the public was equally disenchanted with both major parties , and community politics were proving popular . Impressive local election results were followed by sensational by @-@ election results . In October 1972 Rochdale was won from Labour , and in the next year four victories were achieved over the Conservatives : Sutton , Isle of Ely , Ripon and Berwick @-@ upon @-@ Tweed . On 14 March 1973 Thorpe married Marion Stein , a concert pianist and the former wife of George Lascelles , 7th Earl of Harewood . The couple had been brought together a year earlier by a mutual acquaintance , the pianist Moura Lympany . The year ended less happily for Thorpe , when the secondary banking firm of London & County Securities , of which he had been a director since May 1971 , collapsed amid rumours of mismanagement and fraud , marking the start of the secondary banking crisis of 1973 – 75 ; the details were not revealed until 1976 . In February 1974 Heath , whose government had been plagued by industrial unrest , called a general election on the issue of " Who governs Britain ? " . During the election campaign there was evidence of disaffection with both Heath and Wilson , and of a surge in Liberal support . Thorpe was confident that the party would make a significant breakthrough ; on election day , 28 February , it secured its highest national vote to date , 6 million , and its highest share of the vote ( 19 @.@ 3 ) since 1929 . However , under the first @-@ past @-@ the @-@ post voting system , these figures translated into just 14 seats . Thorpe 's majority in North Devon rose to 11 @,@ 072 . = = = Coalition negotiations = = = The February 1974 general election produced a hung parliament ; neither Labour , with 301 seats , nor the Conservatives , with 297 seats , achieved an overall majority . Because the Conservatives had won a slightly bigger share of the national vote than Labour ( 37 @.@ 9 % against 37 @.@ 1 % ) , Heath did not resign , hoping to persuade the Liberals into a Conservative @-@ led coalition . He met Thorpe on 2 March to discuss possible bases for co @-@ operation , Heath 's preferred option being a formal coalition in which Thorpe would be given a cabinet post , and junior ministries would be allocated to other senior Liberals . As the combined Conservative @-@ Liberal vote amounted to 57 % of the electorate , such a government would , Heath thought , have some moral legitimacy . If Thorpe would not accept coalition , a less formal basis of inter @-@ party co @-@ operation might be agreed which would enable the Conservative government to retain office . The next day , after discussions with senior colleagues , Thorpe advised Heath that a commitment to electoral reform would be a prerequisite to any arrangement between the two parties . Thorpe proposed that Heath establish a Speaker 's Conference whose recommendations on electoral reform would , if acceptable to the Liberals , form the basis of subsequent legislation with full cabinet approval . After further consultations with their parties , the two leaders met again ; Heath reported that while his party would not object to a Speaker 's Conference , they could not commit themselves in advance to accepting its recommendations , which would be subject to a free House of Commons vote . This was unacceptable to Thorpe , who then made a separate proposal that an all @-@ party " Government of national unity " be formed to tackle the urgent economic problems facing the country . This idea was rejected by Heath , who resigned on Monday 4 March . Thorpe later admitted that a coalition agreement would have torn the party apart ; the more radical elements , in particular , the Young Liberals would never have accepted it . Furthermore , " even with our support Heath wouldn 't have had a parliamentary majority " ; without some arrangements with the Scottish Nationalists or the Ulster Unionists , the coalition could have been brought down by the first vote on the Queen 's Speech . Following Heath 's resignation , Wilson formed a minority Labour government . = = = Declining fortunes = = = As Harold Wilson did not have an overall majority after the February 1974 election , he was widely expected to call another election before too long ; he did so in September 1974 . Thorpe anticipated a turning point in the Liberals ' fortunes and campaigned under the slogan " one more heave " , aiming for a complete breakthrough with entering a coalition a last resort . The phrase is attributed to advertising agent and Liberal parliamentary candidate Adrian Slade . The slogan was memorable , but considered uninspiring . Future Liberal Party leader David Steel called the whole campaign " a slightly less successful re @-@ run of February . " In the October 1974 general election , the Liberals received over 700 @,@ 000 fewer votes and returned 13 MPs , down one , with Wilson achieving an overall majority of three . Thorpe and the Liberals were deflated by the outcome of the October 1974 election . Wilson 's majority , albeit slim , denied Thorpe the role of kingmaker , leaving the Liberals without a clear role ; as Dutton observes , apart from being neither Conservative or Labour , the Liberals lacked a distinctive identity and their policies were largely unknown to the public . A further problem for the party was the divergence between its activists , who were radicals well to the left of the official party , and a large section of its recent supporters who were disgruntled Conservatives . Thorpe , whose personal majority in North Devon had fallen to under 7 @,@ 000 in October , confided to an associate that , unless the party were soon to make a significant impact , his days as leader might be numbered . In the months following the election the danger represented by Scott continued to preoccupy Thorpe who , according to Holmes , felt " he would never be safe with that man around " . From late 1974 Holmes took the lead in furthering plans to silence Scott ; through various intermediaries he found Andrew Newton , an airline pilot , who said he would dispose of Scott for a fee of between £ 5 @,@ 000 and £ 10 @,@ 000 . Meanwhile , Thorpe procured £ 20 @,@ 000 from Sir Jack Hayward , the Bahamas @-@ based millionaire businessman who had previously donated to the Liberal Party , stating that this was to cover election expenses incurred during 1974 . Thorpe arranged for these funds to be secretly channelled to Holmes rather than into the party 's coffers . He later denied that this money had been used to pay Newton , or anyone else , as part of a conspiracy . Outside his private affairs , Thorpe campaigned during 1975 for electoral reform , citing the " Great Vote Robbery " of the year before . He argued that electoral reform on a proportional basis would bring about a centrist stability to British politics that would favour British business . In the June 1975 referendum on Britain 's continuing membership of the EEC , Thorpe campaigned for a " yes " vote alongside the pro @-@ Europeans of both major parties , appearing with Heath ( recently replaced as Conservative leader by Margaret Thatcher ) at the Oxford Union . The referendum resulted in a two @-@ to @-@ one approval of Britain 's membership . However , Thorpe failed to stem the decline in his party 's electoral fortunes . In the Woolwich West by @-@ election on 26 June 1975 the party lost more than two @-@ thirds of its October 1974 vote , a " major humiliation " according to The Guardian . = = = Relationship with Norman Scott = = = Thorpe 's homosexual activities from time to time came to the attention of the authorities , and were investigated by the police ; information was added to his MI5 file , but in no case was action taken against him . In 1971 he survived a party inquiry after a complaint against him by Norman Scott , a riding instructor and would @-@ be male model . Scott maintained that in the early 1960s he had been in a sexual relationship with Thorpe , who had subsequently mistreated him . The inquiry dismissed the allegations . Scott ( known then as Norman Josiffe ) had first met Thorpe early in 1961 when the former was a 20 @-@ year @-@ old groom working for one of Thorpe 's wealthy friends . The initial meeting was brief , but nearly a year later Scott , by then in London and destitute , called at the House of Commons to ask the MP for help . Thorpe later acknowledged that a friendship had developed , but denied any physical relationship ; Scott , on the other hand , claimed that he had been seduced by Thorpe on the night following the Commons meeting . Over the following years Thorpe made numerous attempts to help Scott to find accommodation and work , but instead of repaying these favours with gratitude , Scott became increasingly resentful against Thorpe , believing that he was the source of all his ills and threatening him with exposure . In 1965 Thorpe asked his parliamentary colleague Peter Bessell to help him resolve the problem . Bessell met Scott and warned him that his threats against Thorpe might be considered as blackmail ; he did , however , offer to help Scott obtain a new National Insurance card , the lack of which had been a long @-@ running source of aggravation . This quietened matters for a while , but within a year Scott was causing trouble again . With Thorpe 's agreement , Bessell began paying Scott a " retainer " of £ 5 a week , supposedly as compensation for the welfare benefits that Scott had been unable to obtain because of his missing card . Bessell later stated that by 1968 Thorpe was considering ways in which Scott might be permanently silenced ; he thought his old Oxford friend David Holmes might organise this . Holmes had been best man at Thorpe 's wedding , and was completely loyal to him . When Scott unexpectedly married in 1969 , it appeared that the problem might be over , but by 1970 the marriage had ended ; Scott convinced himself that Thorpe was to blame . Early in 1971 Scott moved to the village of Talybont , in North Wales , where he befriended a widow , Gwen Parry @-@ Jones , to whom he recounted his tale of ill @-@ treatment at the hands of Thorpe . She passed the information to Emlyn Hooson , who was MP for the adjoining Welsh constituency ; Hooson precipitated the party enquiry which cleared Thorpe and left Scott feeling bitter and humiliated . After Parry @-@ Jones 's death the following year , Scott fell into a depression and for a while was quiescent . In time , however , he began to tell his story to anyone who would listen . By 1974 Thorpe , at the crest of the Liberal revival , was terrified of exposure that might lose him the Liberal leadership . As Dominic Sandbrook observes in his history of the times : " The stakes had never been higher ; silencing Scott had never been more urgent " . = = = Resignation = = = Over the years Scott made several attempts to publicise his story , but no newspapers were interested . The satirical magazine Private Eye decided in late 1972 that the story " was defamatory , unproveable , and above all was ten years old " . Even when , in October 1975 , Newton 's bungled attempt to shoot Scott resulted in the death of the latter 's Great Dane , Rinka , and Newton 's arrest on charges of possession of a firearm with intent to endanger life , the press remained muted , possibly awaiting the bigger story that they hoped would break . Their reticence ended in January 1976 when Scott , in court on a minor social security fraud charge , claimed he was being hounded because of his previous sexual relationship with Thorpe . This statement , made in court and thus protected from the libel laws , was widely reported . On 29 January the Department of Trade published its report into the collapse of London & County Securities . The report criticised Thorpe 's failure to inform himself of the true nature of the company before involving himself , " a cautionary tale for any leading politician " . Thorpe received some relief when his former colleague Bessell , who had resigned from parliament and relocated to California to escape from a string of business failures , re @-@ emerged in early February after discovery by the Daily Mail . Bessell gave muddled accounts of his involvement with Scott , but insisted that his former chief was innocent of any wrongdoing . On 16 March 1976 Newton 's trial began at Exeter Crown Court , where Scott repeated his allegations against Thorpe despite the efforts of the prosecution 's lawyers to silence him . Newton was found guilty and sentenced to two years ' imprisonment , but did not incriminate Thorpe . The erosion of public support for the Liberal Party continued with several poor by @-@ election results in March , which the former leader Grimond attributed to increasing lack of confidence in Thorpe . On 14 March , The Sunday Times printed Thorpe 's answer to Scott 's various allegations , under the heading " The Lies of Norman Scott " . Nevertheless , many of the party 's senior figures now felt that Thorpe should resign . Thorpe 's problems multiplied when Bessell , alarmed by his own position , confessed to the Daily Mail on 6 May that in his earlier statements he had lied to protect his former leader . Scott was threatening to publish personal letters from Thorpe who , to forestall him , arranged for the Sunday Times to print two letters from 1961 . Although these did not conclusively indicate wrongdoing , their tone indicated that Thorpe had not been frank about the true nature of his friendship with Scott . On 10 May 1976 , amid rising criticism , Thorpe resigned the party leadership , " convinced that a fixed determination to destroy the Leader could itself result in the destruction of the Party " . = = Post @-@ resignation = = = = = Interlude = = = Thorpe 's resignation brought him a period of temporary calm . The new Liberal leader , David Steel , made him party spokesman on foreign affairs , with responsibility for European issues . Wilson had by this time retired as prime minister , and been replaced by James Callaghan . Thorpe lobbied the government hard for legislation to introduce direct elections to the European Parliament ; at that time MEPs were appointed by member nations ' parliaments . By @-@ election losses eroded and finally removed Labour 's small parliamentary majority , and in March 1977 Callaghan was in danger of losing a confidence vote that would have precipitated a general election . Opinion polls indicated that an election at that time would have been equally disastrous for the Labour and Liberal parties ; to ensure mutual survival , a " Lib @-@ Lab pact " was agreed , whereby in return for certain policy concessions the Liberals would support the Government . Thorpe used his influence to insist that legislation for direct elections to the European Parliament was part of the pact , but was unable to secure his principal objective , a commitment to a proportional basis in these elections . In parliament , Thorpe spoke in favour of Scottish and Welsh devolution , arguing that there was no alternative to home rule except total separation . In the various debates related to the unresolved issue of Rhodesia , Thorpe pressed for the involvement of representatives from the African nationalists , in the form of the Patriotic Front , in negotiations for a peaceful settlement to the long @-@ running Rhodesian Bush War . Although the press was generally quiet after Thorpe 's resignation , reporters were still investigating him . The most persistent of these were Barry Penrose and Roger Courtiour , collectively known as " Pencourt " , who had begun by believing that Thorpe was a target of South African intelligence agencies , until their investigations led them to Bessell in California . Bessell , no longer covering for Thorpe , gave the reporters his version of the conspiracy to murder Scott , and Thorpe 's role in it . Pencourt 's progress was covered in Private Eye , to Thorpe 's extreme vexation ; when the pair attempted to question him outside his Devon home early in 1977 , he threatened them with prosecution . Thorpe 's relatively peaceful interlude ended in October 1977 when Newton , released from prison , sold his story to the London Evening News . Newton 's claim that he had been paid " by a leading Liberal " to kill Scott caused a sensation , and led to a prolonged police investigation . Throughout this period Thorpe endeavoured to continue his public life , in and out of parliament . In the House of Commons on 1 August 1978 , when it appeared certain he would face criminal charges , he asked the Attorney @-@ General what sum of capital possessed by an applicant would prevent him from receiving legal aid . The next day he made his final speech in the House , during a debate on Rhodesia . On 4 August Thorpe , along with Holmes and two of Holmes 's associates , were charged with conspiracy to murder Scott . Thorpe was additionally charged with incitement to murder , on the basis of his alleged 1968 discussions with Bessell and Holmes . After being released on bail , Thorpe declared his innocence and his determination to refute the charges . Although he remained North Devon 's MP he withdrew almost completely from public view , except for a brief theatrical appearance at the Liberals ' 1978 annual assembly on 14 September — to the annoyance of the party 's leaders who had asked him to stay away . = = = Committal , electoral defeat = = = In November 1978 , Thorpe , Holmes and two of the latter 's business acquaintances — John le Mesurier and George Deakin — appeared before magistrates at Minehead , Devon , in a committal hearing to determine whether they should stand trial . The court heard evidence of a conspiracy from Scott , Newton and Bessell ; it also learned that Bessell was being paid £ 50 @,@ 000 by The Sunday Telegraph for his story . At the conclusion , the four defendants were committed for trial at the Old Bailey . This was set to begin on 30 April 1979 , but when in March the government fell , and a general election was called for 3 May , the trial was postponed until 8 May . Thorpe accepted the invitation of his local party to fight the North Devon seat , against the advice of friends who were certain he would lose . His campaign was largely ignored by the national party ; of its leading figures only John Pardoe , the MP for North Cornwall visited the constituency . Thorpe , supported by his wife , his mother and some loyal friends , fought hard , although much of his characteristic vigour was missing . He lost to his Conservative opponent by 8 @,@ 500 votes . Overall , the Conservatives obtained a majority of 43 seats , and Margaret Thatcher became prime minister . Afterwards , Thorpe confessed to the Daily Mail that he had not " expected to get hammered . You never do " . The Liberal Party 's share of the national vote fell to 13 @.@ 8 % , and its total seats from 13 to 11 . Dutton attributes much of the fall in the Liberal vote to the lengthy adverse publicity generated by the Thorpe affair . = = Trial and acquittal = = The trial , which lasted for six weeks , began on 8 May 1979 , under Sir Joseph Cantley . For his defence Thorpe engaged George Carman for what was the lawyer 's first high @-@ profile case . Carman quickly undermined Bessell 's credibility by revealing that he had a significant interest in Thorpe 's conviction ; in the event of an acquittal , Bessell would receive only half of his newspaper fee . During his cross @-@ examination of Scott on 22 May , Carman asked : " You knew Thorpe to be a man of homosexual tendencies in 1961 ? " This oblique admission of his client 's sexuality was a stratagem to prevent the prosecution from calling witnesses who would testify to Thorpe 's sex life . Nevertheless , Carman insisted , there was no reliable evidence of any physical sexual relationship between Thorpe and Scott , whom Carman dismissed as " this inveterate liar , social climber and scrounger " . After weeks in which the court heard the prosecution 's evidence from the committal hearings , the defence opened on 7 June . Deakin testified that although he introduced Newton to Holmes , he had thought that this was to help deal with a blackmailer — he knew nothing of a conspiracy to kill . Deakin was the only defendant to testify ; Thorpe and the others chose to remain silent and call no witnesses , on the basis that the testimonies of Bessell , Scott and Newton had failed to make the prosecution 's case . On 18 June , after closing speeches from prosecution and defence counsels , the judge began his summing @-@ up . While emphasising Thorpe 's distinguished public record , he was scathing about the principal prosecution witnesses : Bessell was a " humbug " , Scott a fraud , a sponger , a whiner , a parasite — " but of course he could still be telling the truth . " Newton was " determined to milk the case as hard as he can . " On 20 June the jury retired ; they returned two days later and acquitted the four defendants on all charges . In a brief public statement , Thorpe said that he considered the verdict " a complete vindication . " Scott said he was " unsurprised " by the outcome , but was upset by the aspersions on his character made by the judge from the safety of the bench . In a BBC investigative documentary broadcast in December 2014 , an antique firearms collector named Dennis Meighan claimed that he had been hired by an unidentified senior Liberal to kill Scott , for a fee of £ 13 @,@ 500 . Instead , he had passed the job on to his associate , Newton , and provided him with the gun . Meighan said that he had given a statement to the authorities in 1975 , but that this was significantly altered by the police to remove all references to Thorpe . Meighan was not called to give evidence at the subsequent trial . " It was a cover @-@ up , no question , but it suited me fine " , he said . = = Later life = = After his acquittal , Thorpe announced that he proposed to attend the 1979 Liberal assembly and the forthcoming Liberal International Congress in Canada . However , his failure to explain himself under oath was widely criticised in the press , and the public perception was that he had been fortunate to have " got off " . Reluctantly , Thorpe accepted that there was no future role for him within the Liberal Party , and informed the North Devon association that he would not seek to fight the seat again . Steel expressed the hope that Thorpe would , " after a suitable period of rest and recuperation ... find many avenues where his great talents may be used . " In his search for a new career Thorpe applied unsuccessfully for the posts of administrator of the Aldeburgh festival , and race relations adviser to the Greater London Council . His attempts to restart a career in television also came to nothing . In February 1982 it was announced that he was to become director of the British section of Amnesty International , but the appointment was opposed by many of the organisation 's membership , and after a month of controversy Thorpe withdrew from the post . He kept his position as chairman of the political committee of the United Nations Association , but in 1985 the progression of Parkinson 's disease , which had first been diagnosed in 1979 , led to the curtailment of most of his public activity . He continued to live in North Devon , and in 1987 accepted the honorary presidency of the North Devon Liberal Democrat association , formed after the Liberal – SDP merger . He thought he might return to parliament via a life peerage in the House of Lords , but although friends lobbied on his behalf , the merged party 's leadership refused to recommend him . Within the party generally , feelings towards him warmed , and when he attended the 1997 annual conference he received a standing ovation . In 1999 Thorpe published an anecdotal memoir , In My Own Time , an anthology of his experiences in public life . In the book he repeated his denial of any sexual relationship with Scott , and maintained that the decision not to offer evidence was made to avoid prolonging the trial , since it was clear that the prosecution 's case was " shot through with lies , inaccuracies and admissions " . In the 2005 general election campaign Thorpe appeared on television , attacking both the Conservative and Labour parties for supporting the Iraq war . Three years later , in 2008 , he gave interviews to The Guardian and to the Journal of Liberal History . York Membery , the Liberal journal 's interviewer , found Thorpe able to communicate only in a barely audible whisper , but with his brain power unimpaired . Thorpe asserted that he " still had steam in my pipes " ; reviewing the current political situation , he considered the Labour prime minister Gordon Brown " dour and unimpressive " , and dubbed the Conservative leader David Cameron " a phoney ... a Thatcherite trying to appear progressive " . Some of Thorpe 's Europeanism had been eroded over the years ; he now thought that the European Union had become too powerful , and insufficiently accountable . = = Final years and death = = Thorpe 's last public appearance was in 2009 , at the unveiling of a bust of himself in the Grimond Room at the House of Commons . Thereafter he was confined to his home , nursed by Marion until she became too infirm . She died on 6 March 2014 ; Thorpe survived her for nine months , dying on 4 December . At his funeral , at St Margaret 's , Westminster on 17 December , the mourners were led by five of his successors to the Liberal / Liberal Democrat leadership : Steel , Paddy Ashdown , Charles Kennedy , Menzies Campbell and Nick Clegg . = = Appraisal = = Most assessments of Thorpe 's career emphasise his downfall rather than his political achievements , " a fall unparalleled in British political history " , according to the Daily Telegraph obituarist . While Thorpe hoped that acquittal would ensure he would be remembered primarily for his revival of Liberal fortunes in the 1960s and 1970s , the trial shattered his reputation irretrievably . The prosecuting counsel at the Old Bailey likened the case to " a tragedy of truly Greek or Shakespearian proportions — the slow but inevitable destruction of a man by the stamp of one defect . " After Thorpe 's death , sympathetic commentators drew attention to his internationalism and social liberalism , highlighting his long involvement with the anti @-@ apartheid movement , his denunciations of dictators , his opposition to the death penalty , and his rejection of racism . There is wide agreement that he was an outstanding political campaigner — persuasive , witty , and warm : " his astonishing memory for faces persuaded voters that they were intimate friends ... his resourceful mind afforded quips and stunts for every occasion . " A different perspective on Thorpe , quoted by Bloch , was given by a former friend , the art expert David Carritt , at the time of the trial : " Self @-@ centred ... Mildly entertaining , slightly sinister . Said to be witty , but ... if one doesn 't care for impersonations , he 's really a bit of a bore " . In assessing Thorpe 's ten years as party leader , Clegg credits him with providing " the driving force that continued the Liberal revival that began under Jo Grimond " , and Douglas Murray , writing for The Spectator , recognises his strategy of identifying and concentrating on winnable seats as the basis for the major Liberal Democrat breakthrough in the 1997 election . Dutton , in his party history , takes a more qualified view , suggesting that in spite of Thorpe 's bold style and charisma , " the party drifted without a sense of conviction and underlying purpose ... [ and was ] dominated by tactics rather than ideas " . Thorpe positioned the Liberals in the " moderate centre " , equidistant from Labour and Conservative , a strategy which was very successful in February 1974 when dissatisfaction with the two main parties was at its height , but which left the party 's specific identity obscure , and its policies largely unknown . Thorpe never discussed his sexuality publicly , although throughout his political career he led a double life — responsible politician by day while , according to Murray , " by night he was not only very gay but rather carefree about being so . " The writer and broadcaster Jonathan Fryer , who was a gay activist within the Liberal Party in the 1970s , maintained that in the repressive climate of the time Thorpe " couldn 't have come out , even if he 'd wanted to " . However , his double standard irritated and alienated the gay Liberals : " He wanted the best of both worlds — his fun and a family . " Indeed Michael Bloch , in his biography of Thorpe , published a year after his death , said that he had conducted affairs with men , whilst Labour MP Chris Mullin describes Thorpe as a ' repressed homosexual ' who had a ' sexual relationship with a young man ' . In his review of Bloch 's biography , Murray writes : " Jeremy Thorpe had hoped to be remembered as a great political leader . I suppose they all do . And perhaps he will be remembered longer than many other politicians of his age or ours . But it will always be for the same thing . Jeremy , Jeremy , bang , bang , woof , woof . " = = = Books = = = = = = Online = = =
= Stord Bridge = The Stord Bridge ( Norwegian : Stordabrua ) is a suspension bridge which crosses Digernessundet between the islands of Stord and Føyno in Stord , Norway . The bridge is 1 @,@ 077 meters ( 3 @,@ 533 ft ) long , has a main span of 677 meters ( 2 @,@ 221 ft ) and a clearance below of 18 meters ( 59 ft ) . It carries two lanes of European Route E39 and a combined pedestrian and bicycle pathway . It is part of the Triangle Link , a fixed link which connects Stord to Bømlo , and both to the mainland . In 2010 , the bridge had an average 5 @,@ 021 vehicles per day . The bridge and the link was a toll road from the opening until 30 May 2013 . Plans for a crossing arose in the 1960s ; and until the 1990s proposals were for a pontoon bridge further north . The Stord Bridge was conceived after the decision to combine the crossing with the Bømlafjord Tunnel . The project was resisted both by local environmental groups and the Norwegian Public Roads Administration , the latter because the new plans would delay completion . Construction was undertaken by a joint venue between NCC and HBG Steel Structures . Construction started in 1999 and was the first bridge in Norway to have the cables spun on @-@ site . The bridge cost 442 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) and was taken into use on 27 December 2000 . = = Background = = The motivation for the Triangle Link was the desire to have a fixed link between the islands of Stord and Bømlo . The first documented proposals were made in the 1960s and involved building a pontoon bridge across Stokksundet , inspired by the plans to build what would become the Nordhordland Bridge north of Bergen . In 1973 , the municipal councils of Bømlo , Stord and Fitjar decided to launch a planning process , which concluded that a pontoon bridge between Sørstokken and Foldrøyholmen would be optimal . The report also considered bridges across the Fitjar Archipelago and a crossing via Spissøy and Føyno . There were protests from the shipping industry , who wished to continue to use the strait for ship traffic . The islands were connected with a network of five ferry services : Skjersholmane – Valevåg connected Stord and Sveio , Skjersholmane – Utbjoa connected Stord and Vindafjord , Sagvåg – Siggjarvåg connected Stord and Bølmo , and Bømlo was connected to the mainland both by the Mosterhamn – Valevåg Ferry and the Langevåg – Buavåg Ferry . In the early 1980s , plans for Stord Airport , Sørstokken were launched . Thus the plans for a bridge crossing Stokksundet were again raised in 1982 , this time by the industry on Bømlo , who would have to travel by ferry to reach the new airport . A committee was established in May 1983 , which gave Engineer Harald Møyner the assignment of producing a new report . He launched three proposals : a pontoon or suspension bridge between Foldrøyholmen and Litlaneset ; a suspension bridge between Setraneset and Sokkbleikjo , which would terminate just south of the new airport ; and a combined fixed link between Spissøy and Digernes , without passing via the Fitjar Archipelago . The latter proposal was the first time a fixed link to the mainland was proposed . The Norwegian Civil Aviation Administration protested against a possible suspension bridge near the airport , but stated that one further away would be fine . Surveys of traffic patterns on Bømlo were undertaken by Hordaland Public Roads Administration in 1984 . Based on it and other feedback , the agency stated that it preferred a pontoon bridge between Foldrøyholmen and Sørstokken , north of the ferry between Bømlo and Stord . It was estimated to cost NOK 190 million , in addition to auxiliary roads for NOK 40 million . In 1982 , plans were launched for a fixed link to the mainland further south , which would include a bridge over Digernessundet , a causeway and low bridge across Spissøysundet and a low bridge over Gassasundet . In addition , a tunnel would have to be built from Føyno to Sveio . This proposal was similar to the finalized Triangle Link . In 1985 , an all @-@ tunnel proposal , following the same route , was proposed . Hordaland Public Roads Administration stated that the proposals were unrealistic . The limited company Ytre Sunnhordland Bru- og Tunnelselskap AS ( SBT ) was founded in October 1986 by the municipalities of Bømlo , Stord , Fitjar and Sveio , Hordaland County Municipality and five banks . In December 1986 , the Public Road Administration recommended a bridge solution . SBT changed its name to Sunnhordland Bru- og Tunnelselskap , and a majority of the board shifted towards being in favor of a fixed link . The Norwegian Coastal Administration stated that they would not allow a pontoon bridge . On 26 June 1987 , SBT decided to work towards permission to collect advanced tolls on the ferry services . The board unanimously supported the triangular proposal on 16 September , which was estimated to cost NOK 660 million . This was criticized by Hordaland Public Roads Administration , who stated that it would take longer time to plan , and thus complete , the Triangle Link . From 1988 , environmentalists started actively opposing the Triangle Link . The most active were the local chapter of the Norwegian Society for the Conservation of Nature and Nature and Youth , who stated that the road would have serious consequences for the local boat traffic to the recreational islands of Føyno and Nautøy . Instead , they recommended that the municipalities chose a pontoon bridge . Another opponent to the project was the Action Committee Against a Hasty Construction of the Triangle Link , who argued to delay the decision until after the 1991 municipal elections , to ensure that the municipal councils had backing in the public . Gisle Tjong stated that the risk in the project was large and that it was uncertain how long the tolls would last : they could just as well be 60 as 15 years . He instead wanted to collect tolls in advance . The Triangle Link was passed by the various municipal councils in February and March 1988 . Hordaland Public Roads Administration still supported a pontoon bridge , and stated that two and a half years of work on a master plan had been wasted . A new master plan for the Triangle Link was published in early 1989 . During late 1989 , advance tolls on the ferries was approved by the municipal councils and the county council . They recommended that collection start on 1 July 1990 , but this was not immediately supported by the government . In July 1991 , the master plan was passed by the Council of State . On 10 December 1992 , Parliament approved advanced payment of tolls on the ferry , which were made effective from 1 January 1993 . Ticket prices increased with between NOK 10 and 12 . This resulted in protests from the ferry employees who stated that they would have to collect the tolls which would remove their jobs . Work on the development plan started in 1992 . It included safety and environmental improvements which increased the project 's cost by NOK 200 million . In May 1994 , the plans was made subject to consultative statements . In May , SBT proposed building a culvert on Digernes as a compromise to avoid a new plan which could have postponed the project several years . On 11 June 1996 , Parliament approved with 144 against 20 votes to build the Triangle Link . The original name proposal for the bridge was Stordbrua ; this was later changed to Stordabrua after input from the municipal councils and name committees . = = Construction = = The construction of the Stord Bridge was undertaken as part of the same contract as the Bømla Bridge , which was awarded in December 1998 to Triangle Contractors , a joint venture between NCC and HBG Steel Structures . Most of the work was carried out by NCC with HBG having responsibility for the steel parts of the deck and the cables . HBG had previously built the steel for the Osterøy Bridge , which opened in 1997 . The responsibility for the cables was given to Brown Beach Associates and Hordaland Mekaniske Verksted . Construction started on 20 February 1999 . After the pylons were completed on 25 September 1999 , two catwalks were erected between them , with the constructors choosing two continuous catwalks instead of three separate pairs . Extra stability to the catwalks was achieved by building connections between the two . The cables were spun on @-@ site using a reel because of the problems which had arisen using a bundle on the Great Belt Bridge in Denmark . This also allowed for cost savings , as the reels could be used two times . The cables were spun using air spinning with controlled tension , which allowed spinning with little space and with a crew with limited spinning experience . This involved installing a carrier which shuttles forward and back over the catwalk ; it spins the upper side of the cable in the one direction and the lower side in the other direction . The system has two reel racks , each with four reels of wire . Each rack only uses one reel at a time , allowing for minimum down @-@ time when changing reels . Wires were connected using pressure casing . The balance in the system is kept in place using a counterbalance tower . Spinning of the main cable started on 2 March 2000 and was concluded on 14 April . In all 11 @,@ 600 kilometers ( 7 @,@ 200 mi ) of steel wire were used to create the cables . The two bridges were the first time that on @-@ site spinning was chosen in Norway , and it gave a cost saving of NOK 10 to 11 million . The cables consist of seven bundles which consist of 420 wires — each with a diameter of 5 @.@ 35 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 211 in ) . When compressed , this gives a diameter of 320 millimeters ( 13 in ) and a quality of 1 @,@ 570 megapascals . The fastening poles were delivered five weeks after schedule ; a new mounting method was developed which allowed them to be installed in a quarter of the time , in part by using a helicopter , and the whole five @-@ week delay was eradicated . This allowed the deck sections to be installed as scheduled . There arose problems with small holes being created in the coating ; as these had also been found on the Great Belt Bridge , it was decided that nothing would be done with the issue . The deck sections were produced by HBG in Schiedam , Netherlands , and transported by Barge to Stord . Each section is 36 meters ( 118 ft ) long and consisted of two welded subsections . They were mounted using the crane ship Uglen , allowing up to nine and an average of four sections to be installed per day and completed in June 2000 . The section of the bridge built as a beam bridge on the Føyno side was built by filling in the shallow fjord under the bridge with earthwork , building the bridge and then removing the earthwork again . Construction took 700 @,@ 000 man @-@ hours and cost NOK 442 million . The bridge was taken into use along with the Bømlafjord Tunnel on 27 December 2000 . The bridge allowed , along with the rest of the Triangle Link , four ferry services to terminate . = = Specifications = = The Stord Bridge is a 1 @,@ 077 @-@ meter ( 3 @,@ 533 ft ) long suspension bridge with a 677 @-@ meter ( 2 @,@ 221 ft ) long main span . It carries two lanes of European route E39 and a combined pedestrian and bicycle path across Digernessundet , connecting the islands of Stord and Føyno . The bridge has a width of 13 @.@ 5 meters ( 44 ft ) and a clearance below of 18 meters ( 59 ft ) . It has two concrete pylons , each 97 meters ( 318 ft ) tall , one on Digernesklumpen on Stord , the other on a small islet just off Føyno . The pylons consist of 2 @,@ 800 cubic meters ( 99 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of concrete and 700 tonnes ( 690 long tons ; 770 short tons ) of steel . The deck between the towers consists of 19 pre @-@ built steel sections , each 36 meters ( 118 ft ) long and 2 @.@ 6 meters ( 8 ft 6 in ) tall . They are connected to the main suspended cable , which is 360 millimeters ( 14 in ) thick and 1 @,@ 142 meters ( 3 @,@ 747 ft ) long , by vertical cables every 12 meters ( 39 ft ) . The bridge 's vertical curvature has a radius of 11 @,@ 640 meters ( 38 @,@ 190 ft ) . In 2012 , the bridge had an average 5 @,@ 284 vehicles per day . The bridge was paid off and the tolls removed on 30 April 2013 .
= Seated Liberty dollar = The Seated Liberty dollar was a dollar coin struck by the United States Mint from 1840 to 1873 and designed by its chief engraver , Christian Gobrecht . It was the last silver coin of that denomination to be struck before passage of the Coinage Act of 1873 , which temporarily ended production of the silver dollar for American commerce . The coin 's obverse is based on that of the Gobrecht dollar , which had been minted experimentally from 1836 to 1839 . However , the soaring eagle used on the reverse of the Gobrecht dollar was not used ; instead , the United States Mint ( Mint ) used a heraldic eagle , based on a design by late Mint Chief Engraver John Reich first utilized on coins in 1807 . Seated Liberty dollars were initially struck only at the Philadelphia Mint ; in 1846 , production began at the New Orleans facility . In the late 1840s , the price of silver increased relative to gold because of an increase in supply of the latter caused by the California Gold Rush ; this led to the hoarding , export , and melting of American silver coins . The Coinage Act of 1853 decreased the weight of all silver coins of five cents or higher , except for the dollar , but also required a supplemental payment from those wishing their bullion struck into dollar coins . As little silver was being presented to the US Mint at the time , production remained low . In the final years of the series , there was more silver produced in the US , and mintages increased . In 1866 , " In God We Trust " was added to the dollar following its introduction to United States coinage earlier in the decade . Seated Liberty dollar production was halted by the Coinage Act of 1873 , which authorized the trade dollar for use in foreign commerce . Representatives of silver interests were unhappy when the metal 's price dropped again in the mid @-@ 1870s ; they advocated the resumption of the free coinage of silver into legal tender , and after the passage of the Bland – Allison Act in 1878 , production resumed with the Morgan dollar . = = Background = = The Mint Act of 1792 made both gold and silver legal tender ; specified weights of each was equal to a dollar . The United States Mint struck gold and silver only when depositors supplied metal , which was returned in the form of coin . The fluctuation of market prices for commodities meant that either precious metal would likely be overvalued in terms of the other , leading to hoarding and melting ; in the decades after 1792 , it was usually silver coins which met that fate . In 1806 , President Thomas Jefferson officially ordered all silver dollar mintage halted , though production had not occurred since 1804 . This was done in part to prevent the coins from being exported to foreign nations for melting , causing a strain on the fledgling Mint for little gain . Over the next quarter century , the silver coin usually struck for bullion depositors was the half dollar . In 1831 , Mint Director Samuel Moore requested that President Andrew Jackson lift the restriction against dollar coin production ; the president obliged in April of that year . Despite the approval to strike the coins , no silver dollars were minted until 1836 . The Bureau of the Mint in the 1830s was undergoing a period of significant change , as new technologies were adopted . In 1828 , the Mint , whose authorization had been subject to periodic renewal by Congress since its inception in 1792 , was given permanent status . A new building to house the Philadelphia Mint was authorized by Congress , and opened in 1832 . Congress adjusted the precious @-@ metal content of US coins in 1834 and 1837 , and was able to achieve a balance whereby US coins remained in circulation alongside those of foreign nations ( mostly Spanish colonial pieces ) . In 1836 , the first steam machinery was introduced at the Mint ; previously coins had been struck by muscle power . Congress had in 1835 authorized branch mints at Dahlonega in Georgia , Charlotte in North Carolina , and at New Orleans in Louisiana . The Charlotte and Dahlonega mints only struck gold , catering to miners in the South who sought to deposit that metal , but the New Orleans facility would also strike silver coins , including the Seated Liberty dollar . = = Gobrecht dollar = = In mid @-@ 1835 , newly appointed Mint Director Robert M. Patterson engaged artists Titian Peale and Thomas Sully to create new designs for American coinage . In an August 1 , 1835 , letter , Patterson proposed that Sully create an obverse design consisting of Liberty seated on a boulder , holding a " liberty pole " in her right hand topped by a pileus , the headgear given by the Romans to an emancipated slave . He also asked Sully to create a reverse design consisting of an " eagle flying , and rising in flight , amidst the constellation irregularly dispersed of twenty @-@ four stars " . Patterson requested that the bird appear natural ; he criticized the eagle designs then in use on the nation 's coinage as being unnatural primarily because of the shield placed on the eagle 's breast . Mint Chief Engraver William Kneass prepared a sketch based on Patterson 's conception , but suffered a stroke , leaving him partially paralyzed . Later in 1835 , Christian Gobrecht was hired at the Mint as a draftsman , die sinker , and assistant engraver to Kneass . Although nominally a subordinate , Gobrecht would perform much of the engraving work for the Mint until Kneass ' death in 1840 , when Gobrecht was appointed chief engraver . Sully prepared sketches of the artwork , which Gobrecht used as a guide in engraving copper plates . The plates were approved by various government officials , and the production of trial strikes began . The design was not free from controversy ; former Mint Director Samuel Moore had deprecated the use of the pileus . Quoting former president Thomas Jefferson , Moore had written to Secretary of the Treasury Levi Woodbury , " We are not emancipated slaves . " Following a series of trial strikes and modifications through 1836 , the first of what would come to be known as the Gobrecht dollars were minted in December of that year . The dollars of 1836 were minted with a silver fineness of .892 ( 89 @.@ 2 % ) silver , a specification set forth in the 1792 act . The mandated fineness of US silver coins was changed from .892 to .900 ( 90 % ) by the Coinage Act of 1837 , passed on January 18 , 1837 ; subsequent Gobrecht dollars were struck in .900 silver . Beginning in 1837 , an adaptation of the obverse of the Gobrecht dollar , depicting a seated Liberty , was used on the smaller silver coins ( from half dime to half dollar ) , with Gobrecht 's modification of Reich 's heraldic eagle on the reverse of the quarter and half dollar . Except on the half dime , abolished in 1873 , the designs would remain on those coins for over 50 years . Coinage continued in small amounts until 1839 , when official production of the Gobrecht dollar ceased . The coins had been struck as a trial to gauge public acceptance . The Mint acquired a portrait lathe in 1837 , which allowed Gobrecht to work in large models for the later versions of the Gobrecht dollar , and for the Seated Liberty dollar . The lathe , a pantograph @-@ like device , mechanically reduced the design from the model to a coin @-@ size hub , from which working dies could be produced . Prior to 1837 , the engraver had to cut the design onto the die face by hand . = = Production = = = = = Design = = = Prior to full @-@ scale production of a dollar coin in 1840 , Patterson reviewed the designs then in use , including the Gobrecht dollar 's . The director opted to replace Gobrecht 's soaring eagle reverse with a left @-@ facing bald eagle based on a design by former Mint engraver John Reich , a design first used on silver and gold coinage in 1807 . Although the reverse for the dollar was probably selected to match that of the quarter and half dollar , it is not known why the flying eagle design was not used for the lower denominations in the first place . Numismatic historian Walter Breen speculates that a Treasury official might have preferred the Reich design . The obverse of the Gobrecht dollar was in high relief , but Mint officials felt that this should be lowered for the new coin , which was to be struck in much larger quantities . Patterson hired Robert Ball Hughes , a Philadelphia artist , to modify the design . As part of Hughes ' modifications , Liberty 's head was enlarged , the drapery was thickened , and the relief was lowered overall . Thirteen stars were also included on the obverse . On the Gobrecht dollar , with its high relief , the depiction of Liberty appears like a statue on a plinth ; the flatter Seated Liberty decreased relief appears more like an engraving . Art historian Cornelius Vermeule tied the appearance of the obverse to neoclassicism , noting the resemblance of Gobrecht 's Liberty to the marble statues of ancient Rome . The neoclassical school was popular in the first half of the 19th century , and not only among official artists ; Vermeule noted , " it becomes almost painfully evident that similar sources were consulted both by the engravers of United States coins in Philadelphia and by the cutters of tombstones from Maine to Illinois " . The reverse retained the shield upon the eagle 's breast . Art historian Vermeule described it as " the same old unnatural , unartistic eagle with shield on his stomach , like a baseball umpire 's protector ... to clutch branch and olives in one foot , arrows of war in the other oversized set of claws " . According to numismatic historian David Lange , the Reich @-@ Gobrecht reverse design is known among some coin collectors as the " sandwich @-@ board eagle " . Breen , in his comprehensive volume on US coins , complains of " the ' improvements ' inflicted by [ Hughes ] on a hapless Ms. Liberty . Compared with the original Sully @-@ Gobrecht conception of 1836 – 39 , this is a sorry mess indeed . " = = = Release = = = A small production run of 12 @,@ 500 was minted in July 1840 to allow bullion depositors to become familiar with the new coins before having their silver struck into dollars . The process of bringing the new coin to public hands was made easier by a congressional authorization in 1837 for a fund that allowed the Mint a " float " , permitting it to give depositors payment in coin without waiting for their metal to go through the minting process . Bullion producers began depositing the silver required to initiate heavier production later in 1840 ; 41 @,@ 000 pieces were minted in November , followed by a mintage of 7 @,@ 505 in December . Deposits increased the following year , which saw a mintage of 173 @,@ 000 pieces . All coins were produced at the Philadelphia Mint until 1846 , when 59 @,@ 000 were struck at the Mint at New Orleans . Following the discovery of gold in California , a large amount of gold coins began appearing in American commercial channels . The influx caused the price of gold relative to silver to decrease , making silver coins worth more as bullion than as currency . They were exported abroad , or else melted locally for their bullion value . As it was profitable to export silver , little was presented at the Mint , which resulted in low mintage numbers for the silver dollar ; 1 @,@ 300 and 1 @,@ 100 were struck in 1851 and 1852 respectively . The rarity of these dates was recognized by the late 1850s ; Mint employees made surreptitious restrikes to sell to collectors . Congress passed the Coinage Act of 1853 in February of that year . The act lowered the silver weight of the coins ranging from the half dime to half dollar by 6 @.@ 9 % , though the dollar remained unaffected . The 1853 act eliminated the practice of depositing silver bullion to be struck into coin , except into the dollar for which a coining charge of .5 % was imposed . According to the Senate report filed with the bill which became the Coinage Act , these changes were intended as a temporary expedient , with the free coinage of silver to be restored when bullion prices became stable . Sources vary in their explanation as to why Congress chose to exempt the dollar from the silver coinage overhaul : numismatic historian R.W. Julian suggests that it was done due to its status as the " flagship " of American coins . According to Don Taxay in his history of the Mint and coinage , " the silver dollar , which it [ the act ] left unchanged to preserve a bi @-@ metallic currency , continued to be exported and was rarely used in commerce . Without realizing it , the country had entered onto the gold standard . " Julian agreed , noting that the act instituted a de facto gold standard in the United States , because it required silver coinage to be paid for in gold . The silver dollar continued to circulate little ; quantities were sent west beginning in 1854 to serve as " small change " in California . Silver prices remained high into the 1860s , and little silver bullion was presented for striking into dollars . To serve collectors , individual specimens were made available to the public by the Mint at a cost of $ 1 @.@ 08 . = = = Later years = = = Numismatist and coin dealer Q. David Bowers believes that most Seated Liberty dollars produced after 1853 were shipped to China to pay for luxury goods , including tea and silk . R. W. Julian argued to the contrary , that continued production of the dollar had little to do with trade with the Orient ( where goods were paid for in silver ) , suggesting instead that the coins were sent to the West for use there . However , although the Mint 's Engraving Department sent dies for the dollar to the San Francisco facility repeatedly from 1858 on , the California mint used them only once before 1870 , striking 20 @,@ 000 dollars in 1859 , a year in which 255 @,@ 700 were struck at Philadelphia and 360 @,@ 000 at New Orleans . Production at New Orleans was disrupted after 1860 by the Civil War ; it did not strike silver dollars again until 1879 , after the end of the Seated Liberty series . After the outbreak of the war in 1861 , inflationary greenbacks were introduced , and precious @-@ metal coins vanished from circulation . In April 1863 , new Mint Director James Pollock argued that the silver dollar be eliminated , noting in a letter that the coin " no longer enters into our monetary system . The few pieces made are for Asiatic and other foreign trade and are not seen in circulation . " In November 1861 , Reverend M. R. Watkinson suggested in a letter that some sort of religious motto should be placed on American coinage to reflect the increasing religiosity of United States citizens following the outbreak of the Civil War . In an October 21 , 1863 , report to Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase , Pollock expressed his own desire to emblazon American coins with a religious motto . The Mint began producing patterns bearing various mottoes , including " God Our Trust " and " In God We Trust " ; the latter was ultimately selected , and its first use was on the two @-@ cent piece in 1864.The following year , a law was passed allowing the Treasury to place the motto upon any coin at its discretion . The motto was placed on the silver dollar , as well as various other silver , gold and base metal coins , in 1866 . The coin shortage continued after the end of the Civil War , due largely to the large war debt incurred by the federal government . As a result , silver coinage began to trade at a significant premium to the now ubiquitous greenbacks . Accordingly , the government was reluctant to issue silver coins . Nevertheless , the Mint continued striking silver , to be stored in vaults until such time as they could enter the marketplace . The Seated Liberty dollar was the first coin to be struck at the Carson City Mint ; the first to be issued were 2 @,@ 303 pieces paid to a Mr. A. Wright on February 11 , 1870 . The dollar was struck at Carson City from 1870 to 1873 , with the largest mintage , 11 @,@ 758 , in 1870 . The largest quantity struck at any mint was in 1872 at Philadelphia : 1 @,@ 105 @,@ 500 , though the mintage in 1871 had also exceeded a million . = = Abolition and aftermath = = Beginning in 1859 , large quantities of silver were found in Nevada Territory and elsewhere in the American West . In 1869 , Director of the Mint Henry Linderman began advocating the end of the acceptance of silver bullion deposits to be struck into dollars . Although silver dollars were not coined in large numbers , Linderman saw that mining in the West would increase after the completion of the transcontinental railroad , which it did , as US silver production increased from 10 million troy ounces in 1867 to more than 22 million five years later . Linderman foresaw that these activities would increase the supply of silver , causing its price to drop below the $ 1 @.@ 2929 per ounce at which the precious metal in the standard silver dollar is worth $ 1 @.@ 00 . He anticipated that silver suppliers would turn to the Mint to dispose of their product by striking it into dollars . The monetization of that cheap silver , Linderman feared , would inflate the currency and drive gold from commerce because of Gresham 's law . Although silver advocates later called the resulting law the " Crime of ' 73 " and claimed that it had been passed in a deceitful manner , the bill was discussed during five different sessions of Congress , read in full by both the House of Representatives and the Senate and printed in full on multiple occasions . Once it passed both houses of Congress , it was signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on February 12 , 1873 . The Coinage Act of 1873 ended production of the standard silver dollar and authorized creation of the Trade dollar , thus concluding the Seated Liberty dollar series . The Trade dollar was slightly heavier than the standard dollar and was intended for use in payments in silver to merchants in China . Although not meant for use in the United States , a last @-@ minute rider gave it legal tender status there up to $ 5 . When silver prices plummeted in the mid @-@ 1870s , millions appeared in circulation , at first in the West and then throughout the United States , causing problems in commerce when banks insisted on the $ 5 legal tender limit . Other abuses followed , such as purchase by companies for bullion value ( by then about $ 0 @.@ 80 ) for use in pay packets . Workers had little option but to accept them as dollars . In response to complaints , Congress ended any status as legal tender in 1876 , halted production of the Trade dollar ( except for collectors ) in 1878 , and agreed to redeem any which had not been chopmarked in 1887 . The 1873 act eliminated the provisions allowing depositors of silver bullion to have their metal struck into standard silver dollars ; they could now only receive Trade dollars , which were not legal tender beyond $ 5 . As the price of silver then was about $ 1 @.@ 30 per ounce , there was no outcry from silver producers . Beginning in 1874 , however , the price dropped ; silver would not again sell for $ 1 @.@ 2929 or more on the open market in the United States until 1963 . Advocates of silver both sought a market for the commodity and believed that " free silver " or bimetallism would boost the economy and make it easy for farmers to repay debts . Many in Congress agreed , and the first battle over the issue resulted in a partial victory for silver forces , as the 1878 Bland – Allison Act required the Mint to purchase large quantities of silver on the open market and strike the bullion into dollar coins . The Mint did so , using a new design by Assistant Engraver George T. Morgan , which came to be known as the Morgan dollar . The issue of what monetary standard would be used occupied the nation for the rest of the 19th century , becoming most acute in the 1896 presidential election . In that election , the unsuccessful Democratic candidate , William Jennings Bryan , campaigned on " free silver " , having electrified the Democratic National Convention with his Cross of Gold speech , decrying the gold standard . The issue was settled for the time by the Gold Standard Act of 1900 , making that standard the law of the land . = = Collecting = = Considerable private melting in the early years of the series makes many dates rare ; more melting took place when large quantities that had accumulated at the New York Sub @-@ Treasury were sent to Philadelphia in 1861 and 1862 for restriking into smaller denominations . R. S. Yeoman 's 2014 edition of A Guide Book of United States Coins lists no Seated Liberty dollar in collectable condition ( very good or better ) at less than $ 280 . The key dates of the series include the 1866 variety which lacks the motto " In God We Trust " , of which only two are known ; one sold at auction in 2005 for $ 1 @,@ 207 @,@ 500 . Another rarity is the 1870 struck at San Francisco ( 1870 @-@ S ) , of which the mintage is not known as their striking was not recorded in that mint 's records . Those records indicate that in May 1870 , the San Francisco Mint returned two dollar reverse dies to Philadelphia as mistakenly sent without mint mark , and received two proper replacements . There is no record of any 1870 @-@ dated obverse dies for the dollar being sent to San Francisco ; nevertheless , the coins exist . Breen , writing in 1988 , lists twelve examples known , which he speculates may have been presentation pieces , meant to be inserted in a cornerstone . One sold at auction for $ 1 @,@ 092 @,@ 500 in 2003 . A similar mystery attends the 1873 @-@ S , which despite the stated mintage of 700 , is not known to exist . Two of the pieces were routinely sent to Philadelphia for examination at the 1874 meeting of the United States Assay Commission , but apparently were not preserved . Breen suggests that the remaining mintage may have been melted along with obsolete silver coins .
= Cross @-@ country skiing = Cross @-@ country skiing is a form of skiing where skiers rely on their own locomotion to move across snow @-@ covered terrain , rather than using ski lifts or other forms of assistance . Cross @-@ country skiing is widely practised as a sport and recreational activity , however some still use it as a means of transportation . Variants of cross @-@ country skiing are adapted to a range of terrain which spans unimproved , sometimes mountainous terrain to groomed courses that are specifically designed for the sport . Modern cross @-@ country skiing is similar to the original form of skiing , from which all skiing disciplines evolved , including alpine skiing , ski jumping and Telemark skiing . Skiers propel themselves either by striding forward ( classic style ) or side @-@ to @-@ side in a skating motion ( skate skiing ) , aided by arms pushing on ski poles against the snow . It is practised in regions with snow @-@ covered landscapes , including Northern Europe , Canada , Russia and regions in the United States . Competitive cross @-@ country skiing is one of the Nordic skiing sports . Cross @-@ country skiing and rifle marksmanship are the two components of biathlon , ski @-@ orienteering is a form of cross @-@ country skiing , which includes map navigation along snow trails and tracks . = = History = = The word ski comes from the Old Norse word " skíð " which means stick of wood . Skiing started as a technique for traveling cross @-@ country over snow on skis , starting almost five millennia ago with beginnings in Scandinavia . It may have been practised as early as 600 BCE in Daxing 'anling , in what is now China . Early historical evidence includes Procopius ' ( around CE 550 ) description of Sami people as skrithiphinoi translated as " ski running samis " . Birkely argues that the Sami people have practiced skiing for more than 6000 years , evidenced by the very old Sami word čuoigat for skiing . Egil Skallagrimsson 's 950 CE saga describes King Haakon the Good 's practice of sending his tax collectors out on skis . The Gulating law ( 1274 ) stated that " No moose shall be disturbed by skiers on private land . " Cross @-@ country skiing evolved from a utilitarian means of transportation to being a world @-@ wide recreational activity and sport , which branched out into other forms of skiing starting in the mid @-@ 1800s . Early skiers used one long pole or spear in addition to the skis . The first depiction of a skier with two ski poles dates to 1741 . Traditional skis , used for snow travel in Norway and elsewhere into the 1800s , often comprised one short ski with a natural fur traction surface , the andor , and one long for gliding , the langski — one being up to 100 cm ( 39 in ) longer than the other — allowing skiers to propel themselves with a scooter motion . This combination has a long history among the Sami people . Skis up to 280 cm have been produced in Finland , and the longest recorded ski in Norway is 373 cm . = = = Transportation = = = Ski warfare , the use of ski @-@ equipped troops in war , is first recorded by the Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus in the 13th century , who were reportedly able to cover distances comparable to that of light cavalry . The garrison in Trondheim used skis at least from 1675 , and the Danish @-@ Norwegian army included specialized skiing battalions from 1747 — details of military ski exercises from 1767 are on record . Skis were used in military exercises in 1747 . In 1799 French traveller Jacques de la Tocnaye recorded his visit to Norway in his travel diary : Norwegian immigrants used skis ( " Norwegian snowshoes " ) in the US midwest from around 1836 . Norwegian immigrant " Snowshoe Thompson " transported mail by skiing across the Sierra Nevada between California and Nevada from 1856 . In 1888 Norwegian explorer Fridtjof Nansen and his team crossed the Greenland icecap on skis . Norwegian workers on the Buenos Aires - Valparaiso railway line introduced skiing in South America around 1890 . In 1910 Roald Amundsen used skis on his South Pole Expedition . In 1902 the Norwegian consul in Kobe imported ski equipment and introduced skiing to the Japanese , motivated by the death of Japanese soldiers during a snow storm . = = = Sport = = = Norwegian skiing regiments organized military skiing contests in the 18th century , divided in four classes : shooting at a target while skiing at " top speed , " downhill racing among trees , downhill racing on large slopes without falling , and " long racing " on " flat ground . " An early record of a public ski competition occurred in Tromsø , 1843 . In Norwegian , langrenn refers to " competitive skiing where the goal is to complete a specific distance in groomed tracks in the shortest possible time . " In Norway , ski touring competitions ( Norwegian : turrenn ) are long @-@ distance cross @-@ country competitions open to the public , competition is usually within age intervals . A new technique , skate skiing , was experimented with early in the 20th Century , but was not widely adopted until the 1980s . Johan Grøttumsbråten used the skating technique at the 1931 World Championship in Oberhof , one of the earliest recorded use of skating in competitive cross @-@ country skiing . This technique was later used in ski orienteering in the 1960s on roads and other firm surfaces . It became widespread during the 1980s after the success of Bill Koch ( USA ) in 1982 Cross @-@ country Skiing Championships drew more attention to the skating style . Norwegian skier Ove Aunli started using the technique in 1984 , when he found it to be much faster than classic style . Finnish skier , Pauli Siitonen , developed a one @-@ sided variant of the style in the 1970s , leaving one ski in the track while skating to the side with the other one during endurance events ; this became known as the " marathon skate . " = = = Terminology = = = While the noun ski originates from the Norwegian language , unlike the English skiing there is no corresponding verb in Norwegian . Fridtjov Nansen , for instance , describes the crossing of Greenland as På ski over Grønland , literally " On skis across Greenland " , while the English edition of the report was titled , The first crossing of Greenland . Nansen referred to the activity of traversing snow on skis as Norwegian : skilöbning ( he used the term also in the English translation ) , which may be translated as ski running . Nansen used skilöbning , regarding all forms of skiing , but noted that ski jumping is purely a competitive sport and not for amateurs . He further noted that in some competitions the skier " is also required to show his skill in turning his ski to one side or the other within given marks " at full speed on a steep hill . Nansen regarded these forms ( i.e. , jumping and slalom ) as " special arts " , and believed that the most important branch of skiing was travel " in an ordinary way across the country . " In Germany , Nansen 's Greenland report was published as Auf Schneeschuhen durch Grönland ( literally " On snowshoes through Greenland " ) . The German term , Schneeschuh , was supplanted by the borrowed Norwegian word , Ski , in late 19th century . The Norwegian encyclopedia of sports also uses the term , skiløping , ( literally " ski running " ) for all forms of skiing . Around 1900 the word Skilaufen was used in German in the same sense as Norwegian : skiløping . In modern Norwegian , a variety of terms refer to cross @-@ country skiing , including : gå på ski ( literally " walk on skis " ) — a general term for self @-@ propelled skiing turgåing på ski ( literally " hiking on skis " ) — refers to ski touring as recreation langrenn ( literally " long competition " ) — refers to cross @-@ country ski racing In contrast , alpine skiing is referred to as stå på ski ( literally " stand on skis " ) . = = Recreation = = Recreational cross @-@ country skiing includes ski touring and groomed @-@ trail skiing , typically at resorts or in parklands . It is an accessible form of recreation for persons with vision and mobility impairments . A related form of recreation is dog skijoring — a winter sport where a cross @-@ country skier is assisted by one or more dogs . = = = Ski touring = = = Ski touring takes place off @-@ piste and outside of ski resorts . Tours may extend over multiple days . Typically , skis , bindings , and boots allow for free movement of the heel to enable a walking pace , as with Nordic disciplines and unlike Alpine skiing . Ski touring 's subgenre ski mountaineering involves independently navigating and route finding through potential avalanche terrain and often requires familiarity with meteorology along with skiing skills . Ski touring can be faster and easier than summer hiking in some terrain , allowing for traverses and ascents that would be harder in the summer . Skis can also be used to access backcountry alpine climbing routes when snow is off the technical route , but still covers the hiking trail.In some countries , organizations maintain a network of huts for use by cross @-@ country skiers in wintertime . For example , the Norwegian Trekking Association maintains over 400 huts stretching across thousands of kilometres of trails which hikers can use in the summer and skiers in the winter . = = = Groomed @-@ trail skiing = = = Groomed trail skiing occurs at facilities , such as Nordmarka ( Oslo ) , Royal Gorge Cross Country Ski Resort and Gatineau Park , Quebec , where trails are laid out and groomed for both classic and skate @-@ skiing . Such grooming and track setting ( for classic technique ) requires specialized equipment and techniques that adapt to the condition of the snow . Trail preparation employs snow machines that tow snow compaction , texturing and track @-@ setting devices . Groomers must adapt such equipment to the condition of the snow — crystal structure , temperature , degree of compaction , moisture content , etc . Depending on the initial condition of the snow , grooming may achieve an increase in density for new @-@ fallen snow or a decrease in density for icy or compacted snow . Cross @-@ country ski facilities may incorporate a course design that meets homologation standards for such organizations as the International Olympic Committee , the International Ski Federation or national standards . Standards address course distances , degree of difficulty with maximums in elevation difference and steepness — both up and downhill , plus other factors . Some facilities have night @-@ time lighting on select trails — called lysløype ( light trails ) in Norwegian and elljusspår ( electric light trails ) in Swedish . The first lysløype were opened in 1946 in Nordmarka and at Byåsen ( Trondheim ) . = = Competition = = Cross @-@ country ski competition encompasses a variety of formats for races over courses of varying lengths according to rules sanctioned by the International Ski Federation ( FIS ) and by national organizations , such as the U.S. Ski and Snowboard Association and Cross Country Ski Canada . It also encompasses cross @-@ country ski marathon events , sanctioned by the Worldloppet Ski Federation , cross @-@ country ski orienteering events , sanctioned by the International Orienteering Federation , and Paralympic cross @-@ country skiing , sanctioned by the International Paralympic Committee . = = = FIS @-@ sanctioned competition = = = The FIS Nordic World Ski Championships have been held in various numbers and types of events since 1925 for men and since 1954 for women . From 1924 to 1939 , the World Championships were held every year , including the Winter Olympic Games . After World War II , the World Championships were held every four years from 1950 to 1982 . Since 1985 , the World Championships have been held in odd @-@ numbered years . Notable cross @-@ country ski competitions include the Winter Olympics , the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships , and the FIS World Cup events ( including the Holmenkollen ) . = = = Other sanctioned competition = = = Cross @-@ country ski marathons — races with distances greater than 40 kilometers — have two cup series , the Ski Classics , which started in 2011 , and the Worldloppet . Skiers race in classic or free @-@ style ( skating ) events , depending on the rules of the race . Notable ski marathons , include the Vasaloppet in Sweden , Birkebeineren in Norway , the Engadin Skimarathon in Switzerland , the American Birkebeiner , the Tour of Anchorage in Anchorage , Alaska , and the Boreal Loppet , held in Forestville , Quebec , Canada . Biathlon combines cross @-@ country skiing and rifle shooting . Depending on the shooting performance , extra distance or time is added to the contestant 's total running distance / time . For each shooting round , the biathlete must hit five targets ; the skier receives a penalty for each missed target , which varies according to the competition rules . Ski orienteering is a form of cross @-@ country skiing competition that requires navigation in a landscape , making optimal route choices at racing speeds . Standard orienteering maps are used , but with special green overprinting of trails and tracks to indicate their navigability in snow ; other symbols indicate whether any roads are snow @-@ covered or clear . Standard skate @-@ skiing equipment is used , along with a map holder attached to the chest . It is one of the four orienteering disciplines recognized by the International Orienteering Federation . Upper body strength is especially important because of frequent double poling along narrow snow trails . Paralympic cross @-@ country ski competition is an adaptation of cross @-@ country skiing for athletes with disabilities . Paralympic cross @-@ country skiing includes standing events , sitting events ( for wheelchair users ) , and events for visually impaired athletes under the rules of the International Paralympic Committee . These are divided into several categories for people who are missing limbs , have amputations , are blind , or have any other physical disability , to continue their sport . = = Techniques = = Cross @-@ country skiing has two basic propulsion techniques , which apply to different surfaces : classic ( undisturbed snow and tracked snow ) and skate skiing ( firm , smooth snow surfaces ) . The classic technique relies on a wax or texture on the ski bottom under the foot for traction on the snow to allow the skier to slide the other ski forward in virgin or tracked snow . With the skate skiing technique a skier slides on alternating skis on a firm snow surface at an angle from each other in a manner similar to ice skating . Both techniques employ poles with baskets that allow the arms to participate in the propulsion . Specialized equipment is adapted to each technique and each type of terrain . A variety of turns are used , when descending . Both poles can be used simultaneously ( " double @-@ poling " ) , or alternating , in classic the alternating technique is most common ( the " diagonal stride " ) while in the skating technique double poles are more common . = = = Classic = = = The classic style is often used on prepared trails ( pistes ) that have pairs of parallel grooves ( tracks ) cut into the snow . It is also the most usual technique where no tracks have been prepared . With this technique , each ski is pushed forward from the other stationary ski in a striding and gliding motion , alternating foot to foot . With the " diagonal stride " variant the poles are planted alternately on the opposite side of the forward @-@ striding foot ; with the " kick @-@ double @-@ pole " variant the poles are planted simultaneously with every other stride . At times , especially with gentle descents , double poling is the sole means of propulsion . On uphill terrain , techniques include the " side step " for steep slopes , moving the skis perpendicular to the fall line , the " herringbone " for moderate slopes , where the skier takes alternating steps with the skis splayed outwards , and , for gentle slopes , the skier uses the diagonal technique with shorter strides and greater arm force on the poles . = = = Skate skiing = = = With skate skiing , the skier provides propulsion on a smooth , firm snow surface by pushing alternating skis away from one another at an angle , in a manner similar to ice skating . Skate @-@ skiing usually involves a coordinated use of poles and the upper body to add impetus , sometimes with a double pole plant each time the ski is extended on a temporarily " dominant " side ( " V1 " ) or with a double pole plant each time the ski is extended on either side ( " V2 " ) . Skiers climb hills , using these techniques , by widening the angle of the " V " and by making more frequent , shorter strides and more forceful use of poles . A variant of the technique is the " marathon skate , " where the skier leaves one ski in the track while skating outwards to the side with the other ski . = = = Turns = = = Turns , used while descending or for braking , include the snowplough ( or " Wedge Turn " ) , the stem Christie ( or " Wedge Christie " ) , parallel turn , and the Telemark turn . The step turn is used for maintaining speed during descents or out of track on flats . = = Equipment = = Equipment comprises skis , poles , boots and bindings ; these vary according to : Technique , classic vs skate Terrain , which may vary from groomed trails to wilderness Performance level , from recreational use to competition at the elite level = = = Skis = = = Skis used in cross @-@ country are lighter and narrower than those used in alpine skiing . Ski bottoms are designed to provide a gliding surface and , for classic skis , a traction zone under foot . The base of the gliding surface is a plastic material that is designed both to minimize friction and , in many cases , to accept waxes . Glide wax may be used on the tails and tips of classic skis and across the length of skate skis . = = = = Types = = = = Each type of ski is sized and designed differently . Length affects maneuverability ; camber affects pressure on the snow beneath the feet of the skier ; side @-@ cut affects the ease of turning ; width affects forward friction ; overall area on the snow affects bearing capacity ; and tip geometry affects the ability to penetrate new snow or to stay in a track . Each of the following ski types has a different combination of these attributes : Classic skis : Designed for skiing in tracks . For adult skiers ( between 155 cm / 50 kg and 185 cm / 75 kg ) , recommended lengths are between 180 to 210 centimetres ( approximately 115 % of the skier 's height ) . Traction comes from a “ grip zone ” underfoot that when bearing the skier ’ s weight engages either a textured gripping surface or a grip wax . Accordingly , these skis are classified as " waxable " or " waxless . " Recreational waxless skis generally require little attention and are adapted for casual use . Waxable skis , if prepared correctly , provide better grip and glide . When the skier ’ s weight is distributed on both skis , the ski ’ s camber diminishes the pressure of the grip zone on the snow and promotes bearing on the remaining area of the ski — the " glide zone " . A test for stiffness of camber is made with a piece of paper under the skier 's foot , standing on skis on a flat , hard surface — the paper should be pinned throughout the grip zone of the ski on which all the skier 's weight is placed , but slide freely when the skier 's weight is bearing equally on both skis . Skate skis : Designed for skiing on groomed surfaces . Recommended lengths are between 170 to 200 centimetres ( up to 110 % of the skier 's height ) for adult skiers . The entire bottom of each skate ski is a glide zone — prepared for maximum glide . Traction comes from the skier pushing away from the edge of the previous ski onto the next ski . Back country skis : Designed for ski touring on natural snow conditions . Recommended lengths are between 150 to 195 centimeters for adult skiers , depending on height and weight of the user . Back country skis are typically heavier and wider than classic and skate skis ; they often have metal edges for better grip on hard snow ; and their greater sidecut helps to carve turns . The geometry of a back country ski depends on its purpose — skis suited for forested areas where loose powder can predominate may be shorter and wider than those selected for open , exposed areas where compacted snow may prevail . Sidecut on Telemark skis promotes turning in forest and rugged terrain . Width and short length aid turning in loose and deep snow . Longer , narrower and more rigid skis with sharp edges are suited for snow that has been compacted by wind or freeze @-@ thaw . Touring ski design may represent a general @-@ purpose compromise among these different ski conditions , plus being acceptable for use in groomed tracks . Traction may come from a textured or waxed grip zone , as with classic skis , or from ski skins , which are applied to the ski bottom for long , steep ascents and have hairs or mechanical texture that prevents sliding backwards . = = = = Gliding surface = = = = Glide waxes enhance the speed of the gliding surface , and are applied by ironing them onto the ski and then polishing the ski bottom . Three classes of glide wax are available , depending on the level of desired performance with higher performance coming at higher cost . Hydrocarbon glide waxes , based on paraffin are common for recreational use . Race waxes comprise a combination of fluorinated hydrocarbon waxes and fluorocarbon overlays . Fluorocarbons decrease surface tension and surface area of the water between the ski and the snow , increasing speed and glide of the ski under specific conditions . Either combined with the wax or applied after in a spray , powder , or block form , fluorocarbons significantly improve the glide of the ski and are widely used in cross @-@ country ski races . = = = = Traction surface = = = = Skis designed for classic technique , both in track and in virgin snow , rely on a traction zone , called the " grip zone " or " kick zone , " underfoot . This comes either from a ) texture , designed to slide forward but not backwards , that is built into the grip zone of waxless skis , or from applied devices , e.g. climbing skins , or b ) from grip waxes . Grip waxes are classified according to their hardness : harder waxes are for colder and newer snow . An incorrect choice of grip wax for the snow conditions encountered may cause ski slippage ( wax too hard for the conditions ) or snow sticking to the grip zone ( wax too soft for the conditions ) . Grip waxes generate grip by interacting with snow crystals , which vary with temperature , age and compaction . Hard grip waxes don 't work well for snow which has metamorphosed to having coarse grains , whether icy or wet . In these conditions , skiers opt for a stickier substance , called klister . = = = Boots and bindings = = = Ski boots are attached to the ski only at the toe , leaving the heel free . Depending on application , boots may be lightweight ( performance skiing ) or heavier and more supportive ( back @-@ country skiing ) . Bindings connect the boot to the ski . There are three primary groups of binding systems used in cross @-@ country skiing ( in descending order of importance ) : Standardized system : Boots and bindings have an integrated connection , typically a bar across the front end of the sole of the boot , and platform on which the boot rests . Two families of standards prevail : NNN ( New Nordic Norm ) and SNS ( Salomon Nordic System ) Profil . Both systems have variants for skiing on groomed surfaces and in back country . These systems are the most common type of binding . Three @-@ pin : The boot @-@ gripping system comprises three pins that correspond to three holes in the sole of the boot 's toe , used primarily for back @-@ country skiing . Cable : A cable secures the free @-@ moving heel and keeps the toe of the boot pushed into a boot @-@ gripping section , used primarily for back @-@ country and telemark skiing . = = = Poles = = = Ski poles are used for balance and propulsion . Modern cross @-@ country ski poles are made from aluminium , fibreglass @-@ reinforced plastic , or carbon fibre , depending on weight , cost and performance parameters . Formerly they were made of wood or bamboo . They feature a foot ( called a basket ) near the end of the shaft that provides a pushing platform , as it makes contact with the snow . Baskets vary in size , according to the expected softness / firmness of the snow . Racing poles feature smaller , lighter baskets than recreational poles . Poles designed for skating are longer than those designed for classic skiing . Traditional skiing in the 1800s used a single pole for both cross @-@ country and downhill . The single pole was longer and stronger than the poles that are used in pairs . In competitive cross @-@ country poles in pairs were introduced around 1900 . = = Gallery = =
= Paul McDermott = Paul Anthony Michael McDermott ( born 13 May 1962 ) is an Australian comedian , actor , writer , director , singer , artist and television personality . As a comedian , he is best known both for Good News Week and for his role as a member of the musical comedy group the Doug Anthony All Stars , which disbanded in 1994 but reformed in 2014 ; he has also performed individually and as a part of GUD . He has frequently appeared at the Melbourne International Comedy Festival and taken part in its two major televised productions , the Comedy Festival Gala and the Great Debate . He has also hosted two other ABC programs and briefly featured on Triple J as a morning radio presenter between 1996 and 1997 . He hosted Good News Week until 2012 , and has since pursued his painting career , and given a series of concerts featuring self @-@ penned songs of a more serious nature . McDermott is a published author , having released several books both in collaboration with the Doug Anthony All Stars and individually . He has written as a columnist for a number of Australian newspapers and a selection of his columns have been compiled into a book , The Forgetting of Wisdom . He has also written and illustrated two storybooks , both of which have been adapted into short films with McDermott scripting , directing , performing and painting all of the animations . = = Personal life = = McDermott was born in Adelaide , South Australia , a fraternal twin and one of six children in a Catholic family . His father , John , was a senior public servant and his mother , Betty , a home manager . The family moved to Canberra when McDermott was three . He attended Marist College Canberra , where he describes himself as having been painfully shy and a " bit of a loner " ; Dickson College ; and the Canberra School of Art at the Australian National University , where he studied art for four years . He describes painting as his first love , and still considers his final year piece at art school to be his finest work . Indeed , he only started performing at the age of 25 because he needed money to buy canvases . " It was either that or waiting on tables and I thought I 'd soon get pissed off with people doing that , " he says . Privately , McDermott maintains his interest in art through painting , drawing and hand @-@ crafting books . He works under the alias of artist ' Young Master Paul ' . He has criticised the war on drugs and society 's tendency to ignore the large drug subculture that involves people of all ages . " It 's out there and it happens , but there 's still a fear of talking about it , " he says . " In cities like Manchester , with unemployment problems , there are no @-@ alcohol venues where five thousand people under the age of sixteen are eccy 'd off their heads every Saturday night . " He has one son , Xavier , with his partner Melissa Lyne . He is also the first cousin of retired Adelaide Crows AFL footballer and current Adelaide media personality Chris McDermott . = = Career = = = = = Doug Anthony All Stars = = = McDermott began busking in 1985 , which he says equipped him with useful experience and the ability to cope with most situations when he later started performing in clubs . He joined a group called Gigantic Fly which performed at a new Canberra club called Cafe Boom Boom . It was here that he got to know Tim Ferguson and Richard Fidler of the musical comedy group the Doug Anthony All Stars ( DAAS ) . McDermott was asked to join the group when the third member , Robert Piper , left due to other commitments . His primary reason for joining , he says , was monetary : " I 'd been stealing canvas from the bins around the art school . " Initially busking and performing live in clubs , with McDermott writing the majority of their material and songs , DAAS achieved success at the 1986 Adelaide Fringe Festival and subsequently travelled to Britain for the Edinburgh Fringe festival , where they were nominated for the Perrier Award . They toured both nationally and internationally , appearing on British television and playing at the opening of the Barcelona Olympics . After initially struggling to gain success in Australia , in 1989 DAAS was picked up to perform on the ABC show The Big Gig , on which they became a popular feature . They appeared frequently on the show until 1991 , when the group premiered their own series on the ABC , DAAS Kapital , which ran for two seasons . McDermott says that he liked performing with DAAS because it allowed him to bring together a range of his interests — he got to write , perform , sing , create costumes and paint backdrops . The group split up in 1995 after a final farewell tour of Australia . Rumours of a falling out among the trio persisted for many years , but all three maintained that they had parted on good terms and that it had simply been time to move on , as they had wanted to pursue careers in different directions . Ferguson has since revealed that the break @-@ up was in large part due to his being diagnosed with multiple sclerosis in 1995 . In the two years following the break @-@ up of DAAS , McDermott wrote two film scripts and the stage show MOSH ! . He says that he was not particularly interested in returning to comedy , which he came to regard as an " aberration , something that had been good to do for eight years but now it was over , " until in 1996 he was recruited as host of the satirical news @-@ based quiz show Good News Week . In 2014 , McDermott and Tim Ferguson reunited to tour Australia as the Doug Anthony All Stars , with frequent collaborator Paul Livingston ( also known as " Flacco " ) replacing Richard Fidler as guitarist due to Fidler 's radio commitments . = = = Television career = = = In 1996 , McDermott was recruited by director Ted Robinson , with whom he had previously worked on The Big Gig , to host Good News Week , which aired on the ABC from 1996 to 1998 , and on Network Ten from 1999 to 2000 and then returned in 2008 for a new series . He hosted the AFI awards in 2002 , and in 2004 and 2005 presented the ABC show Strictly Dancing . McDermott reunited with Robinson in 2007 when he was named host of a new ABC variety program , The Sideshow , a show described as a successor to The Big Gig . It premiered on 21 April 2007 , and quickly built a strong cult audience . However , due in part to poor programming , the show did not rate well and was cancelled after its initial run of 26 episodes . McDermott says he was saddened by The Sideshow 's cancellation as he believed it was an excellent venue for performers of alternative work which would have achieved ratings success if it had been allowed to continue . McDermott returned to regular television hosting in July 2015 as the host of Room 101 , an Australian version of the long running British TV Show of the same name , airing on SBS One . = = = = Good News Week = = = = McDermott hosted Good News Week from 1996 until its cancellation in 2000 , as well as its two spinoffs , Good News Weekend ( 1998 ) and GNW Night Lite ( 1999 ) , and reprised this role when the series returned in 2008 . A comedic quiz show with a similar format to that of the British program Have I Got News for You , it features two teams , with two permanent captains and four guests , competing to answer questions based on recent news events . McDermott opens each show with a humorous monologue based on the news on the week and is responsible for posing questions and awarding points to teams . " I 'm sort of judge , jury and executioner , " he says of his role . The show premiered on the ABC , but moved to Network Ten in 1999 . The ABC was initially apprehensive about Robinson 's choice of McDermott as host . He had dreadlocks at the time , and was best known for the crude , aggressive " bad boy " character he had played in the Doug Anthony All Stars , which many tended to confuse with his actual personality . In addition , it was doubted that he was capable of ad libbing and speaking well , as in past interviews he had usually allowed his fellow band members to do most of the talking . McDermott cut off his dreadlocks for the show and succeeded in broadening his appeal by showing a gentler , more charming side as host . He has said that although he feels there are still elements of his more aggressive character in Good News Week , they are " toned down ... I 've got to be the generous host now , spin @-@ the @-@ wheel sort of thing . I 'm basing myself on Mike Brady now . I 'm the disciplinarian . " He would regularly sing on the program , particularly on Good News Weekend and GNW Night Lite , including some of his own original songs . In one episode , McDermott performed the self @-@ penned " Shut Up / Kiss Me " as a duet with Fiona Horne . It was met with such a warm reception from viewers that it was eventually released as a single . Some of his other musical performances from the series are featured on the CD Good News Week Tapes Volume 2 , and a collection of his monologues from the start of the show appear on Good News Week Tapes Volume 1 . McDermott expressed his relief when the show was cancelled in 2000 , saying that he could not have maintained the relentless production schedule for much longer . " I 'm just so tired , I don 't feel I have been human for five years , " he said . Network Ten had initially intended only to bring back Good News Week as a one @-@ off special , but decided to expand it after the short supply of US shows resulting from the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike caused the network to take an interest in developing more local programs . The revived series premiered on 11 February 2008 with McDermott reprising his role as host . In 2010 , McDermott was nominated for a Gold Logie Award for Most Popular Personality on Australian Television . = = = Live comedy = = = McDermott describes his performance style as " in your face and unapologetic , grotesque , offensive , loud . But it 's all essentially me with the amp turned up — I don 't own that many great acting skills . " He has stated that he does not consider any subject out of bounds in terms of comedy , which is " one of [ his ] problems " . " I honestly believe you can make a joke about anything if you have something to say , " he says . " It really depends on the motivation ... The moral objective , I suppose . " He is interested in topical humour and targets issues about which he feels passionately , including the detainment of David Hicks , the AWB scandal , torture and the War on Terror . In 1995 he wrote , directed and performed in a stage show entitled MOSH ! , which he says is based on " my drug @-@ addled observations when I 've been abusing substances " . MOSH ! received a range of responses ; it won the award for best fringe show at the Adelaide festival and was described by one reviewer as " often hilarious " , but was savaged by other critics as being " gratuitously offensive " . Columbia Artists expressed interest in the show , but after nearly a decade of international travel with the Doug Anthony All Stars , McDermott did not wish to go to New York to do an off @-@ Broadway show . He reappeared in the Melbourne International Comedy Festival from 2002 with Cameron Bruce and Mick Moriarty in a music @-@ based comedy trio called GUD . The group uses topical humour in its music ; their act includes songs about Osama bin Laden , the transportation of live animal stock and what they describe as contemporary Australian " folk heroes " such as Chopper Read , Rene Rivkin and convicted serial killer Ivan Milat . McDermott says that GUD is in a similar vein to the Doug Anthony All Stars in that it revolves around music , comedy and the inter @-@ relationships between the band members onstage . According to McDermott , the group is named GUD in mockery of the way American people pronounce the word " god " , " because that 's who Americans thank at awards ceremonies , and I thought someone should be taking the credit . " Their 2003 show , " Gud Ugh " , won The Age Critic 's Choice Award for best Australian show of the festival . In 2002 , he also performed a solo stand @-@ up show entitled Comedyoscopy , a deconstruction of comedy , comedic techniques and what makes people laugh . He has frequently participated in the televised Comedy Festival Gala , appearing in 2008 as its host , and has often captained one of the two competing teams in the festival 's Great Debate since his first debate appearance in 1994 . = = = Other projects = = = McDermott has written as a columnist for The Sydney Morning Herald , The Sun @-@ Herald , The Weekend Australian and The Age . In late 2000 , a selection of his columns were published in his first solo book , The Forgetting of Wisdom . Prior to this , he had coauthored books with the Doug Anthony All Stars ( Book , DAAS Kapital and Trip ) and the writers of Good News Week ( Good News Week Books One and Two ) . He has also written and illustrated two children 's books , The Scree and The Girl Who Swallowed Bees , both of which have been adapted into short films with McDermott scripting , directing , performing and painting all of the animations . McDermott describes the stories as " little Gothic , dark , morality tales " which draw on the dark children 's tales he consumed during his own childhood , such as the Brothers Grimm 's fairy tales . The 2004 film adaptation of The Scree won Best Film at the 2005 Flickerfest International Film Festival and was nominated for an AFI Award for Best Short Fiction Film , while The Girl Who Swallowed Bees ( 2007 ) won the AFI Award for Best Short Animation . McDermott says he enjoys filmmaking because it brings together all of his skills . He reportedly has plans to work on a third short film , entitled Crab Boy and the Girl in the Shell , and has expressed an interest in moving into feature films . He also voiced characters in the 2009 short film Tegan the Vegan . McDermott has also had roles in Australian film , musical theatre and radio . In 2002 , he appeared in the Australian theatre production of The Witches of Eastwick in the role of Darryl Van Horne . Despite having sworn he would never do a musical , McDermott says he was interested in the show because " it was still forming , still shaping . It 's more challenging than doing a musical that 's already in place . " He has also had small acting roles in several Australian films , including that of the band manager in The Night We Called It a Day and Trevor in the TV miniseries Through My Eyes : The Lindy Chamberlain Story . Between 1996 and 1997 he co @-@ hosted the breakfast radio program on Triple J with Mikey Robins , Steve Abbott and later Jen Oldershaw . Since the end of Good News Week , McDermott has toured in a series of concerts called " Paul Sings " , in which he performed a number of serious songs , most of which were previously aired on Good News Week or The Sideshow . = = Works = = = = = Discography = = = DAAS Icon ( 1990 ) Dead & Alive ( 1993 ) The Last Concert ( 1995 ) Unplugged - The Good News Week Tapes Volume 1 ( 1998 ) Shut Up / Kiss Me ( 1998 ) Live Songs - The Good News Week Tapes Volume 2 ( 2000 ) = = = Filmography = = = Live at the National Theatre ( 1990 ) The Edinburgh Years ( 1990 ) DAAS Kapital ( 1991 @-@ 1992 ) Dead & Alive ( 1993 ) Good News Week ( 1996 – 2000 , 2008 – 2012 ) Good News Week : Unseen and Obscene ( 1998 ) The Night We Called it a Day ( 2003 ) Medusa : First Date ( 2004 ) The Scree ( 2004 ) Through My Eyes : The Lindy Chamberlain Story ( 2004 ) The Girl Who Swallowed Bees ( 2007 ) The Unlimited Uncollectible Sterling Deluxe Edition ( 2008 ) Tegan the Vegan ( 2011 ) Wentworth Prison ( 2013 ) Della Mortika : Steampunk Adventures ( 2015 )
= Polish October = Polish October , also known as October 1956 , Polish thaw , or Gomułka 's thaw , marked a change in the politics of Poland in the second half of 1956 . Some social scientists term it the Polish October Revolution , which , while less dramatic than the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 , might have had an even deeper impact on the Eastern Bloc and on the Soviet Union 's relationship to its satellite states in Eastern Europe . For the People 's Republic of Poland , 1956 was a year of transition . The international situation significantly weakened the hard @-@ line Stalinist faction in Poland ; Polish communist leader Bolesław Bierut died in March ; it was three years since Stalin had died and his successor at the Soviet Union 's helm , Nikita Khrushchev , denounced him in February . Protests by workers in June in Poznań had highlighted the people 's dissatisfaction with their situation . In October , the events set in motion resulted in the rise in power of the reformers ' faction , led by Władysław Gomułka . After brief , but tense , negotiations , the Soviets gave permission for Gomułka to stay in control and made several other concessions resulting in greater autonomy for the Polish government . For Polish citizens this meant a temporary liberalization . Eventually though , hopes for full liberalization were proven false , as Gomułka 's regime became more oppressive . Nonetheless , the era of Stalinization in Poland had ended . = = Development = = Gomułka 's thaw was caused by several factors . The death of Joseph Stalin in 1953 and the resulting de @-@ Stalinization and the Khrushchev Thaw prompted debates about fundamental issues throughout the entire Eastern Bloc . Nikita Khrushchev 's speech , On the Personality Cult and its Consequences , had wide implications for the Soviet Union and other Communist countries as well . In Poland , in addition to criticism of the cult of personality , popular topics of debate centered on the right to steer a more independent course of " local , national socialism " instead of following the Soviet model in every detail . For example , many members of the Polish United Workers ' Party ( PZPR ) criticized Stalin 's execution of older Polish Communists during the Great Purge . Several other factors contributed to the destabilization of Poland . These included the widely publicized defection in 1953 of high @-@ ranking Polish intelligence agent Józef Światło , resulting in the weakening of the Ministry of Public Security of Poland ( Polish secret police ) . In addition , the unexpected death in Moscow in 1956 of Bolesław Bierut , the PZPR First Secretary ( known as the " Stalin of Poland " ) , led to increased rivalry between various factions of Polish communists and to growing tensions in Polish society , culminating in the Poznań 1956 protests ( also known as June ' 56 ) . The PZPR Secretariat decided that Khrushchev 's speech should have wide circulation in Poland , a unique decision in the Eastern Bloc . Bierut 's successors seized on Khrushchev 's condemnation of Stalinist policy as a perfect opportunity to prove their reformist , democratic credentials and their willingness to break with the Stalinist legacy . In late March and early April , thousands of Party meetings were held all over Poland , with Politburo and Secretariat blessing . Tens of thousands took part in such meetings . The Secretariat 's plan succeeded beyond what they expected . During this period , the political atmosphere in Poland shifted as questions were increasingly asked about taboo subjects like the Polish Communists ' legitimacy , responsibility for Stalin 's crimes , the arrest of the increasingly popular Gomułka , and issues in Soviet – Polish relations , such as the continued Soviet military presence in Poland , the Ribbentrop – Molotov Pact , the Katyn massacre , and the Soviet failure to support the Warsaw Uprising . A new Party Congress was demanded , as was a greater role for the Sejm and a guarantee of personal liberties . Alarmed by the process , the Party Secretariat decided to withhold the speech from the general public . In June 1956 , there was an insurrection in Poznań . The workers rioted to protest shortages of food and consumer goods , bad housing , decline in real income , trade relations with the Soviet Union and poor management of the economy . The Polish government initially responded by branding the rioters " provocateurs , counterrevolutionaries and imperialist agents " . Between 57 and 78 people — mostly protesters — were killed , and hundreds were wounded and arrested . Soon , however , the party hierarchy recognized that the riots had awakened a nationalist movement and reversed their opinion . Wages were raised by 50 percent , and economic and political change was promised . The Poznań protests , although the largest , were not unique in Poland , where social protest resumed its fury that autumn . On November 18 , rioters destroyed the militia headquarters and radio @-@ jamming equipment in Bydgoszcz , and on December 10 , a crowd in Szczecin attacked public buildings , including a prison , the state prosecutor 's office , militia headquarters , and the Soviet consulate . People across the country criticized the security police and asked for the dissolution of the public security committee and the punishment of its guiltiest functionaries . Demands were made for the exposure of secret police collaborators , and suspected collaborators were frequently assaulted . In many localities , crowds gathered outside the secret police headquarters , shouted hostile slogans , and broke its windows . Public meetings , demonstrations , and street marches took place in hundreds of towns across Poland . The meetings were usually organized by local Party cells , local authorities , and trade unions . However , official organizers tended to lose control as political content exceeded their original agenda . Crowds often took radical action , in many cases resulting in unrest on the streets and clashes with police and other law @-@ enforcement agencies . Street activity peaked during and immediately after the 19 – 21 October " VIII Plenum " meeting of the Central Committee of the PZPR , but continued until late in the year . A concurrent upsurge in religious and clerical sentiment took place . Hymns were sung , and the release of Stefan Wyszyński and the reinstatement of suppressed bishops were demanded . Nationalism was the cement of mass mobilization and dominated public meetings , during which people sang the national anthem and other patriotic songs , demanded the return of the white eagle to the flag and traditional army uniforms , and attacked Poland 's dependence on the Soviet Union and its military . They demanded the return of the eastern territories , an explanation for the Katyn massacre , and elimination of the Russian language from the educational curriculum . In the last ten days of October , monuments to the Red Army , despised by Poles , were attacked : red stars were pulled down from roofs of houses , factories and schools ; red flags were destroyed ; and portraits of Konstantin Rokossovsky , the military commander in charge of operations that drove the Nazi German forces from Poland , were defaced . Attempts were made to force entries into the homes of Soviet citizens , mostly in Lower Silesia , home to many Soviet troops . However , unlike the protesters in Hungary and Poznań , activists limited their political demands and behavior , which were not purely opposed to communist and the system . The communist authorities were not openly and unequivocally challenged , as they had been in June , and anticommunist slogans that had been prevalent in the June uprising , such as " We want free elections " , " Down with Communist dictatorship " , or " Down with the Party " , were much less prevalent . Party committees were not attacked . = = Political change = = In October Edward Ochab , the First Secretary of the Party and the Polish Prime Minister , proposed Władysław Gomułka election for the First Secretary of the Party during 8th Plenum meeting . Gomułka was a moderate who had been the First Secretary of the Party 1943 @-@ 48 and had been ousted and imprisoned in 1951 after " right @-@ wing nationalist deviation " accusation by Stalinist hardliners ' with Bierut . Gomułka proved to be acceptable to both factions of Polish communists : the reformers , who were arguing for liberalization of the system , and the hardliners , who realized that they needed to compromise . Gomułka insisted that he be given real power to implement reforms . One specific condition he set was that Soviet Marshal Konstantin Rokossovsky , who had mobilized troops against the Poznań workers , be removed from the Polish Politburo and Defense Ministry , to which Ochab agreed . The majority of the Polish leadership , backed by both the army and the Internal Security Corps , brought Gomułka and several associates into the Politburo and designated Gomułka as First Secretary . Untouched by the scandals of Stalinism , Gomułka was acceptable to the Polish masses , but at first was viewed with much suspicion by Moscow . The Soviet leadership viewed events in Poland with alarm . Destalinisation was underway in the Soviet Union as well , but the Soviet leadership did not view the democratic reform that the Polish public desired as an acceptable solution . In Moscow , the belief was that any trends towards democracy in one bloc country could lead to the destruction of communism and the ruin of Soviet influence in the region as a whole . Eastern Europe created a fence between Soviet Communism and Western Democracy , and any break in the wall could end Soviet power . The Soviet Union was not worried solely about the political implications of reform but about the economic implications as well . Economically , the Soviet Union was heavily invested in Poland . The Soviet Union had financed Polish industry and was Poland 's main trading partner . The Soviet Union directed what products Poland manufactured ; the Soviets bought the products and exported goods to Poland no longer produced within the country itself . The Polish and Soviet economies were thus heavily integrated ; any reform , whether political or economic , in one of the countries would inevitably have a great impact on the other . Because Poland was inextricably connected to the Soviet Union economically , the thought of an independent Polish economy was unrealistic . The country had been forced to rely on the Soviets for such a long time that breaking away completely would prove disastrous . Thus , both countries held crucial power in different facets . Poland could threaten Soviet strength and power in Eastern Europe politically , and the Soviet Union could essentially destroy the Polish economy . Therefore , any reform in the Polish government would have to concede to some Soviet demands , while the Soviets concurrently would have to concede to a vital partner . A high @-@ level delegation of the Soviet Central Committee flew to Poland in an attempt to block removing pro @-@ Soviet members of Politburo mainly Soviet and Polish Marshal Konstantin Rokossovsky . Soviet delegation was led by Nikita Khrushchev and included Anastas Mikoyan , Nikolai Bulganin , Vyacheslav Molotov , Lazar Kaganovich , Ivan Konev , and others . The negotiations were tense ; both Polish and Soviet troops were put on alert , engaged in ' manoeuvres ' , and were used as thinly veiled threats . The Polish leadership made it clear that the face of communism had to become more nationalized ; no longer could the Soviet Union directly control the Polish people . Here , Khrushchev 's speech worked against him . During Stalinism , the Soviet Union had placed Moscow @-@ friendly Poles , or Russians themselves , in important political positions in Poland . After denouncing Stalinism so vehemently in his speech , Khrushchev could not regress to the Stalinist position by forcing more Russians into the Polish leadership . The Poles , in recognizing the cries of the public , needed to keep the Soviets from direct control but could not raise their demands to a point that endangered their relationships in the bloc . Gomułka demanded increased autonomy and permission to carry out some reforms but also reassured the Soviets that the reforms were internal matters and that Poland had no intention of abandoning communism or its treaties with the Soviet Union . The Soviets were also pressured by the Chinese to accommodate the Polish demands and were increasingly distracted by the events in Hungary . Eventually , when Khrushchev was reassured that Gomułka would not alter the basic foundations of Polish communism , he withdrew the invasion threat and agreed to compromise , and Gomułka was confirmed in his new position . The leadership 's stance contributed to the relatively moderate political dimension of social protest in October . Also crucial were the impacts of nationalism and nationalist emotions . They spurred social protest in June but dampened it in October , when the threat of Soviet invasion against Gomułka and his supporters transformed the social image of Polish communists . In June , they were still treated as the puppets and servants of alien , anti @-@ Polish interests and excluded from the national community . In October , they became a part of the nation opposing Soviet domination . Gomułka was enthusiastically supported by the great majority of society , not primarily as a communist leader , but as a leader of a nation who , by resisting Soviet demands , embodied a national longing for independence and sovereignty . His name was chanted , along with anti @-@ Soviet slogans , at thousands of meetings : " Go home Rokossovsky " , " Down with the Russians , " " Long live Gomułka , " " We want a free Poland " . While his anti @-@ Soviet image was obviously mythical and exaggerated , it was justified in the popular imagination by his anti @-@ Stalinist line in 1948 and years of subsequent internment . Thus , Polish communists found themselves unexpectedly at the head of a national liberation movement . The enthusiastic public support offered to Gomułka contributed to the legitimization of communist rule in Poland , which incorporated mass nationalist , anti @-@ Soviet feelings into the prevailing power structures . In Hungary , social protest destroyed the political system ; in Poland , it was absorbed within it . = = Aftermath = = Information about events in Poland reached the people of Hungary via Radio Free Europe 's news and commentary services between 19 October and 22 October 1956 . A student demonstration in Budapest in support of Gomułka , asking for similar reforms in Hungary , was one of the events that sparked the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 . The events of the Hungarian November also helped distract the Soviets and ensure the success of the Polish October . Gomułka , in his public speeches , criticized the hardships of Stalinism and promised reforms to democratize the country ; this was received with much enthusiasm by Polish society . By mid @-@ November , Gomułka had secured substantive gains in his negotiations with the Soviets : the cancellation of Poland 's existing debts , new preferential trade terms , abandonment of the unpopular Soviet @-@ imposed collectivization of Polish agriculture , and permission to liberalize policy towards the Roman Catholic Church . In December , the status of Soviet forces in Poland , the Northern Group of Forces , was finally regulated . In the aftermath of the October events , Rokossovsky and many other Soviet " advisers " left Poland , signaling that Moscow was willing to grant Polish communists slightly more independence . The Polish government rehabilitated many victims of the Stalinist era , and many political prisoners were set free . Among them was cardinal Stefan Wyszyński . The Polish legislative election of 1957 was much more liberal than that of 1952 although still not considered free by Western standards . Gomułka , however , could not and did not want to reject communism or Soviet domination ; he could only steer Poland towards increased independence and " Polish national communism " . Because of these restricted ambitions , which were recognized by the Soviets , the limited Polish revolution succeeded where the radical Hungarian one did not . Norman Davies sums up the effect as a transformation of Poland from puppet state to client state ; Raymond Pearson similarly states that Poland changed from a Soviet colony to a dominion . Gomulka 's pledge to follow a " Polish road to socialism " more in harmony with national traditions and preferences caused many Poles to interpret the dramatic confrontation of 1956 as a sign that the end of the dictatorship was in sight . Initially very popular for his reforms , which were optimistically referred to at the time as " Gomułka 's thaw " , Gomułka gradually softened his opposition to Soviet pressures , and the late @-@ 1950s hopes for major political change in Poland were replaced with growing disillusionment in the 1960s . In the end , Gomułka failed in his goal to salvage communism — or socialism — in Poland . Society became more liberal ( as seen , for instance , in the achievements of the Polish Film School and the creation of such controversial movies as Ashes and Diamonds ) , and a civil society started to develop , but half @-@ hearted democratization was not enough to satisfy the Polish public . By the time of the March 1968 events , Gomułka 's thaw would be long over , and increasing economic problems and popular discontent would end up removing Gomułka from power in 1970 — ironically , in a situation similar to the protests that once had propelled him to power . Nonetheless , some social scientists , such as Zbigniew Brzezinski and Frank Gibney , refer to these changes as a revolution , one less dramatic than its Hungarian counterpart but one which may have had an even more profound impact on the Eastern Bloc . Timothy Garton Ash calls the Polish October the most significant event in the post @-@ war history of Poland until the rise of Solidarity . History professor Ivan Berend claims that while the effects of the Polish October on the Eastern Bloc may be disputed , it set the course for the eventual fall of communism in the People 's Republic of Poland .
= Battle of Pulo Aura = The Battle of Pulo Aura was a minor naval engagement of the Napoleonic Wars , fought on 14 February 1804 , in which a large convoy of Honourable East India Company ( HEIC ) East Indiamen , well @-@ armed merchant ships , intimidated , drove off and chased a powerful French naval squadron . Although the French force was much stronger than the British convoy , Commodore Nathaniel Dance 's aggressive tactics persuaded Contre @-@ Admiral Charles @-@ Alexandre Durand Linois to retire after only a brief exchange of shot . Dance then chased the French warships until his convoy was out of danger , whereupon he resumed his passage towards British India . Linois later claimed that the unescorted British merchant fleet was defended by eight ships of the line , a claim criticised by contemporary officers and later historians . The battle occurred during an extended commerce raiding operation by a French squadron led by Linois in the ship of the line Marengo . Linois had sailed to the Indian Ocean in 1803 before the declaration of war , under orders to install garrisons in the French and Dutch colonies in the region and to prey on lightly defended British merchant shipping . One of the richest and most significant targets was the " China Fleet " , an annual convoy of East Indiamen from China and other Far Eastern ports that carried millions of pounds worth of trade goods . Although these large vessels were accompanied by numerous smaller merchant ships , news of the outbreak of war had only just arrived in the Pacific and the only warship available to defend the fleet was the small HEIC armed brig Ganges . Dutch informants notified Linois of the fleet 's destination and date of departure from Canton while he was anchored at Batavia on Java , and he sailed in search of the convoy on 28 December 1803 , eventually discovering it in early February . Although no warships protected the convoy , Commodore Dance knew that lookouts could , from a distance , mistake a large East Indiaman for a ship of the line . He raised flags that indicated that his fleet included part of the Royal Navy squadron operating in the Indian Ocean at the time and formed into a line of battle . Although Linois 's ships were clearly superior , the British reaction unnerved him and he quickly broke off combat . Dance continued his ruse , pursuing Linois for two hours until the body of the convoy was safe . King George III knighted Dance for his courage and various mercantile and patriotic organisations awarded him large sums of money , while both Linois 's own officers and the Emperor Napoleon personally castigated the French admiral for his failure to press the attack against a weaker and extremely valuable enemy . Although he remained in command of the squadron for another two years and had some minor success against undefended merchant ships , he suffered a string of defeats and inconclusive engagements against weaker British naval forces . Ironically , Linois was captured at the Action of 13 March 1806 by a numerically superior British battle squadron that he mistook for a merchant convoy . = = Background = = During the Napoleonic Wars , the British economy depended on its ability to trade with the British Empire , particularly the valuable colonies in British India . The intercontinental trade was conducted by the governors of India , the Honourable East India Company ( HEIC ) , using their fleet of large , well @-@ armed merchant vessels known as East Indiamen . These ships were of between 500 and 1200 nominal tons burthen ( bm ) and could carry up to 36 guns for defence against pirates , privateers and small warships . They were not , however , capable under normal circumstances of fighting off an enemy frigate or ship of the line . Their guns were usually of inferior design , and their crew smaller and less well trained than those on a naval ship . The East Indiamen sought to ensure the safety of their cargo and passengers , not defeat enemy warships in battle . Despite these disadvantages , the size of East Indiamen meant that from a distance they appeared quite similar to a small ship of the line , a deception usually augmented by paintwork and dummy cannon . At the Bali Strait Incident of 28 January 1797 an unescorted convoy of East Indiamen had used this similarity to intimidate a powerful French frigate squadron into withdrawing without a fight . In February 1799 an attack by a combined French @-@ Spanish squadron on the assembled convoy at Macau was driven off in the Macau Incident without combat by the small Royal Navy escort squadron . The East Indiamen would gather at ports in India and the Far East and from there set out for Britain in large convoys , often carrying millions of pounds worth of trade goods . The journey would usually take six months and the ships would subsequently return carrying troops and passengers to augment the British forces stationed in India . " Country ships " , smaller merchant vessels chartered for local trade , sometimes independently from the HEIC , would often join the convoys . To protect their ships from the depredations of pirates , the HEIC also operated its own private navy of small armed vessels . In combination , these ships were an effective deterrent against smaller raiders , but were no match for a professional warship . Understanding the importance of the Indian Ocean trade and seeking to threaten it from the start of the inevitable war , First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte ordered a squadron to sail for India in March 1803 . This force was under the command of Contre @-@ Admiral Charles @-@ Alexandre Durand Linois and consisted of the ship of the line Marengo and three frigates . Linois operated from the island base of Île de France with orders to attack British shipping once war had begun . Sailing initially to Pondicherry in India , Linois had a close encounter with a British squadron under Rear @-@ Admiral Peter Rainier during July , but was at Île de France in August when news arrived that the Napoleonic Wars had started on 16 May . Determined to fortify the French raiding bases in the region , Linois landed troops and supplies at Réunion and Batavia . During the operation he despatched the frigate Atalante to Muscat , captured numerous individual country ships , and burned the British trading post of Bencoolen . On 10 December he anchored at Batavia for the winter . Shortly thereafter , informants passed to Batavia the composition and date of departure of the British " China Fleet " , leading Linois to set out to intercept it . On 28 December , Linois 's squadron — consisting of Marengo , frigates Belle Poule and Sémillante , the corvette Berceau and the Dutch brig Aventurier — departed Batavia . The ships carried six months worth of provisions as Linois had anticipated an extended patrol in the approaches to the Strait of Malacca in the South China Sea . The China Fleet was a large annual British merchant convoy that gathered at Canton in the Pearl River during the winter before sailing for Britain , via India . As the convoy passed through the East Indies , it was joined by vessels sailing from other European ports in the region on the route to India , until it often numbered dozens of ships . The 1804 fleet departed in late January , and by the time it reached the approaches to the Strait of Malacca it had swelled to include 16 East Indiamen , 11 country ships , a Portuguese merchant ship from Macau and a vessel from Botany Bay in New South Wales . Although the HEIC had provided the small , armed brig Ganges as an escort , this vessel could only dissuade pirates ; it could not hope to compete with a French warship . There was no military escort : news of the outbreak of war had reached Canton before reinforcements had arrived from the squadron in India . Spies based in Canton had passed the composition and date of departure of the China Fleet to Linois in Batavia , but the Dutch informants at Canton had also passed on false reports that Royal Navy warships were accompanying the convoy , reports that may have been deliberately placed by British authorities . The convoy was an immensely valuable prize , its cargo of tea , silk and porcelain valued at over £ 8 million in contemporary values ( the equivalent of £ 600 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) . Also on board were 80 Chinese plants ordered by Sir Joseph Banks for the royal gardens and carried in a specially designed plant room . The HEIC Select Committee in Canton had been very concerned for the safety of the unescorted convoy , and had debated delaying its departure . The various captains had been consulted , including Henry Meriton , who in his ship Exeter had captured a frigate during the Action of 4 August 1800 , a disastrous French attack on a convoy of East Indiamen off Brazil . Meriton advised that the convoy was powerful enough in both appearance and reality to dissuade any attack . He was opposed by John Farquharson of Alfred , who considered that the crews of East Indiamen were so badly trained that they would be unable to mutually defend one another if faced with a determined enemy . Eventually the Committee decided that it could delay the convoy no longer and awarded command to the most experienced captain , Commodore Nathaniel Dance – an officer with over 45 years service at sea – in the East Indiaman Earl Camden . = = Battle = = At 08 : 00 on 14 February 1804 , with the island of Pulo Aura within sight to the south @-@ west near the eastern entrance to the Straits of Malacca , the Indiaman Royal George raised a signal describing three sail approaching the convoy from the direction of the island . This was Linois 's squadron , which had been cruising in the area for the previous month in anticipation of the convoy 's arrival . Dance ordered the brig Ganges and the Indiamen Alfred , Royal George , Bombay Castle and Hope to approach the strange vessels and investigate , rapidly discovering that they were enemy warships . By 13 : 00 , Dance had readied his guns and reformed his convoy , with the large Indiamen formed up in line of battle to receive the French attack as if they were warships . During the late afternoon , Linois 's squadron fell in behind the slow line of merchant ships and Dance expected an immediate attack , but Linois was cautious and merely observed the convoy , preferring to wait until the following morning before engaging the enemy . Dance made use of the delay to gather the smaller country ships on the opposite side of his line from the French , the brig Ganges shepherding them into position and collecting volunteers from their crews to augment the sailors on board the Indiamen . Linois later excused his delay in attacking the merchant convoy by citing the need for caution : If the bold front put on by the enemy in the daytime had been intended as a ruse to conceal his weakness , he would have profited by the darkness of the night to endeavour to conceal his escape ; and in that case should have taken advantage of his manoeuvres . But I soon became convinced that this security was not feigned ; three of his ships constantly kept their lights up , and the fleet continued to lie to , in order of battle , throughout the night . This position facilitated my gaining the wind , and enabled me to observe the enemy closely . At dawn on 15 February , both the British and French forces raised their colours . Dance hoped to persuade Linois that his ships included some fully armed warships and he therefore ordered the brig Ganges and the four lead ships to hoist blue ensigns , while the rest of the convoy raised red ensigns . By the system of national flags then in use in British ships , this implied that the ships with blue ensigns were warships attached to the squadron of Admiral Rainier , while the others were merchant ships under their protection . Dance was unknowingly assisted by the information that had reached Linois at Batavia , which claimed that there were 23 merchant ships and the brig in the convoy . Dance had collected six additional ships during his journey , and the identity of these were unknown to the French , who assumed that at least some of the unidentified vessels must be warships , particularly as several vessels had been recently painted at Canton to resemble ships of the line . At 09 : 00 Linois was still only observing the convoy , reluctant to attack until he could be sure of the nature of his opponents . Dance responded to the reprieve by reforming the line of battle into sailing formation to increase his convoy 's speed with the intention of reaching the Straits ahead of Linois . With the convoy a less intimidating target , Linois began to slowly approach the British ships . By 13 : 00 it was clear that Linois 's faster ships were in danger of isolating the rear of the convoy , and Dance ordered his lead ships to tack and come about , so that they would cross in front of the French squadron . The British successfully executed the manoeuvre , and at 13 : 15 Linois opened fire on the lead ship — Royal George — under the command of John Fam Timmins . The Royal George and the next four ships in line , the Indiaman Ganges , Dance 's Earl Camden , the Warley and the Alfred , all returned fire , Ganges initially attacking Royal George in error . Captain James Prendergrass in Hope , the next in line , was so eager to join the battle that he misjudged his speed and collided with Warley , the ships falling back as their crews worked to separate their rigging . Shots were then exchanged at long range for 43 minutes , neither side inflicting severe damage . Royal George had a sailor named Hugh Watt killed , another man wounded , and suffered some damage to her hull . None of the other British ships or any of the French reported anything worse than superficial damage in the engagement . At 14 : 00 , Linois abandoned the action and ordered his squadron to haul away with the wind and sail eastwards , away from the convoy , under all sail . Determined to maintain the pretence of the presence of warships , Dance ordered the ships flying naval ensigns , including his flagship Earl Camden , to chase the French . None of the merchant ships could match the French speed , but an attempt at a chase would hopefully dissuade the French from returning . For two hours , Dance 's squadron followed Linois , Hope coming close to catching Aventurier but ultimately unable to overtake the brig . At 16 : 00 , Dance decided to gather his scattered ships and return to his former heading rather than risk attack from other raiders or lose sight of his convoy in the darkness . By 20 : 00 , the entire British convoy had anchored at the entrance to the Straits of Malacca . On 28 February , the British ships of the line HMS Sceptre and Albion joined them in the Strait and conducted them safely to Saint Helena in the South Atlantic . There HMS Plantagenet escorted the convoy to England . Five whalers and the Carmarthen , Captain Doree , also joined the convoy , with the Blackhouse , from coast of Guinea , joining at sea . The convoy returned to England without further incident . Linois 's squadron reached Batavia several days after the action without encountering any British ships . He was there joined by Atalante and , after taking on supplies , made sail for Île de France , arriving on 2 April . The Dutch brig Aventurier was left at Batavia and remained there until a raid on the port by a British force in November 1806 , when it was destroyed . The French admiral later attempted to explain his conduct during the engagement : The ships which had tacked rejoined those which were engaging us , and three of the engaging ships manoeuvred to double our rear , while the remainder of the fleet , crowding sail and bearing up , evinced an intention to surround us . By this manoeuvre the enemy would have rendered my situation very dangerous . The superiority of his force was ascertained , and I had no longer to deliberate on the part I should take to avoid the consequence of an unequal engagement : profiting by the smoke , I hauled up to port , and steering east @-@ north @-@ east , I increased by distance from the enemy , who continued the pursuit of the squadron for three hours , discharging at it several broadsides . = = = Orders of battle = = = = = Aftermath = = Nathaniel Dance and his fellow captains were highly praised in the aftermath of the battle : in saving the convoy they had prevented both the HEIC and Lloyd 's of London from likely financial ruin , the repercussions of which would have had profound effects across the British Empire . The various commanders and their crews were presented with a £ 50 @,@ 000 prize fund to be divided among them , and the Lloyd 's Patriotic Fund and other national and mercantile institutions made a series of awards of ceremonial swords , silver plate and monetary gifts to individual officers . Lloyd 's Patriotic Fund gave each captain a sword worth 50 pounds , and one to Royal Navy Lieutenant Robert Merrick Fowler , travelling as a passenger on Earl Camden , and one worth 100 pounds to Nathaniel Dance . Dance was specifically rewarded , receiving royal recognition when he was made a Knight Bachelor by King George III . He was also personally presented with the sum of £ 5 @,@ 000 by the Bombay Insurance Company and an additional £ 500 a year for life by the HEIC . Dance immediately retired from the sea to Enfield Town , where he died in 1827 . He refused to take full credit for the survival of the convoy , writing in reply to the award from the Bombay Insurance Company : Placed , by the adventitious circumstances of seniority of service and absence of convoy , in the chief command of the fleet intrusted to my care , it has been my good fortune to have been enabled , by the firmness of those by whom I was supported , to perform my trust not only with fidelity , but without loss to my employers . Public opinion and public rewards have already far outrun my deserts ; and I cannot but be sensible that the liberal spirit of my generous countrymen has measured what they are pleased to term their grateful sense of my conduct , rather by the particular utility of the exploit , than by any individual merit I can claim . Among the passengers on the Indiamen were a number of Royal Navy personnel , survivors of the shipwreck of the exploratory vessel HMS Porpoise off the coast of New South Wales the previous year . This party — carried aboard Ganges , Royal George and Earl Camden — volunteered to assist the gun teams aboard their ships and Dance specifically thanked them in his account of the action . One was Lieutenant Robert Merrick Fowler , the former commander of Porpoise , who distinguished himself in a variety of capacities during the engagement . Some of the party had influential careers in the Navy , including the naval architect James Inman , who sailed on Warley , and John Franklin , who later became a polar explorer . Also aboard was Indian businessman Jamsetjee Jeejebhoy returning from the second of his five voyages to China . Linois continued his raiding , achieving some success against individual sailing ships , but failing to press successfully his numerical superiority against British naval forces ; most notably at the Battle of Vizagapatam on 15 September 1804 and the Action of 6 August 1805 . Ironically , Linois was eventually captured at the Action of 13 March 1806 after mistaking a squadron of British ships of the line for a merchant convoy in the mid @-@ Atlantic . Linois was concerned throughout the engagement for the safety of his ships : with the nearest dockyard over 3 @,@ 000 nmi ( 3 @,@ 500 mi ; 5 @,@ 600 km ) away at Île de France , he could not afford to suffer severe damage to his rigging or masts that would leave his squadron crippled . He also sought to defend his behaviour off Pulo Aura with the claim that the British convoy was protected by as many as eight ships of the line , and that he had performed heroically in saving his squadron from this overwhelming force . Subsequent historians have ridiculed this latter statement : William James wryly commented in his account of the action , written in 1827 , that " it would be uncharitable to call into question the courage of Rear @-@ admiral Linois " and William Laird Clowes stated in 1900 that " his timidity and want of enterprise threw away a great opportunity " . Nicholas Rodger , writing in 2004 , was even more critical , insisting that " his [ Linois 's ] officers do not seem to have been fooled , and it is extremely difficult to believe that he was . " He goes on to suggest that no experienced seaman could possibly have mistaken a poorly manned and poorly trained merchant crew for the crew of a real Royal Navy ship of the line , concluding that " Linois had thrown away a prize worth at least £ 8 million through mere timidity " . The most scathing criticism of Linois 's conduct came from Napoleon himself , who wrote to Minister of Marine Denis Decrès on the subject , stating : All the enterprises at sea which have been undertaken since I became the head of the Government have missed fire because my admirals see double and have discovered , I know not how or where , that war can be made without running risks ... Tell Linois that he has shown want of courage of mind , that kind of courage which I consider the highest quality in a leader . = = In literature = = The battle has been fictionalised twice , in Captain Frederick Marryat 's 1832 novel Newton Forster ; or , the Merchant Service , and in Patrick O 'Brian 's novel HMS Surprise , published in 1973 . In O 'Brian 's novel , Royal Navy Captain Jack Aubrey aids the China Fleet , organizing the Indiamen who then succeeded as in history . The rewards were shed on Aubrey , rather than the lead merchant captain .
= The Boat Race 1898 = The 55th Boat Race took place on 24 March 1898 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Oxford , the reigning champions and leading overall , went into the race with a marginally heavier crew than Cambridge . They won " easily " as Cambridge 's boat became waterlogged in strong winds and inclement conditions . It was their ninth consecutive victory and took them to an overall lead of 32 – 22 in the event . The winning time of 22 minutes 15 seconds was the slowest since the 1878 race . = = Background = = The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1897 race by two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , with Cambridge leading overall with 31 victories to Cambridge 's 22 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . Oxford were coached by G. C. Bourne who had rowed for Oxford in the 1882 and 1883 races and Douglas McLean ( an Oxford Blue five times between 1883 and 1887 ) . Cambridge 's president , William Dudley Ward , despite opposition , invited William Fletcher , Oxford Blue and former coach , to assist in teaching his crew the style required to challenge the Dark Blues . Several members of the Light Blue crew refused to row , and Dudley Ward himself was refused leave to row on grounds of sickness . According to George Drinkwater , former rower and author , " Fletcher turned out a crew well above the average of previous years . " Conversely , Oxford " did not develop as it should have done " and was " by no means up to the average of those that went before it . " The umpire for the race for the tenth year in a row was Frank Willan who won the event four consecutive times , rowing for Oxford in the 1866 , 1867 , 1868 and 1869 races . = = Crews = = The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 7 lb ( 79 @.@ 2 kg ) , 0 @.@ 5 pounds ( 0 @.@ 2 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Cambridge 's crew contained two participants with Boat Race experience : Adam Searle Bell who was rowing in his fourth contest and cox Edward Caesar Hawkins steering in his second appearance . Claude Goldie , son of John rowed at number seven for the Light Blues . Oxford saw six members of the previous crew return , including Charles Burnell and R. Carr , both of whom were making their fourth consecutive appearance in the race . Eight of the nine crew Oxford crew had studied at Eton College . R. O. Pitman , rowing at bow for Oxford , was the third of his siblings to participate in the Boat Race , with his bothers Frederick I. Pitman rowing for Cambridge between 1884 and 1886 and C. M. Pitman who rowed for Oxford between 1892 and 1895 . = = Race = = According to author and former Oxford rower George Drinkwater , " there was a gale blowing ... which met a spring tide , so that the water was very rough from the start . " Oxford , the slight pre @-@ race favourites , won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the rougher Surrey side of the river to Cambridge . Willan started the race at 3 : 47 p.m. but within four strokes , the Cambridge boat was " half @-@ full of water " . Oxford steered towards the shore for shelter , with Cambridge following , but they had taken on so much water that " only the bladders which had been placed under their seats kept them afloat " . Although the Dark Blues had shipped a fair amount of water , they were able to continue , and with Cambridge waterlogged , the race was effectively ended as a contest . Oxford won " easily " , to secure their ninth consecutive victory in the slowest winning time since the 1878 race .
= SR Lord Nelson class = The SR class LN or Lord Nelson class is a type of 4 @-@ cylinder 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 steam locomotive designed for the Southern Railway by Richard Maunsell in 1926 . They were intended for Continental boat trains between London ( Victoria ) and Dover harbour , but were also later used for express passenger work to the South @-@ West of England . Sixteen of them were constructed , representing the most powerful ( although not the most successful ) Southern 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 design . They were all named after famous admirals . The class continued to operate with British Railways until withdrawn during 1961 and 1962 . Only one example of the class – the first engine , Lord Nelson itself – has been saved from scrapping . This has been seen running on mainline tours and preserved railways throughout Britain . = = Background = = Although the improved ” King Arthur ” class 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 locomotives were capable of the heaviest express passenger work between London and South @-@ West England , there was a growth in demand for Continental traffic travelling via Dover and Folkestone . By the mid @-@ 1920s the Southern Railway Traffic Department wished to begin operating 500 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 510 t ; 560 @-@ short @-@ ton ) express trains on these routes during peak periods . These would require a more powerful locomotive , able to pull heavier loads at sustained speeds of 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) , so as not to impede the congested electrified lines around London . However , any enlargement of the existing 2 @-@ cylinder design was not possible due to weight restrictions imposed by the railway ’ s Civil Engineer . After examining the practice of other British railways , Richard Maunsell , the Chief Mechanical Engineer , secured agreement for a 4 @-@ cylinder design , with an improved boiler and Belpaire firebox . The drive would be divided between the front coupled axle for the inside cylinders and the middle coupled axle for the outside cylinders giving better weight distribution and reduced hammer blow . The new design was an inevitable compromise between the need for additional power and to keep the weight down to an acceptable limit . There were two unusual features of the design : the first of which was the setting of the crank axles at 135 ° , rather than the standard 90 ° of other locomotive types . This design necessitated four sets of valve gear , and gave rise to eight beats per revolution , rather than the usual four , designed to give a more even draw on the fire . The second difference was that fire grate was in two sections , the rear portion was horizontal and the front sloped away sharply . = = Construction history = = The prototype E850 named Lord Nelson was ordered from Eastleigh railway works in June 1925 but production proceeded slowly , at Maunsell ’ s insistence , to ensure that the weight was kept to a minimum at every stage , so the locomotive did not appear until August 1926 . It was tested on a variety of duties over the next year , with sufficiently encouraging results for an initial order for ten more locomotives for delivery between May 1928 and April 1929 to be placed . These were originally scheduled to be allocated to Battersea depot and fitted with 4 @,@ 000 gallon 6 @-@ wheeled tenders suitable for the Continental ports . However , during construction , it was decided to equip half of the class with 5 @,@ 000 gallon 8 @-@ wheeled tenders necessary for the longer West of England routes and to allocate them to Nine Elms depot . A further batch of ten locomotives was ordered in 1928 , before the previous batch had been delivered , but when it became apparent that the Stock Market Crash of 1929 would be likely to reduce the demand for Continental travel , this second order was reduced to five . = = = Naming the locomotives = = = The locomotives were all named after famous Royal Navy admirals , with the doyen of the class being named Lord Nelson . As a result , the rest of the locomotives belonged to the Lord Nelson ( LN ) class . = = = Modifications = = = The performance of the new locomotives was mixed , depending upon the experience of the crew and the circumstances under which they were operating . At times it was no better than their smaller predecessors . Maunsell therefore undertook a number of experiments to try to improve the performance of the new locomotives . No . E859 was fitted with smaller 6 ft 3 in ( 1 @.@ 905 m ) driving wheels to see if this would improve performance over the heavily graded London @-@ Dover line , but the difference was marginal . No . E860 was fitted with a longer , heavier boiler but once again with little improvement . The whole class however benefitted from the fitting of smoke deflectors during the late 1920s . Maunsell was aware of the reputation for poor steaming enjoyed by the class and attempted to address it by the fitting of twin Kylchap blastpipes to No. 860 in 1934 . However , the problem was ultimately solved by Oliver Bulleid , Maunsell 's replacement as Chief Mechanical Engineer of the Southern in 1938 . He fitted larger diameter chimneys and Lemaître multiple jet blastpipes , which effectively transformed their performance . Thereafter the class was highly respected . = = Operational details = = For location details and current status of the preserved locomotive , see : List of Lord Nelson class locomotives For a period after its introduction to the Southern Railway network , the Lord Nelson class held the title of " most powerful locomotive in Britain " – a claim based on its tractive effort . The advanced design of the locomotive led to the GWR introducing the GWR 6000 Class in order to regain the title lost by their GWR Castle class locomotives when the Lord Nelsons were constructed . The planned 500 @-@ ton trains never materialised , but the class was regularly used on 460 ton trains such as the Golden Arrow . After the Second World War they were also frequently used on heavily laden Boat Trains between London Waterloo station and Southampton docks . The Lord Nelsons were notoriously difficult for inexperienced crews to fire properly , due to their long firebox , and specific crews who had proven experience in firing the locomotives were therefore allocated to them . This was due to the relatively few locomotives in the class for crews to train on . The LMS Royal Scot Class was loosely based on this design . = = = Accidents and incidents = = = One member of the Lord Nelson class was involved in what could have been a major accident on 23 January 1930 . This entailed the leading driving wheels jumping off the track , though the locomotive ran for many yards before they re @-@ railed themselves over a point . No. 860 Lord Hawke was derailed at St. Denys , Hampshire on 14 August 1940 due to enemy action. a bomb fell on the track ahead of the train , which was unable to stop in time . No. 852 received a direct hit from an enemy bomb on 18 April 1941 , and was so severely damaged that it was not returned to service until June 1942 . No. 854 suffered a firebox failure due to lack of water 23 April 1945 , killing the fireman and injuring the driver . No. 851 Sir Walter Raleighwas involved in a serious derailment at Byfleet in December 1946 , due to the poor condition of the permanent way . On 26 November 1947 , No. 860 Lord Hawke was hauling a passenger train that was run into by another at Farnborough , Hampshire due to a signalman 's error . Two people were killed . No. 30854 Howard of Effingham was hauling a passenger train that overran signals and was derailed by trap points at Shawford , Hampshire on 20 July 1952 . = = Withdrawal and preservation = = The class was gradually superseded on top link expresses during the 1940s by growing numbers of Bulleid Pacifics , although throughout the 1950s they were frequently called upon during peak periods or to deputise for failures . The rebuilding of the Pacifics in the late 1950s and their subsequent increased reliability rendered the Lord Nelson surplus to operational requirements , and they were gradually phased out of service . The entire class was withdrawn during 1961 and 1962 . The only survivor , first @-@ of @-@ class ( 30 ) 850 Lord Nelson , has been preserved as part of the National Collection , and has run on the national rail network . As of 2009 it is based on the Mid @-@ Hants Railway . = = Livery and numbering = = = = = Southern Railway = = = The Lord Nelson class was initially painted in Maunsell lined olive green , which later changed to a lighter shade in the mid @-@ 1930s . From 1938 , some of the locomotives were painted in a semi @-@ matt Malachite Green finish when Bulleid replaced Maunsell as CME of the Southern . During the war years , the locomotives were painted in wartime black livery , though retained the word " Southern " in yellow on the tender . After the war , the livery was reverted to the Southern Railway Malachite Green standard with " Sunshine Yellow " lining on the boiler rings . Numbers allocated to the locomotives were a variation of LSWR practice and , being constructed at Eastleigh , were given the prefix " E " before the number to distinguish from the locomotives of other pre @-@ grouping railway companies that also carried the same number . In the case of the Lord Nelson class the numbering ranged from E850 to E865 . This was eventually superseded by numbers without the " E " prefix , becoming 850 to 865 from 1931 . = = = Post @-@ 1948 ( nationalisation ) = = = The initial livery applied following the nationalisation of the railways in 1948 was modified Southern malachite green and sunshine yellow with " British Railways " on the tender , and the Southern numbering system was temporarily retained with an " S " prefix ( such as S850 ) until superseded by the British Railways numbering system . The locomotives then carried British Railways Brunswick green livery with orange and black lining . By this stage the locomotives were renumbered under standard British Railways procedure , from 30850 to 30865 .
= Beth Hamedrash Hagodol = Beth Hamedrash Hagodol ( Hebrew : בֵּית הַמִּדְרָש הַגָּדוֹל , " Great Study House " ) is an Orthodox Jewish congregation that for over 120 years was located in a historic building at 60 – 64 Norfolk Street between Grand and Broome Streets in the Lower East Side neighborhood of Manhattan , New York City . It was the first Eastern European congregation founded in New York City and the oldest Russian Jewish Orthodox congregation in the United States . Founded in 1852 by Rabbi Abraham Ash as Beth Hamedrash , the congregation split in 1859 , with the rabbi and most of the members renaming their congregation Beth Hamedrash Hagodol . The congregation 's president and a small number of the members eventually formed the nucleus of Kahal Adath Jeshurun , also known as the Eldridge Street Synagogue . Rabbi Jacob Joseph , the first and only Chief Rabbi of New York City , led the congregation from 1888 to 1902 . Rabbi Ephraim Oshry , one of the few European Jewish legal decisors to survive the Holocaust , led the congregation from 1952 to 2003 . The congregation 's building , a Gothic Revival structure built in 1850 as the Norfolk Street Baptist Church and purchased in 1885 , was one of the largest synagogues on the Lower East Side . It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1999 . In the late 20th century the congregation dwindled and was unable to maintain the building , which had been damaged by storms . Despite their obtaining funding and grants , the structure was critically endangered . The synagogue was closed in 2007 . The congregation , reduced to around 20 regularly attending members , was sharing facilities with a congregation on Henry Street . The Lower East Side Conservancy was trying to raise an estimated $ 4 @.@ 5 million for repairs of the building , with the intent of converting it to an educational center . In December the leadership of the synagogue under Rabbi Mendel Greenbaum filed a “ hardship application ” with the Landmarks Preservation Commission seeking permission to demolish the building to make way for a new residential development . This application was withdrawn in March 2013 , but the group Friends of the Lower East Side described Beth Hamedrash Hagodol 's status as " demolition by neglect " . = = Early history = = Beth Hamedrash Hagodol was founded by Eastern European Jews in 1852 as Beth Hamedrash ( literally " House of Study " , but used colloquially in Yiddish as the term for a synagogue ) . The founding rabbi , Abraham Joseph Ash , was born in Siemiatycze ( then in Congress Poland ) in 1813 or 1821 . He immigrated to New York City in 1851 or 1852 . The first Eastern European Orthodox rabbi to serve in the United States , Ash " rejected the reformist tendencies of the German Jewish congregations " there . He soon organized a minyan ( prayer quorum ) of like @-@ minded Polish Jews , and by 1852 began conducting services . Though the membership consisted mostly of Polish Jews , it also included " Lithuanians , two Germans , and an Englishman . " For the first six years of the congregation 's existence , Ash was not paid for his work as rabbi and instead earned a living as a peddler . The congregation moved frequently in its early years : in 1852 it was located at 83 Bayard Street , then at Elm and Canal , and from 1853 to 1856 in a hall at Pearl between Chatham and Centre Streets . In 1856 , with the assistance of the philanthropist Sampson Simson and wealthy Sephardi Jews who sympathized with the traditionalism of the congregation 's members , the congregation purchased a Welsh chapel on Allen Street . The synagogue , which had " a good Hebrew library " , was a place both of prayer and study , included a rabbinic family court , and , according to historian and long @-@ time member Judah David Eisenstein , " rapidly became the most important center for Orthodox Jewish guidance in the country . " Synagogue dues were collected by the shamash ( the equivalent of a sexton or beadle ) , who augmented his salary by working as a glazier and running a small food concession stand in the vestibule . There mourners who came to recite kaddish could purchase a piece of sponge cake and small glass of brandy for ten cents ( today $ 2 @.@ 60 ) . Beth Hamedrash was the prototypical American synagogue for early immigrant Eastern European Jews , who began entering the United States in large numbers only in the 1870s . They found the synagogues of the German Jewish immigrants who preceded them to be unfamiliar , both religiously and culturally . Russian Jews in particular had been more excluded from Russian society than were German Jews from German society , for both linguistic and social reasons . Unlike German Jews , the Jews who founded Beth Hamedrash viewed both religion and the synagogue as central to their lives . They attempted to re @-@ create in Beth Hamedrash the kind of synagogue they had belonged to in Europe . = = Schism = = In 1859 , disagreement broke out between Ash and the synagogue 's parnas ( president ) Joshua Rothstein over who had been responsible for procuring the Allen Street location , and escalated into a conflict " over the question of official authority and ' honor ' " . Members took sides in the dispute , which led to synagogue disturbances , a contested election , and eventually to Ash 's taking Rothstein to a United States court to try to oust him as president of the congregation . After the court rejected Ash 's arguments , a large majority of members left with Ash to form Beth Hamedrash Hagodol ( " Great House of Study " ) , adding the word " Hagodol " ( " Great " ) to the original name . The followers of Rothstein stayed at the Allen Street location and retained the name " Beth Hamedrash " until the mid @-@ 1880s . With membership and financial resources both severely reduced , they were forced to merge with Congregation Holche Josher Wizaner ; the combined congregation adopted the name " Kahal Adath Jeshurun " , and built the Eldridge Street Synagogue . According to Eisenstein , Beth Hamedrash Hagodol provided an atmosphere that was " socially religious " , in which Jews " combine [ d ] piety with pleasure ; they call [ ed ] their shule a shtibl or prayer @-@ club room ; they desire [ d ] to be on familiar terms with the Almighty and abhor [ red ] decorum ; they want [ ed ] everyone present to join and chant the prayers ; above all they scorn [ ed ] a regularly ordained cantor . " In contrast to the informality of the services , members scrupulously observed the Jewish dietary laws , and every member personally oversaw the baking of his matzos for use on Passover . The congregation initially moved to the top floor of a building at the corner of Grand and Forsyth Streets , and in 1865 moved again , to a former courthouse on Clinton Street . In 1872 , the congregation built a synagogue at Ludlow and Hester Streets . There the congregation 's younger members gained greater control and introduced some minor innovations ; for example , changing the title of parnas to president , and in 1877 hiring a professional cantor — Judah Oberman — for $ 500 ( today $ 11 @,@ 100 ) per year , to bring greater formality and decorum to the services as well as to attract new members . While somewhat " Americanized " , in general the congregation remained quite traditional . Men and women sat separately , the full service in the traditional prayer book was followed , and the congregation still trained men for rabbinic ordination . Additionally , Talmud and Mishna study groups , founded in the 1870s , were held both mornings and evenings . Ash had only served as Beth Hamedrash Hagodol 's rabbi intermittently during this time ; during the American Civil War he had briefly been a successful manufacturer of hoopskirts , before losing his money , and returning to the rabbinate . Congregants had a number of issues with him , including his outside business ventures and an alleged inclination towards Hasidism . The more learned members of the congregation contested his scholarship . Ash resigned as rabbi in 1877 , and in 1879 , directors of Beth Hamedrash Hagodol proposed that a Chief Rabbi be hired for New York . A number of New York City synagogues formed the " United Hebrew Orthodox Congregations " , and agreed to select the Malbim ( Meïr Leibush ben Jehiel Michel Weiser ) for the role . The appointment was announced in Philadelphia 's Jewish Record , but the Malbim never filled the position . Beth Hamedrash Hagodol re @-@ hired Ash to fill the vacant role of congregational rabbi at a salary of $ 25 per month ( or $ 300 — today $ 8 @,@ 000 — per year ) . The following year the congregation hired a new cantor , Simhe Samuelson , for $ 1 @,@ 000 ( today $ 25 @,@ 000 ) a year , over three times Ash 's salary . = = Norfolk Street building = = The congregation 's building at 60 – 64 Norfolk Street , between Grand Street and Broome Street on the Lower East Side , had originally been the Norfolk Street Baptist Church . Founded in 1841 when the Stanton Street Baptist Church congregation split , the members had first worshiped in an existing church building at Norfolk and Broome . In 1848 they officially incorporated and began construction of a new building , which was dedicated in January 1850 . Largely unchanged , the structure was designed in the Gothic Revival style by an unknown architect , with masonry @-@ bearing walls with timber framing at the roof and floors , and brownstone foundation walls and exterior door and window trim . The front ( west / Norfolk Street ) facade is " stuccoed and scored to simulate smooth @-@ faced ashlar " , though the other elevations are faced in brick . Window tracery was all in wood . Much of the original work remains on the side elevations . Characteristically Gothic exterior features include " vertical proportions , pointed arched window openings with drip moldings , three bay facade with towers " . Gothic interior features include " ribbed vaulting " and a " tall and lofty rectangular nave and apse . " Originally the window over the main door was a circular rose window , and the two front towers had crenellations in tracery , instead of the present plain tops . The square windows below are original , but the former quatrefoil wooden tracery is gone in many cases . The bandcourse of quatrefoil originally extended across the center section of the facade . Even as the building was under construction , the ethnic makeup of the church 's neighborhood was rapidly changing ; native @-@ born Baptists were displaced by Irish and German immigrants . As members moved uptown , the congregation decided to follow and sold their building in 1860 to Alanson T. Biggs , a successful local merchant . The departing Baptist congregation founded the Fifth Avenue Baptist church , then founded the Park Avenue Church , and finally built the Riverside Church . Biggs converted the church to one for Methodists , and in 1862 , transferred ownership to the Alanson Methodist Episcopal Church . The Methodist congregation was successful for a time , with membership peaking at 572 members in 1873 . It declined after that , and the church ran into financial difficulties . In 1878 the congregation transferred ownership to the New York City Church Extension and Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church . Founded in 1866 , the Church Extension and Missionary Society 's mission was " ... to promote Churches , Missions , and Sunday @-@ schools in the City of New York . " It built or supported Methodist churches primarily in poor areas , or areas that were being developed , including one in the building that would later house the First Roumanian @-@ American congregation . Soon after its purchase of the Norfolk Street building , the Church Extension and Missionary Society discovered that the neighborhood had become mostly Jewish and German . By 1884 , it realized " the church was too big and costly to maintain " , and put it up for sale . In 1885 Beth Hamedrash Hagodol purchased the building for $ 45 @,@ 000 ( today $ 1 @.@ 2 million ) , and made alterations and repairs at a cost of $ 10 @,@ 000 ( today $ 260 @,@ 000 ) , but made no external modifications by the re @-@ opening . Alterations to the interior were generally made to adapt it to synagogue use . These included the additions of an Ark to hold the Torah scrolls ( replacing the original pulpit ) , an " eternal light " in front of the ark , and a bimah ( a central elevated platform where the Torah scrolls are read ) . At some time a women 's gallery was added round three sides of the nave . Interior redecorations included sanctuary ceilings that were " painted a bright blue , studded with stars " . In addition to attracting new and wealthy members , the congregation intended the substantial building to garner prestige and respectability for the relatively new immigrant Jews from Eastern Europe , and to show that Jews on the Lower East Side could be just as " civilized " as the reform @-@ minded Jews of uptown Manhattan . For this reason , a number of other Lower East Side congregations also purchased or built new buildings around this time . They also hired increasingly expensive cantors until , in 1886 , Kahal Adath Jeshurun hired P. Minkowsy for the " then @-@ staggering sum of five thousand dollars per annum " ( today $ 132 @,@ 000 ) . Beth Hamedrash Hagodol responded by recruiting from Europe the famous and highly paid cantor Israel Michaelowsky ( or Michalovsky ) . By 1888 Beth Hamedrash Hagodol 's members included " several bankers , lawyers , importers and wholesale merchants , besides a fair sprinkling of the American element . " Though the building had undergone previous alterations — for example , the Church Extension and Missionary Society had " removed deteriorated parapets from the towers " in 1880 — it did not undergo significant renovations until the early 1890s . That year the rose window on the front of the building was removed , " possibly because it had Christian motifs " , and replaced with a large arched window , still in keeping with the Gothic style . The work was undertaken by the architectural firm of ( Ernest ) Schneider & ( Henry ) Herter , German immigrants who had worked on a number of other synagogues , including the Park East Synagogue . In 1893 they fixed " serious structural problems " , the consequence of neglected maintenance . The work included " stabiliz [ ing ] the front steps , add [ ing ] brick buttresses to the sides of the church for lateral support , again in a Gothic style , and replac [ ing ] the original basement columns with six @-@ inch cast iron columns . " A later renovation replaced the wooden stairs from the main floor to the basement with iron ones . Two Stars of David were added to the center of the facade . One is seen in the old photograph ( above left ) , over a palmette ornament at the top of the window arch . The other , mounted above the top of the gable , remains visible in the modern photograph ( top ) . The unusual cupola @-@ like structure on legs seen above the gable in the old photograph , now gone , was also added by the synagogue , as was the square structure on which it sat . The panel with a large Hebrew inscription over the main doors was added in this period , before the older photograph . The decorations to the upper parts of the central section of the facade survived until at least 1974 , as did the tracery to the square windows on the towers ; this Gothic ornamentation was removed after it deteriorated . = = Jacob Joseph era = = Ash died in 1887 , and the United Hebrew Orthodox Congregations ( now called The Association of American Orthodox Hebrew Congregations ) began a search for a successor , to serve as rabbi of Beth Hamedrash Hagodol and as Chief Rabbi of New York City . This search was opposed by Rabbi Henry Pereira Mendes , of Congregation Shearith Israel . Mendes felt that the money and energy would be better spent on supporting the Jewish Theological Seminary of America ( JTSA ) , which he had co @-@ founded with Sabato Morais in 1886 . In his view , training American @-@ born rabbis at the Seminary would be a much more effective means of fighting the growing strength of American Reform Judaism : these native English @-@ speaking rabbis would appeal to the younger generation far more than imported , Yiddish @-@ speaking ones . The Association of American Orthodox Hebrew Congregations rejected Morais 's position , and offered the role to a number of " leading East European Orthodox rabbis " , all of whom turned it down . They eventually narrowed the field to two candidates , Zvi Rabinovitch and Jacob Joseph . Although Rabinovitch received " massive support " from " leading east European rabbis " , the congregation hired Jacob Joseph as the first — and what would turn out to be only — Chief Rabbi of New York City . Born in Kroz , Lithuania , Joseph had studied in the Volozhin yeshiva under Naftali Zvi Yehuda Berlin ; he was known there as Rav Yaakov Charif ( " Rabbi Jacob Sharp " ) because of his sharp mind . He was one of the main disciples of Yisroel Salanter , and in 1883 had been appointed the maggid ( preacher ) of Vilna . Beth Hamedrash Hagodol , the Eldridge Street Synagogue , and 13 other Lower East Side synagogues had raised $ 2 @,@ 500 ( today $ 66 @,@ 000 ) towards the creation of a European style kehilla to oversee New York 's Orthodox community , and had imported Joseph in an attempt to achieve that ( ultimately unfulfilled ) goal . Joseph 's salary was to be the then @-@ substantial $ 2 @,@ 500 per year , " with an additional $ 1000 for rent , furnishings , and utilities " . Though Joseph 's appointment was , in part , intended to bring prestige to the downtown Orthodox congregations , his primary task as Chief Rabbi was to bring order and regulation to New York 's chaotic kosher slaughtering industry . Joseph arrived in New York on July 7 , 1888 , and later that month preached his inaugural Sabbath sermon at Beth Hamedrash Hagodol . The speech attracted a huge crowd , with over 1 @,@ 500 men crowded into the sanctuary , and thousands more outside . The police had to call extra reinforcements to control the throng , and to escort Joseph into the synagogue . Though he had been chosen , in part , for his " fabulous skills as an orator " , his speaking style and sermons , which had been so beloved in Europe , did not impress New York audiences . According to Abraham Cahan , " [ S ] ome of the very people who drank in his words thirstily in Vilna left the synagogue in the middle of his sermon here . " In October 1888 , Joseph made his first significant statement as Chief Rabbi . He issued new regulations for New York 's Jewish poultry business , in an attempt to bring it into accordance with Jewish law . The funds for supporting the agency supervising adherence to these regulations were to be raised through an increase in the price of meat and chicken . The affected vendors and consumers , however , refused to pay this levy . They likened it to the korobka , a tax on meat in Russia they despised , and " organized a mass meeting in January 1889 against ' the imported rabbi ' " . Joseph never succeeded in organizing the kosher meat business . Joseph was also unable to stop those who came to hear him speak from desecrating the Sabbath , and his Yiddish sermons had no impact on the younger generation . In addition , he had to contend with a number of obstacles : he had no administrative experience or training , local Orthodox rabbis ( particularly Joshua Seigel ) and Jews outside his congregation did not accept his authority , and non @-@ Orthodox Jews and groups criticized him . These problems were exacerbated by a stroke suffered in 1895 , which partially incapacitated him , followed by a relapse in 1900 which left him bedridden . In the late 19th century , other synagogues in New York City often served a particular constituency , typically Jews from a single town in Russia , Poland , or Romania . Beth Hamedrash Hagodol prided itself in welcoming and assisting all Jews , regardless of origins . The synagogue 's Passover Relief Committee — dedicated to providing funds and food to poor Jews so that they could properly celebrate the holiday of Passover — stated " In dispensing money and matzos to the poor , all are recognized as the children of one Father , and no lines are drawn between natives of different countries . " By the turn of the 20th century , Beth Hamedrash Hagodol was distributing approximately $ 800 ( today $ 23 @,@ 000 ) a year to the poor for Passover supplies , compared to a total synagogue income of around $ 5 @,@ 000 ( today $ 142 @,@ 000 ) . This was on top of its average $ 15 ( today $ 400 ) weekly contributions to the poor , and those of individual congregational members of around $ 2 @,@ 000 ( today $ 57 @,@ 000 ) per annum . By 1901 , annual revenues were around $ 6 @,@ 000 ( today $ 171 @,@ 000 ) , and the congregation had 150 members . During Joseph 's tenure , Beth Hamedrash Hagodol helped found the Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America ( the " Orthodox Union " ) . In the spring of 1898 , 50 lay officials from a number of Orthodox New York synagogues — including Congregation Ohab Zedek , the Eldridge Street Synagogue , Congregation Shearith Israel and Beth Hamedrash Hagodol — convened to create the organization . By the 1980s the Orthodox Union had over 1 @,@ 000 member congregations . Joseph served as the synagogue 's rabbi from his arrival in the United States in 1888 until his death in 1902 at age 62 . During this time , his family slipped into poverty , as he did not receive his salary , which had been based on the anticipated taxes on kosher meats and vendors , and on matzos . After his death , Beth Hamedrash Hagodol secured the right to bury him in its cemetery by promising his widow $ 1 @,@ 500 ( today $ 41 @,@ 000 ) and a monthly $ 15 stipend ; in turn , individuals offered the congregation large sums — $ 5 @,@ 000 ( today $ 137 @,@ 000 ) in one case — for the right to be buried near him . His funeral was attended by up to 100 @,@ 000 mourners , " clouded by the guilt @-@ driven attempt of New York 's Orthodox Jews to honor him for the last time , as partial compensation for the way they treated him during his life . " = = Post @-@ Joseph era = = Joseph was succeeded by Rabbi Shalom Elchanan Jaffe , a founder of the Union of Orthodox Rabbis and a strong supporter of the Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary . Jaffe , who was born near Vilna , had , like Joseph , studied at the Volozhin yeshiva , and had received his rabbinic ordination from Naftali Zvi Yehuda Berlin and Yitzchak Elchanan Spektor . The author of several books of religious commentary , Jaffe was an influential rabbi on the Lower East Side , in part because of his authority over kosher supervision of New York 's butcher stores and slaughterhouses . He was also a strong anti @-@ Zionist and " rejoiced when Herzl died " . Harry Fischel was the congregation 's Vice President until 1902 ; there he first met and eventually attended the Bar Mitzvah of his future son @-@ in @-@ law , Herbert S. Goldstein . Goldstein , who was ordained by Jaffe at the JTSA , founded the Institutional Synagogue in Harlem . He is the only person to have been president of the Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America , the Rabbinical Council of America ( first presidium ) , and the Synagogue Council of America . It was in response to an April 1929 telegram from Goldstein , asking if Albert Einstein believed in God , that Einstein stated , " I believe in Spinoza 's God , who reveals himself in the lawful harmony of the world , not in a God who concerns himself with the fate and actions of human beings . " Beth Hamedrash Hagodol had 175 member families by 1908 , and the synagogue 's annual revenues were $ 10 @,@ 000 ( today $ 250 @,@ 000 ) . In 1909 , the synagogue was the site of a mass meeting to protest the 20th Central Conference of American Rabbis , described as " the malicious misrepresentation of Judaism by the so @-@ called reformed rabbis in conference in this city " , and in 1913 the synagogue was the site of a " historic mass meeting " to raise funds for the first Young Israel synagogue , at which Jacob Schiff was the guest speaker . Membership had fallen to 110 families by 1919 . Dr. Benjamin Fleischer , a noted orator , was elected rabbi of Beth Hamedrash Hagodol in September 1924 . While serving as Beth Hamedrash Hagodol 's rabbi he published his 1938 philosophical work Revaluation . Miscellaneous essays , lectures and discourses on Jewish religious philosophy , ethics and history and his 1941 military history From Dan To Megiddo . In May 1939 , he and two other rabbis ( and a fourth rabbi as secretary ) formed the first permanent beth din ( court of Jewish law ) in the U.S. In the early @-@ to @-@ mid @-@ 20th century the congregation 's financial footing was still not sound ; though the Norfolk Street building had been purchased in 1885 for $ 45 @,@ 000 ( and $ 10 @,@ 000 in alterations and repairs ) , in 1921 it still owed $ 40 @,@ 000 ( today $ 530 @,@ 000 ) on the mortgage . Additional costs were incurred by work done on the building ; two years earlier , architect George Dress had rearranged the toilet facilities , in 1934 architect Philip Bardes designed a small brick extension at the building 's south @-@ east corner , and in the 1930s or 1940s the walls and four of the five spandrels in the sanctuary interior were painted with colorful " Eastern European @-@ inspired " pictures and murals of Jerusalem and " Holy Land landscapes and Biblical scenes " . At the end of December 1946 , then @-@ president Abraham Greenwald stated that unless $ 35 @,@ 000 ( today $ 420 @,@ 000 ) were immediately raised for the repair of the building , it would have to be demolished . Ephraim Oshry , noted Torah scholar and religious leader in the Kovno Ghetto , and one of the few European Jewish legal decisors to survive The Holocaust , became the synagogue 's rabbi in 1952 , a post he retained for over 50 years . During the Holocaust the Nazis had made him the custodian of a warehouse that stored Jewish books intended for an exhibit of " artifacts of the extinct Jewish race " . He used the books to help him write responsa , answering questions asked of him regarding how Jews could live their lives in accordance with Jewish law under the extreme conditions imposed by the Nazis . He also ran " secret nightly worship services " , and helped Jews bake matzos for Passover , under threat of death if discovered . After the war he founded a yeshiva for Jewish orphans in Italy , and then another religious school in Montreal , before moving to New York to take up the position of rabbi at Beth Hamedrash Hagodol . There , his Sunday afternoon lectures were so popular that the entire 1 @,@ 200 @-@ seat sanctuary was filled , and the overflow had to sit on the stairs . While rabbi of Beth Hamedrash Hagodol , he founded another yeshiva in Monsey , New York for gifted high school aged boys . The congregation 's building was again threatened with demolition in 1967 , but Oshry , possibly the first Lower East Side rabbi to recognize the value of landmark designation , was successful in having it designated a New York city landmark , thus saving it . At that time the congregation claimed 1 @,@ 400 members . In 1974 , the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission applied to have the building added to the National Register of Historic Places , and considered significant at the state level ; on the application the building 's condition was described as " excellent " . The case was reviewed on June 19 , 1974 , and the site was deemed ineligible . The building was repainted and repaired in 1977 , but in subsequent years deteriorated and suffered damage . = = Late 1990s to present = = In the summer of 1997 , a storm blew out the main two @-@ story window at the front of the building , and the window 's wooden frame was rotten , cracked and could not be saved . The window remained unrepaired which left the sanctuary open to the elements for a month before the congregation , down to approximately 100 members , asked for assistance . The congregants had , by then , long held services in a smaller room , using the sanctuary only on the High Holidays . The New York Landmarks Conservancy 's Endangered Buildings fund gave $ 2 @,@ 500 for a temporary metal window , and assisted in getting approval from the Landmarks Preservation Commission for the work required to repair the damage , but the congregation did not have the $ 10 @,@ 000 required to pay for it . Beth Hamedrash Hagodol received an additional $ 2 @,@ 000 from the New York Landmarks Conservancy 's Sacred Sites program in 1998 for a conditions survey . In 1999 a second application for National Historical designation was made , this time successful ; the building was deemed significant at the local level , and was added to the National Register of Historic Places on November 30 . The congregation raised $ 40 @,@ 000 in 2000 for emergency repairs , and was awarded a $ 230 @,@ 000 grant by the New York State Office of Parks , Recreation and Historic Preservation for restoration work , including roof repair , but had not been able to raise the matching funds required to receive the grant . On December 6 , 2001 , a fire and subsequent fire @-@ fighting efforts severely damaged the roof , ceiling , mural paintings and decorative plasterwork . The National Trust for Historic Preservation designated the building an endangered historic site in 2003 , the only synagogue on the list . It still retained a number of significant architectural features , including " the ornate ark and pulpit , central bimah ( reader 's platform ) with etched glass lamps , cantilevered balconies , Gothic vaulted ceiling , and colorful wall paintings " ; the lighting included " converted gas fixtures " . Features retained from the original construction included Gothic Revival style woodwork and cast @-@ iron railing that follows the lot line , and the original wooden pews . That same year Oshry died . His successor — designated by Oshry himself — was his son @-@ in @-@ law , Rabbi Mendl Greenbaum . By 2006 , $ 1 million of an estimated required $ 3 @.@ 5 million had been raised for repairs to the structure . In 2007 , Greenbaum made the decision to shut the synagogue down , as its membership had dwindled to around 15 . The building was mostly closed to the public as its damaged interior was considered a hazard for visitors . The synagogue , " the home of the oldest Orthodox congregation continuously housed in a single location in New York " sat " padlocked and empty " with holes in the roof and plaster falling from the ceiling . In 2011 , the Buildings Department issued a vacate order . Reportedly , the Lower East Side Conservancy was trying to raise an estimate $ 4 @.@ 5 million for repairs , with the intent of turning the building into an educational center . It was granted $ 215 @,@ 000 by the United States Department of Education and was promised an equal amount by the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation . Several years earlier the Conservancy had also been promised a total of $ 980 @,@ 000 from New York State , the City Council , Mayor Bloomberg , and the Manhattan Borough President 's office , but had yet to receive most of the city funds . The group was also trying to raise $ 400 @,@ 000 from private donors for the first phase of the renovation , which would secure the structure and roof . Led by Greenbaum , Beth Hamedrash Hagodol was down to around 20 regularly attending members , and was sharing facilities with a congregation on Henry Street . By the end of 2012 at least a million dollars in grants for repairs to the building had gone unused and were rescinded . In December 2012 the leadership of the synagogue under Greenbaum filed a “ hardship application ” with the Landmarks Preservation Commission seeking permission to demolish the building to make way for a new residential development . In place of the synagogue , Greenbaum envisioned a 45 @,@ 000 square foot condo building with room for a small synagogue on the ground floor , and possibly a kollel . This application was withdrawn — at least temporarily — in March 2013 , but the group Friends of the Lower East Side described Beth Hamedrash Hagodol 's status as " demolition by neglect " . = = = Cited sources = = =
= French battleship France = France was the last ship of the Courbet @-@ class battleships , the first dreadnoughts built for the French Navy . She was completed just before World War I as part of the 1911 naval building programme . She spent the war in the Mediterranean , covering the Otranto Barrage in the Adriatic . France , accompanied by her sister ship Jean Bart , was sent to the Black Sea in 1919 to oppose the Bolsheviks during the Russian Civil War . Her crew briefly mutinied in April 1919 from a combination of war @-@ weariness , Communist sympathizers in the crew and difficult conditions . The mutiny and general lack of morale among her crew caused her to return to France later that month . Striking an uncharted rock off the French coast in 1922 , she foundered four hours later . = = Description = = France was 166 metres ( 544 ft 7 in ) long overall . She had a beam of 27 metres ( 88 ft 7 in ) and at full load a draft of 9 @.@ 04 metres ( 29 ft 8 in ) at the bow . She displaced 23 @,@ 475 tonnes ( 23 @,@ 104 long tons ) at standard load and 25 @,@ 579 tonnes ( 25 @,@ 175 long tons ) at full load . She proved to be rather wet in service as she was bow @-@ heavy because of the superimposed turrets forward . France had four propellers powered by four Parsons direct @-@ drive steam turbines which were rated at 28 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 20 @,@ 880 kW ) . Twenty @-@ four Belleville water @-@ tube boilers provided steam for her turbines . These boilers were coal @-@ burning with auxiliary oil sprayers . She had a designed speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . She carried up to 2 @,@ 700 long tons ( 2 @,@ 700 t ) of coal and 906 long tons ( 921 t ) of oil and could steam for 4 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 800 km ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 12 mph ; 19 km / h ) . France 's main armament consisted of twelve 305 @-@ millimetre ( 12 in ) Mle 1910 45 @-@ calibre guns were mounted in six twin gun turrets , with two turrets superimposed fore and aft , and one on each flank of the ship . For anti @-@ torpedo boat defence she carried 22 138 @-@ millimetre ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) Mle 1910 guns , which were mounted in casemates . Four 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Modèle 1902 Hotchkiss guns were fitted , two on each beam . She was also armed with four 450 @-@ millimetre ( 18 in ) submerged Modèle 1909 torpedo tubes with twelve torpedoes . France 's waterline armoured belt extended well below the waterline as the French were concerned about protection from underwater hits . Her main armour was also thinner than that of her British or German counterparts , but covered more area . It was 270 millimetres ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) thick between the fore and aft turrets and tapered to 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) towards the bow and stern . It extended 2 @.@ 4 metres ( 7 ft 10 in ) below the normal waterline . Above the main belt was another belt , 180 mm thick , that covered the sides , and the secondary armament , up to the forecastle deck , 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 14 ft 9 in ) deep , between the fore and aft turrets . The conning tower had armour 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) thick . The main gun turrets had 290 millimetres ( 11 @.@ 4 in ) of armour on their faces , 250 millimetres ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) on their sides and roofs 100 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick . Their barbettes had 280 millimetres ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) of armour . There was no anti @-@ torpedo bulkhead although there was a longitudinal bulkhead abreast the machinery spaces that was used either as a coal bunker or left as a void . = = Career = = France , together with her sister ship Paris , was ordered on 1 August 1911 as part of the 1911 Naval Programme . She was built by the Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire in Saint @-@ Nazaire . Her keel was laid down on 30 November 1911 and she was launched on 7 November 1912 . She was commissioned as part of the Bastille Day celebrations in 1914 . Almost immediately after being commissioned , she , escorted by Jean Bart , carried the President of the French Republic , Raymond Poincaré , on a state visit to Saint Petersburg , Russia in July 1914 . They returned from Russia shortly before World War I began . = = = World War I = = = France , upon her return , was ordered , along with her three sister ships , to serve in the Mediterranean Sea against the Austro @-@ Hungarian and Ottoman Navies . They spent most of 1914 providing gunfire support for the Montenegrin Army until the submarine U @-@ 12 torpedoed Jean Bart on 21 December off Sazan Island . This forced the battleships to fall back to either Malta or Bizerte . After the French occupied the neutral Greek island of Corfu in 1916 they moved forward to Corfu and Argostoli , but their activities were very limited as many of their crews were used to man anti @-@ submarine ships . After the war , France and Paris supported Allied forces in the Black Sea in 1919 during the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War . Mutinies briefly broke out on both ships in April 1919 , but collapsed when Vice @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Françoise @-@ Charles Amet agreed to meet their main demand to take the ships home . 26 crewmen were sentenced to prison terms upon her return , although they were commuted in 1922 as part of a bargain between Prime Minister Raymond Poincaré and the parties of the Left . On 26 August 1922 , she struck an uncharted rock in Quiberon Bay and foundered four hours later . Of her crew of 900 , only three were lost . She was not modernized before her loss .
= Cold Fear = Cold Fear is a 2005 survival horror third @-@ person shooter video game developed by Darkworks and published by Ubisoft for PlayStation 2 , Xbox and Microsoft Windows . It was Ubisoft 's first horror game , and Darkworks ' second game , after Alone in the Dark : The New Nightmare in 2001 . The game is centered on Tom Hansen , a member of the United States Coast Guard , who comes to the aid of a Russian whaler in the Bering Strait and finds a mysterious virus has turned the crew into zombie @-@ like creatures . Discovering the involvement of both the Russian mafia and the CIA , Hansen sets out to ensure the virus doesn 't reach land . The game was first announced at E3 in 2004 . To make the ship roll realistically , the developers had to write a completely new program ( dubbed the " Darkwave editor " ) to allow them to control movement on both the vertical and the horizontal axes . They also used real physics to simulate the movement patterns of inanimate objects on the ship . Due to the random nature created by this , the player character required nine times the amount of animations usually seen in third @-@ person games . Ultimately , the game contained more than nine hundred separate animations for all characters , allowing for over five thousand possible character movements . The game 's soundtrack was composed by Tom Salta , with Marilyn Manson contributing a song from his 2003 album The Golden Age of Grotesque . Cold Fear was met with mixed reviews , with many critics comparing it unfavorably to Resident Evil 4 . Although critics were generally impressed with the environments and the opening scenes , they found the game too short and felt it failed to live up to its promising beginning . The game was a commercial failure ; in the United States , it sold only 70 @,@ 000 units across all platforms . = = Gameplay = = Cold Fear is a survival horror third @-@ person shooter played from either a third @-@ person fixed camera perspective or an over @-@ the @-@ shoulder camera , depending on the player 's preferences . The main enemies in the game are Russian mercenaries and various types of zombie @-@ like creatures known as " Exos " ( creatures infected by a parasitic organism known as an " Exocel " ) . Exos include " Exomutants " ( mercenaries infected with Exocels ) , " Exoshades " ( creatures which can see perfectly in the dark ) , " Exospectres " ( which can turn transparent for brief periods of time ) and " Exomasses " ( a hugely strong but deformed creature created as a result of a failed experiment ) . Most infected enemies can be knocked down with two or three shots , but unless the brain is destroyed , they will not die , and will eventually attack Hansen again . Players can destroy the brain either by shooting enemy in the head , or knocking them down and stomping on their head . If an enemy gets close to Hansen , the player can perform a critical hit by pressing a combination of buttons . All exos carry at least one exocel within them . When the exo is killed , the exocel may emerge and attack Hansen , or , if there are any other dead bodies in the area , infect and re @-@ animate that body . Exocels are fast , but very weak and can be killed with one gunshot . The first half of the game is set on a whaler in the middle of a storm , and the conditions on the deck affect the degree of control the player has over Hansen . As the ship sways continuously from side to side , aiming is made more difficult , although Hansen can grab onto a ledge to steady himself , if one is available . In some instances , the ship can sway to such a degree that Hansen will slide towards the edge and potentially fall overboard . There are also numerous environmental hazards on the deck which react to the motion of the ship , such as swinging electrical wires and crates hooked up to ropes . If any of these items hit Hansen , he will lose health . Waves crashing on to the ship 's deck can also cause Hansen damage . The game also features a Resistance gauge , which decreases as the player performs certain actions , such as running , although running is not possible when in over @-@ the @-@ shoulder mode . If Hansen falls off the edge of the ship , he can hang onto the side as long as he has resistance left , but if he doesn 't climb back aboard quickly enough , he will fall into the ocean . The game does not feature an inventory , and neither health packs nor ammo can be stockpiled . Health packs are used immediately upon collection , and no more ammo can be collected than the capacity of the specific weapon . Players can find ammo and health packs distributed throughout the game at certain predetermined locations and also by looting the bodies of fallen enemies . = = Plot = = The game begins with a Navy SEAL team deploying on a Russian whaler , the Eastern Spirit , in the Bering Strait . As the team explore the deck , they are attacked and killed by something that literally rips them apart . Seeing his team is gone , CIA Special Agent Jason Bennett , who is supervising the mission from another location , orders any other government vessel in the vicinity to investigate . His call is picked up by the US Coast Guard ship , the USCGC Ravenswood , which heads to the Eastern Spirit . The crew of the Ravenswood split into teams , but within moments of boarding , only one remains ; Tom Hansen , who hears his shipmates being killed over the radio . He sets out to explore the ship and determine what is happening . As soon as he enters the interior of the Spirit , however , he is attacked by two frightened Russians , who he is forced to kill . As he continues to explore , he encounters a multitude of panicking Russians , all of whom attack him . He also finds several horrifically mutilated bodies , including that of the Ravenswood 's captain , Lt. Lansing . Hansen soon learns of a creature known as an " exocel " , which was accidentally discovered by the crew of a Russian oil rig , the Star of Sakhalin , owned by Colonel Dmitriy Yusupov , a member of the Russian mafia , and staffed by Major Yuri Anischenko and his team of mercenaries . Yusupov came to realize the exocels were parasitic organisms , which used other living organisms as hosts , and as such , he brought Dr. Viktor Kamsky to the Sakhalin to begin experimenting with infecting various species with exocel serum . These experiments led to the discovery that exocels could re @-@ animate recently deceased humans , and the creation of an antidote to counter infection . Hansen heads to the radio room to request help , but instead he is answered by Bennett , who tells him that Yusupov is on board and must be captured for questioning . Bennett tells Hansen that if he finds Yusupov , the CIA will get him off the ship . Hansen locates Yusupov , who tells him that Anna Kamsky , Viktor 's daughter , is onboard and must be saved . Yusupov had brought her to Sakhalin to blackmail Viktor into turning the exocels into biological weapons . Eventually , Viktor and his colleague , Dr. Pavel Bakharev , began to experiment on live human infection , and the Eastern Spirit was on its way from the Sakhalin to collect the next batch of human specimens supplied by the Mafia when the exocel outbreak occurred . An exocel then bursts out of Yusupov 's chest , killing him . Hansen finds Anna , who tells them they must go to the radio room and contact her father . They contact the rig , but Bakharev tells Anna that Kamsky is missing and pleads with her not to return . She refuses , telling Bakharev she will see him soon . They turn the ship back towards the Sakhalin but because the seas are so rough , they are unable to dock with the platform . As such , they head to the crow 's nest and jump from the ship when it collides with the rig . Hansen makes the jump , but Anna falls into the sea . Hansen soon finds Bakharev , who tells him that to disable the radio jammer around the rig so he can contact Bennett , he will need Anischenko to get him past a retinal scanner . Bakharev is then dragged into an air duct and killed . Hansen learns that Kamsky and Bakharev were under orders to make the exocels as dangerous as possible , which they had succeeded in doing , but without any way to control the resulting creatures . Hansen finds and kills Anischenko , removing his eye and using it to deactivate the radio jammer . Once back in touch with Bennett , Hansen is told he must find Kamsky 's laptop and transmit the exocel research . Meanwhile , Anna is rescued from the sea by a large creature and left in a lab , where she is infected by an exocel . Seeing this take place on a security monitor , Hansen races to the lab to give Anna the antidote . He makes it to her in time and administers the antidote before the infection can take hold . Bennett then contacts him and Hansen makes him promise that if he gives Bennett the research , Bennett will save Anna . He soon discovers that Kamsky infected himself with a strain of exocel DNA , and now wishes to do the same to Anna . Hansen finds Kamsky 's laptop and transmits the antidote data to Bennett , but nothing else . As a furious Bennett berates Hansen , he and Anna agree to blow up the rig using C4 . As Hansen plants the charges , he learns Kamsky had gone completely insane ; after infecting himself with exocel serum , he released the imprisoned exos on the rig and planted a group of exocels on the Eastern Spirit . He then went into hiding to await his metamorphosis . When Hansen has planted all of the charges , he heads to the heliport to meet Anna . Before they can take off however , they are attacked by a mutated Kamsky ; the same creature who rescued Anna from the sea . Kamsky is desperate for Anna to remain with him on the rig , but Hansen is able to fight him off and kill him . He and Anna then escape in a helicopter as the rig explodes below them . = = Development = = Cold Fear was first announced at E3 in 2004 when the title was included on a list of upcoming games . According to Sony , the game was set to be published by Namco . On October 6 , however , Ubisoft announced they would be publishing the Darkworks developed game in March 2005 for PlayStation 2 , Xbox and PC . The game would be Ubisoft 's first horror game , and Darkworks ' second game , after Alone in the Dark : The New Nightmare in 2001 . A playable demo version was released in December . To make the Eastern Spirit roll realistically in the storm , the developers had to write a completely new program . They found that making the ship move was easy , but getting it to respond to storm conditions was much more complex . As such , they created a complete roll editor , called the Darkwave editor , which allowed them to control the pitch ( when the ship moves on the horizontal axis ) and the roll ( when it moves on the vertical axis ) separately . The combination of moving the ship on both axes allowed the developers to create realistic ship movements . This in turn allowed them to time the exact movement of the ship to coincide with what was happening in the game without having to use a cutscene . However , creating such a realistic movement system led to camera problems . According to programmer , Claude Levastre , early in development , " the camera was constantly going through the walls because of the roll movement . So we had to develop an inertia @-@ control system for the camera , just as if a cameraman is using a steadicam behind the hero . " Another change brought about by the ship 's motion was that initially , the movement patterns of inanimate objects on the ship were scripted , but this was later replaced with real physics . The ship 's constant movement also impacted character animation . Once the ship 's movement reached a certain angle , Hansen and any other characters on deck start to slide , and have to compensate in whatever direction was necessary relative to their position . According to Levastre , this meant Hansen required nine times the animations usually seen in third @-@ person games ( center , front , back , left , right and four intermediary positions ) . Ultimately , Hansen had two hundred and fifty separate animations , and most of the non @-@ player characters had one hundred and fifty . According to Antonin Delboy , lead animator on the game , " all the technical decisions were taken in favor of animation , both in terms of quality and quantity , which is very rare on this kind of project . " Basic animation was produced with 3D Studio Max software . Inverse kinematics were then used to create the nine directional animations , with the engine calculating the level of character compensation depending on the angle of the ship . Each character movement is composed of basic animation and compensation animation , and Delboy says that in total , the game contains more than nine hundred animations , allowing for over five thousand possible movements . Levastre stated " The interaction between the storm and the characters that are on the deck sometimes creates some really breathtaking moments . And on top of that , we managed to offer some really intense action sequences featuring far more enemies than in most horror games . " = = = Music = = = On February 3 , 2005 , Ubisoft announced Marilyn Manson was contributing a song to the game ; " Use Your Fist and Not Your Mouth " , from his 2003 album The Golden Age of Grotesque . On February 22 , Ubisoft revealed the soundtrack was being composed by Tom Salta . Salta had been hired in November 2004 , with his first finished track submitted on November 16 . The completed score was handed in on December 23 . According to Salta , he had to compose over twenty different individual pieces as well as music for nine cutscenes ; " It ended up being over an hour 's worth of music which I composed in under six weeks . " = = Reception = = Cold Fear received " mixed or average reviews " on all three platforms ; the PlayStation 2 version holds an aggregate score of 68 out of 100 on Metacritic , based on thirty @-@ nine reviews , the Xbox version 71 out of 100 , based on forty @-@ one reviews , and the PC version 66 out of 100 , based on thirteen reviews . Eurogamer 's Kristan Reed was unimpressed with the game , calling it " a bit half @-@ baked " . He praised the opening of the game , arguing that , like Hansen himself , the player feels a strong sense of disorientation as they get used to being on the ship in the middle of a storm . However , he felt the strong opening soon gives way to clichés . He was highly critical of the absence of a map , arguing that because the environments all look similar , getting lost is a regular occurrence . GameSpot 's Carrie Gouskos scored the PlayStation 2 version 6 @.@ 9 out of 10 and the Xbox version 7 @.@ 2 out of 10 . She argued " Atmospherically , Cold Fear is derivative and predictable , which is a shame considering that it is , at times , an enjoyable action game . " Although she praised the outdoor scenes on the boat , she felt there were not enough of them , with too many " generic indoor locations . " She was also highly critical of the lack of a map and the autosave feature , feeling the save points were unevenly distributed . GameSpy 's Will Tuttle scored the PlayStation 2 version 3 out of 5 and the Xbox version 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 . He praised the setting , atmosphere and over @-@ the @-@ shoulder camera , but was critical of the lack of a map . He remarked , " While it 's not going to overthrow Resident Evil 4 as King of All Horror Games , Cold Fear is a solid little thriller . " Game Revolution 's JP Hurh gave the game a B- . He too criticized the length of the game , the lack of a map and the autosave feature , which he found too random . He praised the graphics and sound , but concluded " With so much attention paid to the environments , Darkworks almost made a great game . Unfortunately , it 's only half a great game [ ... ] The ending as well as many portions along the way feel rushed . " IGN 's Ed Lewis scored the PlayStation 2 version 7 @.@ 2 out of 10 and the Xbox version 7 @.@ 6 out of 10 . He praised the over @-@ the @-@ shoulder camera and the setting , but also criticized the lack of a map . = = = Sales = = = The game was met with extremely poor sales figures . By February 2006 , it had sold only 70 @,@ 000 units across all three platforms in the US . = = Film adaptation = = In April 2006 , Variety reported that Avatar Films and Sekretagent Productions had co @-@ purchased the rights for a feature film adaptation of the game . However , there have since been no further developments , with the project presumably cancelled .
= Death Is Birth = Death Is Birth is an EP released by the British hardcore punk band Gallows , released 5 December 2011 through Thirty Days of Night Records . It is the band 's first release with singer Wade MacNeil , formerly of Alexisonfire , who replaced original Gallows singer Frank Carter when the latter left the band in July 2011 . The EP was recorded in Los Angeles and produced by Joby J. Ford of The Bronx . It includes a re @-@ recording of the track " True Colours " , previously released as a free download in August 2011 . = = Background = = Frank Carter the original vocalist of Gallows announced in early July 2011 that he would be leaving Gallows because of differing opinions in writing the band 's follow @-@ up album to their second release Grey Britain . His departure was effective on 1 August after the band 's final tour dates . Just eight days after Frank 's departure , on the 9 August 2011 , MacNeil was confirmed as the new Gallows vocalist . MacNeil has stated that the members of Gallows asked him initially out of coincidence that Alexisonfire had disbanded and Gallows needed a new singer . With Frank 's departure fans of the band started to believe that he left because he wanted to continue playing heavy music , while the band wanted to go in a more melodic direction ; the band decided to release something to show this as false . From the moment Wade 's arrived in Britain in July Gallows started writing new material to follow up to their 2009 album Grey Britain . The ep itself was both written and recorded in a short period of time . A majority of the music featured on the extended play was written by the band before Wade had joined and that they put the finishing touches on the record with him . Lee Barratt summarises the ep as a " good release of anger " and that all the band felt " particularly venomous when Wade joined " . Just a few months later in November the band made the announcement that the new extended play would be released in early December . After the band 's infamous split from Warner Bros the band decided to work on an independent record label for the release , Thirty Days of Night whom they considered as " Gallows family " . = = Themes = = The EP has being seen by critics simply as " unapologetic hardcore punk " and being the most aggressive work Gallows had done so far . A more Americanised influence can be heard throughout the EP as it 's been likened to bands like Cancer Bats and Every Time I Die . MacNeil had always stated the EP helped build on what he has always liked about Gallows ; he considers it being " Four songs like a kick in the teeth " . In the writing of the new extended play the band focused on less typical song structures and focused on the chaotic sound from live shows . MacNeil believed that " sometimes you don ’ t need to overcomplicate things . Obviously , we 're trying to write music that ’ s chaotic and is going to be something that comes across vicious @-@ sounding live ... you don ’ t repeat it four times , you do it once , and you don ’ t have a bridge . " Gallows guitarist Laurent Barnard said how the EP would not sound similar to the band 's third studio album by saying " If you 're going to make a punk rock EP , you might as well make it the most punk rock thing you can really . " Music critics have described True Colours upon its release as a single as " the most brutal thing Gallows has done . " Andrew Ford of Hit The Floor Magazine considered it a " 36 second middle finger to all those who have suggested this is the end of the road for the Watford lads . " Something which both critics and Wade MacNeil himself have acknowledged is his distinct tone of voice from Frank Carter even to the point in which their fan base could be divided over the decision to have Wade in the band . Wade wanted the EP and the future lyrics of Gallows records to have a much more global view . Believing that the band 's second studio album Grey Britain had too much of a British perspective . = = Release and promotion = = The band released the first song from the EP , True Colours for free download on 29 August 2011 from their band website . They then released Mondo Chaos as a digital single on 25 November . Just a few days before that on 17 November the song was leaked . Gallows completed their first tour after the release of True Colours with MacNeil as front man in the United States and Canada in November alongside Four Year Strong , Title Fight and The Swellers and Sharks . The band incorporated songs from the first two albums live set @-@ lists . MacNeil said that he aimed to alter the songs in a way that " breathes some life into them " but also wanted to keep what " people love about those songs and what I love about those songs . " 6131 Records released the ep in North America on vinyl record . = = Reception = = Death Is Birth received positive reception from music critics . British publication Kerrang ! gave the album a " Excellent " four out of five " K " s describing the EP as " The snarling rebirth of the UKs best punk band . " Vincent Danger when writing for Thrash Hits gave the album a 5 out of 6 stars giving the album a positive review praising their choice of front man to replace Carter . " there ’ s only so much one can say about 459 seconds of music . There ’ s enough here to prove that Lags Barnard ’ s songwriting skills aren ’ t on the wane and that Wade MacNeil is a more than able replacement for Carter . " Alternative Press writer Jason Pettigrew appreciated the album 's short but violent writing in his 4 out of 5 star review ; saying " the EP is steeped in impenetrable , relentless nihilism and thrashing madness that ’ s one part noise weapon ( “ True Colours ” ) , one part circle @-@ pit centrifuge ( “ Hate Hate Hate ” ) and two parts hateful hardcore ( “ Mondo Chaos ” and the title track ) . " Dan Issitt , a writer for Alter The Press ! gave the album a score of 4 / 5 in an otherwise positive review did see fault in the change of front man . " Some fans will undoubtedly find it hard to get past the fact that he isn ’ t Frank Carter , but a little scratch at the surface will reveal the same aggression and similar bile @-@ filled lyrics you ’ d expect from one of Britain ’ s most hateful bands . " = = Track listing = = = = Personnel = = Wade MacNeil – lead vocals Laurent " Lags " Barnard – guitar , backing vocals Steph Carter – guitar , backing vocals Stuart Gili @-@ Ross – bass guitar , backing vocals Lee Barratt – drums , percussion
= 1933 Chesapeake – Potomac hurricane = The 1933 Chesapeake – Potomac hurricane was among the most damaging hurricanes in the Mid @-@ Atlantic states in the eastern United States . The sixth storm and third hurricane of the very active 1933 Atlantic hurricane season , it formed in the eastern Atlantic , where it moved west @-@ northwestward and eventually became a Category 4 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale . A strong ridge over New England allowed a continued northwest course , bringing the storm south of Bermuda and later toward the middle coast of the eastern United States . Advance warning allowed hundreds of people to evacuate ahead of the hurricane making landfall . It did so in northeastern North Carolina on August 23 with winds of about 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) . Soon after , the eye crossed over Norfolk , Virginia , the first time that happened since 1821 . The hurricane weakened into a tropical storm over northern Virginia shortly before passing near Washington , D.C. , becoming the worst tropical cyclone there since 1896 . Curving northward , the storm moved through Pennsylvania and New York before losing tropical characteristics on August 25 . Now extratropical , the former hurricane moved across Atlantic Canada , dissipating on August 28 . Across the eastern United States , the hurricane left widespread damage amounting to over $ 40 million and causing 47 deaths . Although the storm struck North Carolina , damage in the state totaled only about $ 250 @,@ 000 , largely to crops and transport . Along the Chesapeake Bay , the storm produced 100 @-@ year flooding from its storm surge , setting records that remained for over 80 years . In Virginia , flooding covered downtown portions of Norfolk in the southeast and Alexandria in the north . Damage in the state was estimated at $ 17 @.@ 5 million . Similarly heavy damage occurred in Maryland , including over $ 7 million to crops . High waves along the coast eroded beaches and created a new inlet at Ocean City . The highest rainfall associated with the hurricane was 13 @.@ 28 in ( 337 mm ) at York , Pennsylvania . In the state , the rains flooded several rivers which forced thousands to evacuate . In neighboring New Jersey , high waves wrecked boats and destroyed a fishing pier , while in New York , flooding caused traffic jams . In Atlantic Canada , heavy rainfall assisted firefighters in combating wildfires , and the associated winds caused isolated power outages . = = Meteorological history = = On August 13 , a tropical depression developed near the west coast of Africa , southeast of Cape Verde , with an associated closed circulation . Based on observations from a nearby ship , it is estimated the depression quickly intensified into a tropical storm while moving generally to the west @-@ northwest . For several days the storm continued this general trajectory , eventually shifting more to the northwest . Based on interpolation of reports , it is estimated the storm intensified into a hurricane on August 16 while halfway between Africa and the Lesser Antilles . The Weather Bureau began tracking the system on August 18 . Later that day , a ship reported a pressure of 948 mbar ( 28 @.@ 0 inHg ) , suggesting winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) . This made the hurricane a Category 4 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale . Another ship report on August 20 indicated a pressure of 940 mbar ( 28 inHg ) while reporting hurricane winds , suggesting peak winds of 140 mph ( 230 km / h ) . After remaining near peak intensity for three days , the hurricane began steadily weakening while curving more to the west @-@ northwest , a rare track for the region due to steering from a ridge over New England . On August 21 , the storm passed about 150 mi ( 240 km ) southwest of Bermuda . At 1000 UTC on August 23 , the hurricane made landfall along the northern Outer Banks of North Carolina , near Nags Head , with a pressure of 963 mbar ( 28 @.@ 4 inHg ) . Based on the steady weakening , coastal observations , and a larger than normal size , landfall winds were estimated at 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) . A few hours later , the hurricane made another landfall on the North Carolina mainland after crossing the Albemarle Sound . While the hurricane continued to the northwest , the eye briefly moved over Norfolk , Virginia , for the first time since the 1821 Norfolk and Long Island hurricane . Early on August 24 , the hurricane weakened into a tropical storm while passing near Washington , D.C. Curving to the north , the storm crossed Pennsylvania and into New York , where it weakened further into a tropical depression . On August 25 , the former hurricane turned to the east near the Canadian border , and after interacting with a cold front , became extratropical . It emerged from Maine and briefly re @-@ intensified , moving across southern Nova Scotia with gale force winds . On August 28 , the circulation dissipated to the south of Newfoundland . = = Preparations and impact = = The hurricane first affected Bermuda when it passed to the south . Winds at St. George 's reached 64 mph ( 103 km / h ) . High waves along the coast prevented boats from docking . Early on August 21 , the Weather Bureau issued storm warnings from Cape Hatteras to Boston , Massachusetts . As the hurricane approached land , the warnings were extended southward to Southport , North Carolina . In Norfolk , Virginia , most ships either remained at port or sought shelter due to advance warning . Residents were advised to evacuate in Ocean View , Virginia Beach , and Willoughby Spit , and about 350 people left their houses in Virginia Beach . Along the coast , the United States Coast Guard rescued more than 200 people , many of whom due to capsized boats . A 1993 article published in the Monthly Weather Review considered the storm to have been " one of the most severe storms that has ever visited the Middle Atlantic coast . " Flooding affected a larger portion of the northeastern United States than any other hurricane in the 1900s after Hurricane Agnes in 1972 . The Federal Emergency Management Agency later used high water levels from the storm as a 100 @-@ year event for the Chesapeake Bay region . The next storm to approach the storm surge levels was Isabel in 2003 , which was lower in most locations in Virginia , although higher in Washington , D.C. and Baltimore due to sea level rise . This hurricane caused damage from North Carolina through New Jersey , due to the combination of high winds and storm tides , and left 47 people dead overall . = = = North Carolina and Virginia = = = When the hurricane made landfall in the Outer Banks , it produced winds of 76 mph ( 122 km / h ) at Cape Hatteras . The winds caused crop damage as far inland as Granville County . Across the region , the storm downed power lines , highways , boats , and houses , and overall damage in the state was around $ 250 @,@ 000 . As the hurricane moved into Virginia , winds were as strong as 82 mph ( 131 km / h ) at Cape Henry , while Norfolk reported winds of 70 mph ( 113 km / h ) . The latter city reported a record high tide of 9 @.@ 8 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) above normal at Sewell 's Point , which flooded the downtown section with 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) of water . Water levels were 5 to 8 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 4 m ) higher than any previous high water mark in Newport News and most of Fort Eustis was flooded . In Hampton the storm surge flooded Langley Air Force Base , swamped homes and businesses , wrecked boats , and destroyed fishing piers . Rainfall in Chesapeake reached about 10 in ( 250 mm ) , and reached about 7 in ( 180 mm ) in Norfolk . Flooding near Norfolk damaged crops , and after its downtown section was flooded , residents were forced to travel by boat . When the flood levels dropped , many fish were left behind in the streets . High water levels of around 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) along the York River destroyed buildings at Gloucester Point . In Virginia Beach , the storm knocked down about 600 trees , many of them about 100 years old , and over 79 @,@ 000 people lost telephone service . Due to advance warning , there was minimal damage to shipping in the region . However , high waves damaged the steamer Madison with 90 people on board and caused it to drift off Cape Charles , which necessitated rescue from the Coast Guard . Inland flooding occurred along the James River as far west as Richmond , where damage was limited to downed trees and broken windows . The pier of the Jamestown Ferry was washed out in Surry and a marina at Jordan Point near Hopewell was wrecked after the river reached the highest level on record . A powerful storm surge moved up the Chesapeake Bay and flooded waterfront locations . At Colonial Beach along the Potomac River , the surge flooded the town with 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) of water and wrecked a local amusement park . The Potomac in Alexandria was at its highest level since 1899 , causing floods 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) deep along U.S. Route 1 , and flooding the Old Town section . High winds in the city caused power outages , and flooding along the Cameron Run washed out a bridge . The combination of rain and winds damaged crops in Fairfax and Loudoun counties , mainly to corn and peaches . Statewide , the storm caused $ 5 @.@ 25 million in crop damage , largely to corn and tobacco . Damage in the state was estimated at $ 17 @.@ 5 million , and there were 15 deaths . After the storm , about 350 people helped clear debris from the streets of Norfolk . = = = Maryland north = = = Farther north , it is estimated the storm produced hurricane @-@ force winds in portions of Maryland . Along the coast , high waves eroded about 2 sq mi ( 5 @.@ 2 km2 ) of beaches in Maryland and another 1 sq mi ( 2 @.@ 6 km2 ) in Delaware . High waves created an inlet that turned Assateague into an island . The storm damaged or destroyed several hotels in the region . Power , telephone , and telegraph outages occurred from Cape Charles through Delaware . In Baltimore , 7 @.@ 62 in ( 194 mm ) of precipitation fell in 24 hours , setting a record and causing flooding . The storm surge wrecked a steamboat pier and promenade at Chesapeake Beach , and damaged or destroyed 70 houses in neighboring North Beach . In Cheverly , flooding caused nine cars of a train to derail , killing four people . Statewide , the storm caused about $ 7 million in crop damage , mostly to tobacco , tomato , and corn . The high tides caused $ 3 million in damage to the fishing industry , having damage or destroyed many boats and docks . There was about $ 90 @,@ 000 worth of damage to the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis , after docks were damaged . Throughout the state , the hurricane caused about $ 10 million in property damage , with another $ 1 @.@ 1 million to federal properties , about $ 960 @,@ 000 in transportation damage , and $ 364 @,@ 000 in utility damage . In neighboring Delaware , road damage was about $ 150 @,@ 000 , after three bridges were wrecked along DuPont Highway . Rainfall in the state reached 13 @.@ 24 in ( 336 mm ) in Bridgeville . In Washington , D.C. , the storm dropped 6 @.@ 39 in ( 162 mm ) of rainfall , at the time the highest on record for a single day total . High winds knocked down trees and destroyed the roofs of several houses . Along the Anacostia River , flooding surpassed a seawall , and traffic was disrupted when the Benning Bridge was flooded with 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) of water . The Washington @-@ Hoover Airport was also flooded . Damage in the nation 's capital was the worst since a tropical storm in 1896 . The highest rainfall associated with the hurricane was 13 @.@ 28 in ( 337 mm ) near York , Pennsylvania . On August 24 , the minimum pressure in Philadelphia dropped to 996 mbar ( 29 @.@ 40 inHg ) , which was the lowest on record in the month of August at the time . Wind gusts in the city reached 42 mph ( 68 km / h ) . In the surrounding area , winds and rainfall caused $ 1 million in damage , mostly to crops and houses , and there were four deaths . Rainfall caused the worst flooding in the Lehigh Valley since 1902 . In York County , floods destroyed 47 bridges , while in York proper , about 3 @,@ 000 people evacuated along the swollen Codorus Creek . Hurricane @-@ force winds potentially affected portions of Delaware and southern New Jersey . In Atlantic City , New Jersey , winds reached 76 mph ( 122 km / h ) at a height of 171 ft ( 52 m ) , which is 67 mph ( 107 km / h ) at sea @-@ level . At the time , this was the highest wind report for the station in the month of August . Rainfall in Atlantic City totaled 8 @.@ 12 in ( 206 mm ) , including 2 @.@ 25 in ( 57 mm ) that fell in an hour on August 20 , which was the monthly average . Two people drowned along the Jersey Shore due to high waves , and the storm capsized nine boats . The waves destroyed a 300 ft ( 91 m ) long fishing pier in Cape May . High winds damaged the boardwalk while streets were flooded in Atlantic City , and there was about $ 3 million in damage . The storm spawned a tornado in Wildwood . At Picatinny Arsenal , residents and members of the military helped prevent a dam from breaking . Sustained winds of around 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) were observed across northern New York , while the top of the Empire State Building reported a gust of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Heavy rainfall in the state increased water levels along streams , causing one person to drown at Mount Tremper . After a dam broke , 190 people at Godeffroy were stranded until they were rescued by a fire crew . A power outage during the storm caused the Statue of Liberty torch to extinguish for the first time since 1929 . Streets and basements of New York City were flooded after the heavy rainfall . The combination of flooding and fallen trees caused heavy traffic jams . The former hurricane passed near southern Quebec as a tropical depression , and later crossed southern Nova Scotia as an extratropical cyclone . Along Lake Ontario , winds reached 51 mph ( 81 km / h ) , and in Montreal , winds reached 21 mph ( 33 km / h ) . After a dry summer , the storm 's accompanying rainfall was beneficial , reaching 4 @.@ 4 in ( 112 mm ) in Fredericton , New Brunswick and 2 in ( 50 mm ) in Halifax , Nova Scotia . The rains helped farmers in Ontario and assisted firefighters in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia . In Montreal , 2 @.@ 4 in ( 60 mm ) of rainfall flooded a tunnel . Gusty winds knocked down power lines in portions of Quebec , Nova Scotia , and Nova Scotia . Overall effects were minor , limited to some utility damage and delays for shipping .
= John Shurna = John William Shurna ( born April 30 , 1990 ) is an American – Lithuanian professional basketball player who plays for Valencia Basket of the Liga ACB . He is the 2012 Big Ten scoring champion . He played in the 2012 NBA Summer League with the Atlanta Hawks . He then signed with the New York Knicks , but was waived at the end of the preseason . He played college basketball for the Northwestern Wildcats . He has been a three @-@ time All @-@ Big Ten Conference selection ( 2010 – 2nd team ; 2011 – 3rd team coaches / honorable mention media ; 2012 – 1st team ) and the Northwestern statistical leader in several categories . He was the 2010 Sporting News Most Improved Player . He holds several Northwestern all @-@ time records , including single @-@ season and career scoring . He was selected as an honorable mention Associated Press 2012 NCAA Men 's Basketball All @-@ American . He won the State Farm College 3 @-@ Point Championship three @-@ point shooting contest at the 2012 Final Four . In high school , he was the 2008 Illinois High School Association ( IHSA ) Class 4A Slam Dunk Champion . He was a member of the gold @-@ medal @-@ winning USA Basketball team at the 2009 FIBA Under @-@ 19 World Championship . = = High school = = Shurna was a 2007 and 2008 Chicago Tribune All @-@ State boys basketball team special mention selection . As a junior , in March 2007 , he led Glenbard West High School to the Class AA supersectional for the first time since 1938 , but they lost to Lockport Township High School 53 – 50 despite 27 points by Shurna , according to the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , but only 21 according to the Daily Southtown and Chicago Tribune . He committed to Northwestern University on May 13 , 2007 , but he did not sign his National Letter of Intent until November 14 . As a senior , he was selected to the IHSA 4A all @-@ state second @-@ team by Associated Press and the 3A / 4A all @-@ state first @-@ team by Illinois Basketball Coaches Association . In addition , he won the 2008 IHSA 4A slam dunk championship at the state tournament , but finished second to Marland Johnson by a point in a contest of the winners of the four classes . As a senior , he finished 8th in the Illinois Mr. Basketball voting . Following his senior season , he participated in local and regional All @-@ Star contests such as the 34th annual Foundation For Student Athletes city @-@ suburban all @-@ star event . Although ESPN.com ranked Shurna as the 53rd best high school basketball power forward in the national class of 2008 , he was not among the ranked players by state or position according to either Rivals.com or Scout.com. = = College = = = = = Freshman = = = As a true freshman , he started all 31 games for the 2008 – 09 Northwestern Wildcats . Shurna was a member of Team USA basketball during the 2009 FIBA Under @-@ 19 World Championship competition held in Auckland , New Zealand from July 2 , 2009 until July 12 . He played in all 9 games , starting 2 . Despite averaging the fewest minutes ( 12 @.@ 2 ) , he was fifth on the team in rebounding with ( 3 @.@ 9 ) . The USA team earned the gold medal . = = = Sophomore = = = He played forward for the 2009 – 10 Northwestern Wildcats and led the team in scoring and rebounding . Following the 2009 – 10 All @-@ Big Ten Conference regular season , he was named a second @-@ team All @-@ conference selection by both the coaches and the media . He was twice named Big Ten men 's basketball player of the week during the season . He was recognized as an All @-@ District second @-@ team selection by the National Association of Basketball Coaches making him eligible for the State Farm Division I All ‐ America teams . He finished his sophomore season among the Big Ten leaders in many statistical categories : 3rd in scoring , 7th in rebounding , 10th in free throw percentage , 8th in blocked shots , and 6th in minutes played . He was recognized by Sporting News as the Most Improved Player after raising his scoring average from 7 @.@ 3 points as a freshman to 18 @.@ 5 as a sophomore , while improving his rebounding average from 2 @.@ 6 to 6 @.@ 4 . During the season , he established new Northwestern Wildcats basketball single @-@ season records in both total points ( 619 ) , surpassing Evan Eschmeyer , and field goals made ( 217 ) , surpassing Dale Kelly . In so doing , he helped Northwestern establish a new school record for single @-@ season wins with 20 . = = = Junior = = = As a junior , he was a preseason top 50 candidate for both the John R. Wooden Award and the Naismith College Player of the Year . In the first game of his junior season , Shurna tied his career @-@ high with 31 points on his way to Big Ten Player of the Week honors . On December 20 , in week 6 of the season , Shurna repeated as conference player of the week . Following the 2010 – 11 Big Ten Conference men 's basketball season , he was a third team All @-@ Big Ten selection by the coaches and an honorable mention by the media . Sports Illustrated named him as one of the ten best players in the Big Ten Conference . Shurna submitted the paperwork to declare for the 2011 NBA Draft following the season , though he did not hire an agent . He withdrew his name prior to the May 8 deadline and chose to return for his senior year . He was one of 20 players who tried out to represent USA Basketball at the 2011 Summer Universiade , but did not make the team . = = = Senior = = = As a senior he repeated as a preseason top 50 watchlist selection for the Wooden Award and the Naismith Award . He was also a Sporting News Preseason All @-@ American ( 2nd team ) . When Shurna scored 37 points on November 17 against LSU it heralded a career @-@ high and tied for the most points scored by a Northwestern player during the 12 @-@ year Bill Carmody era . On December 18 , he scored 32 points as Northwestern defeated Eastern Illinois . Shurna earned Co @-@ Big Ten Player of the week on February 6 after averaging 26 points , 4 rebounds and 2 steals in wins over Nebraska and Illinois on February 2 and February 5 , respectively . On February 12 , he posted his third 30 @-@ point game of the season against Purdue . With three 30 @-@ point games as a senior , he brought his career total to six . On February 18 he became Northwestern 's all @-@ time leading scorer in a game against Minnesota , passing Billy McKinney 's record of 1 @,@ 900 points . He was selected as a first team All @-@ Big Ten selection by both the coaches and the media . He was selected by the U.S. Basketball Writers Association to its 10 @-@ man 2011 – 12 Men 's All @-@ District V ( OH , IN , IL , MI , MN , WI ) Team . Shurna was a first team selection to the National Association of Basketball Coaches Division I All ‐ District 7 team on March 14 . Shurna finished the season with a 20 @.@ 0 point per game average , which led the Big Ten Conference . He was named an honorable mention Associated Press All @-@ American . He competed in the 2012 State Farm 3 @-@ Point Contest , beating Juan Fernandez 21 – 20 in the final round by making his final seven shots . Shurna was also selected to participate in the NABC 2012 Reese 's Division I All @-@ Star Game at the 2012 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament final four . Shurna had 12 points in the game . = = Professional career = = After going undrafted in the 2012 NBA Draft , Shurna signed a 2012 Las Vegas NBA Summer League contract with the Atlanta Hawks . On September 10 , 2012 , Shurna signed a 1 @-@ year partially guaranteed contract with the New York Knicks . He was waived at the end of the preseason . By the beginning of December 2012 , he had made his professional debut with Strasbourg IG of LNB Pro A. Shurna was originally signed as an injury replacement for Nicolas de Jong until the end of 2012 , but was signed longer term as it became apparent that de Jong would be out for an extended period . After the played on the Milwaukee Bucks ' 2013 NBA Summer League team , Shurna signed a 2 @-@ year contract with Joventut Badalona . He signed with the Toronto Raptors for the 2014 NBA Summer League and posted 21 points on 6 @-@ for @-@ 9 field goal shooting including 5 three point shots in his July 11 debut . In August 2014 , he signed a one @-@ year contract with Turkish Basketball League team Darüşşafaka . He played in the 2015 NBA Summer League with the Cleveland Cavaliers . On July 27 , 2015 , he signed a one @-@ year contract with Valencia Basket of Spain . = = Personal = = Shurna was born in Glen Ellyn , Illinois , to Tony and Suzy Shurna . At Northwestern , he was a double major in sociology and learning and organizational change .
= Jacob Pavlovich Adler = Jacob Pavlovich Adler ( born Yankev P. Adler ; February 12 , 1855 – April 1 , 1926 ) was a Jewish actor and star of Yiddish theater , first in Odessa , and later in London and in New York City 's Yiddish Theater District . Nicknamed " nesher hagodl " , ( " the Great Eagle " ) , Adler being the Yiddish for " eagle " , he achieved his first theatrical success in Odessa , but his career there was rapidly cut short when Yiddish theater was banned in Russia in 1883 . He became a star in Yiddish theater in London , and in 1889 , on his second voyage to the United States , he settled in New York City . Adler soon started a company of his own , ushering in a new , more serious Yiddish theater , most notably by recruiting the Yiddish theater 's first realistic playwright , Jacob Gordin . Adler scored a great triumph in the title role of Gordin 's Der Yiddisher King Lear ( The Jewish King Lear ) , set in 19th @-@ century Russia , which along with his portrayal of Shakespeare 's Shylock would form the core of the persona he defined as the " Grand Jew " . Nearly all his family went into theater ; probably the most famous was his daughter Stella , who taught method acting to , among others , Marlon Brando . = = Childhood and youth = = Adler was born in Odessa , Russian Empire ( now Ukraine ) . Adler 's father Feivel ( Pavel ) Abramovitch Adler was a ( rather unsuccessful ) grain merchant . His mother , née Hessye Halperin , was a tall , beautiful woman , originally from a wealthy family in Berdichev . She became estranged from her family after divorcing her first husband ( and leaving behind a son ) to marry Adler 's father . The marriage to a divorcée cost Feivel Adler ( and therefore Jacob Adler ) his status as a Kohen ( priest ) . His paternal grandfather lived with them for some eight years ; he was a pious man , and the family was much more observant of Jewish religious practices during the time he lived with them . However , according to Adler , the real patriarch of the family was his wealthy uncle Aaron " Arke " Trachtenberg , who would later be the model for his portrayal of roles such as Gordin 's Jewish King Lear . Adler grew up with one foot in a traditional Jewish world and one in a more modern , European one . His granddaughter Lulla Rosenfeld writes , " Of the haskala [ Jewish Enlightenment ] as an organized system of ideas , he probably knew little or nothing . " His education was irregular : as the family fortunes rose and fell , he would be sent to cheder ( Jewish religious school ) or to a Russian language county school , pulled out of school entirely , or have a private tutor for a few months . He wrote that " the sum of my learning was a little arithmetic , some Russian grammar , and a few French phrases . " He grew up with both Jewish and Christian playmates , but also survived a full @-@ fledged pogrom around 1862 . He played hooky ; as a 12 @-@ year @-@ old he started going to witness public floggings , brandings , and executions of criminals ; later he would develop more of an interest in attending courtroom trials . At 14 he began working in a textile factory , and soon rose to a white collar job there at a salary of 10 rubles a month , which would have been decent even for an adult . Still living at home , he began to frequent the disreputable district of Moldovanka . His first brush with stardom was that he briefly became a boxer , known as Yankele Kulachnik , " Jake the Fist " . He soon got bored with boxing , but not with his new connections to the " sons of rich fathers , attorneys without diplomas " , etc . A good dancer , he became part of a crowd of young toughs who regularly crashed wedding parties . His local celebrity continued , with a reputation as Odessa 's best can @-@ can dancer . He left the factory , becoming a raznoschik , a peddler ; his memoir hints at back @-@ door assignations with " servant girls and chambermaids " ; by his own description , his life at this point was just a step from a life of crime . Through his uncle Arke , " a hot theater lover " , he became interested in the theater , at first in the beauty of Olga Glebova and the cut of Ivan Kozelsky 's clothes , but he had the good fortune to be in one of the great theater cities of his time . At 17 he became the leader of Glebova 's claque , was working as a copyist for lawyers , and going out to a theater , a tavern , or a party every night . He would later draw on his own life at this time for his portrayal of Protosov in Tolstoy 's The Living Corpse . Over the next few years he had numerous love affairs , and was prevented from a love marriage with one Esther Raizel because his own dubious reputation compounded the taint of his mother 's divorce . He survived another pogrom , but his family was financially ruined by the destruction of their possessions and the theft of their money . In writing about this period in his memoir , Adler mentions attending and admiring performances by Israel Grodner , a Brody singer and improvisational actor who would soon become one of the founders of professional Yiddish theater . A song of Grodner 's about an old father turned away by his children would later be the germ of the idea for The Yiddish King Lear . He writes that he would have become a Brody singer , like Grodner , except " I had no voice " . This lack of a singing voice would be a major factor in the direction of his acting career : according to Rosenfeld , although Yiddish theater was long dominated by vaudevilles and operettas , " He was the only Yiddish actor to rely entirely on classics and translations of modern European plays . " = = Sanitar and Inspector = = The outbreak of the Russo @-@ Turkish War brought on universal conscription of young men . At his family 's urging , Adler bribed his way into becoming a sanitar , an assistant in the Red Cross Medical Corps . He was selected ( apparently on little more than his appearance ) by Prince Vladimir Petrovich Meshersky to work at a German hospital in Bender , Moldova , dealing mainly with typhus patients . In his four months there , he became a favorite with the established Jewish families there , and earned a Gold Medal for Outstanding Achievement for his brief service to the Tsar . Returning to Odessa , he got a job distributing newspapers . This respectable work required getting up at 6 a.m. , not good for a carouser . Still , newspaper connection meant that he soon heard of one of the war 's other effects : the many Jewish merchants and middlemen war brought to Bucharest were a boon to Abraham Goldfaden 's nascent Yiddish theater there . Two of his Odessa acquaintances — Israel Rosenberg , a personable con @-@ man , and Jacob Spivakofsky , scion of a wealthy Jewish family — had become actors there , then had left Goldfaden to found their own company , touring in Moldavia . Adler wrote them to urge them to bring their troupe to Odessa . Adler managed to leverage a recommendation from Prince Meshersky and another from Avrom Markovich Brodsky — a businessman so successful as to have earned the nickname " the Jewish Tsar " — to get a job as a marketplace inspector for the Department of Weights and Measures , rather unusual for a Jew at that time . His mildly corrupt tenure there gave him good contacts with the police . These would soon come in handy for smoothing over certain problems of a young and unlicensed theater troupe when Rosenberg and Spivakofsky returned from Romania , penniless because the end of the war had meant the collapse of Yiddish theater in the provinces , and ready to start a troupe in Odessa . Adler aspired to be an actor , but found himself at first serving the troupe more as critic and theoretician , making use of his now @-@ vast knowledge of Russian theater . The first productions ( Goldfaden 's Grandmother and Granddaughter and Shmendrick ) were popular successes , but Adler 's own account suggests that they were basically mediocre , and his Uncle Arke was appalled : " Is this theater ? No my child , this is a circus . " = = Acting career = = Lulla Rosenfeld 's remark that Adler " ... rel [ ied ] entirely on classics and translations of modern European plays " does not quite tell the whole story . On one hand , he was also responsible for recruiting the Yiddish theater 's first naturalistic playwright , Jacob Gordin , and he scored a great triumph in the title role of Gordin 's Der Yiddisher King Lear ( The Jewish King Lear ) , set in 19th @-@ century Russia . On the other , until his 50s , he was not hesitant to take advantage of his prowess as a dancer , and even occasionally took on roles that called for some singing , although by all accounts ( including his own ) this was not his forte . = = = Russia = = = Adler wrote in his memoir that the passion of his future wife Sonya Oberlander ( and of her family ) for theater , and their vision of what Yiddish theater could become , kept him in the profession despite his uncle 's view . When she was cast by Rosenberg opposite Jacob Spivakovsky in the title role of Abraham Goldfaden 's darkly comic operetta Breindele Cossack , she pulled strings so that the role of Guberman would be reassigned to Adler . His success in the role was cut short by the news that Goldfaden , whose plays they were using without permission , was coming with his troupe to Odessa . Goldfaden 's own account says he came there at the urging of his father ; Adler attributes it to Rosenberg and Spivakovsky 's " enemies " . Rosenberg , never the most ethical of men , withdrew his troupe from Odessa to tour the hinterland . ( Soon , though , he would come to an accommodation by which his troupe would be an officially recognized touring company attached to Goldfaden 's own troupe . ) ( For greater detail on Adler 's time with Rosenberg 's company , see Israel Rosenberg . ) By his own account , Adler took a leave of absence from his job to travel with Rosenberg 's troupe to Kherson , where he made a successful acting debut as the lover Marcus in The Witch of Botoşani . He overstayed his leave , lost his government post , and the decision to become a full @-@ time actor was effectively made for him . Adler was unhappy that under Tulya Goldfaden there were " No more communistic shares , no more idealistic comradeship " . Still , under this same Goldfaden regime he had his first taste of real stardom when people in Chişinău camped in the courtyards awaiting performances . Even the police seemed to have " fallen in love " with the troupe , dressing up the actors in their uniforms at riotous parties after shows , while trying on the troupe 's costumes themselves . Unsatisfied with the low pay , in Kremenchuk Adler led an unsuccessful actors ' strike . A series of intrigues almost led to a breakup with Sonya , but ultimately led both back into Rosenberg 's troupe and led to their marriage in Poltava . When this particular troupe broke up , the Adlers were among the few players to remain with Rosenberg to form a new one that included the actress who later became famous under the name of Keni Liptzin . In Chernigov , Adler turned down the opportunity to act in a Russian @-@ language production of Boris Gudonov . Around this time Goldfaden appeared again and , after using an elaborate intrigue to demonstrate to the Adlers that Rosenberg had no loyalty to them , recruited them to his own troupe , which at the time appeared to be headed for a triumphant entry into Saint Petersburg . All that changed with the assassination of Tsar Alexander II . The mourning for the tsar meant there would be no performances in the capital ; in addition the political climate of Russia turned sharply against the Jews . Goldfaden 's troupe soldiered on for a time — to Minsk , to Bobruisk where they played mainly to Russian soldiers , and to Vitebsk , where he and Sonya ended up having to sue Goldfaden for their pay , and left to rejoin Rosenberg , who was playing in a tent theater in Nezhin . However , matters there proved even worse : Nezhin soon fell prey to a pogrom . The troupe managed to avoid bodily harm , partly by convincing the rioters that they were a French theater troupe and partly by making judicious use of the money the Adlers had won in court from Goldfaden . In Łódź , Adler triumphantly played the title role in Karl Gutzkow 's Uriel Acosta , the first of a series of roles through which he developed a persona he would later call " the Grand Jew " . After Łódź , they landed in Zhytomyr , under an incompetent investor / director named Hartenstein . They thought they had found " a quiet corner " of the Russian Empire in which " to make a bit of a livelihood " , but in fact Hartenstein was simply running through his money . The financial consequences of the collapse of their company were mitigated be a series of three benefit performances , in coordination with the local Russian @-@ language theater company . Sonya returned to Odessa to give birth to their daughter Rivka ; Adler stayed on six weeks in Zhytomyr and had sort of a belated apprenticeship with two Russian character actors of national fame , Borisov and Philipovsky . However , he returned to Odessa thinking that he would most likely leave theater behind . Late in life , when he looked back at his years acting in Adler and Goldfaden 's companies , Adler saw it as merely the " childhood " of his career . He describes his thoughts toward the end of this period , " For three years I had wandered in the cave of the Witch in the clown 's rags of Shmendrick and what did I really know of my trade ? ... If someday I return to the Yiddish theater , let me at least not be so ignorant . " Returning to Odessa , where he discovered that no one would employ him in any job other than as an actor . In 1882 , he put together a troupe of his own with Keni Liptzin , and brought Rosenberg in as a partner . This troupe toured to Rostov , Taganrog , around Lithuania , to Dünaburg ( now Daugavpils , Latvia ) . Aiming to bring the troupe to Saint Petersburg , they brought back their sometime manager Chaikel Bain . They were in Riga in August 1883 when the news arrived that a total ban was about to be placed on Yiddish theater in Russia . The troupe were left stranded in Riga . Chaikel Bain took ill and died . With some difficulty , passage to London for the troupe was arranged on a cattle ship , in exchange for entertaining the crew . However , about this time Israel Grodner and his wife Annetta reappeared . Adler wanted to include them in the group headed for London . According to Adler , Rosenberg , who played many of the same roles as Israel Grodner , essentially told Adler " it 's him or me " . Adler attempted to convince him to change his mind , but insisted on including Grodner in the travel party : Adler considered him one of the best actors in Yiddish theater , a great asset to any performances they would give in London , while he felt Rosenberg lacked depth as an actor . He tried to get Rosenberg to come with them to London , but Rosenberg would not budge . = = = London = = = Of his time in London , Adler wrote , " ... if Yiddish theater was destined to go through its infancy in Russia , and in America grew to manhood and success , then London was its school . " Adler arrived in London with few contacts . In Whitechapel , the center of Jewish London at that time , he encountered extremes of poverty that he describes as exceeding any he had ever seen in Russia or would ever see in New York . The quite distinguished Chief Rabbi of the British Empire at that time , Dr. Nathan Marcus Adler , was a relative . Adler 's father had him written a letter of introduction in Hebrew , but nothing could have been farther from the rabbi 's desires than to assist Yiddish @-@ language theater . Nathan Marcus Adler viewed Yiddish as a " jargon " that existed at the expense of both liturgical Hebrew and the English necessary for upward mobility , and his Orthodox Judaism " could not endure so much as a blessing given on stage , for such a blessing would be given in vain ... " ; further , he was afraid that the portrayals of Jews on stage would give aid and comfort to their enemies . At this time , Yiddish theater in London meant amateur clubs . The arrival of professional Yiddish actors from Russia worked great changes , bringing Yiddish theater in London to a new level and allowing a modest professionalism , though never at much more than a poverty wage . Adler 's memoir acknowledges many people who helped him out in various ways . Eventually , with the aid in particular of Sonya 's relative Herman Fiedler — a playwright , orchestra leader , and stage manager — the Adlers and the Grodners were able to take over the Prescott Street Club . There they presented generally serious theater to audiences of about 150 . Fiedler adapted The Odessa Beggar from Felix Pyat 's The Ragpicker of Paris , a tragicomic play written on the eve of the Revolutions of 1848 . Adler starred in it , in a role he would continue to play throughout his career . Two months later , he played Uriel Acosta at the Holborn Theatre to an audience of 500 , including the " Jewish aristocrats of the West End " . The piety of the London Jews was such that they had to use an ( unplayable ) cardboard ram 's horn so as to avoid blasphemy . Chief Rabbi Adler and his son and eventual successor Hermann Adler were present , and both , especially the younger rabbi , were favorably impressed . There were even mentions in the English @-@ language press . Playing to small audiences , on tiny stages , in communal troupes where all but the stars had day jobs , and playing only Saturday and Sunday ( the pious London Jews would never have tolerated Friday performances ) , Adler focused on serious theater like never before . However , he and Grodner soon fell out : they wrangled over ideology and over parts , and their verbal duels boiled over into improvised stage dialogue . The Grodners ultimately left to do theater in a series of other locations , notably Paris , but eventually came back to London , where Israel Grodner died in 1887 . By November 1885 , Adler had a theatrical club of his own , the Princes Street Club , No. 3 Princes Street ( now Princelet Street , E1 ) , purpose @-@ built , financed by a butcher named David Smith . It seated 300 ; playing every night except Friday , he was earning about £ 3 s.10 a week , but with a fame well out of proportion to the meagre money . Many of the most prominent figures in Yiddish theater , including Sigmund Mogulesko , David Kessler , Abba and Clara Shoengold , and Sara Heine ( the future Sara Adler ) , gave guest performances when they passed through London . One of Adler 's most famous roles from this period was as the villain Franz Moore in Herman Fiedler 's adaptation of Schiller 's The Robbers , which introduced Schiller into Yiddish theater . On at least one occasion in 1886 , he played both Franz Moore and the play 's hero , Franz 's brother Karl Moore : in the play they never meet . 1886 was to prove a terrible year for Adler . His daughter Rivka died of croup ; Sonya died of an infection contracted while giving birth to their son Abram ; meanwhile , he had been carrying on an affair with a young woman , Jenny ( " Jennya " ) Kaiser , who was also pregnant , with his son Charles . Depressed after Sonya 's death , he passed up an offer to relocate to the United States , which was taken up instead by Mogulesko and Finkel . In winter 1887 , an audience at the Princes Street Club panicked when they thought a simulated stage fire was real ; 17 people died in the stampede . While the authorities determined that this was not Adler 's fault , and the club was allowed to reopen , the crowds did not return ; " the theater , " he writes , " was so cold , dark , and empty you could hunt wolves in the gallery . " Adler 's affair with Jennya continued ; he also took up with a young chorus girl from an Orthodox Jewish family , Dinah Shtettin . His memoir is extremely unclear on the sequence of this , and hints at other affairs at this time . The memoir does make clear that the " hot @-@ blooded " Jennya had little interest in a marriage , while Dinah 's father insisted on a marriage , even though he despised Alder and made it clear that he doubted the marriage would last . = = = Coming to America = = = With the aid of a small sum of money from his distant relative the Chief Rabbi , Adler got together the money to travel by steerage to New York , with his infant son Abrom , Alexander Oberlander and his family , Keni and Volodya Liptzin , and Herman Fiedler , among others . Adler did not doubt that the rabbi was glad to see Yiddish actors leaving London . In New York , they promptly discovered that neither Mogulesko and Finkel at the Romanian Opera House nor Maurice Heine at the Oriental Theater had any use for them . They headed on to Chicago , where , after a brief initial success , the troupe fell apart due to a combination of labor disputes and cutthroat competition . The Oberlanders managed to start a restaurant ; he and Keni Liptzin headed to New York that autumn , where she managed to sign on at the Romanian Opera House ; failing to find a similar situation for himself , he returned to London , drawn back to the charms of both Dinah and Jennya . He did not remain long in London . After some major successes in Warsaw , which was under Austrian rule , he returned to London in the spring of 1889 , and then again to New York , this time to play for Heine at Poole 's Theater . After an initial failure in The Odessa Beggar ( he writes that the New York audience of the time was not ready for " tragicomedy " ) , he was a success in the melodrama Moishele Soldat , and " a more worthy success " in Uriel Acosta . This gave him the basis to bring Dinah to America . Their marriage didn 't last , though the divorce was amicable : she remarried , to Siegmund Feinman . Adler fell out with Heine , initially over business ; at this time Heine 's marriage was also falling apart , and Sara Heine would eventually become Sara Adler . Adler went on the road with Boris Thomashefsky , who at the time was pioneering the touring circuit for Yiddish theater in America . They played in Philadelphia and Chicago , where word arrived of an opportunity to take over Poole 's , Heine having moved on to the Thalia . Adler returned to New York , where he managed also to win Mogulesko and Kessler away from Heine . = = = New York = = = Renaming Poole 's as the Union Theater , Adler attempted to produce the most serious Yiddish @-@ language theater New York had yet seen in the Yiddish Theater District , with plays such as Scribe 's La Juive , Zolotkev 's Samson the Great , and Sinckievich 's Quo Vadis . However , after Thomashefsky became an enormous popular success in Moses Halevy Horowitz 's operetta David ben Jesse at Moishe Finkel 's National Theater , the Union Theater temporarily to abandon its highbrow programming and competed head on , with operettas Judith and Holofernes , Titus Andronicus , or the Second Destruction of the Temple , and Hymie in America . Adler was not content to continue long in this mode , and sought a playwright who could create pieces that would appeal to the Jewish public , while still providing a type of theater he could be proud to perform . He recruited Jacob Gordin , already a well @-@ respected novelist and intellectual , recently arrived in New York and eking out a living as a journalist at the Arbeiter Zeitung , precursor to The Forward . Gordin 's first two plays , Siberia and Two Worlds were commercial failures — so much so that Mogulesko and Kessler quit the company — but The Yiddish King Lear , starring Adler and his new wife Sara was such a success that the play eventually transferred to Finkel 's larger National Theater . This play ( based only very loosely on Shakespeare ) played well with the popular audience , but also with Jewish intellectuals who until this time had largely ignored Yiddish Theater , ending for a time the commercial dominance of operettas such as those of Horowitz and Joseph Lateiner . The next year , Gordin 's The Wild Man solidified this change in the direction of Yiddish theater , which was entering what is retrospectively seen as its first period of greatness . Over the next decades , Adler would play in ( or , in some cases , merely produce ) numerous plays by Gordin , but also classics by Shakespeare , Schiller , Lessing ; Eugène Scribe 's La Juive ; dramatizations of George du Maurier 's Trilby and Alexandre Dumas , fils ' Camille ; and the works of modern playwrights such as Gorky , Ibsen , Shaw , Strindberg , Gerhart Hauptmann , Victor Hugo , Victorien Sardou , and Leonid Andreyev . Frequently the works of the great contemporary playwrights — even Shaw , who was writing in English — would be staged in New York in Yiddish years , even decades , before they were ever staged there in English . Having already famously played Shylock in Shakespeare 's The Merchant of Venice on the Yiddish stage at the People 's Theater , he played the role again in a 1903 Broadway production , directed by Arthur Hopkins . In this production , Adler spoke his lines in Yiddish while the rest of the cast spoke in English . The New York Times review of Adler 's performance was not favorable : in particular his naturalistic acting style was not what audiences of the period expected in a production of Shakespeare . Some other reviews ( such as that in Theater magazine ) were friendlier ; in any event the same production was revived two years later . Lulla Rosenfeld writes that Henry Irving , the great Shylock before that time , played Shylock as " morally superior to the Christians around him ... driven to cruelty only by their more cruel persecutions . " In contrast , " Adler scorned justification . Total vindication was his aim . " In Adler 's own words , " Shylock from the first was governed by pride rather than revenge . He wishes to humble and terrify Antonio for the insult and humiliation he has suffered at his hands . This is why he goes so far as to bring his knife and scales into the court . For Shylock , however , the desired climax was to refuse the pound of flesh with a gesture of divine compassion . When the verdict goes against him , he is crushed because he has been robbed of this opportunity , not because he lusts for Antonio 's death . This was my interpretation . This is the Shylock I have tried to show . " The road from this to method acting is clear . After his two Broadway triumphs , Adler returned to Yiddish theater . In the wake of the Kishinev pogrom , Adler went back briefly to Eastern Europe in summer 1903 , where he tried to convince various family members to come to America . Although he was greeted as a hero , he was only partially successful in convincing people to leave ; his mother , in particular , was determined to finish out her life where she was . ( His father had died some years earlier . ) He persuaded his sister Sarah Adler to follow him to America as her husband had died of heart disease in Verdun in 1897 and she was raising seven children on her own . She emigrated in 1905 . Returning to New York , he and Thomashefsky jointly leased The People 's Theater , intending to use it on different nights of the week . Adler , exhausted from his Russian trip , was often leaving his nights unused , and Thomashefsky offered to buy him out for $ 10 @,@ 000 on the condition that he would not return to performing in New York . Adler was so insulted that the two did not speak for months , even though at the time they were living across a courtyard from one another , and could see into each other 's St. Mark 's Place apartments . Adler decided to perform Tolstoy 's The Power of Darkness , and decided that he would do his own translation from Russian to Yiddish . The play was a great success , the first successful production of a Tolstoy play in the U.S. , and Thomashefsky was so obviously happy for Adler that their friendship was renewed . Adler followed with equally successful productions of Gordin 's dramatization of Tolstoy 's Resurrection and the Gordin original The Homeless . In 1904 Adler had the Grand Theater built in what was to be the Yiddish Theater District at the corner of Bowery and Canal Street , the first purpose @-@ built Yiddish theater in New York . His wife Sara had branched out to do her own plays at the Novelty Theater in Brooklyn , and the family had taken up residence in a four @-@ story brownstone , with an elevator , in the East Seventies . ( They would later move one more time , to Riverside Drive . ) Around this time Lincoln Steffens wrote a piece saying that Yiddish theater in New York had eclipsed English @-@ language theater in quality . This golden age was not to last . The years 1905 – 1908 saw half a million new Jewish immigrants to New York , and once again the largest audience for Yiddish theater was for lighter fare . Adler hung on , but the Thomashefskys were making a fortune at the Thalia ; plays with titles like Minke the Servant Girl were far outdrawing fare like Gordin 's Dementia Americana ( 1909 ) . It would be 1911 before Adler scored another major success , this time with Tolstoy 's The Living Corpse ( also known as Redemption ) , translated into Yiddish by Leon Kobrin . In 1919 – 1920 , Adler , despite his own socialist politics , found himself in a labor dispute with the Hebrew Actors ' Union ; he played that season in London rather than New York . A stroke in 1920 while vacationing in upstate New York nearly ended his acting career , although he continued to appear occasionally , usually as part of a benefit performance for himself , often playing Act I of The Yiddish King Lear : the title character remains seated throughout the entire act . In 1924 , he was well enough to perform in the title role of a revival of Gordin 's The Stranger , inspired by Tennyson 's " Enoch Arden " : the character is " a sick and broken man " , so the Adler was able to integrate his own physical weakness into the portrayal . However , March 31 , 1926 , he collapsed suddenly , dying almost instantly . = = Family = = Adler was married three times , first to Sophia ( Sonya ) Oberlander ( died 1886 ) , then to Dinah Shtettin ( m . 1887- divorced . 1891 ) and finally to actress Sara Adler ( previously Sara Heine ) ( m . 1891 ) , who survived him by over 25 years . His and Sonya 's daughter Rivkah ( Rebecca ) died at the age of 3 . Sonya died from an infection contracted while giving birth to their son Abram in 1886 . Abram 's son Allen Adler ( 1916 – 1964 ) was , among other things , the screenwriter of Forbidden Planet . While still married to Sonya , Adler had an affair with Jenny " Jennya " Kaiser , with whom he had a son , stage actor Charles Adler ( 1886 – 1966 ) . He and Dinah had a daughter , Celia Adler ( 1889 – 1979 ) . He and Sara had six children : the well @-@ known actors Luther ( 1903 – 1984 ) and Stella Adler ( 1901 – 1992 ) and the lesser @-@ known actors Jay ( 1896 – 1978 ) , Frances , Julia , and Florence . Jacob and Stella Adler are both members of the American Theater Hall of Fame . His sister Sarah / Soore Adler and her seven children emigrated to New York in 1905 . His niece , Francine Larrimore , Sarah 's daughter , became a Broadway actress , who also appeared in films . = = Memoir = = Adler 's memoirs were published in the New York socialist Yiddish @-@ language newspaper Die Varheit in 1916 – 1919 , and briefly resumed in 1925 in an unsuccessful revival of that paper ; his granddaughter Lulla Rosenfeld 's English translation was published only in 1999 . The 1916 – 1919 portion of the memoir gives a detailed picture of his Russian years . The 1925 portion gives a comparably detailed picture of his time in London , although with some evasions around the relative timing of his relationships with his wife Sonya and with Jennya Kaiser and Dinah Shtettin . It contains only a relatively fragmentary description of his New York career . In the English @-@ language book of these memoirs , Rosenfeld attempts to fill the gaps with her own commentary . Adler writes vividly and with humor . He describes the director Hartenstein as " a young man from Galicia with long hair and short brains , half educated in Vienna , and half an actor " , and refers to the poor of Whitechapel as looking as if they " had come out of their mothers already gray and old . " Of his early London years , he writes , " We played for a tiny audience , on a stage the size of a cadaver , but we played well , with a drunkenness of happiness . " In a small essay , " Shmendrick , My Mephistopheles " , one of the last passages he wrote , Adler describes the last time he saw Shmendrick played , at a memorial for Goldfaden in 1912 . Lamenting the choice of play for the memorial — " Goldfaden has written better things " — he nonetheless acknowledges , " that same bitter Shmendrick was our livelihood ... I gritted my teeth . I called on the ghosts of Aristophanes , of Shakespeare , of Lope de Vega . I wept and swallowed my own tears ... And I cursed the fate that bound me to him ... Yet even as I cursed and condemned , the tears rose . For my whole life , my whole past , was before me on that stage ... Poor weak first step of our Yiddish theater ... I thank you for the happiness you gave us ... I thank you Shmendrick — my beloved — my own . "
= Virat Kohli = Virat Kohli ( pronunciation ; born 5 November 1988 ) is an Indian international cricketer . He is a right @-@ handed batsman and occasional right @-@ arm medium pace bowler , who currently captains the Indian team in Test cricket and is its vice @-@ captain in limited overs formats . In the Indian Premier League ( IPL ) , he captains the Royal Challengers Bangalore . Often rated as one of the best batsmen in the world , Kohli was ranked eighth in ESPN 's list of world 's most famous athletes in 2016 . After representing Delhi at various age @-@ group levels and domestic cricket , Kohli captained India Under @-@ 19s to victory at the 2008 Under @-@ 19 World Cup in Malaysia . A few months later , he made his ODI debut for India against Sri Lanka at the age of 19 years . Initially having played as a reserve batsman in the Indian team , he soon established himself as a regular in the ODI middle @-@ order and was part of the squad that won the 2011 World Cup . He made his Test debut in 2011 and , shrugged off the tag of " ODI specialist " by 2013 , with Test hundreds in Australia and South Africa . He reached the number one spot in the ICC rankings for ODI batsmen for the first time in 2013 . He has also found success in the Twenty20 format , winning the Man of the Tournament twice at the ICC World Twenty20 ( in 2014 and 2016 ) . In 2014 , he became the top @-@ ranked T20I batsman in the ICC rankings and , as of April 2016 , holds the position . Kohli was appointed vice @-@ captain of the ODI team in 2012 and has since captained the team on several occasions in the absence of regular skipper Mahendra Singh Dhoni . After Dhoni 's Test retirement in 2014 , Kohli was handed over the Test captaincy . Kohli holds numerous Indian batting records including the fastest ODI century , the fastest batsman to 5 @,@ 000 ODI runs and the fastest to 10 ODI centuries . He is only the second batsman in the world to have scored 1 @,@ 000 or more ODI runs for four consecutive calendar years . Kohli is the fastest batsman in the world to 1 @,@ 000 runs in T20Is and also holds the record for most fifties ( 16 ) in T20Is . He holds the records of most runs in a single tournament of both the World Twenty20 and the IPL . Kohli has been the recipient of many awards such as the ICC ODI Player of the Year in 2012 and the BCCI 's international cricketer of the year for the 2011 – 12 and 2014 – 15 seasons . In 2013 , he was given the Arjuna Award in recognition of his achievements in international cricket . He is also a co @-@ owner of the ISL team FC Goa and the IPTL franchise UAE Royals . = = Early life = = Virat Kohli was born on 5 November 1988 in Delhi . His father , Prem Kohli , worked as a criminal lawyer and his mother , Saroj Kohli , is a housewife . He has an elder brother , Vikash , and an elder sister , Bhavna . According to his family , when he was three @-@ years old , Kohli would pick up a cricket bat , start swinging it and ask his father to bowl at him . Kohli was raised in Uttam Nagar and started his schooling at Vishal Bharti Public School . In 1998 , the West Delhi Cricket Academy was created , and Kohli , a nine @-@ year @-@ old , was part of its first intake . Kohli 's father took him to the academy after their neighbours suggested that " Virat shouldn 't waste his time in gully cricket and instead join a professional club " . Kohli trained at the academy under Rajkumar Sharma and also played matches at the Sumit Dogra Academy near Noida at the same time . In ninth grade , he shifted to Savier Convent in Paschim Vihar to help his cricket practice . Apart from sports , Kohli was good at academics as well , and his teachers remember him as " a bright and alert child " . Kohli 's father died on 18 December 2006 due to brain stroke after being bed @-@ ridden for a month . Regarding his early life , Kohli has said in an interview , " I 've seen a lot in life . Losing my father at a young age , the family business not doing too well , staying in a rented place . There were tough times for the family ... It 's all embedded in my memory . " According to Kohli , his father supported his cricket training during his childhood , " My father was my biggest support . He was the one who drove me to practice everyday . I miss his presence sometimes . " = = Youth and domestic career = = Kohli first played for Delhi Under @-@ 15 team in October 2002 in the 2002 – 03 Polly Umrigar Trophy . He was the leading run @-@ getter for his team in that tournament with 172 runs at an average of 34 @.@ 40 . He became the captain of the team for the 2003 – 04 Polly Umrigar Trophy and scored 390 runs in 5 innings at an average of 78 including two centuries and two fifties . In late @-@ 2004 , he was selected in the Delhi Under @-@ 17 team for the 2003 – 04 Vijay Merchant Trophy . He scored 470 runs in four matches at an average of 117 @.@ 50 with two hundreds and top @-@ score of 251 * . Delhi Under @-@ 17s won the 2004 – 05 Vijay Merchant Trophy in which Kohli finished as the highest run @-@ scorer with 757 runs from 7 matches at an average of 84 @.@ 11 with two centuries . In February 2006 , he made his List A debut for Delhi against Services but did not get to bat . In July 2006 , Kohli was selected in the India Under @-@ 19 squad on its tour of England . He averaged 105 in the three @-@ match ODI series against England Under @-@ 19s and 49 in the three @-@ match Test series . India Under @-@ 19 went on to win both the series . At the conclusion of the tour , the India Under @-@ 19 coach Lalchand Rajput was impressed with Kohli and said , " Kohli showed strong technical skills against both pace and spin " . In September , the India Under @-@ 19 team toured Pakistan . Kohli averaged 58 in the Test series and 41 @.@ 66 in the ODI series against Pakistan Under @-@ 19s . Kohli made his first @-@ class debut for Delhi against Tamil Nadu in November 2006 , at the age of 18 , and scored 10 in his debut innings . He came into the spotlight in December when he decided to play for his team against Karnataka on the day after his father 's death and went on to score 90 . He went directly to the funeral after he was dismissed . Delhi captain Mithun Manhas said , " That is an act of great commitment to the team and his innings turned out to be crucial , " while coach Chetan Chauhan lauded Kohli 's " attitude and determination . " His mother noted that " Virat changed a bit after that day . Overnight he became a much more matured person . He took every match seriously . He hated being on the bench . It 's as if his life hinged totally on cricket after that day . Now , he looked like he was chasing his father 's dream which was his own too . " He scored a total of 257 runs from 6 matches at an average of 36 @.@ 71 in that season . In April 2007 , he made his Twenty20 debut and finished as the highest run @-@ getter for his team in the Inter @-@ State T20 Championship with 179 runs at an average of 35 @.@ 80 . In July – August 2007 , the India Under @-@ 19 team toured Sri Lanka . In the triangular series against Sri Lanka Under @-@ 19s and Bangladesh Under @-@ 19s , Kohli was the second highest run @-@ getter with 146 runs from 5 matches . In the two @-@ match Test series that followed , he scored 244 runs at an average of 122 including a hundred and a fifty . In February – March 2008 , Kohli captained the victorious Indian team at the 2008 ICC Under @-@ 19 Cricket World Cup held in Malaysia . Batting at number 4 , he scored 235 runs in 6 matches at an average of 47 , and finished as the tournament 's third highest run @-@ getter and one of the three batsmen to score a hundred in the tournament . His century ( 100 runs from 74 balls ) against the West Indies Under @-@ 19s in the group stage , which was called " the innings of the tournament " by ESPNcricinfo , gave India a 50 @-@ run victory and earned Kohli the man of the match . Kohli picked up a leg injury during the match , but recovered in time to play the quarterfinal match against England Under @-@ 19s . He was instrumental in India 's three @-@ wicket semifinal win over New Zealand Under @-@ 19s in which he took 2 / 27 and scored 43 in the tense run @-@ chase and was awarded the man of the match . He scored 19 against South Africa Under @-@ 19s in the final which India won by 12 runs ( D / L method ) . ESPNcricinfo commended him for making several tactical bowling changes during the tournament . Following the Under @-@ 19 World Cup , Kohli was bought by the Indian Premier League franchise Royal Challengers Bangalore for $ 30 @,@ 000 on a youth contract . In June 2008 , Kohli and his Under @-@ 19 teammates Pradeep Sangwan and Tanmay Srivastava were awarded the Border @-@ Gavaskar scholarship . The scholarship allowed the three players to train for six weeks at Cricket Australia 's Centre of Excellence in Brisbane . In July 2008 , he was included in India 's 30 @-@ man probable squad for the ICC Champions Trophy which was to be held in Pakistan in September 2008 . He was also picked in the India Emerging Players squad for the four @-@ team Emerging Players Tournament in Australia . He was in fine form in that tournament and scored 206 runs in six matches at an average of 41 @.@ 20 . = = International career = = = = = Early years = = = In August 2008 , Kohli was included in the Indian ODI squad for tour of Sri Lanka and the Champions Trophy in Pakistan . Prior to the Sri Lankan tour , Kohli had played only eight List A matches , and his selection was called a " surprise call @-@ up " . During the Sri Lankan tour , as both first @-@ choice openers Sachin Tendulkar and Virender Sehwag were injured , Kohli batted as a makeshift opener throughout the series . He made his international debut , at the age of 19 , in the first ODI of the tour and was dismissed for 12 . He made his first ODI half century , a score of 54 , in the fourth match which helped India win the series . He had scores of 37 , 25 and 31 in the other three matches . India won the series 3 – 2 which was India 's first ODI series win against Sri Lanka in Sri Lanka . After the Champions Trophy was postponed to 2009 , Kohli was picked as a replacement for the injured Shikhar Dhawan in the India A squad for the unofficial Tests against Australia A in September 2008 . He batted only once in the two @-@ match series , and scored 49 in that innings . Later that month in September 2008 , he played for Delhi in the Nissar Trophy against SNGPL ( winners of Quaid @-@ i @-@ Azam Trophy from Pakistan ) and top @-@ scored for Delhi in both innings , with 52 and 197 . The match was drawn but SNGPL won the trophy on first @-@ innings lead . In October 2008 , Kohli played for Indian Board President 's XI in a four @-@ day tour match against Australia . He made 105 and 16 * in that match against a bowling line @-@ up consisting of Brett Lee , Stuart Clark , Mitchell Johnson , Peter Siddle and Jason Krejza . Kohli was included in the squad for the home ODI series against England in November 2008 but was not given a chance to play , due to the inclusion of Tendulkar and Sehwag in team . In December 2008 , Kohli was given a Grade D contract in the annual BCCI contracts list which entitled him to receive Rs 15 lakh . He was then dropped from the squad for the five @-@ match ODI series in Sri Lanka against Sri Lanka in January 2009 . Kohli was selected in the four @-@ team Emerging Players Tournament in July – August 2009 held in Australia . He opened the innings for India Emerging Players in that tournament and finished as the leading run @-@ getter with 398 runs from seven matches at an average of 66 @.@ 33 . He scored 104 off 102 balls in the final against South Africa Emerging Players at Brisbane to help his team win the match by 17 runs and clinch the title . At the conclusion of the tournament , Kris Srikkanth , the chairman of the national selection committee , was impressed with Kohli and remarked " I must say , opener Virat Kohli was outstanding . Some of the shots he played spoke about his ability . " Kohli has called this tournament as the " turning point " of his career . Kohli then replaced the injured Gambhir in Indian squad for the tri @-@ series in Sri Lanka . Kohli batted at number 4 for India in the 2009 ICC Champions Trophy because of the injury to Yuvraj Singh . In the inconsequential group match against the West Indies , Kohli scored an unbeaten 79 in India 's successful chase of 130 and won his first man of the match award . Kohli played as a reserve batsman in the seven @-@ match home ODI series against Australia , appearing in two matches as a replacement for the injured players Yuvraj and Gambhir . Kohli found a place in the home ODI series against Sri Lanka in December 2009 . He scored 27 and 54 in the first two ODIs before making way for Yuvraj who regained fitness for the third ODI . However , Yuvraj 's finger injury recurred leading to him being ruled out indefinitely . Kohli returned to the team in the fourth ODI at Kolkata and scored his first ODI century – 107 off 111 balls – sharing a 224 @-@ run partnership for the third wicket with Gambhir who made his personal best score of 150 . India won by seven wickets to seal the series 3 – 1 . The man of the match was awarded to Gambhir who gave the award to Kohli . Tendulkar was rested for the tri @-@ nation ODI tournament in Bangladesh in January 2010 which enabled Kohli to play in each of India 's five matches . Against Bangladesh , he scored 91 to help secure a win after India collapsed to 51 / 3 early in their run @-@ chase of 297 . In the next match against Sri Lanka , Kohli ended unbeaten on 71 to help India win the match with a bonus point having chased down their target of 214 within 33 overs . The next day , he scored his second ODI century , against Bangladesh , bringing up the mark with the winning runs . He became only the third Indian batsman to score two ODI centuries before their 22nd birthday , after Tendulkar and Suresh Raina . Kohli was much praised for his performances during the series in particular by the Indian captain Dhoni . Although Kohli made only two runs in the final against Sri Lanka in a four @-@ wicket Indian defeat , he finished as the leading run @-@ getter of the series with 275 runs from five innings at an average of 91 @.@ 66 . In the three @-@ match ODI series at home against South Africa in February , Kohli batted in two games and had scores of 31 and 57 . = = = Rise through the ranks = = = Raina was named captain and Kohli vice @-@ captain for the tri @-@ series against Sri Lanka and Zimbabwe in Zimbabwe in May – June 2010 , as many first @-@ choice players skipped the tour . Kohli made 168 runs at 42 @.@ 00 including two fifties , but India suffered three defeats in four matches and crashed out of the series . During the series , Kohli became the fastest Indian batsman to reach 1 @,@ 000 runs in ODI cricket . He made his T20I debut against Zimbabwe at Harare and scored an unbeaten 26 . Later that same month , India chose a full @-@ strength squad for the 2010 Asia Cup with Dhoni as captain and Sehwag vice @-@ captain . Kohli batted at 3 throughout the tournament and scored a total of 67 runs at an average of 16 @.@ 75 . His struggles with form continued in the tri @-@ series against Sri Lanka and New Zealand in Sri Lanka where he averaged 15 . Despite the poor run of form , Kohli was retained in the ODI squad for a three @-@ match series against Australia in October . The first and third matches of the series were washed out and in the second match at Visakhapatnam , Kohli scored his third ODI century – 118 off 121 balls – which helped India chase down the target of 290 after losing the openers early . He won the man of the match and admitted that he was under pressure to keep his place in the team after failures in the two previous series . In late @-@ 2010 , Gambhir was named captain of a largely inexperienced ODI squad to play against New Zealand , and Kohli maintained his place . In the first ODI at Guwahati , Kohli scored a 104 @-@ ball 105 , his fourth ODI hundred and second in succession , in a 40 @-@ run victory and was awarded man of the match . In the second and third ODIs , he made 64 and 63 * respectively , sharing 100 @-@ plus partnerships with Gambhir in both matches chasing . India completed a 5 – 0 whitewash of New Zealand , while Kohli 's performance in the series helped him become a regular in the ODI team and made him a strong contender for a spot in India 's World Cup squad . He was India 's leading run @-@ scorer in ODIs in 2010 , with 995 runs from 25 matches at an average of 47 @.@ 38 including three centuries . Kohli played in the one @-@ match T20I series and all five ODIs of the South African tour in January 2011 . India won the T20I in which he scored 28 , but lost the ODI series 2 – 3 , in which he finished as India 's leading run @-@ getter with 193 runs at an average of 48 @.@ 25 including two fifties , both in Indian defeats . During the ODI series , India announced their 15 @-@ man squad for the World Cup in which Kohli was also named . Kohli also reached the number two spot on the ICC Rankings for ODI batsmen during the series . The inclusion of both Kohli and Raina in the World Cup squad resulted in speculations about which of the two batsmen will make it to the playing eleven . Days before India 's first match of the tournament , Indian captain Dhoni indicated that the in @-@ form Kohli is likely to be preferred over Raina . Kohli played in every match of India 's successful World Cup campaign . He scored an unbeaten 100 , his fifth ODI century , in the first match against Bangladesh and became the first Indian batsman to score a century on World Cup debut . In the next four group matches he had low scores of 8 , 34 , 12 and 1 against England , Ireland , Netherlands and South Africa respectively . He returned to form against West Indies scoring 59 and sharing a 122 @-@ run third @-@ wicket partnership with Yuvraj Singh . Against Australia in the quarterfinals , he scored 24 , and was dismissed for 9 in the semifinal against Pakistan . India won both matches and progressed to the finals against Sri Lanka at Mumbai . In the final , he scored 35 and shared an 83 @-@ run partnership with Gambhir for the third wicket after India had lost both openers within the seventh over chasing 275 . The partnership is regarded as " one of the turning points in the match " . India went on to win the match by six wickets and lift the World Cup for the first time since 1983 . When India toured the West Indies in June – July 2011 , they chose a largely inexperienced squad , resting Tendulkar and others such as Gambhir and Sehwag missing out due to injuries . Kohli was one of three uncapped players in the Test squad . Kohli found success in the ODI series which India won 3 – 2 , with a total of 199 runs at an average of 39 @.@ 80 . His best efforts came in the second ODI at Port of Spain where he won the man of the match for his score of 81 which gave India a seven @-@ wicket victory , and the fifth ODI at Kingston where his innings of 94 came in a seven @-@ wicket defeat . Kohli made his Test debut at Kingston in the first match of the Test series that followed . He batted at five and was dismissed for 4 and 15 caught behind by Fidel Edwards in both innings . India went on to win the Test series 1 – 0 but Kohli struggled throughout the series amassing just 76 runs from five innings . He struggled against the short ball and was particularly troubled by the fast bowling of Edwards , who dismissed him three times in the series . Initially dropped from the Test squad for India 's four @-@ match series in England in July and August , Kohli was recalled as replacement for the injured Yuvraj , though did not play in any match in the series . He found moderate success in the subsequent ODI series in which he averaged 38 @.@ 80 . His score of 55 in the first ODI at Chester @-@ le @-@ Street was followed by a string of low scores in the next three matches . In the last game of the series , Kohli scored his sixth ODI hundred – 107 runs off 93 balls – and shared a 170 @-@ run third @-@ wicket partnership with Rahul Dravid , who was playing his last ODI , to help India post their first 300 @-@ plus total of the tour . Kohli was dismissed hit wicket in that innings which was the only century in the series by any player on either team and earned him praise for his " hard work " and " maturity " . However , England won the match by D / L method and the series 3 – 0 . In October 2011 , Kohli was the leading run @-@ scorer of the five @-@ match home ODI series against England which India won 5 – 0 . He scored a total of 270 runs across five matches including unbeaten knocks of 112 from 98 balls at Delhi , where he put on an unbroken 209 @-@ run partnership with Gambhir , and 86 at Mumbai , both in successful run @-@ chases . Following this ODI success , Kohli was included , ahead of Raina , in the Test squad to face the West Indies in November . In competition with Yuvraj Singh for the number six position , it was not until the final match of the series that Kohli was selected in the team . He scored a pair of fifties in the match , passing his previous highest Test score of 30 , and his knock of 52 in the first innings ensured India avoided follow @-@ on . The match ended in a draw , and having won the first two Tests , India took the series 2 – 0 . India won the subsequent ODI series 4 – 1 in which Kohli managed to accumulate 243 runs at 60 @.@ 75 . During the series , Kohli scored his eighth ODI century and his second at Visakhapatnam , where he made 117 off 123 balls in India 's run @-@ chase of 271 , a knock which raised his reputation as " an expert of the chase " . Kohli ended up as the leading run @-@ getter in ODIs for the year 2011 , with 1381 runs from 34 matches at 47 @.@ 62 and four centuries . = = = Ascension to ODI vice @-@ captaincy = = = Kohli was selected in India 's Test squad for the tour of Australia in December 2011 . The exclusion of Yuvraj from the Test squad meant that the number six position was a competition between Kohli and Rohit Sharma , who was yet to make his Test debut . Kohli top @-@ scored with 132 in a tour match against Cricket Australia Chairman 's XI and strengthened his case for a spot in the Boxing Day Test . Kohli was picked for the first Test at Melbourne , but his defensive technique was exposed in the match as he was dismissed for 11 in the first innings and a first @-@ ball duck in the second , by Ben Hilfenhaus on both occasions . He struggled in the second Test at Sydney as well with scores of 24 and 9 . While fielding on the boundary during the second day of the match , he gestured to the crowd with his middle finger for which he was fined 50 % of his match fee by the match referee . He top @-@ scored in each of India 's innings in the third Test at Perth , with 44 and 75 , even as India surrendered to their second consecutive innings defeat . In the fourth and final match at Adelaide , Kohli scored his maiden Test century of 116 runs in the first innings ; it was the only century scored by an Indian in the series . India lost the series 4 – 0 and Kohli , India 's top run @-@ scorer in the series , was described as " the lone bright spot in an otherwise nightmare visit for the tourists " . Following the Test series , India remained in Australia for a two @-@ match T20I series and the Commonwealth Bank triangular series featuring Australia and Sri Lanka apart from India . Kohli scored 22 and 31 in the T20I series that ended in a 1 – 1 draw . In the first seven matches of the tri @-@ series , Kohli made two fifties – 77 at Perth and 66 at Brisbane – both against Sri Lanka , while India secured two wins and a tie , which meant that India needed a bonus point win their last group match against Sri Lanka at Hobart to stay in contention for qualifying for the finals series . Chasing 321 to win , Kohli came to the crease with India 's score at 86 / 2 and went on to score 133 not out from 86 balls to take India to a comfortable win with 13 overs to spare . India earned a bonus point with the win and Kohli was named Man of the Match for his effort , which included scoring 24 runs in an over by Lasith Malinga . Former Australian cricketer and commentator Dean Jones rated Kohli 's innings as " one of the greatest ODI knocks of all time " . However , Sri Lanka beat Australia three days later in their last group fixture and knocked India out of the series . With 373 runs at 53 @.@ 28 , Kohli once again scored the only hundred by an Indian batsman and finished as India 's highest run @-@ scorer of the series . Kohli was appointed the vice @-@ captain for the 2012 Asia Cup in Bangladesh on the back of his fine performance in Australia . Kris Srikkanth , the chairman of selectors , told reporters , " Hats off to Virat Kohli for the way he played . We have to start looking towards the future . The selection committee and the Board felt Kohli is future captaincy material . " Kohli was in fine form during the tournament , finishing as the leading run @-@ scorer with 357 runs at an average of 119 . He scored 108 in the opening match against Sri Lanka in a 50 @-@ run Indian victory , while India lost their next match to Bangladesh in which he made 66 . In the final group stage match against Pakistan , he scored a personal best 183 off 148 balls , his 11th ODI century . Coming in at 0 / 1 , he struck 22 fours and a six in his innings to help India to chase down 330 , their highest successful ODI run @-@ chase at the time . His knock was the highest individual score in Asia Cup history , the joint @-@ second highest score in an ODI run @-@ chase and the highest individual score against Pakistan in ODIs surpassing previous record of 156 by Brian Lara . Kohli was awarded the man of the match in both matches that India won , but India could not progress to the final of the tournament . In July – August 2012 , Kohli struck two centuries in the five @-@ match ODI tour of Sri Lanka – 106 off 113 balls at Hambantota and 128 * off 119 balls at Colombo – winning man of the match in both games . India won the series 4 – 1 and on account of scoring the most number of runs in the series , Kohli was named player of the series . In the one @-@ off T20I that followed , he scored a 48 @-@ ball 68 , his first T20I fifty , and won the player of the series award . Kohli scored his second Test century at Bangalore during New Zealand 's tour of India and won his first man of the match award in Test cricket . India won the two @-@ match series 2 – 0 , and Kohli averaged 106 with one hundred and two fifties from three innings . In the subsequent T20I series , he scored 70 runs off 41 balls , but India lost the match by one run and the series 1 – 0 . He continued to be in good form during the 2012 ICC World Twenty20 in Sri Lanka , with 185 runs from 5 matches at an average of 46 @.@ 25 . He hit two fifties during the tournament , 50 against Afghanistan in the group stage and 78 * against Pakistan in the Super Eights , winning man of the match for both innings . Kohli 's Test form dipped during the first three matches of England 's tour of India with a top score of 20 and England leading the series 2 – 1 . He scored a patient 103 from 295 balls in the last match on a slow and low pitch at Nagpur , keeping India in contention of drawing the series . ESPNcricinfo praised Kohli for having " demonstrated his growing maturity to play just the sort of innings his side required " , while Kohli described his knock as " a learning innings " . However , the match ended in a draw and England won their first Test series in India in 28 years . India drew the following T20I series 1 – 1 in which Kohli had scores of 21 and 38 . Before the five @-@ match ODI series against England in January 2013 , India hosted Pakistan for two T20Is and three ODIs . The T20I series was drawn 1 – 1 and Pakistan won the ODI series 2 – 1 . Kohli struggled in both series , averaging 18 in the T20Is and 4 @.@ 33 in the ODIs . Kohli was troubled by the fast bowlers , particularly Junaid Khan , who dismissed him on all three occasions in the ODI series . Kohli had a quiet ODI series against England , apart from a match @-@ winning 77 * in the third ODI at Ranchi , with a total of 155 runs at an average of 38 @.@ 75 . Kohli scored his fourth Test century ( 107 ) at Chennai in the first match of the home Test series against Australia in February 2013 . He said he was " feeling hungry for this series " after a poor run of form in the two previous series and also disappointed on getting out soon after reaching the hundred @-@ run mark . India completed a 4 – 0 series sweep , becoming the first team to whitewash Australia in more than four decades . Kohli averaged 56 @.@ 80 in the series and cemented his spot in the Test team . = = = Setting records = = = In June 2013 , Kohli featured in the ICC Champions Trophy in England which India won . He scored a match @-@ winning 144 against Sri Lanka in a warm @-@ up match . He scored 34 , 22 and 22 not out in India 's group matches against South Africa , West Indies and Pakistan respectively , while India qualified for the semifinals with an undefeated record . In the semifinal against Sri Lanka at Cardiff , he struck 58 not out in an eight @-@ wicket win for India . The final between India and England at Birmingham was reduced to 20 overs after a rain delay . India batted first and Kohli top @-@ scored with 43 from 34 balls , sharing a sixth @-@ wicket partnership of 47 runs off 33 balls with Ravindra Jadeja and helping India reach 129 / 7 in 20 overs . India went on to secure a five @-@ run win and their second consecutive ICC ODI tournament victory . Kohli stood @-@ in as the captain for the first ODI of the triangular series in West Indies after Dhoni injured himself during the match . India lost the match by one wicket , and Dhoni was subsequently ruled out of the series with Kohli being named captain for the remaining matches . In his second match as captain , Kohli scored his first hundred as captain , making 102 off 83 balls against the West Indies at Port of Spain in a bonus point win for India . India earned another bonus point win in their next match against Sri Lanka and , having topped the points table , qualified for the final against the same opposition . Dhoni recovered from his injury before the final and returned to the team as captain . Kohli was dismissed for 2 in that match , but India went on to register a one @-@ wicket victory . Many senior players including Dhoni were rested for the five @-@ match ODI tour of Zimbabwe in July 2013 , with Kohli being appointed captain for an entire series for the first time . In the first game of the series at Harare , he struck 115 runs from 108 balls , helping India chase down the target of 229 and winning the man of the match award . He batted on two more occasions in the series in which he had scores of 14 and 58 not out . India completed a 5 – 0 sweep of the series ; their first in an away ODI series . Kohli had a successful time with the bat in the seven @-@ match ODI series against Australia . After top @-@ scoring with 61 in the opening loss at Pune , he struck the fastest century by an Indian in ODIs in the second match at Jaipur . Reaching the milestone in just 52 balls and putting up an unbroken 186 @-@ run second @-@ wicket partnership with Rohit Sharma that came in 17 @.@ 2 overs , Kohli 's innings of 100 not out helped India chase down the target of 360 for the loss of one wicket with more than six overs to spare . This chase was the second @-@ highest successful run @-@ chase in ODI cricket , while Kohli 's knock became the fastest hundred against Australia and the third @-@ fastest in a run @-@ chase . He followed that innings with 68 in the next match at Mohali in another Indian defeat , before the next two matches were washed out by rain . In the sixth ODI at Nagpur , he struck 115 off only 66 balls to help India successfully chase the target of 351 and level the series 2 – 2 and won the man of the match . He reached the 100 @-@ run mark in 61 balls , making it the third @-@ fastest ODI century by an Indian batsman , and also became the fastest batsman in the world to score 17 hundreds in ODI cricket . India clinched the series after winning the last match in which he was run out for a duck . At the conclusion of the series , Kohli moved to the top position in the ICC ODI batsmen rankings for the first time in his career . Kohli batted twice in the two @-@ match Test series against West Indies , and had scores of 3 and 57 being dismissed by Shane Shillingford in both innings . This was also the last Test series for Tendulkar and Kohli was expected to take Tendulkar 's number four batting position after the series . In the first game of the three @-@ match ODI series that followed at Kochi , Kohli made 86 to seal a six @-@ wicket win and won the man of the match . During the match , he also equalled Viv Richards ' record of becoming the fastest batsman to make 5 @,@ 000 runs in ODI cricket , reaching the landmark in his 114th innings . He missed out on his third century at Visakhapatnam in the next match , after being dismissed for 99 playing a hook shot off Ravi Rampaul . India lost the match by two wickets , but took the series 2 – 1 after winning the last match at Kanpur . With 204 runs at 68 @.@ 00 , Kohli finished the series as the leading run @-@ getter and was awarded the man of the series . = = = Overseas season = = = India toured South Africa in December 2013 for three ODIs and two Tests . Kohli averaged 15 @.@ 50 in the ODIs , including a duck . In the first Test at Johannesburg , playing his first Test in South Africa and batting at 4 for the first time , Kohli scored 119 and 96 . His hundred was the first by a subcontinent batsman at the venue since 1998 . Regarding Kohli 's hundred , South Africa bowling coach Allan Donald said , " The one word that comes to my mind is responsibility . I think he [ Kohli ] showed great discipline and responsibility . It reminds me of Sachin Tendulkar when they came here in 1996 . " The match ended in a draw , and Kohli was awarded man of the match . India failed to win a single match on the tour , losing the second Test by 10 wickets in which he made 46 and 11 . Kohli continued to amass runs on the subsequent New Zealand tour . He averaged 58 @.@ 21 in the five @-@ match ODI series in which his efforts of 111 @-@ ball 123 at Napier , 65 @-@ ball 78 at Hamilton and 78 @-@ ball 82 at Wellington all went in vain as India were defeated 4 – 0 . He made 214 runs at 71 @.@ 33 in the two @-@ match Test series that followed including an unbeaten 105 on the last day of the second Test at Wellington that helped India save the match . India then travelled to Bangladesh for the Asia Cup and World Twenty20 . Dhoni was ruled out of the Asia Cup after suffering a side strain during the New Zealand tour , which led to Kohli being named captain for the tournament . Kohli scored 136 off 122 balls in India 's opening match against Bangladesh , sharing a 213 @-@ run third @-@ wicket stand with Ajinkya Rahane , which helped India successfully chase 280 . It was his 19th ODI century and his fifth in Bangladesh , making him the batsman with most ODI centuries in Bangladesh . India were knocked out of the tournament after narrow losses against Sri Lanka and Pakistan , in which Kohli scored 48 and 5 respectively . Dhoni returned from injury to captain the team for 2014 ICC World Twenty20 and Kohli was named vice @-@ captain . In India 's opening match of the tournament against Pakistan , Kohli top @-@ scored with 36 not out to guide India to a seven @-@ wicket win . He scored 54 off 41 balls in the next game against West Indies and an unbeaten 57 from 50 balls against Bangladesh , both in successful run @-@ chases . In the semifinal , he made an unbeaten 72 in 44 deliveries to help India achieve the target of 173 with six wickets and five balls to spare . He won the man of the match for this knock which he called " my best T20 innings " . India posted 130 / 4 in the final against Sri Lanka , in which Kohli scored 77 from 58 balls , and eventually lost the match by six wickets . Kohli had made a total of 319 runs in the tournament at an average of 106 @.@ 33 , a record for most runs by an individual batsman in a single World Twenty20 tournament , for which he won the Man of the Tournament award . Kohli and other senior players were rested for India 's tour of Bangladesh ahead of the England tour . India conceded a 3 – 1 defeat in the five @-@ match Test series against England despite leading it 1 – 0 after the first two Tests . Kohli fared poorly in the series averaging just 13 @.@ 40 in 10 innings with a top score of 39 . He was dismissed for single @-@ digit scores on six occasions in the series and was particularly susceptible to the swinging ball on off stump line , being dismissed several times edging the ball to the wicket @-@ keeper or slip fielders . Man of the series James Anderson got Kohli 's wicket four times , while Kohli 's batting technique was questioned by analysts and former cricketers . Geoffrey Boycott said , " Jimmy Anderson ate him for breakfast . Every time Kohli came in , all he did was bowl at off stump , around the corridor of uncertainty and Kohli nicked it . He is playing with his bat too far away from his pad . He has to look at video replays of his technique and get back to basics " . India won the ODI series that followed 3 – 1 , but Kohli 's struggles with the bat continued with an average of 18 in four innings . In the one @-@ off T20I , he scored 41 @-@ ball 66 , his first fifty @-@ plus score of the tour on the last match of the tour . India lost the match by three runs , but Kohli reached the number one spot for T20I batsmen in the ICC rankings . Kohli had a successful time during India 's home ODI series win over the West Indies in October 2014 . His 62 in the second ODI at Delhi was his first fifty across Tests and ODIs in 16 innings since February , and he stated that he got his " confidence back " with the innings . He struck his 20th ODI hundred – 127 runs in 114 balls – in the fourth match at Dharamsala . India registered a 59 @-@ run victory and Kohli was awarded man of the match . Dhoni was rested for the five @-@ match ODI series against Sri Lanka in November , enabling Kohli to lead the team for another full series . Kohli batted at 4 throughout the series and made scores of 22 , 49 , 53 and 66 in the first four ODIs , with India leading the series 4 – 0 . In the fifth ODI at Ranchi , Kohli came in to bat with India at 14 / 2 in pursuit of 287 . He made an unbeaten 139 off 126 balls to give his team a three @-@ wicket win and a whitewash of Sri Lanka . Kohli was awarded player of the series , and it was the second whitewash under his captaincy . During the series he became the fastest batsman in the world to go past the 6000 @-@ run mark in ODIs . With 1054 ODI runs at 58 @.@ 55 in 2014 , he became the second player in the world after Sourav Ganguly to make more than 1 @,@ 000 runs in ODIs for four consecutive calendar years . = = = Test captaincy = = = For the first Test of the Australian tour in December 2014 , Dhoni was not part of the Indian team at Adelaide due to an injury , and Kohli took the reins as Test captain for the first time . Kohli scored 115 in India 's first innings , becoming the fourth Indian to score a hundred on Test captaincy debut . In their second innings , India were set a target of 364 to be scored on the fifth day . Kohli came in to bat when the Indian innings was reduced to 57 / 2 and started batting aggressively . He put on 185 runs for the third wicket with M Vijay before Vijay 's dismissal , which triggered a batting collapse . From 242 / 2 , India were bowled out for 315 with Kohli 's 141 off 175 balls being the top score . Kohli noted that his team was looking for a win and not a draw , while also saying that it was " the best Test I have been part of " . Kohli 's second innings ton was hailed by several Australian commentators as the finest fourth @-@ innings performance they had ever seen in Australia . Dhoni returned to the team as captain for the second match at Brisbane where Kohli scored 19 and 1 in a four @-@ wicket defeat for India . In the Melbourne Boxing Day Test , Kohli was India 's top @-@ scorer in both innings . He made his personal best Test score of 169 in the first innings while sharing a 262 @-@ run partnership with Rahane , India 's biggest partnership outside Asia in ten years . Kohli followed it with a score of 54 in India 's second innings on the fifth day , helping his team draw the Test match . Dhoni announced his retirement from Test cricket at the conclusion of this match , and Kohli was appointed as the full @-@ time Test captain ahead of the fourth Test at Sydney . Captaining the Test team for the second time , Kohli hit 147 in the first innings of the match and became the first batsman in Test cricket history to score three hundreds in his first three innings as Test captain . He was dismissed for 46 in the second innings and India hung in for another draw . Kohli 's total of 692 runs in four Tests was the most by any Indian batsman in a Test series in Australia . In January 2015 , India failed to win a single match in the tri @-@ nation ODI series against the hosts Australia and England . Kohli was unable to replicate his Test success in ODIs , failing to make a two @-@ digit score in any of the four games . Kohli 's ODI form did not improve in the lead @-@ up to the World Cup , with scores of 18 and 5 in the warmup matches against Australia and Afghanistan respectively . In the first match of the World Cup against Pakistan at Adelaide , Kohli hit 107 in 126 balls , sharing 100 @-@ plus partnerships with both Dhawan and Raina , to help India set a total of 300 and win the match by 76 runs . For his knock he was awarded the man of the match award , his 20th in ODIs and first in a World Cup match . He was dismissed for 46 in India 's second match against South Africa after another century stand with opening batsman Dhawan . India went on to post 307 in 50 overs and register a 130 @-@ run victory in that match . India batted second in their remaining four group matches in which Kohli scored 33 * , 33 , 44 * and 38 against UAE , West Indies , Ireland and Zimbabwe respectively . India went on to secure wins in these four fixtures and top the Pool B points with an undefeated record . In India 's 109 @-@ run victory in the quarterfinal over Bangladesh , Kohli was dismissed by Rubel Hossain for 3 edging the ball to the wicket @-@ keeper . India were eliminated in the semifinal by Australia at Melbourne , where Kohli was dismissed for 1 off 13 balls , top @-@ edging a short @-@ pitched delivery from Mitchell Johnson . Kohli had a slump in form when India toured Bangladesh in June 2015 . He contributed only 14 in the one @-@ off Test which ended in a draw and averaged 16 @.@ 33 in the ODI series which Bangladesh won 2 – 1 . Kohli ended his streak of low scores by scoring his 11th Test hundred in the first Test of the Sri Lankan tour which India lost . India came back and won the next two matches to seal the series 2 – 1 , Kohli 's first series win as Test captain and India 's first away Test series win in four years . During South Africa 's tour of India , Kohli became the fastest batsman in the world to make 1 @,@ 000 runs in T20I cricket , reaching the milestone in his 27th innings . In the ODI series , he made 77 at Rajkot and a match @-@ winning 138 in the fourth ODI at Chennai that helped India draw level in the series . India lost the series after a defeat in the final ODI and Kohli finished the series with an average of 49 . India came back to beat the top @-@ ranked South African team 3 – 0 in the four @-@ match Test series under Kohli 's captaincy , and climbed to number two position on the ICC Test rankings . He scored a total of 200 runs in the series at 33 @.@ 33 , including 44 and 88 in the fourth match at Delhi . On 22 July 2016 , Virat became the first Indian captain to hit a double century outside India , beating previous highest of 192 by Azharuddin against New Zealand in Auckland in 1989 @-@ 90 . This was also Kohli 's first double hundred at first class level . = = IPL career = = In March 2008 , Kohli was bought on a youth contract by the Indian Premier League franchise Royal Challengers Bangalore for $ 30 @,@ 000 . He had an indifferent 2008 season , with a total of 165 runs in 12 innings at an average of 15 @.@ 00 and a strike rate of 105 @.@ 09 . He fared slightly better in the second season in which he made a total of 246 runs at 22 @.@ 36 , striking at over 112 , while his team made it as far as the final . In the 2010 season , Kohli was the third highest run @-@ getter for his team with 307 runs , averaging 27 @.@ 90 and improving his strike rate to 144 @.@ 81 . Ahead of the 2011 season , Kohli was the only player retained by the Royal Challengers franchise . Kohli was made vice @-@ captain of the team that year and also captained the team in a few matches when the regular skipper Daniel Vettori was injured . The Royal Challengers coach Ray Jennings opined that the 22 @-@ year @-@ old would become the future captain of not only the franchise but also the Indian team . Kohli was the second @-@ highest run @-@ getter of the season , only behind teammate Chris Gayle , and his team finished as runners @-@ up of the IPL . Kohli accumulated a total of 557 runs at an average of 46 @.@ 41 and a strike rate of over 121 including four fifties . In the 2012 IPL , he was moderately successful , averaging 28 for his 364 runs . After Vettori 's retirement , Kohli was appointed as the team 's captain for the 2013 season . The Royal Challengers finished fifth on the league table that year , but Kohli found success with the bat . Averaging 45 @.@ 28 , he hit a total of 634 runs at a strike rate of over 138 including six fifties and a top @-@ score of 99 and finished as the season 's third @-@ highest run @-@ scorer . Bangalore finished seventh in the next season in which Kohli made 359 runs at 27 @.@ 61 . He found success with the bat in the 2015 IPL in which he led his team to the playoffs . He finished fifth on the season 's leading run @-@ getters list with 505 runs at an average of 45 @.@ 90 and a strike rate of more than 130 . At the 2016 IPL , Kohli broke the record for most runs in an IPL season ( of 733 runs ) by scoring 973 runs in 16 matches at an average of 81 @.@ 08 , and won the Orange Cap . He scored four centuries in the tournament , having never scored one in the Twenty20 format before the start of the season , and also became the first player to reach the 4000 @-@ run milestone in the IPL . Bangalore finished runners @-@ up in the tournament . = = Playing style = = Kohli is a naturally aggressive batsman with strong technical skills . He usually bats in the middle @-@ order , but , on many occasions , has opened the innings as well . He bats with a slightly open @-@ chested stance and a strong bottom @-@ hand grip , and is said to have quick footwork . He is known for his wide range of shots , ability to pace an innings and batting under pressure . He is strong through the mid @-@ wicket and cover region . He has said that the cover drive is his favourite shot , while also saying that the flick shot comes naturally to him . He does not play the sweep shot often , being called " not a natural sweeper of the cricket ball " . His teammates have praised his confidence , commitment , focus and work ethics . Kohli is also known to be a " sharp " fielder . Kohli is regarded as one of the best limited @-@ overs batsmen in the world , especially while chasing . In ODIs , he averages more than 61 in matches batting second as opposed to over 39 batting first . 15 of his 25 hundreds have come in run @-@ chases , only two fewer than Sachin Tendulkar who holds the record for most hundreds batting second . Regarding his impressive record batting second , Kohli has said " I love the whole situation that comes with chasing . I like the challenge of testing myself , figuring out how to rotate strike , when to hit a boundary . " Kohli is often compared to Tendulkar , due to their similar styles of batting , and is sometimes referred to as Tendulkar 's " successor " . Many former cricketers expect Kohli to break Tendulkar 's batting records . Former West Indies great Vivian Richards , who is regarded as the most destructive batsman in cricket , stated that Kohli reminds him of himself . In early @-@ 2015 , Richards said Kohli was " already legendary " in the ODI format , while former Australian cricketer Dean Jones called Kohli the " new king of world cricket " . Kohli is noted for his on @-@ field aggression and was described in the media as " brash " and " arrogant " during his early career . He has got into confrontations with players and umpires on several occasions . His aggressive attitude has been backed by many former cricketers , while some have criticised it . In 2012 , Kohli had stated that he tries to limit his aggressive behaviour but " the build @-@ up and the pressure or the special occasions make it tough to control the aggression . " = = Outside cricket = = = = = Personal life = = = As of December 2015 , Kohli is in a relationship with Bollywood actress Anushka Sharma . The relationship has attracted substantial media attention . Kohli has admitted that he is superstitious . He wears black wristbands as a cricket superstition ; earlier , he used to wear the same pair of gloves with which he had " been scoring " . Apart from a religious black thread , he has also been wearing a kara on his right arm since 2012 . = = = Commercial investments = = = According to Kohli , football is his second favourite sport . In 2014 , Kohli became a co @-@ owner of Indian Super League club FC Goa . He stated that he invested in the club with the " keenness of football " and because he " wanted football to grow in India " . He added , " It 's a business venture for me for the future . Cricket 's not going to last forever and I 'm keeping all my options open after retirement . " In September 2015 , Kohli became a co @-@ owner of the International Premier Tennis League franchise UAE Royals , and , in December that year , became a co @-@ owner of the JSW @-@ owned Bengaluru Yodhas franchise in Pro Wrestling League . In November 2014 , Kohli and Anjana Reddy 's Universal Sportsbiz ( USPL ) launched a youth fashion brand ' WROGN ' . The brand started to produce men 's casual wear clothing in 2015 and has tied up with Myntra and Shopper 's Stop . In late @-@ 2014 , Kohli was announced as a shareholder and brand ambassador of the social networking venture ' Sport Convo ' based in London . In 2015 , Kohli invested ₹ 90 crore ( US $ 13 million ) to start a chain of gyms and fitness centres across the country . Launched under the name " Chisel " , the chain of gyms is jointly owned by Kohli , Chisel India and CSE ( Cornerstone Sport and Entertainment ) , the agency which manages Kohli 's commercial interests . In 2016 , Kohli started Stepathlon Kids , a children fitness venture , in partnership with Stepathlon Lifestyle . = = = Endorsements = = = Kohli was signed up by sports agent Bunty Sajdeh of Cornerstone Sport and Entertainment after the 2008 Under @-@ 19 World Cup . Sajdeh recalls , " I didn ’ t go after them after they became stars . In fact , I watched Virat at the 2008 ICC Under @-@ 19 World Cup in Kuala Lumpur . I was mighty impressed with his attitude and the way he was marshalling his team . He had that spark . And I told Yuvi to set up the meeting . " Sajdeh manages Kohli 's endorsement deals , along with those of other Indian cricketers Shikhar Dhawan , Rohit Sharma and Murali Vijay . It was reported in 2013 that Kohli 's brand endorsements were worth over ₹ 100 crore . In 2014 , American Appraisal estimated Kohli 's brand value at US $ 56 @.@ 4 million placing him fourth on the list of India 's most valued celebrity brands . His bat deal with MRF is said to be the costliest deal in Indian cricket history . In 2014 , the UK @-@ based magazine SportsPro rated Kohli as the second most marketable athlete in the world behind only Lewis Hamilton , placing him above the likes of Cristiano Ronaldo , Lionel Messi and Usain Bolt . As of March 2016 , Kohli has endorsement deals with 13 brands : Adidas , Audi , Boost , Colgate @-@ Palmolive , Herbalife , MRF , Nitesh Estates , PepsiCo , Smaash , Tissot , TVS Motors , United Spirits and Vicks . The brands Kohli previously endorsed include 3C Company , Celkon Mobiles , Cinthol ( from Godrej ) , Clear ( from Unilever ) , Fair & Lovely , Fastrack ( from Titan ) , Flying Machine , Mattel , Munch ( from Nestle ) , Oakley , Red Chief Shoes , Royal Challenge ( from United Breweries ) , Sangam Suitings and Toyota Motors . = = = Charity = = = In March 2013 , Kohli started a charity foundation called ' Virat Kohli Foundation ' ( VKF ) . The organisation aims at helping underprivileged kids and conducts events to raise funds for the charity . According to Kohli , the foundation works with select NGOs to " create awareness , seek support and raise funds for the various causes they endorse and the philanthropic work they engage in . " In May 2014 , eBay and Save the Children India conducted a charity auction with VKF , and directed the funds generated towards the education and healthcare of underprivileged children . Kohli has captained the All Heart Football Club , owned by VKF , in charity football matches against All Stars Football Club , owned by Abhishek Bachchan 's Playing for Humanity . The matches , known as " Celebrity Clasico " , feature cricketers playing for All Heart and Bollywood actors in the All Stars team , and are organized to generate funds for the two charity foundations . = = = Media image = = = Kohli is often described in the media as a sex symbol and a youth icon . He was the only sportsperson to be ranked in the top 50 of a " Sexiest Asian Men " poll in 2015 . In the Times " 50 Most Desirable Men " list , Kohli was placed fourth in 2013 , first in 2014 and second in 2015 , after being ranked 13th and seventh in the preceding two years . In February 2016 , he was named in the " Entertainment & Sports " section of the Forbes 30 Under 30 Asia , a list of 30 " promising young leaders and game changers " from Asia under the age of 30 . Kohli was named as the brand ambassador of the Premier Futsal in April 2016 . He appeared on the cover of the Indian edition of the GQ magazine in June 2016 . = = Records and achievements = = Fastest century Fastest century by an Indian cricketer in ODIs ( in 52 balls ) Milestones Fastest Indian to reach 1 @,@ 000 runs in ODIs Fastest Indian and third fastest in the world to reach 4 @,@ 000 runs in ODIs Fastest Indian and second fastest in the world to reach 5 @,@ 000 runs in ODIs Fastest Indian and second fastest in the world to reach 6 @,@ 000 runs in ODIs Fastest in the world to reach 7 @,@ 000 runs in ODIs Fastest Indian and second fastest in the world to reach 10 centuries in ODIs Fastest Indian and second fastest in the world to reach 15 centuries in ODIs Fastest Indian and second fastest in the world to reach 20 centuries in ODIs Fastest in the world to reach 25 centuries in ODIs Fastest in the world to reach 1 @,@ 000 runs in T20Is Most runs in a calendar year / series Most ODI runs in 2010 by an Indian cricketer Most ODI runs in 2011 by any cricketer Most ODI runs in 2012 by an Indian cricketer Most ODI runs in 2013 by an Indian cricketer Most ODI runs in 2014 by an Indian cricketer Most Test runs in 2012 by an Indian cricketer Most runs in an IPL Season ( 2016 ) Captaincy records First cricketer to score three centuries in his first three innings as Test captain First Indian Test captain to score a double hundred overseas . = = Statistics = = = = = Batting = = = = = = Captaincy = = = = = Awards = = ICC ODI Player of the Year : 2012 ICC World ODI XI : 2012 , 2014 BCCI 's Polly Umrigar Award for international cricketer of the year : 2011 – 12 , 2014 – 15 Arjuna Award : 2013 CEAT International Cricketer of the Year : 2011 – 12 , 2013 – 14 = = = Test cricket = = = = = = = Man of the match awards = = = = = = = ODI cricket = = = = = = = Man of the match awards = = = = = = = = Man of the series awards = = = = = = = T20I cricket = = = = = = = Man of the match awards = = = = = = = = Man of the series awards = = = =
= Great Salt Lake = The Great Salt Lake , located in the northern part of the U.S. state of Utah , is the largest salt water lake in the Western Hemisphere , and the eighth @-@ largest terminal lake in the world . In an average year the lake covers an area of around 1 @,@ 700 square miles ( 4 @,@ 400 km2 ) , but the lake 's size fluctuates substantially due to its shallowness . For instance , in 1963 it reached its lowest recorded level at 950 square miles ( 2 @,@ 460 km ² ) , but in 1988 the surface area was at the historic high of 3 @,@ 300 square miles ( 8 @,@ 500 km2 ) . In terms of surface area , it is the largest lake in the United States that is not part of the Great Lakes region . The lake is the largest remnant of Lake Bonneville , a prehistoric pluvial lake that once covered much of western Utah . The three major tributaries to the lake , the Jordan , Weber , and Bear rivers together deposit around 1 @.@ 1 million tons of minerals in the lake each year . As it is endorheic ( has no outlet besides evaporation ) , it has very high salinity , far saltier than seawater , which makes swimming similar to floating , and its mineral content is steadily increasing . Its shallow , warm waters cause frequent , sometimes heavy lake @-@ effect snows from late fall through spring . Although it has been called " America 's Dead Sea " , the lake provides habitat for millions of native birds , brine shrimp , shorebirds , and waterfowl , including the largest staging population of Wilson 's phalarope in the world . = = Origin = = The Great Salt Lake is a remnant of a much larger prehistoric lake called Lake Bonneville . At its greatest extent , Lake Bonneville spanned 22 @,@ 400 square miles ( 58 @,@ 000 km2 ) , nearly as large as present @-@ day Lake Michigan , and roughly ten times the area of the Great Salt Lake today . Bonneville reached 923 ft ( 281 m ) at its deepest point , and covered much of present @-@ day Utah and small portions of Idaho and Nevada during the ice ages of the Pleistocene Epoch . Lake Bonneville existed until about 16 @,@ 800 years ago , when a large portion of the lake was released through the Red Rock Pass in Idaho . With the warming climate , the remaining lake began to dry , leaving the Great Salt Lake , Utah Lake , Sevier Lake , and Rush Lake behind . = = History = = While the lake was well known by local Native Americans , it entered written history through the records of Silvestre Vélez de Escalante , who learned of its existence from the Timpanogos Utes in 1776 . No name was given to it at the time , and it was not shown on the map by Bernardo Miera y Pacheco , the cartographer for the expedition . In 1824 , it was observed , apparently independently , by Jim Bridger and Etienne Provost . Shortly thereafter other trappers saw it and walked around it . Most of the trappers , however , were illiterate and did not record their discoveries . As oral reports of their findings made their way to those who did make records , some errors were made . Escalante had been on the shores of Utah Lake , which he named Laguna Timpanogos . It was the larger of the two lakes that appeared on Miera 's map . Other cartographers followed his lead and charted Lake Timpanogos as the largest ( or larger ) lake in the region . As people came to know of the Great Salt Lake , they interpreted the maps to think that " Timpanogos " referred to the Great Salt Lake . On some maps the two names were used synonymously . In time " Timpanogos " was dropped from the maps and its original association with Utah Lake was forgotten . In 1843 , John C. Fremont led the first scientific expedition to the lake , but with winter coming on , he did not take the time to survey the entire lake . That happened in 1850 under the leadership of Howard Stansbury ( Stansbury discovered and named the Stansbury mountain range and Stansbury island ) . John Fremont 's overly glowing reports of the area were published shortly after his expedition . Stansbury also published a formal report of his survey work which became very popular . His report of the area included a discussion of Mormon religious practices based on Stansbury 's interaction with the Mormon community in Great Salt Lake City , which had been established three years earlier in 1847 . Beginning in November 1895 , artist and author Alfred Lambourne spent a year living on the remote Gunnison Island , where he wrote a book of musing and poetry , Our Inland Sea . From November 1895 to March 1896 , he was alone . In March , a few guano sifters arrived to harvest and sell the guano of the nesting birds as fertilizer . Lambourne included musings about these guano sifters in his work . Lambourne left the island early in the winter of 1896 along with the first group of guano sifters . = = Geography = = The Great Salt Lake lends its name to Salt Lake City , originally named " Great Salt Lake City " by the president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints ( LDS Church ) Brigham Young , who led a group of Mormon pioneers to the Salt Lake Valley southeast of the lake on July 24 , 1847 . The lake lies in parts of five counties : Box Elder , Davis , Tooele , Weber , and Salt Lake . Salt Lake City and its suburbs are located to the southeast and east of the lake , between the lake and the Wasatch Mountains , but land around the north and west shores are almost uninhabited . The Bonneville Salt Flats are to the west , and the Oquirrh and Stansbury Mountains rise to the south . The Great Salt Lake is fed by three major rivers and several minor streams . The three major rivers are each fed directly or indirectly from the Uinta Mountain range in northeastern Utah . The Bear River starts on the north slope of the Uintas and flows north past Bear Lake , into which some of Bear River 's waters have been diverted via a man @-@ made canal into the lake , but later empty back into the river by means of the Bear Lake Outlet . The river then turns south in southern Idaho and eventually flows into the northeast arm of the Great Salt Lake . The Weber River also starts on the north slope of the Uinta Mountains and flows into the east edge of the lake . The Jordan River does not receive its water directly from the Uintas , rather it flows from freshwater Utah Lake , which itself is fed primarily by the Provo River ; the Provo River does originate in the Uintas , a few miles from the Weber and Bear . The Jordan flows from the north part of Utah Lake into the southeast corner of the Great Salt Lake . A railroad line – the Lucin Cutoff – runs across the lake , crossing the southern end of Promontory Peninsula . The mostly solid causeway supporting the railway divides the lake into three portions : the northeast arm , northwest arm , and southern . This causeway prevents the normal mixing of the waters of the lake because there are only three 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) breaches . Because no rivers , except a few minor streams , flow directly into the northwest arm , Gunnison Bay , it is now substantially saltier than the rest of the lake . This provides an environment suitable for different types of algae than those growing in the southern part of the lake , leading to a marked color difference on the two sides of the causeway . = = = Islands = = = Categorically stating the number of islands is difficult , as the method used to determine what is an island is not necessarily the same in each source . Since the water level of the lake can vary greatly between years , what may be considered an island in a high water year may be considered a peninsula in another , or an island in a low water year may be covered during another year . According to the U.S. Department of the Interior and the U.S. Geological Survey , " there are eight named islands in the lake that have never been totally submerged during historic time . All have been connected to the mainland by exposed shoals during periods of low water . " In addition to these eight islands , the lake also contains a number of rocks , reefs , or shoals that become fully or partially submerged at high water levels . The Utah Geological Survey , on the other hand , states " the lake contains 11 recognized islands , although this number varies depending on the level of the lake . Seven islands are in the southern portion of the lake and four in the northwestern portion . " The size and whether they are counted as islands during any particular year depends mostly on the level of the lake . From largest to smallest , they are Antelope Island , Stansbury Island , Fremont Island , Carrington Island , Dolphin Island , Cub Island , and Badger Island , and various rocks , reefs , or shoals with names like Strongs Knob , Gunnison Island , Goose , Browns , Hat ( Bird ) , Egg Island , Black Rock , and White Rock . Dolphin Island , Gunnison Island , Cub Island , and Strongs Knob are in the northwestern arm . The rest are in the southern portion of the Great Salt Lake . Black Rock , Antelope Island , White Rock , Egg Island , Fremont Island , and the Promontory mountain range are each extensions of the Oquirrh Mountain Range , which dips beneath the lake at its southeastern shore . Stansbury , Carrington , and Hat Islands are extensions of the Stansbury mountain range , and Strongs Knob is an extension of the Lakeside Mountains which run along the lake 's western shore . The lake is deepest in the area between these island chains , measured by Howard Stansbury in 1850 at about 35 feet ( 10 @.@ 7 meters ) deep , and an average depth of 13 feet ( four meters ) . When the water levels are low , Antelope Island becomes connected to the shore as a peninsula , as do Goose Islands , Browns Island , and some of the other islands . Stansbury Island and Strongs Knob remain peninsulas unless the water level rises well @-@ above the average . = = = Lake effect precipitation = = = Due to the warm waters of the Great Salt Lake , lake effect snowfalls are frequent phenomena of the surrounding area . Cold north , northwest , or west winds generally blow across the lake following the passage of a cold front , and the temperature difference between the warm lake and the cool air can form clouds that lead to precipitation downwind of the lake . It is typically heaviest from eastern Tooele County east and north into central Davis County . It can deposit excessive snowfall amounts , generally with a narrow band of snow highly dependent on the direction the wind is blowing . The lake effect snowfalls are more likely to occur in late fall , early winter , and during spring due to the higher temperature differences between the lake and the air above it . During summer , the temperature differences can cause thunderstorms to form over the lake and drift eastward along the northern Wasatch Front . Some rainstorms may also be partially attributed to the lake effect in fall and spring . It is estimated that approximately six to eight lake effect snowstorms occur in a year , and that 10 % of the average precipitation of Salt Lake City can be attributed to the lake effect . = = Hydrology = = Because of its high salt concentration , the lake water is unusually dense , and most people can float more easily than in other bodies of water , particularly in Gunnison Bay , the saltier north arm of the lake . Water levels have been recorded since 1875 , averaging about 4 @,@ 200 feet ( 1 @,@ 280 m ) above sea level . Since the Great Salt Lake is a shallow lake with gently sloping shores around all edges except on the south side , small variations in the water level greatly affect the extent of the shoreline . The water level can rise dramatically in wet years and fall during dry years . The water level is also affected by the amount of water flow diverted for agricultural and urban uses . The Jordan and Weber rivers , in particular , are diverted for other uses . In the 1880s Grove Karl Gilbert predicted that the lake – then in the middle of many years of recession – would virtually disappear except for a small remnant between the islands . A 2014 study used tree rings collected in the watershed of the Great Salt Lake to create a 576 @-@ year record of lake level reconstruction . The lake level change is strongly modulated by Pacific Ocean coupled ocean / atmospheric oscillations at low frequency , and therefore reflects the decadal @-@ scale wet / dry cycles that characterize the region . By capturing these climate oscillations as well as utilizing the tree @-@ ring reconstruction of lake level change , researchers were able to predict the lake level fluctuation onward for as long as 5 – 8 years . The Great Salt Lake differs in elevation between the south and north parts . The causeway for the Lucin Cutoff divides the lake into two parts . The water @-@ surface elevation of the south part of the lake is usually 0 @.@ 5 to 2 feet ( 15 – 61 cm ) higher than that of the north part because most of the inflow to the lake occurs from the south . = = = Salinity = = = Most of the salts dissolved in the lake and deposited in the desert flats around it reflect the concentration of solutes by evaporation ; Lake Bonneville itself was fresh enough to support populations of fish . More salt is added yearly via rivers and streams , though the amount is much less than the relict salt from Bonneville . The salinity of the lake 's main basin , Gilbert Bay , is highly variable and depends on the lake 's level ; it ranges from 5 to 27 % ( 50 to 270 parts per thousand ) . For comparison , the average salinity of the world ocean is 3 @.@ 5 % ( 35 parts per thousand ) and 33 @.@ 7 % in the Dead Sea . The ionic composition is similar to seawater , much more so than the Dead Sea 's water ; compared to the ocean , Great Salt Lake 's waters are slightly enriched in potassium and depleted in calcium . = = = 1930s Fresh Water Project = = = In the early 1930s there was a project to dam off a third of the lake with dikes on the east side north of Salt Lake City to make a fresh water reservoir for drinking and irrigation . The project was abandoned before it got beyond the planning stage . = = = Willard Bay Reservoir = = = Willard Bay , also known as Willard Bay Reservoir or Arthur V. Watkins Reservoir is a fresh water reservoir , completed in 1964 , which separated , drained , and subsequently filled with fresh water from the Weber River , a portion of the Great Salt Lake 's northeastern arm . = = = West Desert Pumping Project = = = Record high water levels in the 1980s caused a large amount of property damage for owners on the eastern side of the Great Salt Lake , and the water started to erode the base of Interstate Highway 80 . In response , the State of Utah built the West Desert Pumping Project on the western side of the lake . This project consists of a pumping station ( 41 ° 15 ′ 9 @.@ 28 ″ N 113 ° 4 ′ 53 @.@ 31 ″ W ) at Hogup Ridge , containing three pumps with a combined capacity of moving 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 US gallons per minute ( 95 m3 / s ) ; an inlet canal ; and an outlet canal . Also , there are 25 miles ( 40 km ) of dikes and a 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) access road between the town of Lakeside and the pumping station . This pumping project was designed to increase the surface area of the Great Salt Lake , and thus increase the rate of water evaporation . The pumps drove some of the water of the Great Salt Lake into the 320 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 1300 @-@ square kilometer ) Newfoundland Evaporation Basin in the desert west of the lake . A weir in the dike at the southern end of the Newfoundland Mountains regulated the level of water in the basin , and it sometimes returned salty water from the evaporation basin into the main body of the Great Salt Lake . At the end of their first year of operation , the pumps had removed about 500 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 620 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of water from the Great Salt Lake . The project was shut down in June 1989 since the level of the lake had dropped by nearly six feet ( 1 @.@ 8 meters ) since reaching its peak levels during June 1986 and March 1987 . The Utah Division of Water Resources credits the project with " over one @-@ third of that decline . " In total , the pumps removed 2 @,@ 730 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 3 @.@ 37 km3 ) of water while they operated . Although the pumps are no longer in use , they have been kept in place in case the level of the Great Salt Lake ever rises that high again . = = Ecosystem = = The high salinity in parts of the lake makes them uninhabitable for all but a few species , including brine shrimp , brine flies , and several forms of algae . The brine flies have an estimated population of over one hundred billion and serve as the main source of food for many of the birds which migrate to the lake . However , the fresh- and salt @-@ water wetlands along the eastern and northern edges of the Great Salt Lake provide critical habitat for millions of migratory shorebirds and waterfowl in western North America . These marshes account for approximately 75 % of the wetlands in Utah . Some of the birds that depend on these marshes include : Wilson 's phalarope , red @-@ necked phalarope , American avocet , black @-@ necked stilt , marbled godwit , snowy plover , western sandpiper , long @-@ billed dowitcher , tundra swan , American white pelican , white @-@ faced ibis , California gull , eared grebe , peregrine falcon , bald eagle , plus large populations of various ducks and geese . There are twenty @-@ seven private duck clubs , seven state waterfowl management areas , and a large federal bird refuge on the Great Salt Lake 's shores . Wetland / wildlife management areas include the Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge ; Gillmor Sanctuary ; Great Salt Lake Shorelands Preserve ; Salt Creek , Public Shooting Grounds , Harold Crane , Locomotive Springs , Ogden Bay , Timpie Springs , and Farmington Bay Waterfowl Management Areas . Several islands in the lake provide critical nesting areas for various birds . Access to Hat , Gunnison , and Cub islands is strictly limited by the State of Utah in an effort to protect nesting colonies of American white pelican ( Pelecanus erythrorhynchos ) . The islands within the Great Salt Lake also provide habitat for lizard and mammalian wildlife and a variety of plant species . Some species may have been extirpated from the islands . For example , a number of explorers who visited the area in the mid @-@ 1800s ( e.g. Emmanuel Domenech , Howard Stansbury , Jules Rémy ) noted an abundance of yellow @-@ flowered " onions " on several of the islands , which they identified as Calochortus luteus . This species today occurs only in California , however , at that time the name C. luteus was applied to plants that later were named C. nuttallii A yellow @-@ flowered Calochortus was first named as a variety of C. nuttallii but was later separated into a new species C. aureus . This species occurs in Utah today , though apparently no longer on the islands of the Great Salt Lake . Because of the Great Salt Lake 's high salinity , it has few fish , but they do occur in Bear River Bay and Farmington Bay when spring runoff brings fresh water into the lake . A few aquatic animals live in the lake 's main basin , including centimeter @-@ long brine shrimp ( Artemia franciscana ) . Their tiny , hard @-@ walled eggs or cysts ( diameter about 200 micrometers ) are harvested in quantity during the fall and early winter . They are fed to prawns in Asia , sold as novelty " Sea @-@ Monkeys , " sold either live or dehydrated in pet stores as a fish food , and used in testing of toxins , drugs , and other chemicals . There are also two species of brine fly as well as protozoa , rotifers , bacteria and algae . Salinity differences between the sections of the lake separated by the railroad causeway result in significantly different biota . A phytoplankton community dominated by green algae or cyanobacteria ( blue @-@ green algae ) tint the water south of the causeway a greenish color . North of the causeway , the lake is dominated by Dunaliella salina , a species of algae which releases beta @-@ carotene , and the bacteria @-@ like haloarchaea , which together give the water an unusual reddish or purplish color , and the bacteria converts non @-@ toxic mercury into toxic methyl mercury , which then flows into the Southern portion of the lake in a heavy brine layer through the causeway . Although brine shrimp can be found in the arm of the lake north of the causeway , studies conducted by the Utah Division of Wildlife Resources indicate that these are likely transient . Populations of brine shrimp are mostly restricted to the lake 's south arm . In the two bays that receive most of the lake 's fresh water inflows , Bear River Bay and Farmington Bay , the diversity of organisms is much higher . Salinities in these bays can approach that of fresh water when the spring snow melt occurs , and this allows a variety of bacteria , algae and invertebrates to proliferate in the nutrient @-@ rich water . The abundance of invertebrates such as gnat larvae ( chironomids ) and back swimmers ( Trichocorixa ) are fed upon extensively by the huge shorebird and waterfowl populations that utilize the lake . Fish in these bays are fed upon by diving terns and pelicans . = = = Pink Floyd the flamingo = = = A solitary Chilean flamingo , named Pink Floyd after the English rock band , wintered at the Great Salt Lake . He escaped from Salt Lake City 's Tracy Aviary in 1987 and lived in the wild , eating brine shrimp and socializing with gulls and swans . ( Pink Floyd is often referred to as a " he " , although the bird 's gender is not actually known . ) A group of Utah residents suggested petitioning the state to release more flamingos in an effort to keep Floyd company and as a possible tourist attraction . Wildlife biologists resisted these efforts , saying that deliberate introduction of a non @-@ native species would be ecologically unsound and might have detrimental consequences . Pink Floyd was last seen in Idaho ( where he was known to migrate ) in 2005 . He has not been seen since then and is presumed not to have survived the winter of 2005 – 2006 . = = = Elevated mercury levels = = = US Geological Survey and US Fish & Wildlife researchers , originally studying selenium levels in the lake , discovered some of the highest levels of methyl @-@ mercury they had ever seen , at 25 nanograms per liter of water . For comparison , a fish consumption advisory was issued at the Florida Everglades after water there was found to contain 1 nanogram per liter . The extremely high methyl mercury concentrations have been only in the lake 's anoxic deep brine layer ( monimolimnion ) below a depth of 20 ' ( 6 m ) , but concentrations are also moderately high up in the water column where there is oxygen to support brine shrimp and brine flies . The finding of high mercury levels prompted further studies and a health advisory warning hunters not to eat common goldeneye or northern shoveler , two species of duck found in the lake . It has been stated that this does not pose a risk to other recreational users of the lake . After later studies were conducted with a larger number of birds , the advisories were revised and another was added for cinnamon teal . Seven other species of duck were studied and found to have levels of mercury below EPA guidelines , thus being determined safe to eat . A study in 2010 concluded that the main source of the mercury is likely worldwide industry , rather than local sources . As water levels rise and fall , mercury accumulation does as well . About 16 percent of the mercury comes in from rivers , and 84 percent comes from the atmosphere in a non @-@ toxic , inorganic form . The non @-@ toxic mercury is converted into toxic methyl mercury by bacteria which thrive in the more saline water of the North arm affected by the causeway . = = Commerce = = Great Salt Lake contributes an estimated $ 1 @.@ 3 billion annually to Utah 's economy , including $ 1 @.@ 1 billion from industry ( primarily mineral extraction ) , $ 136 million from recreation , and $ 57 million from the harvest of brine shrimp . Solar evaporation ponds at the edges of the lake produce salts and brine ( water with high salt quantity ) . Minerals extracted from the lake include : sodium chloride ( common salt ) , used in water softeners , salt lick blocks for livestock , and to melt ice on local roadways ( food @-@ grade salt is not produced from the lake , as it would require further costly processing to ensure its purity ) ; potassium sulfate , used as a commercial fertilizer ; and magnesium @-@ chloride brine , used in the production of magnesium metal , chlorine gas , and as a dust suppressant . US Magnesium operates a plant on the Southwest shore of the lake , which produces 14 percent of the worldwide supply of magnesium , more than any other North American magnesium operation . Mineral @-@ extraction companies operating on the lake pay royalties on their products to the State of Utah , which owns the lake . The harvest of brine shrimp cysts during fall and early winter has developed into a significant local industry , with the lake providing 35 to 45 percent of the worldwide supply of brine shrimp , and cysts selling for as high as $ 35 a pound . Brine shrimp were first harvested during the 1950s and sold as commercial fish food . In the 1970s the focus changed to their eggs , known as cysts , which were sold primarily outside of the United States to be used as food for shrimp , prawns , and some fish . Today , these are mostly sold in East Asia and South America . The amount of cysts and the quality are affected by several factors , but salinity is most important . The cysts will hatch at 2 to 3 % salinity , but the greatest productivity is at salinities above about 10 % . If the salinity drops near 5 to 6 % , the cysts will lose buoyancy and sink , making them more difficult to harvest . The lake 's north arm contains deposits of oil , but it is of poor quality and it is not economically feasible to extract and purify it . As of 1993 , around 3 @,@ 000 barrels ( 480 m3 ) of crude oil had been produced from shallow wells along the shore . The oil field at Rozel Point produced an estimated 10 @,@ 000 barrels ( 1 @,@ 600 m3 ) of oil from 30 to 50 wells , but has been inactive since the mid @-@ 1980s . Oil seeps in the area had been known since the late nineteenth century , and attempts at production began in 1904 . Industrial debris from this field remained in place near Spiral Jetty until a cleanup effort by the Division of Oil , Gas and Mining and the Division of Forestry , Fire , and State Lands was completed in December , 2005 . = = = Causeway = = = The causeway running across the lake was built in the 1950s by the Morrison @-@ Knudsen construction company for the Southern Pacific Railroad as a replacement to a previously built wooden trestle , and is now owned and operated by Union Pacific . About 15 trains cross the 20 @-@ mile causeway each day . Because water flow is so constrained by the causeway , it has a significant impact on various industries . For instance , the northern arm of the lake has a much higher salinity , to the point that the native brine shrimp cannot survive in its waters . In the southern portion , where the vast majority of the fresh water inlets are found , the salt level can dip below what is necessary for the brine shrimp to survive , while water in the northern bay is too salty . Thus , the brine shrimp harvesting industry would benefit from the causeway allowing a freer flow of water . However , the increased salt and mineral content is better for Great Salt Lake Minerals Company ( a subsidiary of Compass Minerals , which extracts minerals from the northern bay ) . Morton Salt , Cargill Salt , Broken Arrow Salt and the Renco Group 's U.S. Magnesium each extract minerals from the southern bay , and could benefit from a more natural mixture of water between the two sides of the lake . = = = Recreation = = = Dramatically fluctuating lake levels have inhibited the creation and success of tourist @-@ related developments . Additionally , there is a problem with pollution from industrial and urban effluent , as well as a natural " lake stink " caused by the decay of insects and other wildlife , particularly during times of low water . Despite these issues , the lake remains one of Utah 's largest tourist attractions . Antelope Island State Park is a popular tourist destination that offers panoramic views of the lake , hiking and biking trails , wildlife viewing and access to beaches . The State of Utah operates a marina on the south shore of the lake at Great Salt Lake State Park , and another in Antelope Island State Park . With its sudden storms and expansive spread , the lake is a great test of sailing skills . Single mast , simple sloops are the most popular boats . Sudden storms and lack of experience on the part of boatmen are the two most dangerous elements in boating and sailing on the Great Salt Lake . = = = = Saltair = = = = Three resorts , each called Saltair , have been operated on the southern shore of the lake since 1893 , each one built as a successor to the previous one . Rising and lowering water levels have affected each iteration , and the first two were destroyed by fire . The first Saltair pavilion was destroyed by fire on April 22 , 1925 . A new pavilion was built and the resort was expanded at the same location by new investors , but after years of various challenges , it was eventually destroyed by an arsonist in 1970 . The current Saltair serves as a concert venue . The new resort was completed in 1981 , approximately a mile west of the original . The second Saltair included a fun house and a dancing venue . = = Legends and unusual features = = Spiral Jetty The northwest arm of the lake , near Rozel Point , is the location for Robert Smithson 's work of land art , Spiral Jetty ( 1970 ) , which is only visible when the level of Great Salt Lake drops below 4 @,@ 197 @.@ 8 feet ( 1 @,@ 280 @.@ 2 m ) above sea level . Oolitic sand The lake and its shores contain oolitic sand , which are small , rounded , or spherical grains of sand made up of a nucleus ( generally a small mineral grain ) and concentric layers of calcium carbonate ( lime ) and look similar to very small pearls . Whales in the Great Salt Lake Local legend maintains that in 1875 , entrepreneur James Wickham had two whales released into the Great Salt Lake , with the intent of using them as a tourist attraction . The whales are said to have disappeared into the lake and subsequently sighted multiple times over a number of months , but there have never been any confirmed sightings of the whales since the time of their supposed release . Lake monster In mid @-@ 1877 , J.H. McNeil was with many other Barnes and Co . Salt Works employees on the lake ’ s north shore in the evening . They claimed to have seen a large monster with a body like a crocodile and a horse ’ s head in the lake . They claimed this monster attacked the men , who quickly ran away and hid until morning . This creature is regarded by some to have simply been a buffalo in the lake . Thirty years prior , " Brother Bainbridge " claimed to have sighted a creature that looked like a dolphin in the lake near Antelope Island . This monster is called by some the North Shore Monster .
= The Judd School = The Judd School ( usually known simply as Judd ) is a grammar school in Tonbridge , Kent , southeast England . It was established in 1888 at Stafford House on East Street in Tonbridge , where it remained for eight years before moving to its present location on Brook Street , in the south of the town . Founded by the Skinners Company , it was named after 16th century merchant Sir Andrew Judde , whose endowment helped fund the school . The Skinners ' Company maintains close links with the school and makes up the majority of the governing body . There are 1019 students in the school aged 11 to 18 ; the lower school is all boys , but of 350 students aged 16 – 18 in the sixth form , up to 60 are girls . The first headmaster was William Bryant , who oversaw the transition to the present site before his retirement in 1908 . The headmaster as of 2015 is Robert Masters , who has occupied the post since September 2004 and is the seventh headmaster of the school . Judd pupils generally take ten General Certificate of Secondary Education ( GCSE ) tests in Year Eleven ( aged 15 – 16 ) , and they have a choice of four or five A @-@ levels in the sixth form . An Office for Standards in Education , Children 's Services and Skills ( Ofsted ) inspection in 2007 graded The Judd School as " outstanding " , and league tables published by the Daily Telegraph based on 2013 A @-@ level results rank Judd as the second best ( or best , if independent schools are excluded ) school in Kent . In 2013 , The Sunday Times newspaper ranked The Judd School as the 12th best state secondary school ( for pupils aged 11 – 16 , with an optional two further years of education in sixth form ) in the country . The majority of students go on to higher education following the completion of their A @-@ levels at the end of Year Thirteen ( aged 17 – 18 ) , and in 2011 , one in five Year 13 students gained an Oxbridge offer . In September 2004 , the school was designated a music and mathematics specialist school , which means it receives additional funding for those subjects . In 2007 , the school was invited to become a High Performing Specialist School , and in April 2008 was successful in attaining science specialism status . As mathematics is automatically included under a science specialism , the school selected English to be included under the first specialism . The Judd School is now a music with English and science with mathematics specialist school . = = History = = = = = Early years : 1888 – 1918 = = = The Judd School was established in 1888 , but the need for a secondary school to supplement Sir Andrew Judd 's Grammar School ( now known as the famous Public School : Tonbridge School ) was acknowledged as early as 1870 , after it was revealed that only one in 200 of its students was the son of a Tonbridge tradesman . Tonbridge School was founded in 1553 by Sir Andrew Judd , who made a fortune in the Muscovy fur trade during the 16th century . His endowment was left in the hands of the Skinners Company , who agreed to fund the establishment of a commercial school in Tonbridge in 1875 . However , the Charity Commissioners – empowered by the 1869 Endowed Schools Act to govern the establishment of charitably funded schools – directed that the £ 20 @,@ 000 provided by The Skinners ' Company for this cause be taken to neighbouring Tunbridge Wells , where it was used to establish The Skinners ' School in September 1887 . Demand persisted for a similar school in Tonbridge ; in July 1888 , William J. D. Bryant , previously an assistant master at Tonbridge School , was named headmaster of Sir Andrew Judd 's Commercial School , which opened on 17 September at Stafford House in East Street , Tonbridge . The funds were provided by a loan of £ 13 @,@ 000 repaid over the next 20 years with income from the Judd Foundation ( of which The Skinners ' Company were trustees ) , which rapidly increased when the leases on the Sandhills Estate in London were renewed in 1906 . The school also benefited from at least £ 500 per year from the Judd Foundation , after funding for Tonbridge School was reduced . Although established on a tentative basis , the school 's early success led to its move to a larger , purpose @-@ built site in south Tonbridge in 1896 . William Bryant retired as headmaster in 1908 and was replaced by John Evans , appointed in preference to the 217 other applicants for the post . Previously headmaster of Ashford Grammar School , Evans took up his new position at the conclusion of the autumn term . He oversaw a period of change and modernisation , including the transition from gas to electric lighting , and the introduction of a house system in 1909 . Soon after the outbreak of the First World War the school was requisitioned by the War Office to house two brigades , from Folkestone and Aldershot . In 1917 , the school Cadet Corps was established , which within one month consisted of 120 students . The following year , and according to Taylor ( 1988 ) " much to the Headmaster 's distaste " , the first female teachers were appointed after the deaths of several male members of staff . = = = Inter @-@ war years : 1919 – 1939 = = = In June 1919 , soon after the passage of Education Act 1918 , the school successfully applied for grant @-@ earning status and became partly state @-@ funded . As a consequence , it became necessary to introduce a composite governing board ( including public representatives ) and to offer free places , equal to 25 percent of the normal number of admissions . In 1925 , the school saw its first students enter the Oxbridge universities and changed its name to simply The Judd School . Evans retired in 1928 and was replaced by Welshman Cecil Lloyd Morgan who beat 164 other applicants to a job which carried an annual salary of £ 650 . He oversaw a change in the curriculum such that each form was divided into two streams , of which one took Latin , the other more vocational subjects . Morgan continued as many of the Judd customs as long as he could , including the tradition of donating £ 20 per year to send a Barnardo boy to Australia or Canada . = = = Second World War : 1939 – 1945 = = = The outbreak of the Second World War on 3 September 1939 delayed the commencement of the Autumn Term until trenches could be dug at the school . To avoid the bombing raids , 369 students of the Westminster City School in London were evacuated to The Judd School in the relative safety of Tonbridge . Initially , each school used the facilities three days per week , but Taylor ( 1988 ) notes that " imaginative timetables " enabled all Judd pupils to attend five days a week by the end of 1941 . The Westminster boys were instructed to further evacuate to Exmouth , Devon in July 1944 , but ended up fleeing back to London . In a bombing raid that same year a rocket shell exploded in a neighbouring field , destroying more than 200 panes of glass and numerous doors and windows . By the end of the war , 60 former pupils had lost their lives , and 48 were decorated . On 31 December 1944 , The Judd School became the first in the country to be awarded the status of a voluntarily aided grammar school in new legislation brought in by the Butler Education Act , which meant it received state funding , but could continue to select pupils by ability . = = = Post @-@ war years : 1945 – 1986 = = = Francis Hillier Taylor , previously senior history master at The Skinners ' School , was appointed as Morgan 's successor at the end of the spring term in 1946 , a position that attracted 321 applications . During his tenure , Taylor significantly expanded the school facilities : in 1948 , the headmaster 's living quarters were converted to include a secretaries office , waiting room and medical inspection room ( the headmaster moved to neighbouring Brook House , which was purchased by The Skinners ' Company ) . In 1955 , new geography rooms were constructed , followed three years later by a new gymnasium . Although not first used until two years later , a swimming pool was constructed in 1964 at the cost of £ 9 @,@ 000 . Taylor also introduced some major curriculum changes , including the introduction of new subjects such as rural biology and zoology . Denis Rendall took over in 1970 , at a time when the future of the school was under threat from the Circular 10 / 65 , which proposed the abolition of grammar schools , which select pupils according to their academic ability , in favour of the comprehensive schools , which are non @-@ selective state funded schools . He oversaw the building of the new art and crafts department building , currently the R.E. block , which opened in May 1974 , and the purchase of a neighbouring detached house , 10 Brook Street , by the Kent Education Committee . Known as " Lawton 's " , this building is now used by the economics and business departments and for music technology . Rendall experienced a high turnover of staff : 31 teachers were at the school in the year of his arrival , and 43 joined and left the school between 1970 and 1986 . He increased the number of female staff from zero to seven during his tenure , and the student body grew from 463 to 746 during these years . = = = Recent years : 1986 – present = = = Rendall was succeeded in 1986 by Keith Starling , who further developed and expanded the school to celebrate its centenary ; the £ 2 million Cohen Building was constructed in 1991 , followed by a £ 1 @.@ 4 million music centre in 1995 . More recent developments include the Library Building , built in 2002 , and a new sports hall in 2003 ; much of the construction funds was raised by parents . After Starling 's retirement in 2004 , Robert Masters was appointed as his replacement and oversaw the school 's transition to music and maths specialist status in 2004 . Following an " outstanding " result in a 2007 Ofsted inspection , the school was invited to become a High Performing Specialist School and in April 2008 was successful in attaining science specialism status . As mathematics is automatically included under a science specialism , the school selected English to join music under the first specialism . Mr Masters also organised the building of the school 's all @-@ weather pitch , which was completed in 2006 . = = Governance = = The Judd School foundation document , which was approved by Queen Victoria on 15 October 1889 , stipulated that the Board of Governors had right of appointment and dismissal of the headmaster , who has the same powers over the rest of the staff . Major decisions were made by The Skinners ' Company , but its powers were restricted by the Charity Commissioners , who were granted considerable powers under the Endowed Schools Act . Soon after the First World War , in the wake of the Education Act 1918 , the Burnham Scale of teachers salaries came into force and the school was forced to enter into negotiations with the Kent Education Committee to meet the increased expenditure ; the Court of The Skinners ' Company approved the school becoming grant earning in June 1919 . It became necessary to appoint a composite governing body , a third of them public representatives nominated by the Kent Education Committee , who also had some control over school affairs . Subsequently a fee of one guinea was paid to those who attended meetings of the governing body , the first of which was held on 4 February 1920 , at Skinners ' Hall in London . After applying for voluntary aided status , the school was required to adopt new Articles of Government on 31 December , 1944 . It became the first school in the country to be awarded the dual control of state funding and limited independence . The Kent Education Committee funded free dinners for some pupils , travel and maintenance grants and created a common entrance exam . The current governing body consists of a chair and vice chair , ten foundation governors ( elected by the Worshipful Company of Skinners ) , three parent governors , two Local Education Authority ( LEA ) governors , three staff governors , an education officer and clerk , education assistant , assistant clerk and the headmaster . = = School structure = = The majority of the school 's first pupils joined from Gordon House , which was a successful private school on Hadlow Road run by T. E. Grice ; after it was decided that the two schools should not compete , Grice was appointed deputy headmaster of The Judd School . On the opening day , 40 boys were in attendance , rising to 50 by the end of the first term and to 115 in 1902 . In 1917 , the school had 244 pupils , which increased to 308 over the next 11 years , and reached 376 in 1935 . In 1952 , 380 boys were on the roll , which included 42 sixth form students . Under Denis Rendall , the school experienced a strong growth in numbers ; in 1970 , there were 463 pupils , increasing to 689 in 1978 , and to 742 in 1986 . At the last Ofsted inspection in 2007 , The Judd School had 933 students . According to the school , as of 2010 the student body is made up of 935 students : 625 in the lower school and 310 in the sixth form , including about 60 girls . Many students come from affluent backgrounds and very few require free school meals ; the number of students with disabilities , learning difficulties and special educational needs is well below the national average . The majority of students go on to higher education at the end of Year Thirteen . The house system was first established in 1909 , when there were three houses : Alpha , Beta and Gamma , each of which had a house master and captain . Boys remained in the same house for their entire school career , and would be joined by any siblings . Every year , the houses competed for the House Shield ; points were awarded for all forms of competitions , from sword dancing to vaulting . In 1914 , house colours were introduced ; purple for Alpha , green for Beta , and scarlet for Gamma . As the student body increased , a fourth house – Delta – was formed in 1917 , for which the colour was yellow . The house system was abolished in the 1980s , but re @-@ introduced in September 2008 , with houses named after notable alumni . The four houses are : Duke ( after Neville Duke ) , Hodge ( after Donald Hodge ) , Lewin ( after Terence Lewin ) and Powell ( after Cecil Frank Powell ) . = = = Lower school = = = In its early years , boys entered the school mainly from local elementary ( now known as primary ) schools from ages eight onwards ; at that time , the maximum age of a pupil was 16 , although any boy who reached this age during the course of a term was permitted to remain until the end of that term . In 1908 , a government inspection noted that the average pupil remained at the school for three and a half years and left the school between the ages of 14 and 15 , and that 20 percent of the intake held scholarships . The lower school as it is today was first established by the " Five Year Plan " following a government inspection in 1933 . In 1944 , following the Butler Education Act , entrance to the school was gained through a common entrance exam , aged 11 or 12 ; five boys offered themselves for each place , and most came from local primary schools . Prior to the establishment of the sixth form , The Judd School passed several boys to Tonbridge School , or other grammar schools , to complete their education to the age of 18 or 19 ; £ 20 was paid as a leaving scholarship . As of 2010 , the lower school has an annual intake of around 125 boys at the beginning of Year Seven ( aged 11 ) . The lower school ( Years 7 – 11 ) is 625 students ( all boys ) strong , for whom the school uniform consists of a navy blazer accompanied with the school badge on the breast pocket , with grey trousers and a grey or white shirt . Socks must be dark , and shoes must be black . Shirts must be worn with a tie , which varies according to the house in which the student is placed ; green for Powell , blue for Lewin , purple for Hodge and red for Duke . = = = Sixth form = = = The Judd School sixth form can be said to have been established as early as 1903 – in the wake of the Education Act of 1902 – when the Pupil Teachers Scheme was born and The Judd School was used a training centre for young teachers . However , normal pupils above the age of 16 were not permitted until 1919 ; previously special permission from the governors was required to stay on beyond this age . A 1952 government inspection stated that 42 students were in the sixth form . Judd 's sixth form has significantly grown over the last decade , consisting of 308 students at the last Ofsted inspection in 2007 . A minimum of 40 offers per year will be made to external applicants ; girls are admitted in Year Twelve ( aged 16 ) and make up about 16 percent of the sixth form . The sixth form has its own Common Room in the main school building , including a dedicated cafeteria and study area . Boys may wear a dark grey or black suit , plain black , grey or navy V @-@ neck sweater and a scarf of a plain colour . Girls may wear plain tailored suits ( skirt or trousers ) in black , navy or dark grey . Shirts may be plain grey , blue or white . There is a sixth form house tie available , although girls may choose to wear a pin badge instead . = = = Staff = = = In July 1904 , The Judd School participated in the Pupil Teachers Scheme on an experimental basis . Established in the 1902 Education Act , students would receive a normal secondary education , before receiving two years training , splitting their time between a Pupil Teachers Centre and practical experience at elementary and secondary schools . The experiment was dropped soon after the First World War . When the school became grant earning in 1919 , the additional funds meant teachers received pensions under the School Teachers ' Superannuation Act of 1918 . In 1970 , 31 staff taught 463 boys ; 45 taught 745 in 1988 . According to the 2009 school prospectus , there are 71 teaching staff , 20 visiting music staff and 36 additional support , administration and maintenance staff . = = Admission = = The Judd School opened as a day school for local pupils living with their parents , between the ages of eight and 16 . According to the foundation document , the conditions of entry were possession of a " good character " and " sufficient health " ; sons of freemen of The Skinners ' Company were given preference when the number of applicants exceeded the places available . During his tenure , William Bryant attempted to extend admission to boarders and estimated the costs to be £ 50 per term ( including fees ) , but the Board of Governors rejected the idea . However , when a lack of public transport made day @-@ to @-@ day travel to the school impractical , boys were permitted to lodge from neighbouring villages and would stay at masters ' homes or at hostels approved by the governors . Entry to the school was conditional upon a pupil passing an entrance exam , which would vary according to the age of the boy . However , the foundation document stipulated that every boy had to be able read , write from dictation and perform sums in the " first four simple rules of Arithmetic , with the multiplication table " . In 1944 , The Butler Education Act confirmed The Judd School as a grammar school , at which time it applied for voluntarily aided status , which required it to abolish fees under the principle of universal free education . The school was required to offer entrance via an entrance examination , now known as the Eleven Plus , which pupils take aged 10 or 11 , depending on their date of birth . Provision was made for pupils to enter aged 13 or 14 , for those that had failed the test two years earlier . While defining the school @-@ leaving age as 15 , the act granted the government the power to raise the age to 16 " as soon as the Minister is satisfied that it has become practicable " , which happened in 1973 . Admission continues to be via the Eleven Plus examination ; The Judd School complies with the Co @-@ ordinated Admission Scheme which is administered by the Kent Local Authority . All pupils must have gained a selective place through the Eleven Plus and placed The Judd School as a preference on their application form . Because the school is usually over @-@ subscribed , priority is given to students in Local Authority Care in the first instance . Students are then ranked according to their aggregate scores in the Eleven Plus , and the distance from a students home to the school ( as the crow flies ) is used as a tiebreaker . Pupils are also admitted to the sixth form aged 16 or 17 , for which similar criteria is applied . External students must have at least five predicted A * GCSEs and will be given conditional offers based on how high their predicted grades are . In the event of over @-@ subscription , priority will be given to internal applicants , followed by external applicants in Local Authority Care . Students are then ranked according to their predicted or actual GCSE results , and the distance to school is again used as a tiebreaker . Should entrance be refused for any reason , parents have a statutory right of appeal , which is heard by the governors of the school . In 2007 , the school was ordered to pay compensation to two pupils after it was deemed that they did not receive fair appeals because of what the Local Government Ombudsman deemed " inappropriate links " between the appeals panel and the governors . = = = Fees = = = The foundation document stipulated that fees were to be fixed by the governors and could range from £ 4 – 8 per year ; in 1888 , the fees charged were £ 7 / 10s per year . Provision was made for the allocation of scholarships to the value of the tuition fees for one in every ten boys in the school ; one @-@ half of the scholarships were arranged by the governors and awarded only to boys who had spent three years education in a public elementary school . Around the turn of the 20th century , an attempt was made to attract younger boys into the school by reducing fees for those under the age of 12 from £ 2 / 20s to £ 2 per term . In July 1919 , the school applied for grant @-@ earning status , and as a result 25 percent of the places became free . As part of this change , the fee structure was changed to £ 3 / 10s per term , or ten guineas per annum . In 1944 , in accordance with the Butler Education Act , fees were abolished under the principle of universal free education . Parents are encouraged to contribute to The Judd School Development Fund , which raises money for future construction projects . Parents who cannot contribute are required to write a letter of explanation to the headmaster . = = Curriculum = = The first prospectus promised " religious instruction in accordance with the principles of the Christian Faith " and the following subjects : reading , writing , arithmetic , geography , history , English ( grammar , composition , and literature ) , Latin , at least one other foreign European language , mathematics , book @-@ keeping , natural science , drawing , drill , and vocal music . It also said that instruction may also be given " in the use of tools for working in wood " , for which a carpentry shed was placed in the yard of Stafford House . At the turn of the 20th century , 15 subjects were taught and lessons lasted one hour ; school began at nine , and the day included 15 minutes of hymns , prayers and roll calls . German was first introduced into the curriculum in 1931 , the same time at which the school began to offer voluntary after @-@ school art classes . F. H. Taylor attempted to achieve equilibrium in the curriculum between arts and science subjects ; he made woodwork and art continuous for an entire term and introduced a geography course for the Higher School Certificate . In 1948 rural biology was added to the curriculum for the first time , for which the headmaster provided a plot of land to be used as a vegetable plot . At the end of that year , an after @-@ school study period was introduced ; following the seven normal periods ( five in the morning , two in the afternoon ) , students were to either begin their homework , or attend a school society . However , the 1950s saw a definite swing towards maths and science , and a subsequent increase in staffing in those departments . In 1957 , zoology and botany was taught at A @-@ level for the first time , and physics and chemistry replaced rural biology at O @-@ level ( now replaced by the GCSE ) . As of 2010 , the school follows the National Curriculum in Years 7 – 11 and offers a broad range of GCSEs ( national exams taken by students aged 14 – 16 ) and A @-@ levels ( national exams taken by pupils aged 16 – 18 ) . The school has no affiliation with a particular religious denomination , but religious education is given throughout the school , and boys may opt to take the subject as part of their GCSE course . Although morning assemblies take place and are Christian in nature , they are non @-@ denominational . Students participate in a number of educational visits and excursions throughout their school career and Year Eleven students participate in a nine @-@ day work experience programme . The curriculum comprises English and Drama , Mathematics , French , Latin , History , Geography , Physics , Chemistry , Biology , Art , Music , Design Technology , Religious Education , Physical Education ( P.E. ) and Games and Personal , Social and Health Education ( P.S.H.E. ) . In the second year German is added and in Mathematics , students are divided based on their ability . The use of Information Technology is central to all teaching and is taught as a discrete subject in Years 7 and 8 . Boys usually take ten subjects for GCSE , English ( Language and Literature ) , Mathematics , a foreign language , all three separate sciences or Dual Certificate Science , supplemented by three other subjects from those listed above . In the sixth form , pupils study five AS @-@ level ( the equivalent of half an A @-@ level qualification ) subjects for one year , which may include General Studies and usually continue with three or four subjects to A @-@ level . A wide choice of subjects is offered at A @-@ level : English , French , German , Latin , Classical Civilisation , Art , Design and Technology , Music , Geography , History , Economics , Government and Politics , Business Studies , Mathematics , Further Mathematics , Physics , Chemistry , Biology , Religious Studies and P.E. Most combinations of subjects can be accommodated . All students participate in a games activity on a Wednesday afternoon . The school year runs from September to July , split across three terms : the autumn term ( September to December ) , spring term ( January to April ) and the summer term ( April to July ) . Students receive two weeks off for Christmas and Easter , a six @-@ week summer break , and three " half term " breaks . = = = Examination = = = Until the establishment of the General Certificate of Education , exams were set once a year by an external examiner ( s ) appointed by the governors , who reported in writing on the general proficiency of pupils , as well as the condition of the school . A 1902 report by examiner Dr Wormell found that the curriculum was " sufficient to help those few capable of rising to something higher by providing a bridge between elementary school and grammar school " . He criticised the absence of German tuition and the fact that more than half the students came " feebly taught from country districts " . The headmaster would also submit a written report to the governors . In 1951 , the school adopted the General Certificate of Education , but students were barred from taking any exams before the age of 16 , which meant that many students left school without any qualifications because of the sheer necessity of leaving school to contribute to household income . The system became more rational in time , but often pupils were taking O @-@ levels and A @-@ levels simultaneously . As of 2010 , the school offers GCSEs to students in the lower school , and AS / A @-@ levels to students in the sixth form . Under Rendall , exam pass rates at A @-@ level increased from 67 @.@ 5 percent in 1970 , peaking at 95 percent in 1984 before decreasing slightly to 92 percent in 1987 . O @-@ level / GCSE results have similarly improved , reaching a peak of 88 percent pass rate in 1978 . League tables published by the BBC based on 2008 A @-@ level results rank Judd as the fourth best school in Kent . According to the BBC , in 2009 A @-@ level students achieved an average of 999 @.@ 2 QCDA points , against a national average of 739 @.@ 1 and 100 percent of students achieved five or more grade C results ( or equivalent ) at GCSE , including Maths and English . In its league table of the 500 best state secondary schools in the United Kingdom , The Sunday Times ranked The Judd School 27th . = = Extra @-@ curricular activities = = School clubs and societies include various language clubs , sport clubs , musical activities , politics and debating societies , a Voluntary Service Unit , Young Enterprise and many others . Students may also participate in the Duke of Edinburgh 's Award Scheme . Now defunct school societies have included a Young Farmers Club , Jazz Society , Science Society , Stamp Club , Literary and Debating Society , and the League of Nations Union . Extra @-@ curricular musical opportunities include : Choir , Junior Singers , Chamber Choir , Judd Brass , Big Bands , String Orchestra , Concert Band , Symphony Orchestra and Junior Orchestra ; students give up to 40 concerts per year . Instrumental lessons are available through the school , for which a charge is made . Organised drama at the school began at the latest in 1929 , with performances including Richard II and Julius Caesar . Despite the minimum of theatrical equipment , Taylor ( 1988 ) notes that " much has been achieved " and at times the headmaster himself took a leading role . The school cadet corps , a national program now known as the Combined Cadet Force , was formed towards the end of 1917 and 120 cadets were recruited within a month . The governors provided £ 25 towards their initial expenses , and volunteers contributed haversacks , water bottles , dummy rifles and trips to summer camp . Training initially took place on the Tonbridge School rifle range . By 1952 , the number of volunteer cadets had fallen to 90 . During the 1970s , numbers averaged about 150 cadets . The school 's Combined Cadet Force currently comprises both an Army and a Royal Air Force Section with a total establishment strength of 120 cadets , who meet on Friday afternoons following a full school day . Membership remains voluntary , and boys can join from Year Nine ( aged 13 – 14 ) . = = = Sport = = = At lower school level , there are regular games for " A " and " B " teams in most sports , so that many of the students have the chance to represent the school ; in Year Seven there are even " C " , " D " , " E " and " F " rugby matches from time to time . There is also a programme of inter @-@ house competitions , including one designed specifically for those who are not school team players . The main games are rugby football , cross @-@ country and basketball during the winter months , and cricket , tennis and athletics during the summer term . The school adopted the rugby code of football in 1923 , at which time it was played on soccer pitches ; the first games against other schools were played during the 1925 – 26 season , and rugby was played by all students by 1927 . As of 2010 , " A " and " B " rugby teams play against the likes of Tonbridge School , RGS High Wycombe , Whitgift School and local grammar schools . The biggest sporting rivalry in the Judd sporting calendar is the annual match against The Skinners ' School , played on the second Saturday of October , alternating between Southfields and the Yeomans pitches . In recent years crowd numbers have swelled to 1 @,@ 000 supporters on occasions . The fixture is notorious for generating noisy , passionate , support with fans from both sides interacting in a humorous and banterous manner . Boys are often rewarded for their efforts with international tours and rugby sevens is also played at the school . In the 2008 – 09 season the under @-@ 15 rugby team advanced to the final of the national schools Daily Mail Cup at Twickenham on 1 April 2009 but lost 11 – 34 to Millfield . Football had been played at the school since its foundation and in 1908 , despite the inadequacy of the school 's pitches , was the primary winter game . However , by 1925 rugby was the predominant winter sport , and three years later soccer balls were banned from the school . Burgess ( 2000 ) notes that The Judd School has a " fine reputation for its cricket teams " , and as the primary summer game , the sport remains popular today . During the 1890s , the cricket balls used by the team were made in Tonbridge . The Judd School offers cricket academies from Year Eight ( aged 12 – 13 ) onwards , with training available all year round in the four indoor nets within the Sports Hall . In 2004 , the school 's cross country team became the first school in a decade to end the dominance of public schools Winchester College and St Albans School at the Knole run in Sevenoaks . The school cross country squad have an annual training camp in Lanzarote in December , which acts as both a reward for effort and a valuable warm @-@ weather training camp in preparation for January 's Knole Run . The school holds weekly matches against local schools as well as competing in the National Schools Cup at both junior and Intermediate level . During lunchtime and after school practice sessions for other athletics events , including the high jump , discuss and javelin , are offered for pupils of all ages . School teams compete in other sports such as basketball , tennis and hockey . = = Property = = = = = Stafford House = = = Upon its foundation , when – according to Green ( 1990 ) – it was said to be a " temporary expedient " , the school was based at Stafford House , in East Street in the centre of Tonbridge . Previously used by private tutor Isaac Fleming in 1878 , it was a building whose central urban position was , Taylor ( 1988 ) said , a " major asset , and possibly the only one " ; Headmaster Bryant " bore its numerous shortcomings , its bricked ambience and grasslessness " . Positioned in a narrow street and originally designed for 20 boarders , traffic noise , awkward arrangement and low pitch of the classrooms and the distance of the school from its playing fields made the building far from ideal . It underwent repairs and alterations to the value of £ 300 , carried out by a local builder ; several partition walls were knocked down to form larger rooms , although this still restricted the bench length in even the widest of the rooms to 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) , and 18 pupils . The floor of the main schoolroom was restored and lavatory closets and urinals were installed . Later , a carpentry shed was placed in the yard , and a " Mr Russell " was appointed as its first occupant in October 1889 . " Mr Beeching 's field " was used – at what Taylor ( 1988 ) considered " an extortionate sum " – for games , but it was unavailable for four months of the year when it was used to grow hay . Beeching ended this arrangement in April 1889 , at which time the school used the 5 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) YMCA field , for £ 20 per year . In June of that year , a shed to house cricket equipment was constructed at the cost of £ 13 / 10s . It was soon decided that there was a need for more " wholesome " surroundings , and it was generally accepted that south Tonbridge would be more suitable for the development of a new school . = = = Brook Street site = = = After Bloodshotts field ( the current location of Tonbridge Grammar School ) was rejected as an inferior site , " Mr Deacon 's Field " in Haysden Lane ( now Brook Street ) was acquired from Sir Edmund Hardinge 's trustees for £ 240 per acre , a total of £ 2 @,@ 059 . At one point owned by Sir Andrew Judd , the site consisted of 8 acres ( 3 @.@ 2 ha ) of land , which according to Taylor ( 1988 ) sloped " gently from the road to the rear of the site " . Plans , by Campbell Jones , were submitted to the headmaster in July 1883 ; they included a covered playground , red @-@ bricked buildings incorporating local sandstone , Broseley roof tiles and a small basement housing a boiler . The construction was carried out by Messrs Turners of Watford , and total construction costs were £ 8 @,@ 637 . Nearly two years later , on 27 April 1895 , the Foundation Stone was laid , at which time Lewis Boyd Sebastian , Master of The Skinners ' Company performed a small ceremony . Opened in March 1896 , the building featured an oak Neo @-@ Georgian fleche surmounting an Oregon pine hammer @-@ beamed roof . The principal entrance was carved by Messrs Lornie of London and featured shields bearing the coat of arms of Sir Andrew Judd and the company , the only architectural flourish allowed by the low budget . In addition to the " schoolroom " , which was larger than the Town Public Hall , the building consisted of a dining hall ( cum gymnasium ) , the masters common room to the east and a block of six classrooms to the west . The headmaster 's house was completed at the same time as the main school building , and had five bedrooms wired with electric bells , and a bathroom plumbed with hot and cold water . In November 1920 , an organ was built at a cost of over £ 1 @,@ 000 , and placed in the schoolroom as a memorial to the old boys and masters who died in the First World War . A new gymnasium was constructed after a 1956 survey deemed its predecessor economically irreparable . Accompanied by the construction of three hard tennis courts , it was opened by Sir Benjamin Brodie in 1958 , but lacked adjoining changing rooms , washing facilities and office facilities for members of the physical education staff . Now known as " Lawton 's " , 10 Brook Street was purchased during the early 1970s using funds provided by the Kent Education Committee , after whose chairman the building is now named . A £ 2 million classroom and technology building ( the " Cohen Building " ) , together with two new science laboratories , was opened in 1991 . A new music centre , financed by voluntary donations , was opened in 1995 and a schoolroom annexe followed in 1997 . The most recent developments are a library / classroom building in 2002 , a new sports hall in 2003 and an all @-@ weather pitch in 2006 . The Atwell Building , formerly known as the " Maths @-@ Geography Block " , opened in 2009 after suffering delays after the original building contractor went out of business . The school grounds have sufficient space for two rugby pitches and training grids in the winter months , or a 200 @-@ metre ( 660 ft ) running track , and a cricket ground ( with nets ) for summer . There are also three asphalt tennis courts , an air rifle range used by the school 's Combined Cadet Force , and an open @-@ air swimming pool . = = = Yeoman 's fields = = = The " Yeoman 's fields " site was purchased after a government inspection in 1933 recommended the school seek more land . The site consists of 6 @.@ 8 acres ( 2 @.@ 8 ha ) of level , dry land that requires little conditioning , making it ideal for the full @-@ sized rugby pitches , which came into regular use in 1935 . Previously part of meadlow land termed the " Townlands " , it was purchased by the Kent Education Committee from the Town Wardens and soon equipped with hedges , lavatories and a pavilion . In 1939 , trenches were dug in the field in preparation for the Second World War . On the 26 April 2016 , it was revealed that the " Yeoman 's fields " site had been sold to help fund a new set of playing fields , which will be situated near Lower Haysden Lane . The new playing fields will tackle the issue of increasing student numbers and provide four rugby pitches , a cricket square and artificial strip and car parking in the 26 acres of land . This has caused some controversy in the Tonbridge community as the proposed development will be situated in an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty . = = Notable former pupils = = Former pupils notable for their military careers are Neville Duke , a World War Two fighter pilot ; Donald Hodge , one of the last surviving veterans of the First World War , and Terence Lewin , former Chief of the Defence Staff and Admiral of the Fleet . Sportsmen alumni include professional rugby player Martin Purdy and David Fulton , former captain of the Kent County Cricket Club . Other notable former students are Cecil Frank Powell , winner of a Nobel Prize in physics ; Humphrey Burton , former head of BBC Music ; Bernard Hailstone , a Royal portrait painter ; Ronald Ralph Williams , former Bishop of Leicester and Guy Hands , chief executive officer of Terra Firma Capital Partners . Tom Greatrex MP and Shadow Scotland Office Minister , who represented the constituency of Rutherglen & Hamilton West , attended Judd between 1986 and 1993 .
= Thomas Pownall = Thomas Pownall ( bapt . 4 September 1722 ( New Style ) – 25 February 1805 ) was a British politician and colonial official . He was governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay from 1757 to 1760 , and afterward served in the British Parliament . He travelled widely in the North American colonies prior to the American Revolutionary War , opposed Parliamentary attempts to tax the colonies , and was a minority advocate of colonial positions until the Revolution . Classically educated and well @-@ connected to the colonial administration in London , Pownall first travelled to North America in 1753 , and spent two years exploring the colonies before being appointed Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey in 1755 . He became governor of Massachusetts in 1757 after helping engineer the recall of longtime Governor William Shirley . His administration was dominated by the French and Indian War ( called the " Seven Years War " in England ) in which Pownall was instrumental in raising Massachusetts provincial militia for the war effort . He opposed military interference in colonial administration , including attempts to quarter British troops in private homes , and had a generally positive relationship with the colonial assembly . Returning to England in 1760 , he continued to be interested in colonial affairs , publishing widely read materials on conditions in the colonies , including several editions of The Administration of the Colonies . As a Member of Parliament he regularly advocated for colonial positions without much success , but supported the war effort once the Revolutionary War began . In the early 19th century he became an early advocate of the reduction or removal of trade barriers , and the establishment of a solid relationship between Britain and the United States . Several writers have proposed that Pownall was Junius , a pseudonymous writer of letters critical of British governmental practices . John Adams wrote , " Pownall was the most constitutional and national Governor , in my opinion , who ever represented the crown in this province . " = = Early life = = Thomas Pownall was the eldest son of William and Sarah ( Burniston ) Pownall . His father was a country gentleman and soldier whose poor health and early death in 1735 caused the family to fall upon hard times . Baptised 4 September 1722 ( New Style ) in Lincoln , England , Thomas was educated at Lincoln Grammar School and at Trinity College , Cambridge , where he graduated in 1743 . His education exposed him to classic and current philosophers , and the sciences . His first publication , a treatise on the origins of government published in 1752 , began as notes developed at Cambridge . During his years at Cambridge , his younger brother John acquired a job at the Board of Trade , which oversaw British colonial affairs , and rapidly rose in the bureaucracy . The brothers were influential supporters of each other in their efforts to advance . John secured a job for Thomas in the colonial office , where he was exposed to the possibilities for advancement and influence in colonial postings . In 1753 he went to America as private secretary to Sir Danvers Osborne , just appointed governor of New York . Osborne committed suicide several days after reaching New York , leaving Pownall without a job and a sponsor . Pownall chose to remain in America , devoting himself to studying the condition of the American colonies . In the following months he travelled widely , from Maryland to Massachusetts . He was introduced into the highest circles of leadership and society in the colonies , and established relationships with a number of influential people , including Benjamin Franklin and Massachusetts Governor William Shirley . One item of importance that Governor Osborne had been instructed to deal with was rising discontent among the Iroquois whose territory abutted New York ( and is now central and western Upstate New York ) . Pownall had studied the matter , and he was consequently invited by his Pennsylvania connections to attend the 1754 Albany Congress as an observer . His observations on the nature of colonial dealings with the Indians ( including political infighting for control of the Indian trade , and the corrupt and fraudulent acquisition of Indian lands ) led him to draft a number of proposals related to colonial administration . He proposed the establishment of a crown @-@ appointed superintendent of Indian affairs , specifically William Johnson , New York 's commissioner for Indian affairs . He also articulated visions for managing the expansion of the colonies to the west . After the conference he returned to Philadelphia . In this time he apparently cemented a close friendship with Franklin , with whom he began to invest in business ventures . Franklin , who had unsuccessfully proposed colonial union at the Albany conference , may have contributed to Pownall 's writings , although the exact nature of his influence is unclear . While in Philadelphia he also established a close collaboration with cartographer Lewis Evans , both of whom recognized the need for accurate maps of the inland regions of North America then being disputed with New France in the French and Indian War . The map Evans published in 1755 was dedicated to Pownall , and brought the latter wide publicity . Pownall 's recommendation of Johnson as superintendent of Indian affairs was also implemented by the crown in 1755 . = = Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey = = Pownall had been living at his own expense , in the hopes that a posting would eventually come his way . In May 1755 he was appointed Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey , with little responsibility beyond anticipating the death of the aging governor , Jonathan Belcher , and attending military conferences concerning the ongoing war . Belcher , however , proved to be longer lived than expected ( he died in 1757 ) , and Pownall was restless . The military conferences drew him into an ongoing power struggle between Johnson and Shirley ( who rose to become military commander @-@ in @-@ chief upon the death of General Edward Braddock in July 1755 ) over the management of Indian affairs . Johnson capitalized on Pownall 's concern over frontier security to draw him into his camp . Pownall already harboured some dislike of Shirley over an earlier snub , and his reports to New York Governor Sir Charles Hardy , combined with damaging allegations provided by other Johnson supporters , led to Shirley 's dismissal as commander @-@ in @-@ chief . Pownall returned to England in early 1756 , where he confirmed the Johnson allegations , and was rewarded with a post as " Secretary Extraordinary " ( a title of Pownall 's creation ) to the new commander @-@ in @-@ chief , Lord Loudoun . While Pownall was in England , Shirley 's reputation was further damaged by allegations ( not apparently furthered by Pownall 's action ) that he had let military information fall into enemy hands , and the Board of Trade decided to recall him . Pownall was also offered the governorship of Pennsylvania by its proprietors ; however , his demands for wide @-@ ranging powers in the post led them to retract the offer . Pownall turned this to his own advantage , widely publicizing the fact that he had turned down the offer because of the " unreasonable , unenlightened attitude of the proprietors . " He accompanied Loudoun back to America in July 1756 , but again returned to England to represent Loudoun in hearings on Shirley 's military leadership . Loudoun also instructed him on his military plans and objectives . In London he became closely involved in informing members of the new Pitt @-@ Newcastle Ministry of the state of affairs in North America . His performance in these matters resulted in his appointment as governor of Massachusetts in March 1757 . Although he was admired for his competence in colonial affairs , he was also criticised for his vanity and temper , as well as his role in bringing about Shirley 's fall . = = Governor of Massachusetts Bay = = Pownall arrived in Boston in early August . He was well received , and assumed his duties on August 3 . He was immediately thrust into a war @-@ related crisis : a French force was reported to be moving toward Fort William Henry in northern New York , and the military commander there had made an urgent call for militia . Pownall was energetic in organizing the militia , but the call to arms came too late : Fort William Henry fell after a brief siege that was followed by some of the worst Indian atrocities of the war . In September 1757 Pownall travelled to New Jersey to attend the funeral of Governor Jonathan Belcher , and stopped in New York to meet with Loudoun . The commander @-@ in @-@ chief was upset that the Massachusetts General Court had not fully implemented a variety of demands he had made , and he held Pownall responsible . Pownall objected to the interference of the military in civilian affairs , the threat of which Loudoun used to implement his agenda , maintaining that it was necessary for the governor to lead , not drive , the provincial assembly . The meeting was acrimonious , and Loudoun afterward wrote a letter to London harshly criticising Pownall 's position , calling his ideas on governance " high @-@ handed " . Loudoun encountered opposition in the General Court ( the provincial assembly ) to a demand that British troops be billeted with civilians in Boston , and threatened to march additional troops into the province and take housing by force . Pownall requested that the General Court accede in some way to Loudoun 's demands , eventually signing a bill authorizing the quartering of troops in inns and other public spaces . This bill was unpopular , and Pownall was negatively cast in the local press as supportive of Loudoun and his policies . Pownall 's exchanges with Loudoun , however , show that he was keenly aware of the colonists ' position : " the inhabitants of this province are intitled to the natural rights of English born subjects ... the enjoyment of these rights ... will animate and encourage them to resist ... a cruel , invading enemy " . He was equally clear on the relationship between the royal governor and his assembly : " a governor must endeavour to lead those people for he cannot drive them and must lead them step by step as he can gett [ sic ] footing . " He was so committed to these ideas that he offered to resign ; however Loudoun encouraged him to remain in the post . Pownall would later author portions of the 1765 Quartering Act , a Parliamentary bill whose implementation was widely resisted in the colonies . In January 1758 Pownall wrote several letters to William Pitt , outlining the difficult issues surrounding relations between the colonial government and both the military and civil administrations of the British establishment . He specifically recommended that London offer to pay more of the colonial expenses of the war ; the implementation of this idea led to significantly increased militia recruitment in the remaining years of the war , including 7 @,@ 000 men from Massachusetts for the 1758 campaign . Pownall was able to move a bill through the General Court implementing reforms of the militia system . The bill did not include all of the changes Pownall sought in order to achieve a more flexible and less costly organization , and its terms also centered more power over the militia in the hands of local officials ( reducing the governor 's control ) . Despite these reforms , recruiting for the militia proved difficult , and recruiting parties were often harassed and stoned , leading to rioting on several occasions . Pownall was , however , successful in recruiting the province 's full quota of militia , and his energetic assistance in the war effort earned him approbation from William Pitt , the Board of Trade , and the new commander @-@ in @-@ chief , James Abercrombie . Flush with success , Pownall proposed to General Jeffery Amherst the idea of establishing a fort on Penobscot Bay to contest potential French movements in the area . The area had been the site of periodic frontier raids since 1755 , including a major attack on St. George in spring 1758 . This idea developed into a major expedition to the area , which received not only Amherst 's approval but that of the assembly . Pownall led the expedition , oversaw the construction of Fort Pownall , and counted it as a major success of the year . Its success kicked off a minor land rush in the area . Although Pownall 's start in power was a little rocky , his popularity in the province grew as his term progressed . He assiduously saw to the needs of its many fishermen , successfully convincing military authorities to eliminate burdensome red tape , and courted local merchants . He invested in ventures managed by Thomas and John Hancock , and was lauded by a group of Massachusetts merchants upon his departure . A bachelor , he was reported to be a ladies ' man and highly engaged in the social scene . Although he was not strongly religious , he regularly attended Anglican services , but was also a frequent visitor to local Congregational services . He successfully finessed contentious issues surrounding the recruitment , deployment , and provisioning of militia , negotiating compromises between military and provincial demands . He did , however , have a strained relationship with his lieutenant governor , Thomas Hutchinson . The two men never trusted each other , and Pownall regularly excluded Hutchinson from his inner council meetings , instead sending him on missions , for example to deal with militia recruitment issues . One of Pownall 's last acts before leaving the colony was to approve the appointment of James Otis , Sr. , a longtime Hutchinson adversary , as speaker of the assembly . In the later months of 1759 Pownall wrote a letter to William Pitt requesting leave to return to England because " I might be of some service " there . Biographer John Schutz speculates that the underlying reason for Pownall 's request were related to frustration with his exclusion from the major military actions of the later war years , and possibly his desire to acquire a more significant post , such as a governor @-@ generalship of conquered New France . Historian Bernard Bailyn is of the opinion that Pownall 's divisive dislike and distrust of Shirley supporters like Thomas Hutchinson and ensuing local political infighting contributed to the request , as did his difficult relationships with the military commanders . Whatever the reason , the Board of Trade engaged in a reshuffling of colonial positions after King George II died , and Pownall was given the governorship of South Carolina , and permission to first take leave in England . His departure from Boston was delayed by militia recruiting issues and the need to deal with the aftermath of a major fire in the city , and he did not leave until June 1760 . = = The Administration of the Colonies = = Although he held the governorship of South Carolina , he never actually went there . He characterised his term in Massachusetts as " arduous " , and informed the colonial office in November 1760 that he would only accept another governorship if the recently acceded King George III directly ordered it . Pitt appointed him to the military commissary 's office in the Electorate of Hanover , where he served until the Seven Years ' War ended in 1763 . The position did not further his career ambitions in colonial administration , however , and led to allegations of financial irregularities ( of which he was cleared ) . Upon his return to England he prepared for publication a treatise entitled The Administration of the Colonies . First published anonymously in 1764 , Pownall revised the work and republished the work several times between 1765 and 1777 . The work , a dry and complex treatise on the situation in North America that included commentary on the burgeoning tensions in the Thirteen Colonies , was intended by Pownall to explore how the colonies could properly be incorporated into a larger empire . Pownall 's work identified him as supportive of American liberty . Although he feared that Britain was losing control of its colonies , he wrote that the Americans were entitled to the same rights of representative government as their fellow subjects in England , Scotland , and Wales . At the same time , he insisted that the military protection that the colonists received from Britain created equally extensive obligations to help pay for some of the cost . He was also convinced of the need for a strong , central legislature capable of making common policies that would be binding for every member of the British empire , including the fractious provinces in North America . Pownall eventually decided that the only solution lay in creating an imperial parliament with representatives from both Britain and the colonies . Although he was not the only British commentator to embrace the idea of an imperial parliament , most Americans found it anathema , so much so that John Dickinson singled out his centralized plan of legislative reform for particular criticism in his influential Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania ( 1768 ) . = = Colonial supporter = = Pownall continued to communicate with political allies in Massachusetts , and was on several occasions called to appear before Parliamentary committees to comment on colonial affairs . He considered returning to Massachusetts if a post could be found , and began investing in property in Nova Scotia , extending his colonial property interests beyond those he had been granted in Maine during his governorship . In 1765 he married Harriet Fawkener , widow of Everard Fawkener and daughter to Lieutenant General Charles Churchill , giving him a connection to the aristocratic Dukes of Marlborough . Pownall raised her four children as his own . A gracious and intelligent woman , she became a partner in advancing his political career , hosting social events and encouraging his intellectual pursuits . She may have encouraged him to stand for Parliament in 1767 , when he won a seat representing Tregony . He renewed correspondence with officials in Massachusetts in the hopes of winning appointment as an agent representing the province 's interests , but was unsuccessful . He regularly received visitors from the colonies , and Benjamin Franklin , his old friend from Pennsylvania , was a frequent guest . He observed with alarm the rise in tension in the colonies and the missteps of Parliamentary leadership and colonial administration that exacerbated rather than reduced them . He used his position in Parliament to highlight the colonial objections to the Quartering Act of 1765 and other unpopular legislation . When troops were sent to Boston in 1768 after protests against the Townshend Acts turned violent , he took to the floor of Parliament , warning that the connections between Britain and the colonies were unraveling , and that the end result could be a permanent breach . Pownall was opposed to Lord North 's partial repeal in 1770 of the hated Townshend Acts , in which the tax on tea was retained as a symbol of Parliamentary power . In debate on the act , Pownall pointed out that retention of the tax would be a " millstone " around English necks rather than a yoke on American ones , and that it would lead to civil war . His speech was delivered March 5 , 1770 , the day of the Boston Massacre . Dispirited by his view that Parliament failed to understand the American colonial issues , he urged his colonial correspondents to continue to press constitutional issues and avoid violence . Colonial American issues then briefly subsided from the stage . In 1772 Pownall introduced legislation reforming food production and distribution in Great Britain . It passed the House of Commons , but was amended by the Lords , leading the Commons to reject the amended bill as a violation of its prerogatives . The bill passed the next year , and was called " Governor Pownall 's Bill " . It received much praise , including some from influential figures such as Adam Smith . Pownall was also honoured with membership in the Society of Antiquaries and the Royal Society . = = Revolution = = Following the Boston Tea Party in December 1773 , Parliament passed a series of bills designed to punish Massachusetts . Pownall was unable to sway opinion toward more conciliatory measures . He was also implicated in the Hutchinson Letters Affair as someone who may have delivered private letters of Thomas Hutchinson to Benjamin Franklin , although Franklin never identified his source for the letters . Pownall was unable to retain his seat : in 1774 he was voted out of office . Seeking to remain active , Pownall ended up appealing to Lord North , who secured a seat for him in a by @-@ election , representing Minehead . This apparent turn towards Toryism alarmed a number of Pownall 's colonial supporters ; there is also some evidence that North may have engineered Pownall 's defeat in order to gain his support . Pownall supported North 's attempts at reconciliation in debates leading to the start the War of Independence . However , once hostilities began in April 1775 , his conciliatory views were dismissed by war @-@ supporting Tories ( who opposed them ) as well as by Whigs ( who saw his proposals as attempts to undercut their positions ) . Pownall remained nominally in support of North until 1777 , when he openly made declarations in support of the peace party . The entry of France into the war on the American side returned him firmly to the pro @-@ war Tory position . His support was , however , nuanced : he continued to argue for some sort of conciliation with the Americans , while remaining resolutely patriotic with respect to the French . He was not alone among British politicians in being unable reconcile these positions , and refused to stand for reelection in 1780 . During the war years he published several revisions to The Administration of the Colonies , updating and expanding the work to reflect changing conditions . He also worked to update and revise the Evans map , soliciting data and updated maps from colonial correspondents . He withdrew to some extent in the later years following the death of his wife in 1777 , but continued to appear in Parliament . = = Post @-@ war years = = In July 1780 Pownall anonymously published an essay titled A Memorial Most Humbly Addressed to the Sovereigns of Europe . This widely published document gained Pownall attention throughout Europe ; the anonymity of its author was compromised by the use of extended passages from Administration of the Colonies . The essay propounded instructions to Europe 's leaders on how to deal with a newly independent United States , pointing out that America 's independence and rapid population growth would have a transformative effect on world trade . He proposed that European leaders meet to establish worldwide regulations for what was essentially free trade . Pownall continued to maintain an interest in the United States after the war ended , although he never returned . He sought without success a commission in the Massachusetts militia , mostly as a formality so that he could present it during his European travels . He continued to write essays ( new ones and revisions to older ones ) , and published an updated version of his 1755 map . In his later years Pownall was introduced to Francisco de Miranda , a Venezuelan colonial general who favored Latin American independence from Spain . According to historian William Spence Robertson , significant arguments advanced by Miranda in his later efforts are traceable to Pownall 's influence . Pownall also assisted Miranda explicitly , cultivating connections in the British government as he attempted to advance the independence agenda . Pownall 's last major work was a treatise again arguing for free trade , and explicitly calling for British support of Latin American independence as a way to open those markets to British and American trade . Pownall died at Bath on 25 February 1805 , and was interred in the church at Walcot . = = Thomas Pownall as an Antiquary = = While Thomas Pownall is well known as an American colonial Governor and English politician , he was also an important figure in later 18th century antiquarian and archaeological studies . In her study of Governor Pownall , Bryony Orme remarks that he is perhaps one of the most neglected of our early antiquaries , and undeservedly so . He inherited these interests from his father Captain William Pownall , who lived at No. 5 Pottergate in the Minster Yard , which surrounds Lincoln Cathedral . His father had corresponded with William Stukeley about ancient finds in and around Lincoln , and Thomas Pownall ’ s brother John was also a writer on archaeological subjects . Pownall was already demonstrating his interest in archaeology before he left for America , when , in 1752 , he recorded evidence for a Roman villa at Glentworth in Lincolnshire After his return from America he became a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries in 1770 and he contributed extensively to early issues of the journal Archaeologia . Some of his writings describe discoveries around Lincoln , but more importantly he wrote more widely on New Grange in Ireland in 1773 and Cairn Brach y Dinas at Penmaenmawr , on the north Welsh coast . He was to follow this with descriptions of Roman remains in France when he was living there , and , on moving to Bath he again provided descriptions of Roman discoveries . = = Family and legacy = = Pownall married twice . His first wife was Harriet Churchill , widow of Sir Everard Fawkener and illegitimate daughter of Lieutenant General Charles Churchill . In 1784 Pownall married Hannah ( Kennet ) Astell , acquiring in the process significant estates and the trappings of landed gentry . The towns of Pownal , Maine and Pownal , Vermont are named after Thomas Pownall . Dresden , Maine was once named Pownalborough in his honour ; this recognition survives in the Pownalborough Courthouse , an historic property built there in 1761 . The remains of Fort Pownall , named for him , survive in Maine 's Fort Point State Park . = = Junius = = Between 1769 and 1772 a series of letters was published in London 's Public Advertiser , written by someone using the pseudonym Junius . Many of the letters contained accusations of corruption and abuse of power on the part of British government officials , subjects Pownall also spoke and wrote about . The identity of Junius has since been the subject of contemporary and historical debate . In 1854 Frederick Griffin wrote Junius Uncovered , in which he advanced the argument that Pownall was Junius ; this argument was again raised by Pownall descendant Charles A. W. Pownall in his 1908 biography of Pownall . Modern scholars dispute the notion , currently favouring Philip Francis as the writer of the letters based on several lines of evidence . = = = Publications by Thomas Pownall = = = A Description of the Sepulchral Monument of New Grange , near Drogheda , in the County of Meath , in Ireland . By Thomas Pownall , Esq. in a letter to the Rev. Gregory Sharpe , D.D. Master of the Middle Temple . Read at the Society of Antiquaries , June 21 / 28 1770 . Archaeologia Vol 2 , ( 1773 ) , pp. 236 – 276 [ 1 ]
= Alchi Monastery = Alchi Monastery or Alchi Gompa is a Buddhist monastery , known more as a monastic complex ( chos- ' khor ) of temples in Alchi village in the Leh District , of the Indian state under the Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council of Jammu and Kashmir . The complex comprises four separate settlements in the Alchi village in the lower Ladakh region with monuments dated to different periods . Of these four hamlets , Alchi monastery is said to be the oldest and most famous . It is administered by the Likir Monastery . Alchi is also part of the three villages ( all in lower Ladakh region ) which constitute the ‘ Alchi group of monuments ’ ; the other two villages adjoining Alchi are the Mangyu and Sumda Chun . The monuments in these three villages are stated to be of “ unique style and workmanship ’ , but the Alchi monastic complex is the best known . The monastery complex was built , according to local tradition , by the great translator Guru Rinchen Zangpo between 958 and 1055 . However , inscriptions in the preserved monuments ascribe it to a Tibetan noble called Kal @-@ dan Shes @-@ rab later in the 11th century . Dukhang or Assembly Hall and the Main Temple ( gTsug @-@ lag @-@ khang ) , which is a three @-@ storied temple called the Sumtseg ( gSum @-@ brtsegs ) , are built in Kashmiri style as seen in many monasteries ; the third temple is called the Manjushri Temple ( ' Jam @-@ dpal lHa @-@ khang ) . Chortens are also an important part of the complex . The artistic and spiritual details of both Buddhism and the Hindu kings of that time in Kashmir are reflected in the wall paintings in the monastery . These are some of the oldest surviving paintings in Ladakh . The complex also has huge statues of the Buddha and elaborate wood carvings and art @-@ work comparable to the baroque style . Shakti Maira has vividly explained the beauty of this small monastery . = = History = = The history of the monuments in the Alchi complex and in the other two villages in the Alchi group is not precise , in spite of many inscriptions and texts displayed on the walls . Traditionally , the creation of the Alchi complex is attributed to the famous scholar @-@ translator Rinchen Zangpo ( 958 – 1055 ) in the 10th century , along with the Lamayuru Monastery , the Wanla , the Mang @-@ gyu and the Sumda . During the tenth century , the Tibetan King Yeshe Od of Guge , in order to spread Buddhism in the Trans Himalayan region , took the initiative by allocating 21 scholars to the region . However , due to harsh climatic and topographic conditions , only two survived , one of them the esteemed scholar and translator Rinchen Zangpo who established Buddhist activity in the Ladakh region and other areas of India including Himachal Pradesh and Sikkim . During his sojourn there , he also went to the neighbouring countries of Nepal , Bhutan and Tibet . Zangpo became known by the epithet “ Lohtsawa ” or the “ Great Translator ” ; he is credited with building 108 monasteries in the trans @-@ Himalayan region in his quest to disseminate Buddhism . He institutionalized Buddhism in the region ; these monasteries are considered the mainstay of Vajrayana of Tibetan Buddhism ( also known as Lamaism ) . Zangpo engaged Kashmiri artists to create wall paintings and sculptures in the legendary 108 monasteries ; only a few of these have survived , with the Alchi Monastery complex in Ladakh having pride of place among all monasteries that he built . Since the monasteries of this period did not belong to any of the established Tibetan schools , they were initially brought under the control of the Kadampa order . When the condition of the monasteries deteriorated , they were mostly taken over by the Gelukpa order , with the exception of Lamayuru which was placed under the Drigunkpa sect . After worship at Alchi monastery ceased for some reason in the fifteenth century , it also became under the Gelugpa sect controlled from Likir . = = Geography and visitor information = = Alchi is located on the south bank of the Indus River at an altitude of 3 @,@ 100 metres ( 10 @,@ 200 ft ) and 65 kilometres ( 40 mi ) outside of Leh ( to its west ) . Leh is connected by air from Delhi . The road approach to Leh starts at Manali , a route that is accessible from May or June to October , depending on the snow fall conditions in the valley . The village is in the high altitude rain shadow area of Ladakh . It is laid out in four settlements on the banks of a tributary of the Indus River . The monastic complex is separate from the other village settlements . = = Structures = = The monastery complex has three major shrines : the Dukhang ( Assembly hall ) , the Sumtseg and the Temple of Manjushri , all dating from between the early 12th and early 13th centuries . Chortens are also an important part of the complex . In addition , the Alchi complex has two other important temples , the Translator 's temple called the ' Lotsabha Lakhang ' and a new temple called the ' Lakhang Soma ' . This collection of four small shrines in the Alchi village has been described by The Hindu : ... as a jewel of colours and forms that is so utterly beautiful that the normal state of breathlessness in this high altitude becomes a deep gasp . The artistic and spiritual details of both Buddhism and the Hindu kings of that time in Kashmir are reflected in the wall paintings in the monastery complex . These are some of the oldest surviving paintings in Ladakh . The complex also has huge statues of the Buddha and " lavish wood carvings and art @-@ work — almost baroque in style . " Shakti Maira vividly explains the beauty of this small monastery as " stylistically rendered in an eclectic mix of Tibetan and Kashmiri faces and clothes . " = = = Dukhang = = = Dukhang or the Assembly Hall is at the heart of the monastery complex , where monks perform worship and ceremonies . It is large and ancient , and the original wooden door frame is retained . Many additions were made to the ancient structure during the 12th and 13th centuries . The colonnaded veranda leads to the hall from a front courtyard and frescoes of one thousand Buddhas are depicted in the passageway . The Wheel of Life and Mahakal can be seen at the outer gate . The walls of the Dukhang , dedicated to Panch Tathāgatas , are painted with six different mandalas that surround the Vairochana , the main deity worshipped in the hall . The mandalas are set among by many paintings of Buddhas , Bodhisattvas , goddesses , fierce divinities and guardians of dharma , and also lesser divinities . = = = Sumtseg = = = The Alchi Sumtseg in the Alchi complex is one of the most outstanding , but its purpose is not clearly established . The Sumtseg ( gSum @-@ brtsegs ) means a three storied building , though small , was built with loam and natural stone ( reflected in the bland exterior ) in the Tibetan building tradition . However , the luxuriant woodwork columns , facades , walls , clay images and paintings in the interior of the monastery were made by Kashmiri artists . The sanctum in the ground floor and the first floor measures 5 @.@ 4 metres ( 18 ft ) x5.8 metres ( 19 ft ) with the niches of 2 @.@ 1 – 2 @.@ 7 metres ( 6 @.@ 9 – 8 @.@ 9 ft ) width and 4 metres ( 13 ft ) height ( niches in the main wall are larger in size vis @-@ a @-@ vis the side walls ) . The niches depict the main images of three Bodhisattvas ( all in standing posture and about 4 metres ( 13 ft ) in height ) and its associate secondary deities ( four in each niche ) with two flying goddesses in each niche . Except for the main wooden door on the top floor , which is dilapidated , the rest of the Sumtseg is well preserved in its original form , as built in the early 13th century . The second floor of the building is more in the form of a balcony with a lantern mounting . Image of Maitreya , the largest in size ( 4 @.@ 63 metres ( 15 @.@ 2 ft ) ) , is deified on the back wall and flanked by the images of Avalokiteshwara to its right and Manjushri to its left . An interesting aspect of the elegant drapery ( dhotis ) worn by the deities is the display of different themes printed in different textile patterns ; Maitreya 's dhoti depicts the life of Buddha , the Avlokiteshwara 's dhoti shows holy places and royal palaces and Manjushri 's dhoti has adepts ( of 84 Mahasiddhas ) printed on it . Iconographically , the deities have a single head with four arms but differently portrayed . Each deity is identified to a different Buddha . Maitreya has a five Buddha crown representing Vairochana . Avalokiteshwara 's crown represents Amitabha and Manjushri 's crown represents Akshobhya . An inscription in the main niche states that the three images are reliquaries representing body , speech and mind @-@ compared to the three bodies of the Buddha @-@ namely , Maitreya denoting the Buddha body of reality , Avolokiteshwara representing pure rapture and Manjushri representing emanational body . In simple terms , they represent the Buddhist concepts of Compassion , Hope and Wisdom . Further , depiction of Buddha ’ s life in textile prints on the dhoti is a unique representation of the cycle of the life of Buddha that is arranged in a reverse sequence . It is in medallion form painted red , with each medallion measuring 15 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) over a blue background . 48 scenes representing 41 episodes with five preaching scenes and two scenes of punarnirvana – all are arranged in pre @-@ determined sequence representing the events in Buddha 's life between the last journey in Tushita heaven and the first sermon in Sarnath . Dating of the Sumtseg has been made on the basis of the names of the priests inscribed on the top floor of the structure . The last name inscribed is that of the Drigungpa school of Drigungpa or Jigten Gonpo ( 1143 – 1217 ) from which it is inferred that Sumsteg was established in the early 13th century . = = = Manjushri Temple = = = From various analysis of the iconography of the temple compared with that of the Sumtseg and Sumda Assembly hall , it has been inferred that the temple dates to around 1225 AD . Manjushri Temple , also called ' Jampe Lhakhang ' , is built around the four central images of Manjushri ( seated back to back ) seen on a common platform that is 5 @.@ 7 metres ( 19 ft ) square . Four pillars form the enclosure for the images ; the pillars are supported with cross bracing connected to the painted wood ceiling . The paintings on the wooden ceiling are similar to those in the Sumtseg and the two chortens , but are unrefined . Located close to the Indus river , the temple is not well preserved except for wood carvings on the doors and pillars . The Lhotsava or Lotsawa temple to its left side is a later addition . The Manjushri images are on a common pedestal ( 85 centimetres ( 33 in ) high ) , painted recently to give an overall picture of fright since the decorative scrolls are derived from the tails of Makara surrounded by images of animals , gods and symbols . The normal colour attributed to Manjushri images is orange , but in this temple they are depicted with different colours . Each of the four images is single @-@ headed with four arms that are adorned with a sword , a book on top of a lotus , a bow and an arrow . Each wall in the shrine is dedicated to a Buddha image . Manjushri is depicted on the main wall , seated on a lion throne ; the side walls have images of Amitabha on the right and Aksharabhya on the left . The images are set around the central image of Manjushri in a niche in the wall . Manjushri is adorned with jewellery ( pearls and other moulded forms ) and a crown made of a flower band . In the base of the throne on which the Manjushri image is deified , is a depiction of ' Seven Jewels ' and ' Eight Suspicious Symbols ' ( flanked by lions ) enclosed in a square frame that is distinctive . The top of the throne frame has makara mountings . = = = Chortens = = = The earliest recorded Chortens are the Great Chorten and the Small Chorten ( stupa ) to the early 13th century , following the building of the Sumtseg . These chortens are decorated gateways known locally as ' Kakani Chörten ' and ' Ka @-@ ka @-@ ni mchod @-@ rten ' that are considered unique to Alchi with historical link to other monuments . More chortens were added between the 13th and 14th centuries . In the Alchi complex , there are also three other chortens , which have ancient paintings .

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